LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY OF I
V^ CALIFORNIA/

COCOA

MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK
DALLAS

BOSTON • CHICAGO
SAN FRANCISCO

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.

TORONTO

COCOA

BY

DR. C. J. J. VAN HALL

DIRECTOR OF THE INSTITUTE FOR PLANT-DISEASES AND CULTURES,
BUITENZORG, JAVA

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAP

MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
ST. MABTIN'S STKEET, LONDON

1914

-

EARTH
SCIENCES
LIBRARY

GIFT OF

»*

COPYRIGHT

PREFACE

IN writing this handbook I have done my best to make
it practical.

This does not mean that the intention of the book
is to teach the reader cocoa-planting, and it is not
expected that any one unacquainted with cocoa-culture
will become a cocoa-planter by reading the book from
beginning to end.

The practical planting-work must be learned in the
field, and I could quote here what has been written on
the first page of Chapter VI.

Many planting operations, however, are not always
well understood ; often the practical man knows, how
he has to treat his trees or his soil in order to get the
best result, but not why. For this reason, different
operations, like weeding, shading, manuring, and
fermenting, have been explained more fully than is
done in most agricultural handbooks.

Other subjects have been treated in detail which
cannot be learned in the field, especially the varieties
of cocoa, the botanical characters, and the diseases and
their treatment.

It is a golden rule that the cultural methods must
always be entirely dependent on local conditions.

vi COCOA

Generalising is one of the most dangerous things in
agriculture. I therefore considered it instructive to
devote a special chapter to the description of the
culture of cocoa in the different countries separately.

During the writing of this book I have been favoured
by the cordial help of many friends who assisted me by
giving information and photographs of the cocoa-
industry in their countries. I need not mention them
all, but I cannot omit rendering my sincere thanks to
Mr. van Overzee (Amsterdam) who completed and cor-
rected Chapter X., Mr. M. E. Seminario (Guayaquil),
Mr. Monteiro de Mendonga (Lisbon), the Agricultural
Society of Trinidad and its Secretary, Mr. Edgar Tripp,
Mr. Jacobson (Trinidad), Mr. van Beek (Surinam),
and Dr. Roepke (Salatiga). For the correction of a
part of the manuscript I am indebted to my friend
Frank Evans, late Assistant-Superintendent of Agri-
culture in Southern Nigeria.

Finally, I must mention especially the great help
afforded to me by Sir Daniel Morris, who kindly
assisted me with the correction of the proof sheets.

C. J. J. VAN HALL.

BUITENZORG,

February 19, 1914.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

PAGE

HISTORICAL 1

Early cocoa culture in Mexico, 1. First factories and use of cocoa
in Europe, 3. Cocoa growing in the Antilles, 5 ; in Cuba, 7 ;
Surinam, 7 ; Brazil, 7 ; other American countries, 8 ; San Thome,
8 ; Gold Coast, 8 ; Ceylon, 8 ; Dutch East Indies, 9. Invention
of cocoa - powder by Van Houten, 9. Consumption of cocoa in
England, 10. Export from principal countries, 1830-1911, 10.

CHAPTEK II

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS . . 13

Home country of cocoa, 13. Cocoa-growing countries, 14. Tem-
perature, 14. Rainfall, 16.

CHAPTER III

THE CHEMISTRY OF COCOA AND COCOA SOILS .... 20

The soil. 20. Analysis of cocoa soils, 21. Salt in the soil, 23.
Physical composition of soils, 24. Constituents of the tree and
fruits, 24. The composition of fruits of no importance for
indicating manure required, 26. Weight of fruits and different
parts of fruits, 26. Analysis of fruits, 28. Changes during
fermentation, 30. Cause of the development of heat, 31. Con-
sequence of heat development, 31. Formation of cocoa red and
theobromine, 31. Formation of the essential oil, 32. Disappear-
ance by oxidation of a part of the bitter tasting or astringent
matter, 32. Analysis of beans after fermentation, 32. Chemistry
of the marketable bean, 34. Cocoa -fat or cocoa-butter, 35.
Theobromine, 36. Caffeine, 37.

viii COCOA

CHAPTEE IV

PAGE

THE BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COCOA PLANT . . 38

Position in the botanical system, 38. The different Theobroma
species, 39. Theobroma cacao, general appearance, 40. The root,
42. The branches and leaves, 43. The flower, 46. Arrangement
of flower-clusters, 46. Structure of the flowers, 51. Pollination,
53. Fruit and fruit -cushion, 56. Theobroma pentagona, 57.
The non-cultivated species, 59.

CHAPTEE Y
VARIETIES OF COCOA 65

Distinction of the Criollo and the Forastero group, 65. Classification
of Morris, 67. Hart's classification, 67. Main differences between
Criollo and Forastero, 68. Criollo, 69. Meaning of the word
Criollo, 69. Present use of this word, 70. Characteristics of the
Criollo variety, 71. Local types of Criollo, 73 : Venezuela Criollo,
73 ; Ceylon Criollo, 74 ; Java Criollo, 75 ; Samoa Criollo, 76 ;
Madagascar Criollo, 77 ; Nicaragua Criollo, 77. Porcelaine variety,
78. Forastero, 80. Classification of the different Forastero
varieties, 81: Angoleta, 82; Cundeamor, 82; Amelonado, 83;
Calabacillo, 85. Local types of the Forastero varieties, 86 :
Venezuela Angoleta, 86 ; Java Angoleta, 86 ; Venezuela Cundeamor,

87 ; Trinidad Cundeamor, 88 ; Ecuador Cundeamor (Esmeraldas),

88 ; Ecuador Amelonado, 88 ; San Thome Amelonado, 91 ; Surinam
Amelonado, 91 ; ATenezuela Amelonado, 92 ; Guadeloupe Amelonado,
Summary, 93. Figures about the size of some types of fruits, 94.

CHAPTEE VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA . . . . . . .95

A. Establishment of the plantation, 95. Clearing the forest, 95.
Leaving of forest trees as shade trees not advisable, 97. Leaving
of forest trees as wind-breaks, 97. Management of the land after
the clearing of the forest, 98. Planting of wind-breaks, 99.
Variety to plant, 103. Procuring varieties from distant countries,
105. Seed selection, 106. Temporary shade, 107. Planting of
inter-crops, 114. Planting distance, 120. Sowing out in the open
field and the nursery system, 125. Layering (marcotting), grafting,
and budding, 136. Shade trees, 146. Erroneous view about the
use of shade trees, 149. Planting cocoa without shade, 149. Use
of shade trees, 150.

B. Field work on the established plantation, 153. Weeding, 153.
Influence of weeds, their usefulness and their harm, 154. Clean
weeding, advantages and disadvantages, 158. Soil management,
160. Manuring, 165. Aim of manuring, 166. Available and
dormant plant-food, 167. Chemical analysis of soil of little use-
fulness, 168. Most important manures, 169. Exhaustion of the
soil by the crop, 170. Manuring experiments, 171. Golden rules

CONTENTS ix

PAGE

for manuring experiments, 172. Way of application of manures,
174. Advantages of farmyard manure, green-dressing, mulching,
and compost over chemical manures, 175. Effect of mulching in
Dominica, 177. Manuring in Java, 178 ; in St. Lucia, 179 ; in
Kamerun, 179 ; in Grenada, 180 ; in Ceylon, 181. Pruning and
cleaning the trees, 181. Ecuadorian system, 184. Pruning in
Java, 185 ; in San Thome, 186. Trimming-up system, 187. The
right cleaning system, 187. Prevention of disease, 189. General
rules, 190. Picking, 192. Implements, 194. Breaking, 195.
Yield, 196 ; in Surinam, 198 ; in Trinidad, 199 ; in San Thome,
199 ; in Ecuador, 200.

CHAPTER VII

FERMENTATION, WASHING AND DRYING .... . . . .201

Fermentation, 201. Effect of fermentation, 201. Fermentation of
cocoa varieties, 202. Details of method in Surinam, 202. Cause
of fermentation, 204. Changes in the pulp (external fermenta-
tion), 206. Changes in the seed (internal fermentation), 206.
Necessity of oxygen, 209. Fermentation in Java, 210 ; in Ceylon, 211 ;
in Venezuela, 211 ; in Ecuador, 211. Influence of fermentation on
quality, 212. Washing, 212. Advantages, 213. Drawbacks, 214.
Drying or curing, 215. Sun-drying, 215. Drying waggons, 216.
Movable roofs, 217. Drying by artificial heat, 218. Different
kinds of dryers, 219. Curing-houses, 225. Claying and "dancing,"
225. Claying in Venezuela, 225. "Dancing" in Trinidad, 226.
Loss in weight during fermentation and drying, 227. Sorting,
228. Summary of methods of fermentation and curing, 228.

CHAPTER VIII

DISEASES AND ENEMIES ........ 233

Introduction, 233. The causes of disease, 234. Classification of
diseases, 234. Methods of fighting diseases and pests, 239.
Fungicide mixtures, 241. Spraying machines, 241. Insecticide
mixtures, 242. Fungus diseases, 242. Root diseases, 242. Canker,
245. Die-back disease, 248. Djamoer oepas, 251. Thread
blight or cobweb fungus, 253. Horse-hair blight, 253. Surinam
witch-broom disease, 253. Kamerun witch-broom disease, 259.
Chupon wilt, 259. Black rot of pods, 260. Insect pests, 261.
Root insects, 261. Borers, 263. Insects attacking the leaves,
twigs, and fruits, 272 : Helopeltis, 272 ; Kamerun rind-bug, 278 ;
Mosquilla, 278 ; Caterpillars, 280 ; Thrips, 280 ; Cocoa-moth, 281.
Birds and Mammals, 285.

CHAPTER IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES . . . . . .289

I. Ecuador, 289. II. Brazil, 306. III. San Thome and Principe,
310. IV. Trinidad and the Lesser Antilles, 328 : Trinidad, 328 ;

COCOA

PAGE

Grenada, 354 ; Dominica, 361 ; St. Lucia, 362 ; St. Vincent and
Montserrat, 362. V. Guadeloupe, Martinique, and the other
French Colonies : Guadeloupe, 363 ; Martinique, 364 ; French
Congo, 365 ; Madagascar, 365 ; French Guiana, Mayotte, Ivory
Coast Dahomey, Reunion, New Caledonia, 365. VI. Venezuela.
VII. San Domingo. VIII. The Gold Coast and Lagos. IX.
Kamerun and the other German Colonies, 392. X. Ceylon, 396.
XL Java and the other Islands of the Indian Archipelago, 404.
XII. Jamaica, 426. XIII. Cuba, 429. XIV. Haiti, 430. XV.
Fernando Po, 431. XVI. Surinam, 432. XVII. Belgian Congo,
470. XVIII. Central America and Colombia, 470 : Mexico, 472 ;
Guatemala, 473 ; Honduras and San Salvador, 474 ; Nicaragua,
475 ; Costa Rica. 478 ; Colombia, 479. XIX. Peru and Bolivia,
480.

CHAPTER X

COMMERCE '.......... 481

Some characteristics of the marketable bean, 481. The most im-
portant commercial cocoa-sorts, 482. Markets, 490. Market
prices of different sorts of cocoa, 493. World production and
consumption, 499.

CHAPTER XI

NOTES ON COCOA AND CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY . . . .501

Chocolate-cakes, home-made, 501. Main manipulations in modern
manufacture, 502. Cocoa-powder, 503. Sweet chocolate, 503.
Cocoa-butter, 504. Cuticles or shells, 504. Industry in different
countries, 504.

INDEX 507

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

1. The Cocoa Tree . 2

2. Indians roasting and kneading cocoa ..... 4

3. Map of the World, showing the distribution of the cocoa-

growing countries . . . . . . . 15

4. Diagram showing the position of the leaves on the stem of a

young cocoa plant . . . . . . . 42

5. Diagram showing the position of the leaves on the branches

of the cocoa plant . . .' . . 42

6. A cocoa twig with four shoots . . . . . . 43

7. A cocoa leaf ......... 44

8. Flowers on the stem of a cocoa tree . . . . . 45

9. Flowers and fruits 011 the main branches of a cocoa tree . 46

10. Young twig of Theobroma bicolor, showing the arrangement of

the blossoms in the axils of the young leaves . . . 47

11. Flower-cluster (dichasium) of Theobroma bicolor ... 48

12. Different forms of flower-clusters ..... 49

13. Very small twigs such as sometimes appear on the branches

and stem ......... 50

14. A, Flower of the cocoa plant. B, Foot of the flower-stalk,

bearing small scales . . . . . . . 52

15. Parts of the cocoa flower ....... 53

16. The development of the fruit and the fruit-cushion . . 55

17. The fruit-cushion 56

18. Theobroma pentagona (reproduced from Fauchere, Culture

pratique du cacaoyer) . . . . . . . 58

19. Theobroma bicolor, young tree ...... 59

20. Theobroma bicolor, branch with fruit, and fruit alone . . 61

21. Typical Criollo fruits (Java), slightly larger than the average 71

22. Java Criollo ...... 72

xii COCOA

FIG. PAGE

23. Nicaragua Criollo (after Preuss) . . . . . . 77

24. Java Criollo, Porcelaine variety . . . . • • 79

25. Java Forastero, Angoleta variety . . . . . 82

26. Forastero, Cundeamor variety ......

27. Forastero, Amelonado variety . . . . . . 84

28. Forastero, Calabacillo variety ... 85

29. Trinidad Angoleta (Hart's " Forastero ") 87

30. Ecuador Amelonado (" cacao nacional ") . . . 89

31. San Thome Amelonado (reproduced from Chalot and Luc,

Le Cacaoycr au Congo franpais) . . . ... 90

32. Surinam Amelonado ...... 92

33. Venezuela Sambito ( = Amelonado), with large seeds . 93

34. Young cocoa plants grown without temporary shade (planta-

tion " La Elvira," Ecuador) .108

35. Cocoa grown in an old coffee field under large shade trees . 109

36. Two schemes of planting cocoa under temporary shade of

bananas and plantains, as applied in Surinam . . . 110

37. Cocoa field of a small proprietor (a British Indian immigrant)

in Surinam . . .-.."' . . . . Ill

38. Scheme of planting cocoa under the shade of " lamtoro "

(Leucaena ylauca} . . . . . . < ' . 112

39. Cocoa grown under too dense shade of closely -planted

plantains (cocoa field of a small proprietor in Surinam) . 113

40. Sweet potato (Ipomaea batatas) used as a soil preserver for

young cocoa planted under "kapok" (Eriodendron an-
fractuosum), with tannia for temporary shade (Java) . 115

41. Scheme of planting cocoa and "kapok" (Java) . . . 116

42. Scheme of planting cocoa and "kapok," interplanted with

" cladap " (Erythrina lithosperma) — Java . . . . 117

43. Scheme of planting cocoa and " kapok " . . . . 118

44. Cocoa field planted as indicated in Fig. 43, sweet potato

being used as a cover-crop . . . . . .119

45. Cocoa and Castilloa (plantation " Djati Roenggo," Java) . 121

46. Pots made of pieces of bamboo held together with two strings

(plantation " Getas," Java) 134

47. Nursery with the young plants in baskets (plantation

" Djati Roenggo," Java) . . * . . .135

48. Sketch of the method of grafting by approach . . .138

ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

PAGE

49. Budding on water-shoots . . . . . . .140

50. Budding of a seedling ....... 142

51. Marcotting of watershoots (plantation " Djati Roenggo," Java) 143

52. Marcotting of branches (plantation "Djati Roenggo," Java) . 144

53. A marcotted branch 145

54. A budded tree five years old (Experimental Garden,

Buitenzorg, Java) . . . . . . .147

55. Healthy cocoa under " kapok " (plantation " Getas," Java) . 152

56. Cocoa grown under "kapok," with interplanting of nutmeg

trees and Castilloa, while the " kapok " is used as support

for pepper plants. . . . . . . .153

57. Sketch of " alternate forking " 163

58. An example of the Ecuadorian system of allowing the water-

shoots at the base of the stem to grow up . .182

59. Another example of the Ecuadorian system . . .183

60. The Ecuadorian system (see Fig. 58) adopted on the plantation

" Djati Roenggo," Java 184

61. The system of allowing one sucker, near the main ramification,

to grow up . . . . . . . . .185

62. Burying the husks after breaking (plantation "Djati Roenggo,"

Java) 191

63. Different forms of cocoa hooks . . . . . .194

64. Two types of cocoa hooks recommended by the author . . 195

65. Shelling the pods (Trinidad) 196

66. Shelling the pods (San Thome) 197

67. Sketch of the arrangement of fermenting house and ferment-

ing boxes, as used in Surinam . . . . .203

68. Fermenting boxes (plantation "Djati Roenggo," Java) . . 211

69. The washing basin (plantation "Djati Roenggo," Java). . 213

70. Sun-drying on brick floors (plantation " Djati Roenggo," Java) 216

71. Sun -drying on wooden floors covered with split-bamboo

matting (Ecuador) . . . . . . .217

72. Sun-drying on wooden waggons (plantation " Susannasdaal,"

Surinam) . . . . . . . . .218

73. Sketch showing dry ing- waggons running one above the other,

as adopted on some cocoa estates in Java . . . 219

74. Drying-waggons running one above ;the other, plantation of

"Coello Hermanos," Ecuador ..... 220

xiv COCOA

FIG. PAGE

75. Drying-floors with movable roofs, as adopted in Trinidad

(reproduced from Fauchere, Culture pratique) . . . 221

76. The " Guardiola " drying apparatus (after Fauchere, Culture

pratique) ......... 222

77. Cross-section through the cylinder of the "Guardiola"

drying apparatus (after Fauchere, Culture pratique) . . 223

78. The "Huizer" drying apparatus (after Fauchere, Culture

pratique) ......... 224

79. Sorting cocoa in Java (plantation " Djati Roenggo ") . . 229

80. Part of a stem attacked by canker . . . . .246

81. Fungus of the "die-back " disease (Diplodia cacaoicola) . 250

82. Fungus of the "djamoer oepas" disease (Corticium javanicum) 252

83. A hypertrophied twig attacked by the Surinam witch-broom

disease (after Van Hall and Drost) 254

84. Three fruits attacked by the Surinam witch-broom disease . 255

85. Fructification of the Surinam witch-broom fungus . . 256

86. Fighting the Surinam witch -broom disease . . . 258

87. The West Indian cocoa-borer (Steirastoma depressum) . . 265

88. The Glenea borer (Glenea novemguttata) .... 267

89. The Pelargoderus borer (Pelargoderus bipunctatus) . . 269

90. The Monohammus borer (Monohammus fistulator) . . 269

91. The Catoxantha borer (Catoxantha bicolor) . . . 270

92. The Zeuzera borer (Zeuzera coffeae) . . . . .271

93. Helopeltis antonii . . . . . . . .273

94. Fruit slightly damaged by Helopeltis . . . .274

95. Cocoa twig damaged by Helopeltis . . . . .275

96. Fruit attacked by cocoa-moth . . . . . .282

97. The houses of a plantation in Ecuador, situated near the

River (" Santa Rosa ") . . . . . . . 292

98. An example of the Ecuadorian system of planting one tree

in each hole and of allowing the watershoot at the foot to

grow . 296

99. Types of fruits of "cacao nacional," Ecuador . . . 297

100. Cocoa grown without temporary shade (plantation " La

Elvira," Ecuador) ....... 300

101. Implements used in gathering cocoa in Ecuador . . 301

102. Drying floor covered with split bamboo, as used in Ecuador 302

ILLUSTRATIONS xv

PAGE

103. Drying floors, Ecuador ....... 303

104. Repairing a road on the estate "Boa Entrada," San Thome 315

105. Labourers' dwellings and tank for washing cattle on the

plantation " Boa Entrada," San Thome . . . .316

106. Hospital on the plantation "Boa Entrada," San Thome . 317

107. Piling up the cocoa pods for shelling (plantation "Boa

Entrada," San Thome) 324

108. Map of Trinidad, showing the cocoa-growing areas . . 328

109. A six-years-old cocoa field on a Trinidad plantation . . 330

110. Part of an old cocoa field in Trinidad . . . . 331

111. An Amelonado type grown in Trinidad .... 340

112. Piling up and shelling pods in Trinidad .... 346

113. Drying-floors with movable roofs, Trinidad (from Fauchere,

Culture pratique] . . . . . . . .349

114. Cocoa field without shade, Grenada . . . . • 355

115. Map showing cocoa-growing areas in Venezuela . . . 369

116. Map of the Gold Coast 383

117. Cocoa planted in an old coffee field (plantation "Getas") . 408

118. Cocoa planted in an old coffee field (plantation "Getas") . 409

119. Young cocoa tree planted in an older cocoa field under the

light shade of " kapok " and temporary shade of taro
(plantation " Siloewok Sawangan ") . . . .410

120. Implements used in making "dung-pots" . . . . 411

121. Java Criollo 412

122. A fruit of the original Forastero tree imported into Java

from Venezuela (after Zehntner) . . . . .413

123. A common type of the " Djati Eoenggo" hybrid . . 414

124. Different types of " Djati Roenggo " hybrid . . . 415

125. The Angoleta type of the plantation "Assinan". . . 416

126. Drying cocoa on bamboo trays. . . . . 425

127. Plantation in Surinam (plantation " Vredenburg ") . . 435

128. Scheme of a Surinam plantation, with its drainage system . 436

129. Sluice of the main drainage canal (plantation " Vredenburg ") 437

130. A small trench separating two beds (plantation " Susannas-

daal ") 438

131. Young cocoa under temporary shade of plantains . . 447

132. Cocoa just planted out between " Gros Michel" bananas . 448

xvi COCOA

PAGE

133. A cocoa field belonging to a small proprietor . . . 449

134. A cocoa tree about five years old, normally developed,

unpruned ......... 454

135. Cocoa tree three years old, primed ..... 456

136. The common Surinam Amelonado type (see also Fig. 32) . 457

137. Another type of Surinam Amelonado . . . . 457

138. A Surinam Amelonado with comparatively deep furrows,

resembling the Ecuador Amelonado . . . . 458

139. Two "bottle-necked" types of Surinam fruits . . . 458

140. Building used for storing the drying-waggons and the cocoa

after curing (plantation "Susannasdaal") . . . 467

MAP

Map of the coast region of Ecuador, showing the districts where

cocoa is grown .... . . . .291

CHAPTER I

HISTORICAL l

IT is impossible to say how long the cultivation of
cocoa has existed, but it certainly goes back to very
ancient times.

In Europe both the plant and its produce were
unknown till the beginning of the sixteenth century,
when Cortez and his soldiers became acquainted with
it on their landing in Mexico. In his fifth letter to
Charles V., Cortez writes that the cocoa plant is
cultivated to a large extent in the provinces Qupilcon
and Tatuytal ; he calls the tree " cacao " or " cacaguata."
There is no doubt that the Indians had cultivated
cocoa for many centuries before this, for it played an
important role in their popular traditions and legends.
They believed that the plant was of divine origin, and
that Quatzalcault, a prophet of the Indian mythology,
had brought the seeds from Paradise and sown them
in his gardens at Talzitepec. By eating the fruit he
acquired universal knowledge and wisdom, and was
held in great reverence by the people. This legend
shows how highly cocoa was appreciated by the Indians
of Mexico, who honoured its produce in the same way
as afterwards did Linnaeus, when he gave it the name
of " theobroma," signifying " the food of the gods."

1 An interesting chapter on the history of cocoa is given by Jumelle in
his book, Le Cacaoyer, and still more interesting particulars and illustrations
are to be found in a little book by Van der Wielen, Cacao, Cultuur en Bereiding
(Amsterdam, 1906).

B

COCOA

CHAP.

At the time of Cortez, cocoa was not only highly
appreciated by the Indians as a beverage, but was
also used as a substitute for money, in the same way
as the kola-nut is still used in Africa. That it was

Van den Boom die de Cacavate draegt,dat hacr Geldt is,en

hocdelndiancnuyttwccHoutcnVycrkrijgcn.

't toelch fjun gelt i£ / ben
\^ boom Die bit b>aecf)t en 10? nitt feet
groot / (jp en teafl niet ban in Ijeete
plaetfen / borfj in fcljabutoe / taant
ttiert (jp befcgenen ttan be <&onne Ijp
fpube ttergaen : ^aerom plant men
fjeminbe boflt&en baer 'tttocfjticf) i&
en tyeefenbe of bit niet (jmaeg en toaer
planten fn hem bp eenen boom bie t)Q
lichen fyal toaiTwtu batr

ober bupgen/ enberb^ept»en fonen top/
fo bat tip groot toefe«ibe hem bebecht/
bus! hrn'gt ijp otter alfcfjabutoe/ fo bat
(jem be^on ingeenber ttoegen ^\\\-
bert, 381.61 fp ©up? tuillen maechen/ foo
nemen fp 2. fi)outjt£ ttan befen Q5oom
bie fp fo lang tegen jnalhanber iu;ntten
tot batfe bjanben/ en bit iff be jiBanier
ttanBup? maechen in ganfrlj
onber be 3Jnbianen geVurc (I,

FIG. 1.— The Cocoa Tree.
From the Dutch edition of Girolamo Benzoni's History of the New World.

The following is a translation of the inscriptions : —

" Of the tree which bears Cacavate, which is money, and how the Indians obtain fire from
two pieces of wood."

" Cacavate, which is money. The tree which produces it is not very large. It grows only
in hot places, but under shade, for if the sun were to shine on it, it would die. Therefore
they plant it in forests where it is humid, and, afraid that this is not enough, they plant it
next to a tree which is higher and which they bend over it, spreading out its top so that it
covers the cocoa tree, which thus gets shade all over it, so that the sun no longer does any
harm. When they want to make a fire, they take two pieces of wood from this tree and rub
them against each other till they catch fire ; and throughout India this is the method of
making fire used by the Indians."

valued very highly is apparent from the fact that a
rabbit could be purchased for ten, and a slave for one
hundred beans. The different provinces paid their
tribute to the Chief in cocoa, and when the Spaniards

HISTORICAL 3

defeated Montezuma, they found in his palaces great
quantities of the beans, which represented a great part
of his property and which were, of course, also drawn
upon to prepare the beverage, which was always kept
ready in golden beakers for his personal use. " He
used to take this strengthening drink," says Bernal
Dios de Castillo, "when he intended to visit his serail."

As cocoa was so valuable, the common people could
only afford to mix a little of it as a spice in their
ordinary food, called " atolle," a sort of soup or
porridge made with corn-meal. The real beverage,
called " chocolatl," was only used by the rich. This
"chocolatl," however, was quite a different thing from
our cocoa or chocolate. It was made of corn and cocoa,
roughly ground between two stones and boiled with
addition of red pepper. At first the Spaniards could
not appreciate this mixture, and consequently did not
regard the plant as valuable ; and in the same way the
Dutch corsairs, when they had captured some of the
produce, threw it into the sea, calling it in bad Spanish
" cacura de carnero " (" sheep's excrement "). Accord-
ingly it was not until the end of the sixteenth century
that a small quantity was sent to Europe, and this only
as a curiosity. Soon after that time, however, the
Spaniards began to appreciate cocoa when they learned
to add sugar to it, and gradually they understood how
to make from it a drink pleasant to their taste by
mixing it with vanilla and cinnamon. This is said to
have been an invention of the nuns of the nunnery of
Guanaca. Prepared in this way cocoa soon became
popular among the Spaniards in America, and these
taught it to the people at home by importing to Spain
chocolate cakes, prepared with sugar, vanilla, and
cinnamon.

As long as possible the Spaniards in America kept
the secret and the monopoly of the' manufacture of
these cakes in their own hands. It turned out, how-
ever, to be very difficult to prevent the export of
unprepared beans, and gradually the first European

4 COCOA

CHAP

chocolate factories arose in Spain. One of the oldest
recipes for chocolate cakes is given by the physician
Bartholemy Maradon, as follows : — Seven hundred
cocoa beans, one pound and a half of sugar, seven
ounces of cinnamon, fourteen grains of pimento, two
ounces of cloves, three pieces of vanilla or seven ounces
of aniseed.

FIG. 2. — Indians roasting and kneading cocoa.
From the Dutch edition of Girolamo Benzoni's History of the New World.

From Spain the use of cocoa spread to Italy, where
it was introduced by a Florentine, Antonio Carlo tti.

In France it became especially popular after the
marriage of Louis XIV. with Maria Theresa, who was
of Spanish origin. One of her Spanish servants was
very good at preparing chocolate, and Maria Theresa
herself was so fond of it that a French historian wrote :
" Le roi et le chocolat furent les deux seuls passions de
Marie Therese."

About 1660 chocolate was also a popular drink in

HISTORICAL 5

Holland, especially in Amsterdam, and together with
the " coffee-house " arose the " chocolate-house," recog-
nisable by its sign-board : "Hier schencktmen Seculate"
(" Here chocolate is served ").

In those times, however, cocoa was still a rather
expensive drink. In France about six francs was paid
for half a pound, and Louis XIV., who started the
practice of serving chocolate to the guests at his re-
ceptions, soon decided to abandon the custom on the
score of its expense. In the middle of the eighteenth
century the price of cocoa fell considerably. This
cocoa, however, was no longer a product of Mexico.
Venezuela had become by far the most important cocoa-
producer. This country began to ship cocoa to Europe
in 1634, and the trade grew rapidly to such importance
that the Spaniards prohibited the export to any other
country but Spain, in order to help the cocoa industry
in that country. But this prohibition had not much
effect.1 The Venezuelans considered it more advan-
tageous to do business with other nations, and went on
selling cocoa secretly to Dutch and English merchants.
This secret commerce became so great that towards the
end of the seventeenth century Spain received no
"Caracas cocoa" whatever; it all went to Amsterdam.
The export at that time was estimated to be not less
than 65,000 quintals, or 3,250,000 kilograms.

In the seventeenth century the Windward Islands
began to become important as cocoa-growing countries.
In Trinidad the first cocoa trees had been planted by
the Spaniards as early as about the year 1525. These
were entirely of the Criollo variety, and the produce
,was much appreciated and even preferred to the
Venezuelan (" Caracas") cocoa.

In the Leeward Islands the cultivation was taken
up later. In 1655, as old writers inform us,2 the
Caribbean Indians showed a Mr. du Parquet the cocoa

1 Jumelle, Le Cacaoyer, p. 145.

2 Histoire nature-lie du cacao et du sucre (a Paris, rue de la Harpe, chez
Laurent d'Houry, MDCCXIX.) ; no author's name.

6 COCOA CHAP.

tree growing wild in the forests of the north-eastern
district of Martinique (the part called " Capesterre "),
and it is probable that the original Forastero, grown at
Martinique and Guadeloupe, the "Guadeloupe Creoule,"
is descended from these wild-growing trees. On the
other hand, it is said that seeds from Venezuela
were imported into Martinique in 1664 by a Jew
named Benjamin Dacosta ; probably these were Criollo
seeds.

Of the West Indian Islands, which in the seven-
teenth century became important as cocoa-growing
countries, mention must be made of Jamaica and
Haiti. In Haiti, however, the prolonged wars, which
ended in 1664 by the occupation of a part of the
island by the French, naturally caused a decline in the
cultivation. When the English took possession of
Jamaica in 1655, cocoa had already been grown fairly
extensively by the Spaniards, and, according to Long
(History of Jamaica), "there were (in 1671) as many
as sixty -five walks in bearing/'

The year 1727, however, was very disastrous for
cocoa all over the West Indies. In Jamaica, as well as
in Trinidad and Martinique, and probably in all the
other cocoa-growing Antilles, the plantations were
wholly destroyed by a " blast." It seems very probable
that Morris is right in taking this " blast " to have been
a hurricane ; but there are writers who give another
explanation to the word, and assume that this "blast"
was a blight, a disease which destroyed the trees.1 It
is, however, hardly conceivable that such a disease
would appear so suddenly, and in the same year, on
islands so far away from each other as Jamaica, Trinidad,
and Martinique, and also be equally destructive in all.
On some of the islands the cultivation was re-established
comparatively soon, but on others the process of restora-
tion was slower. About thirty years after the hurricane
cocoa was reintroduced into Trinidad by some Aragonese
Capuchin Fathers ; they imported from Venezuela

1 Hart, Cacao (1911), p. 8.

HISTORICAL 7

seeds of a new variety, the Forastero, which was soon
cultivated to a large extent. In Jamaica, however,
cocoa culture remained abandoned until the latter half
of the nineteenth century. In 1882 the plant was only
grown in isolated instances, but since that time the
cultivation has again made great progress. In Haiti
the many revolutions made regular development of the
cocoa culture impossible. The production continued
with ups and downs, until at the end of the nineteenth
century steadier progress began to be made.

The cocoa industry of Cuba is of quite recent date,
for though much cocoa was consumed in the island, it
was not till the beginning of the nineteenth century
that the first seeds were imported from Venezuela. In
1847 about 44,000 kilograms were produced, but this
was only enough to satisfy the local demand. Since
that time the annual export of cocoa has increased
with more or less regularity, and now amounts to about
2 million kilograms, though the yield varies considerably
in the different years.

The first cocoa plants were imported into Surinam
(Dutch Guiana1) in 1684 by Chevalier de Chatillon
from the basin of the Orinoco, arid in 1725 the first cocoa
was exported — about 180,000 kilograms. Gradually the
importance of this crop grew, but at the beginning of
the nineteenth century there was a decline, and the
cultivation was almost abandoned until about the
middle of the century.

Brazil, which in 1909 actually exported even more
than Ecuador, is one of the youngest cocoa-growing
countries. It is true that the cocoa tree grows wild in
the basin of the Amazon and that it has been cultivated
in the State of Para since the middle of the eighteenth
century ; but that this culture was of no importance is I
clear from the fact that only 7000 trees had been planted
in Para up to 1749. In the case of the State of Bahia,J
which is now of far greater importance than Para, the

1 The Netherlands colony which in England is called "Dutch Guiana"
is throughout this book given its Dutch name, "Surinam."

8 COCOA

CHAP.

first cocoa plants were imported in 1780. In the first
half of the nineteenth century the export was not
very important, and it was only about forty years
ago that a remarkable extension of the cultivation
took place.

While the " old " cocoa countries are to be found
in South and Central America — Mexico, Venezuela,
Trinidad and other Antilles, Ecuador, Surinam, and
Haiti, together with some of more recent importance,
such as Brazil (especially the State of Bahia), San
Domingo, and Jamaica — in Africa and Asia only
" young " cocoa countries are to be found. The most
important of these are San Thome, the Gold Coast,
Ceylon, and Java.

In San Thome, the fourth most important cocoa-
growing country, which now exports not less than
34 million kilograms per annum, the cultivation of
cocoa was only begun in 1870. It is true that the first
cocoa was planted much earlier (in 1822), but up till
1870 the industry was of no importance, the export in
the latter year amounting only to 44,000 kilograms.
Twenty-five years later, in 1895, the export had already
reached the important figure of 7 million kilograms,
and sixteen years later it amounted to 34 million
kilograms.

The growth of cocoa on the Gold Coast has been
still more remarkable. The first shipment was made
in 1891 — only 40 kilograms; twenty years later, in
1911, the export amounted to 40 million kilograms.
This great increase is the more interesting because in
the Gold Coast the cocoa is only cultivated on small
plantations.

The cocoa now grown in Ceylon is most probably to
a great extent descended from the plants obtained from
Trinidad by Sir R. Horton in 1834-5, and also from
varieties imported in 1880 from the same place. A few
plants must have been present on the island before
1834; at any rate the Botanical Garden contained
some specimens. The first, but very small, export took

HISTORICAL 9

place in 1872, and in 1875 it only amounted to 508
kilograms. Since that time the export has gradually
increased, and now amounts to about 3^ million
kilograms.

Though cocoa plants were imported at an early
date into the Dutch East Indies — it is said they
were introduced into Celebes by the Spaniards as early
as 1560 — the cultivation was for a long time of very
little importance. About the middle of the nineteenth
century, regular but small shipments were sent to
Amsterdam from Celebes, but nowadays the export from
this island is of no value at all. During the last thirty-
five years, however, Java has become a cocoa-growing
country of some importance. When the cultivation of
coffee began to decline, about 1880, many coffee fields
were replanted with cocoa, and a steady increase of this
area has since taken place. The industry would certainly
have become still more important if it had not been
hindered by different insect-pests, especially the cocoa-
moth and the Helopeltis. The export now amounts
to about 2| million kilograms.

The foregoing figures will already have given an im-
pression of the enormous extension of the cultivation and
use of cocoa in the last fifty years. This extension is to a
great extent the consequence of the invention, in the year
1828, by the Dutch manufacturer, C. J. van Houten, of
a method of preparing cocoa-powder, by which a great
part of the cocoa-butter is removed. The cocoa beans
contain about 50 per cent of cocoa-butter, and the old-
fashioned cocoa drink was therefore a heavy, though very
nourishing food. By the removal of a great part of the
fat it is made much more fit for general use, being lighter
and more pleasant, and also cheaper. In this way the
chocolate-cake industry was succeeded by the " cocoa-
powder" industry — i.e. the preparation of a powder of
pure cocoa containing only a small amount of fat, and
soluble in water and in milk ; and this " cocoa-powder "
or " cocoa " gradually took the place of the old chocolate
cakes.

10 COCOA CHAP. I

In addition, the greater facilities for export, the
vastly improved methods of preparation with powerful
and scientifically -arranged machinery, and the lower
duties have all helped to make cocoa more popular
every year. The following figures show the increase in
the consumption of cocoa in England : — l

Lbs.

1822 . . . 523,000

1830 . . . 976,000

1840 . . . 2,042,000

1850 . . . 3,081,000

1860 . . . 3,231,000

Lbs.

1870 .

1880 . . . 10,566,000

1890 . . . 20,224,000

1909 . . 88,133,000

The next table (p. 11) shows the progress which has
been made in the production of cocoa by the principal
countries concerned, during the last eighty years. The
figures indicate tons of 2200 Ibs. ( = 1000 kilograms).
It must be remembered that most of the figures are
only approximate. No accurate statistics existed of
the earlier dates given, and in addition different sources
often yield different figures.

In this list the various countries are arranged accord-
ing to the amount of cocoa they export. It is true that
in 1909 Brazil exported' more than Ecuador; but this
was exceptional, and Ecuador has still to be regarded
as being the most important cocoa -growing country ;
Gold Coast follows as second, Brazil as third, San
Thome as fourth, etc. The black vertical lines indicate
that no export of any importance took place. The
countries with these lines are therefore of recent im-
portance from a commercial point of view. Two of
them, however, Surinam (Dutch Guiana) and Martinique
with Guadeloupe, grew cocoa centuries ago, and were at
one time of some importance on the cocoa market, but
became backward and eventually disappeared from the
market, Martinique with Guadeloupe in the end of
the eighteenth century, Surinam in the beginning of
the nineteenth century. The very rapid growth of the

1 Cocoa: All about it, by "Historicus" (London, 1896).

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12 COCOA

CHAP.

cocoa export from the Gold Coast, San Thome, Brazil,
and San Domingo, is especially conspicuous as compared
with the comparatively slow increase of Venezuela and
Haiti, both of which lost much of their importance on
the market during the latter part of the nineteenth
century.

CHAPTER II

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. — It is most probable that
the home country of cocoa is the region of the basins of
the Orinoco and the Amazon, with the valleys of their
tributary streams.1 It is true that it has been reported
as growing wild in the forests of various other regions
— e.g. Mexico, Trinidad, Martinique, Guiana, Ecuador,
Colombia — but there is no proof that its presence in
these countries is really spontaneous. On the other
hand, it might be maintained that it is also doubtful
whether cocoa is indigenous to the forests of the Orinoco
and the Amazon region ; but the much larger number
of trees growing wild there make this more probable.

The difficulty of tracing the place of origin is due to
the fact that at the time of the discovery of America,
cocoa had already been cultivated for centuries by the
Indians, whose nomad life helped to spread the valu-
able tree, which they appreciated so highly, all over
tropical America. Moreover, the ease with which cocoa
seeds are disseminated by different animals — especially
monkeys, which often carry the fruits miles away—
affords an explanation of the fact that in almost every
country where cocoa is grown, it is also found growing
wild in the forest, generally in groups of several
trees. This makes it impossible, when we find cocoa
growing wild, to say whether this growth is spontaneous
or not.

1 De Candolle, L'Origine des plantcs cultiv&s, part ii. chap. v.
13

14 COCOA

CHAP.

In the tropical parts of South and Central America,
and more especially in the coast region of the continent
and in the Antilles, cocoa has been grown for several
centuries and is found growing wild in many places.
How the cultivation has spread and developed in this
part of the world and how it was conveyed to Africa
and Asia, has been described in Chapter I. , but only the
most important cocoa-growing countries were mentioned.
A more complete list of these countries is now given,
though several of them are of no importance from a
commercial point of view. The countries where only a
few trees have been planted as an experiment have been
omitted from the list.

Central America. — Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador.
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama.

South America. — Pacific coast : Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia.
Caribbean and Atlantic coast : Venezuela, Surinam (Dutch Guiana),
Brazil (the States of Para, Maranhao, Bahia arid Pernambuco).

Antilles. — Cuba, Haiti and San Domingo, Jamaica, Guadeloupe,
Martinique, Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad,
Tobago.

Africa. — San Thome, Principe, Fernando Po, Gold Coast,
Togo, Lagos, Kamerun, Belgian Congo, German East Africa,
Madagascar, Reunion.

Asia. — Ceylon, Indo-China, Philippines, Java, Samoa.

Temperature. — Cocoa can only be grown in the
tropics, for it is very particular about temperature and
soon suffers from cold. In most countries it takes
harm when the temperature falls below 60° F. (about
15° C.), or at any rate when this happens repeatedly.
It is thus essentially a tropical plant ; it will not grow
in the sub-tropics, and is only found in countries situated
between 20° north and 20° south latitude.

In this respect it is more exacting than coffee
(Coffea arabica), though the two plants are very
similar in regard to other conditions of cultivation.
Coffee, however, can stand a cool climate better, and it
is therefore possible to grow it in latitudes where cocoa
cannot thrive — for instance, in Brazil above 20°
southern latitude, and in Africa north of the limit of

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 15

16

COCOA

cocoa cultivation. This fact is well exemplified in
Java, in those places where cocoa and coffee are grown
up in the mountains. There the average daily tem-
perature sinks rapidly with the elevation, and speaking
generally, cocoa does not thrive above 1800 feet above
sea-level, while coffee is grown successfully on much
higher altitudes. Further, it is well known in every
Botanical Garden how difficult it is to grow cocoa
trees satisfactorily in greenhouses, and how very seldom
they flower and give fruit, while this is by no means
the case with coffee.

The monthly maximum and minimum temperatures
(shade), in degrees Fahrenheit, of a few well-known
cocoa -growing countries, are given in the following
table : — l

Trinidad
(Bot. Gardens).

Surinam
(Exper. Garden).

Gold Coast
(Aburi).

January

69-86

71-84

65-83

February

70-87

72-85

68-84

March .

70-88

73-84

68-87

April . . .

69-86

74-85

66-84

May . . .

70-88

73-84

67-85

June

70-87

72-86

66-82

July . . .

69-87

73-87

67-81

August .

70-88

74-89

66-81

September .

70-88

74-91

66-84

October

70-88

73-91

65-86

November .

69-88

73-89

69-86

December .

70-89

72-87

68-85

Rainfall. — The humidity of the soil is also of the
greatest importance to cocoa. It is of course impossible
to state a minimum amount of rainfall which is
necessary in order that cocoa may thrive, because so
much depends on the depth and the water capacity of
the soil.

1 Wright, Cocoa, p. 15 ; Gold Coast Annual Reports, 1908 and 1909 ;
Meteorologische Waarnemingen (Dept. of Agriculture, Suriram).

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 17

In Surinam, for instance, the soil is rather poor in
humus and very shallow, and the roots cannot go
deeper than 1^ to 2 feet. The result is that, in spite
of the considerable water-retaining power of the soil,
the cocoa sometimes suffers from drought. Fortunately,
severe and continuous droughts are rare in this country,
and even in the driest months (September and October)
an occasional shower generally falls, making the average
rainfall in those months about 70 mm. (275 in.).

Severe droughts, lasting several months, are some-
times experienced on some of the cocoa plantations in
Java, but here the soil is deeper and generally richer in
humus. The cocoa can accordingly have a deep root-
system, and this enables the plant to stand the droughts
without damage.

In other countries, again, the rainfall is very small,
but the necessary amount of water is supplied by means
of irrigation. This is especially the case in the coast
region of Venezuela, befrvwen La Guayra and Puerto
Cabello. Here the famous Venezuela Criollo is grown
in narrow valleys, where the soil is rich in humus, but
where the rainfall is estimated to amount to no more
than 1200 to 1500 mm. (47 to 59 in.) per annum.
Water is supplied mainly by means of a primitive
irrigation, the brooks being dammed by little walls of
stone and conducted to the cultivation area through
open trenches.

Another country apparently with a small rainfall is
San Thome ; but few reliable figures are available.1
The total annual rainfall seems to range between 1000
and 2500 mm. (39 and 98 in.), while in the months of
June, July and August long droughts may occur. The
effect of these, however, is apparently not very serious,
principally in consequence of the fact that the sun is
not very strong and the sky mostly cloudy. Under
other conditions so little rain would be detrimental.

On the other hand, too much rain can equally be
an impediment to successful cocoa-growing. No limit

1 Chevalier, Le Cacaoyer dans V Quest africain, pp. 27-29.

C

18

COCOA

CHAP.

to the rainfall can be given, however, because here again
it depends wholly on different circumstances whether
the cocoa suffers or not. Generally speaking, however, a
rainfall of more than 5000 mm. (196 in.) is unfavourable.
When the rain falls in heavy showers, which last only
for a short time, while the rest of the day is bright and
sunny, the effect of a heavy annual rainfall is not so
detrimental as when the rain falls more slowly but more
continuously ; and when the soil is porous and drains
quickly, a heavy rainfall will not be so harmful as on a
stiff, compact soil, which gives off the water slowly.

Thus in Surinam, where the soil is very compact,
months with a rainfall of 400 to 500 mm. (15'5 to 19 '5
in.) are decidedly unfavourable, and in the rare cases
when more than 500 mm. (19 '5 in.) of rain has fallen
(for instance, in February 1902 and April 1907), much
damage was done. In Java, however, even larger
amounts are not at all an exception on several estates,
and the cocoa does not show any ill effects when the
soil is porous and the drainage perfect. At the planta-
tion "Widodaren," for instance, the following quantities
of rain were experienced without harming the cocoa :—

January.

Febniary.

March.

1900

615 mm.

425 mm.

711 mm.

1902

479 „

803 „

521 „

1903

523 „

296 „

919 „

1905

687 „

649 „

360 „

1906

675 „

548 „

554 „

From the foregoing it will be clear that a simple
statement of the total amount of rain per month or
per year conveys only a very imperfect idea as to the
humidity of the soil, especially with regard to its cap-
ability for the cultivation of cocoa. A few examples
may, however, be given, and further details as to the
peculiarities of the different cocoa-growing climates will

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 19

be found in Chapter IX. The following average
monthly figures l are in millimetres 2 :—

•s£

c« C

gox.

£ . -^

*<D

B .

| .

ol * ^

0*

£

Pis'

O; x-^

43 '3
'50

^£

* ^ S

Domini
(Botan
Station

12.2
•S 3 -c

%£-* &

£~e

San Tho
(City)

lift

|||

S^

ill

J2Ja

Java
(Widodai
East Jav

111

3J

Jan.

73

108

105

237

104

41

210

119

510

414

Feb.

39

98

75

152

20

52

81

59

473

322

March

48

49

72

157

153

377

174

120

87

490

397

April

50

78

58

223

149

405

183

182

189

332

247

May

98

130

110

258

111

481

245

172

149

213

189

June

207

251

210

280

22

69

327

201

228

150

152

July

228

272

270

201

550

80

126

156

171

77

100

Aug.

245

213

253

166

800

90

21

107

143

72

92

Sept.

183

184

232

84

23

223

120

148

142

92

108

Oct.

167

230

206

75

124

481

204

297

275

243

196

Nov.

173

164

165

137

160

312

175

272

267

464

332

Dec.

121

151

164

251

64

138

76

320

224

484

386

Total

1632

1928

1920

2221

2156

2780

1744

2266

2053

3600

2935

1 Reports of the Botanic Station, etc. , Grenada, 1909-10 ; average rainfall in
nineteen years at Richmond Hill (1891-1909).

Reports of the Botanic Station, etc., Dominica, 1909-10 ; average rainfall in
seventeen years at the Botanic Station (1893-1909).

Chevalier, Le Cacaoyer dans T Quest africain, pp. 27-29.

Report of the Agricultural Dept., Govt. of the Gold Coast, 1909 ; average rain-
fall in five years at Tarkwa Station (1904-1908).

Royal Botanical Gardens, Ceylon, Report for 1909 ; average rainfall of twenty-
six years (1884-1909).

Wright, Cocoa, p. 15.

Rain Records of the Estates " Widodaren " (Djember) and " Getas" (Salatiga) ;
the figures of " Widodaren" are averages of twenty-four years (1886-1909), the
figures of " Getas " averages of ten years (1900-1909).

Nederlandsche Meteorologische Jaarboeken ; average rainfall of twenty-four
years at Paramaribo.

2 25 '5 mm. = 1 in.

CHAPTEK III

THE CHEMISTRY OF COCOA AND COCOA SOILS

IN this chapter the different chemical data in regard to
soil, plant and produce are stated as concisely as
possible ; but, as our knowledge of the various chemical
questions involved is very imperfect, the reader will
find that this compilation does not take the form of a
rounded-off survey. Moreover, the figures as to the
mineral constitution of soil and tree, though quite
reliable, have very little practical value, for it is a
mistake to imagine that a knowledge of these con-
stituents will give indications of any value as to the
manure required. As to the various and important
constituents of rather complicated composition, which
occur in the seed before and after fermentation, the
methods applied by different analysts often give dif-
ferent results, owing to several of the methods employed
being imperfect. Accordingly many of the figures about
the amount of these constituents must be accepted with
reserve.

THE SOIL

The question of the value of figures as to the
chemical constituents of a soil in giving an impression
of its qualities, especially its fertility, is discussed in
Chapter VI. The conclusion there arrived at is that,
speaking generally, their value is very small. At any
rate, we are as yet unable to say, from a considera-
tion of such figures, what constituents are present in

20

CH. Ill

THE CHEMISTRY OF COCOA

21

sufficient quantity and what constituents have to be
supplied by manuring in order to obtain a maximum
yield. It may be, however, that later on figures of this
kind will gain in importance when our knowledge of
this branch of agricultural chemistry has made more
progress.

The following types of good cocoa soils of dif-
ferent countries were analysed by Professor Harrison
(Demerara) : — l

Grenada.

St. Vincent.

Trinidad.

Surinam.

Nicaragua.

* Organic matter and
combined water

7-644

3-046

3-768

15-452

10-815

Phosphoric anhydride
Sulphuric anhydride .
Chlorine .

0-082
0-118

traces

0-114
0-055
traces

0-084
traces
nil

0-139
0-047
traces

0-293
0-141
0-007

Iron peroxide .
Alumina .

9-085
13-628

9-574

8-889

3-910
2-038

5-952
16-076

7-000
4-717

Manganese oxide
Calcium oxide .

0-191
1-335

0-435
4-981

0-127
0-356

nil
0-495

0-163
2-250

Calcium carbonate

0-236

nil

nil

nil

nil

Magnesium oxide
Potassium oxide

1-367
0-254

2-418
0-178

0-495
0-118

1-071
1-072

0-217
0-619

Sodium oxide .

0-393

0-369

0-278

0-258

1-184

Insoluble silica and

silicates

* Containing nitrogen
Water retained by air-
dried soil

65-667

69-941

88-826

59-438

72-594

100-000

100-000

100-000

100-000

100-000

0-309
8-500

0-205
8-100

o-ioo

1-800

0-306
11-000

0-228
8-000

Hart also gives several analyses of soils which are
considered to be poor cocoa soils. Some of these,
containing only 0*02 per cent of phosphoric anhydride,
may possibly be deficient in phosphorus, but in others
the analysis gives no explanation of their unsuitability.
One example may be given — a soil from Grenada : —

Quoted in Hart, Cacao (1911), pp. 188-189.

22 COCOA

Per cent.

* Organic matters and combined water . 8*035
Phosphoric anhydride . . . 0*120
Sulphuric anhydride . . . 0*028
Chlorine ..... traces

Iron peroxide . . . 9*642

Alumina . .15*403

Manganese peroxide . 0*083

Calcium oxide . . . .0*196

Calcium carbonate .... 0*152
Magnesium oxide .... 0*160
Potassium oxide .... 0*097

Sodium oxide 0*360

Insoluble silica and silicates . 65*723

CHAP.

100*000
* Containing nitrogen . . . . 0*109

In this soil the proportions of phosphorus, potassium,
calcium and nitrogen may all be said to be sufficient.
The amount of phosphoric anhydride (0*120 per cent)
is greater than that in seven out of ten soils mentioned
as good cocoa soils, the proportions in these seven cases
varying between 0*044 per cent and 0'114 per cent;
the amount of potassium oxide (0*097 per cent) is not
high, but is nearly as high as in a good Trinidad soil
mentioned (0*118 per cent); the amount of calcium as
oxide (0*196 per cent) and as carbonate (0*152 per cent)
is rather high, while nitrogen (0109 per cent) is present
to a higher degree than in some good cocoa soils (two
Trinidad soils mentioned as good contained 0*100 per
cent and 0*107 per cent). In the poor soil from
Grenada, already mentioned, it may be that a great
portion of the phosphorus or the potassium is present
in an unavailable form, but the figures of the analysis
do not furnish this information.

In various handbooks we find the statement that
"the most important point chemically is that the soil
should contain an ample supply of available potash, a
fair supply of nitrogen and a medium one of phosphoric
anhydride and of lime."1 This assertion may be true

1 Hart, Cacao (1911), p. 190 ; other authors express similar opinions.

in

THE CHEMISTRY OF COCOA

23

— at any rate nobody is able to contradict it — but, on
the other hand, nobody can prove it to be correct as
long as we are unable to tell by analysis how much
available potash, nitrogen, phosphorus, and lime is
present. While this continues to be the case, such
statements, as well as the figures of chemical analyses
of soils, are from a practical point of view worthless.

Wright * gives a concise review of the quantities of
the principal elements present in good cocoa soils
of different countries. Some examples may be of
interest 2 : —

Potassium
oxide.

Phosphoric
anhydride.

Nitrogen.

Calcium
oxide.

Calcium
carbonate.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Guadeloupe .

0-111

0-124

0-205

0-173

1

Martinique .

0-111

0-243

0-211

1-300

|

St. Vincent .

0-178

0-114

0-205

4-981

nil

Grenada .

0-254

0-082

0-309

1-335

0-236

Trinidad . . .

0-118

0-084

0-100

0-356

nil

Do. ...

0-267

0-117

0-140

0-124

?

Venezuela

0-392

0-147

0-071

0-594

nil

Surinam .

1-072

0-139

0-306

0-495

nil

Nicaragua

0-619

0-293

0-228

2-250

nil

Reunion .

0-580

0-400

0-300

0-350

?

Ceylon . . j

0-03 to
0-4

traces to

o-i

0-1 t
0-5

0-02 to
0-35

?

It is worth mentioning that the cocoa tree can
stand a good amount of salt (sodium chloride) in the
soil. In Surinam it is well known that cocoa can be
cultivated successfully even on soils which are con-
tinually impregnated by brackish river water. This
condition prevails, for instance, on the cocoa fields of
many small proprietors, situated along the Surinam and
Commewyne rivers, where the brackish water of the
rivers is only imperfectly retained by a primitive embank-
ment and a primitive sluice, through which at high tide

1 Wright devotes considerable space (pp. 141-150) to the composition of
soils.

2 The figures for Guadeloupe are from Boname, and for Martinique from Rout",
and are given here as quoted by Wright ; the figures for Ceylon are also taken
from Wright ; the other figures are all from analyses by Harrison, as quoted by
Hart.

24 COCOA

the water oozes easily. Also, in San Thome, near San
Miguel, there are plantations which are often flooded
at high tide and where the soil doubtless contains a
relatively large amount of salt.

In these cases the plant has become accustomed
to this condition, having been grown on this salt-
containing soil from the beginning. If, however, this
is not the case, cocoa is very sensible to salt or brackish
water. On well-drained and well-embanked plantations
in Surinam, where the soil does not contain chloride
of sodium or only traces, cocoa is soon injured when
brackish water flows into the plantation through a
breach in the embankment or otherwise.

As regards physical composition, it will be obvious
that the different cocoa soils show in this respect great
differences, and the plant cannot be said to prefer the
stony soil of San Thome', the heavy alluvial clay of
Surinam or the volcanic, porous soil of the Antilles and
Java.

CONSTITUENTS OF THE TREE AND FRUITS

Marcano and Cockrane went to the trouble of
calculating the weight of different parts of the trees
planted on one hectare and the constituents of those
parts. The object of this calculation was to ascertain
what quantity of the different mineral constituents is
taken from the soil, in order to obtain an idea of the
amount of the different elements which should be
restored by manuring. Though this aim can never be
attained by such a calculation (see the discussion on
the point in Chapter VI.), some of the figures arrived
at by these investigators are interesting enough to be
quoted.1

Marcano first calculated the weight of the different
parts of the tree (stem, branches, leaves, seeds and husks)
on one hectare, but his figures are hardly important

1 Marcano's figures are taken from Jumelle, Le Cacaoyer, pp. 88-91, Cockrane's
from Wright, Cocoa, p. 152.

in

THE CHEMISTRY OF COCOA

25

enough

to be detailed.1 The analyses of the different
parts is of more interest. The figures of Cockrane are
given in a simplified form in the following table, but
they must be looked upon as only approximate :—

Stem and
branches.

Twigs and
leaves.

Seeds.

Fruit
husks.

« fSilica ...

0-5

28-0

2-0

2-5

1? g Lime ....

29-5

26-0

7-0

9-0

a §\ Magnesia . .

10-0

6-0

17'0

7-0

§ | Potash . .

29-0

19-0

36-0

49-0

§ I Phosphoric acid

4-0

3-0

31-0

4-5

Other constituents .

27-0

18-0

7-0

28-0

100-0

100-0

100-0

100-0

It is rather striking that the amount of potash,
especially in the fruits (seeds and husks), should be so
large.

The following table shows the total amounts of the
different elements contained in the trees per acre, and
the quantity of each which is found each year in the
crop : —

Quantity contained in the
trees.

Quantity annually contained
in the crop.

According to
Marcano
(Venezuela).

According to
Cockrane
(Ceylon).

Seeds,
according to
Harrison
(Guiana).

Fruit husks,
according to
Harrison
(Guiana).

Nitrogen . .
Lime

Ihs.
201
400

Ibs.
123
313

Ibs.
7-12
0-5

Ibs.
9-12
2

Magnesia
Potash . . .

111
251

86

277

2-3

3-6

3-5

22

Phosphoric acid

95

42

4-5

4-6

1 Besides, I fear that these figures are not reliable. According to Marcano,
0'7 hectare produces 319 '354 kilograms of dry-substance seeds (including seed
coats) and 457 '076 kilograms of husks, or 456 kilograms of seeds and 653
kilograms of husks per hectare. One hectare, however, produces about 550
kilograms of dry cocoa ; 25 to 40 fruits are necessary for 1 kilogram of cocoa,

26 COCOA

CHAP.

It must not be forgotten, however, that the amounts
of the different elements contained in the trees and
in the crop may vary considerably, according to the
soil, the bearing power of the trees and the variety
cultivated. Moreover, the figures are of no importance
at all in the direction of indicating the kind of manure
required for cocoa soils. They could even lead us
astray. For instance, the large amount of lime con-
tained in the cocoa tree might lead to the conclusion
that a satisfactory yield can be obtained only on soils
rich in lime, or that the yield can be increased by an
application of lime to soils which are poor in calcium.
But this is by no means always the case ; in Surinam
the soil is poor in lime, but still it gives high yields of
cocoa, and manuring with lime, though often tried, has
never met with any success.

The relative weights of the different parts of the
fruits were measured by Harrison as follows : —

" Calabacillo."

" Forastero. "

Husk
Seeds with pulp .

Per cent.
80-59
19'41

Per cent.
89-87
10-13

100-00

100-00

The absolute weight was not given.

A few hundred pods of a typical Surinam Amelonado
type were weighed by the present writer, and the
average was found to be as follows : —

Husk . . . .431 grains = 77 per cent.
Seeds with pulp . .128 „ =23 „

Whole fruit . . 559 grams = 100 per cent.

say 30 fruits. One hectare would therefore produce 16,500 fruits. One fruit
contains about 100 grams of seeds (about 25 grams dry substance) and about 400
grams husks (about 68 grams dry substance). This amounts to 412^ kilograms of
seeds and 1022 kilograms of husks (both dry substance) per hectare. I agree that
estimates may differ a little, and Marcano's figure of about 456 kilograms of
seeds corresponds fairly well with my figure of 412^ kilograms. But the figure
of 653 kilograms of husks is certainly too low, if 456 kilograms of seeds are
produced.

in

THE CHEMISTRY OF COCOA 27

Speaking generally, the finer types of Forastero
show a smaller percentage in weight of seeds and pulp,
while the coarser varieties have generally a larger
amount of pulp, so that the weight of seeds with pulp
represents a larger percentage of the weight of the
whole fruit.

With Criollo it is again different. Java Criollo was
found to yield as follows : —

Husk . . . .370 grams = J9 per cent.
Seeds with pulp . . 97 „ =21 „

Whole fruit. . 467 grams = 100 per cent.

As regards the relative weight of the different
substances of the fresh seeds, the following figures were
obtained bv Harrison : —

" Forastero"

" Calabacillo. " (probably Angoleta

or Cundeamor).

Per cent.

Per cent.

Pulp ....

39

42

Cuticles of beans .

9

5

Kernels of beans .

52

53

100

100

Probably more numerous measurements would con-
firm the conclusion that the coarser varieties of Forastero
(as the "Calabacillo" of Harrison) have relatively
heavier cuticles than the finer ones (as the " Forastero "
of Harrison) ; but the quantity of pulp is generally
greater in the coarser varieties — a fact which leads
again to the warning not to consider the above results
as standard figures.

Numerous analyses have been made of the fruits of
different varieties. Harrison examined separately the
kernels of the beans, the cuticles and pulp, and the
husks ; this was done with the fruits of a " Calabacillo "
and with fruits of a " Forastero " (probably Angoleta
or Cundeamor), both types from Demerara. In con-

28 COCOA

CHAP.

sidering these analyses, it must not be forgotten that
they are not to be considered as giving the average
constitution of the Calabacillo type and of the
Cundeamor or Angoleta type. Probably the fruits of
different countries are rather different as regards con-
stitution, and it may be, for instance, that the
Amelonado type from Arriba (Ecuador), the Surinam
Amelonado and the San Thome Amelonado show greater
differences than the " Calabacillo " and the " Forastero "
mentioned here. But no data are available for a concise
review of the average constitution of the different types
of different countries, and we shall therefore only give
the results arrived at by an authority such as Professor
Harrison : —

[TABLE

in

THE CHEMISTRY OF COCOA 29

r«

•K O O •-! Or-1 O^t*(MO«OOCCWr-iCD

i— lO^CDt^'— iCOOCO
O— iOCdOOOi-iO

ii
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Isr

1 !° §

* =31

.J

^o^.o^^^ooco

J 1

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£"g"

•^'l° ^^ -t CO*10

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£^665 obor-i-HOr-iocbcqo^o

I00 -

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jj ; -j

'o O cj

'-^ ^2 a3

-4^> ff>

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I00 ^

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PH

^

coo^^ooc*

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1 la

•° fe

IM

-3 : "g"

1 ll

'ScOt-T^^H iOCOO^QOOlr-Or-iO^H,— i »C

OCOOCOCMOOr^O

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<jj 3 etf f-i t-i

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n^ p f3 es

30 COCOA

CHAJ'.

These figures show the low percentage of mineral
constituents in the seeds, and this makes the total
quantity of such constituents in the yearly crop com-
paratively small.

Interesting chemical differences between the two
cocoa types investigated by Professor Harrison cannot
be deduced from the figures just given ; but it is an
interesting fact that many substances contained in the
kernels are also contained in the cuticles and pulp,
though in smaller quantities. This is especially the
case with theobromine, caffeine, fat, astringent matters
and cocoa-red, and is the explanation why the cuticles
are used as a substitute for, and as a means of
adulterating, the kernels.

CHANGES DURING FERMENTATION

In Chapter VII. the cause and the principal effects
of fermentation are discussed. Some of the chemical
processes involved may be dealt with here.

Fermentation is always started by the action of a
yeast organism which changes the sugar of the pulp
into alcohol and carbonic acid. The sugar contained in
the pulp is principally ordinary cane-sugar or saccharose
(C12H22On). This is first split up by the invertase of
the yeast into dextrose (the sort of sugar contained in
grapes and other fruits), according to the equation :—

Saccharose. Water. Dextrose.

This process is closely followed by the splitting up of
the dextrose into alcohol and carbon dioxide, according
to the equation :—

C6H1206 = 2C2H60 + 2C02

Glucose. Alcohol. Carbon dioxide.

The alcohol is again oxidised into acetic acid by a second
organism, a bacterium, the chemical process being
indicated by the equation : —

in

THE CHEMISTRY OF COCOA 31

C2H60 + 02 = C2H4Ojj + H20

Alcohol. Oxygen. Acetic acid. Water.

This process takes place together with the develop-
ment of heat. In the fermenting-boxes the temperature
is usually allowed to rise to about 45° or 50° C. (113° or
122° F.). This temperature kills the protoplasm of the
kernel, and accordingly the different substances contained
in the seed are allowed to act upon each other ; a direct
and important influence of the acetic acid upon the
substance in the seed has not been demonstrated. Many
of the changes and chemical reactions in the seed during
fermenting and drying are still unknown. A large and
interesting field of investigation for the analyst is here
unexplored.

Three of the important chemical reactions, which
have been more or less carefully studied, may now be
described : —

( 1 ) The formation of cocoa-red and theobromine. —
The manner in which these substances originate is
not yet properly determined. It may be that it takes
place by oxidation of a glucosid, cacaonine,1 but several
investigators (among them Ultee and van Dorssen) deny
or doubt the presence of a glucosid in the cocoa seeds.
Others accept the presence of the glucosid cacaonine,
which they presume to be split up and at the same time
combined with oxygen under the influence of an enzyme.
The result of this reaction would be theobromine and
cocoa-red, according to the equation : —

C60H86N4 + 8H20 + 2002 - CrH802N4 + 6C6H1206 + C17H22010

Cacaonine. Water. Oxygen. Theobromine. Glucose. Cocoa-red.

The theobromine is important, as it is the principal
substance which gives the cocoa its tonic properties.
The cocoa-red causes the reddish colour of the prepared
bean ; it was formerly regarded as important as giving
the cocoa its peculiar flavour. This however is not the
case, as cocoa-red is tasteless and flavourless.

J Sack, "Bydragen tot de kennis van het fermenteeren der cacao" (Bulletin
No. 10 of the Dept. of Agriculture, Surinam).

32 COCOA

CHAP.

(2) The formation of the essential oil. — The fact
that fermented and dried cocoa yields a peculiar and
fragrant smell when boiled points to the fact that it
contains an essential oil. This oil can be obtained by
distilling the cured cocoa by means of. water vapour.

(3) The disappearance by oxidation of a part of
the bitter -tasting or astringent matter. — It has been
accepted by most authors that the cause of the bitter
taste of the fresh bean, which to a great extent dis-
appears during fermentation and drying, is caused by
the presence of a tannin substance. The investigations
of Ultee and van Dorssen,1 however, have demonstrated
that this bitter-tasting substance is not a tannin, for
it lacks the characteristic property of the tannin sub-
stances to precipitate albuminoids and alkaloids. These
investigators accept the following formula for this
bitter - tasting substance, which they call cacaool :
C1(5H1606 . C8H10N4 . 5H20. By oxidation the cacaool
changes into a coloured substance, which Ultee and
van Dorssen presume to be identical with the cocoa-
red.

Professor Harrison analysed the beans before and
after fermentation, but though his figures are interesting,
they do not contribute essentially to a better under-
standing of the processes of fermentation. The analysis
of the kernels, which are from a commercial point of
view much more important than the cuticles, gave the
following results :—

1 Ultee and van Dorssen, "Over de zoogenaamde looistof der cacao"
(Gultuurgids, Part ii., 1909).

2 Hart, Cacao (1911), pp. 194-195, 206-207.

[TABLE

THE CHEMISTRY OF COCOA

33

Guiana Forastero.

Loss.

Kernel of the
fresh bean.

Kernel of the
fermented and
cured bean.

Water ....

36'6

3-7

32-9

Albuminoids

4'8

3-6

1-2

Indeterminate nitrogenous
matters • .

2-8

1-5

Theobromine

0-8*

0-9

it

Caffeine ....

0-2*

0'2

*

Fat . .

30-6

30-6

...

Glucose .

0-2

0-3

Sucrose ....

0-9

nil

0-9

Starch ....

6-0

4-0

2-0

Astringent matters
Pectin ....

4-9
1-4

2-0
0-5

2-9

Cocoa-red ....

1-5*

1-7

*

Digestible fibre .
Woody fibre
Tartaric acid, free ' .
Acetic acid, free .
Tartaric acid, combined
Mineral matter ".

Total .

2-8
3-5

o-o

nil
0-5
2-44

3-4
3-6
0-2

0-4
0-4
1-78

100-0

58-7

...

These figures need explanation and, to a certain
extent, correction. As has already been explained,
neither cocoa-red nor theobromine occur as such in the
fresh seed, and the fact that they appear during analysis
must be due to the splitting up of the compound in
which they are present, whether this is cacaonine or
some other substance. In reality there has thus been a
loss of the compound mentioned (cacaonine ?) and a gain
of 0*9 theobromine, about 1'6 cocoa-red and probably 0*2
caffeine in each 100 parts of fresh seed. For this
reason the figures of these three substances have been
indicated with an asterisk (*).

The following facts which result from Professor
Harrison's figures are worthy of note. A hundred parts,
by weight, of kernel of the fresh bean are reduced

D

34 COCOA

CHAV.

during curing to about 587 parts, while 41'3 parts are
lost. By far the greater portion of this loss is water
(32*9 parts); a small proportion goes in albuminoids
(1*2); 2 parts of starch are lost, out of 6 parts; and
2*9 parts of astringent matters (cacaool) disappear out
of 4*9. The rest (T4 parts) is lost in other substances
(fibre, pectin, indeterminate nitrogenous matter, etc.).
The sugar of the kernel is doubtless lost mainly as
acetic acid (like the sugar of the pulp), and the starch
also, after conversion into sugar. The differences in
the mineral substances are of no great importance.

CHEMISTRY OF THE MARKETABLE BEAN

The relation between the weights of cuticle and
kernel in the marketable bean is about 1 to 5, the
weight of the cuticle being about 1 6 per cent of the
weight of the seed. But there is much variation, and
Zipperer l found the amount of cuticles of a few
different sorts to be as follows : Caracas 20 per cent,
Trinidad 14 per cent, Puerto Cabello 15 per cent,
Soconusco 19 per cent.

A short review may now be given of the chemical
constitution of the marketable bean, which has been
the subject of investigation by several analysts. Only
the main facts, however, and the analyses of the more
recent investigators, are of importance for the purposes
of this handbook.

The analysis of Forastero kernels made by Professor
Harrison has already been given (see p. 33). It is
convenient to repeat his figures here in the form of
percentages, and to compare them with a combination
of the figures found by Zipperer :—

1 Die Schokoladefabrikation, p. 74.

[TABLE

HI

THE CHEMISTRY OF COCOA

35

Guiana
Forastero
(Harrison).

Different
Varieties
(Zipperer).

Per cent.

Per cent.

Water

6-3

7-0- 8-0

Fat

52-1

50-0-54-0

Albuminoids ......

6-1

12-0-21-0

Amylum ......

6-8

6-0-11-0

Theobromine . . . . . . ! 1*7

0-3- 0-8

Astringent matter (cacaool ?) and cocoa-red . c'3

10-0-14-0

Mineral matter

3-0- 4-0

Other substances (principally cellulose)

18-9

2-0- 3-0

100-0

100-0

It is obvious that in some respects the figures of
Harrison and Zipperer are widely different. Zipperer,
for instance, found in seven sorts of different origin
never less than 12 per cent, and sometimes as much
as 21 per cent, of albuminoid substances, while
Harrison found only 6 per cent. Zipperer never
found more than 0'8 per cent of theobromine, and
sometimes as little as 0'3 per cent; Harrison found
as much as 17 per cent.1 In the same way the
differences in the amount of astringent matter, cocoa-
red and mineral matter are important. In reality
there is agreement only in regard to the amount of
fat and the amount of starch. The differences must
probably be attributed to the use of different methods
of analysis. The imperfection of many of these
methods has already been mentioned, especially those
for the determining of theobromine, caffeine, astringent
matters and cocoa-red.

Cocoa -fat or Cocoa -butter. — One half or even a
little more of the total weight of the marketable bean
consists of a fat, generally called cocoa-butter. This
substance has an important commercial value, and is
used in the chocolate industry as well as in the making
of perfumes, and for pharmaceutical purposes.

It is a yellowish- white, rather firm fat with an

1 As regards theobromine, Zipperer's figures are doubtless too low, and
Harrison's figure may be correct.

36 COCOA

CHAP.

agreeable taste and smell. Chemically it is a mixture
of glycerids of different fatty acids, and consists
principally of stearin, palmitin, laurin and also the
glycerid of arachin-acid.

The qualities of this substance vary according to
the manner in which it is obtained — i.e. whether by
extraction (by means of ether or other solvent fluids)
or by pressure. The specific gravity of the extracted
butter is about 0'95 to 0*99; of the pressed butter,
0*85. The melting-point of the latter, when kept for
some time, is 34° to 35° C. ; the melting-point of the
former is slightly lower. The melting-point of
unadulterated cocoa -butter is never below 32° and
never above 35°.

The fat is contained not only in the kernels but
also in the cuticles, from which it is also obtained by
extraction and comes to the market as a second-quality
cocoa-butter.

TJieobromine. — The methods formerly applied by
analysts for determining the amount of theobromine
were all more or less imperfect, and accordingly widely
varying figures were obtained. These methods were
critically reviewed by Dekker,1 who invented a new
and reliable method. The complete unreliability of
the results obtained by the old methods may be seen
from the figures obtained by four analysts, the amount
of theobromine contained in one sample of cocoa : 071
per cent (method of Kunze), 0*81 per cent (method of
Zipperer), 2'00 per cent (method of Beckurts), 278
per cent (method of Bell). It turned out, however,
that the real quantity (by the Dekker method)
amounted to 1*69-173 per cent. By the methods
of Kunze and Zipperer part of the theobromine was
destroyed, and therefore the figures obtained were
too low ; by the methods of Beckurts and Bell the
theobromine obtained was not pure, and accordingly the
figures obtained were too high.

1 fiber einige Bestandteile des Cacao und ihre Bestimming : Inaugural-
dissertation (Amsterdam: de Bussy, 1902).

THE CHEMISTRY OF COCOA 37

Opinions differ greatly as to the way in which
theobromine occurs in the fresh seed, and this point is
not yet wholly elucidated. It may be that it occurs
combined with glucose in the form of a glucosid (though
this is not probable), or that it is combined with the
bitter substance cacaool, as Ultee found was the case
with the closely related caffeine. At any rate, in the
fresh seed it is not present in a free condition, but is
set free during fermentation and drying.

The chemical formula is CgNJiLOg (CH3)2.

Theobromine is responsible for the stimulating effect
of cocoa, as the caffeine is in coffee and the thein in tea.

It occurs not only in the kernels of the seeds but
in the cuticles, though only to a small amount, and
final] y also in the leaves. The quantity found by
Dekker in the young leaves of Java cocoa amounted
to no less than 0*5 per cent, in the older leaves to 0*3
per cent, while full-grown leaves were almost free
from the alkaloid.

Caffeine, a substance closely related to theobromine
(formula : C5N4H02 (CH3)3), is of much less importance
in the cocoa plant. According to Zipperer, the quantity
present in marketable cocoa is about 0'05 to 0'36 per
cent ; in Guiana cocoa (fermented and cured) Harrison
found in the kernels 0'06 to 0'41 per cent, in the
cuticles 0'24 to 0*54 per cent. The methods used and
the figures obtained need, however, to be revised.

Cacaool and cacaonine in the fresh seeds and cocoa-
red in the fermented and cured seed (better : in the
dead seed) have already been mentioned.

It may be added, finally, that Trojanowski put
forward a method of distinguishing the different kinds
of marketable cocoa by means of chemical reactions.
His determining table, which is to be found in various
handbooks,1 is, however, quite unreliable.

1 Jumelle, Le Cacaoyer, p. 57, etc.

CHAPTEE IV

THE BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COCOA PLANT

THE plant which produces the commercial cocoa,
and which has received from Linnaeus the name of
T/ieobroma cacao, L., belongs to the family of STERCU-

LIACEAE.

This family of plants is recognised by the following
characteristics : the five sepals are not separate but
grown together at their base ; also the stamina are
grown together at their base, to a short tube ; the outer
circle stands opposite the petals, and of this circle of
five stamina, each stamen is often doubled or tripled ;
the anthers are turned to the outside ; the inner circle
of stamina stands opposite the sepals, these stamina,
however, being so-called staminodes, which means that
they do not bear anthers and do not produce pollen ;
the leaves are simple (not composed) and bear stipules
which soon fall off.

The family of STERCULIACEAE is closely related to
the family of MALVACEAE, to which belongs the common
mallow, which has the stamina grown together to a
tube, and to the family of TILIACEAE, to which belongs
the common linden tree. Besides the cocoa (Theobroma
cacao) it contains several other species of T/ieobroma,
and the kola tree (Cola acuminata).

The genus Theobroma is characterised by the peculiar
shape of the petals, which are concave or cup-shaped
at the base, narrowing to the top, and sometimes
enlarged at the end as a spoon or spatule (see Fig. 14).

38

ok iv BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 39

To this genus Theobroma belong, first, the two
species which produce the commercial cocoa, namely,
Theobroma cacao and Theobroma pentagona, which
is sometimes considered as a variety of the former ;
then some twelve other more or less well-known
and well -described species, which do not produce a
marketable article and are not cultivated ; and, finally,
some four other species, which are very imperfectly
known.

Schumann 1 has made a thorough study of the
systematic characteristics of these different species of
the genus Theobroma, and has composed a dichotomic
table, by which the fourteen more or less well-described
species can be determined. This table is given here,
slightly modified and reduced so as to be also intelligible
to the non-botanist :—

Leaves palmate ; stamina with six anthers (sub-species Her-

rania).
Margin of the leaflets dentate :

Flowers purplish-yellow . . T. Mariae, Gond.
Flowers carmine ; the hairy fruits

have ten prominent ridges . T. pukherrima, Gond.
Flowers white with purplish veins;
glabrous fruits with ten pro-
minent ridges . . T. balaensis, Preuss.
Flowers white ; hairy fruits with

ten prominent ridges . . T. albiftora, Gond.

Margin of the leaflets lobate . . T. lacinifolia, Gond.

Leaves not lobed nor divided, stamina with four anthers ; limbs
of the petals two or three times as long as the cup-shaped basal
part (sub-species Eutheobroma).

Limb of the petal spoon-shaped :

Fruit with ten sides or ridges . T. cacao, L.
Fruit with five sides and five

prominent ridges . . . T. pentagona, Bern.

Limb of the petal small, disk-shaped T. bicolor, Humb. et

Bonpl.

1 Schumann, Flora brasiliensis : Sterculiaceae. See also : Jumelle, Le
Cacaoyer, pp. 10-38 ; De Wildeman, Les Plantes tropicales de grande culture,
pp. 83-98.

40

COCOA

CHAP.

Leaves integer (not lobed nor divided), stamina with six
anthers (sub-species Bubroma).

Staminodes awl-shaped :

Foot-stalk of the leaves 1'5 to 6

cm. long; leaves reaching a

length of 25 cm. and a breadth

of 10 cm. ; fruit large . . T. speciosa, Spreng.
Foot-stalk of the leaves short, not

longer than 1 cm. ; leaves long,

10-17 cm., and broad, 5 cm. ;

fruit small

T. microcarpa, Mart.

Staminodes petaloid :
Staminodes pointed

Staminodes abruptly pointed .

Staminodes with a gradually

diminishing point, curled
Staminodes blunt

Fruit with five sides, very warty,
irregularly lobate, leaves
wedge-shaped at the base .

Fruit when ripe without marked
sides, smooth ; leaves round
or slightly heart-shaped at
the base

T. grandiflora,
Schum.

K.

T. subincana, Mart.

T. angustifolia, D. C.

T. simiarum, Donn.-
Smith.

In addition the following four very imperfectly
known species may be mentioned : Theobroma glauca,
Karsten (which perhaps may be the same as T. subincana
above mentioned), T. sylvestris, Mart., T. Martii, K.
Schum., and T. alba, Bern.

THE Two CULTIVATED SPECIES

Theobroma cacao, L.

General appearance. — The cocoa tree never grows
very high. In three years it reaches, generally speaking,
a height of from 6 to 10 feet, and in ten or twelve
years, when full grown, a height of about 13 to 23 feet.
In the alluvial zone of Surinam, along the sea-coast, on
heavy clay soil, the trees seldom grow higher than 20

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 41

feet, and even this height is rarely attained ; in the
hilly inlands, on a lighter soil, where the water keeps
a lower level, they get a little bigger, and the largest
trees here reach a height of 26 feet. This height is
also attained in Java.

According to Hart l the average height in Trinidad
is 15 to 25 feet, but in some countries he observed
trees of 30 and even 40 feet in height. In Grenada,
Tobago and St. Vincent the trees seem to be smaller
than in Trinidad ; in Grenada this may be partly due
to the absence of shade trees.

When normally developed, the full-grown tree makes
its main ramification at a height of about 3 to 5 feet.
The stem ramificates into three, four, or five main
branches (rarely into less than three or more than five),
which soon make side branches and form a foliar system
which, when it develops quite freely, may attain an
average diameter of 20 to 26 feet. The foliar system
is very dense.

Sometimes one of the main branches — or the stem
just under the ramification — makes a "sucker" or
" watershoot," which grows quickly and behaves like
a continuation of the main stem, ramificating again on
reaching a certain height, so that in this way the tree
may form two systems of branches above each other.

The two varieties Forastero and Criollo behave
differently as regards their method of ramification and
also in some other respects regarding the vegetative
parts. These differences are described in Chapter V.

Watershoots sometimes develop in large numbers
on vigorous specimens, especially at the foot of the
stem, but also along the stem and even on the branches.

The leaves, when just unfolded, have a pale rosy
hue and are soft and limp ; soon their colour becomes
light green and they take on a leathery appearance,
the colour gradually growing darker. Trees which
produce red fruits have darker coloured leaves than
those with yellow fruits ; thus it can be told whether the

1 Hart, Cacao (1911), p. 1.

42

COCOA

CHAP.

tree belongs to a red or a yellow variety, even when
there are no fruits on it.

The root. — The root-system develops in very different
ways according to the soil in which it grows. In a
loose soil, in which the level of the water never or
very seldom gets high, for instance on the slopes of

FIG. 4. — Diagram showing the position
of the leaves on the stem of a
young cocoa plant.

A spiral has been drawn ascending the
stem and passing through the successive
scars which mark the position of the leaves
from 1 to 9. The dotted lines and scars
represent those on the other side of the
stem. It will be noticed that scars 1 and 9
are vertically above each other.

FIG. 5. — Diagram showing the position
of the leaves on the branches of
the cocoa plant.

It will be noticed that the scars 1, 3, 5,
etc., are vertically above each other, as also
the scars 2, 4, 6, etc.

the mountains, a long tap-root is formed and the side-
roots penetrate deep into the soil. In a stiff clay
soil, however, in which the level of the water is high
during a part of the year — as for instance in most of

IV

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 43

the Surinam cocoa plantations — no tap-root can be
detected on trees of a certain age, and the side-roots
are all developed near the surface.

The branches and leaves. — The young plant makes
a little stem, which grows straight upwards till it has
attained a height of about 3 or 5 feet. The leaves on
the stem are arranged according to the formula §.

FIG. 6. — A cocoa twig with four shoots.

This means that if one looks at two leaves (called a
and 6) which are found vertically above each other,
and traces a spiral along the stem from leaf a to the
following leaf and so on till leaf 6, this spiral runs
three times all round the stem and passes 9 leaves
(inclusive of a and 6), so that if leaf a is No. 1,
leaf b is No. 9. The illustration will make this clear
(Fig. 4).

The main branches and their side branches have

44

COCOA

CHAP.

another arrangement of the leaves, namely, according to
the formula \. This means that each leaf is always
situated on the other side of the branch from that on
which are found the previous leaf and the next one, the
leaves being thus placed on the branches in two rows,
standing alternately on the left and on the right side
(Figs. 5, 6). Moreover, the leaves on the branches
are always placed more or less in a horizontal
plane.

The arrangement of the leaves on the watershoot is
the same as on the stem, namely f (Fig. 4).

Like most tropical trees, the cocoa puts forth new

FIG. 7. — A cocoa leaf.
a, Articulation.

shoots several times in the course of the year, but the
new shoots are not always formed on all the twigs or on
the same twigs, and generally speaking a twig has on
an average only two shoots every year. Each shoot
ends its growth by the formation of a terminal bud,
which is enclosed in its scales. When this bud again
develops into a new shoot, the scales fall off and leave
at the base of the young shoot a number of closely
standing scars, which form together the so - called
" ring-scar," the boundary between the two shoots.

In full - grown trees of normal growth generally
the third-eldest shoots drop their leaves (Fig. 6), but
on young trees the leaves remain longer.

A peculiarity of the cocoa leaf is the presence of
two articulations at the base and at the top of the leaf-

IV

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 45

stalk (Fig. 7). These articulations enable the leaves
to make movements in different directions, in order
that their upper sides may always be turned towards
the side from wrhere the strongest light comes. A
simple experiment shows this clearly. If a cocoa
plant is placed in a box closed on all sides except one,
which is facing the light, after six to twelve hours all

FIG. g. — Flowers on the stem of a cocoa tree.
The flowers all arise from the same " cushion."

the leaves will have turned with their upper sides
facing the light. This influence exerted by the rays
of light is called heliotropism.

A further characteristic of the just unfolded leaf
is the presence of two small leaflets near the base of
the leaf-stalk. These leaflets, called stipules, fall off
very soon, generally even before the leaf is full-
grown. It is questionable if these stipules are of
any use to the plant; it may be, however, that
they protect the bud against the rays of the sun or

46

COCOA

CHAP.

against droughts or other noxious influences when the
shoot is young.1

The flower. — In most handbooks hardly anything
is said about the flowers of the cocoa plant, save that

FIG. 9. — Flowers and fruits on the main branches of a cocoa tree.

the cocoa tree is " cauliflorous." This means nothing
more than that the flowers develop on the stem (Fig. 8)

1 Readers who wish to know more about stipules may be referred to Lord
Avebury's interesting little book, On Buds and Stipules. It mainly deals, how-
ever, with trees of the temperate zone.

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 47

and the older parts of the branches (Fig. 9), the young
twigs bearing no blossoms. This fact, however, is
neither peculiar nor essential, for closely related species
differ from the cocoa plant in this respect. Take the
case of Theobroma bicolor, which grows in Central
America ; this species has no importance from an
industrial point of view, but the way in which it forms
its blossoms helps us to understand the flowering of the

FIG. 10. — Young twig of Theobroma bicolor, showing the arrangement of the
blossoms in the axils of the young leaves.

cocoa plant. Like the ordinary cocoa plant, Theobroma
bicolor puts forth new shoots several times each
year, but these shoots bear the flowers in the axils of
the young leaves (Fig. 10). The flowers themselves
are arranged in clusters which show a central (or
primary) axis which bifurcates into two lateral shoots
(secondary axis) of nearly equal strength, which
generally bifurcate again, and so on. This sort of
flower cluster is called in botany a dichasium (Fig. 11).
In the ordinary cocoa plant (Theobroma cacao), the
flowers are formed in the same way, but the appearance

48

COCOA

and the arrangement of the clusters is not so clear, and
this for two reasons : —

(1) In the ordinary cocoa plant, the flower -cluster is not so
clearly a dichasium. The axes, the primary as well as the secondary,
tertiary, etc., are generally so short that the whole is no longer
to be recognised as a dichasium, and the flowers appear to arise
irregularly from a common axis, or from the same spot on the
branch or stem, close together but not even on a common axis.
Fig. 12 illustrates this. In A the dichasium is clearly recognisable,

FIG. 11. — Flower-cluster (dichasium)
of Theobroma bicolor.

but such a distinct dichasium is rare in cocoa ; in B the axis is
much reduced and the dichasium is no longer clearly distinguish-
able, though it can still be seen that the blossoms arise from a
common axis ; in C this axis has wholly disappeared and the
flowers seem to arise separately.1

(2) In the ordinary cocoa plant the blossoms are formed just
as in T. bicolor — i.e. in the axils of the leaves — but generally they
do not develop until the leaf has fallen off. They are also formed
in the axils of the bud-scales (on the "ring-scars," Fig. 6).

It may be said, then, that on the cocoa plant the
flowers appear in reduced dichasia from buds, developed

1 Flower -clusters which are infected by the " witch - broom " fungus
(Colletotrichum luxificum) sometimes produce very nice dichasia, resembling
those of Tfieobroma bicolor.

iv BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 49

in the axils of the leaves, and generally only develop
into blossoms after the dropping of the leaf — i.e. on the
leafless parts of branches and stem.

As we shall see when we come to discuss the develop-
ment of the fruit, the basal part of the central axis
of the dichasium, and sometimes also the basal part of
the secondary axis, remains on the tree after the fruit
drops off, and from this remaining part young dichasia
with flowers will arise again next year. So what we
called a dichasium turns out to be a perennial organ.

FIG. 12.— Different forms of flower-clusters (enlarged 1^).

In A the dichasial ramification is very apparent ; in B the axis is much reduced ; in C the
axis has wholly disappeared.

From this point of view it is better to regard it not as
a flower-cluster, but as a twig which bears flowers.

It must not be forgotten that the leaf-bearing twigs
also develop from buds situated in the axils of the
leaves ; and it is an interesting question, though one
of purely theoretical importance, whether or not these
buds have the same origin as those which develop into
flower-clusters — in other words, whether twigs and
flower -clusters develop from different buds, both
situated in the axils of the leaves, or whether the same
bud can develop into a twig or into a blossom-dichasium
according to circumstances.

To the present author it seems that the latter

E

50

COCOA

CHAP.

supposition is the correct one, and it may not be out
of place to give one instance which supports this view.
We sometimes find on the branches of cocoa plants
very small twigs, only a few millimetres long, which
bear flowers. These twigs no longer look like dichasia,
because they are woody, and in addition they bear
small scales, arranged according to the formula J, in
the axils of which the flowers appear (Fig. 13, A). By

FIG. 13. — Very small twigs such as sometimes appear on the branches and stem
(enlarged 1£).

They bear scales arranged in the same way as the leaves on the normal twigs (see Figs. 5
and 6), and one flower or one flower-bud in the axil of each scale. In the twig in B one of the
scales is replaced by a leaf.

this arrangement of the buds, those small twigs resemble
leaf-bearing twigs ; and this is still more the case when
such a twig bears not only flowers, but also leaves,
though the latter are always small. An instance of
such a case is given in Fig. 13, B. Thus these twigs
form apparently a link between the true leaf-bearing
twig and a true blossom-bearing twig (called also flower-
cluster or dichasium).

In trees of five years old or more the third-eldest

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 51

shoots generally drop their leaves, but sometimes they
keep them till they become the fourth-eldest shoots.
Sometimes, also, the blossoms appear on the third-eldest
shoots, but more generally on the older parts of the
branches and on the stem (Fig. 6).

Healthy, vigorous trees generally begin to bear
blossoms when three years old, but no or only a few
fruits are formed at this early age. On full-grown
trees (ten years and older) the number of blossoms
produced is very great, but only \ to \ per cent — or
one out of every 200 to 400 — develop into fruits.

Structure of the floiver. — The flower of the cocoa
plant has five sepals, white or rosy-coloured (s in
Fig. 14), and five petals (p in Fig. 14). The petals
are of a very peculiar form, and consist of a basal, cup-
shaped part, to which is attached a ribbon-shaped part
which is spatulate at its end ; the basal part is white
or rosy, with two dark-carmine ridges running longi-
tudinally on the inside, while the ribbon-shaped part
is yellowish.

The stamina (sta in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15, A) are
five in number, and are ranged alternately with five
staminodes — i.e. stamina which do not produce pollen
(sto in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15, A). The five stamina and
the five staminodes are united at their base so as to
form a tube. The staminodes are dark-carmine coloured,
elongated, awl-shaped, and protrude above the petals
like five little tongues ; the five stamina are whitish,
much shorter than the staminodes and curled, so as
to hide the anthers in the cup-shaped part of the petals
(Fig. 14).

Each stamen (Fig. 15, B) bears four anthers, a rather
rare occurrence among flowers ; the explanation is that
each stamen consisted originally of two, which now
grow together. It may be recalled here that of the
other species of Theobroma, T. bicolor and T. penta-
gona also have stamina with four anthers, while in the
case of all the rest each stamen is a concrescence of
three and bears six anthers.

52

COCOA

CHAP.

The ovary of the cocoa flower is a " superior " one,
and bears one pistil (pi in Figs. 14, 15, A, and 15, C),
with five indistinct stigmas (sti in Fig. 15, C). These
are always more or less grown together ; sometimes

FIG. 14. — A, Flower of the cocoa plant (enlarged 6| times).

s, sepals.

p, petals.

sta, stamina.

sto, staminodes.
pi, pistil.

B, Foot of the flower-stalk, bearing small scales (enlarged 12§ times).

they remain all together and form only one blunt
column, sometimes a few of them grow free from the
others.

Shortly after the flower has opened, the anthers

IV

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 53

open, and after half a day the stigmas, if these open
at all.

Pollination. — For a long time nothing was known
of the pollination of the cocoa flower, and the question
as to how the flowers were pollinated was a very
puzzling one. Wright * says that Dr. Uzel carried out
a few experiments on the subject in Ceylon. In the

FIG. 15. — Parts of the cocoa flower.

A, The flower after removing the sepals and the petals, showing the stamina (sto),-the
staminodes (sto), and the pistil (pi). Enlarged 8 times.

B, One stamen with the four anthers (a). Enlarged 16 times.

C, The ovary (o), with the pistil (pi) and the stigmata (sti). Enlarged 16 times.

flowers examined, large numbers of thrips were found,
and Dr. Uzel was of opinion that flowers were pollinated
by these insects. By another author, Green (also
mentioned by Wright), the common aphis is regarded
as playing a role in the pollination. By others the
different species of ants which live on the cocoa plant
have been claimed to be the chief agents.

There are, however, facts which indicate that none

1 Wright, Cocoa, p. 24.

54 COCOA

CHAP.

of these insects play a role of any importance in the
pollination.

First, though the insects mentioned often occur on
cocoa, they are not invariably found on it. Thrips is
always, at least in the West Indies, a very noxious
insect, which happily does not occur on all cocoa trees ;
and the same may be said of the aphides, though they
do not cause as much damage as the thrips. There is,
however, another reason making it improbable that
they cause pollination. Cocoa is a plant showing strong
intercrossing. It is well known, for instance, that
varieties imported into Botanical Gardens produce seeds
which give rise to plants often showing unmistakable
characteristics of other varieties next to which they
have been planted ; while inferior varieties of Forastero,
planted between Criollo trees, give a progeny which
clearly shows Criollo characteristics.

A study of the different types of Forastero also leads
to the conviction that many of them are hybrids. The
great number of types of Forastero, which contain the
different characteristics in all kinds of combinations,
cannot be understood without accepting a strong
inter-crossing between the different original Forastero
varieties. This subject is more elaborately treated in
Chapter V.

This strong intercrossing indicates that the pollen
can be transported from one tree to another. The
transport might be effected in two ways, either by wind,
or by flying insects such as butterflies, wasps, bees,
flies — but not by thrips, aphides, or ants, none of which
fly at all, and of which thrips and aphis can only
move very slowly.1

The question whether pollination takes place by
wind or by flying insects seemed at first difficult to
answer, because the flower of the cocoa does not appear
to be adapted to wind-pollinisation, and flying insects

1 We may leave out of consideration the flying sexual individua of ants and
aphides, because they only appear at certain times and are not common
visitors of cocoa flowers.

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 55

were never found. Accordingly, the whole question for
long remained a puzzle. Happily, however, a thorough
investigation has lately been carried out by Dr. von
Faber at Buitenzorg (Java), and this investigation
solved the question.

Dr. von Faber has kindly given the present writer a
short summary of his results, with permission to in-
corporate it here. He writes as follows :—

A B

FIG. 16.— The development of the fruit and the fruit-cushion.

A, The cluster of blossoms, each flower with its flower-stalk attached to a basal part (b.p),
while the flower-stalks are attached to a common axis (b'.p').

B, Two young fruits. The basal parts of the fruit-stalks (b.p) develop into new fruit-
cushions. The two fruit-stalks are implanted on the old fruit-cushion (B.P.).

" Though the structure of the flower seems to eliminate the
possibility of self-pollination, this is really not so. The long and
supple flower-stalk facilitates the swinging to and fro of the hang-
ing flower by the wind. Experiments proved that by this
movement pollen easily falls from the anthers on the pistil of the
same flower, and it could be demonstrated that isolated flowers
were easily self-pollinated in this way. Self-pollination may
therefore be regarded to be the rule in the cocoa-flower. When,
however, neighbouring trees stand close to each other, it is also

COCOA

CHAP.

possible that the pollen falls from the hanging blossoms and settles
on the pistil of flowers of the neighbouring tree. In this way
cross-fertilisation is possible when the trees stand in close prox-
imity, as is the case in all plantations."

The fruit and the fruit-cushion. — After pollination

FIG. 17. — The fruit-cushion."

A, Ripe fruit with the basal part of the fruit-stalk developing into the new fruit-cushion.

B, The same fruit-cushion, after the fruit has been picked, bearing new blossoms.

the ovary develops into the fruit, while .the flower-stalk
becomes woody.

It has already been pointed out that the flowers are
arranged in clusters — either a number of them are
attached on a common axis (Figs. 12, A and 16, A), or the
common axis maybe much reduced (Figs.12, B and 12, C).

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 57

However this may be, the stalk of each flower is always
composed of two parts, a basal part and the true stalk.
This is especially clearly to be seen in Figs. 14 and 16, A.

While the fruit is growing, the fruit-stalk becomes
woody, while the scales on the basal part, which are to
be compared with the leaves of an ordinary twig, fall
off, leaving only scars as superposed lines or stripes
(Figs. 16, B and 17, A).

When the fruit has been picked, the basal part
remains wholly or partly on the tree and forms a
cushion, from which flowers will arise again at the next
blossoming (Fig. 17, B). The basal part is therefore
really a perennial organ — a branch bearing no leaves,
but scales, and terminally one flower. From the axils
of the scales new blossoms appear again.

This description is not affected by the fact that the
blossoms are generally arranged in clusters or dichasia.
In these cases the fruit-cushion is not formed by the
growth of one basal part, but simply by a combination
of basal parts (Fig. 16, A).

Theobroma pentagona, Bern.

This species is indigenous to Central America and is
only cultivated in Mexico, Guatemala and Nicaragua.
On account of the irregular warty structures on the
fruit, which resemble the scales of an alligator, this
cocoa is called in those countries " cacao lagarto," or
"alligator cocoa" (Fig. 18).

The fruits differ from those of the ordinary cocoa,
not only by these warty excrescences but also by five
prominent longitudinal ridges. In other respects it is
very much like the ordinary cocoa, more especially the
Criollo variety.

The tree is generally described as being not higher
than some 4 metres (12 feet) with small flowers and
small leaves. Preuss, however, states that he saw very
strong and vigorous trees in Guatemala ; and the young
trees in the Botanical Gardens in Surinam, as well as

58 COCOA

CHAP.

the older ones at the St. Clair Experiment Station in
Trinidad, did not give the present writer the impression
of a weaker growth than the ordinary cocoa. It is
probable, however, that this species is more particular
about soil than the ordinary T. cacao.

FIG. 18. — Theobroma pentagona.
Reproduced from Fauch&re, Culture pratique du cacaoyer.

The fruits have a thin bark and are yellow or red
when mature ; the seeds are white or violet.

This variety of cocoa is not very productive ; Preuss
reports that the average yield per tree is ^ kilo-
gram (1 lb.).

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 59

THE NON-CULTIVATED SPECIES
Theobroma bicolor1 (Figs. 10, 11, 19 and 20).— Until

FIG. 19. — Theobroma bicolor.
Young tree three years old, bearing two fruits (Botanical Gardeu, Paramaribo).

quite recently Theobroma bicolor was regarded as a species

1 Preuss, Expedition, pp. 250, 256 ; Hart, Cacao (1911), p. 12.

60 COCOA CHAP.

which produced commercial cocoa, and it is mentioned in
several handbooks as being cultivated in Colombia and
Mexico. This, however, is an error. The seeds have
no commercial value, as they contain only a very small
quantity of theobromine, viz. 0*1395 per cent (accord-
ing to an analysis by Mannich *), while the seeds of
commercial cocoa contain from 1 to 2 per cent. Hart 2
and Preuss,3 having observed the species in Central
America, reported that it has no commercial value
and is not cultivated. However, on account of the
sweetish and agreeable taste of the seeds, which resemble
nuts or almonds, the tree is appreciated by the in-
habitants of the countries where it grows wild. In
Ecuador the wild-growing " cacao bianco," as it is
called, is always saved when the forest is cleared, and
so the plantations contain a good number of trees of
this sort. The same is the case in Mexico, Guatemala
and Nicaragua.

T. bicolor is spread over whole Central America
from Ecuador to Mexico. In Mexico, Guatemala and
Nicaragua it is known under the name " pataste,"
" pataschte " or " patastle " ; in Ecuador it is called
" cacao bianco " ; in Colombia, " bacao," according to
Preuss ; while Hart reports that he found it indigenous
in the province of Yeragua, where it is known as
" tigre cacao, " on account of the rank smell of the
seeds.

T. bicolor is characterised by its hanging branches
(Fig. 19) and large leaves, greyish -coloured on the
back ; in the axils appear the small clusters of little
reddish flowers (Figs. 10, 11).

In Ecuador the tree attains a considerable size and
grows as high as 39 feet.

The large oval-shaped fruits (Fig. 20) have a very
thick and hard fruit-wall. They have five prominent
ridges, between which are five less prominent ones.

1 Preuss, Expedition, p. 258.

2 Hart. Cacao (1911), p. 13 ; Hart, Bulletin No. 56 (1907), p. 289.
3 Preuss, Expedition, p. 258.

IV

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 61

From these ten main ridges a number of other small
ones arise, irregularly arranged, and cover the surface
of the fruit. The fruit remains green until it is fully

FIG. 20. — Theobroma bicolor.
Branch with fruit, and fruit alone.

ripe, when the colour becomes slightly yellowish or
brownish. The pulp is much developed and takes up
a great part of the interior of the fruit ; it is not so

62 COCOA

CHAP.

fluid and soft as the pulp of the ordinary cocoa, but
more solid and sometimes a little fibrous.

Hart brought the tree to Trinidad and planted it in
the Botanical Gardens, where it has grown to be a
much larger tree than T. cacao. It was planted out
in 1893, and gave fruit for the first time in 1905. The
fact that it stands drought better than T. cacao has
led Hart to suggest that it could perhaps be used as
a grafting or budding stock for other weak-growing
varieties.

Theobroma simiarum, Donn. -Smith. — This species
has only been found in Costa Kica, where it is called
by the inhabitants " cacao de mico."

T/ieobroma Mariae, Gond. — This species grows in
the forests of the Upper Amazon and most probably
also in the basin of the Kiver Para. The seeds have
been found occasionally as an adulteration of Para
cocoa; they are called "cacaito" or " cacaoti," and are
easily to be distinguished, macroscopically as well as
microscopically, from the real cocoa.1

Theobroma pulcherrima, Gond. — This species has
been found by Gondot in Colombia near the Upper
Orinoco, in the country situated between the Meta
River and the Guayabeira. There it is known by
the Indians under the name " cacao cahonai," and by
the Colombians as " cacao quadrado " or " cacoito de
monte." So far as is known, the seeds are not used
for any purpose.

Theobroma speciosa, Spreng. — This species occurs
in the province of Para (Brazil) and has lately been
found in Surinam. Like its varieties quinquenervum
(Bern.) K. Schum. of the Rio Negro (Brazil) and French
Guiana (Cayenne), and Spruceana (Bern.) K. Schum.
which has been collected in Para, Theobroma speciosa
has no practical value. In Surinam the Indians like
to suck the seeds, which are surrounded by a sweetish
pulp.

In Surinam this species has been found to be very

1 De Wildeman, Les Plantcs tropicales, p. 86.

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 63

liable to the disease of hypertrophied twigs, generally
called " witch-broom," and in this regard its presence
in the forest may be considered as dangerous. Most
probably it is also attacked by this disease in the
forests of Para.

Theobroma microcarpa, Mart. — This species, which
occurs on the Upper Amazon, is distinguished from all
other species of Theobroma by its very small fruits. It
has no practical value.

T/ieobroma grandiflora (Wild.), K. Schum. — This
is a large tree with rather large flowers, which has been
found on the Upper Amazon and in the province of Par&
(Brazil), where it seems to be known under the name
" cupuassie." So far as is known the seeds are not
used in any way.

Theobroma subincana, Mart. — This species has been
collected in Brazil (Rio Negro), Peru, Guiana (?) and
Mexico. It is little known, and does not seem to have
any practical value.

Theobroma angustifolia, Sess. et Moc. (D. C.). —
This species, like T. bicolor, was for many years re-
garded as producing a cocoa of high quality, and was
said to contribute to the famous " Soconusco cacao"
(Mexico) and the not less renowned " Esmeraldas
cacao" (Ecuador). It has, however, no commercial
value.

Theobroma balaensis, Preuss. — Preuss1 found this
species on a cocoa plantation near Balao in Ecuador.
The sugary pulp which surrounds the seeds has an
agreeable sour-sweet taste and is therefore appreciated
by the inhabitants, who call this tree " cacao del
monte." Otherwise this species has no practical
value.

Theobroma albiflora, Gond. — According to Gondot,
who collected this species near Mazo (Colombia), the
seeds are mixed with those of the commercial cocoa
for home use ; they are said to improve the taste of
the chocolate. The seeds are also used, unmixed, for

1 Preuss, Expedition, pp. 80, 253.

64 COCOA

CHAP. IV

the preparation of a very bitter product, which is used
by the population as a febrifuge.

Theobroma lacinifolia, Gond. — This species is very
imperfectly known ; it was collected by Gondot in
Colombia, in the valley of the Magdalen a Eiver.

CHAPTER V

VARIETIES OF COCOA

IT has been seen that the cocoa trees of the whole
cocoa-growing world show little variation as regards
their habits and the characteristics of the vegetative
parts (stem, branches, leaves) and blossoms. In these
parts we find, indeed, only slight differences between
the various types of cocoa. In the fruits and seeds, how-
ever, great variations are at once evident. As soon as
we compare the types grown in different countries, im-
portant distinctions are discovered. Along the coast of
Western Venezuela, for instance, we find a variety with
a very warty and irregular fruit-wall, which is soft and
easy to cut ; the beans are round and plump, white in
colour, and only slightly bitter in taste ; and the result-
ing product is very fine. In Madagascar, Nicaragua,
and a few other countries, we find very similar varieties.
These are all Criollo varieties (Fig. 21). Quite another
type, again, is grown in San Thome*. The fruit-wall is
hard and smooth in surface ; the beans are flat, deep
violet in colour, and very bitter in taste ; and the result-
ing product is only of medium quality. In Surinam,
Ecuador, Brazil, Eastern Venezuela (the Orinoco district),
and many other countries, we find similar varieties,
which are all called Forastero. There is still another
group of varieties which possesses characteristics both
of the Criollo (for instance, large white beans), and
of the Forastero (for instance, a smooth or a very
hard fruit -wall). These intermediate forms, which

65 F

66 COCOA

CHAP.

are very numerous, are also included in the Forastero
group.

Thus the Forastero group contains many types,
some of which have, in a greater or smaller degree,
Criollo characteristics, and the first impression is that
the Forastero are a mixture of innumerable types
which exhibit the different characteristics in every
imaginable combination. We find, for instance, types
with fruits which are slender, not constricted near
the stalk, with deep furrows of the fruit-wall and large
light-coloured seeds ; others with short fruits, constricted
near the stalk, with shallow furrows, and small dark-
coloured seeds ; others again which show another com-
bination of characteristics — e.g. slender-shaped fruits,
constricted near the base, with deep furrows and small,
dark-coloured seeds.

In order to make a logical and natural system of
all these types of Forastero, we ought first to ascertain
which are the original types and then which are the
descendants of each. If the various original types
could still be found — for instance, as wild trees in the
forests of different countries — this would be a great
help, but unfortunately this is no longer possible.
Attention has already been directed (Chap. II.) to the
insuperable difficulty of proving, when cocoa is found
growing wild, whether the growth is really spontaneous
or not. The variety found by Aublet in the forests
of French Guiana,1 the variety found by Hart in the
forests of Trinidad,'2 and many others found in a wild
state, are therefore without any value for the classifica-
tion of the varieties, and cannot be regarded as primitive
varieties, ancestors of the cultivated ones.

Accordingly, the only thing to be done is to group
and classify the cultivated types as well as possible, in
order to obtain at least a clear survey, and to build up a
more or less artificial system of cocoa in the same way

1 This cocoa was called by Aublet Cacao guyancnsis, and later Thcobroma
guyanensis, but it is nothing else but the ordinary cocoa (Theobroma cacao).

2 Hart, Cacao (2nd edition, 1900), p. 52 ; Hart, Annual Report, 1906-7,
p. 19.

VARIETIES OF COCOA 67

as many years ago Linnseus did for all the species of
plants. This has been done by using as criteria the
shape of the fruit and its surface. The Forastero
types, with rather large fruits, with a constriction near
the stalk and a warty surface, were distinguished
as " Gundeamor " (Fig. 26) ; the same without con-
striction, as "Liso" or "Angoleta" or "Ordinary
Forastero" (Fig. 25); "Amelonado" is the name for
many types with rather short fruits with or without a
constriction near the stalk, and a comparatively smooth
surface (Fig. 27); " Calabacillo " is the name for types
with short, almost ball-shaped fruits without any con-
striction, and with a very smooth surface (Fig. 28).
These varieties are, however, not sharply defined, but
form a continuous series.

This classification, first given by Morris,1 has been
accepted in its main points by all the later authorities
as being both logical and practical, though he did not
enter into many details as to the different varieties : —

1. Cacao Criollo.

2. Cacao Forastero.

a. Cundeamor verugosa amarillo.
6. Cundeamor verugosa Colorado.

c. Liso amarillo.

d. Liso Colorado.

e. Amelonado amarillo.
/. Amelonado Colorado.

g. Calabacillo amarillo.
k. Calabacillo Colorado.

The division of each variety into a yellow and a red
sub-variety (indicated as "amarillo" and "Colorado"
respectively) may be omitted. It is true that in each
variety red as well as yellow forms occur, but this char-
acteristic of colour is so unimportant that it may be
neglected in a general classification.

Hart proposed a slight modification of Morris's
system, viz. the separation of the Calabacillo as a group
apart from the Forastero. As we shall see later, this

1 Cacao, how to grow and how to cure it, Jamaica, 1882, p. 12.

68 COCOA

C11AP.

modification is unnecessary and not even practical, for
the sub-varieties of Forastero and Calabacillo • form a
continuous series, running from the highest (Angoleta)
to the lowest (Calabacillo). Moreover, Hart caused
much confusion by his use of the term " Criollo," and
what he calls " Trinidad Criollo " has no right to the
name.

Hart's system l was as follows, omitting the division
of each variety into two sub-varieties, " amarillo " and
" Colorado " : —

Class I. Criollo, or fine thin-skinned.
Class II. Forastero, or thick-skinned.

1. Var. Cundeamor verugosa.

2. Var. Ordinary.

3. Var. Amelonado.

Class III. Calabacillo, or small -podded, thick, smooth -skinned,
flat-beaned.

However different the sub-varieties may be, Forastero
is always distinguishable from Criollo by the consistency
of the fruit-wall, which is hard and firm and difficult to
cut. The furrows of the fruit-wall are never so deep
as in Criollo, nor are the ridges so prominent and
warty. The beans are generally more or less fiat.
They are coloured light purple to dark violet, some-
times white, and need a rather long fermentation. In
the finer sub - varieties, such as the Cundeamor and
Angoleta, the fermentation takes some three to five
days ; in the coarser varieties, such as the Calabacillo and
many Amelonado types, eight days or even more. The
quality of the product is never so fine as that of the
Criollo, though in some countries fine varieties of
Forastero yield a very fair cocoa.

The Forastero varieties are strong growers, with
fewer requirements than the Criollo. Therefore Fora-
stero varieties are successfully grown in countries where
Criollo cannot thrive. They also give their first
crop earlier ; on fertile soils the first fruits may be

1 Hart, Cacao (1911), pp. 2-3.

VARIETIES OF COCOA 69

expected in the third year, and a crop of some import-
ance may be gathered in the fifth year, while full
production may be reached in the eighth to tenth year.
The full-grown Forastero tree gives a larger yield than
the Criollo.

The original home of the Forastero is unknown.
From the fact that the various types of Forastero are
better known and distinguished in Venezuela than in any
other country, one would be inclined to conclude that
Venezuela, more especially the eastern part, the basin
of the Orinoco, was the home of the Forastero. This
is not improbable from other considerations. In
Venezuela it is not called Forastero, but " Trinitario "
(or " Carupano "). This name, " Trinitario," must not
lead, however, to the assumption that the Forastero came
originally from the island of Trinite or Trinidad, for
historical facts show conclusively that Trinidad imported
the Forastero from Venezuela ; as we shall see in
Chapter IX., this variety was imported from Venezuela
to replace the Criollo, which was devastated by a
disease.

I. CRIOLLO

Before discussing the characteristics of these varieties
and the modifications which have been made in Hart's
definitions of the main varieties, a few words may be
said about the word " Criollo," for different authors use
this word in different senses, with the result that much
misunderstanding has arisen.

" Criollo " is a Spanish word which means " Creole."
Hart is quite right in saying that the true interpreta-
tion of the word " Creole " is " one born in a country or
one belonging to a country." For instance, a child born
either of white or coloured parents in Trinidad is a
" Trinidad Creole " ; if born in Venezuela, it is a " Vene-
zuelan Creole," no matter whether it is white or
coloured. In fact, "Creole" should be translated by
" native " and not by " wild " or " coloured." l

1 Hart, Cacao (2nd edition, 1900), p. 54.

70 COCOA

CHAP.

" Cacao Criollo," or simply " Criollo," means, there-
fore, " native or indigenous cacao," and in this sense it
was used in Western Venezuela, where the term arose,
to indicate the variety which was originally cultivated
there — in contradistinction to " Forastero," which
meant the " foreigner," or imported variety. " Criollo "
means, therefore, " Venezuelan Creole cocoa."

As regards the way in which the word " Criollo "
must now be used, Preuss is very clear and his definition
is correct : " The word ' Criollo cacao ' has no other sig-
nification than that of a cacao, cultivated since the
memory of man,1 the origin of which is not known ; a
cacao, which has been found there in its present state,
but which has — and this is the main point — most dis-
tinct characteristics of habit, fruit, size of the leaves,
and especially of taste, form and appearance of the
seeds."

The last part of this sentence is indeed the main
point, for, if every separate cocoa-growing country
called the old, primitive variety "Criollo," and the
foreign imported variety " Forastero," the confusion
would be unending ; for a variety called " Criollo " in one
country would be called " Forastero " in another, being
in the one the primitive variety and in the other the
imported one. It is therefore agreed in our system of
classification to call " Criollo" only the group to which
belongs the Venezuelan Creole cocoa or Venezuela
Criollo.

It is to the credit of Preuss that he established clearly
the characteristics which distinguish the Criollo from the
Forastero. Merit must also be credited to the work of
Zehntner,3 and Lock4 has contributed to the knowledge
of the varieties cultivated in the Botanical Gardens at
Peradeniya.

1 To be added: "in Western Venezuela."

2 Expedition, p. 199.

3 Zehntner, " Mededeelingen betreffende op Java aangekweekte cacao-
varieteiten " (Free/station te Salatiga, Bulletin No. 9, 1905).

4 Lock, " On the Varieties of Cacao existing in the Royal Botanic Gardens
and Experiment Station at Peradeniya" (Circulars and Ayr. Journal of the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, vol. ii. No. 24, October 1904).

VARIETIES OF COCOA

71

Venezuela Criollo may, then, be considered as the
typical Criollo. As Preuss says : " Venezuela is the
classical home of the Criollo. From there alone does it
come into the market under this name. Every Vene-
zuelan planter knows how to distinguish ' Criollo ' from
' Trinitario ' or ' Carupano ' " (" Trinitario " and " Caru-
pano" are the Venezuelan names for " Forastero ").

The main characteristics of the Criollo (Figs. 21,
22) are (1) the shape of the seeds, which are plump

C.4C.

20

FIG. 21. — Typical Criollo fruits (Java), slightly larger than the average.

and not flat but round ; (2) the consistency of the fruit-
wall, which is always comparatively soft and easy to
cut ; and (3) the surface of the fruit- wall, which has
ten distinct furrows, five of which are deeper than the
other five between them (Fig. 22), while the prominent
ridges running between the furrows are very warty
and irregular. The size and shape of the fruit vary a
little, and are slightly different in the different local
types of Criollo, but the fruit is always broad at the
stalk-end, and never constricted, and tapers generally
— not always — to a more or less sharp point.

72

COCOA

CHAP.

The colour of the beans is paler than in Forastero,
and runs from white to pale violet. The taste is rather
sweet, at any rate only slightly bitter, and the beans
need only a short time for fermentation, while the
quality of the product is always very fine and the
market price high.

As regards the habits of the tree, the Criollo often
shows a rather weak growth, at any rate in comparison
with the strong, vigorous growth of the Forastero

FIG. 22.— Java Criollo.

varieties ; and accordingly the leaves are rather small
and not very numerous, making the foliage system
rather thin. Preuss considers it a typical characteristic
of this variety to bifurcate at a low height and to have
only a few, generally two or three, main branches.
These differences, however, are apparent only when
Criollo is grown under conditions which are not in
every sense quite favourable. There is no doubt that
Criollo is more particular about soil and climate than
Forastero, and when the soil is not of best quality, or
the conditions are in other respects not first-rate, Criollo

VARIETIES OF COCOA 73

does not thrive and its growth is weaker than that of
Forastero. Under really favourable conditions, Criollo
grows in vigorous trees, with a big stem and a dense
foliage system.

In some countries there are found a few local types of
the true Criollo, each with its own characteristics. These
are the Venezuela, the Nicaragua (Fig. 23), the Java
(Figs. 21, 22), the Ceylon, the Samoa, and the Mada-
gascar Criollo. In addition, one sub -variety of the
Criollo is known, very different from the typical Criollo.
This is the so-called "Porcelaine" variety (Fig. 24).

All the other varieties of the cocoa plant belong to the
Forastero group (Figs. 25-33). This comprises several
sub-varieties, which form a series beginning with those
which stand nearest to the Criollo (with rather round
beans, a warty fruit-surface with deep furrows, yielding
a product of very good quality), and ending with the
so-called " Calabacillo variety," with very flat beans and
a smooth fruit, yielding an inferior kind of cocoa..

Local Types and Sub- Variety of Criollo
(a) Local Types

Venezuela Criollo. — The fruits of the Venezuela
Criollo are medium - sized. Their form is generally
plump and asymmetrical. According to Preuss, the
typical Venezuela Criollo has a medium-sized, slanting
point, curved to the stem of the tree when the fruit is
grown at the stem. Towards the stalk the fruit ends
more or less abruptly with a broad end, which often
stands obliquely to the stalk. Sometimes the shape is
so irregular that the fruit gives an impression of being
misformed.1

In most cases the colour of the fruits of the
Venezuela Criollo is red, but a classification has been
made into Criollo legitimo, with fruits of a deep red

1 Preuss, Expedition, p. 225.

74 COCOA

colour and whitish-violet seeds ; Criollo amarillo, with
yellow fruits and white seeds ; and Criollo mestizo,
which is a sort of intermediary between the two other
ones, but which seems to be rare. This classification,
however, is of no great importance.

In Venezuela the Criollo is mainly cultivated near
the coast between the two rivers, Rio Yaracuy and Rio
Tuy. The local name is " cacao dulce," which means
" sweet cocoa," in opposition to " cacao amargo " or
" Trinitario amargo," which means "bitter cocoa" or
" bitter Forastero," and which comprises all the different
Forastero varieties.

Ceylon Criollo. — Ceylon Criollo — or, as it is generally
called, " Old Red Ceylon " — seems to be nothing but a
true Venezuela Criollo, which has perhaps changed a
little in the course of the seventy years it has been
grown in Ceylon. Most probably! the "Old Red,"
also called in Ceylon the "Caracas variety," was the
only variety cultivated in the island before the
introduction of the Forastero in 1878. In his Report
for 1884, Dr. Trimen, at that time Superintendent of
the Botanic Gardens, wrote : " Cacao was grown at the
Botanic Gardens at Kalutara in 1819, and may have
been introduced by Moon, the Superintendent. But
most of the present cultivated cacao seems to have
been a consignment from Trinidad, obtained by Sir R.
Horton in 1834-35." As " most of the present culti-
vated cacao" in 1884 was "Old Red," it is very
probable that this variety was imported some seventy
years ago from Trinidad. At that time, however, true
Criollo was most probably no longer to be found in
Trinidad, as it was wholly destroyed by a blight in the
beginning of the eighteenth century. It is therefore
very probable that the " Old Red " was imported
through Trinidad from Venezuela.

The pods of the " Old Red " are, like those of the
Venezuela Criollo, usually red in colour, seldom yellow,
the size generally small, the surface rough, the furrows

1 Lock, Circular, p. 391.

VARIETIES OF COCOA 75

deep ; they are pointed at the apex but not acuminate,
and the base is, as in all Criollo, unconstricted.

The seeds are as a rule nearly circular in transverse
section, though there is a good deal of variation in this
respect. Generally the colour is white, but a certain
percentage is bright purple or crimson within.1 It is
estimated that a little more than 50 per cent contain
only white seeds, some 40 per cent contain mixed seeds,
and a very small percentage have only purple seeds.
The average number of seeds per pod is about twenty-
nine.

Lock remarks that " the trees of this variety are of
a distinctly smaller and weaker habit than those of the
Forastero kinds ; they are also reputed to bear smaller
leaves, but according to my experience this distinction
is not clearly marked."

It seems that the true " Old Ked " is no longer so
very common in Ceylon, and that it is being replaced
more and more by the Forastero.

Java Criollo (Figs. 21, 22). — This variety has been
for many years the only one grown in Java. A very
interesting and thorough investigation of this variety
has been made by Zehntner,2 who gives a clear review
of its characteristics. It is very pure and constant,
closely resembling, if not identical with, the Venezuela
Criollo. This is remarkable, because all the trees at
present grown in Java are descendants of a few trees,
perhaps even of one tree, imported as early as the
sixteenth century. The fact that the characteristics of
Venezuela and Java Criollo are still so much alike
shows that both varieties have changed very little in
the course of three centuries. This gives support to
Preuss's view3 that the Criollo in Venezuela is very
constant and has no tendency to be spoiled by mixing
with Forastero.

" The pods of Java Criollo are broad, not narrowed

1 Lock, loc. cit. p. 389.

2 Zehntner, " Mededeelingen, etc." (Proef station te Salatiga, Bull. No. 9}.

3 Preuss, Expedition, p. 226.

76

COCOA

CHAP.

at the base (the part where the stalk is fixed). Towards
the middle of the longitudinal axis they get a little
broader, tapering towards the apex, which ends in a
short, slightly curved point. The point is sometimes
sharp, sometimes more or less blunt. The fruit-wall is
red, warty, with ten prominent ridges, which are
separated by deep narrow furrows. The consistency
of the fruit -wall is soft." The colour of the fruit is
generally deep red, rarely yellow.

The seeds are round in section or short-oval, white,
with sometimes a violet tinge along the edges.1 The
following average figures were obtained by measuring
a great number of fruits : —

Length of pod.

Diameter of pod.

Weight.

Weight of
the seeds.

Number of
seeds.

170 mm.

81 mm.

467 gr.

97 gr.

3T4

(162 to 182)

(66 to 90)

(321 to 478)

(70 to 109)

(29 to 33)

Weight of one seed.

Weight of one prepared
seed.

Number of fruits necessary to
obtain 1 kilog. of marketable
cocoa.

3-0 gr.
(2-1 to 3-5)

M4 gr.
(1-09 to 1-30)

35

The percentage of worthless seeds is very small,
being on the average 2*2 per cent.

Attention may be drawn to the fact that, as
Zehntner's figures prove, Java Criollo shows little
variation.

Samoa Criollo. — Cocoa is cultivated on a small
scale in Samoa, most of the trees belonging to a pure
Criollo type, which stands near the Java Criollo and
the Ceylon " Old Eed."

As to the quality of the cocoa, the Samoa Criollo is,
according to Preuss,'2 to be preferred to the other two.

1 Zehntner, loc. cit. p. 13.

2 Preuss, Samoa, p. 39.

v VARIETIES OF COCOA 77

Madagascar Criollo. — This variety has been de-
scribed by Fauchere. The description and the excellent
photographs1 leave no doubt as to the pure Criollo
character of this variety.

The length of the pod varies between 16 and 20 cm.,
the diameter between 6 and 9 cm. The pod contains
30 to 35 seeds, the length of which varies between
1|- and 2 cm. ; they are plump and in section nearly
circular. The colour is white and the taste only slightly
bitter. The colour of the pod is generally red, seldom
yellow.

According to Fauchere this cocoa was most probably
imported from Keunion, and this island apparently got

FIG. 23. — Nicaragua Criollo (after Preuss).

it from Ceylon, so that the Madagascar Criollo would
seem to be a descendant of the " Old Ked."

Nicaragua Criollo (Fig. 23). — This variety has
been studied by Preuss in its native country. Like the
Venezuela Criollo it has fruits with a warty surface
and deep furrows ; towards the stalk the fruit ends
with a broad side ; the shape is often asymmetrical.
All these characteristics are the same as those of the
Venezuela Criollo ; but in addition the Nicaragua Criollo
has other characteristics which differentiate it more
widely from the Venezuela Criollo than any of the
others mentioned, and which give it a place by itself
among the Criollo varieties.

1 Fauchere, Culture pratique, p. 10 and Figs. 2, 3.

78 COCOA

CHAP.

The most typical characteristic is the size of the
seeds, which are larger than in any other variety : the
length is 4 to 4j cm., the diameter about 1^ cm.
Another typical characteristic is the long tapering point,
which is longer and sharper than in the other Criollo
varieties, and which gives the fruits a more slender shape.

The taste and colour (white to pale purple) of the
beans are very fine, but the aroma is rather weak and
not so strong as in the Venezuela Criollo.

This variety is grown in Nicaragua ; also in
Guatemala, and perhaps to a small extent in Mexico.
It is likely that it contributes to the so - called
" Soconusco " and " Tabasco " cocoa. In Nicaragua it
is called " cacao del pais " (cocoa of the country), in
opposition to " cacao estrangero " (cocoa from abroad),
by which name the Forastero is indicated.

From Nicaragua Hart imported it in the year 1893
into Trinidad. It is also grown in the Botanic Gardens
at Peradeniya (Ceylon) and in the Botanic Gardens of
Buitenzorg (Java). The trees grown at Buitenzorg
have been described by Zehntner. Though it may be
that these few trees do not represent exactly the
average type, the figures given by Zehntner are still
worthy of mention. He describes the fruit as being
rather short (155 mm.), but broad (86 mm.) and heavy
(557 gr.). The weight of the seeds is greater than in
any other variety (203 gr.), being 36| per cent of the
weight of the whole pod. The seed-coat is described as
very thin, soft and light. The average number of
seeds per pod was 28, of which about 2 (8*2 per cent)
were worthless. The average weight of the fresh seeds
was 7*1 gr., that of the prepared bean 1*79 gr.

(b) Sub-Variety

Porcelaine variety (Fig. 24). — The only sub- variety
of Criollo is the Porcelaine variety. The outer appear-
ance of the fruit is so different from the true Criollo
that nobody would at first appearance recognise it as

v VARIETIES OF COCOA 79

a sub-variety. The smooth surface and the lack of
prominence of the ridges give it a strong resemblance
to the Amelonado, a Forastero sub-variety, but the thin
fruit-wall and the rather plump seeds show that it is
really a Criollo. This is also proved by the fact that it
was found in the Criollo plantations in Java before the
introduction of the Forastero.

Hitherto the Porcelaine variety has received but
little attention. In one sense this is not to be
wondered at, because from an agricultural or com-

FIG. 24. — Java Criollo, Porcelaine variety.

mercial point of view it is unimportant ; but it is all
the same a very interesting variety. In twenty fruits
Zehntner found 68 per cent of round beans. Further,
all the seeds were white — another Criollo characteristic.
The fruit-wall of the Java Porcelaine is very thin and
easily cut.

It is impossible to give any definite reason for the
possession of a smooth surface in this Criollo variety. It
is probable that it has suddenly appeared as a mutation,
as a child of true Criollo parents, among many sisters
which were true Criollo like their parents. At any rate
it is not necessary to assume, as Zehntner does, that

80 COCOA

CHAP.

a smooth skin being a Forastero characteristic, the
Porcelaine variety must have been caused by a mixing
with Forastero. This is most improbable, because the
Porcelaine has no other Forastero characteristics, and
moreover it was present in Java before the Forastero
was introduced.

II. FORASTERO

While the countries where true Criollo is to be
found are only few, the Forastero is grown in all the
cocoa-growing countries, either together with Criollo
(Venezuela, Java, Ceylon, Nicaragua, Samoa, Mada-
gascar), or alone in different sub-varieties (Ecuador,
San Thome, Trinidad, Gold Coast, Surinam, Antilles,
etc.). And while Criollo is very uniform, having, aside
from local types, only two varieties, the true Criollo
and the unimportant Porcelaine, Forastero is a col-
lective name for a great number of sub -varieties.

It has already been pointed out that it is difficult
to make a clear classification of the sub-varieties of the
Forastero group, owing to the fact that the different
characteristics are present in the various types in all
sorts of combinations. Whether this is a consequence
of hybridisation or variation (mutation), or the influence
of local conditions, has not been investigated ; but since
von Faber has proved that trees standing, close together
can easily be pollinated by each other, it is very likely
that this mixture of types has been caused by hybridisa-
tion. We have therefore probably to regard a great
number of types of Forastero as hybrids of different
Forastero varieties, and an equally large group as
hybrids of Criollo with varieties of Forastero.

This view is supported by the fact, observed both
in Venezuela and in Java, that the offspring of inferior
types of Forastero planted in Criollo fields have distinct
Criollo characteristics, and show therefore a marked
improvement over the mother tree. Amelonado with
small, flat, bitter seeds planted between Criollo gave

VARIETIES OF COCOA 81

in Venezuela an offspring with fruits which had the
Amelonado shape, but contained large, round seeds
with the bitter principles much less developed. In
dealing with the introduction of Forastero types into
the Criollo fields of Western Venezuela, Preuss writes : l
" I saw with astonishment the modification which had
occurred here in the inferior cacao. It is true that the
fruit-walls were very thick, but the beans could only be
distinguished from Criollo by very trained men." In
Java the first Forastero introduced was an inferior type,
a sort of Cundeamor bearing small fruits with a very
pronounced bottle-neck near the stalk. Planted between
Criollo, it has produced an offspring for the greatest part
of superior type with distinct Criollo characteristics.

The most practical classification is obtained when
the form of the fruit is used as a basis in the following
way : —

Kidges deep, surface warty or rather warty, largest diameter
of the fruit generally not more than 50 per cent of the length ;
no constriction near the stalk . . . Angoleta.

Ridges deep, surface warty or rather warty, largest diameter
of the fruit generally not more than 50 per cent of the length ;
fruit constricted near the stalk (" bottle-necked ") . Cundeamor.

Ridges shallow or rather shallow ; surface not very warty or
rather smooth; largest diameter of the fruit always longer than
50 per cent of the length ; the constriction near the stalk may be
present or absent . . . . . Amelonado.

Ridges very shallow, surface very smooth ; diameter 60 to 75
per cent of the length of the fruit . . . Calabacillo.

It must again be emphasised, however, that both
this classification and the characterisation of the types
are wholly conventional. The different types are not
sharply separated from each other. They form a con-
tinuous series, beginning with the finest Angoleta,
which is very much like the Criollo, and running
through the Cundeamor and the Amelonado to the
smoothest Calabacillo.

1 Preuss, Expedition, p. 225.

G

CHAP.

82 COCOA

The most usual appearance of these types may now
be briefly described.

A. Angoleta

The typical Angoleta variety (Fig. 25) is char-
acterised by large, regularly-formed fruits, with a thick
fruit-wall, generally deeply furrowed and very warty ;
the apex is rather long and attenuate ; at the stalk end
the fruit is not constricted. These last characteristics
bring the Angoleta near the Criollo. Moreover, the
beans generally resemble those of Criollo ; though riot

FIG. 25.— Java Forastero, Angoleta variety.

as large and round, they are still rather large and plump.
Their colour is generally light violet.

The quality of the product of several types of
Angoleta is superior.

The Angoleta variety is to be found in Venezuela,
in Trinidad, and most probably also in Central America ;
it also occurs in several other countries, but never to a
large extent or in a pure form.

B. Cundeamor

The Cundeamor (Fig. 26) is in many respects much
like the Angoleta, but the furrows of the fruit-wall are
generally not so deep and the warts less prominent.
The most characteristic feature is the constriction of the
fruit near the stalk-end, which gives the fruit more or
less the shape of a bottle ("bottle-necked"). The

VARIETIES OF COCOA

83

colour and shape of the beans are generally about the
same as in the Angoleta, but there are also Cundeamor
types with flat, dark-coloured beans.

The Cundeamor variety is cultivated in Venezuela,
in Trinidad, in the province of Esmeraldas in Ecuador,
and in Java.

C. Amelonado
The Amelonado (Fig. 27), which is generally called

FIG. 26. — Forastero, Cundeamor variety.
Two types : the type B is more like the Forastero Amelonado than type A.

" Sambito" in Venezuela, is the most widely cultivated
sub-variety of Forastero. By far the largest part of
the world's crop of cocoa comes from this variety.

The difference between the many local types is
rather great, but, speaking generally, the Amelonado
variety is characterised by its broad and short fruits,
which have more or less the shape of a water-melon or
an egg. They may be bottle-necked (Fig. 27, B) or not
(Fig. 27, A). The apex is sometimes shortly acuminate

84

COCOA

CHAP.

(Fig. 27, B), sometimes blunt (Fig. 27, A) ; the fruit-
wall is generally more or less smooth, though the ten
ridges and furrows are always clearly marked. The
seeds are generally flat, deep violet in colour, and bitter
in taste ; but there are exceptions to this rule, and some
Amelonado have seeds which are rather plump, light
violet, or even white in colour, and sweetish in taste.
Generally this variety requires some six or seven days

CM.

20

15

B.

FIG. 27. — Forastero, Amelonado variety.

Type A is not bottle-necked, and has a blunt apex ; type B is bottle-necked, with a
pointed apex and comparatively deep ridges.

for fermentation, and yields a product of medium
quality ; but there are local types which need only a
short fermentation and yield a product of superior
quality.

Amelonado is grown in Ecuador (with the exception of
the province of Esmeraldas), San Thome, San Domingo,
Gold Coast, Surinam, and other countries as the local
variety. In addition, it is to be found together with
other Forastero, especially Cundeamor types, in almost
all the cocoa-growing countries.

VARIETIES OF COCOA

85

D. Calabacillo

The Calabacillo (Fig. 28) is the lowest Forastero
variety. It has the shortest fruit and the smoothest
fruit-wall of all the varieties of cocoa ; the furrows are
very shallow ; the apex is shortly acuminate, sometimes
blunt. The beans are very flat, deep violet in colour,
and very bitter in taste ; fermentation requires eight
days and sometimes even more.

This variety, though to be found in every cocoa-

FIG. 28. — Forastero, Calabacillo variety.'

A, typical Calabacillo ; B, the surface of this type is not so smooth and it therefore is more
like the Amelonado.

growing country, is never grown purposely. On the
contrary, the planter avoids using Calabacillo seeds,
knowing that the quality is very poor and that it
ferments slowly. This sometimes makes it even
necessary, when the number of Calabacillo fruits
harvested is ' rather large, to keep them apart from the
others and to have them fermented separately, as they
would otherwise delay the fermentation of the whole
crop.

In Venezuela the Calabacillo is called " Trinitario
amargo" ("bitter Forastero") or " Cojon de toro "
("bull's testicle").

86

COCOA

CHAP.

Local Types

Venezuela Angoleta. — A detailed description of this
type has not yet been given, and the reader can only
be referred to what has been already said regarding the
Angoleta variety in general.

Among the group of local types grown in the basin
of the Orinoco and indicated as Carupano Cacao, we
find types called Carupano grande or Carupano grande
mejor, which are much like typical Angoleta in their outer
appearance, but the fruit-wall is less warty, the furrows
are not so deep, the beans are smaller and flatter, the
quality is not so fine, and in every respect these types
show characters of Angoleta and of Amelonado com-
bined. As they generally resemble the Amelonado
more than the Angoleta, they are best considered as
belonging to the former variety.

Trinidad Angoleta (Fig. 29) has been mentioned
by Hart1 under the name of "Trinidad Forastero."
It is generally met with in the estates in Trinidad
together with other varieties of Forastero.

Through the kindness of Mr. Augustus, Manager
of the Government Cocoa Plantation, " Eiver Estate "
(Trinidad), I have obtained the following average
figures of a large number of pods of " Trinidad Forastero,"
collected on that estate and belonging to two Angoleta
types : —

Length.

Diameter.

Weight.

Number
of seeds.

Weight
of seeds.

Length of
one seed.

Weight of
ono seed.

Red . .

21 cm.

9 cm.

765 gr.

37'5

93 gr.

2'2 cm.

2-5 gr.

Yellow .

10 cm.

9 cm.

585 gr.

34-3

73 gr.

2-1 cm.

2-0 gr.

Java Angoleta is now the most common Forastero
in Java. It is a hybrid between the originally imported
Forastero Cundeamor and the Java Criollo. The
original Cundeamor was one tree with fruits of an

1 Hart, Cacao, Figs. Z and A.

VARIETIES OF COCOA

87

inferior type, small, and with a very pronounced bottle-
neck.

Venezuela Cundeamor has large fruits with deep
furrows, a very warty surface and a long, slanting point.

FIG. 29.— Trinidad Angoleta (Hart's " Forastero ").

It [is always distinctly "bottle-necked." The colour
is red or yellow. The nibs are pale violet, as in the
Venezuela Angoleta, but darker than in the Criollo.
Preuss gives an illustration but no figures of this
variety.

88

COCOA

CHAP.

This variety is much appreciated by the planters
in Venezuela. It gives a fine quality of product, and
resists disease better and is a stronger grower than the
Criollo.

Trinidad Cundeamor. — This is a typical Cundeamor
with all the characteristics already mentioned. Hart
mentions it under the name " Trinidad Criollo," because
he looks upon it as the variety originally grown in
Trinidad ; but whatever the variety may have been
which was first grown in Trinidad, it is obvious that
this bottle-necked Forastero cannot be called " Criollo."
No Criollo is grown in Trinidad, and the name of this
type must be " Trinidad Cundeamor."

Mr. Augustus has kindly given me the following
average of the fruits collected on the "River Estate"
(Trinidad) :—

Length.

Diameter.

Weight.

Number of seeds.

Weight of seeds.

Red Pod .

19i cm.

7£ cm.

495 gr.

41-8

73 gr.

Yellow Pod

21 cm.

7£ cm.

495 gr.

39-5

75 gr.

As regards the seeds, the following figures were
obtained : average length, 2*1 cm. ; average weight,
1 7 gr.

Ecuador Cundeamor or Esmeraldas Cundeamor
is cultivated only in the province of Esmeraldas in
Ecuador. The plantations in this province are not
numerous, and the total number of trees is estimated
to be only 700,000. The fruits are of a slender shape,
with a long point, with deep furrows and rather strongly
constricted near the stalk-end. The colour is yellow
or brownish-red ; in the first case the nibs are some-
times entirely white, showing a great resemblance to
Venezuela Criollo.1

Ecuador Amelonado (Figs. 30, 99), or, as it is
called in Ecuador, " cacao nacional," may be regarded

1 Preuss, Expedition, p. 241.

VARIETIES OF COCOA

89

as the most important Amelonado. It now produces
per annum not less than 20 to 30 million kilograms
of cocoa, or about one-eighth of the whole production
of the world. This variety is almost exclusively grown
in the provinces of Los Kios, Guayas, El Oro, and

FIG. 30. — Ecuador Amelonado ("cacao nacional").

Manabi, producing the four market cocoas, "Arriba,"
"Balao," "Machala," and "Manabi."

This Amelonado stands closer to the Cundeamor
than to the Calabacillo ; for an Amelonado its fruit-
wall has rather deep furrows. Though exact figures
giving the average of a great number of fruits are not

90

COCOA

CHAP.

available, we may take it that the length of the fruit
is about 19 to 23 cm., the diameter about 10 to 12 cm.
The apex is blunt or with a short, indistinct point.
Generally they are slightly bottle-necked.

FIG. 31. — San Thome Amelonado.
Reproduced from Chalot and Luc, Le Cacaoyer au Congo frangais.

The type is remarkably constant throughout all
the four provinces mentioned, and we do not find
trees of other Forastero types mixed with it. Such a
uniformity of fruit is rare in cocoa-growing countries.
Curiously enough, although exactly the same variety

VARIETIES OF COCOA 91

is grown in all four provinces, the resulting products
are of quite different qualities.

San Thome Amelonado (Fig. 31) has been described
by Chevalier.1 The fruits, which are citron -yellow
when ripe, are elliptical and elongated, generally more
or less constricted at the base ; they end in a blunt
point or mamelon. The fruit -wall has ten shallow
furrows, and is smooth or slightly warty. When unripe,
the fruits are completely green or slightly rose-tinged
at the base ; the furrows are always of a lighter colour.
Gradually they become yellowish-green and finally yellow.

Chevalier gives the following average figures : length
of the pod, 14 cm. ; diameter, 7 4 cm. ; weight, 300 gr. ;
number of seeds, 42 ; weight of seeds, 91 gr. ; weight of
one seed, 1 *9 gr.

In San Thome this variety is called " creoulo," as it
is the oldest type grown there.2 It is uncertain whence
it was imported to San Thome, but perhaps de Almada
Negreiros is right in assuming that it came from Bahia
in Brazil. It is grown not only at San Thome, but
also at Principe and throughout West Africa.

Surinam Amelonado (Figs. 32, 136) is the common
variety grown in Surinam. The two Amelonado types
just mentioned are fairly constant in their particular
countries, but the Surinam Amelonado on the other
hand is rather polyform. It is, therefore, difficult to fix
the type, for it is different on different plantations.
On one plantation a type with small fruits may be the
most common one, but on other estates the type is
larger ; on some estates a more or less bottle-necked
variety is prevalent, on others fruits which lack this char-
acter are generally found. Fig. 32 shows the most
common form. With this Amelonado variety inferior
sorts of Angoleta and Cundeamor varieties are to be
found, generally in small numbers, but sometimes more
numerous.

1 Chevalier, Le Cacaoyer dans I' Quest africain, 1908, p. 130.

2 It will now be seen how confusing it would be if we called this type
"Criollo," as Hart did with the Trinidad Cundeamor !

92

COCOA

CHAP.

The most typical Surinam type (Fig. 32) is a medium-
sized Amelonado, smaller than the Ecuador one, but larger
than the San Thome Amelonado. The average length
is 16 cm., the average diameter 8^ cm. The following
average figures were obtained from 105 typical fruits
collected on the estate " Clevia " : weight of the fruit,
559 gr. ; weight of seeds, 128 gr. ; weight of one
seed, 3*1 gr. ; number of seeds, 41. The colour of the
seeds is dark violet.

FIG. 32. — Surinam Amelonado.

The present writer considers the non-bottle-necked
to be the most typical, but it is true that many trees
are to be found with fruits which show a distinct con-
striction near the fruit -stalk. The colour is red or
yellow or yellowish-brown.

The Venezuela Amelonado is generally called
" Sambito." As has already been mentioned, the inter-
crossing of Sambito and Criollo (pollination of Sambito
by Criollo) has given rise to the occurrence in Venezuela
of Sambito types with large round seeds. Such a type
is to be seen in Fig. 33.

VARIETIES OF COCOA

93

The Guadeloupe Amelonado, which is considered
there to be the oldest variety on this island, was
imported long ago from Martinique and is called " cacao
creole.';

Local types of the Calabacillo are not worthy of
description, as this coarse variety is nowhere of any
importance.

FIG. 33. — Venezuela Sarabito ( = Amelonado), with large seeds.

SUMMARY

In this chapter we have tried to enumerate and
to describe the different varieties with their local
types. It must not be thought, however, that our
enumeration of these local types is complete. Of a
great number of local types no description exists,
and of the types described only a few have been the
subject of thorough investigation ; the number of local
varieties for which figures have been collected in regard
to the size, weight, etc., of the fruits is very small
indeed.

The following list gives a summary of the varieties
and the local types described, with the local names : —

94

COCOA

I. CRIOLLO.

A. Criollo types.

Venezuela Criollo.

Ceylon Criollo ("Old Red").

Java Criollo.

Samoa Criollo.

Madagascar Criollo.

Nicaragua Criollo (" Cacao del pais ").

B. Porcelaine.

Java Porcelaine.

II. FORASTERO.

A. Angoleta.

Venezuela Angoleta.

Trinidad Angoleta ("Trinidad Forastero").

Java Angoleta.

B. Cundeamor.

Venezuela Cundeamor.

Trinidad Cundeamor ("Trinidad Criollo").

Ecuador Cundeamor (" Esmeraldas ").

C. Amelonado.

Ecuador Amelonado (" Cacao nacional ").

San Thome Amelonado ("San Thom6 Creoulo").

Surinam Amelonado.

Guadeloupe Amelonado (" Guadeloupe Creolo ").

Venezuela Amelonado (" Sambito ").

D. Calabacillo.

The figures for some of these types may also be
summarised here : —

ii

«M .5

0 2

1*

«n

* oj

|12

"S

if

^

ol

1S1

lit

t^i

^ S
og

I^S^
f*£ra

g »

,O N

o 2

£~
11
$3

a 3.5
rt£:=5

5 'B

ail
«*

•| 3 S

ga

Ug

1

BK*
If*

1

R

Per cent.

Per cent.

Java Criollo

170

81

48

467

97

21

32

3

Madagascar Criollo

160-200

60-90

38-45

Nicaragua Criollo l

155

86

55

557

203

36

Trinidad Angoleta

190-200

90

45-47

585-765

73-93

12

37

2_2f

Trinidad Cundeamor

195-210

75

36-39

495

73-75

15

43-44

17

Ecuador Amelonado

190-230

100-120

52-53

San Thome Amelonado

140

75

50

475

89

19

48

1-9

Surinam Amelonado .

160

85

53

559

128

23

41

3-1

1 These figures, which are quoted from Zehntner, are for Nicaragua Criollo
grown in the Botanical Gardens at Buitenzorg. It may be that they do not
represent the average of Nicaragua Criollo grown in Nicaragua.

CHAPTER VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA

IN this chapter we propose to describe the different
operations which have to be carried out during the
establishment and running of the plantation.

While it stands to reason that the experience gained
in other countries should give the practical man hints
for the improvement of his methods in some way or
other, still too great reliance on such experience is a
fruitful source of mistake, and a good dose of con-
servatism is the first thing needed for every grower of
cocoa. In establishing and running a plantation, the
newcomer would do well to follow the methods locally
adopted. These methods may contain faults, but the
latter can be found out only in the course of years by
close observation of the home plantation and those
around it. An enormous amount of money has been
lost, and is still being lost, by men without local experi-
ence who want to improve on the old-fashioned way at
once, or who adopt in the tropics, without thorough
experiment, methods used in temperate climates. In
reading this chapter, therefore, the reader should
remember the final exhortation of an old teacher of
agriculture after he had delivered his last lecture to his
students : " And now, gentlemen, go into the field and
see how others do."

A. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PLANTATION

Clearing the forest. — The land selected for the planta-
tion will in most cases be virgin land covered with

95

96 COCOA CHAP.

forest, or land abandoned many years ago and covered
with secondary bush. The first work to be taken in
hand, therefore, is generally the clearing of the forest
or bush. The smaller trees and shrubs are cut down
first, and then the big trees. The wood is then arranged
into heaps or rows, so as to clear the space where the
plants are to be planted.

Here the question arises whether the planter should
burn the wood or not. Burning has several practical
advantages. It clears the surface of the soil and kills
the weeds, as well as many other enemies. Moreover, it
is easier later on to weed burned land, while the heaps
or rows of unburned wood give rise to the growth of
troublesome weeds, and in many countries of vines,
which tend to entangle the young plants. Another
drawback of not burning lies in the fact that some trees
are very hardy, and when cut down and not burned
repeatedly produce roots and suckers. Finally, the
heaps of unburned wood being favourite shelters and
breeding places for all sorts of injurious insects, the
burning kills a lot of enemies of the young plants.

On the other hand, however, burning has the dis-
advantage of destroying a good part of the humus
which is incorporated in the upper layer of the soil,
while the fertilising effect of the fallen trees and shrubs
is reduced ; the wood gradually rotting adds much more
to the fertility of the soil than when burned to ash, of
which, especially on hillsides, a great deal may be
washed away by rains or blown away by wind. It is a
curious fact that the bad effect of burning is especially
felt on soils which are very rich in humus, and are more
or less peaty. So much of the humus may be destroyed
in burning, and at the same time the soil may cake
together in such a way, that it is hardly possible to
grow any crop on it without the expenditure of much
labour and expense in bringing it back to proper
condition.

Generally speaking, however, the planter will con-
sider it more practical or even essential to burn the

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 97

wood. Accordingly, the dry season is usually chosen
for clearing the forest, for it is always necessary to leave
the wood lying in the sun for a few days if it is to burn
well.

In some countries, in clearing the forest, the bigger
trees or special kinds of trees are left standing in order
to give immediate shade to the young plants, but this
method is not generally adopted, and is certainly not
advisable. Only very special kinds of trees are suitable
as shade trees, and it seldom occurs that these are to
be found in the forest ; moreover, in a good plantation
the planter wants his shade trees to stand at regular dis-
tances apart ; and, finally, the shade given by forest trees
is not the kind needed by the young cocoa plants, which
require the greater protection afforded by temporary
shade plants such as bananas or tannias. Hence it is
not advisable to plant cocoa in old coffee fields, leaving
the shade trees standing, as is generally done in Java.
When the cocoa plants grow up under the only shade
which these trees afford, they result in short trees with an
irregular, bushy or compact branch system, and with
a stem liable to split when the branches bear much
fruit (Fig. 35). Bananas, also, do no better in such
circumstances, for they have only a poor and slow
growth under shade. It is therefore advisable to cut
away the old shade trees and to plant a new tem-
porary shade when a coffee field has to be changed into
a cocoa field. But of course this involves a greater
expenditure.

The cocoa tree is very sensitive to wind. If, there-
fore, the piece of land chosen is bounded by open land,
by savanna, or by a river, on the side of the prevailing
wind, it is advisable and sometimes necessary to leave a
border of forest as a wind-break. Thus in Surinam, for
instance, wherever cocoa is cultivated near the riverside,
the plantation is never extended close up to the river —
at any rate not when the latter runs on the windward
side (i.e. on the east), and a border of forest is always
left along the bank.

H

98 COCOA

CHAP.

In very windy countries it may be advisable to leave
such rows of wind-breaks at regular distances facing the
prevailing direction of the wind. In such cases
Fauchere l considers it absolutely necessary to have a
series of shelter - belts 100 metres (say 110 yards)
apart, each at least 10 metres (11 yards) broad.
This recommendation, especially as to the width of
the shelter-belts, is well worth consideration. In such
countries it is sometimes even necessary to plant only
on the leeward side of the hills or mountains. This is,
for instance, the case in some parts of Java. However,
the method of leaving parts of the forest as wind-breaks
has a drawback. It has been found by experience,
especially when only narrow belts of the forest are
left, that some of the trees are liable to die early,
and that, standing unsheltered and in the open, the
tall trees may fall down, causing damage instead of
preventing it. For these reasons it is sometimes
better to clear the whole forest and to plant wind-
breaks. The planter is then in a position to choose
those species of trees which are specially advantageous
as wind-breaks, and sometimes even trees which are
themselves productive. The planting of such wind-
breaks will be discussed later.

Management of the land after the clearing of the
forest. — The fertile virgin soil quickly loses a great part
of its fertility when left unshaded. Under the direct
influence of the sun and the consequent high tempera-
ture, and also because of the free circulation of the air,
the texture of the soil changes, mainly in consequence
of the destruction of the humus. It is therefore
necessary, immediately after the clearing of the forest,
to plant some quick-growing plant in order to have the
soil shaded as soon as possible. Corn is often used
for this purpose, and sometimes plantains, bananas,
or cassava, according to the character of the soil, the
climate and the needs of the country. In many districts
corn is sown out, and plantains or bananas are planted at

1 Faucliere, Culture pratique, p. 32.

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 99

the same time ; after the harvesting of the corn (in three
to four months), the plantains or bananas have reached
a height of a few feet, and as they grow up quickly, they
may give useful shade to the soil within a few months,
if not planted too wide apart (say at a distance of 12
feet). It is, however, absolutely necessary that the corn
should not grow too close to the bananas ; otherwise
these are so checked in their early growth that the plants
remain weak and slow-growing for a long time. It is
advisable to keep an open space of at least 2 to 3 feet
in each direction round the plantains or bananas.

Planting of wind-breaks. — As has been pointed out,
it may sometimes be considered advisable not to leave
belts of the original forest as shelter -belts, but to
plant belts of trees specially adapted to act as wind-
breaks.

The drawback of this method, however, lies in the
fact that good, strong, wind-breaking trees are always
slow growers, so that several years must elapse before the
trees planted can serve their purpose. It is therefore
advisable to plant in addition a quick-growing kind of
tree to provide shade during the first few years. Very
quick growers are : Albizzia moluccana, Adenanthera
pavonina and Adenanthera microsperma,1 but their
wood is so brittle that they are only to be relied upon
in the first two or three years, and their lifetime is very
short. Fairly quick growers with less brittle wood are :
Erythrina umbrosa, Erythrina velutina, Gliricidia
maculata, Swietenia macrophylla, Cedrela odorata,
Pithecolobium Saman, Peltophorum ferrugineum, and
others. Slow growers but with very strong wood are :
the mango (Mangifera indica), the sapodilla (Achras
Sapota) and many timber trees, of which different
kinds are to be found in every country. Seed is
always easily to be had from the mahogany (Swietenia
mahagoni) and other trees of like character.

1 The well-known Cassia florida, though a quick grower, cannot be recom-
mended, because for some reason or other it exerts a bad influence on other
trees in its neighbourhood, checking their growth.

100 COCOA

CHAP.

Among the useful plants which can be used as
wind-breaks the rubber trees may be particularly
mentioned, though their wood is not very strong — for
wet countries the Para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis)
and the Castilloa elastica ; and for dry countries,
Manihot Glaziovii and other rubber-producing species
of Manihot. It is questionable, however, whether
the latter can thrive in countries wet enough for
cocoa.

Many of the trees just mentioned lose their lower
branches in a few years and develop long branchless
trunks. If planted in a few rows and not very closely,
such trees allow the wind to blow between their trunks,
and it is therefore advisable to plant before or behind
them a few rows of other trees which retain branches
at the base of the stem. Suitable trees for this purpose
are : the " rose-apple " (Eugenia Malaccensis], the
Liberian coffee (Cqffea liberica), the " morinda "
(Morinda citrifolia). The "rose-apple" is a particu-
larly useful wind-break. In many cases, however,
another plant will be more useful than any of the
trees mentioned — viz. the bamboo. This plant would,
indeed, be the first to be recommended, if it had not
the drawback of extending its roots, thus taking pos-
session of a larger area of soil every year. In some
situations, however — for instance, on dams which are
not planted with any other plant — this drawback is
not great, and in such cases the bamboo is very
valuable indeed, though even then it must be kept in
check.

Other trees which have been recommended by
different authors as wind-belt trees may be mentioned
here:1 Albizzia Lebbek, Albizzia odoratissima, Ery-
thrina lithosperma, E. oralifolia, Artocarpus nobilis,
Cassia siamea, Filicium decipiens, Melia dubia, Mesua
ferrea, Pterocarpus indicus, P. marsupium, Valeria
acuminata, Acacia pycnantha, Gedrela serrata, C.

1 See, for instance, Wright, Cocoa (1907), pp. 67-70, and Dybowski, Trait*
(1902), p. 88.

THE CULTIVATION QF eoCO >h$i

Toona, Myristica laurifolia, Azadirachta indica,
Thespesia populnea, Acacia Cyclops, Schinus tere-
binthifolius, Caesalpinia sapan.

Drainage. — The labour to be expended on the
drainage of the plantation varies much in different
countries. Where the rainfall is comparatively small
and the land sufficiently inclined to allow the surplus
water to run away, no drains have to be put in. This
seems, for instance, to be the case in San Thome. In
other countries where the rainfall is greater, as for
instance Trinidad and Ceylon, and the natural drainage
insufficient, attention has to be paid to the digging of
small trenches. Finally, in countries such as Surinam,
with a heavy rainfall and flat land, a whole system of
canals and trenches has to be dug in order to obtain a
proper drainage of the soil.

It is always advisable to put in the drainage at the
same time as the planting of the catch-crop ; and where
drainage is essential to the growth of all plants (as is
the case in Guiana), this is not only advisable but
necessary. In many instances the slow digging of the
drainage has resulted in a slow growth of the catch-
crop, the spoiling of the virgin soil, and a poor growth
of the young cocoa.

In comparison with other crops — such as sugar-
cane, cassava, bananas, citron trees and coffee — cocoa
may be considered as a plant which is not very parti-
cular about drainage. All the same it feels the bad
effects of a too high water-level, and wherever the
natural drainage of the soil is deficient, it is useful to
keep the water down to a depth of at least 2 to 3 feet.
This, however, is not always done by cocoa planters,
and it must be confessed that cocoa often thrives well
on lands which are not properly drained and which are
soaked with water for several months in the year. The
fields of many small proprietors in Surinam offer an
example of this, and according to Wright the same
condition is observed in Ceylon, where on many estates
drainage is neglected to a remarkable degree, while the

COCOA

cocoa still "grows luxuriantly in spite of undrained and
sour condition of the soil."

This can only occur, however, on exceptionally good
and rich land, and the careful planter will always have
his soil drained as well as possible. The good results
of his care will be evident in a longer life of his trees
and a greater power of resistance against certain
diseases (e.g. canker), especially in years with a heavy
rainfall.

In hilly countries, where the soil is porous, it will
be sufficient to make shallow drains of, say, 1^ to 2
feet deep, made almost at right angles to the slope and
on a small incline (this incline is generally made about
80°). When, however, the soil is compact and the
air penetrates only with difficulty, deeper drains may
be recommended, both to get rid of the water and
to aerate the soil to a greater depth.

In Guiana, and especially in Surinam, the drainage
question is more important than in any other cocoa-
growing country. The system adopted there will be
discussed in Chapter IX.

It is useful and instructive for the planter to obtain
an idea of the level of the water in the soil at different
times of the year and on different parts of his estate.
By digging holes or short trenches he will see that,
especially in the rainy season, this level is at some
places much higher than he expected, the reason being
that at those places the subsoil has a low grade of
permeability. Where he expected to find water
standing only at a depth of 4 feet or more, after a
shower in the rainy season he may find it at a depth of
1 foot for several days. In such a case it is advisable
to improve the drainage by digging trenches 2 to 3 feet
deep.

In some countries, where the rivers rise considerably
during a season of the year, it is impossible to keep
down the water-level. In such cases it is often found
that occasional floods are very well endured by the
cocoa, at any rate when they do not last too long

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 103

and when the soil can afterwards drain out properly.
Wright l gives some good examples of this condition :
" Cacao trees, when once established, appear to be able
to stand occasional floods. Several acres of mature
cacao at Peradeniya are subject to floods once or twice a
year ; the water rises to a height of three or more feet
above the bases of the trees, arid remains in a similar
condition for a few days ; nevertheless, these plots
yield fairly good harvests of two to three hundred
pounds of cacao per acre per annum. In the Amazon
valley cacao trees often grow wild in districts which are
periodically flooded, and the cacao trees, it is said, have
their stem under water for as long as three months at a
time. The same occurs for periods of a few days on
some plantations of healthy cacao in Venezuela and in
several parts of Ceylon." How long the trees will
stand such a flood depends on the quality not only of
the soil, but also of the water. On compact retentive
soils, the cocoa will not stand floods so well as on porous
soils with a smaller water-retaining power ; and standing
water does greater harm to the plants than water which
is continually moving more or less.

Variety to plant. — In establishing a plantation the
planter will obviously try to plant the finest variety of
cocoa producing the best quality of product. From
this point of view the Criollo and the pentagona would
always have the preference. Unfortunately, these fine
varieties have certain drawbacks. They are so particular
about climate and soil that they only thrive in a few
countries. It may be said, speaking broadly, that only
in Venezuela and Java is the Criollo cultivated on
anything like a large scale, while no large plantations at
all of pentagona seem to exist. On a small scale the
Criollo is cultivated in several countries, especially
Nicaragua, Guatemala, San Salvador, Samoa and
Madagascar.

Further, the area planted with the Criollo variety
does not increase. In some countries it has already

1 Wright, Cocoa, p. 61.

104 COCOA

CHAP.

given place wholly to the less fine but hardier Forastero
varieties. This is the case in Trinidad, and to a
great extent also in Java and in Ceylon ; and even in
Venezuela the Forastero seems to be gradually taking
the place of the Criollo. This is not to be wondered at.
The difficulties connected with the cultivation of the
Criollo are numerous, and not always compensated for by
the higher price of the product. The Criollo, especially
when young, requires in every respect much greater care
than the Forastero, and it is also more liable to disease.
It begins to bear two or three years later, and the yield
per acre is smaller than with the Forastero.

For these reasons the planter will generally prefer
a good variety of Forastero, and will only decide
on Criollo in places where the conditions are excep-
tional— where the soil is very fertile, rich in humus and
of fine texture ; where the climate is favourable in
every respect ; where the situation is a sheltered one ;
where no destructive diseases are prevalent ; where
intelligent labourers are available.

The question as to which type of Forastero should be
recommended is a difficult one. Types which are fine
in one country often lose their good qualities in another.
So, for instance, the Trinidad Forastero (an Angoleta
type), as well as Hart's " Trinidad Criollo " (which is
really a Forastero of a Cundeamor type ; see Chapter V.),
both give in Trinidad a very good product which is
much finer than the Surinam cocoa ; but when imported
into Surinam, they turned out to be of no especial value
in that country, and in several respects inferior to the
common Surinam Amelonado.

Accordingly, the safest plan for the planter who
establishes a plantation in a country where cocoa is
already grown, is to study the local variety and try to
find its best and most profitable types. He should also
examine the varieties grown in neighbouring countries,
where the conditions of soil and climate are not very
different. At the same time, the study and comparison
of the different good varieties from all parts of the

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 105

cocoa-growing world is work which should be done by
Experiment Stations and Botanic Gardens rather than
by the individual planter.

Whatever type be finally chosen for the plantation,
it is always advisable to plant only one variety. A
mixture of different varieties is very troublesome, not
only in the cultivation, which should be as far as possible
uniform, but also in the curing of the product, as different
varieties require different methods of curing. Preuss l
is therefore quite right in saying that the system of
those planters is wrong, who, unable to decide between
Forastero and Criollo, think that the safest way is to
plant both.

A few remarks may be made about the best way of
procuring varieties from distant countries. The well-
known method of sending young plants in Wardian
cases may be considered as the safest, provided that
some care is taken of the plants during the voyage ;
but this method is expensive. If the ripe pods are sent
without any further preparation, they only keep for a
very short voyage, and soon become mouldy ; but if
treated by the paraffin method they will often keep for
a long time.

The way in which the present writer applied this
method was as follows : — The ripe pods were first
thoroughly cleaned with a tooth-brush and soap. Then
they were dipped, by means of a little string attached to
the stalk, in a 0'5 per cent alcoholic solution of corrosive
sublimate (5 grams of sublimate in 1 litre of alcohol).
In this solution they remained for three minutes. Then
they were left hanging till the alcohol had evaporated
and the fruits were completely dry ; and, finally, they
were dipped into liquid paraffin at a temperature of
60° to 80° C. (140° to 175° Fahrenheit); for this
purpose a paraffin of a high melting-point was used.
The pod remained in the paraffin only for one second.
Care must be taken to dip the pod, including the stalk-
end, entirely in the paraffin, and to hold it only by

1 Preuss, Samoa, pp. 45-46.

106 COCOA

CHAP.

means of the string without touching it. The pod is
then hung up in the room on a little stick, so as
to hang absolutely free. When the paraffin layer is
solid and cooled, the pod is ready to be packed.
The paraffined pods must be packed in a suitable
mixture which will not break, bruise or scratch the
paraffin layer. Peat-dust or fine, sifted sawdust may
be used.

The author shipped pods treated in this way with
success from Surinam to Java, a voyage of about seven
weeks ; but it is true that the method is not quite
reliable. Sometimes, for instance, gas-bubbles are de-
veloped under the paraffin layer, which bursts at these
places ; and where a burst occurs, decay generally soon
sets in. It is not known under what conditions these
gas-bubbles are formed, or what is the cause of their
formation. It has only been proved that the fruit-wall
must not show the slightest black spot, which indicates
the beginning of a too ripe condition, and it is therefore
better to pick the pods a week before they are really
quite ripe.

Seed selection. — Wherever the local variety of cocoa
is to be planted, and especially when a plantation with
full-grown trees has to be extended, the planter is
in a position to select his seed carefully. As a rule,
however, very little attention is paid to this point.

It should be a golden rule to the planter, to plant
only seed from the best bearing, healthiest tree of his
own plantation or of the plantations from which his seeds
are obtained. The great difficulty, however, is that
generally no exact data are available for ascertaining
which particular tree is the best. Some trees in a plan-
tation may have the reputation of always giving a high
yield, but exact, convincing figures are almost always
lacking. It is therefore most important for the planter to
study carefully in his plantation a certain number of trees
which are strong and healthy and which seem to be
good bearers, and to note down every year exactly what
is the yield of each of these trees, together with any

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 107

other data as to time of bearing, liability to disease,
etc. This would enable him to know exactly which
trees are the best.

An Experiment Station, of course, would adopt
another method of obtaining a good bearing strain of
cocoa. One part of the work of such an institution
is to pick out the best trees, and to sow the seeds of
each selected tree in a separate plot, thus obtaining
plots of, say, a hundred trees each, which represent the
offspring of each one of the selected trees. These plots
will give a better idea of the qualities of the strain than
the mother-tree itself. The best of the plots will be
kept for further selection. Details of this method
would bring us too far from our subject ; for the
practical planter it is too tedious and requires too much
study ; he will do enough — and more than most planters
do — if he watches the best of his trees, keeping the
figures and other data, and using the seed of the one
which after some years shows itself to be the best of
all. No conclusion as to the bearing power of a tree
should be drawn after only one year, or even a few
years, for a study of the trees extending over a series
of years will show that the annual yield of individual
trees varies a great deal.

The pods used for planting must be well matured.
Unripe seeds give poor seedlings. It is furthermore
necessary to use only big, well-formed seeds ; the small
ones near both ends of the pod should always be
avoided. Before sowing the viscous pulp should
be removed from the seeds by rolling them in dry
earth or ash ; lime will also answer the purpose. Thus
treated, the seeds are less liable to attack by insects.

Temporary shade. — The temporary shade must be
planted before the cocoa. Like so many other young
trees in the tropics, the young cocoa plant must have
shade ; although sometimes, under special conditions,
cocoa can afterwards be grown without shade trees,
shade is almost always considered to be necessary in
the first two to four years. Only here and there in

108

COCOA

CHAP.

some countries — for instance, in Brazil and sometimes
in Ecuador — is temporary shade done without, and the

young cocoa plants allowed to grow up without pro-
tection. ^ Fig. 34 gives an illustration of this way of
cultivating, as adopted on the plantation " La Elvira "

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 109

in Ecuador. Though it must be admitted that under
especially favourable conditions of soil and climate this
method can be followed with success, it cannot be
recommended. The young cocoa plants, and still more
the soil, will be benefited by the shade of bananas or
some leguminous plant.

Shade trees are not well suited for the temporary
shade of the young cocoa. It is true that in some

FIG. 35. — Cocoa grown in an old coffee field under large shade trees.

The low ramification is noticeable. The large, old shade trees are Albizzia, the small ones

Leucaena.

countries trees of the original forest are left standing,
and that in those countries (San Thome, Ecuador, etc.)
the young cocoa is grown under the shade of those
trees, while in other countries (e.g. Java) cocoa is often
planted in old coffee fields without removing the old
shade trees. Nevertheless this sort of shade is not to
be recommended ; the young plants grow a weak wood
and a stem which easily splits, the stem ramificates
too low, and the branch system becomes bushy and
compact (Figs. 35, 59).

To obtain a strong stem and well-formed, regular

110

COCOA

CHAP.

trees a special kind of shade is necessary during the
first three years — not that afforded by shade trees, but

X ©

X

© x

©

X 0

X

l(- ®

0 X

X X

0
X X

O}

a

X ©
X

X X©

^~
i

© x

X X

©

x x

X ©
X

x © x

© X

x x

7F

x x'

X 0
X

x x©

© x

©x~^~ x

x x

x x

0 Cocoa.
X Bananas.
•jfc Erythrina glauca.

© Cocoa.
X Plantains.
~JT' Erythrina glauca.

FIG. 36. — Two schemes of planting cocoa under temporary shade of bananas and
plantains, as applied in Surinam.

that given by bananas or high tannias, plantains,
cassavas, or pigeon peas. In most countries bananas
are preferred for this purpose, but on rich soils plantains

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 111

may do just as well.1 Still the banana is always easier
to grow than the plantain, and as its roots go deeper it
acts at the same time as an improver of stiff soils. The
plantain may, however, be preferable from a financial
point of view, as on many local markets its fruit fetches
a higher price than the banana.

The bananas may be planted as temporary shade at
a distance of 10 to 15 feet apart; the plantains are

Photo. Auguste Curiel.

Fia. 37. — Cocoa field of a small proprietor (a British Indian immigrant) in Surinam.
The plantains are dying, and the cocoa is without sufficient shade.

better planted a little closer, 8 to 12 feet apart. Fig.
36 shows two schemes of planting adopted in Surinam.

A drawback of the plantain is its short lifetime on
soils which are not very rich, so that if this plant is
used, the planter must always be careful to plant the
permanent shade trees in time, otherwise it may happen
that when the plantains suddenly begin to decline, the
cocoa will stand without shade. This is not a rare

1 The banana (often called in South and Central America "bacoba," "bacouba,"
"bacove")is eaten raw as a fruit; the plantain (often called " bana " or
"banana" by the Creole people in tropical America) is only eaten cooked,
roasted or baked.

112 COCOA

occurrence in the cocoa fields of small proprietors in
Surinam (Fig. 37), and the cocoa is often to be seen
greatly damaged by the sudden lack of shade.

In Java the " lamtoro" (Leucaena glauca) is often
used successfully for temporary shade for cocoa and

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\^ Lamtoro Tree, remaining as permanent shade.

X Lamtoro Tree for temporary shade, to be removed afterwards.

FIG. 38. — Scheme of planting cocoa under the shade of "lamtoro" (Leucaena

glauca).

The cocoa trees stand at a distance of 17 feet apart.

coffee. A scheme of planting is given in Fig. 38, and
see also Fig. 35.

Too close planting will give too much shade for the
cocoa, and will result in tall, spindling plants (Fig. 39).

The best time for planting the banana is the time
of the first rains after the dry season, or even the end
of the dry season a month or so before the commence-

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 113

ment of the wet season. It is very advisable at the
beginning of the dry season to fork the places where
the bananas will be planted, in order that the sun and
the air may render the soil loose and friable during the
drought.

The cassava plant (Manihot utilissima) is in many
countries considered useful as temporary shade, but it

Photo.'rAuguste Curiel.

FIG. 39.— Cocoa grown under too dense shade of closely-planted plantains
(cocoa field of a small proprietor in Surinam).

The little cocoa tree, 5 feet high, has not yet ramified, and is bending towards the light.

is not so suitable for cocoa as the banana. It has,
not without reason, the reputation of rapidly exhaust-
ing the soil, while in stiff clay soils its growth is
poor. It does not act as a soil improver like the
banana, and it is more particular about the conditions
of the soil. In some countries it has the further dis-
advantage of attracting animals which eat the tubers,
as in Madagascar the wild hog, which seems to be able
to cause enormous damage in this way by digging up the
roots of the young cocoa and by destroying the shade.

114 COCOA CHAP.

In many countries, however, cassava is used to a large
extent as temporary shade, especially by the small
proprietor, for whom this plant has a greater household
value than the banana. The cassava cuttings may be
placed three in number round the place where the cocoa
will be planted, at a distance of 1 to 2 feet from this
point.

The pigeon pea (Cajanus indicus) does not appear
to be greatly used anywhere, the reason probably being
that it is not so useful as the banana or the cassava.
It is not eaten in such large quantities, is not such a
daily food, and the gathering is a tedious work which
takes much time. Further, it has no use as a forage
crop, although several authors assert the contrary. In
other respects, however, the pigeon pea is very useful ;
it grows well even under unfavourable conditions of soil ;
it improves stiff and sour soils remarkably quickly ;
and as it can stand very rough pruning without damage,
the exact amount of shade required can be obtained.

Other plants sometimes used for the purpose of
temporary shade are the tannia (species Xanthosoma
and Colocasia) (Fig. 40), and the castor-oil plant (Ricinus
communis), the latter, however, never to a large extent.

Planting of inter -crops. — In most systems of
establishing a plantation, the growing of catch crops is
not possible. Other crops cannot be cultivated under
the shade of bananas or other temporary shade plants,
when regularly planted, and this is also the case later
on, when the permanent shade trees have grown up.
Inter-crops, however, come into consideration in places
where no bananas are used for temporary shade, and
the planter will look out for another plant which will
preserve the soil and if possible yield some paying
product.

As soil improvers, leguminous plants belonging to the
order of Leguminosae — e.g. all sorts of beans, peas,
ground-nuts, mimosa, etc. — are always to be preferred,
but sometimes plants belonging to other families have
been used with apparent success. On the plantation

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 115

" Siloewok Sawangan " in Java, for instance, the sweet
potato (Ipomaea batatas) is used as a soil-preserver
between cocoa and under the light shade of the " kapok "
(Eriodendron anfractuosum) (Fig. 40). The sweet
potato gives no room for weeds, and troublesome grasses
are in particular well kept down. The soil on this
plantation is very fertile, rather heavy and rich in
humus.

FIG. 40. — Sweet potato (Ipomaea batatas] used as a soil preserver for young
cocoa planted under "kapok" (Eriodendron anfractuosum}, with tannia for
temporary shade (Java).

The "lamtoro" (Leucaena glauca) (Fig. 35), a few
species of indigo (Indigofera tinctoria and others), the
" rorako " (Ormocarpum sennoides) and the " roempoet
toeri " or pigeon pea ( Clitoria cajanifolia) also suit the
purpose perfectly well.

In Surinam the pigeon pea ( Cajanus indicus) would
be suitable, but the dense shade, first of bananas, and
afterwards of the permanent shade trees, make the use
of leguminous inter-crops impossible.

More paying, but not so useful as a soil preserver
and improver, is the cassava. This plant has already

116 COCOA

been mentioned as a temporary shade plant, but it is
considered in different countries to exhaust the soil
quickly. By small proprietors it is often planted
irregularly between the young cocoa and the bananas.
Sometimes lemon grass, ground-nuts, chillies, and (in

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Q Cocoa.
X Kapok.

FIG. 41. — Scheme of planting cocoa and "kapok" (Java).
The cocoa trees are 17 feet apart, and the " kapok " the same.

some parts of Ceylon) even cotton l are used as inter-
crops, but they cannot be recommended.

It has been a subject of investigation in different
countries whether it is possible to replace the ordinary
shade trees by trees which yield a product of value, such
as rubber (Hevea, Manihot and Castilloa), "kapok"
(Eriodendron anfractuosum), citrus, and also camphor,
nutmeg, or even coconut trees. In most cases, the

-1 Wright, Cocoa, p. 83.

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 117

shade afforded by trees of this kind is not the most
suitable for the cocoa, but practical results have been
obtained in Ceylon with cocoa under the shade of
Para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), while in Java cocoa
is successfully interplanted with " kapok" (Eriodendron

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FIG. 42. — Scheme of planting cocoa and "kapok," interplanted with "dadap"
( Erythrina lithospennd) — Java.

anfractuosum), and also with Castilloa (" Central
America " or " Panama rubber ").

Several estates in Ceylon have obtained satisfactory
results by planting cocoa and Hevea, the cocoa and the
rubber being planted from 15 to 25 feet apart, according
to local conditions. The most usual plan is to plant
the trees 20 feet apart, so that there are 100 trees of
each kind per acre. With this system estates with

118 COCOA

CHAP.

Pard, rubber trees, eight to eleven years old, planted
amongst slightly older cocoa, are now obtaining a yield
of about two hundred Ibs. of rubber and the same of
cocoa per acre per year.1

Interplanting with Castilloa does not appear to have

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fi\ Cocoa (to be kept).

i Cocoa (to be removed).
vy Kapok.

FIG. 43. — Scheme of planting cocoa and " kapok."

In the rows where no " kapok " has been planted, every other cocoa tree is removed when
five years old (plantation " Siloewok Sawangan," Java).

met with much success in Ceylon, while the Ceara
rubber (Manihot) is considered to be decidedly detri-
mental to the cocoa.2

In Java interplanting with " kapok " (Eriodendron
anfractuosum) is to be found on many plantations.
Different distances have been adopted, but the best

1 Wright, Cocoa, pp. 87-88. 2 Ibidem, p. 93.

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 119

arrangement is when both the cocoa trees and the
" kapok " are 17 feet apart (Fig. 41). This system is a
profitable one when the climate is not too wet for the
" kapok " ; yields of about 400 Ibs. of cocoa and 300 to
400 Ibs. of " kapok " are often obtained. The soil, how-
ever, is not sufficiently protected, at any rate when the
cocoa plants are young, and it is therefore advisable to
plant some leguminous crop, as previously mentioned.

FIG. 44. — Cocoa field planted as indicated in Fig. 43, sweet potato being used
as a cover-crop.

If this is neglected, the soil soon becomes spoiled and
covered with grass and noxious weeds.

Instead of a low inter-crop, shade trees may be used;
these must not be allowed to grow too high, and should
remain lower than the " kapok " trees. The " dadap "
(Erythrina lithosperma) is sometimes used for the
purpose (Fig. 42).

On some plantations the "kapok" and the cocoa
are planted closer, 15 or even 12 feet, but the results
seem to be better when they stand 17 feet apart. A
very good scheme is to plant the cocoa trees as
indicated in Fig. 43, and to thin out every other one

120 COCOA

CHAP.

when they are five years old. The cocoa trees in each
row are finally 24 feet apart, while the rows are 12
feet apart (Fig. 44).

In Java the author has seen Castilloa successfully
used as an inter-crop (Fig 45). The cocoa trees were
planted 18 feet apart, the Castilloa 36 feet apart; in
some fields the distances are smaller, the cocoa 12 or 15
feet apart and Castilloa 24 or 30, but speaking generally
this is not to be recommended.

Planting distance. — The planting distance varies
in the different countries to a great extent, and in every
country conflicting opinions are met with as to the
best distance. This is not to be wondered at, as every
condition which influences the growth of cocoa — e.g.
the kind of soil, the drainage, the climate, and not
least the shade — influences also the solution of the
problem of distance.

Speaking generally, it may be said that the distance
should be chosen so that a little less space will be
given to each tree than is required for its full develop-
ment. This general rule may at first sight be con-
sidered illogical, as it would naturally be expected that
the distance should at any rate be chosen so that a
full development of each tree is possible. This would
be the case if cocoa were cultivated as an ornamental
tree, when full development would be essential. It
would also be the case if it were a tree which needed
a great amount of sunlight to give its highest yield of
blossoms and fruit — as, for instance, the orange, the
mango and many other fruit trees. In those cases
each tree has to have sufficient space for the entry of
the maximum amount of sunlight. The cocoa tree,
however, has not these requirements, and forms its
flowers and develops its fruits well even in shady
positions.

It would therefore be uneconomic to plant the trees
at distances so as to allow a quite free development,
for in this way the highest return per acre would not
be obtained. The yield of each tree is not lower

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 121

if its branches are partly covered by those of its
neighbour.

Photo. Hisgen, supplied by the late Mr. C. MacGillavry.
FIG. 45. — Cocoa and Castilloa (plantation "Djati Roenggo," Java).

The close planting must not, however, be over-done.
It is true that even very closely-planted cocoa trees

122 COCOA

CHAP.

frequently thrive well and give good returns, but the
drawback to this system lies in the difficulty of cultivat-
ing the trees and also, though to a less extent, of
picking the crop. Cleaning the trees of dead or
dying branches, pruning, and removing parasites or
insects (as, for instance, grubs which bore into the
branches) are difficult operations when the trees are
planted very close together. Accordingly, in places
where a great deal of care has to be given to the trees,
there will be a tendency to plant them wide apart
(e.g. in Surinam), while in countries where cocoa grows
very easily and where very little care is necessary, it is
generally the custom to plant closely (e.g. in Ecuador)
and this without disadvantage. It is clear, therefore,
that general rules cannot be given, and that the right
distance must be found out by the planter himself, as
it will vary according to circumstances. The extremes
are 9 feet and 20 feet, 12 to 17 feet being the most
usual.

The right distance depends also on the growth
of the trees and the dimensions they adopt, and is
therefore affected by all the conditions which influence
this growth. The most important of these conditions
are: (l) the climate; (2) the soil; (3) the variety
planted ; and (4) the shade given.

As regards climate and soil, it may be said that
where the climate is very suitable and the soil very
fertile, the growth will be luxuriant and the distance
may be large ; but the author considers 20 feet
generally as the maximum. Wherever climate or soil
are deficient in one respect or other, closer planting
is advisable. As Wright very correctly says : " In
countries where cacao is grown at various alti-
tudes the trees at the higher elevation are rarely
so well developed as those in more suitable climes ;
similarly the growth on cabooky or gravelly soils is
less pronounced than on rich alluvial flats. It is
obvious that the trees, which either in virtue of the
climate or soil, cannot develop a vegetative system as

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 123

large as those growing under more favourable conditions,
will not take possession or protect as wide an area of
land, and can therefore be planted closer together."

Thus in Surinam the trees are planted closer on
sandy soil than on rich clay soil ; on the latter a
distance of 15 feet is generally considered too small
and 18 feet is preferred, but on the sand 15 feet or
even a little less seems the best distance. In Trinidad
the soil is not so rich as in Surinam, so that the
trees are accordingly planted closer together, and still
closer on ridges and elevations where the soil is poorer
than on flat lands. The distances vary, generally
speaking, from 12 to 15 feet.2

The different varieties develop their branches and
foliage in different ways. The Criollo and pentagona
have often a comparatively weak growth, and accord-
ingly the space required by these varieties, and the
planting distance to be given, are smaller than in the
case of Forastero varieties. The figures of 15 and 18
feet given above for Surinam apply to the only variety
grown there, viz. Surinam Amelonado. In countries
where the finer varieties are grown, especially in
Venezuela, the planting distance is generally smaller,
and Preuss 3 states that in that country the trees are
generally planted at a distance of 12 feet, sometimes
less, but very rarely more ; and this seems to be a well-
chosen distance. In Java, however, the Criollo makes
strong and big trees on suitable soil and the foliage
system is not thin ; but the trees do not spread out
their branches as Forastero does, and 15 feet is generally
considered to be the best distance.

The shade given has to be carefully taken into
account in deciding the planting distance, and
ignorance of this is one of the main reasons why
experiments with the cultivation of cocoa without
shade have failed in so many cases. As will be pointed

1 Wright, Cocoa, p. 65.

2 Olivieri, Treatise (1903), p. 60 ; Hart, Cacao (1911), p. 36.
3 Preuss, Expedition, p. 229.

124 COCOA

CHAP.

out in discussing the question of shade, cocoa requires
in the first place a shaded soil. This shade for the soil
is obtained partly by the foliage of the shade trees and
partly by the foliage of the cocoa tree itself. Therefore,
if the shade trees afford a fairly dense shade, the cocoa
trees may be planted wide apart without injury to the
soil ; but if the shade is light, or if there are no shade
trees at all, the cocoa trees must be planted close
together so as to afford the necessary shade to the soil
by means of their own foliage.

Accordingly, it is not surprising that in Grenada,
where no shade trees are used, the cocoa trees are
generally planted 9 feet, or at the most 12 feet, apart.
So in Ecuador — where, at any rate in the older planta-
tions, no shade trees are planted, though forest trees
are left in clearing the forest — this irregular and light
shade of the shade trees accounts for the fact that the
cocoa is planted there as close as 7 to 9 feet in the
old fields and 10 feet in the new fields. Wherever
experiments are made in growing cocoa without shade
trees or with less shade than usual (e.g. by using Hevea
brasiliensis), it will generally be found necessary to
plant the trees closer than is otherwise customary.

Finally comes the question whether it is advisable
to plant closely with the intention of thinning out
afterwards. So far as the author is aware, this practice
is not adopted in any country to any extent, but it
has its advantages in places where the young cocoa
plants grow easily and do not want much care. It is
clearly an advantage to be able, in the fourth, fifth and
perhaps sixth year, to pick from a greater number of
trees ; and it is also an advantage that the closely
planted trees quickly shade the soil. If the superfluous
trees are thinned out at the right time and are not left
standing too long, no inconvenience may be experienced.
Here, however, comes the trouble. It is only too well
known how a planter dislikes to cut down well-developed
trees in bearing, and he is often inclined to leave the
additional trees standing too long, in order to obtain

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 125

a few more crops from them. This eventually ends in
loss, for if the superfluous trees are thinned out too
late, the others which have to remain permanently will
already have adapted their leaf and branch system to
their close quarters and will not again assume their
right form. This is so much to be dreaded, and it
happens so often, that the system cannot be considered
suitable for general adoption.

As has already been pointed out, it is only in
countries where the young plants grow well without
much care and where they are not troubled by animals
or fungus diseases, that a very careful manager, who
will not yield to the temptation to leave the superflu-
ous trees too long, may profit by the adoption of this
system. In Fig. 43 a good system, followed on the
plantation " Siloewok Sawangan " (Java), is represented.

When the other system is followed and the trees are
from the beginning at their proper, permanent distance,
more care has to be given to the temporary shade
plants, such as bananas, cassava, etc., for it is very
important to keep the soil well shaded and to prevent it
being washed away.

Sowing out in the open field and the nursery
system. — When the plants used for temporary shade are
already grown up so as to afford the necessary shade,
the cocoa can be sown out. With bananas or plantains
the shade will not be sufficient before a year after
planting ; with cassava and tannia, especially when they
are planted fairly close to the cocoa, the shade afforded
may be sufficient a little earlier, say after six months.

As regards the question which is to be preferred,
sowing out in the ttpen field or planting from nurseries,
it may be said that both methods have their advantages
and that local conditions must decide which method
is to be adopted. Speaking generally, it must be
obvious that sowing out in the open field — or planting
at stake, as it is often called — is the simplest, the most
practical, and in many cases the best for the growth of
the young plant. When no special reasons for planting

126 COCOA

CHAP.

out from nurseries exist, it is difficult to see why plant-
ing at stake should not be generally adopted. This
simple and natural method has the advantages that the
plants are not disturbed in their growth, that a free
development of the root system is obtained, and that a
saving of labour is effected.

In many cases, however, when planting at stake is
practised, it is advisable to have a nursery made ready
in order to supply plants in case those in the field
should for any reason fail to succeed. The nursery
system, moreover, is indispensable when the plants
require special care in infancy — for instance, when they
are liable to attacks from animals (insects, rats, etc.) or
parasites, which do not damage the plants after they
have attained a certain height but against which the
very young plants must be protected.

In some countries rats are very troublesome to the
young plants ; they destroy them by eating the seed-
lobes, of which they are very fond. In other countries
the mole -cricket (Gryllotalpa) destroys the young
plants by cutting the young stem a little above the
soil, also with the object of eating the seed-lobes. In
the open field such enemies are fought with difficulty,
but in the nurseries precautions can be taken against
them. The nurseries can be protected against rats by
wire-netting, or can be established in a place which is
difficult for the animals to reach. The mole-crickets,
too, will rarely cause serious damage in nurseries, as
their habit is to wander through the fields and pick up
whatever edible plants they find. Still, if these or other
insects are to be expected in the nursery, the plants
can be treated with some poisonous spray (see Chapter
VIII. ). Such preventive means can only be applied in
nurseries, where the plants are all together ; in the open
field, the same remedies would be hardly possible or at
any rate very expensive.

Another advantage of nurseries is that a selection
can be made, the weak plants being rejected and only the
strong ones planted out in the field. This advantage is

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 127

not, however, very important, for if when sowing out
in the field three or four good, carefully selected seeds
be placed at every spot, the planter may be confident
that at least one or two plants will be strong enough
and give good healthy trees.

Finally, with some soils — for instance, heavy clays
—there may be an advantage in transplanting a young
tree just at the right season (at the beginning of the
rains after the dry season) in a carefully prepared, well-
tilled place. The growth of the transplanted tree is
then often very luxuriant.

The disadvantage of the nursery system lies in the
damage which the plants often undergo in transplanting
and which may be serious if skilful labourers are not
available ; and as it requires more labour, it is more
expensive than planting at stake.

Generally speaking, the best way in most cases will
be to plant at stake and to have a nursery ready for
supplying.

The best season for planting is the season of the
rains following after the drought. Where the soil is
loose and porous, the planting of the seeds may be done
without any special preparation ; but when the soil
is stiff, as for instance in Guiana, it is very advisable to
prepare the place where the seeds are to be sown out.
For this purpose every planting place is forked at the
beginning of the dry season over a surface of about 4 to
9 square feet, and it is left to pulverise by the drought
and the rains following it. In this way the soil is made
friable, and the young plant will grow more easily than
in the compact clay soil.

Three or four seeds are generally sown at each spot
where one cocoa tree is wanted, these seeds being placed
at some 12 inches distance from each other. In this
way three or four seedlings are obtained, from which
one can be selected. The young plants are liable to be
attacked by insects, and in many cases several of the
young seedlings are lost ; but if three or four seeds are
planted in this way, there is more chance of obtaining

128 COCOA

at least one healthy plant at each spot. In countries
where the trees have to be carefully cultivated in order
to give a good yield, and where, accordingly, close
planting is avoided, only one tree out of the three or
four is finally left. Where the cultivation is not so
difficult, and the trees do not need to be pruned and
cleaned so carefully, as is the case in Ecuador, the trees
often are all allowed to remain ; in this way three or
four trees will grow up together at each spot.

In choosing a suitable site for the establishment
of the nursery, the planter not only has to consider
whether the site will permit a good and strong
development of the young plants, but also must take
care that it is as close as 'possible to the place where
the plants have to be planted out. When the plants
have to be brought a considerable distance from the
nursery to the field, many of them will sustain damage
to their root-system, and will show a poor growth,
or even die, after the transplanting. It may therefore
be desirable to establish several nurseries on different
parts of the plantation, and this will always be necessary
when a large area has to be planted ; one nursery to
every 5 hectares (12|- acres) or at the utmost 10 hectares
(25 acres) may be recommended. It is possible, of
course, that labour conditions may make this system
too expensive in particular localities.

The young plant in the nursery must grow up under
shade, at any rate in the first period of growth.
Accordingly, the nursery may be placed under shade
trees, for instance on a spot near the house or even in
the plantation itself under the shade trees. This
method, though cheap and easy, is not to be re-
commended. The roots of the trees make it difficult to
prepare the soil of the nursery with all the care it
demands, and a still greater drawback is the im-
possibility of regulating the shade under these conditions.
It is therefore advisable to establish the nurseries on
open spots and to shade them artificially.

The next consideration is the soil to be used in the

vi THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 129

nurseries. Of course it must be fertile and friable, but
it is sometimes a question whether light or heavy soils
should be used. The latter are generally preferred,
owing to their capacity for adhering to the roots and
thus allowing the plants to be transplanted together
with a lump of soil. Still there is sometimes an
advantage in a light sandy soil, provided that it is
fertile. The transplanting from plants grown in such a
soil must be done in a different way. In transplanting
from a heavy soil the object must be to keep a good
lump of earth around the roots, but when transplanting
from a sandy soil the object is to keep the roots intact
with only very little earth adhering to them. Local con-
ditions help to settle the question, and the planter must
himself find, in this as well as in so many other matters,
which method gives the best results.

The spot chosen for the nursery must be well drained
by making as many small drains as seems necessary ;
they will generally be required at a distance of, say,
30 feet apart, running out into a common main drain.

A thorough cultivation either by hoe or by fork
must be given to the soil to a depth of 9 inches to

1 foot ; and whether the soil is heavy or light, an
application of compost or farmyard manure will always
be beneficial. This should be done in the dry season.
When the soil is compact it will pay to go over the
place a second time before the rain comes, and to break
the lumps by means of the hoe. Narrow beds are made,
4 feet broad, and separated by gangways of lj or

2 feet, to facilitate the work of weeding, watering and
removing the plants.

As has already been pointed out, artificial shade is
preferable to shade trees, and the best way to obtain it
is to make a roofing of palm leaves, which can be made
denser or lighter at convenience. For this purpose strong
posts 8 or 10 feet long are cut and placed in the soil
at regular distances of some 8 feet. They are sunk
1 or 2 feet deep so as to make good supports 7 or 8
feet high. The posts must be forked at the upper end ;

K

130 COCOA

CHAT.

they bear the horizontal posts, which are fastened to
each other by cord or some strong fibre such as in most
cases can easily be found in the tropical forest. On
this horizontal frame light sticks are laid as a support
for the palm leaves which are used to form the roof.
Almost all kinds of palms can be used for this purpose,
but those with broad and stiff leaflets have the
preference ; and other leaves may also be suitable, if
they are stiff and broad and do not shrink much in
drying. Low shrubs with many ramifications may
sometimes be useful. The only thing to be regarded is
to obtain a roof which will last for some time, and
which can easily be regulated so as to afford more or
less shade.

When the nursery is ready the seeds are sown out
on the beds in rows, both the rows and the seeds in each
row being one foot (30 cm.) apart.

The work tc be done in the nursery after the sowing
out wholly depends on the kind of soil and on the
season. In many cases the nursery will not require
much care, only regular and careful weeding being
necessary.

When the soil is very light, however, it is advisable
to apply manure a second time, namely when the plants
have reached a height of 6 inches and have made the
first pair of leaves. Well-decomposed pen manure or
compost may be applied as a loose layer one or two
centimetres thick on the surface of the beds. If the
season is dry, it keeps the moisture in the soil, and if
rain falls, it adds to the fertility of the soil and helps
to secure a healthy condition and strong growth of the
plants.

On stiff clay soil the same method will be found
useful, but before applying the compost or manure, it
is a good thing to loosen the surface of the compact
soil superficially, either by means of a small, pointed
wooden stick or any other instrument which allows a
prudent loosening of the soil without damage to the
young plants or their roots. This work can, of course,

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 131

only be done when the weather has been dry for a few
days and the soil is not too wet. But even without
this rather expensive labour the application of a thin
layer of compost or manure, when the plants have made
their first growth, is useful on clay soils. It loosens
the surface of the soil, and keeps it loose even after
heavy rains.

During persistent drought, especially in the very
first period after germination, watering may be necessary
to keep the plants alive ; but it must be left off as soon
as it is not absolutely necessary. Rain has a much
better influence on the growth of the plants than water
applied artificially.

The methods which have to be followed when
insect pests or diseases have to be fought in the nursery
will be discussed more thoroughly in Chapter VIII. In
many cases, however, no special measures of this kind are
necessary, as the number of fungus diseases and insects
or other animals which attack young cocoa plants is
not great. Still it may happen that a fungus disease,
like the " witch-broom " disease (caused by a fungus,
Colletotrichum luxificum; see Chapter VIII. ), attacks
the plants in nurseries. If this is to be feared, it may
be advisable to spray the plants with Bordeaux mixture ;
and if the disease makes its appearance in spite of
spraying, to remove the diseased parts immediately.

In Surinam the mole-cricket (Gryllotalpa didactyla)
—called there " cotti-cotti " in negro-English, because it
cuts the little stems — can be very troublesome in the
nursery. The number of plantlets killed by these insects
is sometimes very great and the damage very serious.
The best thing to do is to look for the nests, which can
often be traced at places where many plants have been
damaged. The nests must be carefully removed, so as not
to lose the eggs, and must be destroyed. It is also useful
to place flower-pots, closed underneath with a cork, in the
soil with the edge just under the gangways made by the
insects ; in this way a good number of insects may be
caught. The plants are liable to the attacks of this

132 COCOA

CHAP.

enemy only when they are very young, and when the
seed-lobes have shrivelled up and the first three leaflets
have been developed it is no longer to be feared.

Ants sometimes damage the young plants. Though
cocoa is not one of its favourite plants, the parasol ant
(Oecodoma cephalotes) sometimes attacks it when no
other food is close at hand. This is the case in Guiana,
where this ant does more damage to citrus plants
(oranges, mandarins) and coffee plants ; but in Trinidad
it is regarded as a very serious enemy of the cocoa. The
only remedy is to destroy the nests, and as the damage
done in a single night may be very serious, it is
advisable to prevent the attack by destroying before-
hand, by means of carbon bisulphide, all the nests to be
found in the neighbourhood and to isolate the plantation
from the surrounding bush and forest by means of deep
trenches, in which water is kept standing as much as
possible.

Another sort of ant is sometimes troublesome in
Surinam to all sorts of young plants. It is a small
reddish-brown animal, and is there called " brand mier,"
which means " burning ant," as its bite is rather painful.
It makes small nests situated on the surface of the soil
round the stems of the plants, and attacks the roots as
well as the stems and leaves, biting and sucking the
sap of all young parts. In Surinam carbon bisulphide
has not been effectual in destroying this pest, but
Mr. Wigman, the Director of the Botanical Gardens,
has tried with great success a household medicine,
naphthalin, which he spread on the nests round the
young plants.

In some countries rats and mice are troublesome
in the nurseries, and are not easily got rid of.
Sometimes they suddenly appear in districts where
they have not been seen in large numbers for several
years. Where they are a common plague, it is a good
thing to surround the nursery by wire-netting and to
keep a regular fight against them by means of poison
or carbon bisulphide, as described in Chapter VIII.

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 133

The plants may be transplanted from the nursery
when they have attained a height of 1 to 2 feet.
Every care should be taken not to injure the roots.
When the nursery is on stiff soil, they must be trans-
planted with a good lump of earth, about one foot
in diameter. The plants must be carefully dug out by
means of a sharp spade, with the lump remaining in
its original place round the roots; shaking causes the
root-system to break. It is therefore advisable, im-
mediately the plant has been dug out, to envelop the
lump with a banana leaf fastened with dry banana-fibre.
The Javanese workmen are very handy at this work ;
transportation even for long distances is managed
without injury to the plants.

When the soil of the nursery is very loose, the same
care is required in digging out, so as not to injure the
roots, but then the earth falls off easily. In these
circumstances the plants are placed with their roots in
water and all the earth is allowed to wash away save
only those particles which adhere very closely to the
roots. The plants should be packed in loose bundles
and kept in a cool, well-shaded place, with their roots
wet, during the transportation. In this case the making
of the holes in the field to receive the plants requires
more care than if the plant is transplanted with a lump
of earth ; the holes must be filled with rich, friable soil,
so as to give the plant, at any rate for its first growth,
a very fertile and loose soil. In the case of transplant-
ing with a lump, a well-forked plant hole of 2 or 3 feet
diameter will serve the purpose quite well.

It is sometimes preferred to grow the plants in the
nursery in pots or baskets. With this method the
transportation from the nursery to the field is easily
effected without injury to the plants, and the planter is
thus enabled to have the nursery at a greater distance
from the field where the plants are to be planted out.
Pots made of bamboo are very convenient. When big,
old bamboo stems of 5 or 6 inches diameter are available,
they may simply be cut into pieces 30 cm. (12 in.) long

134 COCOA

CHAP.

and left intact longitudinally. In the bottom, which
is formed by the partition present at every node of the
bamboo stem, a hole is made in order to prevent the
water from standing in the pot. When broad bamboo
stems are not available, thinner stems may be split and
a pot the desired size is made by tying the pieces by
means of two strings (Fig. 46).

FIG. 46. — Pots made of pieces of bamboo held together with two strings
(plantation "Getas," Java).

Instead of pots little baskets may be used (Fig. 47).
In Surinam the plants are brought from the nursery to
the field in their baskets, and are simply planted, basket
and all, at the proper place. This is a very simple and
practical method ; the roots of the young plant are
left wholly undisturbed, and the baskets very soon
decay in the soil, and thus present no hindrance to the
free development of the roots. In Java, however, the
baskets would be a great attraction to white ants, which
after having destroyed the baskets, would be apt to
damage the young plants as well.

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 135

One thing must not be overlooked in placing the
plant in its permanent place ; too deep planting must

be carefully avoided, and, as a general rule, it may
be recommended that the plants be placed at just

136 COCOA CHAP.

the same height above the soil as they were in the
nursery.

Layering (marcotting}, grafting and budding.—
Grafting, budding and layering (marcotting) experi-
ments have been conducted in several countries, especially
at Experiment Stations. None of these methods has so
far been put into general plantation practice, and there
is no definite information as to how plants propagated
in such manners will be able to resist disease, what yield
may be expected, what age they will attain, etc. As
long as our knowledge is at this stage, budding, grafting
and marcotting of cocoa may be an object of study and
experiment in Botanic Gardens and Agricultural De-
partments, but the time has not yet come to recommend
the planter to apply any of these methods of vegetative
propagation on a large scale.

There are, however, probably some planters who would
like to try these methods and to form their own opinion
as to their advantages and disadvantages. For this
reason the different methods will be briefly described.

First of all, what is the use of marcotting and
grafting, or, in a general term, " vegetative propaga-
tion " ? The aim is simply to obtain an offspring which
is wholly like the mother tree.

There is a large group of plants in which the offspring
is generally different from the mother plant. This is
the group of hybrids. When, for instance, a Liberia
coffee tree is pollinated by an Arabica coffee tree, the
offspring are hybrids, which have characters both from
the Liberia mother and from the Arabica father ; they
are uniform among each other, and more or less inter-
mediate between the two parents. When, however,
we sow out the seeds of these hybrids, we obtain an
offspring which is not at all uniform ; it contains very
different plants, some more like the Liberia grand-
mother, others more like the Arabica grandfather ; but
almost every tree is different, and each contains Liberia
and Arabica characters in a new combination.1

1 Some hybrids are "constant," and remain the same in their progeny.

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 137

In such cases, in which a good character of a plant
is not always present in its seedlings, vegetative pro-
pagation is indicated — i.e. grafting, budding, layering
(marcotting) or propagating by means of cuttings.
By these methods twigs of the mother tree are induced
to grow to new trees, which will show very little varia-
tion and be very much more like the mother tree than
her seedlings would be.

This, ad vantage of multiplying by grafting or budding
—viz. the obtaining of trees which have the same good
qualities as the mother plant — is the principal, but
not the only one. It is also advantageous to have a
plantation consisting of trees which not only yield a
product of first quality but also among each other of
exactly the same quality. The fermenting and curing
is easy, for the whole lot of fruits gathered require the
same degree of treatment, and no uncertain results are
to be feared.

(a) Grafting. — A slow-growing, hard- wooded plant
like the cocoa plant always presents more difficulty to
grafting or budding than quick-growing trees with
" soft " wood. The methods of grafting which are usually
recommended, and which give the best results — e.g.
splice -grafting or saddle -grafting — cannot be followed
with such trees ; their growth is too slow and the stock
and graft do not grow properly together. With trees
like cocoa and mango the method of grafting by approach
has to be followed. The result, however, is always
more or less uncertain, and is never so satisfactory as
with the splice-grafting or saddle-grafting, which can be
adopted with quick-growing trees.

In grafting by approach l the stocks must be grown
in pots, baskets or bamboo pots, and the scion is not
cut from the mother tree before grafting, but remains
attached to it. A slice is cut longitudinally from the
twig, and also from the stem of the stock-plant (Fig. 48).
They are then brought together, the stock being placed

1 Jones, "Grafting of Cacao " (West Indian Bulletin, viii., 1907, p. 137, and
ix., 1908. See also Agriculture News (Barbados), vii. (1908), pp. 197 and 213.

138

COCOA

CHAP.

for the purpose on a stalk. Grafting by approach will
only meet with success when the stock is still in the
seedling stage.

Grafted trees bear fruit at an earlier age than seed-
lings, and at the Experiment Station at Dominica graft-
ing of "Alligator" cocoa (Theobroma pentagona) gave
thirty to forty pods per tree two and a half years after
grafting. This result is certainly encouraging, but it
is still questionable whether grafted trees would be as

/\ \

FJG. 48. — Sketch of the method of grafting by approach.

prolific as seedlings in the end, and whether a plantation
consisting of such trees would yield as big a crop as a
plantation consisting of seedlings.

The habit of grafted trees differs from that of seed-
lings. They do not have an upright stem, branching at
3 to 4 feet above the ground, nor the regular branch-
system, but begin to branch a few inches above the
point of union, and generally make an irregular branch-
system. Such dwarf trees have the advantage of
making the picking of the fruit easy, and in windy
countries, like Dominica, their low growth is a protection
from the wind. Still these trees require as careful a

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 139

pruning as trees obtained by marcotting, otherwise
irregular, bushy trees are obtained. Another drawback
of the system is the skill and care necessary to get the
plants grafted. As already pointed out, a slow-growing,
hard-wooded plant like cocoa always presents more
difficulty in grafting than quick-growing trees with soft
wood. Still the experiments carried out in Dominica
and elsewhere have shown that grafting of the cocoa
plant by approach may no longer be regarded as a very
difficult operation, which succeeds only in a small number
of cases.

The method is still so recent that no data are as yet
available as to several important points : in particular,
the question of the productiveness of grafted trees is
still quite uncertain. It would not be at all surpris-
ing if grafted cocoa trees prove to be much behind
seedlings in this respect, for with other kinds of trees
(orange, mango, coffee, etc.) it is a well-known fact
that grafted or budded trees never develop to such
an extent as seedlings, and that their productiveness is
inferior.

(b) Budding. — The experiments of Mr. Heyl at
Buitenzorg l and Mr. Harris in Jamaica 2 have proved
that budding is an excellent method of propagating the
cocoa plant.

As it is generally performed, the operation of budding
consists in removing a small piece of bark from a
branch of the selected tree, making a _L-shaped incision
in the bark of the stock-plant, and pushing a piece of
bark of the selected tree into this _L-shaped incision and
under the bark of the stock-plant. This method, though
it gives excellent results with many other trees (it is,
for instance, widely applied to citrus trees), is not suit-
able for the cocoa plant. In Mr. Heyl's experiments
at Buitenzorg only 7 to 8 per cent of such buddings
succeeded.

1 Heyl, " Eenige opmerkingen," etc. (Teysmannia (1905), p. 411).

2 Harris, " On the Budding of Cacao " (Bull, of the Dept. of Agriculture of
Jamaica, Nov. 1903). See also: Casse, "Cacao in Haiti" (Tropical L-ife, vi.
1910), p. 138.

140 COCOA

CHAI'.

Much greater success was obtained with another
method of budding, i.e. patch -budding. A square piece
of bark with a bud is taken from the selected branch or

A. B.

FIG. 49. — Budding on watershoots.

In A a piece of baikhas been removed ; in B a new piece of bark of the selected tree has
been fixed to the open place.

watershoot, while a piece of bark of the same size or a
little larger is removed from the stock-plant. The
piece of bark of the selected branch is then fixed on the

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 141

open place of the stock-plant and firmly tied to it by
means of raffia or other string (Figs. 49, 50).

Mr. Harris prefers watershoots, both for taking the
buds from and for budding upon, and when the tree which
it is desired to propagate by budding has not sufficient
watershoots to yield the number of buds required, he
recommends that it should be cut down, leaving only
the stem a few feet high, and that the growth should be
fostered as much as possible, by manuring where this is
found useful, or by forking or otherwise, in order to
obtain several strong, quick-growing watershoots. Mr.
Harris also considers watershoots the best kind of
branches to bud upon ; but young plants are also quite
suitable as stock.

If the trees which are chosen to bud upon are rather
old, they are also cut down and watershoots allowed to
grow up. Of these two are left. One of these is used
to bud upon and the other is left " to keep up the root,"
i.e. to foster the vitality and growth of the plant.
When the bud is firmly established and has grown out
to a strong shoot, this second watershoot is removed.

The details of the operation may be gathered from
the illustration (Fig. 49).

When the watershoots have a diameter of f to 1^
inch, they are fit to be budded upon or to be used as
bud-wood.

Mr. Heyl, however, obtained equally good results
with buds taken from twigs as with buds from water-
shoots, and prefers to bud upon young plants. As bud-
wood strong twigs, about one year to one year and a half
old, and with a diameter of about 1 cm., should be used,
while the plants to be budded upon should also be one to
one year and a half old, and about the diameter of the
little finger. Before budding the young cocoa plant is cut
a few centimetres above the soil, and the bud is inserted
on the part remaining. The piece of bark is firmly
attached by means of raffia string, but care must be
taken to leave the bud itself free (Fig. 50). If a leaf is
still present under the bud, the leaf must be cut, so as

FIG. 50.— Budding of a seedling.

CH. VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 143

to leave only a little piece of the leaf-stalk ; and if this
remaining part of the leaf-stalk can be easily loosened
after a few days, this is generally an indication that the

budding has succeeded.

Photo, by the late Mr. C. MacGillavry.
FIG. 51. — Marcotting of watershoots (plantation "Djati Roenggo," Java).

Of all the buddings done in this way, 90 to 95 per
cent were successful.

It will be obvious that the piece of bark with the
bud of the selected tree may be a little smaller than the
piece removed from the stock-plant, but never larger.

144

COCOA

CHAP.

When it is smaller, it is useful to fill the remaining little
furrows with budding- wax.

The following rules must further be observed : (1)
bud only in a season when the growth is rapid ; the dry
season and the very rainy time of the year are there-
fore generally unsuitable ; the rainy season immediately
after the drought is generally the best ; (2) be especially
careful not to choose twigs or shoots or stems which are

Photo, ly the Me Mr. C. MacQiUavry.
FIG. 52. — Marcotting of branches (plantation " Djati Roenggo," Java).

too young ; and (3) tie the bud tightly, but not roughly
so as to damage the bud or bark.

(c) Layering or marcotting. — Layering is generally
regarded as being impracticable with cocoa. This is,
however, not the case. In Java, on the plantation
" Djati Roenggo," the author has seen cocoa marcotted
easily in the ordinary way.

For this purpose branches as well as watershoots
were used see (Figs. 51, 52), and no special care was
taken in selecting these. Branches of 2 to 4 centimetres
in diameter were regarded as suitable, but watershoots

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 145

of different ages and sizes were also successfully mar-
cotted. The operation is very simple. Over a distance
of 5 to 10 cm. (2 to 4 inches) the bark is stripped off
and carefully removed up to the wood, not a single
little thread of the tissue of the bark being allowed to

Photo, by the late Mr. C. MacGillavry.
FIG. 53. — A marcotted branch.

After six weeks this branch was cut off and the earth removed to show the development of
rootlets.

remain. A little lump of earth — not stiff clay, but
good earth, rich in humus — is applied all round this
part of the branch, and is held together by means of a
piece of coconut rind. In this position it remains,
and after some six weeks the little rootlets appear
through the crevices of the coconut rind (Fig. 53).

L

146 COCOA

CHAP. VI

The branch is then removed from the tree and carefully
planted.

In order to obtain a well-formed stem it is always
preferable to have marcots made from watershoots ; but
even then great care is necessary to give the young tree
obtained by marcotting a good form. When this is not
done and the tree is allowed to grow, a bushy shrub is
the result.

Though as yet it is not possible to say with certainty
which method is the best, the present author has more
confidence in the budding methods of Mr. Heyl and Mr.
Harris than in grafting by approach or marcotting.
The results obtained five years ago at Buitenzorg are
very good, as is shown by a photograph of the budded
trees when five years old (Fig. 54).

Shade trees. — In almost all cocoa-growing countries
cocoa is cultivated under shade. In the little island of
Grenada, in Brazil (Bahia) and San Domingo it is often
grown without shade trees, and also here and there in
several other countries.

In Surinam two closely allied species of shade trees
are used, Erythrina glauca and E. velutina, both called
" koffie-mama " ("mother of the coffee"), from the
fact that they were formerly used as shade trees for the
coffee. When plantains or bananas have been grown
for two or three years and cocoa has been planted
between them at a distance of 15 to 18 feet, large
cuttings of the Erythrina are planted at a distance of
60 feet apart. After a few years the foliage of the
Erythrina forms a continuous roof above the cocoa. In
Surinam Erythrina glauca is mostly used.

The velutina is also used in the low-lying lands of
Trinidad ; it is called here " bocare," and is generally
planted at a distance of 30 to 40 feet. In the higher
lands of Trinidad another closely allied species of
Erythrina is used, the so-called "anauco" (Erythrina
umbrosa). This "immortelle" ("immortelle" is in
Trinidad the vernacular name for both kinds of shade
trees) develops into large, tall trees with an extensive,

148 COCOA

CHAP.

but rather light, foliage system. The trees are planted
at a distance of 40 to 45 feet apart.

In Venezuela the same two species of Erythrina are
used, but the so-called " guamo " is also planted to a
great extent for shading both coffee and cocoa. The
" guamo " is a sort of Inga, probably Ing a laurina.
Here and there the " saman " (Piihecolobium saman) is
used.

In Java and Ceylon, also, some species of Erythrina
are planted, especially Erythrina lithosperma, called in
Java " dadap serep," and considered there as the most
suitable tree for the purpose. In Java, however, disease
and insect pests have lately attacked this tree to such
a degree that in many cases other trees have been used,
principally Deguelia microphylla, also Caesalpinia
dasyrhachis, the " lamtoro " (Leucaena glauea),
Albizzia stipulata and Albizzia moluccana. The
Albizzias are also sometimes used in Ceylon, and
according to Wright several other trees — viz. Erythrina
umbrosa, E. velutina, and E. lithosperma, and lately
the rubber trees Hevea brasiliensis and Castilloa
elastica.

In some other countries the planting of shade trees,
all of the same kind and at regular distances, is not
generally practised, recourse being had to forest trees
left in clearing the land. These serve the purpose
either without or with the aid of planted trees. This
primitive method is followed in the old plantations of
Ecuador, in San Thome, the Gold Coast, the Belgian
Congo, and Central America (Nicaragua, San Salvador,
Guatemala).

As previously stated, cocoa is grown without shade
in Grenada, Brazil, San Thome, and here and there
in other countries — for instance, on one estate in
Surinam and on a few fields of certain estates in
Trinidad. These facts show that shade from shade
trees is not to be considered as absolutely necessary,
nor the cocoa as a plant which cannot stand direct
sunlight. This raises the question : What is the reason

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 149

that in most countries shade trees are considered
necessary and that attempts to cultivate cocoa without
shade have failed, while in the places just mentioned
cocoa is successfully cultivated without shade ? l

Most planters and authors on cocoa culture seem
to think that the use of the shade trees is pri-
marily to afford shade to the cocoa tree. They
consider cocoa to be a plant which in its wild state
grows under the shade of the higher forest trees and
which wrill not thrive when exposed to the untempered
sun. This may be the case in some countries, but the
examples of cocoa grown without shade prove that it
cannot be regarded as a general rule.

There is another fact which shows that this is not
the primary use of shade trees. If we examine the
trees used for shade, we are at once struck by the fact
that in every country where cocoa is carefully and
systematically grown one or two kinds of trees are
considered to be the most suitable as shade trees and
are generally used. Other kinds are considered less
suitable, and all the rest as quite unsuitable for
the purpose. Yet the shade afforded by these different
kinds of trees is in the majority of cases the same.
How is it possible, then, that two kinds of trees,
affording practically the same shade, are still so different
in value as shade trees for cocoa ?

The way in which the plant is cultivated in Grenada
without shade is instructive, and gives the key to the
puzzle. As is the case everywhere else, in Grenada the
young plants are cultivated under the shade of bananas,
which are kept growing during the first three or four
years ; the cocoa is planted closely, at a distance of 9 to
12 feet. But much more care is given to the tillage of
the soil and to manuring than in most other countries.
On some plantations forking is done every year ; on
others hoeing is preferred, but tillage is never neglected.
As a rule, the cultivation is heavily manured with pen

1 See Bulletin No. 7 of the Department of Agriculture, Surinam, Sept.
1906, noticed by De Wildeman in La Semaine coloniale.

150 COCOA

CHAP.

manure, either cattle- or sheep-dung, great quantities
being applied at the beginning of the rainy season.

We see, therefore, that close planting and careful
tillage and manuring are considered necessary where
cocoa is grown without shade ; while in countries where
shade trees are used, the planting is generally wider and
the tillage and manuring often neglected when once the
trees are established. These facts indicate that in these
countries the shade trees must do what is done by man
in Grenada.

We have already referred to the remarkable fact
that in every country one or two kinds of trees are
regarded as being the most suitable as shade trees.
Another fact is not less important : the Erythrinas of
Surinam and the Antilles, Venezuela and Java, the
Ingas of Venezuela, Central America and Ecuador, the
Gliricidias of Central America, the "saman" of Venezuela,
the Albizzias of Java and Ceylon, all belong to one
order of plants, the so-called leguminous plants (Legu-
minosae). Plants of this order have long been recognised
as soil improvers on account of their power to increase
the amount of nitrogen.

In view, then, of the facts (l) that the growing of cocoa
without shade trees is, generally speaking, unsuccessful
when the soil is not tilled and manured thoroughly, and
(2) that tilling and manuring are omitted in most
countries where shade trees are used, we may conclude
that the use of the shade trees is in the first place the
improvement, or at any rate the conservation, of the
good qualities of the soil. As they belong to the
leguminous order of plants, the shade trees enrich the
soil with nitrogen and make it friable with their
extensive root -system, while they afford humus by
means of the fallen leaves and flowers, and preserve the
humus and the texture of the soil by the shade which
they afford.

It is a well-known fact that in tropical countries an
unshaded soil, exposed to the direct influence of the rays
of the sun, rapidly deteriorates. For instance, places

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 151

near houses, which are constantly weeded in order to
prevent the formation of secondary bush, are soon in a
very bad condition, and if the soil consists of compact
clay nothing but poor, sour grass will grow on it. When
such places have to be taken into cultivation, much
work must be done in order to improve the structure of
the soil — tilling, manuring, the growing of soil-improving
plants — before they are again suitable for use. This
injury to the soil caused by its unshaded condition is of
course specially noticeable in the tropics, but it is also
well known in cooler climates, especially in forestry.
Where open places are found in a forest in consequence
of the death of trees, the forester is anxious to have
such places replanted as soon as possible by suitable
plants in order to prevent the soil being spoiled. This
bad influence exercised on the soil by want of shade
must be attributed, at any rate for the greater part, to
the oxidation and destruction of the humus by the
direct influence of the sun's rays, the high temperature
in the daytime, and the free access of oxygen.

The shading of the soil is therefore the most im-
portant function of the shade trees, and the close
planting of cocoa trees, where shade trees are not used
(e.g. in Grenada), is simply a means of obtaining the
shade otherwise afforded by the shade trees. Wide
planting of cocoa trees without shade will always result
in a spoiling of the soil, soon followed by the death of
the trees, at any rate if care is not taken to keep the
soil in good condition by intensive tillage and heavy
manuring.

These considerations may be briefly summarised as
follows : — Though it is possible that in some countries
the cocoa tree will not thrive in untempered sunlight,
we may assume that in most countries this is not the
case, and that the untempered sunlight is not in any
way detrimental to the tree. The usefulness of the
shade trees lies not in giving shade to the tree but in
giving shade to the soil ; in enriching the soil with
nitrogen, by means of the nodules of the roots, and with

152

COCOA

CHAP.

humus, by means of the fallen leaves and flowers ; and
finally in loosening the soil by means of the widely
developed root-system. When cocoa is grown without
shade, the planter has therefore to shade the soil by
close planting of the cocoa trees, to add nitrogen and
humus to the soil by means of manuring with pen
manure, and to keep the soil porous and loose by means
of forking or hoeing. In these circumstances green-

FIG. 55. — Healthy cocoa under "kapok" (plantation "Getas," Java).

manuring, or the growing of low leguminous shrubs or
other low shading plants, is also useful.

Generally speaking, it is easier and cheaper to grow
cocoa under shade trees than without ; but it must not
be forgotten that when grown without shade, the tree
begins to bear at an earlier age, gives heavier crops, and
is less liable to different diseases ; its lifetime, however,
is shorter. In most cases, especially where labour is
expensive, the use of shade trees is advisable.

It is rarely profitable to use economic trees for shade,
or to interplant trees which give some valuable product,
but there are cases where this has been made to pay.

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 153

It has already been mentioned that on several plantations
in Java cocoa grows well under " kapok " (Eriodendron
anfractuosum) ; another illustration of such a case is
given in Fig. 55.

Where interplanting of useful trees is profitable,
there is sometimes a tendency to overdo it. Fig. 56
gives an example of this — cocoa is being grown under
" kapok," with interplanting of nutmeg trees (on the

FIG. 56. — Cocoa grown under "kapok," with Intel-planting of nutmeg trees (on
the left) and Castilloa, while the " kapok " is used as support for pepper plants.

left of the illustration) and Castilloa, while the " kapok "
is used as support for pepper plants.

B. FlELDWORK ON THE ESTABLISHED PLANTATION

Weeding. — Though many widely different opinions
are held concerning the treatment of the cocoa fields on
the established plantation, all planters will doubtless
agree on one point — viz. the necessity of weeding.

The influence of weeds on the soil and on the cocoa

154 COCOA

CHAP.

plant is, however, often misunderstood. At first sight
it may seem obvious that, when a definite part of the
soil is destined for one cocoa tree, this tree will not
obtain so much food if a certain number of weeds also
feed on the same spot, as it would if it stood quite
alone. And of course it is the case that the weeds
take different constituents from the soil, namely : (1)
solid plant-food (salts of potassium, etc.); (2) water;
and (3) oxygen. Let us see to what extent this robbery
by weeds prejudices the cocoa tree.

The solid plant-food taken by the roots of the weeds
from the soil is deposited in the stem, the leaves, the
flowers and the fruits of the weeds. It is true that a
certain amount of this food is always lost when the fruit
or seeds are carried away by the wind, or by birds or other
animals; but, on the other hand, seeds and fruits from
other places (or their constituents) are probably de-
posited on the spot by the wind and by means of the
excrement of other birds. It may be said, therefore,
that no loss of solid plant-food results in the end.
Further, if the weeds are cut down before they have
had time to make seeds, no solid plant-food at all goes
to other places, and the stems and leaves of the rotten
weeds and their constituents return again into the soil.
Even more, indeed, is restored to the soil than was
taken out, so that there is no loss but a gain ; for in
addition to the compounds just mentioned, which were
originally taken from the soil, the weeds also contain
other compounds in the leaves and stems, which were
made by the plant from the carbon dioxide of the air.
These contain mainly carbon and oxygen, and c6nstitute
even the greatest portion of the plant. They are called
the " organic constituents," and when they are in-
corporated into the soil they form the humus. These
facts may be summarised as follows : The plant takes
different salts from the soil ("inorganic constituents")
— e.g. salts of potassium, phosphoric acid, etc. — and also
forms "organic constituents" — e.g. sugar, amylum,
albumen, etc. — by means of the carbon dioxide of the

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 155

air. These " organic constituents," which form by far
the greatest portion of the plant, form humus when
decaying in the soil. After weeding, the "inorganic
constituents" as well as the "organic constituents"
are returned to the soil.

As regards solid constituents, we may therefore
say that the weeds do not in fact rob the soil, and that,
when not removed from the field or destroyed by fire,
they even return more to the soil than they took from
it. In this respect, accordingly, a soil, on which weeds
are allowed to grow and are regularly cut, has a great
advantage over a soil which is wholly free from weeds.

We now have to deal with the water which the
weeds take from the soil. Every plant takes a large
amount of water from the soil by its roots ; this water
spreads through the whole plant and is again evaporated,
principally by the leaves. There is thus a continuous
movement of water, which goes from the soil into the
plant and, being evaporated again, is lost into the air
as invisible vapour. The amount of water lost in this
way by the soil through the agency of plants is very
important. It has, for instance, been calculated that
one plant of the sun-flower (Helianthus annuus]
evaporates during one summer 66 kilograms of water ;
an old beech evaporates 9000 kilograms during summer
time, and one hectare, planted with 400 of such trees,
loses during this time 3,600,000 kilograms of water,
simply through the evaporation of the trees. On the
other hand, the amount of water which a soil evaporates
directly under the influence of the sun is of course
smaller when a soil is covered with plants and conse-
quently shaded, than when no plants are growing on it.

It is clear, then, that in the case of a soil on which
plants are growing, the direct evaporation is small, but
the evaporation through the plants is important ; while
in the case of a soil without plant growth, the direct
evaporation is important, and indirect evaporation
through plants is of course not present. There remains
the question on which of these two soils is the total

156 COCOA

CHAP.

amount of evaporation the greater. This has been
elucidated by special experiments, and it has been
demonstrated that on a soil with plant growth the
evaporation is greater than on a soil without plant
growth.

Accordingly, in a plantation with weeds the evapora-
tion is greater, and in times of drought the cocoa trees
will suffer more from drought than in a plantation
which is free of weeds. This fact cannot be emphasised
too strongly, because so much misunderstanding exists
in regard to the question, not only among planters but
also in handbooks. For instance, Chevalier's excellent
book l recommends the planter to leave the weeds
standing during the dry season, and even to plant some
catch-crop plants such as beans, taro or sweet potato
at the end of the rainy season. Apart from the fact
that beans and sweet potatoes would not grow under
shade trees, the result of this would only be that the
cocoa would suffer still more from drought. The
practical and interesting little book by Olivieri2 also
gives currency to the erroneous opinion that the
" destruction of grass tends to increase exposure and
dry ness."

In connection with these facts it may be pointed out
that a tree without leaves evaporates less water than a
tree with leaves, and it is therefore an advantage to
have a species of shade tree which defoliates in the
dry season. This fact is also often misunderstood, and
even some authors on cocoa incorrectly assert that a
shade tree should keep its leaves during the dry season
in order to keep the soil moist.

Finally, we have to deal with the influence of weeds
on the aeration of the soil — a very important point.
Every part of every living plant needs oxygen from
the air ; day and night the leaves, the stems, and the
roots of the plants absorb oxygen from the air and
return carbon dioxide. This is the respiration of plants.

1 Chevalier, Le Cacaoyer dans VOuest africain (1908), p. 122.
2 Olivieri, Treatise (1903), p. 82.

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 157

It is therefore necessary, in order to supply oxygen to
the roots, that the soil should be sufficiently aerated.

It may be taken for granted that in a well-aerated
soil the amount of air, and the circulation of that air,
is sufficient to supply the roots of the cocoa, of the
shade trees, and of the weeds with oxygen ; and
accordingly weeds do no harm of any importance by
taking a portion of the air in the soil. But they are
harmful to the free respiration of the cocoa roots in
another way, for they cover the soil with a layer, which
is more or less close according to the sort of weed.
Grasses, for instance, make a hard and compact layer
of stems and roots, while other weeds (e.g. those of
the family of the black pepper or Piper aceae, of the
Compositae, of the banana family or Musaceae, of the
Papilionaceae, of the ginger family or Zingiberaceae,
etc.) have only a slightly developed root-system and do
not appropriate so great a part of the surface. Planters
distinguish these two kinds of weeds very clearly : they
know that the former — the " noxious weeds," as they
call them — are harmful, as they keep the soil compact
and prevent the free access of air, while the latter are
much less noxious and are called " harmless weeds."

Summarising this discussion, we may say that weeds
are partly noxious, partly harmless, partly even useful.
They are noxious : (l) by preventing the free access of
air to the soil ; (2) by absorbing and evaporating water
from the soil, thus making the soil still drier in times
of drought.

They are harmless as regards the absorption of
plant-food from the soil.

They are useful by giving humus to the soil.

There are, however, other influences of the weeds
which must be considered. One is a useful influence
which hardly needs explanation : this lies in preventing
the washing away of the soil on sloping land. Cocoa
plantations are often established on the slopes of
mountains, and the steeper the slope the more care
must be taken to prevent the soil being washed away.

158 COCOA

CHAP.

Planters are mostly agreed that in such circumstances
clean weeding is not to be advocated, as the weeds are
necessary to keep the soil together. The other influence
of weeds to be mentioned here is doubtless an important
one, but it is by no means so clear or so easily under-
stood. The detrimental effect of weeds on the growth
of trees cannot be attributed wholly to their drying
effect on the soil and to the prevention of the free access
of air. It has been proved by experiments that still
another noxious influence must exist, and the only
possible explanation seems to be that the roots of the
weeds produce some substance which is poisonous to
the tree. However interesting this subject may be,
there is no room in this handbook to go into further
detail.1

It will now be clear that the presence of weeds
has great disadvantages, but also a few advantages ;
that the system of " clean- weeding," i.e. the destruction
of all weeds as thoroughly as possible, is in some
cases advantageous but generally unsuitable ; and that
while sometimes the planter's motto should be " Kill
the weeds," there are more cases in which it should be
" Save the weeds." Which is the right one depends
wholly on local conditions.

These conditions also control the question whether
the ordinary method or " clean weeding " is to be
preferred.

" Clean weeding," i.e. the systematic absolute
destruction of all weeds, has advantages, and the reader
will understand from what has been said that it is
especially advocated when there is no fear of a deficiency
of humus or of the soil being washed away. This
is the case on flat lands or on not too steep slopes,
where cocoa is grown under suitable shade trees which
afford sufficient humus by their fallen leaves and

1 Readers who take an interest in this subject may be referred to the articles
by Milton Whitney ("On Soil- fertility," and other Bulletins of the Division
of Soils of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington). The subject is also
treated by Willis, Harpenden (Gardener's Chronicle, 1909, p. 337), and by
Fletcher (Memoirs of the Dept. of Agriculture in India, vol. ii. No. 3).

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 159

conserve this layer of leaves by affording sufficient
shade. Under such conditions "clean weeding" can-
not be other than beneficial to the cocoa trees, and
planters are strongly recommended to try the system.
As yet, however, " clean weeding " is rarely met with
on cocoa plantations, though it has long ago been
adopted on many coffee and rubber plantations as
being in every sense preferable to the system of leaving
the weeds and cutting them once or twice a year.
The reason may be that the cocoa tree does not suffer
so much damage from the presence of weeds as coffee
and rubber ; but one great advantage of the system is
just as important in cocoa as in coffee or rubber culture,
namely, its cheapness. When once a plantation is
free of weeds, it requires little labour to keep it clean.
On one coffee estate in Java, for instance, from 20 to
33 guilders per baw (about 20s. to 30s. per acre) were
spent each year when weeding was done in the usual
way ; when " clean weeding " had been adopted, the
cost was reduced from 7*40 to 10 guilders per baw
(about 7s. to 9s. per acre).

When it is intended to adopt " clean weeding,"
the planter is strongly recommended to begin im-
mediately after the clearing of the forest. The weeders
should go over each field at short intervals — at the
beginning, every ten or fourteen days ; later on, every
three weeks. In this way the weeds never have time
to make seeds and to " infect " the field. Even where
the ordinary system of weeding has at first been
followed, it is later on possible to eradicate the weeds
completely. In such cases the dry season is the best
time to attack the weeds and to destroy them by
repeated weeding, if necessary with the help of the
hoe. This instrument will be indispensable for such
work on stiff soils.

A drawback of the system of " clean weeding " is
experienced ia countries where the planter cannot be
sure of always having the necessary number of
labourers at his disposal. Wherever this is the case,

160 COCOA

CHAP.

he runs the risk that at some particular time enough
labourers may not be at hand to keep the fields clean,
and the weeds may be able to make seeds and to spread
over the fields.

As has already been said, where the slope of the
laud is steep, weeds may help to prevent the soil
being washed away, and "clean weeding" is not to be
recommended. In such cases it is advisable, after
weeding, to arrange the weeds in rows which run per-
pendicularly to the slope. The showers always carry a
certain amount of soil with them, and this will then
be retained by the rows of weeds. A simple kind of
terracing is thus obtained.

If the most common system of weeding is followed
and the weeds are cut down one, two, or three times a
year, it is best to have the weeds spread equally all
over the soil, so that the latter may obtain the greatest
benefit from the mulching. In several countries, how-
ever, it is considered preferable to have the weeds
brought together into heaps or rows, as the work of
weeding can in this way be better controlled, for it
can then be easily seen whether the work is being
done thoroughly or not.

Soil management. — While on every established
plantation in every cocoa-growing country .of the world
weeding is considered one of the essential operations, till-
age and soil management are not seldom wholly neglected
and regarded as superfluous. It is in many cases found
not only that big yields are obtained and that the
trees thrive without tillage, but also that on many soils
no improvement is noticeable when tillage is applied.
There are, however, exceptions. On heavy, compact clay
soils, though the trees grow and bear very well without
tillage, forking or hoeing is beneficial. This is especially
the case when the trees have, from some cause or other,
gone backward ; in such cases the trees show the good
effect by the quick formation of a new foliage system,
and of long and strong new twigs with large leaves.

It is not necessary here to go into details as to

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 161

the effect of tillage, but it may be remembered that
the surface parts of the soil are always more or less
pressed together and are more exposed to the air
than the underlying parts, and that in this way the
different layers of the soil have a different composition.
Tillage makes the soil more uniform. Moreover, the
bacterial life in the soil is beneficially influenced by
aeration, and the number of bacteria increases. This is,
generally speaking, beneficial to the plants, because the
bacteria play an important role in decomposing the soil
and in making plant-food available. It is still more im-
portant that a special kind of bacteria should multiply
by the free access of air — viz. the so-called " nitrifying "
bacteria, which oxidise the nitrogen of the nitrogenous
plant-food. In many cases also tillage certainly improves
the structure of the soil, but too great a value is often
attached to this effect. Tillage is frequently not
useful at all in this respect, and sometimes the effect is
even bad, as the structure of the untilled soil is better —
that is to say, tillage sometimes pulverises the particles
of the soil too much, so that after a few showers it
becomes more compact than before. In the case of
heavy clay soils, however, this is not so much to be
feared when the soil is left divided in large lumps ; and
tillage, thus performed, may be very useful in improving
the structure of soils of this kind.

In cocoa plantations the operation of tillage is
generally done in such a way as to leave Unforked a
space 3 to 4 feet in radius round each tree, while the
large roots of the tree are cut at this distance by means
of a sharp knife so as to obtain a clean wound.

The best time for forking is, of course, the dry
season. When the rains begin to lessen, the time
has come for the planter to examine the soil carefully
to see whether its condition allows of forking. It must
not be too wet, for then the labourers are unable to
perform the work, and also the effect is not so good ; but,
on the other hand, the planter must be careful not to
wait too long, and not to allow the soil to get too dry,

M

162 COCOA CHAP.

otherwise it becomes so hard that forking is no longer
possible. There is also another advantage in forking at
the early beginning of the dry season. This is, that in the
fairly wet soil and with the help of the few occasional
showers which are still falling, the tree is able at once
to restore its root-system, and in the coming dry season
will not feel any bad effects from the pruning of the
roots.

Therefore in Surinam, for instance, the best time
for forking is generally August. After the heavy rains
in May, June and July the soil is generally dry enough
to be forked in August — sometimes not till September
— while in October it has become too dry and hard.
Often, however, the planter may not be able to fork all
his fields at this one particular time ; when this is the
case, he must during the rest of the year be on the
look - out to get the work finished in some other
season, when the soil is not too wet nor too dry. In
Surinam there is frequently an opportunity to do this
in the months of February or March, when for some
weeks the rainfall is fairly small and the soil is never
so wet as during, or after, the heavy rains of April,
May and June. There is no doubt, however, that the
beginning of the dry season is always the best time ;
during the drought the soil gets pulverised, and when
the rain begins to fall again the plant finds a well-
aerated, porous soil in which to develop its new roots.

It is a question whether it is best to break the large
lumps of earth again after forking. Generally speaking,
it is not necessary and even not advisable, because a
soil which in the dry season is pulverised into too
small particles becomes " packed " again quickly after
a few rains. It is, therefore, generally preferred to leave
the soil in big lumps ; but when dealing with exception-
ally compact soils, it may sometimes be advisable to
break the lumps by means of the hoe a few days after
forking.

Forking shortly before the dry season, however, has
also its drawback. When no more showers come, or

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 163

when the drought is very rigorous, it may happen that
the root-pruning causes the tree to suffer from drought.
In countries where this is to be feared the method of
" alternate forking " may be recommended. This con-
sists in forking only every other space between two
rows (see Fig. 57) — e.g. the spaces between rows 1 and 2,
between rows 3 and 4, and between rows 5 and 6,

FIG. 57. — Sketch of "alternate forking" ( white = un forked ; shaded — forked).

The cocoa trees are indicated by x ; the rows are planted at a distance of 15 feet, and the
trees in each row are 18 feet apart. Round each tree a distance of 2 feet is left unforked, and
the spaces between the rows are alternately forked and left unforked.

but leaving unforked the spaces between rows 2 and
3, between rows 4 and 5, and between rows 6 and
7, etc. In this way only one half of the root-system
of each tree is pruned, so that if a drought begins
before the pruned part has made new rootlets, the
unpruned part is still there to prevent the tree suffering
from drought.

It has been mentioned that forking is neglected in

164 COCOA

CHAP.

many countries and considered as being of no import-
ance. In others, however — e.g. Surinam — it is regarded
as advantageous, but as labour is scarce it is rarely
carried out. In other countries, again, it has become
a part of the regular plantation work. This is, for
instance, the case in St. Lucia ; in the Annual Keport
for 1904-1905 the Agricultural Superintendent states :
" Many planters seemed to fear that forking the ground
injured the trees, but I have never seen any bad result
from careful forking. Owing to the results obtained
on the experiment plots, planters in St. Lucia are now
importing basic slag and sulphate of ammonia ; pruning
and forking have now become a recognised part of
cacao cultivation." In Surinam, also, no bad effect
of forking has ever been experienced.

Some agriculturists, however, dislike the ordinary
way of forking, and consider the destruction of and
damage to the roots which always accompanies forking
in the established cocoa field as objectionable. Mr.
Barrett, who was for some time in Trinidad to advise the
cocoa planters, was of this opinion, and he recommended
another way of tillage, which he calls " vertical fork-
ing." This consists in thrusting the fork vertically
into the soil, then moving it gently to and fro, and
withdrawing it again without lifting up the forkful of
earth. In this way the roots are certainly left almost
undisturbed, but it must not be forgotten that the
aeration of the soil is much less thorough than when
forking is done in the ordinary way ; and, in the present
writer's opinion, the noxious effects of the root-
pruning with the ordinary forking are apt to be over-
estimated. However this may be, the method of
vertical forking is certainly worth trying.

These different ways of forking all result in a more
or less deep tillage of the soil, and they are desirable
wherever the soil is compact and not very porous,

1 See Barrett, " Cacao Cultivation. Special Report on Priming and Soil
Management" (Paper No. 257 of the Agricultural Society of Trinidad and
Tobago]

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 165

though in countries where labour is expensive it may be
a question whether this tillage will pay or not.

Another kind of tillage — superficial hoeing — has a
different object, namely, to prevent the soil from evapora-
ting too much and becoming too dry. In countries
where some part of the year is very dry, and where
cocoa often suffers from drought during this period, a
superficial hoeing at the beginning of the dry season
is useful,, and will be specially advantageous if for
any reason the layer of mulch on the soil is only poor.
Accordingly, this method is specially valuable in fields
where cocoa is cultivated without shade. The effect of
superficial hoeing consists in covering the soil with a
layer of loose earth, through which the underlying soil
cannot evaporate its water so easily ; for the very small
canals, the so-called capillary canals, which run like
continuous, more or less vertical tubes through a compact
soil, are covered by the loose earth on the top, instead
of running up to the surface. In this way evaporation
of the soil is much reduced, and in addition the super-
ficial hoeing kills the weeds, especially those which live
on a root-stock, and which therefore are not killed by
the ordinary weeding.

Manuring. — Many planters are of the opinion
expressed in Hart's well-known book : "a tree in
good health needs no manure," * and if yearly crops
are obtained which are regarded as satisfactory, they
often do not trouble themselves with the question
whether the yield could still be increased by manuring.
On many plantations, therefore, manuring, like tillage,
is not regarded as one of the necessary operations.

But though there may be countries where the soil
is so rich that even after cocoa has been grown on
it for a great number of years no kind of manuring
would increase the yield, it is more than probable
that systematic experiments would show that in most
countries manuring, whether with farmyard manure,
mulch, or with some kind of chemical manure, would

1 Hart, Cacao (1911), p. 52.

166 COCOA

CHAP.

increase the bearing -power of the cocoa tree. Un-
fortunately, in the case of cocoa systematic experiments
of this sort are as yet rare, and in several countries no
manuring experiments at all have been made. We are,
therefore, still very ignorant as to the requirements of
cocoa on different soils as regards manuring.

Before describing the results which have been
obtained, a few words may be said in regard to the
general significance of manuring. Broadly speaking,
the aim of manuring is twofold : —

(1) To supply the soil with elements which are
necessary as plant-food. These may be given to the
soil in the form of artificial manures (basic slag, sulphate
of ammonia, etc.) or as organic matter, whether of animal
origin (pen manure, guano, dried blood, bone-dust, etc.)
or vegetable origin (green-dressing, mulch, compost,
ground-nut cake, etc.).

(2) To improve the structure of the soil. For this
purpose only the organic or humus-affording manures
are of importance ; the artificial or, as they are some-
times called, the " chemical " manures do not play this
part. Among the organic manures the most important
improvers of soil structure are farmyard or pen-manure,
green-dressing, mulch and compost.

The elements which a plant requires are taken either
from the air (oxygen, carbon) or from the soil. Among
the latter there are some which are always present in a
greater quantity than the plant ever needs (e.g. sodium,
magnesium, iron),1 and others which are not always
present in the quantity necessary to give the highest
yield (e.g. nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus and lime or
calcium). Now it is necessary not only that the soil

1 The very limited space which can be devoted in this book to these
principles of agricultural chemistry makes it necessary for the rules to be stated
in very general terms. It is well known, for instance, that cases exist in which
iron is present in the soil in too small a quantity, the plant showing the defici-
ency by a yellowish colour of the leaves. This happens so seldom, however,
that it need not be discussed here. The student who is acquainted Avith the
subject will find in this chapter many other rules stated which are not without
exception, and which are to be taken only as representing the general idea.
Too many details would, it was feared, simply confuse the general reader.

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 167

shall contain these latter elements to a certain percent-
age, but also, if they are to be of use to the plants, that
they shall be present in an available form.

For instance, the soil may contain potassium com-
pounds which are of no use to the plants, as the latter
are unable to absorb them ; while there are other potas-
sium compounds which can readily be absorbed by the
roots, and are therefore called " available plant -food."
The non-available compounds are also called " dormant
plant-food," a name which indicates that these com-
pounds can by certain influences be " awakened," i.e.
changed into available compounds. The elements nitro-
gen, potassium, phosphorus and lime must thus be
present in the soil to a certain quantity in order to
provide sufficient food for the cocoa tree, and they must
be present in the form of available compounds.

The first purpose of manuring is, therefore, to add to
the soil those elements of which available compounds
are present in smaller quantities than the plant requires
in order to produce the highest yield.

The question now becomes : " How can we find out
what is needed ? " and the answer is, only by giving the
soil larger and smaller quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium and lime compounds, and seeing whether any
increase in the yield is obtained. There was a time,
however, when it was expected that chemical analysis
of a soil would tell us which elements, and what amount
of each, had to be supplied by manure in order to obtain
the highest return, and that it would no longer be
necessary to carry out manuring experiments, which
sometimes require several years to give a clear result.
The analysis of soils has, however, not been so useful
as was anticipated, for the reason that chemists have
not succeeded in discovering a method for ascertaining
the quantity of available compounds of nitrogen, phos-
phorus and lime present in a soil. The absolute quantity
of these elements can be very accurately determined, but
as long as it is uncertain what part of the total quantity
found is available and what part dormant plant-food,

168 COCOA

CHAP.

the analysis conveys no clear impression as to the fertility
of the soil. For instance, certain soils which, according
to the analysis, contained up to 3 per cent of potassium
(a very high amount), turned out to be of very little
fertility ; but their productiveness could be greatly
increased by manuring with sulphate of potassium, it
being therefore clear that the soil contained very little
available potassium. The very fertile mud of the Nile,
on the other hand, contains only 0'5 per cent of potas-
sium, but the yield of the crops cannot be increased by
potassium manuring ; the potassium in the soil is,
therefore, almost wholly present in an available
form.

Many analysts have tried to find a method by
means of which the available quantity of the different
elements can be ascertained, but they have met with
little success. It is true that in some cases the analysis
of an extraction of the soil with 1 per cent citric acid
gave figures which seemed to agree fairly well with the
results of the manuring experiments, and to indicate
approximately how much available food was present ;
but for general use this method also is unreliable. It
may therefore be said that the chemical analysis of a
soil is as yet unable to give us reliable data as to the
quantities of the different elements which are available
for a definite species of plant — for another circumstance
which complicates the problem is the fact that a
compound which is to a certain extent available for
one species of plant may not be available for another
species.

Up till now we have been dealing only with one
side of the question of manuring — viz. the supplying
of the soil with elements which are used by the plant
as food — but, as has already been mentioned, manuring
is in many cases also applied to improve the structure
of the soil. For this purpose only the humus-producing
manures are of importance : farmyard manure, green-
dressing, compost and mulch of leaves and grass. These
manures are of the greatest value in the tropics, where

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 169

the humus of the soil is quickly destroyed by the
influence of the high temperature.

Finally, it may be added that some kinds of manures
— especially lime — are also useful for converting com-
pounds, which are not available plant-food, into another
form which can be absorbed by the plants.

A few of the most important manures for the
tropics may be mentioned here : —

A. Soil-improving (humus-affording) manures.

1. Farmyard manure or pen manure (of cattle, horse, pig,

sheep and goat ; contains about 3 to 5 per cent nitrogen,
2 per cent phosphorus, 4 to 6 per cent potassium, 2 to 6
per cent lime).

2. Compost. ] Composition very variable, depending on the

3. Mulch, j plants from which it is made.

B. " Chemical " or " artificial " manures.

a. Containing phosphorus and nitrogen : —

1. Bone-dust (contains about 20 to 24 per cent

phosphoric acid and 4 per cent nitrogen).

2. Peru guano (about 14 per cent phosphoric acid and

7 per cent nitrogen).

b. Containing nitrogen : —

1. Sulphate of ammonia (20 per cent nitrogen).

2. Dried blood (12 per cent nitrogen).

3. Chile saltpetre (in the tropics generally not so

suitable as sulphate of ammonia, though much
used in temperate climates; contains 15 J per cent
nitrogen).

c. Containing phosphorus : —

1. Basic slag, also called basic phosphate or Thomas

phosphate (contains between 14 per cent and 20
per cent phosphoric acid and 50 per cent lime).

2. Superphosphate (like Chile saltpetre, much used in

temperate climates).

d. Containing potash : —

1. Sulphate of potash (40 to 50 per cent potash).

2. Kainit (about 14 per cent potash).

e. Containing lime : —

1. Quicklime.

2. Carbonate of lime.

170 COCOA CHAP.

Before describing the manner in which manuring
experiments are carried out, one point regarding the
exhaustion of the soil by the crop grown on it has to
be discussed, as it has given rise to much confusion,
and even to erroneous statements in handbooks on the
subject.

It is often said that manuring is indispensable to
every cultivation, because a certain amount of the
various necessary elements (in the first place, nitrogen,
potash, phosphoric acid and lime) are always taken
from the land in the crop. If therefore we desire the
land to maintain its original richness, we must return
to it the plant-food we take from it in this way.
Some writers on cocoa, indeed, go so far as to analyse
the seeds and to conclude from this analysis what sort
of manure has to be given to the soil. In this reasoning
one thing is always forgotten — viz. the fact that every
year a part of the dormant (or non-available) plant-
food is converted into available food by means of the
different atmospheric (influences, and also by means of
the action of the plant roots themselves.

Especially in the tropics, where weathering of the
soil goes on quicker than in cooler climates, it is not at
all exceptional for a soil to keep its original fertility
without manuring : that is to say, the quantity of
available plant-food converted every year from dormant
plant-food is equal to the quantity extracted from the
soil by the plants. If this quantity is sufficient to
make the plant give its highest yield, it will obviously
be impossible to increase the yield by manuring ; and
this will be the case not only in the first few years of
cultivation, but also after many years of production.
It is far from the author's intention to make planters
believe this to be the rule, and to encourage them
to regard manuring as generally superfluous, but it
cannot be too clearly stated that the quantity and
composition of the crop reaped cannot give any reliable
indication as to the particular kind of manure required
to increase the bearing power of the trees. The

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 171

composition of the crop is, in this respect, of still less
use than chemical analysis of the soil. There remains,
therefore, only one way of ascertaining whether we can
increase the yield by means of manuring ; and if so,
what kind of manure must be given. This is by
manuring experiments.

Manuring experiments. — It is often hardly possible
for the planter to make these experiments himself, and,
generally speaking, they should form part of the work
of Experiment Stations. The experiments will be
much more useful, their results will be obtained more
quickly and will be more reliable, when they have been
directed and controlled by experts in the science of
agriculture. But the planter has not always an Experi-
ment Station or an Agricultural Department at his
disposal ; a few indications as to the general method to
be pursued may therefore be given here.

Where farmyard manure or compost or mulch is to
be had, it is obvious that the effect of these should first
be tried. In Europe 12 tons of farmyard manure per
acre (30 tons per hectare) is considered to be an
average dressing. When such a quantity cannot be
obtained — and this is generally the case — the experi-
ment has perforce to be made with as much farmyard
manure (or compost or mulch) as can be given per acre.

Next, we have to find out whether an addition of
phosphorus or potash or nitrogen in some form is
useful ; and when no organic manure at all is available,
we have to make the experiments with artificial manures
alone. When this is the case the following quantities
may be recommended : —

As phosphorus manure . 200 kilograms of basic slag per acre (500

kilograms per hectare).
As potash manure . 80 kilograms of sulphate of potash per

acre (200 kilograms per hectare).
As nitrogen manure . 60 kilograms of sulphate of ammonia per

acre (150 kilograms per hectare).
As lime manure . . 400 to 600 kilograms of carbonate of lime

per acre"(l to 1J ton per hectare).

172

COCOA

CHAP.

On heavy clay soils, however, the potash manure
may be omitted, as clay soils are always rich in potash ;
and when the chemical manures are given together
with farmyard manure, the above quantities should be
reduced.

In carrying out manuring experiments a few "golden
rules " should be remembered : —

1. Always include in the series of plots a sufficient
number of unmanured " control plots," in order to be
able to compare the yields on manured and on un-
manured soil.

2. Do not make the experiments on too small a
scale ; do not have the plots smaller than one acre each.

3. Do not forget that the soil shows great variations
over a surface of several hundred acres ; therefore do
not draw general conclusions from a single series of
experiment plots at one place, but carry out experiments
at different places.

4. Do not draw conclusions from the results of the
experiments after one year, but wait till the results of
some four or five years have been obtained.

It is always a good thing to ascertain by a separate
series of experiments the effect of the addition of lime
to the soil. For this purpose the series of experiment
plots may be arranged as follows :—

Plot 1.

Plot 2.

Plot 3.

Plot 4.

No lime.

400 kilograms of
carbonate of lime
per acre.

No lime.

600 kilograms of
carbonate of lime
per acre.

Each plot should be one acre in size.

In this connection, however, it must not be forgotten
that lime not only has the faculty of "sweetening"
sour soils, but also acts at the same time as a liberator
of plant -food, converting dormant plant -food into
available compounds. This faculty, though enriching
the soil temporarily, makes it poorer in the future, so

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 173

that it is sometimes said that lime " makes parents
rich, but children poor." It also accelerates the
decomposition of the humus. It is, therefore, not
advisable to give lime to the soil year after year with-
out other manure ; but it often produces good results
if it is combined with organic manures (mulch, compost),
or is followed by the application of farmyard manure.
But lime, or lime-containing compounds or mixtures,
must never be applied at the same time as, or mixed
with, farmyard manure, sulphate of ammonia, or other
ammonia -containing manures, because lime liberates
the ammonia from such manures and allows it to escape
into the air. There should be an interval of some six
weeks between the applications of such incompatible
manures.

To simplify the explanation of the experiments
with the other manures, let us take as an example a
clay soil, rich in potash, so that this element may be
omitted. Two cases may be considered : (A) when no
farmyard manure or other organic manure is available,
and (B) when sufficient farmyard manure is available
to apply 3 tons per acre.

(A) When no organic manure is available, the series
of experiment plots should be arranged as follows :—

Plot 1.

Plot 2.

Plot 3.

Plot 4.

Plot 5.

Plot 6.

200 kg. basic
slag-

No manure.

60 kg. sul-
phate of
ammonia.

No manure.

200 kg. basic
slag and
60 kg. sul-
phate of
ammonia.

No manure.

In plot 5 the basic slag is not, of course, given
together with the sulphate of ammonia, as it contains
lime ; the basic slag is applied first, and six weeks
afterwards the sulphate of ammonia.

If we had not omitted the potash manure, a trial
could have been made with an application of 60 kilo-
grams of sulphate of potash per acre, also in combination
with the other manures.

174

COCOA

(B) When sufficient farmyard manure is available
to apply, say, 3 tons per acre, a series of experiment
plots should be arranged as follows (it is again under-
stood that the soil is rich in potash and that, therefore,
no experiments with applying potash have to be
made) :—

Plot 1.

Plot 2.

Plot 3.

Plot 4.

Plot 5.

Plot 6.

Plot 7.

No

3 tons farm-

3 tons farm-

No

3 tons farm-

3 tons farm-

No

manure.

yard manure.

yard manure.

manure.

yard maim re.

yard manure.

manure.

100 kg. basic
slag.

30 kg. sulphate
of ammonia.

30 kg- sulphate
of ammonia.

100 kg. basic
slag.

In the plots 3 and 6 the basic phosphate has to be
applied first and the farmyard manure and the sulphate
of ammonia six weeks later.

The manner in which the manures are applied is
not without importance. Artificial manures are often
mixed with dry earth before application, which allows
them to be more easily and more equally distributed
over the land. They may also be incorporated in the
soil by superficial hoeing ; but this is not so necessary
with potash and phosphorus manures as with ammonia-
containing manures. Organic manures will always
have a much better effect when incorporated into the
soil by means of the hoe or the fork than when left
on the surface ; this is especially the case with farmyard
manure, which contains a large proportion of compounds
of ammonia.

As regards the time of the year, the best effect will
generally be obtained if the manure is given when the
dry season is just over and the first few rains are
bringing new life to the root-systems. This time of
the year may be compared with our spring-time ; the
whole tree is in a state of great activity, and new
roots, new twigs, new leaves are formed. In some

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 175

cases, however — e.g. in countries where the dry season
is long but not severe — the young fruits of the cocoa
are formed in the dry season, so that the tree bears a
good number of very young fruits when the first showers
begin to fall and the tree begins to make new leaves
and twigs. If nitrogenous manure — sulphate of ammonia
or farmyard manure — is applied at this time, the con-
sequence is sometimes that the tree spends all its force
in making many strong new twigs and leaves, and drops
many of its young fruits. In such circumstances it is
advisable to stop the application of nitrogenous manures,
or to increase the application of phosphorus and potash
manure, or to apply the nitrogenous manure at another
season.

As has already been mentioned, farmyard manure,
and compost or a mulch of leaves and grass, are useful
in a double sense : they improve the structure of the
soil, making it porous and loose, and at the same time
add plant-food to the soil. This improvement of the
structure is useful in more than one sense :—

(1) The loose and porous condition makes it
especially suitable for the growth of the roots of
plants ; at the same time the air penetrates more
freely into the soil, thus making the roots healthy and
vigorous.

(2) The water-holding capacity of the soil is in-
creased, and therefore it does not dry up so quickly in
the dry season.

(3) Its elasticity is improved, so that it does not
" pack " so readily in the rainy season nor split so easily
in the dry season.

In fact, while artificial manures are useful only to
the extent that they give the soil a special form of
plant-food, farmyard manure, green-dressing and com-
post are useful in several directions. Their advantages
over " chemical" or "artificial" manures are especially
conspicuous in the tropics, where the soils are often
poor in humus. Farmyard manure and compost would
doubtless play a more important part in the cultivation

176 COCOA

CHAP.

of cocoa if they were more easily to be obtained in
large quantities.

In one case, however, this kind of manure is in-
dispensable, viz. when cocoa is grown without shade
trees. In Grenada, where this manner of cocoa-growing
is general, every plantation has a good number of cattle
to supply the amount of manure necessary for the soil.
This fact shows clearly that the most important function
of the shade trees is to provide new humus by its fallen
leaves, and to preserve the humus by shading the soil.

The regular application of farmyard manure or
compost is, so far as can be ascertained, not carried out
in any other cocoa-growing country except Java. But
that it would have excellent results in other countries
is shown by several fertilising experiments.

In Dominica such experiments were started in 1902.1(
Plots were treated with artificial manure alone (basic
slag and sulphate of potash) ; with these mixed with
dried blood ; and with mulchings of leaves and grass.
The result was that the greatest increase in yield took
place on the mulched plot, the average increase during
eight years being nofc less than 616 Ibs. per acre per
year. The manuring with basic slag, sulphate of potash
and dried blood also gave good increases, but not as
big as the mulching, the expense of which was much
smaller than in the case of any of the others. It
should be pointed out, however, that the effect of the
mulching is not so quickly seen as those of the chemical
manures and the dried blood, but it increases gradually.
The superiority of the mulching is, therefore, especially
apparent in the fourth and following years.

The following figures give an outline of the results
of the experiments :—

1 " Results of the Recent Experiments with Cacao in the West Indies " ( West
Indian Bulletin, vol. ix. pp. 138-148) ; Report on the Botanic Station, etc.,
Dominica, 1909-1910, p. 24.

[TABLE

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 177

Average yield of cured
cocoa in Ibs. per acre
obtained from 1902
to 1909.

Yield of cured cocoa
in Ibs. per acre
obtained in 1909.

Plot 1.
No manure

ri59

1-272

Plot 2.
4 cwt. basic phosphate }
1^ cwt. sulphate of potash >
per acre

1-387

1-395

Plot 3.
4 cwt. dried blood per acre .

1-325

T361

Plot 4.
4 cwt. basic phosphate }
Ity cwt. sulphate of potash V
4 cwt. dried blood

1-567

1-835

Plot 5.
Mulched with grass and^l
leaves /

1-775

2-068

The good effect of the mulching was shown not
only by the high yield but also by the fact that the
individual trees on the mulched plot were much finer
and better developed than those on the other plots.

Attention should further be drawn to the fact that
the yields are high on all the plots of this field, and on
plots 4 and 5 even abnormally high : a yield of 1800
to 2000 Ibs. (800 to 900 kilograms) per acre is certainly
exceptionally large.

In two other series of experiment plots, where the
different effects of pen manure and various others
(compost, bone-meal, dried blood and some chemical
manures) were compared, the result was in favour of
the pen manure, which gave the highest profits. In
Grenada the experiment plots gave the highest yield
when pen manure was given.

It has already been mentioned that the difficulty

N

178 COCOA

CHAP.

is to obtain the necessary amount of pen manure, and
in the case of large plantations this manure will hardly
anywhere play an important part — except in the rather
small plantations of Grenada, where cocoa is grown
without shade and not less than one-fifth of the total
area of each plantation is used as pasture for the
cattle, and in Java, where farmyard manure is very
cheap.

Mulching with grass and leaves from adjoining
vacant lands is probably more often practicable than
the application of pen manure, but very often even
mulching is not feasible, because the amount required
to give good results is not small. The Agricultural
Superintendent of St. Lucia states that a mulch of
10 tons per acre is hardly sufficient to cover the soil
thoroughly, and he considers a larger quantity most
advisable. The labour required to gather so much
mulch and to spread it out over the ground is certainly
not insignificant, and the expense will be high unless
labour is cheap and there is enough vacant soil from
which to obtain the mulch. These two conditions are,
however, not often found together.

As regards farmyard manure, 12 tons per acre (30
tons per hectare) is in Europe considered to be an
average quantity. To obtain this quantity a large
number of cattle is necessary. The conditions in Java
are favourable for obtaining this manure at a fairly low
price, either from the cattle and horses of the plantation
or from the Javanese people in the neighbouring villages.
When obtained in the latter way, however, it is of inferior
quality and larger quantities are necessary to get an
appreciable result. Generally about two kerosene tins
are given per tree ; this amounts to 50 or 60 kilograms
of fresh manure, or 35 to 40 tons per hectare (about
15 tons per acre), as the trees are usually planted fairly
closely to the number of about 700 per hectare.

The general opinion of the planters in Java is
strongly in favour of the application of humus-
affording manures, and the effect of artificial manures

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 179

is considered inappreciable. Besides farmyard manure,
other sorts of humus-affording manures are regarded
as useful. On one estate, for instance, good results
were obtained by the application of undergrowth
(herbs and shrubs) from the virgin forest ; but this
method, though good in itself, could not be applied
every year and over the whole plantation, as the under-
growth from 4 to 5 acres is necessary to cover the
soil of one acre in the cocoa fields. Another kind of
humus-affording manure is regularly given on different
estates in Java, viz. " boengkil," i.e. "ground-nut cakes,"
or cakes made of castor seeds after extraction of the
oil. Little can as yet be said, however, as to the effect
of this manure for cocoa, for systematic experiments
have only lately been started. Generally about one to
two kerosene tins of " boengkil " are given per tree.

In many countries, however, organic manures are
not to be had at a reasonable price, and the planters
have no option but to try artificial manures. This, for
instance, is the case in St. Lucia. The Agricultural
Superintendent wrote : "Pen-manuring is undoubtedly
the best system, but the difficulty of transportation
prevents its general adoption." Experiments were
therefore made with artificial manures, and these
experiments have shown that in St. Lucia the soil
needs no addition of potash, but that phosphorus and
nitrogen produced good effects. On the experiment
plots the best results were obtained by the application
of 200 kilograms of basic slag and 50 kilograms of
sulphate of ammonia to the acre.

In Victoria (Kamerun) manuring experiments were
started in 1904, and the results of the first crops of
the different plots were published in the following
year.1 Though results after only one year cannot be
regarded as conclusive, it may be mentioned that on
two experiment fields an application of potash and
phosphorus seemed to have the best success (about
220 kilograms of kainit and 100 kilograms of super -

1 Strunk, "Kakao Dingungsversuche " (Tropenpflanzer, 1906, p. 516).

180

COCOA

CHAP.

phosphate were given to the acre). Slaked lime and
sulphate of ammonia seemed to have less effect.

In the case of Grenada the results of certain experi-
ments at the " Nianganfria " Estate are available.
Though these experiments would have been still more
interesting if control plots had also been present, some
of the results are well worth mentioning.1 The plot A,
where pen manure was applied, was not so productive
as the plots where artificial manures were applied, and
is here omitted : —

YIELD PER ACRE IN KILOGRAMS

Plot.

Manures applied per acre.

Crop
1900-1901.

Crop
1901-1902

Crop
190-2-1903.

Crop
1903-1904.

( August 1900. ^

Basic slag, 400 kg.

February 1901.

Sulphate of ammonia,

B

75kg.

504

784

693

756

May 1902.

Basic slag, 400 kg.

August 1902.

Sulphate of ammonia,

V 75 kg. ;

(August 1900. ^

Basic slag, 400 kg.

February 1901.

Nitrate of soda, 75

C

kg-
May 1902.

399

598

588

672

Basic slag, 400 kg.

August 1902.
Nitrate of soda, 75

I kg. )

(August 1900. ^

Basic slag, 400 kg.

Sulphate of potash,

50kg.

D

* May 1902.

392

672

672

735

Basic slag, 400 kg.

Sulphate of potash,

( 50 kg. ,

1 Agricultural News, 1904, p. 347.

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 181

Here the superiority of sulphate of ammonia over
nitrate of soda seems well demonstrated, and the
application of sulphate of potash appears to result in
an important increase of the crop. The effect of the
basic slag, however, is uncertain, owing to the absence
of control plots.

Finally, it may be mentioned that in Ceylon,
according to Wright,1 good results have been obtained
by the application of 250 kilograms of basic slag and
100 kilograms of sulphate of ammonia per acre.

Pruning and cleaning the trees. — The object of
pruning any kind of tree — whether it be a European
fruit tree or a cocoa tree or a coffee tree — is first of
all to induce the tree to use its force as much as
possible for the production of fruit, and to obtain the
most advantageous form and proportion of the foliage
system for this purpose. In other words, pruning aims
at modifying the growth of the tree by reducing the
amount of branches and leaves, and by giving the tree
a more regular form in order to obtain a higher yield.

In pruning, therefore, the removal of all useless
branches is first of all necessary ; and then it has
to be considered whether by reducing the number of
branches the remaining ones will be so strengthened
as to produce more fruit than when all the branches
are allowed to remain on the tree. On this point
opinions are very different. On one side we have those
who advocate the removal every year of a good number
of twigs ; on the other side we have the " anti-pruners,"
who are convinced that the highest yield will be ob-
tained when nothing is removed but the dead twigs
and the superfluous watersuckers. This controversy
is not surprising, for, apart from the differences in the
varieties of cocoa cultivated, the composition of the
soil varies greatly on different estates ; while on one
soil the trees grow luxuriantly and have more branches
and leaves than are necessary in proportion to the
quantity of fruit which it is able to produce, on another

1 Wright, Cocoa, p. 183.

182

COCOA

CHAP.

kind of soil the growth is less luxuriant, and in order
to give its maximum yield the tree will need all the
branches and twigs it can form. It is therefore
impossible to give general rules which can be simply

By permission ufthe Editor of " La Hacienda."

FIG. 58. — An example of the Ecuadorian system of allowing the watershoots
at the base of the stem to grow up.

followed. The planter must investigate and ascertain
for himself whether pruning increases the bearing
power to an appreciable degree.

Though no general rules can be given as to the

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 183

removal of healthy twigs, it is easier to give some
positive advice as to the removal of weak and diseased
twigs and watersuckers. This operation is better called
cleaning than pruning. As a rule such twigs, as well

By permission of the Editor of " La Hacienda."
FIG. 59. — Another example of the Ecuadorian system.

as watersuckers, should all be removed. It is true
that in some countries watershoots, arising from the
foot of the tree, are sometimes left standing. In
this way a tree with several stems is obtained. This

184

COCOA

is done, for instance, in Ecuador (Figs. 58, 59), and
sometimes in Ceylon and in Java (Fig. 60). In Java,
however, very often only one watersucker is left, arising
from just under the ramification or on one of the main
branches near the ramification. In this way two foliage
systems are formed, one above the other (Fig. 61).
The present writer is unable to see a single advantage
in either of these two systems. If in an Ecuadorian

FIG. 60. — The Ecuadorian system (see Fig. 58) adopted on the plantation
"Djati Roenggo," Java.

plantation it turns out that the tree with many stems
really yields more than the tree with one stem, this
is simply an indication that the trees should be planted
more closely. And the system often followed in Java
(Fig. 61) has been adopted especially in fields where
the cocoa has made a very short stem, and accordingly
its main ramification is at a low height (Fig. 35), this
being a consequence of the lack of sufficient temporary
shade (see the section dealing with Java in Chapter IX.).
In such circumstances it may be necessary to adopt
this system, and to allow one sucker to grow up and

VI

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 185

thus to make a prolongation of the stem ; but the
system is also often followed in Java when this
necessity is not present. In such cases it must possess

The fruits have to be picked

decided disadvantages.

FIG. 61. — The system of allowing one sucker, near the main ramification, to grow up.

This system is often followed in Java. The low height at which the tree has ramified is
apparent.

from a greater height, and all operations, such as
cleaning the trees, fighting diseases, looking for noxious
insects, etc., are more troublesome than when no sucker
is left growing and the whole branch and foliage system
is formed by the main ramification of the stem.

186 COCOA

CHAP.

In San Thome, also, one sucker is sometimes allowed
to grow up if the stem has made its ramification at
a height of about 60 centimetres (24 inches), which is
considered to be too low. The sucker is then left
growing in order to form a new ramification above the
first one. The lowest branches are left until the top
one is bearing — generally in the second or third year
of its formation — and then the lower branches are cut
quite close to the stem.1 Though this system seems to
have more to recommend it than that of either Java
or Ecuador, because the result is only one stem with
one main ramification, its general adoption is not to
be advised. In most countries the planter is able to
regulate more or less the height of ramification. If the
young tree is grown under dense shade — of bananas for
preference — it will grow higher up before it ramifies ;
if the shade is light, the ramification takes place lower.
Probably the system adopted in San Thome is only a
consequence of leaving forest trees standing in clearing
the forest and planting no special trees to act as
temporary shade — as we have seen, a very inadvisable
plan. The same bad method is followed in Java when
cocoa is planted in an old coffee field to replace this
no longer paying crop. In this case it is generally the
" dadap " (Erytlirina) which is left standing, and the
young cocoa is grown under this tree, which is splendid
for permanent shade, but, like all high trees, unsuitable
as a temporary shade for the young plant.

The author's conclusion is, therefore, that there is
only one case in which it is either necessary or desirable
to let a sucker grow up. This is when a tree has been
severely injured or damaged in its stem or branches —
e.g. by borers or otherwise — while the root-system is
still healthy. In such a case the tree may be quite
rejuvenated by allowing a sucker to grow up from the
foot of the stem and cutting away the old tree when
the sucker seems strong enough, or by cutting away
the old tree first, leaving only a short stump on

1 Chevalier, Le Cacaoyer dans V Quest africain, pp. 118-120.

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 187

which one sucker is allowed to grow to form a new
tree.

While the Java and the Ecuador systems leave water-
shoots which ought to be removed, there are other
systems, equally bad, in which branches and twigs are
removed which ought to be left on the tree. A
common system, which is to be found here and there
in almost every cocoa-growing country, is the system
of "trimming up." When the cocoa tree has made its
principal ramification, the main branches throw out
side branches, some of which grow in a downward
direction towards the soil. Though these are neither
harmful nor useless, they have to be removed in order
to allow a free passage under the tree ; all sorts of
manipulations (picking, pruning, cleaning of the trees,
etc.) would be very difficult if these branches were left.
But many cocoa growers, especially small proprietors,
have a tendency to go much too far in this direction.
When all the branches which were hanging to the
ground have been removed, they still go on removing
side branches, leaving the main branches standing in
the air like sticks and bearing side branches only at the
top. Sometimes even the tops of main branches are cut
away in order to make the branch system grow more in
an upward direction. In this way are obtained trees
in which all the lower part of the branch and foliage
system is awanting. This offers not a single advantage
and several disadvantages, especially a reduction of the
crop, difficulty in picking, cleaning, pruning, etc.

As regards the removal of weak and diseased twigs,
few planters will consider this useless, but, on the other
hand, many are not convinced that it is really very
necessary. In so many plantations the trees are loaded
with a lot of poor, almost useless twigs, the leaves of
which are of very little value to the tree and simply
take space and food which might be better used by
healthier twigs.

Regular treatment is accordingly necessary, once a
year or if possible twice a year, always in the dry season

188 COCOA

CHAP.

when the tree is resting. The advice " prune often but
little at a time " is indeed good in several respects, but
in the tropics the dry season is the only season suitable
for this work. At this period of the year the wound
dries quickly and parasites do not penetrate easily ;
moreover, when the operation is done while the tree is
at rest, a more regular reaction follows than in other
seasons when all the buds in the neighbourhood are
ready to develop at once as soon as a twig has been cut.

As regards the organisation of the work of pruning
and cleaning, it is best to have a gang of labourers going
round in the dry season to cut away the suckers and
the diseased twigs. This cleaning of the tree may be
considered fairly simple work, which only needs care
but no special skill. The gang of men must be
numerous enough to finish this very necessary work
in the dry season. In some cases, when twig disease
is prevalent, this gang has to go round the plantation
several times a year, or even continually. This is, for
instance, the case in Surinam, when the plantation, after
it has once been cured of "witch-broom disease" by
special treatment, has to be kept clear of " krulloten "
("witch -brooms") and "hardened" pods.

Besides the gang of cleaners, a smaller gang of
pruners has to be at work in the dry season, looking
after the cleaned trees and removing superfluous twigs
when the foliage system is considered to be too dense.
In doing this they should at the same time try to give
the tree a more regular form by removing the irregular
twigs and leaving the others.

What twigs are too weak to be allowed to remain
on the tree, and when is the system of foliage so dense
that the removal of some healthy twigs is advisable ?
These questions are difficult to answer. When the
planter has answered them for himself, he should teach
a few of his best labourers to do the work, and he will
especially have to impress upon them that each tree
must be treated individually, and that it is better to
work slowly and carefully than to hurry. The gang of

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 189

primers must therefore be a select one, consisting only
of a small number of skilled and competent workmen.
If the planter has not enough skilled labourers to get
his whole plantation pruned in time — i.e. before the
end of the dry season — he will do* better to leave some
fields unpruned than to allow the work to be done by
incompetent labourers, who would probably cut away
twigs which ought to remain.

It is .hardly necessary to point out that, in cleaning,
the dead and diseased twigs and branches, as well as
the watershoots, must be cut quite close to the branch
or stem to which they are attached, so as to leave no
stump. Moreover, both cleaners and pruners must care-
fully cover the wounds with coal-tar, so as to close them
against parasites such as fungi and borers.

Prevention of disease. — Diseases occur in all cocoa-
growing countries, but in the most important of these
(Ecuador, Venezuela, San Thome and Brazil) the diseases
have not yet been the subject of any important investi-
gations, and consequently we are still wholly ignorant
about the cause of most of them. Rational methods of
preventing and eradicating fungus diseases and insect
pests have not . yet been arrived at, and in most cases
the planters have to help themselves. The result is, of
course, that the prevention of disease does not take such
an important part in regular plantation work as it should
do ; sometimes, even, hardly any precautionary measures
are taken at all.

In those countries, however, where the diseases
have been properly investigated, special precautionary
measures have been discovered for the prevalent
diseases. Thus in Surinam the continual removing
of the "krulloten" ("witch-brooms") and "hardened"
pods by a special gang of labourers forms part of the
regular work of a well-managed plantation. In Java
every year, at the end of the harvest, when the number
of fruits attacked by the moth-borer is increasing, the
"rampassing" (the picking and destroying of all the
remaining fruit) is carefully done. In Ceylon the

190 COCOA

CHAP.

control of the canker by cutting out the diseased part
of the stem is a matter of continuous care on the part
of the planter.

But besides these special methods — different in
different countries, according to the special character
of the prevalent disease — there are a few " hygienic "
measures whose adoption may be recommended for
every cocoa -growing country. These may be briefly
summarised as follows :—

1. Make it as difficult as possible for infection to
penetrate into the tree, by removing the dead branches
and twigs, and by closing the wounds by means of an
antiseptic coating, for which purpose coal-tar is most to
be recommended. Several parasitic fungi, as well as
noxious insects, find it much easier to enter the tree and
attack the healthy tissue when they can begin their
invasion with dead wood or at open wounds.

2. Do not leave the fruit-husks unburied in the
plantation. In every cocoa-growing country the pods
are attacked by fungi. Phytophthora (causing the
" blackening of pods " and the " canker " of stems)
is the most common of the fungi which live and pro-
pagate on the fruit-husks. The open heaps of fruit-
husks, as they are met with on many plantations,
may therefore be considered as sources of pod and
stem diseases. The best method of disposing of the
husks has been the subject of controversy — whether
simply to bury them (Fig. 62) or to gather them into
compost heaps, mixed with lime. The latter method,
of course, involves more labour, for the shells have
to be collected into heaps and later to be spread over
the field again. The present author can see no special
advantages in this laborious method, and considers
the simple method of burying the best. A practical
way is to make the holes in which the husks are to
be buried between the rows of cocoa, and to alternate
with each following picking, in order to divide the husks
as equally as possible over the field. The husks are
valuable as manure, as they contain about 0*2 per cent

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 191

nitrogen, 0*3 per cent potash, and O'l per cent phos-
phoric anhydride, and in the meantime they add humus
to the soil.

Another good method is to leave the husks buried
for a fortnight or so and then to spread them out where
they are thought to be most useful as manure — for
instance, round the young cocoa plants. It has been
observed that, when the heaps have been made large

Photo. Hisgen, supplied by the late Mr. C. MacGillavry.

FIG. 62. — Burying the husks after breaking (plantation "Djati Eoenggo," Java).
The tree has been allowed to grow in the Ecuadorian way (compare Figs. 58, 59, 60).

enough, the husks soon begin to ferment, thus causing
the temperature to rise high enough to kill noxious
insects and fungi.

3. Do not leave dead trees lying in the fields.
Dead cocoa trees and dead shade trees should be re-
moved as quickly as possible and burned, whether an
infectious disease is the cause of death or not. When a
tree has been attacked by an infectious disease it is, of
course, necessary to remove it in order to prevent the
infection spreading, but apart from this, all dead wood

192 COCOA

CHAP.

in the fields provides shelter for all sorts of noxious
insects (borers, etc.). It is not sufficient to collect the
dead trees into heaps at special places. The dead wood
must be destroyed as soon as possible, for preference by
burning.

These general remarks as to preventive measures
against the spreading of diseases and insect pests are
sufficient for the moment. In Chapter VIII. the
different diseases are described separately, together with
the special methods of preventing and eradicating them.

Picking. — The ripening of the fruit is generally
indicated by a change of colour. In the red variety the
colour changes generally from carmine to vermilion in
consequence of the development of a yellow pigment,
which alters the carmine to vermilion or even to orange.
In the yellow varieties the fruit is green when unripe,
changing to yellow ; but sometimes this change is very
slight and the colour remains green, growing only a
little paler as the fruit becomes ripe. Moreover, when
the fruit is ripe the seeds become loose from the husks
and adhere only to the central stalk, or " placenta," in
the middle of the fruit. Accordingly, if a ripe fruit
be shaken the seeds can be heard tossing against the
husk, and if the fruit -wall be tapped with the finger
or a piece of wood a ripe fruit gives a hollow sound.
Labourers, however, never use this latter test, as they
have learned to judge by the outer appearance of the
fruit whether or not it is ripe enough to be picked.

Picking may be considered fairly simple work, but
the planter has to take care of two things : that clean
wounds are made in picking the fruits, and that the
cushions which bear the fruits are not too much injured.
The consequences of careless picking are not so serious
as has been asserted by some authorities, who regard
the remaining fruit-stalks of carelessly picked fruits as
the main entrances for parasites, and who consider the
injuring and damaging of the " cushions " to result in
insufficient production of flowers the following year.
As entrances for parasites, however, diseased and un-

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 193

healthy twigs play a much more important part, and
the number of places where flower-buds may be pro-
duced, as well as the number of buds produced on each
spot, are so great that too small a number of flowers
and young fruit is hardly to be feared when the tree is
in good condition and well nourished. All the same,
careful picking is, of course, strongly to be recommended.
To attain this the planter must have handy and skilful
pickers, good tools, and sufficient supervision over the
picking gang.

The picking of the fruit on the stem and the main
branches is an easy task. It is generally done by
means of the cutlass knife, sometimes with large pruning
knives. The picking of the fruits on the higher parts
of the tree requires more skill, as care has to be taken
to make a clean cut without injuring either the cushion
or other adjoining fruits. Several forms of cocoa hooks
(Fig. 63) have been made to enable the pickers to pull
as well as to push, for it is sometimes better to pull
when the branch is hanging, while, when the branch is
standing, a clean cut is obtained more easily by pushing
in an upward direction.

The hook generally used in Ecuador, the so-called
" podadera " (Fig. 63, a), is only suitable for pushing.
This drawback is counterbalanced by the fact that the
" podadera " is always made of steel of superior quality,
and is always kept very sharp ; and in addition the
Ecuadorian pickers are very adept at wielding it. The
hooks used in Trinidad (Fig. 63, b) and Kamerun (Fig.
63, c) have the advantage of being handier when a fruit
is difficult to reach ; for instance, when a ripe fruit
hangs between others which are still unripe, and also
when pulling is to be preferred. In the West Indies,
and to some extent in South America, the hook
illustrated by Fig. 63, 6, is the most popular type.
Preuss modified the Kamerun type (Fig. 63, c) a little,
and suggested the form d (Fig. 63). In Java the
author saw a hook used (Fig. 63, e) somewhat resembling
the Kamerun form. It was made by a native black-

o

194

COCOA

CHAP

smith for the price of fivepence, the shaft being of
bamboo. In this way a very cheap and suitable hook
was obtained, but still it is preferable to have the hook
made of steel of superior quality in order that it may
keep longer sharp. Finally, Hart suggested the form/
(Fig. 63). Of all these different kinds of cocoa hooks,
the two illustrated in Fig. 64 are, in the author's
opinion, the most to be recommended.

The picking gang goes round as often as seems
necessary. "When the season is dry the fruit ripens

b c c d f

FIG. 63. — Different forms of cocoa Looks.

a. 'Two forms used in Ecuador (" podadera").

I. Form generally used (Trinidad, Venezuela, Surinam, etc.).

c. Form used in Kamerun.

«/. Form recommended by Preuss.

e. Form sometimes used in Java.

/. Form recommended by Hart.

slowly, and the time between two successive pickings is
longer than in the rainy season. They may follow each
other after three or four weeks, or even, when it seems
necessary, after a fortnight.

Tn Trinidad the picked pods are gathered by women
and boys, who follow the pickers and collect the pods
into small heaps, which are sometimes collected again
into larger ones. The task of the pickers in this
country is therefore only to cut the fruit-stalk, the pods
falling to the ground.

As a rule, the gang is divided into groups of four

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 195

labourers, consisting of two pickers, one woman to
gather the pods into small heaps, and one labourer to
collect the small heaps into a larger one. It is said that
in the full crop season each gang can gather about 3000
fruits daily, giving about 100 kilograms of prepared cocoa.

The fruits are opened the same day or one or two
days later. The opening is done preferably when it is
not rainy, for the beans do not ferment so easily when
they have been wetted by rain.

In Ecuador the " tumbadores " (pickers) are often
provided with a simple bag for the picked pods. These

FIG. 64. — Two types of cocoa hooks recommended by the author
(one-fifth actual size).

bags are emptied into small heaps, which are later
collected into larger ones.

Breaking. — The husks are broken at the large heaps
of fruit by labourers, in many countries women (Figs. 65,
66). The contents are put into baskets, which are then
taken by mules (e.g. in Trinidad, etc.) or in boats (e.g. in
Surinam) to the fermenting house. The breaking is
generally done by means of the ordinary slightly-curved
reaping knife or with a special short one. The women
often acquire great dexterity in opening the fruits
quickly, holding the fruit in one hand, cutting the husks
with one stroke of the knife, and opening the fruit with
a twist and jerk.

196

COCOA

CHAP.

Fauchere l gives the following account of the labour
involved in Trinidad in picking and breaking about
30,000 fruits, giving about 1000 kilograms of market-
able cocoa : —

Picking ( = one man's work for 10 days) .
Gathering ( = one man's work for 20 days)
Breaking ( = one man's work for 4 days) .
Extracting seeds ( = one woman's work for 1 5 days)

6'.

12

16

4

12

<L

0
0

10
0

44 10

FIG. 65. — Shelling the pods (Triuidad).

Photo. Jticobsun.

Yield. — Generally the cocoa tree bears a few pods
in its third year, but with a slower growth the first
fruits may not appear until the fourth year. An
almost full harvest may be obtained in the seventh or
eighth year, but generally the yield continues to increase
a little until it reaches its maximum in the tenth,
eleventh or twelfth year. The planter is sometimes
advised not to allow a young cocoa tree to bear before

1 Fauchere, Culture pratique, p. 80.

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 197

it has attained a certain development, generally in its
fifth year ; but there seems no reason to suppose that
the production of a few fruits in the third and fourth
years weakens the tree to any extent, and the author
consequently sees no reason to recommend this practice.

These statements apply only to the Forastero
varieties ; the Criollo comes into bearing later, and
generally gives no fruit at all before its fifth year.

The age of bearing and the bearing power are

By permission of Mr. Monteiro de Mendon$a.
FIG. 66.— Shelling the pods (San Thome).

influenced not only by the variety of the tree, but also
by conditions of climate and cultivation. Very apparent,
for instance, is the influence of the amount of shade.
When the trees are cultivated without shade, the pro-
duction is earlier and a full crop is obtained in the fifth
or sixth year ; and when the cultivation is careful, the
yield is also a high one. On the other hand, however,
the lifetime of the tree is shortened.

It is easy to obtain a too favourable impression of
the productiveness of the cocoa tree, for there seems to

198

COCOA

CHAP.

be everywhere a tendency to consider as exceptions
those fields which give a low production, and to regard
the better fields as the examples from which the average
yield is to be deduced. The only way, therefore, to
obtain a true average yield is to take the total acreage
of all the plantations of one country, and the total
production of the country throughout a number of
consecutive years. If the same thing could be done for
the small proprietors, their average production per acre
could also be arrived at ; but unfortunately it is gener-
ally impossible to obtain reliable data as to the areas
cultivated with cocoa by the small proprietors.

In the case of Surinam the exact amount of yield
per acre from the plantations has been figured out.1
For our purpose only the figures from 1893 to 1899
are important, as after the latter year the witch-broom
disease began to show its effect in greatly diminished
yields.

tf rroba

Year.

Total production of all tlie
plantations in Surinam in
kilograms.

Total acreage
of plantations.

Average yield
per acre in
kilograms.

P^y

tfecfan

1893

2,788,000

12,700

219

1894

2,645,600

13,302

199

1895

3,166,100

13,632

232

1896

2,440,500

13,675

178

1897

2,829,200

14,435

196

1898

2,218,700

15,041

147

1899

3,395,800

15,370

'1-1\

fa m~

^bok

These seven average figures for the years 1893 to
1899 give again a general average of 212 kilograms
(471 Ibs.) per Surinam acre, which means about 444 Ibs.
per English acre. - 3*O4»kJ/*s f+r /?e.c/ar^(33.t arro

Some figures as to yield in Ceylon are available,
though there the investigations have not been so
extensive. The yields per acre in certain plantations

1 Van Hall and Drost, "The Witch-Broom Disease of Cacao " (Proceedings
of the Agricultural Society of Trinidad and Tobago, December 1909, p. 46).

THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA 199

were recorded from 1900 to 1905 j1 they ranged
between 114 Ibs. and 1026 Ibs., the average being
299 Ibs.

Figures obtained in this way are not available for
other countries, but in some cases estimates have been-
made which are regarded by competent authorities as
reasonably accurate. Of course such figures are not so
valuable as those obtained in the manner which has
been described, for even high authorities on the subject
have an unconscious tendency to neglect poor yields,
and in this way we therefore generally obtain figures
which are really too high.

In the case of Trinidad, Hart 2 says : " It is generally
considered that a yield of 1'6 Ibs. per tree is a first- ,
class yield. Taking our trees to be planted at 15 feet
apart, there will be 193 x 1'6 Ibs., 308'8 Ibs., or say 300
Ibs. (135 kilograms)." Others regard this figure as
representing not a "first-class yield" but only a "high
average " ; but this is of minor importance. I think
Hart's estimate may be accepted as correct, though it
is true that other estimates are generally higher. Mr.
cle Gannes, a well-known cocoa-planter of Trinidad,
stated that a yield of 12 bags of 170 Ibs. per 1000 trees
planted 12 feet apart was a safe estimate ; this amounts
to 573 kilograms per hectare or 230 kilograms per
acre — i.e. almost double Hart's estimate. The estimate
of the Royal Commission, however, was again much
lower, amounting only to 280 kilograms per hectare or
112 kilograms per acre.

The average yield obtained in San Thome is
estimated by Masui to be 600 to 700 kilograms per £>&
hectare, or 240 to 280 kilograms per acre. This is a
very high average, and it is questionable whether it
would not be lower if the production of a great number
of plantations were taken into account. At any rate it
does not agree with the estimated yield of about 60,000
hectares, which was the area planted with cocoa a few

1 Wright, Cocoa, p. 186.
2 Hart, Cacao, p. 73.

200 COCOA

CHAP. VI

years ago.1 For if the yield per acre was, say, 260
kilograms, and the yield per hectare accordingly 650
kilograms, the export would have been about 39 million
kilograms. The export, however, never reached any
such high figure. With an area of 60,000 hectares and
an export of about 22 million kilograms (in 1907) the
average yield would be 366 kilograms per hectare or
147 kilograms per acre. These figures show how
little we know about the average production of cocoa
even in one of the most important cocoa - growing
countries.

As regards Brazil nothing at all is known.

In the case of Ecuador the well-knowrn authority,
H>» Mr. M. E. Seminario, estimates the average yield for
« Arriba" to be about 500 kilograms per hectare or 200
1 kilograms per acre, and to be a little higher for the
Guayas and El Oro. The statistical figures agree fairly
well with this estimate, the acreage being about 45,500
hectares and the yearly average export in the last three
years 27 million kilograms. This gives an average
yield per annum of about 600 kilograms per hectare or
240 kilograms per acre.

All the above figures are intended only to give an
impression as to the yield of cocoa which is generally
obtained. It need hardly be said that the yield depends
greatly upon circumstances — richness of the soil, climate,
manuring, cultivation, presence or absence of serious
diseases, etc. The influence of manuring has already
been demonstrated. The influence of. climate is especially
clear from the fact that in consecutive years the crops
are widely different ; and the effect of the mode of
cultivating or the influence of diseases on the crop needs
no further explanation. It is, therefore, very difficult
o state a general average, but, speaking generally, we
y call 200 kilograms per acre a normal yield, 100
+* kilograms a poor one, and 300 kilograms a high yield.

1 Estimate of Mr. de Almada Negreiros ; see Chevalier, Lc Cacaoyer dans
V Quest africain, 1908, note 2 on p. 38.

CHAPTER VII

FERMENTATION, WASHING AND DRYING

FERMENTATION.— The seeds, with their surrounding
white slimy mass of pulp, are carried to the fermenting
house in baskets covered with banana leaves, and are
subjected to the process of fermentation.

In Surinam the quantity of seeds is first measured
in boxes specially made for this purpose, 65 cm. (26
in.) in length, 45 cm. (18 in.) in breadth, and 50
cm. (20 in.) in height. The seeds are put into these
boxes, and the height of the whole mass is measured ;
every inch (" duim ") indicates about 8 kilograms of
fresh seed, yielding about 2^ kilograms of marketable
cocoa. In Java the quantity of seeds is also measured
in special boxes, but in other countries this measure-
ment of the seeds is not customary.

Although the methods of fermentation vary in the
different cocoa-growing countries, they are all based on
the same principle and have the same effect. This
effect is the development of an essential oil, which
gives the cocoa its peculiar aroma ; the conversion of
part of the bitter -tasting compound, so as to lessen the
bitter taste ; and, finally, the liberation of the theo-
bromine, the substance which gives cocoa its peculiar
tonic and stimulating properties. It must be admitted
at once, however, that the chemistry of the bean before
and after fermentation is still in its infancy, and that
only a mere beginning has been made with the study of
this branch of chemistry and of the processes which
take place during fermentation and drying.

201

202 COCOA

CHAP.

The fresh beans, with the white pulp, are made into
heaps, or put in boxes, and covered with banana leaves.
The temperature of the heaps quickly rises, especially
in the interior, and no further care is required except
to see that it does not rise too high, and that all
the beans come sufficiently into contact with the air
to finish the process when the beans have acquired
the proper heat.

Different varieties of cocoa, however, have different
requirements as regards fermentation. The main rule
is that the finer, sweeter varieties, such as all the
Criollos and the finer Forasteros (e.g. those of Western
Venezuela) require a slight and short fermentation ; the
coarser and more ordinary varieties with flat, dark,
bitter-tasting beans (e.g. San Thome cocoa, the Samana,
the Surinam, the Carupano variety of the Orinoco basin,
etc.) need a long and thorough fermentation. This
general rule explains many of the differences which exist
between the methods adopted in different countries.

As an example, the method followed in Surinam
may first be described. The process takes place in a
small house, provided with one row of six or seven
fermenting boxes (Fig. 67), or with two rows with a
gangway between them. Each box is about 5 to 6
feet broad, 6 to 7 feet deep, and 5 to 6 feet high.
The boxes, as well as the walls and the roof of the
house, are made of wood — preferably the wood of the
"bolletree" or bullet tree (Mimusops balata), the tree
which yields " balata," a sort of wild rubber.

When the fresh seeds have been put into the first
box, so as almost to fill it, and have been covered with
banana leaves, the temperature begins to rise slowly,
and the following morning it is some 15° to 20° C.
higher than the temperature of the air, being about 40°
C. in the middle of the heap. The beans are then
turned over into the second box, being thoroughly
mixed in the process, and are again covered with
banana leaves. Here the temperature rises a little
further, being always highest in the morning when the

FERMENTATION AND DRYING 203

beans have been for twenty-four hours in the box, and
the time has come to turn them over into the next one.
But 50 ~ C. is about the maximum temperature.

This rise of temperature is accompanied by de-
composition of the pulpy mass which surrounds the
seeds ; during the fermentation it develops a strong

Back side

Wall of the,
fermenting ',
house ,

= I

—Open space
= =====

r^

-^-

/

h—

A

6 ft Front side

x

A

7

/

/

1

1

f

!

/ ' ' i

W.

i

u

j
1

1

'',

i

U

Loose boards

B

9ft,

FIG. 67. — Sketch of the arrangement of fermenting house and fermenting boxes,
as used in Surinam.

A, Fermenting boxes seen from above : there is a little space between every two boxes.

B, Fermenting boxes, front view.

C, Vertical section of a fermenting house with one row of boxes.

odour of vinegar and becomes more liquid, gradually
flowing away as a vinegar -smelling fluid. To allow
these products of the decomposition of the pulp to flow
away freely, the bottoms of the boxes are perforated
and are raised a little off the cemented floor of the
fermenting room. This floor, again, is slightly inclined
towards a gutter, along which the " cocoa- vinegar," as
the planters in Surinam call this fluid, flows away.

204 COCOA

In this way the pulp which surrounds the seeds
is gradually decomposed and dissolved, and when the
beans are removed from the last (generally the sixth)
fermenting box, a few fibres and a little mucilage
round the seeds is all that remains of the pulp. In the
meantime the colour and the consistency of the seeds
have changed. The colour, which in the Surinam
variety is originally dark- violet, changes to a reddish-
brown ; while the seeds, which were leathery and more
or less tough, become brittle after fermentation and
drying, so that they are easily crushed between the
fingers. The seed-coat, which adheres firmly to the
fresh seed, surrounds the fermented and dried seeds
like a loose and brittle skin.

As has already been said, the main chemical changes
have resulted in the development of the peculiar
chocolate aroma, the liberation of the tonic and
stimulant principles, and the lessening of the bitter
principles. The planter, however, takes little notice of
these chemical changes. He looks only at the colour.
He knows, for instance, that as soon as some seeds
begin to show brownish spots, he must stop the fer-
mentation ; such spots appear principally on the beans
which come into free contact with the air — e.g. on
the beans in the bottom layer of the fermenting box,
which are situated above the openings in the planks.

In its main lines the process of fermentation is the
same in all cocoa-growing countries, except that in
many of them it does not take so long.

The question now comes : What is the cause of
this fermentation, which results in those changes in
chemical composition, in flavour, in colour, in con-
sistency ? l The decomposition and dissolution of the
sugar - containing pulp into a vinegar -smelling liquid
leads at once to the presumption that during the
fermentation the sugar of the pulp is converted into
acetic acid (the main constituent of vinegar) and that

1 This question is very clearly treated in a little article by Dr. Sack,
published as Bulletin No. 10 of the Department of Agriculture, Surinam.

vii FERMENTATION AND DRYING 205

the rise of temperature is a consequence of this process.
This conversion of sugar into acetic acid is a fairly
simple process. The sugar is first converted into
alcohol and carbon dioxide, and the alcohol again is
oxidised (combined with the oxygen from the air) into
acetic acid. It can easily be demonstrated that the
presence of the sugar of the pulp is a conditio sine
qua non for obtaining fermentation. When the seeds
are washed, so as to remove the sugar from the pulp,
fermentation does not take place ; but if these washed
seeds are sprinkled with a solution of sugar they again
become suitable for fermentation.

This conversion of the sugar of the pulp into
alcohol and carbon dioxide, and, secondly, the oxidation
of the alcohol into acetic acid, are both the work of
very small living organisms. Just as in brewing, it is
in this case also a kind of yeast (Saccliaromyces) which
splits the sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide ; while
the oxidation of the alcohol into acetic acid is the work
of a bacterium, belonging to the group containing the
ordinary vinegar-making bacterium (Mycoderma aceti),
which causes the conversion of wine or beer or alcohol into
vinegar in the vinegar industry. Both these organisms
still need thorough investigation, but it has already
been proved that fermentation without living organisms
is not possible. The addition of a little chloroform or
ether to the heap of beans prevents fermentation, or
stops it if it has already begun ; this addition does not
prohibit pure chemical processes, but it prevents the
action of living organisms. Its influence on fermenta-
tion shows, therefore, that fermentation is the work of
living organisms.

In the vinegar industry we know that the work
of the vinegar bacterium — namely, the combination of
alcohol with oxygen from the air — is always accompanied
by a rise of temperature. The extent of this rise is
dependent upon various conditions, e.g. the amount of
alcohol present, the extent to which the air has free
access, and last but not least, the hindrance opposed to

206 COCOA

CHAP.

the escape of the heat generated. In the fermentation
of cocoa the rise of temperature is, as in the vinegar
industry, due to the action of the vinegar bacterium,
which oxidises the alcohol, formed from the sugar
of the pulp, into acetic acid. In this process it is clear
that free access of air is necessary, in order to provide
sufficient oxygen to oxidise the alcohol.

The reason for turning over the cocoa daily from
one fermenting box to the next one will now be under-
stood : its aims are ( 1 ) to mix the heap and to bring
those beans which were not in a position to get much
oxygen (e.g. in the middle of the heap) into better
contact with the air ; and (2) to prevent the temperature
rising too high. In the middle of the heap, though the
oxidation is there not so very active, the temperature
rises all the same, because the heat is not able to escape
easily. When the heap is turned over, these parts are
cooled and other groups of beans take their place in the
middle of the heap. Insufficient aeration of the cocoa
during fermenting not only results in slow fermentation
but also brings another bacterium into action, the
bacterium of butyric acid. This bacterium lives and
propagates quickly, when the heap is insufficiently
aerated ; it produces butyric acid, the bad smell of
which is so characteristic of cocoa which is fermented
in a primitive way in unsuitable boxes, as sometimes
happens with small proprietors.

The changes which the pulp undergoes during
fermentation are sometimes called external fermenta-
tion, while internal fermentation denotes the changes
which take place in the seed itself. As we have seen,
the external fermentation consists mainly in the de-
composition of the sugar of the pulp into alcohol and
carbon dioxide, followed closely by the oxidation of the
alcohol to acetic acid, which is accompanied by a rise of
temperature. This rise of temperature is the cause of
the internal fermentation.

To make this internal fermentation understood, it
must be pointed out that no chemical changes of any

YII FERMENTATION AND DRYING 207

importance occur in a seed which is dormant (i.e. not
yet germinating). The different substances are, so to
speak, lying next to each other, but each in its own
compartment ; so that different substances may be
present, which, if they came into actual contact with
each other, would bring about important chemical
changes. The situation alters, however, as soon as the
seed is killed. The structure of the plant-tissue is then
destroyed, and the different substances diffuse through
the whole seed, and, coming into contact with each
other, give rise to many chemical processes.

This is what occurs in the cocoa seed, which is
killed during fermentation by the high temperature
caused by the external fermentation. Experiments1
have shown that the temperature which kills the cocoa
seeds, the so-called " maximum temperature," is about
43° C. Seeds exposed for three hours to a temperature
of 43° C. were all found to be alive and germinated
normally; of 10 seeds, exposed for six hours to the
same temperature, only 4 germinated ; and 10 seeds,
exposed for nine hours to this temperature, proved to
be all dead. When exposed to a temperature of 44° C.
all the seeds proved to be dead after an exposure of
six hours. In fermentation a temperature of 43° to
45° C. is reached during the second day, and it may
therefore be taken that the seeds in the fermenting
boxes are killed on that day. From that time the
various substances of the seed begin to diffuse and to
act upon each other — that is to say, internal fermenta-
tion sets in.

It is possible that products of the fermentation of
the pulp, especially the acetic acid, may exert an
influence upon the seeds and play a part in the internal
fermentation ; but this has not been proved as yet, and
there is no real indication that it is the case.

As will be explained, the internal fermentation gives
rise to three important compounds, "cocoa-red" or

1 Sack, " Bydragen tot de kennis van het fermenteeren der cacao"
(Bulletin No. 10 of the Dept. of Agriculture, Surinam : January 1908).

208 COCOA

CHAP.

" cocoa -pigment," theobromine, and the essential oil.
All these substances are formed if we simply crush fresh
cocoa seeds and leave them exposed to the air. This
fact shows that the products of the external fermenta-
tion do not play any part in the formation of these
three important compounds. They are formed by
allowing the different constituents of the cocoa seeds to
act upon each other, be it by crushing the seeds or
killing them by high temperature during fermentation.

One of the most conspicuous changes which occur
in the seeds is the alteration in colour. The violet
seeds become reddish -brown and the white seeds
yellowish-brown. This change takes place gradually,
beginning at the outside and proceeding gradually to
the inner parts. This is easily understood if it is
remembered that for this chemical process oxygen is
necessary, for the air obviously penetrates only gradually
into the interior of each seed. This change of colour is
caused by the formation of a red compound which has
received the name of " cocoa-red" or " cocoa-pigment."

Whether this compound must be regarded as
important from an industrial point of view is still
uncertain, for it is not clear whether a larger or smaller
amount present in commercial cocoa has any influence
upon the quality. The idea, however, that it is the
" cocoa-red " which gives cocoa its peculiar aroma is
quite erroneous. " Cocoa-red " can be prepared pure
from cocoa seeds. It has the appearance of a reddish-
brown powder, which is, however, odourless and tasteless,
and is therefore not the cause of the aroma which cocoa
assumes during fermentation.

This aroma is due to the formation of another
substance, namely, an essential oil. It is obvious that
the substance, which gives rise to the aroma, must be a
volatile substance, for the aroma develops when the
fermented cocoa is boiled, and this strong-smelling
essential oil can be obtained pure, or nearly pure, by

1 The chemical composition of this and other substances is given in
Chapter III.

YII FERMENTATION AND DRYING 209

distilling fermented cocoa by means of vapour of water.
Very little is obtained, perhaps only 1 cubic centimetre
of essential oil from about 20 kilograms of seeds ; but
the smell is so strong that this small quantity is enough
to give to the whole mass of cocoa its peculiar aroma.

Another important substance, theobromine, also
appears during fermentation. Like the "cocoa-red"
and the essential oil, it is a product of the action upon
each other of the different substances which the seed
contains and which come into contact as soon as the
seed has been killed.

Finally, the substance which gives the bitter taste
to the fresh seeds is partially changed into a tasteless
product during fermentation. The bitter-tasting pro-
duct in the fresh seeds used to be generally regarded as
a tannin, but this also has been proved l to be wrong.
It has been given the name " cacaool," and during
fermentation it combines with oxygen to form a yellow
or reddish-coloured tasteless compound.

The oxygen of the air is thus necessary for all the
processes of fermentation. On the other hand, however,
when the beans are fermented longer than is necessary,
oxidation sets in too strongly, and brown spots appear
on those beans which are .most exposed to the air and
which are at the same time subjected to a high tempera-
ture. The appearance of these spots is therefore an
indication to the planter that fermentation must be
stopped.

The processes of fermentation are not yet thoroughly
understood, but it seems that the external fermenta-
tion (the fermentation of the pulp) is important only
by reason of its production of heat which kills the
seeds, with the result that the various substances con-
tained in them act upon each other, some of them
becoming oxidised. At the same time, the high tempera-
ture assists and accelerates these reactions. These
changes take place much more easily in the varieties

1 Ultee and van Dorssen, "Over de zoogenaamde looistof der cacao"
(Cultuurg-ids, 1909, 2e. gedeelte, Afl. 12).

P

210 COCOA

CHAP.

of finer quality, such as the Criollo, the Western Vene-
zuela Forastero, and the " Arriba " cocoa of Ecuador,
which need very little fermentation for the development
of their aroma and tonic properties. Moreover, in the
case of these finer varieties the fresh seeds are less
bitter than in the case of the coarser kinds, and for this
reason also a short fermentation is sufficient.

It is often said that one of the objects of fermenta-
tion is to remove the sugary pulp, but from the fore-
going it will be clear that this view is wrong. The
disappearance of the pulp may only be regarded as a
happy coincidence. Moreover, in the case of those seed
varieties which require only a short fermentation, a
great deal of the pulp remains adhering to the seeds.
This constitutes a drawback, for such cocoa is very
subject to mildew when packed in bags, and this is the
reason why in Venezuela arid Trinidad the cocoa is
treated with dry earth after fermentation and drying.
This method will be explained later.

The beans are generally subjected to fermentation
in fermenting or "sweating" boxes such as those used
in Surinam (Fig. 67), and are turned over into a fresh
box every day (Surinam) or every other day (Trini-
dad). This system is in use in Surinam, Trinidad, the
other Antilles, San Thome, and indeed all countries
where long and thorough fermentation is necessary.

In Java, on the other hand, larger fermenting floors
(Fig. 68) are generally used, perforated like the bottom
of the " sweating" boxes and often raised one above the
other, like the steps of a staircase. The dimensions
vary considerably : sometimes they are about 16 feet long,
7 feet broad, and raised lj> foot above each other. They
are surrounded by a little wall 2 feet high. The cocoa
is first brought into a heap on the upper floor, and
covered with banana leaves. After twelve or twenty-
four hours the heap is shovelled to the second floor ;
here it again remains for twelve or twenty -four hours ;
and the third day it is shovelled to the third (lowest)
floor. Sometimes four floors are present, when the

vii FERMENTATION AND DRYING 211

fermentation lasts 3^ days ; this is especially the case
on estates which cultivate Java Forastero.

Fermenting floors are also used in Ceylon, the cocoa
being shovelled on to them in heaps.

In Venezuela a short fermentation of only one day
is given, either in a box or simply by making a heap of
the cocoa and covering it with banana leaves.

Photo. Hisgen, supplied by the late Mr. C. MacGillavry.
FIG. 68. — Fermenting boxes, plantation "Djati Koenggo," Java.

The variety cultivated here is the Forastero (" Djati Roenggo Hybrid "). The fermentation
lasts 3£ days, and the beans are turned over into the next box every day. From the last box
the beans are shovelled into the washing basin (Fig. 69).

In Ecuador, again, the beans are not subjected to
any special fermentation, but are dried immediately
after picking and breaking. It is possible that a slight
fermentation may set in during the night, after the
beans have been heaped together at sunset.

It is often stated that the fermentation has a great
influence upon the quality of the product ; and in some
countries where a cocoa of rather inferior quality is

212 COCOA

CHAP.

produced, it has been suggested that the method of fer-
mentation is to blame and should be improved. As yet,
however, there is no indication that the quality of cocoa
would be changed to any great extent by adopting
another method of fermentation. It is of course true
that when inferior varieties of cocoa, which need a long
fermentation, are insufficiently fermented, the quality
of the resulting product is poorer than it might be ;
and that, on the other hand, superior varieties o%cocoa,
which need only a short fermentation, can without
doubt be spoiled by being fermented too long. The
present author, however, considers it a mistake to think
that cocoa of mediocre quality can be improved to any
great extent by a change in the method of fermenta-
tion. The quality of cocoa is almost wholly dependent
upon the variety grown and upon unknown characters
of soil and climate. In some cocoa-growing countries
— e.g. the west of Venezuela and the Arriba country
of Ecuador — the quality of the cocoa is always good,
even when it is carelessly fermented ; but other countries
— e.g. the Orinoco basin, Surinam, the Gold Coast,
Kamerun — will probably never produce cocoa of superior
quality in spite of the most careful fermentation.

Washing. — In only a few countries are the fer-
mented seeds washed. In Java (Fig. 69) it is adopted
everywhere ; in Ceylon it is generally done ; in Mexico,
San Salvador and Guatemala often ; and sometimes in
Samoa and Kamerun. In all the other cocoa-growing
countries — and these include the most important —
Ecuador, San Thome*, Trinidad and the other Antilles,
Venezuela, the Gold Coast, etc.^no washing is done.

The advantage of washing the fermented beans is, of
course, that it cleans the seeds of the remaining pulp.
But this effect is in most kinds of cocoa very little
appreciated by the merchants, and the price paid for
washed Ecuador, Trinidad or Surinam cocoa is very
little higher than the price paid for unwashed.

In the case of the more ordinary kinds of cocoa
the disadvantage of washing the fermented seeds is

VII

FERMENTATION AND DRYING 213

the loss in weight, which is so great that it is
not counterbalanced by the slightly better price. In
Surinam it has been calculated that with well-fermented
cocoa the loss in weight by washing is about 4 per cent.
At a price of 60 cts. per kilogram (the average price in
Surinam during the years 1904—1906), this means a
loss of 2 '4 cts. per kilogram ; but the merchants paid only

Photo. Hisgen, supplied ly the kite Mr. C. MacGillavry.
FIG. 69. — The washing basin, plantation "Djati Roenggo," Java.
The beans are shovelled into this washing basin after fermentation.

2 cts. per kilogram, more for the washed cocoa. The
labour spent on washing resulted therefore in a small
loss.1 This has been found to be the case in most other
countries. In Kamerun the loss in weight by washing
turned out to be about 3 '83 per cent, about the same
as in Surinam. The figures found by Preuss were as
follows : —

100 unwashed beans .
100 washed beans

Loss in 100 seeds by washing .

121-25 grams
H3 ^_

8 '25 grams or 3'83 per cent.

Wright, Cocoa, p. 131.

214 COCOA

CHAP.

A second disadvantage of washing is that washed
beans need more care in drying. They dry more
quickly, but they cannot stand so high a temperature
as unwashed beans ; they soon become too brittle and
are therefore more liable to damage.

Finally, the flavour suffers from washing. In the
case of the ordinary varieties this drawback is not very
serious, but in the case of the finer Venezuelan and
Ecuadorian (Arriba) varieties, washing would result in
a distinct deterioration in quality.

Against these drawbacks must be mentioned the
advantage that washed seeds are less liable to become
mouldy, either during drying or when packed in bags,
for the pulp which remains adhering to the unwashed
seeds is hygroscopic and contains a certain percentage of
sugar, so that it is a favourable place for fungi. This
disadvantage of unwashed seeds is, of course, especially
felt in the case of those kinds which are only fermented
for a short time — i.e., generally speaking, the finer
varieties. For this reason, washing would most probably
be adopted in these cases also, and especially with
Venezuelan and Ecuadorian cocoa, if it did not
unfortunately damage their quality. Another method
has therefore to be used in order to avoid the adhering
pulp becoming mouldy. In Venezuela this is achieved
by coating the seeds with earth — a method followed
in Trinidad, though it is not so necessary there.
This method will be discussed later.

On the other hand, in Java and Ceylon, where
also only a short fermentation is given, the quality
and especially the flavour are not so fine, and washing
can be done without spoiling the quality. In Ceylon
the method was tried of leaving the beans unwashed
and drying them immediately after fermentation ; but
the colour was so dark and the appearance so dirty
that the cocoa had to be classed among the inferior
qualities. In Java, where the cocoa has little flavour
and is practically only valuable for its light colour,
there is a double reason for washing it thoroughly ; for

vii FERMENTATION AND DRYING 215

not only is mould avoided, but the cleaner the cocoa
the more suitable it is for mixing with darker kinds
in order to make a light-coloured chocolate.

In Ecuador, where again cocoa is fermented very
slightly, no special process is adopted in order to get
rid of the adhering pulp. The result, however, is that
Ecuador cocoa is more subject to mould than any other,
and it would be most advisable for the planters in this
country to try some method of avoiding this drawback.

Drying or curing. — Formerly it was considered
advisable to dry the cocoa slowly. In Surinam drying
was by preference effected in spacious and airy drying-
houses, which were not provided with any heating
apparatus. Sometimes, however, it was necessary to
dry the cocoa in the sun on large floors. It was,
however, always preferred to dry it slowly, because it
was believed that in this way a product of better
quality was obtained ; and in the West Indies and
Surinam it was on some plantations customary to cover
the sun-dried cocoa when the heat of the sun was
considered to be too strong.

Nowadays, planters and merchants are no longer so
particular as to the way in which cocoa is dried, but
there is still a slight preference for sun-dried cocoa above
cocoa dried by means of artificial drying apparatus.

(a) Sun-drying. — Slow drying in the sun has the
advantage of allowing the internal fermentation to
proceed a little farther in those beans, or in those parts
of beans, where it was not yet quite accomplished.
This makes the colour more uniform, and slightly more
light-reddish than when dried artificially. Secondly,
the drying is uniform ; no beans are dried too quickly
so as to get too brittle, which often happens in the
quick-drying artificial apparatus, especially when the
cocoa has been washed.

In several countries where the rainfall is not very
heavy and the number of bright, sunny days great
enough, cocoa is dried only by sun, and artificial driers
are never used.

216

COCOA

CHAP.

For sun -dry ing large floors are generally used,
made of brick (Fig. 70) or cement, or wood covered
with coir matting (Fig. 71). These floors, however,
are a great nuisance in wet weather. When a showier
comes, the cocoa must be quickly covered with sheets of
canvas ; but this is a tedious and troublesome work,
and the system of drying-waggons on wheels, or drying-
floors with movable roofs, is to be preferred.

Photo. Hisgen, supplied l>y the late Mr, C. MacGillavry.
FIG. 70. — Sun-drying on brick floors, plantation " Djati Koenggo," Java.

Dry ing- waggons are much in use in Surinam. They
are always of the same type — large flat wooden waggons
with small wheels and running on rails (Fig. 72).
When the weather is sunny they are run outside the
drying-house ; as soon as the rain comes they can be
run back in a few minutes under the drying-house,
where they take up the ground-floor. The top-floor
of this house is generally used as the store-room of the
plantation. This system has many practical advantages,
but it makes large dry ing -houses necessary, as the
waggons take up a good deal of space.

VII

FERMENTATION AND DRYING 217

On some plantations in Java the planters have
tried to avoid this drawback by making the waggons
run one above the other in the manner illustrated in
Fig. 73. In this way the installation is simpler
and cheaper ; the topmost pair of rails has the largest
gauge, the lowest pair the narrowest. Similar drying-
houses are adopted on plantations in Guadeloupe,
Grenada, and Ecuador (Fig. 74).

Photo, supplied by Mr. M. E. Seminario.

FIG. 71. — Sun-drying on wooden floors covered with split-bamboo matting
(Ecuador).

In Trinidad the system of movable roofs is generally
adopted. The drying -floors of wood are fixtures,
standing on wooden posts about 2 metres (6^ ft.) above
the soil, and sometimes 20 metres (65 ft.) long and 5
metres (16| ft.) broad. A roof moving on rails is
pushed over the floor so as to cover the cocoa as soon
as rain comes (Fig. 75).

It will be understood that these roofs — as well as
the waggons used in Surinam — must be made as light
as possible, so as to be easily and quickly pushed by
one man. The waggons in Surinam are made wholly

218

COCOA

CHAP

of light wood, but the movable roofs in Trinidad are
generally made of plates of zinc on a wooden frame.

Wherever cocoa is dried in the sun, the seeds must
be regularly turned over. In Surinam and Trinidad
children are often employed for this work, and are busy
the whole day moving the beans by means of shovels,
made of a stick with a little platter. Towards sunset

Photo. Awjuste Curiel.
FIG. 72. — Sun-drying on wooden waggons, plantation " Susaunasdaal," Surinam.

the beans are heaped together and covered with a canvas
sheet in order not to be wet by the dew, and the
waggons are pushed into the house, or, where movable
roofs are used, the roofs are run over the cocoa.

(b) Drying by artificial heat. — Though this system
has various disadvantages— e.g. it makes the beans too
brittle, especially on the surface, and darkens the colour
—still artificial heat must perforce be used in several
cocoa-growing countries where the weather is uncertain,
and rainy and cloudy days are so numerous that there
would be great risk of the cocoa becoming mildewed if
sun-drying were attempted. Accordingly, cocoa-dryers

FERMENTATION AND DRYING 219

are in use on many plantations, especially in Surinam
and Trinidad.

A few of the best known of these dryers
may be shortly described.1 One of the
most simple consists of a large wooden box,
slightly inclined, in which a series of sieve-
like trays are placed, one above the other.
The bottom of the box rests on a furnace,
surrounded by a covering of bricks. The
hot air escapes through openings in this
brickwork and enters the box, leaving it
again at the top. It is obvious, however,
that if the cocoa were simply placed on these
trays and left, it would be very irregularly
treated ; the beans on the tray nearest to
the furnace would be exposed to a much
higher temperature than those above it. It
is therefore necessary to be continually
changing the position of the trays, and
workmen must be kept busy removing the
trays from below and placing them in the
upper part of the box, and vice versa. This
makes the drying expensive, and calls for

continuous superin-

tendence, but the ad-
vantage of the appar-
atus is its simplicity :
no steam - engine is
needed, and the planter
may construct it him-
self. It is therefore
suitable for very small
plantations, and a form
called " Mayfarth's
Patent," made in
Germany, is in use to a certain extent in Surinam.

The cocoa is brought into the apparatus immediately

I?

"0

1 A good description of a few types is given by Fauchere, Culture
p. 107, and by Hart, Cacao (1911), chap. xv.

ique,

CH.VII FERMENTATION AND DRYING 221

after fermentation. It is left there about three hours,
and then spread out and exposed to the air for two days.
In the early morning of the third day the beans are
again placed in the apparatus, the trays being changed
frequently during the day ; in the evening the fire in
the furnace is extinguished, and the cocoa is left in the
box till the following morning. Generally it is then
ready for bagging.

FIG. 75. — Drying-floors with movable roofs, as adopted ill Trinidad.
Reproduced from Fauchere, Culture, pratique.

For extensive plantations larger driers are necessary,
involving the use of a steam-engine. One of the
best is the " Guardiola " (Fig. 76) — Jose Guardiola's
Patent, sold by John Gordon & Co., 9 New Broad
Street, London. In its main lines the " Guardiola "
is a cylinder turning on an axis (Fig. 77). In the
centre, along the axis, are one or two conduits through
which hot air constantly flows. From this, conduit
side-tubes run crosswise through the cocoa in the
cylinder; these side -tubes are perforated to enable

222

COCOA

the hot air to penetrate into the mass of seeds. It
escapes again saturated with vapour through holes in
the cylinder, the wall of which is also perforated.
Uniformity of heating and drying is secured by the
turning movement of the cylinder, which makes the
cocoa travel continually from the hot centre of the
cylinder towards the cooler outside, and vice versa. The

FIG. 76. — The "Guardiola" drying apparatus.
After Fauchere, Culture pratique.

cylinder is turned by a steam-motor ; the air is heated
in a special compartment and is kept in motion by a
strong ventilator.

This apparatus has several advantages. The
temperature in the cylinder is very uniform and is always
about 60° to 65° C., and the machine works quickly and
does not require much fuel. Moreover, the continual
rubbing of the seeds against each other in the revolving
cylinder gives the beans a nice polished appearance.

vii FERMENTATION AND DRYING 223

Before the cocoa is put into the " Guardiola " it is
first dried for one or two days in the sun. The largest
size of the apparatus is capable of drying about 2000
kilograms of cocoa in 24 to 36 hours.

Another apparatus which also has its advantages is
the " Huizer," to be obtained from Messrs. J. A. Ceulen
& Co. of The Hague. This is also worked by a steam-
engine, which at the same time supplies the necessary
heat. It is mainly composed of a large horizontal
plate (Fig. 78), which is slowly moved in a horizontal

FIG. 77. — Cross- section through the cylinder of the "Guardiola"
drying apparatus.

After Fauchere, Culture pratique.

direction round its vertical axis. It is perforated by a
multitude of little openings, through which hot air is
driven. The air comes from a chamber underneath the
moving plate, into which it is forced by means of a
blowing apparatus, and where it is heated by means
of pipes warmed by the steam of the steam-motor or
engine. A sort of rake-like arrangement (Fig. 78) is
fixed just above the plate for the purpose of moving
the cocoa about. While lying on the moving plate,
the beans are turned when passing the rake, so as to
obtain uniformity of heating and drying ; but this
movement does not appear to be sufficient, and the
beans have also to be turned by hand labour. It must

224

COCOA

not be forgotten that the plate is revolving slowly,
making one turn in about 1 5 minutes ; thus the beans
come in touch with the rakes only every 7^ minutes,
and remain for 7^ minutes at the same place unless
they are turned by other means. Fauchere therefore
recommends that more rakes should be adjusted to the
machine ; and this suggestion seems well worth trying.

The "Huizer" machine is constructed in two sizes;
the large size has a plate 10 metres diameter, and is
capable of drying 3000 kilograms of cocoa in three
days. The smaller size has a plate 5 metres in diameter.

FIG. 78. — The "Huizer" drying apparatus.

Cross-section through the moving plate and the rake which stirs the beans.
After Fauchere, Culture pratique.

The drawback of this machine is the rather large amount
of fuel required ; the advantage, however, is that the
cocoa can always be observed and controlled.

In Trinidad other installations are used, which have
the advantage of combining sun-drying and artificial
drying. Such an installation is described by Fauchere
as being in use on the plantation of Mr. Centeno in
Trinidad. The dry ing -floor is constructed in the
ordinary Trinidad way, already described, with movable
roofs. The space under this floor, however, is not
open, but closed by walls, and about 16 inches below
the floor there is a system of pipes filled with
water. In a special little chamber, outside the drier,
is placed the furnace which heats the water in the
pipes. About six hours after lighting the fire the

viz FERMENTATION AND DRYING 225

required temperature (about 45° C.) is obtained and
then remains nearly constant.

The advantages of this apparatus are, that no steam-
engine is necessary, and that, according to the weather,
the roofs can be opened and the cocoa sun-dried, or
closed and the furnace lighted and the cocoa dried
artificially, thus avoiding the necessity of transporting
the cocoa to another place when the weather is unfavour-
able and the heat of the sun insufficient.

On other estates in Trinidad the air under the
drying-floor is heated by making it travel along hot
pipes, which are heated by a furnace. The hot air
passes through the openings of the drying-floor and
through the cocoa. This system closely resembles that
of the " Huizer " apparatus, but the drying-floor does not
move, and the pipes are not heated by hot water, but
directly by the heat of the furnace. And, of course,
it is at the same time suitable for sun-drying, in the
same way as the installation on the Centeno plantation.

In Java and in Ceylon, " curing -houses" generally
are used.1 The most common type consists of two
chambers, of which the lower one receives the hot air,
the upper one the fermented seeds. The floor of this
upper chamber is covered with coir matting. The air in
the lower chamber is heated by means of a furnace, and
then passes through the drying-floor and the seeds, and,
finally, the moist air is drawn off by means of a fan.

Claying and dancing. — In Western Venezuela it
is customary before fermentation to dry the cocoa for
one day in the sun on the drying-floor. When it is
still hot it is gathered into heaps and covered with
banana leaves or put into a primitive "sweating" box.
It is allowed to ferment for one day only, and then
immediately clayed, or stained, as it is sometimes called.
This is done in the following way. A certain quantity
of cocoa is thrown on to a sheet, held by two workmen.
On the cocoa a quantity of a dry, red earth is scattered,
and the sheet is then moved to and fro until the earth

1 Wright, Cocoa, p. 137.

226 COCOA

CHAI'.

is equally divided over the beans. The cocoa is then
spread on the drying-floors. Sometimes the staining
is done by dipping the cocoa in a sort of mud, made
of the red earth and water.

The object of this treatment will be obvious, when
it is remembered that in Venezuela fermentation takes
only one day. The fine Criollo and Forastero cocoa
of the coastal regions will not stand a longer fermenta-
tion. The result must be that the pulp is very
imperfectly removed or dissolved, and that a great
part of this hygroscopic, sugar-containing stuff still
adheres to the seeds. Washing these fine cocoas, with
their delicate aroma, would certainly damage the
quality ; therefore another way had to be found to
prevent them becoming mouldy or mildewed. This is
attained by the method of staining or claying. The
coating of dry earth not only kills the fungus already
present, or at any rate stops its further growth, but
also prevents the germination of new fungus-spores.

Preuss l considers, however, that the principal object
of the staining is to give the cocoa a good uniform
colour and to conceal discolorations. He therefore
recommends that the staining should be omitted, arid
uniformity of colour attained by treating the cocoa
more carefully in fermentation and curing. It may
quite well be that the uniform colour obtained by
staining makes the Venezuela cocoa more attractive to
the merchants, but this advantage is of minor import-
ance. The merchants and manufacturers are clever
enough to know that qualities other than the outer
appearance determine the value of the product,
and they readily pay high prices for Ecuador " Arriba "
cocoa, which certainly cannot be said to have a good
appearance.

The best earth for staining is found at the coast ;
the planters of Guigue (plateau of Valencia) generally
obtain it from Choroni.

In Trinidad another method of claying is followed,

1 Expedition, p. 232.

vii FERMENTATION AND DRYING 227

called "dancing." The purpose is the same: namely,
to protect the beans against mould, though this is not
so necessary as in Venezuela, since fermentation lasts
longer in Trinidad, and the greater part of the pulp
is therefore removed during fermentation. Indeed,
many planters no longer use the method of claying and
dancing, and it appears that the prices they obtain for
their cocoa are just as high as those paid for clayed
cocoa. Sometimes merchants have even complained
that the claying was exaggerated by some planters ; and
it is at any rate certain that the merchant and manu-
facturers prefer no claying, or very little, to too much.

The dancing method is usually performed as follows.1
The beans are exposed to the sun for the first day after
fermentation. The second day they are heaped up
longitudinally along the centre of the drying-floor, and
the next morning the dry powdered earth is sifted over
and along the heap with a fine sieve. In the meantime
the cocoa is gently stirred about by means of the ordinary
cocoa-shovel, in order that the earth may be absorbed
as uniformly as possible by all the beans. The cocoa
is then cleaned by a woman or boy, who keeps walking
through the heap of beans, picking off and removing
all the pulpy threads and foreign substances. When
this has been done, the beans are brought into heaps
and sprinkled with fresh water, till the cocoa becomes
slippery. It is then trampled by men with naked feet ;
and while this is going on the beans which are scattered
about are continually brought back to the top of the
heap. This "dancing" lasts about an hour, and after-
wards the beans are dried.

Loss in weight during fermentation and drying. —
Very few reliable statistics in regard to this loss are
available. In Surinam the present author obtained the
following figures : 30 fruits, yielding 3*8 kilograms of
fresh seeds, produced 1*2 kilogram of marketable cocoa;
the loss was therefore 68 per cent. Fauchere gives the

1 The more elaborate description given by Olivieri will be found in Chapter
X. under "Trinidad."

228

COCOA

CHAP. VII

following figures, also from Surinam : 377 fruits, yielding
45 kilograms of fresh seeds, gave 15 kilograms of market-
able cocoa ; the loss being 66 per cent.

In Trinidad the loss is estimated by Mr. Augustus,
the manager of the Government Cocoa Plantation
(" Kiver Estate "), to be 62 per cent.

In Madagascar, according to Fauchere, 1600 fruits of
Criollo gave 100 kilograms of seeds and 40 kilograms of
cocoa, the loss thus being 60 per cent.

In San Thome, according to Chevalier, 1000 fruits of
San Thome Creoulo gave 89 kilograms of fresh seeds
and 54 kilograms of cocoa, the loss being only 39 per
cent. This is exceptionally low, and it would be in-
teresting to know if this is really the average ; it can
hardly be correct that less than 20 fruits are sufficient
in San Thome to give 1 kilogram of cocoa.

These different figures may be more easily compared
in the following form : —

Country.

Author.

Number of
fruits.

Weight of
fresh seeds.

Weight of
cocoa.

Loss.

Surinam . .

Van Hall

250

Kilogs.
32

Kilogs.

10

Per cent.
68

Surinam . .

Fauchere

251

30

10

66

Trinidad .

Augustus i 330

26J

10

62

Madagascar .

Fauchere | 400

25

10

60

San Thome .

Chevalier

185 (?)

16J(?)

10(?)

39(?)

Sorting. — This process is neglected in several
countries where a cocoa of mediocre quality is produced.
Sometimes only a superficial sorting is performed, merely
to separate impurities and worthless beans from the
rest. In other countries, where the difference in price
between first and second quality is important, the cocoa
is carefully sorted into three or more classes (Fig. 79).

Summary of methods. — A short review of the
methods of fermentation and curing in use in the
various cocoa-growing countries may not be out of place.

230 COCOA CHAP.

Ecuador. — No special fermentation ; the beans are
immediately spread out on the drying-floor, and dried
during the day ; at sunset they are gathered into heaps
and covered with banana leaves ; they ferment slightly
during the night. The following day they are again
spread out. This goes on till the beans are dry. No
claying or staining, or artificial drying. The consequence
of this slight fermentation is that the cocoa is very
subject to mould. It has been proposed to ferment more
thoroughly ; but it seems to the present author that
what is wanted is more careful, not longer, fermentation,
and that it would be better to try to remove the adhering
pulp by washing, or by staining in the Venezuelan way,
if suitable earth is obtainable.

San Thome. — The method of fermentation adopted
in San Thome is, according to Chevalier,1 still very
primitive, and could certainly be much improved. On
some plantations the beans are simply put into a "sweat-
ing" box, which is closed by a tight-fitting board or
covered with banana leaves. Here the beans are left four
to six days without being removed. It is very remark-
able that this should be possible ; in most other countries
the cocoa would be wholly spoiled if left so long in the
same box. On other plantations the beans are turned
over into another box every day, and left fermenting for
three to five, or four to six days. Generally speaking,
a rather long fermentation seems to be considered
advisable. Drying is done on large drying-floors or on
movable waggons. In some parts of the island, where
the rainfall is heavy, artificial drying is necessary. This
is generally done in the Trinidad way, by heating the
drying-floors by means of tubes with hot air.

Trinidad. — A system of " sweating " boxes is always
used, and after the second day the beans are turned over
into the next box ; this is repeated every day or every
other day. Planters disagree as to the length of time
of fermentation. While, for instance, Olivieri 2 declares

1 Chevalier, Le Cacaoyer dans VOuest africain, p. 145.
2 Olivieri, Treatise, p. 90.

vii FERMENTATION AND DRYING 231

that "a well-directed fermentation seldom demands
more than three days to attain the desired stage," it
appears that on the best estates, where the highest
priced products are obtained, a longer fermentation is
considered to be preferable. Hart even advises a nine
days' fermentation. Drying is done on large drying-
floors of cement, and on floors of wood provided with
movable roofs. Sometimes artificial heat is used, by
means .of pipes with hot air or hot water running under
the wooden drying-floors, making it possible to dry on
the same spot either by means of the heat of the sun
or artificially. The " dancing" method is often used to
clean and polish the seeds, but this may safely be omitted
when the fermentation has been carried out carefully
and long enough.

Venezuela. — In the west of Venezuela (the coastal
district between La Guayra and Puerto Cabello, the
district west of Puerto Cabello, and the district south
from the lake of Valencia), where the very fine " Caracas "
cocoa is produced, a very short fermentation is given.
The cocoa is first spread out and left to dry for one day ;
it is then allowed to ferment for one day, either in a heap
or in a " sweating " box, and the third day it is spread out
for the final drying. In this comparatively dry country
the old-fashioned drying-floors, made of bricks covered
with cement, are still in use. Movable roofs are rare,
and artificial heat is never used. " Staining " by means
of red earth is customary.

Ceylon. — The short and clear description of fermenta-
tion given by Wright l may be quoted : —

In Ceylon most cacao-planters adopt what may be termed the
natural method of fermenting, which consists in heaping the fresh
seeds on the floor or in receptacles and covering them with leaves
of the banana, or ordinary cloth, or layers of these alternating
with layers of earth. The fermenting floor is usually built with
a slope, so that the watery products may escape during fermen-
tation. Each heap may consist of four or more bushels of fresh
seeds, which are turned over every day. A period of thirty-six
hours to five days or even longer is allowed for fermentation.

1 Wright, Cocoa, p. 109.

232 COCOA

CHAP. VII

It is customary to wash the seeds after fermentation.
After washing, the seeds are dried on large floors,
generally covered with coir matting. Sometimes wooden
floors with movable roofs are used. Artificial heat is
often used, in curing-houses built for the purpose.

Java. — The Criollo is generally fermented for one
day and a half, two days, or two days and a half. The
cocoa is turned over either once or twice every day.
The Forastero is generally fermented for two and a half
or three and a half days. Large " sweating" boxes are
used, into which the beans are put in heaps or spread
out into a layer of comparatively low height. They are
then thoroughly washed and spread on drying-floors, and
generally finished in drying-houses much like those in
Ceylon.

Surinam. — The methods are almost the same as
those in Trinidad. Fermentation is done in " sweating "
boxes, standing next to each other, about six in number.
A long fermentation, lasting generally six to eight days,
is necessary. The cocoa is dried on cemented floors, and
on many plantations on waggons which can be moved
quickly into the storing-house as soon as a shower comes.
On several plantations drying apparatus moved and
heated by steam-engines is used.

CHAPTER VIII

DISEASES AND ENEMIES

THOUGH a large number of fungi have been described as
parasites of the cocoa tree, the parasitic character of
many of them has by no means been proved, and in the
case of several there is no reason to suppose that they
do any harm. The number of diseases caused to cocoa
by fungi may accordingly be considered as compara-
tively small, and the number of insects which attack the
plant can also be regarded as being not very large.
Among both categories of enemies, however, there are a
few which are very destructive and cause enormous loss
in the countries where they are prevalent. This is the
case in Java with the cocoa-moth and the Helopeltis, in
Ecuador with the " mosquilla," and in Surinam with
the so-called " witch-broom " fungus.

The natures of the diseases to which cocoa is subject
in Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela, San Domingo, and Haiti
are almost wholly unknown ; and of those occurring in
San Thome and the French colonies, Martinique and
Guadeloupe, our information is not more than frag-
mentary. It is only in some of the English and Dutch
colonies (the Antilles, Java, Surinam, Ceylon) that
thorough investigations have been carried out and
important practical results obtained ; but in the last few
years competent mycologists and entomologists have
begun to study the cocoa diseases in the German
colonies (Kamerun, Samoa). A complete review of the
diseases and insect-pests of the cocoa plant through-
out the whole cocoa-growing world can therefore not be

233

234 COCOA CHAP.

written at present ; all that can be done is to give a
summary of the present state of our knowledge.

THE CAUSES OF DISEASE. — Every tree which is not
in healthy condition may be called diseased. When
the soil is too poor, when the plant is damaged by wind
or by sudden lack of shade, when the drainage is in-
sufficient, or any other harmful condition of cultivation
is present, the tree may be considered to be a subject
for the pathologist. Still these kinds of disease need
not be described here : they are avoided when correct
methods of cultivation are applied. But there are
other diseases which damage the fields in spite of the
best methods of cultivation, and which attack perfectly
healthy trees just as readily as the weak ones. The
cause of many of these diseases was formerly a complete
mystery to practical planters, who gave them names
without real significance, such as " blight," or " blast,"
or " rust/' or " die-back." Botanists have discovered,
however, that most of them are caused by fungi which
penetrate into the tissue of the plants and kill or at
any rate damage it. These diseases are therefore
contagious, because the fungus by means of its spores
can spread from the diseased plant to a healthy one.

Apart from this large group of diseases due to fungi,
there is another large group caused by insects. These
were generally better understood by the planter, who
was often able to detect the cause without any scientific
aid. Sometimes, however, this was not the case. In
Surinam, for instance, the so-called "leaf disease" was
well known to the planters for a long time without their
suspecting that it was caused by an insect (thrips).

Finally, the cocoa tree is in all countries more or less
damaged by larger animals, chiefly birds and mammals.

CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES

The external symptoms of the different diseases
and pests are not sufficiently characteristic to allow of
a clear classification being based upon them. In this

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 235

respect the cocoa tree is not like the sugar-cane, for
instance, for the diseases which attack the latter are so
different in their manifestation that in many cases the
external symptoms alone enable the cause to be ascer-
tained. The cocoa diseases, however, generally need a
thorough investigation before a definite opinion can be
formed as to their real character.

Koot and stem diseases of the cocoa are usually
indicated by a yellowish colour, followed by a more or
less general falling-off of the leaves. The way in which
this takes place may often enable the initiated patho-
logist to say whether the tree is attacked by canker, die-
back, stem-borers, root-fungus, or other stem or root
diseases, but closer investigation is almost always
necessary to decide this with certainty. It will there-
fore be best first to make a classification based upon the
different causes of the diseases :—

A (1). Diseases of the Root caused by Fungi.

Only a few root diseases are known, and
these are not very important.

In Java a fungus sometimes occurs which
covers the roots with a white mycelium, with
the result that the tree usually dies more or
less suddenly ......" White - root fungus "

(Forties semitostus).

In Samoa, New Guinea, Ceylon, and West
Africa, a dangerous root fungus has been
observed . . . . . . " Brown - root disease "

(Hymenochaete noxia).

In Kamerun a characteristic root fungus
was observed by von Faber . . . (Not yet identified.)

In Trinidad and the other Antilles, and also
in Ceylon, root diseases have been observed (Not yet identified.)

A (2). Diseases of the Root caused by Insects.

In South America and the Antilles the
roots of young plants, especially at the point
of junction of stem and root, are not seldom
damaged by ...... The " mole cricket "

(Scapteriscus didactylus).

B (1). Diseases of the Stem and Branches caused by Fungi.

A widely spread disease occurring in
America (Trinidad, Surinam, etc.), Africa

236

COCOA

CHAP

(Kamerun), and Asia (Ceylon, Java, Samoa),
is the so-called ......

On the Antilles, and in Surinam and
perhaps also in other countries, severe losses
are caused by a fungus which kills the
branches and the stem ....

In Java the branches are sometimes
attacked by a fungus which covers them with
a whitish or reddish overgrowth and eventu-
ally kills them ......

In Dominica and St. Lucia a similar dis-
ease due to an allied fungus has been ob-
served , . .

In Trinidad, Grenada, and St. Lucia a
fungus is found, having the appearance of a
tuft of horse-hair caught in the branches

Another fungus, which covers the branches
and leaves with a cobweb-like overgrowth,
has been recorded from the West Indies,
Kamerun, Ceylon, and Java

" Canker " (PkytopUliora

Faberi).

"Die-back" (Diplodia
cacaoicola).

" Djamoer oepas " (Corti-
cium javanicuni).

" Pink disease " (Gorticium
lilacino-fuscum).

" Horse - hair blight"
(Marasmius equicrinu*).

" Thread blight ;' or
" Cobweb-fungus " (Stil-
bella liana ?).

B (2). Diseases of the Stem and Branches caused by Insects.

Here the large group of borers has to be
mentioned first. In every cocoa-growing
country the cocoa tree is attacked by borers,
larvae of beetles, or caterpillars, which bore
into the branches and the stem and cause
great damage. There are a great many
different kinds of borers. In the West Indies
and Surinam the most common one is the
larva of a beetle . . . .

In Java much damage is done by the
larvae of the small beetle ....

Other borers are also found in Java, but
they are of less importance than the Glenea ;
they are .

titeirastoma depressum.
Glenea novemguttata.

The last mentioned is also found in Kamerun,
while less common is in Java the very large
larva of the beautiful beetle

Pelargoderns bipunctatus
and Monohammus fistu-
lator.

Catoxantha bicolor.

VIII

DISEASES AND ENEMIES

237

Very noxious in Java is tlie caterpillar of
a Bombycid moth, living as a borer in stem
and branches ......

In Kamerun and San Thome an allied
species causes much damage

In Java small beetles, sometimes called
"bubuk" (Xyleborus sp. ), are sometimes
found, especially in stems attacked by canker
disease.

Several other borers are found in different
countries ; some of them of comparatively
little importance, others not yet thoroughly
investigated. They need not be mentioned
here.

In Kamerun the young branches are
sometimes attacked by a bug, which is
especially harmful to the green twigs .

Zeuzera co/eae.

San Thome borer (Zeuzera
sp.).

Sahlbergella singularis.

B (3). Damage to Stem and Roots.

This is caused in many countries by
different mammals.

G (1). Diseases of Leaves and Twigs caused by Fungi.

In Surinam the twigs are attacked and de-
formed by the " witch-broom " fungus. This
fungus also attacks the fruits. To avoid
misunderstanding, in view of the next
mentioned disease, we call this pest

In Kamerun another sort of witch-broom
disease, much less disastrous, attacks the
twigs .......

In Java, Kamerun, Ceylon, and the West
Indies both the branches and the twigs and
leaves are attacked by the already mentioned

In Trinidad a wilt disease has been
observed, caused by the same fungus which
is the cause of "canker" and "black rot"
of pods. Probably this disease also occurs
in other countries

The Surinam witch-
broom disease " (Colleto-
trichum luxificum).

" The Kamerun witch-
broom disease" (prob-
ably caused by Taph-
rina Bussei}.

"Cobweb-fungus" (Stil-
bella nana ?}

" Chupon wilt " (Phyto-
phthora Fdberi).

238

COCOA

CHAP.

G (2). Insect Pests on Leaves and Twigs.

In Java and Ceylon the twigs (and also the
fruits) are badly damaged by the well-known
bugs . . .

In Kamerun another bug is harmful in
the same way to the young shoots and the
fruits (sometimes also to the young branches)

Helopeltis antonii and
Helopeltis theivora.

Sahlbergella singularis.

The leaves are eaten by the following caterpillars : —

In Java - . .

In Java and Ceylon ....

In most other cocoa-growing countries
various caterpillars are more or less noxious
to the leaves, but they have not yet been
studied.

In the Antilles and Surinam great damage
is done by the thrips, which causes the
defoliation and often the death of the
trees

Orthocraspeda trima,

Belippa lohor.
Parasa lepida.

"Thrips" (Physopus rubro-
cincta).

D (1). Diseases of the Fruits caused by Fungi.

Well known in many, perhaps in all the

cocoa-growing countries is the disease called " Black rot " of pods

(Phytophthora Faberi)
(West Indies), or
"Brown rot" (Ceylon).

In Surinam and Demerara enormous
damage has been done by the " Surinam
witch-broom fungus," which attacks the pods,
causing " hardening " (" induration ") of pods

Colletotrichum luxificum.

D (2). Insect Pests on Fruits.

In Java great damage is done every year
by the cocoa-moth, which spoils the fruits .

In Java and Ceylon much damage is
caused to the fruits by the bugs already
mentioned as enemies of the young shoots

In Ecuador the worst enemy of the cocoa,
is a bug which attacks the fruits

Cocoa -moth
cramerella).

(Zaratha

Helopeltis antonii and
Helopeltis theivora.

" Mosquilla " (scientific
name not yet given).

VIII

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 239

D (3). Damage to Fruits by Birds and Mammals.

In different countries the fruits are damaged
by rats and squirrels. This is the case in
some of the Antilles (Guadeloupe), in Samoa,
Java, and Kamerun. Birds are sometimes
harmful to the fruits (e.g. in Surinam).

E. Pests attacking the marketable Cocoa.

Small caterpillars feed on the seed skin of
the marketable bean. They have been
observed in the West Indies, in Ceylon, and
Java. ..... " Chocolate moth "

(Ephestia elutella~).

METHODS OF FIGHTING DISEASES AND PESTS

The fight against fungi and insects, the two
large groups of plant-enemies, takes place along two
lines: (l) preventing the appearance and spreading
of the enemy, and (2) attacking and destroying the
parasite when it has appeared.

I. The appearance and spreading of the enemy may
be prevented or hindered by the following methods :—

(a) By making the condition of the tree as healthy
as possible. — Some parasites do not show a marked
preference for weak plants, and as readily attack strong
and healthy trees ; but there are others which seem
unable to get hold of a strong tree and which only
attack trees in a weakened condition. This is the
case, for instance, with the cocoa thrips, and more or
less with the "canker" fungus.

(6) By avoiding the presence of dead wood in the
trees, because it enables parasites to enter more easily
into the living branches. This is the case, for instance,
with '" die-back " fungus and the various borers.

(c) By seeing that the atmosphere of the cocoa
fields is not too damp. — Dampness favours the growth
and multiplication of most fungi, and consequently
letting in air and sun is often a help in the fight against
diseases caused by parasitical fungi (u black rot " of
pods, " canker " of stem and branches).

(d) By avoiding the presence of other kinds of

240 COCOA

CHAP.

trees or weeds on which the enemy likes to live. — Thus
in Java the presence of " rambutan " trees has to be
avoided, as they constitute a source from which the
cocoa-moth can contaminate the cocoa fields ; and the
same with the "bixa" tree, on which the Helopeltis
likes to live.

(e) By causing conditions which make it impossible,
or very difficult for the enemy to live or develop on
the trees. — The method of " rampassing " (removing at
a certain time all the fruits in the whole plantation)
makes it impossible for the cocoa - moth to develop,
while the introduction of many nests of the " black
ant," which run in large numbers over the fruits and
the twigs, makes it impossible for the Helopeltis to
live on the tree.

(f) By preventing the germination of fungus- spores,
which settle on the leaves or fruits, by covering these
parts of the tree with a coating of Bordeaux mixture.
Indeed, spraying with this mixture has the effect
of preventing the contraction of fungoid diseases.
Thus it has been successfully applied against " black
rot " of the pods.

II. The direct fight is carried on mainly in the
following ways : —

(a) By catching the enemies and killing them. —
This is only possible with comparatively large insects,
such as beetles and their larvae, which live in the stem
and the branches, and also with the Helopeltis bug.
Traps of different kinds may sometimes be useful.

(b) By removing the parts on which the parasite
has settled. — This method is applied more than any
other against parasitic fungi, as, e.g., the removal and
burning of the whole crown of the tree to fight the
Surinam witch-broom disease ; the quick removal and
burning of the dying branches attacked by the " die-
back " fungus, of the fruits attacked by the " black rot "
fungus and of the trees, the roots of which are suffering
from "white-root fungus."

(c) By killing the fungus by means of fungicide

VIII

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 241

mixtures. - - Bordeaux mixture, though principally
valuable as a preventive, has also some importance as
a curative. Ifc is prepared as follows : — 3 kilograms
(6^ Ibs.) of sulphate of copper (bluestone) are dissolved
in 100 litres (22 gallons) of water by hanging a bag
with the sulphate of copper in the water the day before
the application. Just before the application 3 kilograms
of quicklime are slaked with a little water and then
more water is added to make up 100 litres. The two
100 -litre solutions are now poured simultaneously
into a third barrel, or the bluestone solution is poured
slowly into the lime with continual stirring. The
resulting mixture must be used immediately, as it
spoils by standing. Only wooden barrels must be used,
and all contact with iron must be avoided.

There are many different kinds of spraying machines,
which need not be described here. The present author
has used those of the following firms : the Deming
Company (Salem, Ohio, U.S. A. ),Gebr. Holder (Metzingen,
Germany), Besnard, and Vermorel, but many other firms
make equally good machines. It is only necessary to
point out that there is a great advantage in using a
machine in which the mixture is put under pressure
before spraying is begun, instead of being kept under
pressure by continual pumping while spraying. Such
a machine enables the workman to devote his attention
entirely to careful spraying, without having at the same
time to be busy pumping.

Sulphate of copper (3 per cent solution) without
the addition of lime is much more effective, and has
much stronger fungicide properties, than Bordeaux
mixture, but it damages the foliage and can, therefore,
only be used for spraying leafless trees. It has proved
of great value in the fight against the Surinam witch-
broom disease, the spraying being performed after the
removal of the leaf-bearing branches.

(d) By killing the insects by means of insecticide
mixtures. — Of the insecticide mixtures three groups
may be distinguished : —

R

242 COCOA CHAP.

(1) Insecticides with which the leaves are treated
and which poison the insects when they eat the leaves
(" stomach poisons "). Formerly Paris green was much
used for the purpose, but nowadays arsenate of lead
is considered to be preferable. Arsenate of lead is
sprayed on the leaves in the proportion of 1 part to 100
parts of water, or even 1 part to 1000 parts of water.
As the cocoa does not suffer much from leaf-eating
insects, spraying of the whole tree with this solution is
rarely necessary. It is sometimes useful in the case of
a sudden attack of leaf-eating caterpillars, and it has
been tried in the fight against borers.

(2) Insecticides which kill the insects on coming
into contact with them (" contact poisons "). This group
contains the numerous mixtures used against lice, scale
insects, mites, etc. Kerosene emulsion has been reported
to be successful against thrips in cocoa. It is prepared
as follows : — 2 parts of water and 1 part of soft soap
are mixed and heated till the mixture boils and the
soap is wholly dissolved ; then it is taken from the fire
and 4 parts of kerosene are added, and the mixture is
thoroughly mixed for ten minutes by means of a sprayer.
This mixture is kept as a stock solution before use, and
is diluted to ten or twenty times its original volume.

A great many other contact poisons have been used,
especially against scale insects, and it is not impossible
that one will be found to be effective against Helopeltis.

(3) Insecticides which kill the insects by intoxica-
tion. Carbon bisulphide and carbon tetrachloride are
the important representatives of this group. Carbon
bisulphide is used against the larvae of borers ; it is
injected into the tunnels by means of a small syringe.

FUNGUS DISEASES

Root diseases. — These diseases of the root occur in
many countries, but most of them do comparatively
little harm, and have not yet been the subject of
thorough investigation.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 243

The " white-root fungus " (probably Fomes semi-
tostus) is more harmful to the Para rubber tree (Hevea
brasiliensis), to tea, to cinchona, and other plants in
Java, Sumatra, the Straits, and Ceylon. Now and
then it does some harm to the cocoa trees, but almost
always only in fields recently established on virgin
land.

The fungus appears as a white felt-like cover on the
roots ; it seems to dislike the deeper layers of the soil,
and appears principally on the main root, not far from
the surface of the soil, and on the larger side roots near
the junction with the main root. Along these parts
it creeps with its mycelium in the form of irregular
threads and patches, extending not only over the roots
and sometimes the basal part of the stem, but also
through the surrounding soil, binding together the
particles of earth so that they remain adhering to the
roots when the tree is dug out. The fungus simply
kills the trees without causing characteristic symptoms.

A similar root disease has been found in Samoa,1
New Guinea, Ceylon, and West Africa ; the fungus
resembles the one just mentioned, but the mycelium
is more or less yellowish or even brownish, and belongs
to another species (Hymenochaete noxia). It has caused
much damage in Samoa.

On the Antilles different root diseases have been
observed. A "white-root disease" and a " black-root
disease" have been described by South (West Indian
Bulletin, vol. xii. 1912, p. 479). The fungi which cause
these diseases have, however, not yet been identified.
A "Thyridaria root rot" has also been described : it has
been attributed to Diplodia cacaoicola ( = Thyridaria
tar da], but this still requires confirmation.

The root fungus of Kamerun has been described
by von Faber.2 The symptoms of the disease are
the same as those of the "white-root fungus" of Java,

1 Preuss, Beihefte zum Tropcnpflanzer, vii. (1907), p. 71.

2 Von Faber, "Die Krankheiten und Parasiten des Kakaobaumes " (Arb.
Kate. Biol. Anstalt, 1909, p. 223).

244 COCOA

CHAP.

viz. a sudden wilting and subsequent drying of the
leaves, without falling off. Very characteristic is the
longitudinal splitting of the root by radial clefts, the
walls of which are covered with a thick felt-like growth
of the fungus.

The fight against these different root-fungi follows
the same lines in all countries. First of all they need
a very wet medium for their development, and they
appear to a destructive extent only in fields where the
soil is very damp. Accordingly, proper drainage has
often been sufficient to cause the disease to disappear.
Secondly, the spread of the parasites through the soil
is much favoured by the presence of dead wood, on
which the fungus feeds, and is thus assisted to pass from
the root of one tree to the root of another. This fact
is considered of great importance by the rubber planters
of Java and the Straits ; and on low-lying lands, where
the white-root fungus was very troublesome, it has
often been considered necessary, even in fields with
four-year-old Para* rubber trees, to dig out all the dead
trunks and roots, or at any rate the trunks from which
the fungus has spread.

The direct destruction of root fungus is not to be
neglected wherever it appears. The diseased root-system
should be carefully dug out, and it is generally advisable
also to dig out the roots of the neighbouring trees,
even if they do not appear to have been attacked.
When, however, there is no reason to fear a quick
spreading of the fungus and the trees are considered
valuable, this measure will not be applied before it
has been proved to be absolutely necessary, but the
infected area should be isolated by a trench 3 feet deep.
Finally, it is always advisable to disinfect the soil by
means of carbolineum, using one gallon for every 10
square metres (12 square yards). For some time after
this treatment (perhaps about six months) the soil will
remain unfit for plant growth ; the reappearance of
weeds generally indicates when it can be planted again,
and at this period soil treated in this way is remarkably

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 245

fertile. In some countries lime at the rate of 10
kilograms per 100 square feet is applied with success.

Canker. — This is probably the most widely spread
cocoa disease. It has been observed in America (the
Antilles, Surinam), in Africa (Kamerun), and Asia
(Ceylon, Java, Samoa).

When the cocoa tree is attacked by canker, moist
spots appear on the bark of the stem and also (but not
to the same extent) on the main branches. When the
canker has just started and the spots are small, they
are easily overlooked ; but when they become larger
and older, they take on a dark colour, the fluid flows
out more freely, and sometimes a gummy exudation
is also to be seen. When the spots dry up, a more or
less brownish tinge appears. If the outer layer of the
bark be cut away, the disease is much more conspicuous
(Fig. 80), and the affected parts of the bark appear as
light, claret-coloured areas. Later on the claret colour
grows darker.

Though it principally attacks the bark, the fungus
is not always confined to this part. Not infrequently
it penetrates into the wood, which assumes a brownish
or reddish colour, and this dark discoloration is some-
times continued in characteristic narrow stripes far
under the healthy bark or into the wood.

Trees which are severely attacked are sometimes
killed, when the dead tree may be seen still bearing a
good number of dead leaves. Generally, however, the
decay is slower, the foliage becomes gradually thinner,
and it may be a long time, sometimes several months,
before the tree actually dies. Very often the tree
recovers from an attack, especially when the season
becomes dry, and the infection remains confined to
one or more larger or smaller spots which dry up and
become completely separated from the healthy parts by
a layer of wound-cork. In this case it is easily loosened
and removed as a whole by means of a knife or some
other instrument.

In the discoloured parts of the bark and wood the

FIG. 80. — Part of a stem attacked by canker.

A, Appearance of the diseased spot after removing the outer layer of bark.

B, Cross-section showing the disease penetrating through the bark into the wood.

CHAP, vm DISEASES AND ENEMIES 247

mycelium of the parasite is to be found with the aid
of the microscope ; sometimes it is comparatively scarce,
at other times it is found very easily. The investiga-
tions of Rorer l in Trinidad and Fetch 2 in Ceylon have
shown that the parasite which causes the canker is no
other than Phytophthora Faberi, which is also the
cause of the " black rot " of pods.

It is a remarkable fact that this parasite is always
closely followed by another fungus 3 which, however, does
not seem to play a role of any importance, and lives
in a pure condition (i.e. unaccompanied by other sapro-
phytic fungi) in the tissue attacked by Phytophthora.

Another remarkable thing is that the blackening of
pods and the canker of stem and main branches, though
caused by the same fungus, do not at all occur side by
side in the cocoa fields. Fields which are suffering
every year from canker often show very little blackening
of pods, and vice versa. Thus in Java several planta-
tions suffer badly every year from canker, but black rot
of pods is almost an unknown thing. In Kamerun,
black rot of pods is a most serious disease, while canker,
though present here and there, is of no great importance.
This shows that the conditions which render cocoa
liable to attack by Phytophthora are different for stem
and for pods.

The great influence of cultural conditions upon the
canker disease is also demonstrated by the fact that
it never makes its appearance in some fields, though
badly contaminated fields are adjoining. The conditions
which render the trees liable to canker are not yet
completely understood, but at any rate dampness and
a wet soil favour the disease, which is always most

1 Rorer, "Pod-rot, Canker, and Chupon-Wilt of Cacao " (Bull, of the Dept. of
Agriculture, Trinidad, July 1910).

2 Fetch, "Cacao and Hevea Canker" (Circ. Eoy. Bot. Gardens, Ceylon, v. 13,
1910).

3 This fungus is a Fusarium (Nectria) and appears in a few varieties, of which
the variety with large spores has been called Fusarium colorans, the variety with
smaller spores Fusarium theobromae ; of this variety with small spores there is a
strain which makes Nectria-perithecia. These interesting saprophytes have been
studied by Rutgers (" Onderzoekingen over Cacaokanker," Bulletin No. 1 of
the Division for Plant Diseases of the Dept. of Agriculture, Buitenzorg}.

248 COCOA CHAP.

prevalent in the rainy season. A moist soil and stand-
ing water should therefore be avoided by efficient
drainage, and the humidity in the fields should be
reduced by thinning out where the trees are planted
closely, by pruning where the foliage system is too
dense, and by removing as much of the shade as seems
necessary.

The direct treatment of the trees by excising the
affected parts has great drawbacks ; the trees generally
suffer considerably, and the remedy is not completely
effective. Shaving off the bark superficially is more to
be recommended ; when this treatment has been applied,
the spot generally dries out quickly and the fungus
dies. Experiments are now being made in treating the
diseased parts with a disinfectant, but satisfactory results
have not yet been obtained.

Finally, it must be remembered that the canker
spots are in some countries favourite places for the
attacks of insects, e.g. the " bubuk " beetle (Xyleborus)
in Java. If treatment with a disinfectant be successful,
the effect must be not only to kill the fungus and stop
its further growth, but also to make the dead bark
poisonous to the insects in question.

Wounds also favour the development of canker,
especially those made by borers. In order to get rid
of canker, therefore, it is also necessary to fight the
borers and to close the wounds by a layer of tar.

Die-back disease. — "Die-back disease" (caused by
a fungus, Diplodia cacaoicola] is probably very widely
spread throughout the cocoa -growing world. It has
been observed in the Antilles (Trinidad, St. Vincent,
Grenada, St. Lucia, Dominica), Guiana (Surinam,
Demerara), Kamerun, Ceylon ; probably in Samoa ; and
perhaps also in Java and Ecuador.

When trees are attacked by this fungus, the leaves
become yellow and fall off, with the result that the tree
is completely defoliated before it dies. The disease
generally begins at the extremity of a branch, attacking
twigs which have been weakened by some cause or

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 249

other, e.g. by thrips or by other insects, by winds or
by the witch-broom disease (Surinam). From here it
makes its way downward into the branches, finally
reaching the stem ; but sometimes it stops at the place
of junction of a side branch or of a main branch with
the stem, thus restraining its ravages to a part of the
branch system.

The disease has also been known to appear in
perfectly strong and healthy trees after careless pruning,
and also after pruning in the wet season, when the rains
have prevented a thorough tarring of the cut surfaces.

The disease makes its way much more quickly along
than across the branches, and a branch may often be
seen attacked over its whole length but only on one
side (often the underside) ; here the rind is dead, but
is still fresh along the other side of the branch, which
bears fresh green leaves.

Very characteristic is the discoloration of the wood
in the diseased parts of branch and stem. It first
assumes a light-brown colour, and becomes greyer after
death owing to the black colour of the fungus threads,
which grow through the tissues. With the microscope
the mycelium is to be seen running through the tissues ;
when young the hyphae are colourless, when older they
become darker and give a greyish colour to the wood.
It was at first thought that the disease was caused
in the different countries by different though closely
allied fungi. In Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and
Dominica a Diplodia was found ; in Trinidad a
Lasiodiplodia ; and in Surinam a Chaetodiplodia.
It has been proved, however,1 that all these fructifications
belong to the same fungus, which accordingly may be
called Diplodia cacaoicola (Fig. 81).

Another higher fructification of the Diplodia has
been found by Keith Bancroft to develop on the dead
wood and has been named Thyridaria tarda. As,

1 Van Hall-de Jonge and Drost, "The Die-Back Disease," etc. (Recueil des
travaux botaniques n&rlandais, vol. vi. 1909) ; van Hall-de Jonge and Drost,
"De instervingsziekte der cacaobooinen " (Bull. No. 21 of the Dept. of Agr.,
Surinam}.

250 COCOA

CHAP.

however, the name Diplodia has already become popular,
it has been thought better to retain it for this parasite
as well.

The same parasite has often been found in different
countries on decaying cocoa fruits, and it has been
thought that it attacks not only the branches and the
stem, but also the fruits, causing a disease which is
called in the West Indies "brown rot of pods." This,
however, is not a well-established fact. At any rate it
is not easy to inoculate healthy fruits on the tree with
Diplodia, and when the present author has found
Diplodia in the field on diseased fruits, it could in

FIG. 81.— Fungus of the "die-back" disease (Diplodia cacaoicola).

a, b, and c, Different forms of fructification of the parasite : a, the Diplodia ; b, the
Chaetodiplodia : and c, the Lasiodiplodia. The figures are cross-sections through the different
fructification or pycnidia (enlarged, a and b 115 times ; c, 18 times).

d, Ripe Dlplwlia spores (enlarged 188 times).

most cases be proved that the fruits had first been
attacked by the fungus of " black rot " of pods
(Phytophthora Faberi). Nevertheless, decaying fruits
form a source of infection, and as such they are
dangerous, just like dead wood or other decaying sub-
stance, on which Diplodia easily lives as a saprophyte.

It has been found in Ceylon, the Federated Malay
States, and Surinam, that the Diplodia also attacks
the Para rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis).

The "die-back" often causes considerable loss in
the cocoa fields, especially in the case of neglected or
carelessly managed plantations.

As the parasite is probably only able to penetrate

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 251

into the twigs and branches by means of existing small
or large wounds, prevention is best attained by keeping
the branch and foliage system in strong and healthy
condition, by avoiding enemies like thrips which de-
foliate the tree, by keeping the wind off, and by seeing
that the trees are not suddenly exposed to the full
sunlight by removing the shade too abruptly. All
dead wood should be quickly pruned off. After pruning
the cut surfaces must be carefully treated with black
tar, and accordingly pruning should only be done in
the dry season. When a branch shows symptoms of
the disease, the tree can often be saved by cutting the
branch off; and even when the Diplodia has already
penetrated into the stem, it is often successful to cut
the tree down to within a foot or so from the ground.

Djamoer oepas (Corticiumjavanicum). — This para-
site is here and there the cause of the death of branches
in the cocoa fields in Java and Ceylon.

The fungus starts its growth on the outside of a
branch in the form of a tiny cobweb-like overgrowth,
which gradually forms whitish or reddish crusts which
especially develop on the side turned away from the
sunlight (Fig. 82). In this stadium the fungus can
penetrate into the wood, and then begins to be harmful
to the branch. On these crusts the Corticium fructifica-
tion is formed. Gradually the branch dies, and on the
dead branch the fungus often forms another fructifica-
tion, which was formerly regarded as belonging to
another fungus and was called Necator decretus. This
fructification has a stone-red, waxy appearance, and is
formed principally in clefts of the dead branch, especially
on the upper side.

The " djamoer oepas " fungus attacks a great number
of plants, but the damage it causes varies widely. It
is often found on tea, for instance, but seems unable
to penetrate into the wood ; it only grows superficially
on the bark, and the harm done to the tea plant is
unimportant.

In Java it is not very common on the cocoa tree,

252

COCOA

but when a branch has been attacked, the fungus easily
penetrates into the wood and generally causes the death
of the whole branch.

The fungus is more common on cocoa, Para rubber,
nutmeg, coffee, and cinchona, but has also been found
on many other plants.

Its occurrence in the cocoa fields is hardly ever so

^--spores

myceLium of

_jepicLermis
oF b fie bwig

FIG. 82. — Fungus of the "djarnoer oepas " disease (Corticivimjavanicum).

The figure shows the fungus in its first growth, living superficially on the twig and having
not yet penetrated into the tissue of the plant (enlarged 440 times, after Zimmerman).

serious that measures have to be taken against it ; but
if this is necessary it is advisable to prune the trees
and to let sun and air penetrate into the field as freely
as possible by thinning out both shade and cocoa
trees.

When the fungus has not succeeded in making a
strong growth, it may be destroyed by smearing it
with a weak solution of water-soluble carbolineum or
any other fungicide. When the disease has already

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 253

made some progress, however, it is better to cut the
branch off and burn it.

An allied species of Corticium was observed in the
Antilles (St. Lucia and Dominica). This fungus was
called Corticium lilacino -fuscum. Perhaps it is
identical with Corticium javanicum. This disease of
the Antilles, called " pink disease," is of no economic
importance.

Thread blight or cobweb fungus (Stilbella nana f)
-This disease was observed in Trinidad, St. Lucia,
Dominica, Grenada, Tobago, and British Guiana. A
cobweb fungus, probably the same as that of Trinidad,
has also been observed in Java, Ceylon, and Kamerun;
but in these places it does not seem to cause damage of
any importance.

The fungus settles especially on the twigs and leaves,
but sometimes it grows also over the branches and even
over the stem. It covers these parts with its mycelium
in the form of threads, which attain often a diameter
of one or even a few millimetres, and this cobweb-like
growth is much coarser than the mycelium of the
young " djamoer oepas," above mentioned. Later on
the colour of the mycelium is white, and finally more or
less brownish.

The fungus also attacks tea, Ficus elastica, and
several other cultivated and wild growing plants.

Horse-hair blight. — This disease occurs in Trinidad,
Grenada, and St. Lucia, and resembles a tuft of horse-
hair caught in the branches. Opinions are still divided
as to the identity of the fungus (probably Marasmius
equicrinus), and it is also still uncertain whether the
disease is really quite distinct from the " thread blight."
Occasionally and sporadically it is responsible for con-
siderable damage.

The Surinam witch-broom disease (Colletotrichum
luxificum). — This disease is happily limited to Surinam
and Demerara, but the losses caused in these countries
probably surpass those of any other disease of the cocoa
plant.

254

COCOA

CHAP.

The most conspicuous symptoms are the remarkable
hypertrophied twigs, called by the Dutch " krulloten "
(" curly shoots "), and in English " witch-broom " —both
names inappropriate, but at present popular. These
deformed twigs, however, are not the cause of the loss.
Their weakening effect on the tree is not so important

FIG. 83. — A hypertrophied twig attacked by the Surinam witch-broom disease.
(After Van Hall and Drost.)

as the damage done by the fungus to the fruits. The
" hardening" or "induration" of the attacked pods
causes a total or partial loss of the seeds, and the
number of fruits attacked has often been so great that
the yield of the plantation has been reduced to one-
tenth of the normal, or even less.

The " witch-brooms " (Fig. 83) are conspicuous by

vrn

DISEASES AND ENEMIES

255

strong hypertrophy, which makes them much thicker
than the healthy shoots and gives them a monstrous
appearance. They have also a tendency to grow more
vertically, and to make lateral twigs before they them-
selves have attained their full development. Such a
hypertrophied green twig, with undeveloped leaves and
bearing a great number of lateral twigs, has some
resemblance to the " witch -brooms" of other trees.

FIG. 84. — Three fruits attacked by the Surinam witch-broom disease.

A, Young fruit with a lump on one side, due to local hypertrophied growth (| nat. size).

B, Young fruit with an abnormally thick (hypertrophied) stalk (£ nat. size).

C, Fruit with a hard, dark-coloured spot ("hardening " or " induration ") (^ nat. size).

The lifetime of the diseased twigs is always very
short.

When the young fruits are attacked by the fungus,
they often show a hump on one side (Fig. 84, A), due
to the hypertrophied growth of that part of the fruit-
wall where the fungus has developed. The fruit stalk
is also sometimes hypertrophied (Fig. 84, B). Such
fruits fall off when still young. Often, however, the
fungus develops in the fruit more slowly, without
causing any of these symptoms ; the fruit develops

256 COCOA

normally until, sometimes very suddenly, a black spot
appears, often when the fruit is almost ripe (Fig. 84, C).
When such a fruit is broken, it is found that the tissue
of the fruit wall at the spot is exceptionally hard
("hardening" or "induration" of pods), while the
seeds are mostly brown and spoiled.

The fungus is able to penetrate into the fruit-cushions
by means of the stalk of the hardened pod. When the
fruit-cushion buds, the result is the production of a great
number of crowded blossoms which produce worthless
fruits, or none at all.

By microscopical investigation the fungus is seen

FIG. 85. — Fructifi cation of the Surinam witch-broom fungus.

running between the cells of the attacked parts, and its
characteristic mycelium is especially abundant in the
hypertrophied tissues. It fructifies (Fig. 85) with
whitish or slightly reddish fruiting bodies, which appear
sometimes at the base of the hypertrophied twigs, but
much more freely on decaying hardened pods. These
form, therefore, a much more dangerous source of infec-
tion than the " witch -brooms."

The disease has never been found on any other
cultivated plant, but the wild - growing Theobroma
speciosum has been observed to be very liable to it.
This plant grows wild in the south of Surinam, and in
Brazil in the basin of the Amazon. As in Surinam
the disease was probably transferred from this wild
Theobroma speciosum to the cultivated Theobroma

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 257

cacao, the Brazilian planters should be careful that the
same thing does not happen to them.

The disease has been successfully eradicated on the
plantation " Susannasdaal " by a method applied under
the direction of the Government Experiment Station.
It consists of pollarding, i.e. removing the entire leaf-
bearing crown of the trees (Fig. 86), so that, when
all the leaf-bearing branches have been cut off, nothing
remains but the trunks and the leafless main branches.1
Immediately after cutting, all wounds are treated with
black tar. After this operation the only sources of
infection left are any spores which may have settled on
the trunk and on the uncut branches. To destroy these
the trees are sprayed with a 3 per cent solution of blue-
stone, or sulphate of copper, without addition of lime.
All lopped-off branches and leaves are collected in heaps
and burned. In each field a few open spots can generally
be found where this can be done without harming the
cocoa and the shade trees. In Surinam the trees give
no fruits in the first year after pollarding ; in the second
year an average of 60 kilograms per acre, in the third
year 160 kilograms, and in the fourth year the normal
crop of more than 200 kilograms is again obtained.

The fields, once treated, must be kept under control.
It was at first thought that the regular removal of
the few reappearing witch-brooms and hardened fruits
would be sufficient, but it is now believed that at least
one spray per year with Bordeaux mixture must be
added to this treatment.

Experiments are at present being made to see if the
infection could also be eradicated without the removal
of the whole crown of the tree, but by giving only a
very thorough pruning and spraying, removing at the
same time all dead and diseased parts. It is hoped that
in this way the normal yield may be re-obtained at an
earlier date.

1 Further details of the method may be found in the article on this disease
by Van Hall and Drost ; it appeared as Bulletin No. 16 of the Surinam Dept. of
Agr., and has been translated into English by Dr. Fredholm (Proc. of the Agr
Soc., Trinidad, Dec. 1909).

S

258

COCOA

CHAP.

The disease began to be troublesome in Surinam
between the years 1895 and 1900, and wandered from

FIG. 86. — Fighting the Surinam witch-broom disease.
The tree is being sprayed with bluestone solution, after having been pollarded.

one district to another. The loss caused may be under-
stood from the figures given in Chapter IX. (Surinam),

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 259

and the direct damage is increased by the fact that
trees covered with dead witch-brooms are very liable to
the attacks of the die -back disease (Diplodid). The
witch-broom disease has therefore been accompanied by
the death of thousands of trees by die-back disease.

The Kamerun witch - broom disease (probably
caused by Taphrina Bussei}. — This disease has only
been observed in Kamerun, and must not be con-
founded with the Surinam witch-broom disease, from
which it is quite different. The diseased twigs do not
show any hypertrophied growth ; there is only an
abnormally abundant development of side - branches.
Thus a typical " witch -broom" is developed, and the
name of the disease is therefore perfectly appropriate.
According to the investigations of Von Faber, these
branches and twigs contain a mycelium, and on the
leaves was found a fructification due to the parasite,
which has been given the name Taphrina Bussti.
Until now the disease has not caused much damage,
but it is, of course, advisable to remove and burn the
witch-brooms.

Chupon wilt. — Rorer, the Trinidad mycologist,
observed that the fungus, which is the cause of
the "canker" disease and the "black rot" of pods
(Phytophthora Faberi), also attacks the young shoots
("chupons"); this disease is called in Trinidad
" chupon wilt." Rorer 's description may be quoted :—

This disease was very prevalent on many estates [in Trinidad]
last year [1909]. The chupon is generally first attacked in the
soft tissue near the tip. A small water-soaked area can be seen
on the stem, which gradually becomes sunken and darker in colour
and spreads up and down the stem, frequently girdling the shoot
and causing the upper part to wilt. The same disease has been
observed on young shoots on the upper branches of the tree. The
point of attack is generally in the axil of a leaf, though the leaf-
blade or petiole may be the first part affected, the disease after-
wards running down into the stem. . . . Chupons are also fre-
quently killed by aphides or other sucking insects, and such cases
should not be mistaken for the disease of fungous origin. The final
appearances of the killed shoots are the same, but the initial stages
are quite different.

260 COCOA CHAP.

Probably this disease will also be found in many other
countries where " canker" and " black rot " occur.

The black rot of pods (Phytophtliora Faberi).—
This disease is very common, and is probably to be
found as a more or less serious pest in every cocoa-
growing country. At any rate it has been observed in
every country where cocoa diseases have been the object
of investigation (the Antilles, Surinam, Kamerun, San
Thome, Ceylon, Java, Samoa).

The fungus may attack pods of any age, but the
true parasitic character is particularly clear when large
pods are attacked. On such fruits a brownish dis-
coloration appears, which may start anywhere on the
surface, but generally at the tip or at the stem end.
It spreads rapidly over the whole fruit, which finally
becomes black, while white powdery masses begin to
appear on the surface, especially along the furrows.1
These white masses are the spores of the parasite ; they
are spread by the wind to other fruits, on which they
germinate, and into which the fungus penetrates, causing
again black rot.

As a rule, the germination of these spores (" conidio-
spores ") does not take place in the same way as in the
case of most other fungi. If placed in water they
germinate by letting out from 10 to 30 small so-called
" zoospores," which swim by means of hair-like organs
of locomotion, called cilia. They soon lose these cilia
and send out a germ tube, like most spores when
germinating. Sometimes the conidiospores germinate
directly by means of a germinating tube. Simul-
taneously with the spore-production on the outside of
the attacked fruits, another kind of spore is formed
within the tissues of the pod. These are the so-called
" oospores " which serve as resting spores, and may
retain their vitality for a long time.

Though the growth of almost every fungus is
favoured by moisture and humidity, this is especially

1 A good description has been given by Rorer (Bulletin of the Dept. of
Agriculture, Trinidad, July 1910).

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 261

the case with the "black rot" fungus. Accordingly,
countries with a heavy rainfall — e.g. Kamerun — suffer
particularly from this pest, while many plantations in
Java with a comparatively small rainfall are remarkably
free. A dense shade and close planting are other
conditions which favour the development of the disease.
Keduction of shade, a wide planting distance, thorough
pruning and good drainage, will help the planter in his
fight against the Phytophtlwra, but in spite of these
precautionary measures a strong epidemic of black rot
will often be experienced in very rainy years.

A direct method of treatment is accordingly neces-
sary in places where the disease is habitually harmful.
Spraying with Bordeaux mixture, as already described,
has proved to be effective in Trinidad, Ceylon, and
Kamerun. Yon Faber l mentions that in one of the
experiments in Kamerun the percentage of diseased
pods was reduced from 56 per cent to 22 per cent.
In this case Bordeaux mixture was mixed with
resin and starch in order to make it more adhesive.
This, however, does not seem necessary. Wright 2 notes
an instance where 19 per cent of diseased pods was
found in the unsprayed field, and 8 to 15 per cent in
the sprayed plot. The removal and destruction of the
attacked fruits is always advisable, but it must not be
forgotten that the fungus grows very quickly, and
forms its spores a few days after penetrating into the
fruit. The diseased pods must therefore be removed
as soon as the first spot is seen. The same fungus is
the cause of the " canker" disease of the stem and the
branches, and of the " chupon wilt" disease.

INSECT PESTS

I. Root Insects. — The West Indian mole -cricket
(Scapteriscus didactylus) is only too well known for
its ravages on young cocoa and many other plants

1 Von Faber, "Die Krankheiten und Parasiten des Kakaobaumes " (Arb.
Kais. Biol. Anstalt, 1909, p. 205). 2 Wright, Cocoa, p. 222

262 COCOA CHAP.

in Guiana (Surinam and Demerara) and in the Antilles.
Dr. Fredholm recently published an interesting study of
this insect, from which the following particulars are for
the most part borrowed.1

The ravages on young cocoa plants — especially in
the fields, but also in the nursery — are sometimes
considerable when no precautions have been taken.
The young plants are cut at the point of junction of
stem and root. When mole-crickets nibble into a root
and find that it is not agreeable to their taste, they
quickly abandon it, but not before so much damage has
been done as to kill the plant. Often a great number
of plants are killed in this way by a few mole-crickets
in one night. Happily only the young plants are
attacked ; when they have reached a height of -f- to 1
foot and developed a few leaves, the stem becomes too
hard and is no longer to the taste of the mole-crickets.
Trees planted out from a nursery are thus left untouched,
and on plantations in Surinam a nursery is often kept
principally to supply the gaps where the plants have
been killed by the mole-crickets. The front pair of
legs of the insect are peculiarly adapted for making
tunnels in the earth. These tunnels lie near the surface
and ramify in several directions. Some of the side
galleries dip down 5 to 6 inches or even a foot or more,
ending in chamber -like excavations. In these the
females lay their eggs, each depositing 50 to 100 at
a time. When first hatched the larvae are white, but
soon change to a dark fawn colour. They probably
take one or two years to develop into the mature insect.
As soon as they are sufficiently strong the larvae
commence to tunnel for themselves in search of food.
They are seldom seen above ground except if forced to
leave their habitations by reason of these being flooded,
as occasionally happens during heavy rains.

The mature insects live in the same way, but make
more frequent excursions above ground. At times

1 Fredholm, "The Mole-Cricket" (Proceedings of the Agricultural Society of
Trinidad and Tobago, vol. xi. part ii., February 1911).

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 263

they migrate in numbers for reasons not well under-
stood.

The galleries of mole-crickets are easily located, the
raised and loosened soil denoting their presence. They
are situated just beneath the surface, and extend for
considerable distances.

The food of the mole-cricket is principally vegetable.
They always attack succulent roots and stems, and
leave the hard, woody parts untouched. Vegetable
gardens often suffer greatly, and tomato, turnip, sweet
potato, melongene (aubergine), and cabbage are much
sought after, also tobacco, rice, and sugar-cane ; all of
these have much more to suffer from the mole-cricket
than cocoa. The attacks are especially destructive in
the dry season.

The protection of crops against the mole-cricket is
not so difficult when the area planted is small, as is the
case with vegetable gardens. It is generally sufficient
to keep the place quite clear of weeds, to turn up the
soil in due time by hoe or spade, and to surround the
place by a deep trench. These same methods may
successfully be applied in the cocoa nurseries. After
the soil is turned up, the natural enemies of the mole-
cricket, e.g. fowls, will help to kill a great number of
the insects. Attempts have also been made to poison
the insects by means of poisoned horse-dung, 3 Ibs. of
arsenic acid to 100 Ibs. of horse-dung being applied to
one acre.

These remedies are, however, too laborious for
application in the case of cocoa fields. Whenever the
appearance of mole-crickets is to be feared, the best
way is to raise the seedlings in well-protected nurseries,
and to plant them out when they are strong enough to
be no longer liable to the attacks of this insect.

II. Borers. — General Remarks. — It has already
been stated that different species of borers are to be
found in most cocoa-growing countries. The life-history
of these different enemies varies in details, but in many
respects their mode of life is the same, and accordingly

264 COCOA

CHAP.

the fight against the various borers proceeds every-
where along the same general lines.

The beetle or moth lays its eggs against the stem
or against a branch, often in a little hole made for
the purpose in the bark. The larva or "worm" lives
for some time in the bark or in the wood, and damages
the tree to a greater or smaller extent. Often the
presence of one borer may cause the death of a whole
branch, which then looks as if it had been killed by
fire, all the brown and dry leaves remaining hanging
on the twigs. Whole trees, especially young ones, may
be killed in this way when the borer lives in the stem.

At present the general way of fighting the borers
is to remove the "worms" or larvae, cutting away the
bark by means of a knife until the worm is exposed.
On many plantations a gang of trained " worm-pickers "
is kept for this purpose. If possible these men also
collect the perfect insects — whether beetle or moth
— but generally the number of captured perfect insects
is small in comparison with the number of captured

" worms."

There are, however, methods of using " traps,"
especially for the beetles and their eggs, and perhaps
traps for the moths may eventually be found.

Different species of borers. — The West Indian
cocoa-borer (Steirastoma depressum) (Fig. 87) is one
of the worst pests in some of the Antilles (Trinidad,
Grenada, Guadeloupe, Martinique) and in various
countries of the South American continent (Venezuela,
Colombia, Surinam, and Demerara). It has been
observed for many years, but was only recently sub-
jected to thorough investigation.1 We are indebted to
Mr. Guppy for having given us a clear exposition of the
life-history of this pest, and of the methods of combating
it, and the following particulars are to a large extent
borrowed from his article.

This borer lives not only in the cocoa tree, but also

1 Guppy, "The Life-history and Control of the Cocoa-beetle "( Trinidad
Board of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 1, 1911).

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 265

in the American "cotton tree" (Bombax ceiba) and
in another wild-growing tree, Pachira aquatica, called
in Trinidad " chataigne maron," and in Surinam "wild
cocoa " or " forest cocoa." After continued and frequent
copulation the oviposition begins. The eggs are laid at
irregular intervals during several weeks. For instance,
in one of the cases observed by Chippy a female laid
141 eggs in 2^ months' time ; 8 eggs were laid in one
day, then in three days 12 eggs, and so on. The eggs
are laid by preference near or at the fork of the trees,
especially young trees, and also near the foot of side-
branches and chupons. Young trees are often attacked
just above the soil. The eggs are inserted into the
bark through an incision which is
made by the powerful mandibles of
the beetle with much care and delibera-
tion. Ordinary wounds and cracks are
never used for the purpose, and the
eggs are never simply laid on the bark.

After four or five days the larva
hatches and soon starts to eat away Flind^n ~c^ol - borer
a roomy chamber within the soft (stdrastoma ^res-
succulent bark. For a couple of weeks 'Txaturai size
it merely enlarges the area of its habita-
tion, but then begins to make a spiral or wavy tunnel
through the bark. As a rule it starts under the fork
of the tree or the place of insertion of the side branch,
and begins to "ring" the branch or the young stem.
In old trees the tunnelling operations are carried out
in various ways. The length of time during which the
larva continues to tunnel is, under favourable conditions
(in living trees) about 2 months, under less favourable
conditions (in dead or dying wood) 3 to 5^ months.

The pupal stage lasts about twelve days. After
issuing from the pupa, the beetle lies for a few days
within the tunnel to enable its tissues to harden. Then
it leaves the tunnel and lives for about three months
flying from tree to tree. The chafed and scarred
appearance of the young branches and chupons mark

260 COCOA

CHAP.

the activity of the insects, for they are wasteful and
careless feeders, and pieces of bark are often bitten out
and rejected before anything is consumed.

The beetle is black with whitish-grey or dirty-
looking markings ; the head, thorax, and wing-covers
have numerous ridges and depressions. The greyish
colour is caused by numerous, very small, white, bristle-
like scales. On the thorax are three longitudinal ridges,
and there are stout lateral projections. The wing-
covers are strongly ribbed longitudinally with numerous
shiny black, pustule-like spots.

The ordinary way of combating the enemy, viz.
by excising the larvae from the attacked trees, cannot
be regarded as satisfactory ; it is often worse than the
pest itself, and frequently causes much damage to the
trees.

The practice of catching the beetles by hand,
wherever they are to be found, is equally inadequate,
for the beetles are so well protected by their greyish
colour that many are overlooked. Attracting them by
means of the bark of the wild cotton tree (Bombax
ceiba) or the ocro-plant (Hibiscus esculentus), as is
often done in Surinam, has some success, but even with
this method the number of beetles which remain at
large is very great.

Guppy recommends the use of branches of the
" chataigne maron " (Pachira aquatica) as traps.
Branches of a diameter of 2^ to 10 cm. (1 to 4 inches)
are either placed on the soil under the tree in fair-sized
heaps (" heap-traps "), or suspended in the cocoa tree
("suspended traps"), or put leaning against the tree
(" leaning traps "), or laid in the "fork " or the " jorquet,"
just where the beetles are so fond of laying their eggs.
Especially are these traps put near, and suspended in,
those trees which, as can be seen from the scars on the
branches and water-shoots, have recently been attacked
by the beetles. In order to induce the beetles to lay
the eggs in the " traps " and not in the cocoa trees, the
trees are sprayed with arsenate of lead. It is, of course,

vin DISEASES AND ENEMIES 267

not necessary to spray the foliage, but only the stem
and the thicker branches, especially the "fork" and
the foot of the stem of the young trees. In the dry
season, when the branches used as traps dry up rather
quickly, the traps must be renewed every two or three
weeks, and the used ones burned. Branches pruned off
the cocoa can also be used as traps in the same way.

In order to kill the larvae, Guppy recommends the
injection of a small quantity of carbon bisulphide into
the tunnels by means of a small syringe ; the aperture
must immediately be filled up with clay. This method,
however, is not always successful.

In the meantime the
beetles must be picked off
as thoroughly as possible.
They may be found on the
trees as well as on the
traps, and the keenest boys
and women should always
be used for this work. It
is advisable to pay them
according to the number

of beetles Caught. FIG. 88.— The Glenea borer

The Glenea l)OTer (Glenea novemguttata}.

(Glenea novemguttata)1 is

the most common and most destructive kind of borer

in Java.

The beetle is no longer than about 11 mm. (^ inch),
blackish coloured, often with a blue metallic lustre,
with four spots of a yellowish white colour on each
side of the thorax (Fig. 88). The larvae are larger,
attaining a length of about 30 mm. (1'2 inch), and
are yellowish white in colour.

The beetle lays its eggs one after another in the
bark of the cocoa tree, making a separate incision for
each egg. Thus the eggs are concealed, and can only
be detected by very close and very careful investigation.

1 Zehntner, Bulletins 1 and 3 of the Cacaoproefstation, Salatiga (1901) ;
Roepke, Bulletin 1 of the Proefstation, Midden Java (1911).

268 COCOA

CHAP.

The average number of eggs laid by one female, and the
average time which elapses between egg-laying and
hatching of the larvae, have not yet been definitely
ascertained.

The tunnels made by the young larvae run close
under the surface of the bark. As the larvae grow
bigger the broader the tunnel, and finally it is as broad
as the bark, running close under the surface and enclosed
only by a thin layer of bark. From the outside the
presence of the borer is shown by the ejection of chips
of wood from the aperture of the tunnel, and often by
an exudation of gum.

When the larvae are full grown — after about 2 to
3^ months — they bore into the wood and make an
oblong cavity, in which pupation takes place. Zehntner
calls this cavity " the pupal cradle." It is about 25 to 30
mm. (1 inch) long and 4 to 5 mm. broad. From this
cavity a narrow tunnel runs directly through the bark
to the outside, being closed only by a particle of saw-
dust, covered by a thin layer of bark, so that it can be
easily opened by the beetle when it issues from the
tree. The length of the pupal stage is about 15 to
20 days. After the beetle has issued from the pupa, it
remains some five days in the " pupal cradle " in order
to allow the chitin coat and especially the mandibles
to harden. So far as we know at present the beetle
lives about one month.

Like most beetles, the larvae of which live as borers
in the cocoa, the Glenea beetle feeds by gnawing here
and there the bark of young cocoa twigs.

The Java planter applies against this borer no other
measures than the. West Indian planter does against
his Steirastoma borer. The larvae are removed by
excision, and as many of the beetles as possible are
caught. Wherever this is done carefully, the pest is
kept within certain limits. For this purpose the larvae
have to be removed as early as possible — as soon as a
few of the characteristic wood-particles are to be seen
on the bark and while the larvae are still young.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 269

Zelmtner also recommended treating the stems and
branches regularly with lime, for he repeatedly observed
that Glenea beetles in cages fixed to limed trees often
died within one day, in spite of the presence of unlimed
food in the cages.

Dead branches must never be left lying in the field
after pruning, as they may serve as hatching places for
the borers.

The Glenea borer has occasionally been found in
"kapok" trees (Eriodendron anfractuosum), but as
yet in no other trees.

FIG. 89. — The Pelargoderus borer FIG. 90. — The Monohammus borer

( Pelargoderus bipunctatus) . ( Monohammus fistulator] .

(Both natural size.)

The Pelargoderus beetle (Pelargoderus bipunctatus,
Fig. 89) and the Monohammus beetle (Monohammus
fistulator, Fig. 90) are, next to the Glenea, the worst
cocoa-borers in Java. In several plantations the damage
done by these enemies is very serious. Their life-history,
however, has not yet been fully worked out. Both species
are known as enemies of various plants; the Pelargo-
derus lives also in canary trees (Canarium commune)
and in old pepper plants, and the Monohammus in
coffee trees and in castor-oil plants.

In Kamerun, an allied Monohammus borer, Mono-

270 COCOA

CHAP.

hammus ruspator, has been found as an enemy of the
cocoa by Von Faber.1

The splendid large Catoxantha beetle (Catoxantha
bicolor, F. = C. gigantea, Schaller), Fig. 91, has also been
a serious pest in some plantations in Java.2 Lately,
however, it has ceased to appear in the cocoa fields in
large numbers. The larvae attain a length of no less
than 11 to 16 cm. (4'3 to 6'3 in.). The larval stage lasts
for about one year, while the length of the pupal stage
is about two months. The whole life-cycle takes about
two years. This beetle belongs to the family of Bupre-
stidae. Its size is about 7 to 8 cm. (27 to 3 '1 in.). The

FIG. 91.— The Catoxantha borer (Catoxantha Ucolor}.
(Natural size.)

wing-covers, feelers, and legs are of a splendid gold-
green colour, and on each of the wing-covers is a spot
of yellowish colour and of a transparent or gelatine-
like appearance. The Catoxantha beetle is also an
inhabitant of British India.

In some countries, e.g. Trinidad and Java, small
beetles of the genus Xyleborus have been observed to
do more or less damage to the cocoa. These small
brown beetles are generally met with in dead wood, but
sometimes they also attack living branches and stems,
by preference or even almost exclusively, when these
parts are already diseased from some other cause.

1 Von Faber, " Die Krankheiten und Parasiten, etc." (Arb. Kais. Biol.
Anstalt, 1909, p. 269).

2 Zehntner, Bulletin No. 1 van het Proefstation voor Cacao te Salatiga (1901),
p. 8.

VIII

DISEASES AND ENEMIES

271

Thus Xyleborus, called " bubuk "
times dangerous to trees attacked
bore into the diseased tissues, and from
there into the adjoining parts, and may
be the direct cause of the death of the
tree.

The larva of a Bombycid moth of
the group of the Cossidae (Zeuzera
cojfeae, Nietner) is comparatively
common in Java1 and is now and
then the cause of serious ravages (Fig.
92). The caterpillars are 4 to 5 cm. long
(1'6 to 2 in.), reddish yellow in colour,
with a few short bristles on each seg-
ment ; on the back of each
four little black spots are visible.

They live in branches and twigs of

in Java, is
by canker.

segment

some-
They

w

FIG. 92. — The Zeuzera borer (Zeuzera

a, Male ; b, female (after Roepke) (natural size).

c, A twig of kola, in which the borer has lived, split longitudinally to show the tunnel. The
skin of the pupa, from which the moth has issued, protrudes from the opening (drawing by
Kades, supplied by Dr. Roepke).

1 Kamerling und Zehntner, "Voorloopig overzicht, etc. " (De indische Natuur,
Jaargang 1900, p. 56.

272 COCOA

CHAP.

different age, and make longitudinal tunnels of con-
siderable length, sometimes of 40 to 50 cm. (16 to 20 in.).
They generally bore from the basal part of the branch
or twig towards the top. Just before the transformation
into the pupal stage the caterpillar makes a horizontal
side-tunnel, which ends just under the epidermis of the
branch. Into this side -tunnel the caterpillar retires
and shuts off the main tunnel by means of a stop made
of small particles of wood ; this precaution is taken in
order to keep away enemies and parasites.

The moth has a wing-spread of 4'5 to 5 cm. (1*8 to
2 in.), the length of the body being 3 to 3 '5 cm. (1*2 to
1*4 in.). The wings and the body are ash-coloured;
dark-green spots are to be seen in great numbers on
the wings, and a few also on the body.

The Zeuzera borer is also an enemy of coffee, cinchona,
tea, and many other plants. It is possible, however,
that different varieties live on different plants.

A Zeuzera, probably an allied species, has also been
observed in Africa (in Kamerun and San Thome).

III. Insects attacking the leaves, twigs, and fruits.

(1) In Ceylon the Helopeltis is the worst of all insect
pests, while in Java its damage is only surpassed by
that caused by the cocoa-moth.1 Two species are to be
distinguished : Helopeltis theivora, which is prevalent
in very hot climates, and Helopeltis antonii (Fig. 93),
which is the more common species in cooler regions. In
the very hot coast region of Java the cocoa is principally
attacked by H. tlieivora, while on the mountains, where
the climate is cooler, it is gradually replaced by H.
antonii.

The colour of the two species is slightly different.
The body of H. theivora is greenish ; the head and thorax
of H. antonii are reddish or black, while the abdomen
of the male is black and the back of the female green.
Very characteristic is the pin-like dorsal processus on
the scutellum (Fig. 93, a and c). With the aid of an
ovipositor the eggs are laid in the young fruits, or some-

1 Zehntner, Bulletin No. 7 van het Proef station te Salatiga (1903).

VIII

DISEASES AND ENEMIES

273

times in the young and juicy twigs. The number of
eggs which a female is able to lay is about thirty.

The young larvae bear much resemblance to the

FIG. 93. — Helopeltis antonii, enlarged 5 times.

a, The larva in the nymph stadium.

ft, Female seen from above.

c, Female seen from the side (notice the pin-like dorsal proeessus on the scutellum.

adult insect, but are yellower in colour, and the pin-
like proeessus is not yet developed.

The whole development takes about two or three
weeks, while the lifetime of the adult insect lasts not
less than two and a half to three months.

274

COCOA

CHAP.

Fruits as well as twigs are damaged ; also the leaf-
stalks, but not the lamina of the cocoa leaves. The
fruits show the stings of the Helopeltis as numerous
black specks (Fig. 94), and when the young fruits are
severely attacked they are wholly spoiled or develop
into deformed, almost worthless fruits. The same black
spots appear on the young twigs (Fig. 95), many of
which may die. Sometimes the tree is covered with
dead and dried-up twigs.

The number of Helopeltis about and the damage
done by them depends on the time of the year. In the
dry season and the months following it, the number is
comparatively small, and accordingly the damage is

FIG. 94. — Fruit slightly damaged by Helopeltis.

insignificant, while during the rainy season the pest
gets worse and worse. In a few weeks the number of
insects increases rapidly, and the damage to twigs and
fruits quickly becomes very considerable.

In Java the worst months are March to May (the
rainy season begins in January and ends towards May
or June), while in September and October it often
seems as if the Helopeltis had wholly disappeared. In
Ceylon the pest appears to be at its worst in December
and January, and least harmful in August (in this
country October and November are the months with
the heaviest rainfall).

It has been a subject of discussion how these insects
live through the dry season. Green, the well-known

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 275

Ceylon entomologist, assumed that special eggs, so-called

FIG. 95. — Cocoa twig damaged by Helopeltis.

Photo. Roeplce.

" winter eggs," were laid, from which the larvae only
hatched after the falling of the first rains, but this

276 COCOA

CHAP.

assumption has not been confirmed by other investi-
gators. Zehntner found that during the dry season
the females retired to special shelter-places, generally
low, humid spots, often situated near the little streams
which run through the plantations. This agrees with
the observed fact that at the beginning of the rainy
season the pest generally first re-appears in the neigh-
bourhood of such places and quickly spreads from there
over the whole plantation.

Where cocoa is grown with little shade the harm
done is generally greater. This, however, must not be
attributed to better life-conditions for the Helopeliis,
but to the detrimental influence of the sun and wind
on the twigs attacked.

The fight against the Helopeltis is rendered difficult
by the fact that the insect lives on so many other
plants: tea, cinchona "kapok" (JEriodendron anfractu-
osum), pepper, Bixa orellana (often used as hedge plant
in Java), tamarind, cinnamon, camphor, and many
other trees and shrubs.1

Different methods are used in Java to combat this
pest. On several plantations the insects are caught
regularly by a special gang of women and children. For
this purpose they use light sticks 20 to 40 cm. (8 to 16 in.)
long, made of bamboo, with a ring of bamboo or a kind of
fork at the end ; the ring has a diameter of 3 to 4
inches (7|- to 10 cm.) and is provided with cobwebs by
simply passing the ring through cobwebs. Sometimes
sticks are used besmeared with the viscous juice of the
jack tree. Such implements are necessary because the
Helopeltis are remarkably quick. Every day the women
and children bring their catch of insects to the overseer ;
they are generally paid according to the number of
Helopeltis caught. This method obviously diminishes
the number of the insects, but it is far from satisfactory ;
too many insects remain free in the fields.

The same may be said of the method of killing the

1 See Roepke, "Helopeltis op kamfer en enkele aanteekeningen omtrent zyii
voedsterplanten " (Cultuurgids, Part II., 1911).

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 277

insects by means of fire. For this purpose the labourers
use bamboo-sticks filled with kerosene or some other
similar oil and provided with a wick of cotton. The
fruits are treated with this torch, and a great number
of Helopeltis are killed. Some fly away in time, how-
ever, others are not reached by the fire, and a still larger
number on the twigs or branches are left unharmed. It
is worth mentioning that the fruits are not damaged in
any way by this method. As the insects like to retire
during the hotter hours of the day into shelter places
on the branches and under the leaves, the best time for
catching as well as for burning the Helopeltis is the
early hours in the morning.

Other methods have also been tried. Spraying has
not yet given satisfactory results, but extensive and
conclusive experiments with different mixtures have
not yet been made. The insects are not attracted by
light, and lamps are therefore of no use for catching
them by night. Their natural enemies are few ; most
carnivorous insects dislike the Helopeltis and leave it
untouched, and only the spiders and Mantis eat a
small number of them. So far, no disease has been
discovered to attack the Helopeltis.

One insect, however — though not a real enemy, as
it does not attack the Helopeltis itself — has been of
great use in combating this pest. It is a species of ant
(Dolichoderus bituberculatus Mayr), which, on some
plantations, has been introduced into the cocoa fields
with marked success. The ants were brought into the
fields in nests made of bamboo, and a certain number
of these nests were hung on every cocoa tree. In some
cases the fields have been populated successfully with
these ants, and where a great multiplication of the ants
was obtained, the number of Helopeltis was to a great
extent reduced, and the pest decreased in such a way
as to be no longer of great importance. On other
plantations, however, the introduction of these ants has
not met with such success. The cause could sometimes
be traced ; often the number of ants brought into the

278 COCOA

fields was not large enough, or the nests had not been
made carefully enough so as to make the ants feel at
home and increase quickly in number. But in spite
of these failures the method of introducing the black ant
into the cocoa fields may be regarded as being very
promising, and it will probably become still more
popular.

(2) The Rind bug (Sahlbergella singularis) l is the
worst insect pest in Kamerun. It was first noticed in
1902 as a dangerous enemy of the cocoa, and since
that time has inflicted serious damage every year. It
attacks the young juicy twigs, and penetrates into the
rind with its sucker. As with the Hdopeltis, dark spots
appear on the twig, and as the twig grows, the spots
become larger and the rind shrivels. The leaf-stalks
and the fruits are also damaged. The tree becomes
defoliated, and large parts of the branch-system die out.

The fight against this insect is not so difficult as in
the case of Helopeltis, because it does not move or fly
so quickly. In this case, therefore, spraying meets
with more success. Good results have been obtained
by spraying with a mixture consisting of Paris green
(40 grams), kerosene (3 litres), soap (1 kilogram), lime
(1 or 2 kilograms), and water (100 litres). A 1 per
cent decoction of tobacco has also been used with
success. It is further advisable to use torches in the
same way as in the case of the Helopeltis, as the rind
bug is easily killed by fire.

(3) The Mosquilla (not yet determined). — The
worst enemy of the cocoa in Ecuador is a sort of bug,
called there " Mosquilla," which seems to belong to the
family of Phytocoridae. A short description of this
pest has been given by Rimbach.2

The male insect is about 7 mm., the female about
8 mm. long ; the head and antennae are black, the
rest of the body reddish yellow. The adult insect
feeds on the fruits of cocoa, and sucks the juice of the

1 Von Faber, Die Krankheiten und Parasiten, etc., p. 304.

2 Rimbach, " Durch Wanzen verursachte Schadigung des Cacao im Kusten-
lande von Ecuador" (Zeitschrift fiir Pflanzenkrankheiten, v., 1895, p. 321).

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 279

fruit-wall. The female deposits the eggs in the fruit-
wall ; the eggs are provided with a pair of hair-like
appendages and these protrude from the little holes in
the fruit- wall which contain the eggs. Each little hole
is surrounded by a dark coloured border. The larvae,
which apparently hatch after about a fortnight, craw7! over
the fruits and at once begin to suck. Every place
where a larva or an adult insect puts its sucker into
the fruit begins to discolour and gradually becomes a
black spot. The insect remains on the fruit for the
whole of its lifetime, and the attacked fruit becomes
covered with smaller and larger black spots (ranging
between |- and 4 mm. diameter).

Fruits of all ages are attacked. When the fruit is
only attacked on a few places and shows only a few
spots, the damage is not important, and the fruit will
develop normally. But when a fruit is attacked by a
large number of these insects, which remain there till
they are full grown, the damage is serious, for the fruit
is blackened over a great part of its surface and does
not develop properly. This is especially the case when
the eggs have been deposited on a young fruit.

This pest has damaged the cocoa in Ecuador for the
past twenty-five years. The province of El Oro, near
Machala, is especially affected, but the enemy is present
over the whole coast region. In the province of El Oro
the damage done is sometimes so serious that hardly
any sound cocoa is reaped. This was, for instance, the
case in 1909.

Eimbach proposes a remedy which is based on the
same plan as the "rampassing" method against the
cocoa-moth in Java : namely, to pick and destroy all
the fruits which are to be found at a time of the year
when there are but few fruits on the trees (at Machala
the best time would be the months of October, November,
and December). The fruits may be destroyed by
collecting them into heaps and treating them with
quicklime, or by burning or burying.

This method may give good results when the

280 COCOA

CHAP.

"mosquilla" does not live on other parts of the cocoa,
but its effect would be lessened by the presence in or
near the cocoa fields of trees or shrubs which are also
liable to be attacked by the insect. Whether the
" mosquilla " attacks other plants besides cocoa is not
yet known ; indeed our knowledge of the insect is still so
slight that it has not yet even received a scientific name.
Judging from the description, it would seem to be
allied with the Hdopeltis.

(4) Caterpillars which eat the leaves are not of great
importance as enemies of the cocoa plant, which may
be considered to be remarkably free from this sort of
pest. In Surinam the very young leaves, when still
reddish and limp, are sometimes eaten by little cater-
pillars of an undetermined Geometride, and in Java a
few species of Limacodidae have been found attack-
ing the leaves (Orthocraspeda trima, Belippa lohor,
Parasa lepida).

Thrips (Physopus rubrocinctd) is a very harmful
pest in the cocoa plantations in Surinam and the West
Indies.

The life-history of this insect has not yet been
studied carefully. The adult insects as well as the
larvae live on the underside of the leaves and suck
the juice. The affected leaves become yellowish, with
numerous little brown spots ; they soon fall off, and if
the attack is severe, the tree generally is soon com-
pletely defoliated. The tree makes new leaves, but
frequently it happens that these are also attacked and
fall off again. Once more the tree tries to make new
leaves, but these are small and weak, and if other
conditions are not very favourable, the death of the
tree may follow. Often, however, the thrips does not
continue its attacks to this extent, but is still indirectly
the cause of the death of the tree, the weakened branches
being very liable to "die-back" disease (Diplodia
cacaoicola), and in Surinam it has often been found
that in fields first attacked by thrips a large number
of trees were lost by " die-back."

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 281

It is a remarkable fact that the damage done is
often very serious, while the number of thrips to be
found on the leaves is very small ; very often they are
only to be found on the very young leaves. Accordingly
the extent of the damage done by this insect is not so
much the consequence of their large number, as is- the
case with Helopeltis in Java, but of the serious harm a
single insect can effect.

The fruits are also attacked, and grow brownish as
they ripen instead of yellow, this being a consequence of
the formation of a thin layer of cork on the surface.
But they are not damaged in any other way and
generally they ripen normally.

Thrips appears especially in fields where the con-
ditions are not very favourable. In times of long
drought the insect is especially troublesome, while heavy
rains make it sometimes disappear quickly. It is more
common on poor soils than on rich ones.

In Surinam spraying with kerosene emulsion, tobacco
decoction, or Paris green was unsuccessful, and a direct
way of combating the pest has not yet been found,
though in Grenada good results have been reported
from spraying with kerosene emulsion. In no country,
however, has the application of fungicides against thrips
become popular, and more extensive experiments with
different mixtures should be undertaken by the Experi-
ment Stations.

Thrips has also been found to do damage, to a greater
or smaller extent, to the mango (Mangifera indica),
the canary tree (Canarium commune), the cashew
(Anacardium occidentals), the guava (Psidium
guayava) ; it also lives on the Liberian coffee tree, but
apparently without doing harm.

In Java the "cocoa-moth" (Zaratha cramerella) is,
with the Helopeltis, the worst enemy of the cocoa, and
on many plantations the loss caused by the moth may
be considered to be even greater than that caused by
the Helopeltis.

The small caterpillars of this little moth live in the

282 COCOA

CHAP.

cocoa fruits, making their tunnels in the fruit-wall and
penetrating into the interior between the seeds. The
seeds themselves are not attacked, but are spoiled to a
great extent. Much of the life-history has been elucidated
by Zehntner.1 The eggs are laid against the fruit- wall,
by preference in the furrows. They are reddish or orange
coloured. After six or seven days the larva makes its
appearance. It is only 1 mm. long, and begins at once
to bore into the fruit-wall. Its colour is yellowish, and
browner towards the end of the body. During about
fifteen to eighteen days the larvae live in the fruit and

FIG. 96. — Fruit attacked by cocoa-moth.

make their tunnels in the pulp (Fig. 96). Finally they
again bore through the fruit-wall, and leave the fruit in
order to pupate. For this purpose they choose by pre-
ference the leaves, but sometimes also the pupae are
found on the fruits. The pupation takes place under a
little film, a sort of cocoon made by the caterpillar just
before pupating. It covers the pupa well, and protects
it against noxious influences. After five to eight days
the moth appears. The body, with the wings, is about
7 mm. long and about 2 mm. broad. The lifetime of
the moth is not yet well established. Probably it lives

1 Zehntner, Bulletins 1, 4, 6, and 7 van het Proefstation voor Cacao te
Salatiga. See also DC Nieuice Gids, III. pp. 567-584.

vni DISEASES AND ENEMIES 283

about one month, but it is not impossible that the life-
time is longer.

From the outside the damage done to the fruits is
hardly perceptible ; only one or a few very small black
spots can sometimes be seen, these being the places
where the larvae left the fruit. But if the fruit be cut
through, the tunnels appear as brown or black lines
through the pulp and the fruit-wall.

Not only cocoa, but also the fruits of the "rambutan"
(Nephelium lappaceum) and of other species of
Nephelium are attacked. The larvae of the cocoa-moth
have also been found in the fruits of a few other
Sapindaceae ( Erioglossum, Schleicheria, Xerospermum,
Irina glabra, Turpinia), and the kola (Sterculia kola)
is attacked.

In the fight against the moth only one method has
been successful, the so-called " rampassing " method,
which consists in picking and destroying at a definite
time of the year all the fruits which are hanging on the
trees. The consequence is that for some two months
the moths, which are flying through the fields, can find
no fruits on which to lay their eggs, and in which the
larvae can develop. Very young fruits are not suitable
for this development, and it can only take place in fruits
of a certain age. Thus the moths which are flying
through the fields at the time of rampassing and shortly
afterwards, not finding a suitable place for laying their
eggs, finally die without leaving any progeny.

The first picking, which begins some five months after
rampassing, yields fruits which are nearly all free from
moths.1 Gradually, however, some more fruits are found
to be attacked and, generally speaking, each new picking
yields a larger percentage of diseased fruits. Finally it
amounts often to no less than 90 to 100 per cent.

There is much discussion among planters as to the
best and most practical time for rampassing. Theo-

1 Not infrequently, however, the very first pickings contain a certain number
of fruits attacked by moth. Probably these fruits were just old enough to be
good breeding-places when the very last living moths were flying through the
field.

284

COCOA

CHAP.

retically the best moment must be the time of the
appearance of the flowers which give the fruits of the
main crop (the "main flowering"). When rampassing
is done earlier the moth has opportunity to produce
several generations before the main crop appears ;
the percentage of attacked fruit is increasing during
this " fore-crop," and when the main crop is picked
the percentage has reached a disastrous figure. When,
however, rampassing is done late, there is the risk that
a part of the young fruit of the main crop is also
rampassed, and that the main crop, though very little
attacked, is much reduced. It is therefore -always
difficult to choose the right moment for rampassing.

The following figures may give an impression of the
gradual increase of the pest after rampassing in one
field : —

Number of fruits.

Percentage of fruits

attacked.

Xot attacked.

Attacked.

December .

rampassiug

January . .

...

February

March

April

May .

1975

301

13

June .

4001

875

18

July . . .

1202

1173

49

August .

173

2106

90

September .

3678

100

October .

908

100

November .

...

December

•••

The loss caused by the moth is very serious as regards
both quantity and quality of product. Some fruits
attacked by moth may yield only about one-third of
the quantity of marketable product which would have
been obtained if they had been healthy, and the quality

vin DISEASES AND ENEMIES 285

is also inferior. To give an example : whereas 45
healthy fruits yielded 1 kilogram of marketable product
of first quality, 45 fruits attacked by moth yielded
0*3 kilogram of marketable product of second quality.

BIRDS AND MAMMALS

Birds. — Different species of birds do a certain
amount of damage by making holes in the fruits when
ripe or nearly ripe, and eating the seeds. This kind of
damage, however, does not seem to be serious in any
cocoa-growing country.

Rats and Squirrels. — There is probably no country
where the cocoa is not attacked by some rodent or other.
Different kinds of rats are the worst ; the damage done
here and there by squirrels and mice being of less
importance.

These rodents climb into the trees, make holes in
the fruits, and extract the seeds, sometimes eating only
some of them, and scattering the rest all over the ground.
These scattered seeds are sometimes so numerous as to
be worth gathering (e.g. in San Thome and Ceylon) ;
they yield a product of inferior quality, known as
" black cocoa."

In San Thome the loss caused by rats is very serious
every year, and has been estimated to amount to no
less than about one-fifth of the whole crop. In Samoa
the pest was at one time very troublesome, but now
seems to • be less serious than before. On the Gold
Coast squirrels and rats are responsible for the loss of
large quantities of cocoa annually, but the damage is
chiefly confined to plantations in a neglected condition.
In Ceylon squirrels often do considerable damage. In
Java squirrels are also to be found as enemies of the
cocoa, but only in certain places ; in this country rats
are some years troublesome here and there, while in
other years no damage of importance is done.

The fight against rats is not so difficult on planta-
tions as in towns or near the dwelling-houses, where

286 COCOA

CHAP.

the use of poisoned food is dangerous to children and
animals, and the dead and decaying rats are a nuisance
to the people. Good results have been obtained with
this method on the cocoa plantations of Java and
Samoa. Eats, however, are very clever, and when
poisoned food is simply placed here and there in the
fields, the result is merely that the rats carefully taste
a little of it, and, soon feeling that it is not the right
food for them, leave it untouched thereafter.

Better results are obtained when unpoisoned food is
first placed at definite places every day or every two
days. Boiled corn is quite suitable. After a few days
the rats know that the food is all right, and return daily
to the spots to take their meals. If then poisoned food
is substituted, the rats will eat it all and large numbers
will die. The same thing can then be carried out again
but with another food, bread for instance.

The food may be poisoned by means of carbonate
of barium (1 part to 4 parts of food), or strychnine
(food dipped into a solution of 2 per cent).

Two other methods of destroying rats have been
tried by the cocoa planters : the use of a certain virus,
and the introduction of rat-killing animals. Both these
methods, however, are unsatisfactory.

Several kinds of bacterial virus have been recom-
mended— the " Virus Danysz," the " Liverpool Virus,"
the " Kattin," etc.- — but with none of these has a whole-
sale destruction of rats been obtained in any tropical
country. Moreover, the method is not easily applied,
and a local bacteriologist is necessary in order to have
a regular supply of fresh virulent cultures. It is wholly
useless to try cultures made in Europe ; when these
arrive in the tropics their virulence is much reduced,
even when kept on ice. But even with virulent, freshly
made cultures it is very difficult to cause a real epidemic
among the rats, and generally only a small percentage
contract the disease.

Against the introduction of rat-killing animals a
serious warning is necessary. The consequences of the

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 287

introduction of the mungoose are in this respect very
instructive.

The mungoose (Herpes tes mungo) was imported
into Trinidad, Barbados, St. Lucia, Jamaica, Mauritius,
and Porto Rico. It was clear from the first that the
number of rats diminished ; but it soon turned out that
many birds and other animals were also killed. The
killing of fowls caused much loss to the inhabitants ;
but it was much worse when the mungoose began to
devour large quantities of insectivorous birds and small
animals, with the result that there was a noticeable
increase in all sorts of injurious insects. So much so,
that the Government in Trinidad and Barbados had
to offer a premium for every mungoose killed, and since
that time a large sum is spent every year in this way.
The same happened in Mauritius, while in Jamaica it
has been attempted to destroy the mungooses by means
of a virus.

In Java a rodent larger than the rat, the " badjing "
(Sciurus notatus), does considerable damage by eating
all sorts of fruit, especially coconuts, and also the seeds
of cocoa fruits.

In Kamerun damage is done by a kind of hamster
(Cricetomys gambianus).

Of the larger mammals, species of deer and pigs
may be mentioned as troublesome in young cocoa
fields. The deer damage the trees by rubbing the
bark off the stem. With older trees the damage
is seldom serious, but young plants may be badly
damaged, and a large number may be killed in this
way by a few deer. Different species of deer are to be
found in the cocoa-growing countries. In Java it is
the "muntjak" or "kidang" (Cervulus muntjak) and
also the " mendjangan " (Cervus russa), which are now
and then troublesome in cocoa plantations. Deer are
very common in Surinam, and do more damage than in
Java.

Though pigs are in a sense useful, as they dig up
and devour grubs, the damage done in this way to the

288 COCOA

CHAP. VIII

roots of the plants is sometimes of importance ; young
plants are not infrequently wholly uprooted. Pigs
sometimes break off a great many young plants to make
their lairs, and where cocoa husks have been buried
they often give trouble by digging up the shells and
spreading them out over the soil.

CHAPTER IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES

I. ECUADOR

FOR many years Ecuador was first among cocoa-
growing countries, but in 1909 and 1910 its export was
surpassed by Brazil.

Very little information, however, has been published
in regard to the cultivation of cocoa in this country.1
As there is no Experiment Station, scientific investiga-
tions into the important agricultural questions have not
been carried out. We are thus still wholly ignorant as
to the composition of the soil and the nature of the pre-
valent diseases and insect-pests, and even statistics of the
rainfall in the different cocoa-growing districts are not
available. The Meteorological Bureau in Quito only
gives figures for the rainfall in that particular town, and
these are of no value for our purpose, as Quito is situated
in a part of the country where cocoa is not grown.

There is no doubt, however, that the natural con-
ditions are remarkably favourable for the cultivation of
cocoa, and the industry is very successful in spite of the
primitive methods which are still adhered to by the
majority of the planters.

The suitability of the natural conditions is also

1 Preuss, in his interesting book, Expedition nach Central und Sud-Amerika,
devotes a chapter to Ecuador and its cocoa industry. For statistics the reports
of the Chamber of Commerce of Guayaquil may be consulted (Memorias de la
Camarade Comerciode Guayaquil). I am much indebted to Mr. M. E. Seminario
of Guayaquil, who kindly furnished both information and photographs.

289 IT

290 COCOA

CHAP. IX

demonstrated by the fact that in clearing the forest
wild-growing cocoa trees are often met with, some-
times in large groups. These trees are quite the same
as the cultivated ones, and the fruit is just as good.
According to the general opinion in Ecuador, such
groups (called " Macigale "or " almagicos ") have been
sown by animals — monkeys or squirrels ; but Preuss
is inclined to think that these trees are really indigenous
to Ecuador and that Ecuador is the mother-country of
the " Amelonado " variety.

It does not appear, however, that there is sufficient
reason for this opinion. In other countries, where cocoa
is cultivated, the trees are found growing wild in the
forest, sometimes in great numbers together. This is,
for instance, the case in Surinam, and it is said also in
Trinidad ; but in these cases — at any rate in Surinam —
there is no doubt that the cocoa is not native but that
the seed has been distributed by monkeys.

Cocoa is grown in five provinces of Ecuador, each
of which has its own quality and type of product.
They are :—

Los Rios, producing about 25,000 tons per year ; the product is

known on the market as " Arriba."
Guayas, producing about 6000 tons; the product is known as

"Balao."
El Oro, producing about 3500 tons ; the product is called

" Machala."
Manabi, producing about 2000 tons ; the product is known as

"Manabi" or "Bahia."
Esmeraldas, producing about 75 tons ; the product is known as

" Esmeraldas."

The province of Los Rios is situated above Guaya-
quil, and the cocoa is cultivated along the tributaries of
the River Guayas, the Rio de Caracol and its tributary
the Rio de Puebloviejo, the Rio Vinces, and the Rio
Balzar. These regions are all rather elevated, which
gave rise to the name " Arriba/' which means " above."

The province of Guayas is situated south of the
River Guayas, and the cocoa is cultivated along the Rio

Ecuador (coast R

§ §
I tf

1 1

i

CH. ix COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 293

Naranjal and the Eio Balao, all near the coast. The
principal commercial centre is the village of Balao,
which has given its name to the product.

Farther south is the province of El Oro, where cocoa
is also cultivated near the sea, along the Rio Jubones
and south from this river.

The province of Manabi is situated in the north of
Ecuador, and here cocoa is cultivated along the Rio
Chones. . The principal port is Bahia de Caraques, after
which the cocoa of the province is sometimes called
" Bahia," a name rather inappropriate, as " Bahia " is
also the commercial name of the cocoa coming from the
province of Bahia in Brazil.

The province of Esmeraldas lies again north of
Manabi, and the cocoa plantations are situated along the
Rio Esmeraldas. The port is Esmeraldas.

The seasons vary in the different provinces, and
accordingly the main crop is reaped in different months.
In the case of the " Arriba " the main crop comes in
between March and June, while the "Balao" and the
" Machala" are picked mostly in September and October.

It should be mentioned that the planters in Ecuador
are of opinion that the rainfall has been diminishing
during the last few years. This naturally causes some
apprehension, but in the absence of rainfall records it is
impossible to ascertain whether the idea is correct or not.

The cocoa provinces have mostly a rich alluvial
soil ; the layer of humus is generally exceptionally deep,
probably deeper than in any other tropical country. In
choosing land for cocoa cultivation attention is paid in
Ecuador to the thickness of the layer of humus and to
the wild plants which grow on it. Some of the latter
are regarded as indicating richness of the soil — e.g. the
Gruarumo (Cecropia peltata), the Bijao (Heliconia Bihai
and Heliconia latispatha), Palo de balsa (Ochroma
piscatoria), Cana brava (Guadua latifolia .and G.
angustifolia), and some members of the Musa family.

The following table shows the annual export of the
different kinds of cocoa from Ecuador in kilograms : —

*

294

COCOA

CHAP.

Arriba.

Balao.

Machala.

Manabi.

Esmeraklas.

Total.

1877

6,337,700

873,200

2,258,200

362,300

17,600

9,858,200

1881

5,477,100

1,264,200

3,243,600

291,900

26,300

10,303,100

1891

6,793,400

1,324,700

1,859,400

696,400

1,300

10,446,200

1892

11,170,500

1,805,500

2,299,900

821,600

3,600

16,101,200

1893

13,491,100

1,836,500

3,170,600

1,420,800

38,200

19,915,500

1894

12,643,900

2,383,500

2,971,800

996,900

31,000

19,027,100

1895

8,960,300

3,013,800

3,638,000

1,067,100

46,800

17,542,000

1896

11,532,200

1,932,400

2,327,500

1,463,500

88,100

17,333,200

1897

10,659,600

1,777,500

2,802,400

1,178,200

59,800

16,477,600

1898

14,215,800

2,227,800

2,958,900

1,370,000

74,400

20,846,800

1899

16,536,100

3,835,400

3,822,700

2,352,900

60,400

26,607,600

1900

12,394,000

2,255,300

2,904,600

1,160,900

206,700

18,921,300

1901

14,416,100

3,906,600

3,873,600

1,257,000

149,100

23,603,400

1902

15,719,700

3,670,300

3,135,400

1,946,100

194,400

24,665,800

1903

14,329,200

3,858,700

3,628,100

1,081,900

66,000

22,963,800

1904

18,793,100

3,967,500

3,027,900

2,235,300

91,600

28,216,200

1905

13,662,100

3,594,100

2,666,200

1,716,500

82,900

21,713,700

1906

14,971,800

4,187,100

2,595,800

1,309,000

76,600

23,140,300

1907

12,168,000

3,771,200

2,572,600

1,136,000

94,400

19,742,600

1908

20,366,900

5,744,800

2,958,400

2,491,600

150,500

31,712,100

1909

21,387,400

4,457,400

2,827,900

2,965,700

130,000

31,768,500

1910

23,229,500

7,204,700

4,347,800

1,868,300

83,000

36,733,300

1911

27,409,200

6,353,300

3,571,200

1,859,200

76,200

39,269,200

1912

24,597,700

5,968,200

3,341,900

2,027,800

51,800

35,987,300

The export of cocoa from Ecuador during the last
six years has therefore been on an average 32,000 tons
per annum. As the world production of cocoa (or
rather the world export) was during these years on an
average 210,000 tons per annum, it is seen that
Ecuador exports about one-sixth of the whole.

The majority of the plantations in Ecuador are very
large, and several belong to the same owner. Among
the most important owners may be mentioned the
brothers Seminario of Guayaquil, whom Preuss, on
account of their large possessions with several millions
of cocoa trees, called the " Cocoa kings of the world."
The brothers Aspiaza, the firm Morla, and others are
also owners of large and important plantations.

Many plantations in Ecuador seem very strange to
those who are familiar with the way in which cocoa is
cultivated in other countries. Preuss, for instance,
says : l "I compared the cacao plantations of Surinam
to well-managed gardens ; those of Venezuela and

1 I.e. p. 239.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 295

Grenada could also be called gardens though a little
less clean, and those of Trinidad large plantations.
The plantations in Ecuador, however, are forests and
partly even bush." Many planters, however, have now
begun to use more modern methods of planting and
cultivation, and there are some very beautiful plantations,
especially some of those belonging to Mr. Seminario,
" Clementina " in Arriba, and the plantation in Balao
which belongs to the Morla family.

Notwithstanding the primitive methods of cultivation
the trees in the Ecuador plantations are very vigorous ;
they are conspicuous by their large dimensions, and they
surpass in height as well as in thickness those of other
countries. On an average they grow 8 metres in
height, but trees of 9 and even of 10 metres are not
rare.

It is customary to plant very closely. In the older
plantations the distance between the trees is not greater
than 2 to 2^ metres (6 to 7 feet). Two, three, and
sometimes five trees are planted in the same hole, and
only some of the suckers are removed, so that several
stems remain at each planting place, and the whole
plantation assumes a very dense, bushy appearance,
quite different from the appearance of the plantations
in Trinidad or Surinam. (Figs. 58, 59, 98.) The trees
lack the regular form which cocoa trees assume when
they are allowed to develop freely and the suckers are
removed. It must be added, however, that there is
now a tendency to plant the trees wider apart, and in
the new plantations a distance of 3*3 metres =10 feet
(4 varas) is chosen, and only one plant is planted in
each hole.

With the exception of the province of Esmeraldas,
the variety grown in Ecuador — a Forastero — is the
same throughout the whole country, and the size and
appearance of the fruits is very uniform, a fact which
is the more remarkable because in most other countries
where Forastero varieties are grown, the cocoa represents
a mixture of many different sub-varieties or types.

296

COCOA

The " Arriba," the " Balao," the " Machala," and the
" Manabi " are products of the same variety, which is
typical Amelonado (Figs. 30, 99). All the fruits are

By permission of the Editor of "La Hacienda."

FIG. 98. — An example of the Ecuadorian system of planting one tree in
each hole and of allowing the watershoot at the foot to grow.

yellow when ripe, and red ones are not to be found.
The shape is rather plump, rounded at the top and
slightly constricted near the fruit-stalk (slightly " bottle-
necked ") ; the surface is rather warty, with ten low
longitudinal ridges. In outer appearance they resemble

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 297

the Amelonado types, grown to a large extent in
Surinam, Grenada, and St. Thome, but the beans are
larger and the fruit- wall is thicker. The same variety
thus produces the four products : " Arriba," " Balao,"

FIG. 99. — Types of fruits of "cacao national," Ecuador.

" Machala," and " Manabi," and the variations (in taste,
aroma, appearance, consistency) are due to the differences
in the soil and climate of the countries where they are
grown.

Esmeraldas cocoa is produced by another variety,

298 COCOA

CHAP.

with long, slim fruits, elongated and pointed towards
the end, and " bottle-necked " ; the surface is very
irregular, the furrows deep. The colour, when ripe, is
yellow or brownish-red ; the beans are large and almost
round. Sometimes this variety much resembles the
Venezuela Criollo, especially when the beans are white,
as sometimes happens. This variety, which is finer and
nobler than the other, has been tried in the other
provinces of Ecuador, but without success, the trees
dying from no apparent reason when seven or eight
years old. Preuss thinks that the cause must be a root
fungus, and, according to his description, the appear-
ance of the dead trees, with the brown dead leaves all
still hanging on the branches, is very characteristic.

Seeds from good Venezuela varieties have been
tried with more success. The first plants were imported
in 1890 by Mr. M. E. Seminario, and at the present
time there is a general tendency to use Venezuela seeds.

As regards shade, the old system of leaving a
certain number of trees as shade trees when clearing
the forest is still followed. Special kinds of trees
are preferred for this purpose, especially the " palo
prieto," Erytlirina velutina (or glauca ?), which grows
wild in Ecuador ; this is probably the same tree as is
used in Trinidad ("Bocare") and in Venezuela ("Bucare
pionio "). This tree is much appreciated in Ecuador, and
is considered the very best shade tree. For the same
purpose sometimes the " borotillo" (Erythrina umbrosa,
the " anauca " of Trinidad, and the " bucare anauca " of
Venezuela) is left, or various kinds of " guabo " (Inga),
the "mijagua" (Anacardium rhinocarpus), or native
rubber species — e.g. the " hule" (Castilloa elastica), the
" palo de leche " (Sapium utile), the "tagua" (Phyte-
lephasmacrocarpa), and the "corosa" (Attalia Cohune),
etc. Some of these are decidedly not to be recom-
mended, as, for instance, the " Guabo machete," which
has very brittle wood and dies easily, while after death
the decaying roots are prejudicial to the roots of the
cocoa, infecting them with a fungus.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 299

Gradually, however, the planters are realising the
evils of the old system, and now prefer to clear the
forest completely and to plant the necessary shade trees.
For this purpose they mostly choose the " palo prieto "
(Erytlirina velutina) and also the Saman (Pithecolobium
Saman), which is being more and more appreciated. In
the plantations of Mr. M. E. Seminario, both these trees
are planted, the Erythrina at a distance of 14 metres,
the Saman at 25 metres.

The system of cultivation is still primitive. After
clearing the forest, planting places are marked out at
regular distances, the soil is superficially loosened at
those spots, and the seeds are sown out, i.e. planted at
stake, generally several at one place. Plant-holes are
generally not made. Sometimes, however, the plants
are first sown out in nurseries, and then planted out in
the open field after some five months.

Between the cocoa bananas are planted, or cassava,
corn, and beans. In rare cases no temporary shade is
used (Fig. 100).

Weeding is more or less carefully done. Under the
old system of planting very little importance was
attached to it, but the more intelligent planters now
understand its value, and, according to Mr. Seminario,
they consider it necessary to weed at least twice a year.

No manuring is done ; indeed it would probably be
superfluous, considering the richness of the soil.

Although little attention is paid to drainage, a good
drainage system would probably be beneficial in this flat
country, where the rainfall is considerable. In view,
however, of the supposed gradual diminution of the
rainfall, experiments have lately been made in the dry
season in irrigation by means of pumps, which bring
the water from the river into the plantation.

Pruning is only done in a few plantations, and in
many cases the only care given to the trees when
full-grown is the occasional removal of suckers, called
" ladrones." Some of the more progressive planters
prune the top of the tree -at its centre. Such planters

300 COCOA

CHAP.

are also beginning to treat the shade trees more care-
fully, and to remove the lower branches regularly so
as to obtain sufficient space between the tops of the
cocoa trees and the lower branches of the shade trees.

Diseases occur in Ecuador as in every other cocoa-
growing country, but in the absence of any scientific
agricultural institute they have never been investigated,
and no methods for combating them have been properly
worked out. The consequence is that the annual

FIG. 100.— Cocoa grown without temporary shade (Plantation "La Elvira," Ecuador).

damage done is considerable. The most common
diseases are the " mancha " and the " mosquilla."

The "mancha" (which means "spot") is a disease
which attacks the pod at ail ages. A black spot appears
on the pod and gradually extends. It causes the decay
of the whole fruit, and is probably caused by a fungus.
This malady causes great loss, especially when the rains
are heavy, and the difference between the day and night
temperature is great. The "mosquilla" (see p. 278) is
an insect which attacks the fruits. Both these maladies
are prevalent in the coast regions, and the damage is

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 301

often serious at Balao, Bahia de Caraques, and especially
at Machala, where in 1909 a great part of the crop was
lost.

A rather sudden decline of temperature brings on
what is called " helada " of the pods, which causes an
abnormal growth of pods and beans.

In Ecuador the picking of the fruit requires more
skill than in other countries, because of the height to
which the trees attain in consequence of close planting
and vigorous growth. Accordingly, trained pickers are
used, especially for picking the fruits which hang very
high. These labourers are called " tumbadores," and
use long, thin, light bamboo sticks, to which a knife

Podadera Podon Costilla Batea

FIG. 101. — Implements used in gathering cocoa in Ecuador.

"Podadera," cocoa-hook; "podon," used for breaking the pods ; "costilla," made of bone,
used for removing the seeds from the fruits ; " batea," for gathering the seeds.

is attached. The knife ("podadera") has the shape
indicated in Figs. 63, 101. The " podadera " is attached
to a stick ("palanca") about 2 metres long. Besides
this "palanca," the " tumbador " carries a number of
smaller sticks ("embonos"), which are attached to the
" palanca " when necessary in order to make it longer.

Preuss describes the work of the "tumbador" as
follows : " By means of the knife attached to the end
of the stick, with one push from below he severs the
fruits from the stem or branches. Sometimes all the
1 embonos ' are not sufficient for the height of the trees.
In such cases the ' tumbador ' throws the stick upwards
with a quick jerk, and generally he does this so accurately
that the knife cuts the fruit-stalk, the fruit drops, and
the stick falls back vertically. This work demands

302 COCOA CHAP.

much skill and is also very tiring, as the labourer has
always to keep his face turned upwards. It is a pleasure
to see good ' tumbadores ' at work."

The fruits are opened with a special knife called
"pod<5n" (Fig. 101), and a good labourer should be
able to open thirty to forty fruits per minute. The
beans are scooped from the fruits with the help of an
instrument called " costilla," attached to the hand by
a short cord (Fig. 101). This work is generally done

FIG. 102. — Drying floor covered with split bamboo, as used in Ecuador.

by women and children, and the beans are carried to
the "hacienda" by mules or donkeys.

The yield in Los Eios ("Arriba") is estimated by
Mr. Seminario to be about 11 quintals or 500 kilograms
per hectare (200 kilograms per acre) ; in Guayas and
El Oro ("Balao" and "Machala"), by the same
authority, about 15 to 20 quintals, or 700 to 920
kilograms per hectare (280 to 370 kilograms per acre).
This is about the same yield as is obtained in most other
cocoa-growing countries.

The beans are not subjected to any special fermenta-

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 303

tioii. At the "hacienda" they are at once spread out
on the drying places, which are flat floors made with
a mixture of earth and sand and covered with split
bamboo (Figs. 102, 103). Cement floors are never
used. During the daytime the beans are left spread
out, and are turned over at frequent intervals, a work
done mostly by children. At sunset the beans are
gathered together into heaps and covered with banana
leaves, sail-cloth or some other light material. During
the night the cocoa ferments slightly in the heaps.

FIG. 103. — Drying floors, Ecuador.

The next morning the cocoa is again spread out.
During the main crop the quantities are greater and
the heaps larger, and Preuss attributes the better quality
obtained from this main crop to the consequent stronger
fermentation in the large heaps. It is doubtful, how-
ever, whether he is right in this supposition. Mr.
Seminario informs the present author that he tried a
regular fermentation, as practised in Trinidad and
Surinam, but without success. The merchants would
not pay a higher price for the resulting product, and
the beans had not such a good appearance as when
treated in the ordinary way. Mr. Seminario accordingly

304 COCOA

CHAP.

reverted to the old method of very slight fermenta-
tion.

This may prove that the " Arriba," like all the finer
kinds of cocoa, requires only a very slight fermenta-
tion to be marketable ; but still the quality could be
improved if attention were paid to the fermentation so
as always to obtain a uniform product. Fermenting
in special boxes would probably be advisable ; but care
would have to be taken to obtain an even, and not too
high, temperature and not to leave the beans too long
in the boxes.

The incomplete fermentation makes a thorough
drying necessary. This, however, is never done arti-
ficially, and is left entirely to the sun, and the cocoa
is not treated with dry earth, as in Venezuela. It is
therefore not surprising that the product often moulds
or even rots ; in this way large quantities are lost in
rainy seasons, but even in dry years large quantities
of mouldy Ecuador cocoa are placed on the market.
Sometimes the cocoa is dried a second time at Guayaquil
by the export houses, and also selected and cleaned.
A very peculiar method adopted at Bahia de Caraques
is to sprinkle the cocoa with sea- water after drying.
This product is much appreciated, especially on the
London market.

The labourers on the plantations are mostly natives
of Ecuador, though a small number are immigrants
from Colombia and Peru. Labour is scarce and wages
rather high — about one sucre (2s.) per day of eight-
hours, with free housing and medical attendance. The
result is, as has been described, a cultivation of little
intensity. On an area of 5 or 6 hectares1 only one
labourer is generally used, and Preuss mentions a
plantation near Balao with a yearly production of about
600 tons of cocoa (and probably about 1000 hectares
in extent), where only 150 to 180 labourers were
employed. This corresponds with the experience of
Mr. Seminario, who estimates that; on the average,

1 One hectare = 2£ acres.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 305

for every 100,000 trees (90 hectares) 15 labourers,
15 animals, and 15 hectares of pasture-grounds are
necessary. The yield from this area would be 15 x 80
quintals — i.e. about 55,000 kilograms — while the
expenses would be 15x960 sucres, or £1440. These
figures indicate a yield of about 600 kilograms per
hectare, or about 240 kilograms per acre.

The minimum expenditure on an Ecuadorian
plantation, once it is established, is 6 sucres (12s.)
for every quintal (46 kilograms) of cocoa delivered at
Guayaquil; but 7 sucres (14s.) must be allowed
when special care is given to the cultivation and the
upkeep of the plantation. The cocoa is cleaned and
put into bags at Guayaquil ; the expense of this, together
with export and other duties, makes 5 sucres (10s.)
more per quintal. Thus the cost of production for one
quintal (46 kilograms) up to the moment when it is
put on board the ship at Guayaquil is 12 sucres or 24s.
per quintal of 46 kilograms — i.e. 6d. per kilogram of
cocoa, f.o.b.

According to Preuss, the planters of Ecuador are,
generally speaking, intelligent and practical, and much
superior to those of Central America. They are well
known for their reliability. They are very particular
about their implements, which are of better quality
than in other countries.

An Agricultural Department with a scientific staff
does not exist in Ecuador. In other countries the
necessity of scientific investigation and advice has long
been recognised as indispensable for the improvement
of the cultivation and for fighting diseases, and in the
Dutch, English, and German colonies Experiment
Stations and Botanic Gardens are doing valuable
work and have effected remarkable improvements in
agriculture. In Ecuador, however, the most important
cocoa-growing country in the world, the planters have
to work out their own salvation, and instead of spending
money to help the planters, the Government charges an
export duty on all cocoa exported. This tax amounts

x

306 COCOA

CHAr.

bo>i~ to 2i| centavos (5s. per 100 kilograms) for cocoa loaded
at Guayaquil ; at the other ports it amounts to 3 J
centavos (7s. per 100 kilograms).

Another circumstance which hinders the progress of
the industry is the way in which money is advanced to
the planters by the banks,1 which do not take the yield
of the plantation as the basis for lending money, but
only the number of trees planted. This often leads to
careless planting in order to have a large number of
trees so as to obtain a greater loan.

If this were altered and scientific help given to the
planters, the cocoa industry of Ecuador would doubtless
make still greater progress.

II. BRAZIL

Brazil does not hold such an important position as
Ecuador in the cocoa-market, for the reason that her
product is much inferior in quality.

The cocoa is cultivated in the States of Para" and
Maranhao (the product being known under the com-
mercial name of " Para ") and in the State of Bahia
(the product being known as " Bahia ").

In Para cocoa has been cultivated for a very long
time, but in Bahia it was only begun in the nineteenth
century (see Chapter I.).

The importance and increase of the industry also
dates only from the last half of the nineteenth century,
and Brazil must therefore be classed among the younger
cocoa-growing countries. The annual export of " Para "
remains nearly stationary, but that of Bahia has been
very rapidly increasing, as the following figures show : —

1 Gordian, February 1910, xv. p. 3229.

[TABLE

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 307

"Bahia."

" Para."

Total for Brazil.

Kilog.

Kilog.

KiLog.

1830

26,000

1850

...

282,000

1870

...

1,216,000

1883

...

6,280,000

1894

6,555,000

3,594,000

10,149,000

1896

7,233,000

3,321,000

10,554,000

1898

10,283,000

2,660,000

12,943,000

1900

13,836,000

3,080,000

16,916,000

1901

15,457,000

2,867,000

18,324,000

1902

16,190,000

4,452,000

20,642,000

1903

15,775,000

5,125,000

20,900,000

1904

17,865,000

5,195,000

23,060,000

1905

16,727,000

4,263,000

20,990,000

1906

23,030,000

2,105,000

25,135,000

1907

21,027,000

3,501,000

24,528,000

1908

29,678,000

3,278,000

32,956,000

1909

28,899,000

4,831,000

33,730,000

1910

24,539,000

3,691,000

29,158,000

1911

34,997,000

1912

...

30,500,000

The increase in the export of " Bahia " is, however,
not the result of systematic and persistent efforts on
the part of planters who have had to surmount great
difficulties. It is more the consequence of a combina-
tion of remarkably favourable circumstances, which in
this much-favoured country make cocoa-growing possible
and even successful in spite of the absence of any great
care. Indeed, the natural conditions in those parts of
Brazil1 where cocoa is cultivated are perhaps more
favourable than those of Ecuador, and accordingly the
cultivation is still more primitive. These natural con-
ditions would result in a still greater extension of the
cocoa industry if the economic conditions were better
and if the States in question were governed in a more
sympathetic manner.

In Para the districts of Cameta, d'Obidos, and
Tocantins are the most important cocoa-growing centres.

1 Jumelle, Le Cacaoyer ; Gordian (1910 and 1911) ; Le Brtsil, ses richesses
naturelles, ses industries (public par le Centre Industrie! du Bresil).

308 COCOA CHAP.

Cocoa is grown only in the southern part of the
State of Bahia, the principal centres being :—

(1) The municipio of Belmonte. The plantations
are situated along the borders of the Rio Jequitinhonha,
principally along the northern bank. The export from
here at present amounts to 4,200,000 kilograms.

(2) The municipio of Canavieiras, situated on both
sides of the Rio Pardo. The export is about 3,600,000
kilograms.

/ (3) The municipio of Ilheos, where the cocoa is
Y I cultivated more in the interior, the coast region
^A apparently being unsuitable.
\ (4) The municipio of Itabuna, formerly combined

1 with Ilheos. These two municipios export together

(about 1,500,000 kilograms.

(5) The municipios of Una (situated between
Canavieiras and Ilheos) and of Rio de Contas, north
from Ilheos.

The majority of the planters are small proprietors,
and the plantations are mostly far from large. In
Bahia there is an export duty of 17 per cent ad
valorem.

As has been mentioned, the methods of cultivation
adopted in Brazil are very simple. Shade trees are not
planted. Formerly a certain number of forest trees
were left standing, but this is no longer the custom.
When the forest has been cleared, however, and the
cocoa seeds have been put into the soil, secondary bush
is frequently allowed to grow between the young cocoa,
which in this way receives a sort of temporary shade-
very often too much of it. In the first few years this
secondary bush is occasionally cut down a little, so as
to give the cocoa plants room ; but this is sometimes
omitted, and the plants have to grow up for a year or
two among the weeds and shrubs. Generally, however,
the bush is partially removed every year, until the
branches of the young trees spread and reach each other.
This is soon the case, for the trees are planted fairly
close together ; the planting distance varies from 6 to 12

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 309

feet, but is generally between 7 and 9 feet. Three or
four plants are usually left growing together on the
same spot, whether the seeds are sown out or the plants
reared in nurseries ; in the latter case they stand in
groups of three or four close together, and the whole
group is kept together in transplanting. The primitive
methods of cultivating the young plants, and the grow-
ing of the older plants without shade would in most
other countries result in the death of the trees, but here
it meets with success owing to the extremely favourable
natural conditions.

As regards climate, there is no real dry season to
speak of. Rain falls every month, though not to the
same amount ; the wettest months are May to August,
the driest December to February. Exact meteorological
figures are not to be had, however, as up to the present
none of the planters use any instrument to measure the
rainfall.

The curing seems to be done with a certain amount
of care in the regions along the Rio Pardo and the
Rio Jequitinhonha, but in the municipios of Ilheos and
Ttabuna it is performed in a very slipshod manner.
The crop comes in in two main harvests, one in
December and January, the other in May and June.

No pruning is done, but the dead wood is sometimes
removed when the fruits are being picked. Water-
shoots or suckers are generally removed.

Though, as has been said, the methods of cultivation
usually adopted in Brazil are very primitive and rough,
there are a few exceptions. In the neighbourhood of
Belmonte and Canavieiras a few planters have adopted
more modern methods, and a few plantations under
Swiss management may even be called first rate.

It is a very common practice for small proprietors
to plant a certain area with cocoa, and then sell it
later on to planters with more capital. Such buying
and selling does not take place according to the area
of the fields, but according to the number and age of
the trees.

310 COCOA

CHAP.

The average yield cannot be stated with any
certainty, as the number of reliable figures is too small,
but in Dr. Zehntner's opinion it is not higher than 1
kilogram per tree. On a plantation where the planting
distance was 12x12 feet (4x4 metres) the average
yield per tree was 1^ kilogram. These figures would
certainly point to a high average yield of about 450
kilograms per acre ; but it is more than possible that
the average is not so high and that these figures are
based on the yields of exceptionally productive fields.
When further and more reliable statistics become
available, it will probably turn out that in Brazil, as
in most other countries, the average yield varies between
200 and 300 kilograms per acre.

At present there are no data as to the area under
cocoa cultivation. Dr. Zehntner estimated in 1911
that in the State of Bahia from twenty to twenty-five
million trees were in full bearing, while he put the
number of young trees at about ten to twelve millions.
At any rate the number of trees is rapidly increasing.

Diseases and insect-pests do occur, but up to the
present none of them has done either great or general
damage.

III. SAN THOME AND PRINCIPE 1

Geography. — San Thome, an island with an area
of only 1000 square kilometres (360 square miles), is
situated in the Atlantic Ocean just north of the
equator, about 160 miles east of the mouth of the
Gaboon Eiver. With the much smaller island of
Principe, situated a little to the north-east, it forms a
province of Portugal. About half the island of San
Thome' is cultivated and covered with cocoa trees ;

1 The principal work on the cultivation of cocoa in this country is the
S interesting and circumstantial work by Aug. Chevalier, Le Cacaoyer dans

V Quest africain (fasc. ii. of Les Veyttaux utiles de VAfrique tropicale fran<;aisc.
, Paris, Aug. Chalamel). Special subjects have been treated in the following
*'c*.. works : Francis Mantero, Manual Labour in San Thome" and Principe (Lisbon,

1910) ; J. A. Wyllie, The Boa Entrada Plantations (Edinburgh and London,

1907) ; Jose de Almeida and A. Cannas Mendes, Les Plus Graves Maladies

du cacaoyer a San Thome (Lisbon, 1910).

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 311

of the remaining part one-half is still suitable for the
cultivation of cocoa, while only one-quarter of the whole
island is considered unfit for agriculture.

Climate. — This comparatively small island contains
three regions with very different climates. The
northern and north - eastern part possesses a climate
with a small rainfall — about 1000 mm. (40 in.) — and
a strongly marked dry season during the months of
June, July, August, and September ; in the south and
south-west there is much more rain, probably not less
than 3000 mm. (120 in.), except near Miguel, where it is
a little drier ; and, lastly, the centre of the island,
which culminates in the peak of Santa Anna (7000
ft.), is a region of a rather high rainfall and a very
damp atmosphere.

Cocoa is cultivated in all three regions, but never above
about 2000 ft. In the dry northern and north-eastern
part of the island irrigation is necessary, but even then
the cocoa often suffers a good deal from drought and
has to be densely shaded. On the other hand, this
district has the advantage that the product can always
be dried in the sun.

In the south the amount of rainfall suits cocoa much
better, but here artificial curing has to be used.

The Soil. — San Thome is of volcanic origin. The
rocks contain a little lime and considerable quantities
of phosphoric acid and potash, and their slow decom-
position produces very fertile soils. In many valleys
red or yellow clay is found, but where cocoa is cultivated
it is nearly everywhere to a considerable extent mixed
with sand. In many places the soil contains humus,
sometimes to a depth of one metre (3|- feet). These
soils lie principally along protected slopes. In many
parts of the island the soil contains numerous large
stones ; in these regions cocoa cannot be cultivated,
as the stones would first have to be removed, which
would be too expensive.

Sandy soils are rare ; they lie chiefly in the north
of the island near the sea and around the town. Cocoa

312 COCOA CHAV.

grows well here provided the layer of vegetable earth
is of sufficient depth.

.Near the shore and the river-mouths salt soils occur.
If the salt water remains standing, the young cocoa
dies ; yet Chevalier saw near San Miguel a fine planta-
tion where the trees were often flooded by high tide.
This agrees with the experience, gained in Surinam,
that cocoa can stand a good deal of salt in the soil if
it has grown accustomed to it when young.

As serious damage is done by sea winds the cocoa
trees have to be protected against them by thick shelter
belts of trees.

The chemical composition of the soil in San Thome
is very variable. The analyses given by Chevalier yield
the following general figures : —

Per cent.

Nitrogen . . . O07 to 0'2
Potash . . . 0-1 to 0-2

Phosphoric acid . .0-07 to 0'5
Lime . . .03

Organic constituents . 1 to 2 (in one case 7).

The physical structure is to some extent shown by
the following figures : —

Per cent.

Stones . . .15

Gravel . . . .16
Fine Earth . . . . 68 to 90

The following figures are also interesting :—

Per cent.

Water . . . . 9 to 22
Humus . . . . 1| to 3
Sand . . ' . . . 40 to 50
Clay 30 to 50

History. — The first cocoa plants were introduced
into San Thome in 1822 from the island of Principe,
which had probably obtained them from the Spaniards
in Fernando Po. For a long time, however, the cultiva-
tion of cocoa made so little progress that as late as
1869 no more than 50 tons were annually exported,
but in the last quarter of the nineteenth century the

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 313

export increased rapidly. While in 1869 there were
only 64 owners of " rogas " or " fazendas " (estates), this
number amounted to 153 in 1872, and to 495 in 1898. l

Some plantations are very large, and employ as
many as 1500 labourers.

The following figures 2 show the growth of the
export of cocoa from San Thome and Principe from
1870:—

1870
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903

Kilog.

92,800

1904

7,022,900

1905

7,509,500

1906

8,599,800

1907

9,945,300

1908

13,932,900

1909

13,935,000

1910

16,982,600

1911

17,619,000

1912

22,050,900

Kilog.

20,496,000
25,669,300
24,619,600
24,194,600
28,560,300
30,261,000
36,664,800
35,000,000
35,500,000

The abolition of slavery in 1875 tended to retard
for a time the development of agriculture.

A trial was first made with free labourers from the
Cape Verde islands, but this was soon abandoned,
Then Chinese from Macao and Timor were tried, but
it was found that the mortality amongst them was
very great and that they showed little aptitude for
agriculture. Finally, people from the coast of Angola
were taken into service under contract.

The arrangement of the estates. — There are three
classes of plantations : —

(1) The first are those belonging to free natives;
they are generally smaller than five hectares (about 12
acres). The owner lives on his plantation, working it
himself with his family, and little care is bestowed on
the cultivation.

Several cocoa seeds are sown in one hole, the
distance of one group of trees from another being often
less than 1*50 m. (4f feet). Pruning and manuring
are wholly neglected, but the shells of the cocoa-pods

1 Ferreira Ribeiri, A provincia San Thom6 e Principe. Lisbon, 1877.
2 Gordian, 1911-13.

314 COCOA CHAP.

are placed round the foot of the trees. The trees die
earlier and produce less than in the plantations which
are worked more carefully. When a tree dies seeds
are sown close to the vacant place, after the soil has been
tilled to a depth of 6 or 7 inches. Notwithstanding
this careless treatment, the yield is fairly high, which
must be regarded as a proof of the excellent quality of
the soil.

Fermenting and curing are carried out in as
primitive a way as by the negroes on the Gold Coast,
and the produce is mostly sold to native merchants.

(2) The second class of plantations vary in size
from 10 to 100 hectares (25 to 250 acres). A few
belong to natives or Creoles, but most of them to
Portuguese, who manage them themselves or have a
European manager. Some of these estates are very
carefully cultivated. The owner is generally assisted
by two or three European labourers, and requires
about one native per hectare (2|- acres).

As the transport and the treatment of the cocoa are
not so well arranged as on the large estates, com-
paratively more labourers are required. Therefore the
profits gained on these plantations are small. Chevalier
thinks that newly established plantations of this kind
would scarcely give any profit at all within the first
ten years.

(3) The third class of plantations comprise the
large European estates or " rocas." Some belong to
private persons, others to agricultural companies, and
most of them represent a capital of several millions
of francs. Nearly all belong to Portuguese and are
worked with Portuguese capital. The establishment
of a large estate is very expensive, and after it is
established it requires a large European staff and about
one labourer for every 2 hectares (about 5 acres),
exclusive of those required for the enlargement of the
plantation and for the treatment of the produce.

Chevalier describes one of these estates — themanager's
house and the neighbouring buildings, amongst which

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 315

are the fermenting and drying houses, the hospital, the
houses where the native labourers live, the stables, etc.
Considerable care is given to the roads on the planta-
tion (Fig. 104). On some estates the small carts for
transport are drawn by mules or men, on others steam-
power is used. Very large " rogas " have branch
establishments, named " dependencias." These are
managed by a European director, have accommodation

By permission of Mr. Monteiro de Mendonga.
FIG. 104. — Repairing a road on the estate "Boa Entrada," San Thome.

for fermenting and curing, and generally employ from
100 to 200 labourers.

Labour conditions. — The owners of the large " rocj^s "
of San Thome mostly live in Portugal, but from time
to time they visit the island to control the state ofl
aifairs on their possessions. Every estate is directed
by a manager, who is left entirely free in his manage-
ment and is held responsible.

The population of San Thorne itself being negligible,
the labour for the cocoa plantations is obtained from
other Portuguese colonies, especially Angola. The

316 COCOA

CHAP.

recruiting of natives for this purpose is performed by
agents under the direct supervision of the Government
and has been made the subject of elaborate regula-
tions. Whatever abuses there may be in the methods
of these recruiting agents, there does not seem to
be much doubt that on the whole the natives are
well treated once they have reached the plantations.
They are well fed, and are generally housed in a long

By permission of Mr. Monteiro de Mendonga.

FIG. 105. — Labourers' dwellings and tank for washing cattle on the plantation
" Boa Entrada," San Thome.

building (Fig. 105), divided into a row of rooms, each
of which is occupied either by a family or by two single
labourers. Every plantation of any size also has its
own hospital (Fig. 106), but in spite of all precautions
the mortality among the imported natives is high.

De Almada Negreiras estimates that the cost for
every " servi§al" amounts to 1'50 franc a day (Is. 3d.) ;
wherein are included the contract costs, the wages,
food, clothing and the loss_ by _the_ large mortality
among the newly arrived.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 317

Chevalier estimates the costs for one " servical "
at about 40 francs a month (32s.), divided as follows : —

Contract costs and loss by heavy mortality . 16 Jr. (12s. lOd.)
Monthly wages . . . " . '. . 12 „ (9s. 7d.)
Food and dress . . . . 12 „ (9s. 7 d.)

Comparing San Thome with Trinidad and Surinam,
Chevalier concludes that labour is very cheap at San

P>y permission of Mr. Monteiro de Mendonqa.
FIG. 106. — Hospital on the plantation "Boa Entrada," San Thome.

Thome. In this he is, however, mistaken, for in
Surinam the cost for one contracted labourer amounts
to about 33 frs. (about 26s. 6d.) per month, viz. 16s.
wages and 10s. 6d. indirect expenses (immigration
expenses, as, for instance, passage on the steamer,
hospital, houses, etc.).

The San Thome labour-system, especially the way
of contracting, has been in England the subject of much '
criticism.

Three of the most important cocoa manufacturers in

318 COCOA

CHAP.

England sent a Commission to San Thome and Principe
to gain information about the way in which the
" servigals " were engaged and about the treatment on the
estates. This Commission considered that much im-
provement was necessary as regards contracting ; and
in 1908 and 1909 the cocoa manufacturer, William
A. Cadbury, made a journey through San Thome and
Principe to investigate the labour question.

He considered that the state of affairs was un-
satisfactory, especially the details of contracting and
the opportunities for repatriation after expiration of the
contract. According to Mr. Cadbury, the Government
did not look carefully enough after the fulfilment of the
regulations.

After many deliberations, which had no satisfactory
results, Mr. Cadbury, together with a group of other
important cocoa importers, formed the resolution to
boycott the cocoa of San Thome, expecting in this way
to induce the planters and the Government to improve
the methods of contracting and the conditions of
repatriation.

It cannot be said that this action of the English
philanthropists has had much success. The San Thome
planters have not been inconvenienced by this boycott,
as their cocoa has simply gone to other markets,
especially to New York and Hamburg.

The cultivation. — At the present time new cocoa
plantations are nearly always established on virgin
land,' so that the first work to be done is clearing the
forest. As lianes or bush ropes are absent, this is not
such a hard work as in many other countries. The
shrubs are first cut down, and then the trees at about
0*80 m. (about 2^ feet) above the earth. Stumps are
never dug out, as they moulder away in two or three
years when the suckers are cut off twice or three times
a year. The useful wood is sawn into boards, the
worthless is used as fire-wood, or left to moulder in the
field. Formerly, big forest trees were left as shade trees,
but latterly this practice has been abandoned, and even

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 319

in old plantations they are cut down at the risk that
the falling stems will destroy the cocoa trees.

When the land has been cleared, plant-holes are dug
at 3 '50 or 4 m. (10 or 12 feet) distance, as much as
possible in straight rows ; between them, rows of plant-
holes are dug for the bananas, which have to give the
first shade to the young cocoa trees, and must be
planted at least six months before. In very good loose
soil the plant-holes are made about 70 to 80 cm. (2 '5
feet) deep, and at the surface 40 to 50 cm. (l to 2 feet)
in diameter ; but if the soil is very stiff or contains big
stones they are made as deep as 2 m. (6 '5 feet). In
this case a labourer cannot dig more than six holes a day ;
on an average a labourer during a year can do no more
than dig holes for one hectare. The bottom of the
holes must not consist of an impenetrable layer ; to
control this the holes are sometimes dug several months
before the cocoa is planted; if the rain-water remains
standing in them they must be made deeper.

While the clearing of the forest in San Thome takes
less work than in most other countries, the digging of
the plant-holes is much more elaborate.

When digging a hole if a large boulder is met,
the hole is not used for planting a cocoa tree ; but a
banana is planted there, because this plant does not
need to penetrate deep into the soil with its roots, and
the cocoa is planted a little farther on. For this reason
even young plantations are hardly ever regular.

First, all sort of vegetable refuse is brought into
the hole : fallen leaves, cocoa-shells, etc. ; then follows
a layer of good earth, which sometimes is fetched from
a distance, and at the top pen -manure.

On soils which are always wet, or where the water
remains standing a long time when the grounds have
been flooded by rivers, draining is necessary. As
draining is rather expensive, swampy grounds are often
not planted. Irrigation is only practised in the north
of the island and round the town of San Thome".

Manuring. — It has already been mentioned that

320 COCOA

CHAP.

the plant -holes are partly tilled with manure. This
is done on all estates in San Thome, and is considered
indispensable. In such a plant-hole the young cocoa
plant grows quickly : in the third year it flowers, and
in the sixth it gives a good crop, sometimes even earlier.

As manure for the plant-holes are used :

First. The refuse of fruit and vegetables from the
kitchens of the plantation, weeds, and what remains
after the sorting of the cocoa and coffee. This is all
collected in a definite place on the estate and forms a
good compost.

Second. Pen-manure, which is chiefly collected from
oxen and mules, but it is often badly protected from the
rains, and much of the fertilising substances are lost.

Third. Humus. When the soil is not fertile, at least
one cubic metre of earth is removed from the plant-
hole and replaced by the humus, which is taken from
the surface of the soil, or sometimes brought a great
distance from the banks of the river.

Fourth. Ashes from wood, which is burnt in
large quantities in the drying houses.

Fifth. Cocoa husks. These are never thrown
away, not even on the native plantations. They are
brought near the foot of the trees or put into the plant-
holes. The husks are sometimes burnt before being
buried, as when buried in the green state they often
attract the troublesome white ants.

While the plant-holes are dug in the dry season the
sowing is done at the beginning of the wet season, in
October or November. Some care is spent on the
selection of the seed. At the estate of Monte Eosa the
pods are taken from full-grown, healthy, and very
productive trees ; only the best seeds are used from
the middle of the pod. These seeds are at once sown
in rich soil in a nursery, or in the newly filled plant-
holes if they are planted at stake, which is generally
done in San Thome.

Some planters sow but three seeds in one plant-hole

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 321

at a distance of 10 to 15 cm. (or ^ foot), but generally
more seeds are placed all over the plant-hole.

Until the little plants are about 1 foot high they
require much care : weeds must be removed as they
appear, and white ants must be kept away.

Planting distance. — The natives generally plant
very closely, and often put five or six plants on a
surface of about 1 m. (9 feet square). The trees also
often stand in groups of two or three, and each group
at 1 m. (3 feet) distance. These trees make spindling
stems, and branch as high as 8 or 11 feet. The produce
is small, and when they are fifteen or twenty years old
they must be replaced by others.

In old European plantations the trees also stand
at small distances, but on very rich soil the yield, never-
theless, is good ; on ordinary soil, however, no more than
400 or 500 kilograms per hectare are obtained. In the
new plantations of Boa Entrada the trees stand at a
distance of 3*50 to 4 m. (12 to 13 feet).

Chevalier believes — and he mentions Preuss as being
of the same opinion — that with a planting distance of
3 to 4 m. (10 to 13 feet) two trees may be left in a plant-
hole,1 so that there would be 1200 to 1500 trees per
hectare. At present most European planters leave two
or three plants so near each other that their stems seem
to be branches of the same stem.

Nurseries. — Nurseries are established in shaded
places on rich soil, almost always in the neighbourhood
of the buildings. The seeds are laid out at a distance
of 20 to 30 cm. (8 to 12 inches apart).

According to Chevalier the number of young plants
which die or do not develop is 30 per cent in the first
year, 15 per cent of the rest in the second, 6 per cent of
the rest in the third, and 2 per cent in the fourth. These
figures show that in the soil of San Thome the young
plant has considerable difficulty in forming its roots,

1 I think Chevalier is mistaken herein. As stated in Chapter VI. I cannot
see any advantage in planting two cocoa trees at the same spot, and I am
unaware that Preuss ever recommended this method.

322 COCOA

CHAP.

which explains why so much care should be spent on
preparing the plant-holes.

Shade. — In San Thome cocoa is always cultivated
under shade, and Chevalier believes it to be indispens-
able for West Africa.

For the purpose of shading the plants during the
first few years bananas are everywhere used, the prota
(banana) as well as thepdo (plantain). They are planted
six months before the cocoa. Sometimes they are put
in rows, one banana to two cocoa trees, but mostly
irregularly. Until the fourth year these are considered
as absolutely necessary, after that time the cocoa trees
grow larger and the shade trees give the only protection.

A great many different trees are used. Sometimes
the original trees are spared when clearing the forest.
Chevalier mentions many of them, among which the
Elaeis (the oil-palm) is regarded by him as very suit-
able. Where these trees are planted at about 10 m.
(33 feet distance) they seem to afford an excellent
shade. Fruit trees are also used, and among them the
advocade (Per sea gratissima) is much appreciated.
Erythrinas on the contrary are not used at all.

It is remarkable that in San Thome so many different
trees are used for shade. It shows that the planters
are not over-particular in this respect. Many trees are
mentioned of which it is hardly to be believed that
they are suitable for the purpose ; the oil-palm, like
many other palms, demands too much space for its
roots to allow the cocoa tree to thrive vigorously next
to it. In other countries one or two trees have been
found to be most fit as shade trees, and, without going
further into the question, we may say that a tree must
have very special characters to be in all respects fit as a
shade tree (see Chapter VI.) ; there is no doubt that trees
belonging to the order of Leguminosae possess these
qualities.

It is very likely that as regards experiments with
shade trees, much remains to be done in San Thome" ;
and before trying to keep up the quality of the soil by

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 323

manuring it should, in my opinion, be settled what
shade trees are best suited for the purpose.

Windbelts are especially necessary along the coast.

Altitude. — Generally cocoa is not grown in San
Thome on an altitude higher than 650 m. ; on more
elevated grounds the seeds are small, and they therefore
lessen the commercial value of the cocoa wTith which
they are mixed.

Pruning is much practised in San Thome except in
the native plantations. Pruned trees give a larger /=vun/
crop than unpruned ones. In this island the branch
system is often formed at a height of less than 60 cm.
above the soil, which is too low. Therefore often a
watershoot is left growing in order to form a more
elevated foliage system. After two or three years, when
the higher foliage system begins to bear, the lower one
is removed.

Suckers are regularly removed. Old trees are cut
down just above the soil, after which the wound is
tarred. Watershoots are formed after some time; the
strongest is allowed to grow up to form a new tree.

Weeding. — In very wet parts weeding is done three
times a year — twice in the rainy season, once in the
dry season. In places where it is less wet, it is only
done twice a year.

Produce. — The cocoa tree begins to bear in the y. ,
fourth year, and is in full bearing from the twelfth to
the twentieth year. An estate which gives twenty to
thirty pods per tree (1 to 1*5 kilograms of cocoa) is
considered to give a good yield. Chevalier believes that
the estimate of one ton per hectare as average yield is
too high, and thinks that 600 to 700 kilograms per
hectare is more likely to be the average.

Harvest. — The principal crop comes in in October
and November, a smaller one in March and April.

The most skilful labourers are charged with the
picking of the pods. The fallen pods are laid in small
heaps; afterwards these are collected into bigger heaps
along the nearest road (Fig. 107). The seeds are put

324

COCOA

CHAP.

in little baskets or boxes, and these are emptied into
small waggons, which are taken to the " seda," the
buildings where the fermentation and drying take
place.

Fermentation. — The cocoa seeds are put into wooden
boxes to ferment ; on some estates they remain there
for five or six days until the fermentation is finished,
and are not turned over at all. On other estates one

By permission of Mr. Munteiro de Mcndonm.

FIG. 107. — Piling up the cocoa pods for shelling — plantation "Boa Entrada,"

San Thome.

box remains empty ; after three days the cocoa is turned
over thoroughly and then transferred to another box.

When the fermentation is finished the seeds must
be dried. In the more elevated parts of the island and
in the south, where rain falls during the greater part
of the year, artificial drying is necessary. In the north,
however, the cocoa can be dried in the sun.

On the estate of Boa Entrada the wet seeds are first
spread out in thin layers on stone floors, for a couple of
hours. When the drying has well set in, they are put

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 325

on drying platforms. These can be moved along rails,
and are run every night into the drying house and
taken out early every morning.

On the estate " Monte Cafe " the cocoa is dried
artificially in a large hall. The tables, on which it is
spread out, are arranged one above the other and are
in contact with hot-air pipes. During the first hours
the temperature is maintained at 50° or 60° cent, to
prevent moulding ; after that it is allowed to fall back
to 35° cent. Generally the drying is finished within
thirty hours.

Sorting. — When the seeds have been dried they
must be sorted. This is generally done by hand, on
some large plantations by machines ; but as these grade
by size only, it is necessary to go through again in
order to separate the fine seeds from those which are
less good. Usually four-fifths of the harvest consists of
good seeds. The second quality are those seeds which
have been well fermented but are of small size. The
third quality contains principally the seeds which have
not been fermented but have been found under the
trees after an attack by rats, or the black seeds from
dry pods which have been overlooked in picking, also
the fermented seeds which have become mouldy. They
are packed in bags which contain 70 kilograms, and are
transported on small waggons to the steamer which
every week goes round the island. In the port of San
Thome the cocoa is transferred to the Portuguese
packet-boats which take it to Lisbon.

While years ago the cocoa from San Thome stood in
bad repute, at the present time the produce of some
rocas can compete with good South American cocoa.

Varieties. — In San Thome two or three local
varieties can be clearly distinguished ; all foreign kinds
which have been imported years ago after one or two
generations assume the habit of this type, Chevalier
thinks by adaptation, not by hybridisation ; but this
remains still to be elucidated. The imported trees
themselves as they grow older give pods which are more

326 COCOA

CHAP.

and more unlike the original type and approach to the
native variety. Especially trees which are left to
themselves are said to take the characters of the
general type more rapidly than well- cared -for trees.

The common variety in San Thome as well as in
Principe and in all West Africa is named " Creoulo "
by the Portuguese (not to be confounded with the Creollo
of Venezuela and Java) (see Fig. 31). According to
De Almada Negreiros it originates from Bahia in Brazil.
In 1822 the first seeds were received. Chevalier believes
that this type has been grown for a long time in the
Spanish colonies in West Africa and has spread from
these. When ripe, the pods are lemon-yellow, 15 to
18 cm. (6 to 7 inches) long, egg-shaped, mostly a little
constricted towards the basis, and with a blunt apex.
They have indistinct furrows and are smooth or a
little rough. The fruit-wall is rather thin, the seeds
are numerous; they are very flat, about 21 mm. long,
11 to 13 mm. broad, and 7 to 8 mm. thick.

This type has generally yellow pods and is then
called " Creoulo amarillo," while the " Creoulo Colorado "
with red pods is less frequent.

The second variety is the variety which Chevalier
calls Theobroma sphaerocarpa. The Portuguese call it
"Cacao caranja" or "Carupano" or "Cacao amarillo
redondo." This fruit is distinguished by small yellow
pods ; though ribs are present it is on the whole globular.
It is said to be a native of Venezuela, and not infre-
quently met with twenty-five years ago. Yet it never
takes up more than one-tenth of the plantations and is
said to fail in the rogas of the South. There are different
opinions about the value of this variety. Some are
afraid that the San Thome cocoa would deteriorate
when this species would be grown in large numbers
because the beans are small and bitter. Others, how-
ever, say that the product is not inferior to the Creoulo
if the trees have a good soil : moreover, they give a
larger yield.

Several varieties of Forastero occur also, and prob-

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 327

ably they have been spread from the roga " Monte
Cafe," which imported them in 1882 in Wardian cases.

Enemies and diseases. - - The principal animal
enemies of the cocoa are the rats, which cause a great
deal of damage. De Alrnade Negreiros estimates it at
one-fifth of the crop. They feed on the pulp which
surrounds the seeds and then drop the seeds ; these are
collected, dried, and exported to Europe as the most
inferior quality (" Cacao dos rabos "). Besides, white
ants cause considerable damage.

One borer has been studied by Granier ; it is the cater-
pillar of some Zeuzera, perhaps Zeuzera coffeae. The
caterpillar finds its way into the branches, bores a passage
which may be 12 mm. in diameter and 50 cm. long.
The attacked branches die ; the leaves get dry and
remain on the branches.

The best way of fighting this insect is the cutting
and burning of the infected branches, so that the cater-
pillar and chrysalides are destroyed.

There are other borers in the cocoa plantations, but
not in large numbers, arid the caterpillars principally
attack unhealthy trees.

In the south of the island it sometimes occurs that
several trees die suddenly. In some cases it appeared
that the roots had not been able to penetrate into the
stony or clayey layer ; in others the roots had been
attacked by a fungus. The fructification of this fungus
has not yet been found.

A pod disease occurs, which makes a sort of brown
rot : it generally begins with the fruit-wall ; the tissue
gets soft, and soon the infection spreads all over the pod.
Chevalier sent some pods to the " Laboratoire de
Cryptogamie du Museum " in Paris. They were examined
by Hariot and Patouillard, who on nearly all of them
found a Botryodiplodia. It is, however, probable that
this organism is not the cause and was preceded by
Phytophthora.

Export duty. — An export duty is raised, amounting
to 5s. 8d. per 100 kilograms when the cocoa goes in

328

COCOA

CHAP.

Portuguese ships to a Portuguese harbour; 11s. 5d.
when it goes in foreign ships to a Portuguese harbour ;
and 18s. when it goes in foreign ships to a foreign
harbour.

IV. TRINIDAD AND THE LESSER ANTILLES
Trinidad.1 — -The island of Trinidad, which is situated

FIG. 108. — Map of Trinidad, showing the cocoa-growing areas.

at 10 N. and 61 to 62 W., near the coast of Venezuela,
has an area of 1750 square miles (see map, Fig. 108).

Of the Lesser Antilles Trinidad is the most beautiful,
and its capital, Port of Spain, though not large, is one
of the most modern tropical towns. Everything in

1 Olivieri, A Treatise on Cacao (Trinidad, 1903) ; J. H. Hart, Cacao
(Trinidad, 1900, and London, 1911) ; Preuss, Expedition (1901). Proceedings
of the Agricultural Society of Trinidad and Tobago. Bulletin of Miscellaneous
Information, edited by the Botanical Department. Bulletin, edited by the
Department of Agriculture ; West Indian Bulletin, the Journal of the Imperial
Agricultural Department, West Indies. Trinidad Year-Book.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 329

this town, the neat houses, some of which are indeed
luxurious buildings, the well-managed gardens, the
macadamised streets, — everything shows the thriving
condition of its inhabitants, and also in the interior of
the island the good roads as well as the well-managed
railway give an impression of wealth. This is almost
all the result of the successful cocoa culture : cocoa
being by far the most important of the export products.
As regards the climate, the description which Olivieri
gives may be quoted here :

The year only comprises two seasons, the dry and the wet or
rainy season. The dry season commences with the month of
January and ends in May; while the rainy season extends from
June to the middle of December. The driest months are February,
March, and April, and the wettest days are generally experienced
during the months of July and August, with an interruption of
very fine days from September to the end of October, known as
the Michaelmas summer. The change from the dry to the wet
season is generally characterised by a calm and close atmosphere,
with occasional showers of rain from the middle of May to the
middle of June, while during the rainy season rain falls in torrents
for hours without relaxation, often accompanied by flashes of
lightning and peals of deafening thunder.

The rainfall near Port of Spain is as follows : — 1
RAINFALL IN MILLIMETRES.

_.

£

,c
o

„•

>>

g

^

.

^

.

„•

a

t

1

I

1

s

3

«

£

0

^0

*

o
H

St. Glair .

73

39

48

50

98

207

228

245

183

167

173

121

1632

St. Aims .

70

30

30

50

140

190

220

270

190

190

170

150

1700

These figures show that the rainfall in Trinidad is
not very heavy for cocoa cultivation, and it could not
be much less without being insufficient. In the dry
months (January, February, March, and April) the
cocoa suffers sometimes very much, and in years with

1 Report Botanical Department, 1905 ; and Preuss, Expedition, p. 184.

330

COCOA

CHA?.

heavy drought many trees and sometimes whole areas
die, especially where the shade is scarce. From
these facts the planters regard a rather dense shade
as necessary.

On the plantation La Reunion the rainfall seerns to
be greater, being in 1896, 1897, and 1898 : 2730, 2580,
and 2390 mm.

The temperature ranges between 20° and 30° C.

From January to June the prevailing winds are

Photo. Jacobson.
FIG. 109. — A six-years-old cocoa field on a Trinidad plantation.

from ^fche east, while from June to October the winds
are more variable, and, when southerly, generally are
followed by or accompanied with rain.

Cocoa is not grown to any great extent on the
alluvial flat lands. These are used for the cultivation
of sugar, corn, coconut-palms, or as pastures for cattle.
On the hills and mountains we find the cocoa plantations
(Figs. 109, 110), and it is a curious and beautiful sight,
when the shade trees or " immortelles " are flowering, to

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 331

see the slopes of the mountains covered as if with red
tapestry.

The soil is here all decomposed rock. Sometimes, how-

Photo. Jacobson.

FIG. 110.— Part of an old cocoa tield in Trinidad.

ever, on the banks of a stream or river, there may
be a considerable depth of alluvial deposit. Though
the chemical composition of the soil is not of great
interest from a practical point of view, an analysis of

332

COCOA

CHAP.

a good cocoa soil may be given here. I select one of
the several soils analysed by Professor Carmody, the
Government Analyst, now Director of Agriculture.

Composition of the dry soil (the hundred and
thousand decimal parts have been neglected) :

Loss on ignition (mostly

organic substances) . 7*0
Iron Oxide Fe203 . .2-1
Alumina A1203 . . 5*7

Lime CaO . . . Ol
Magnesia MgO . . . 0'4

Potash K2O . . . 0-3

Soda Na26 . . . Ol

Phosphoric Acid P205 . Ol

Sulphuric Acid S03 . . Ovl

Chlorine Cl . . O'l

Insoluble Silicates . 84'0

Of the part lost on ignition, the nitrogen amounted
to 0'13 per cent.

But these figures are not so very important, for it is
well known that the chemical composition of the soil
gives no reliable data as to its agricultural value. In
Trinidad, as in all other countries, the planters know
how to distinguish the different soils and approximately
estimate their value as cocoa soils. The wild plants
may assist to frame such an estimate. Olivieri
mentions the following trees as indicating that the
soil is good and fertile : the wild fig tree (Ficus sp. ?),
the mountain -cabbage (Oreodoxa sp.?), the cedar
(Cedrela odorata), the wild plum tree or moubin
(Spondias lutea\ the sand-box tree (Hura crepitans),
the trumpet tree (Cecropia peltata), the bois lezard-
fidele ( Vitex capitata), etc.

It is remarkable that several of these trees, which
are regarded as indicators of a fertile soil, grow in
Surinam by preference on light soils, generally too
poor for successful cocoa cultivation. As regards the
undergrowth in Trinidad, the balisier (Heliconia), the
wild tanias (Caladium), the black roseau (Bactris),
and other plants are supposed to grow on soils fit for
cocoa culture.

One of the most appreciated soils is the so-called
" chocolate soil," which has the brown colour of chocolate ;
it is considered to be very productive.

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 333

The soil must be deep ; the rocky underground not
too near the surface. In several plantations the soil is
very stony, but this is not considered to be in any way
detrimental.

The preparation of the land, the planting and the
care of trees in the first two or three years, is either
done by the owner himself or by a contractor under the
so-called contract system. This system is the con-
sequence of scarcity of labourers. It may be briefly
described as follows :—

The planter makes a contract with a peasant or
contractor who has a certain number of labourers at his
disposition ; the contractor is bound to plant the land
with cocoa trees, and receives for his labour the use of
the land for the purpose of growing annual crops of
provisions, plus a fixed price per tree to be paid out to
him at the end of five or six years, when the cocoa .trees
commence to bear, and the land becomes useless for
gardening purposes. In 1889 an Ordinance was passed
controlling such contracts, and now each contract has
to be signed before the magistrate of the district.

As an example of such a contract the following may
be quoted : -

TRINIDAD

IN THE MATTER OF THE AGRICULTURAL CONTRACT
ORDINANCE, 1889

Statutory Contract made this day of 190

Between of

(hereinafter called the Owner), and

of

(hereinafter called the Contractor), for extending the cultivation
of the Estate in the Ward of

in the Island of Trinidad.

Whereas the Contractor was on or about the
day of 190 let into possession of

of land or thereabouts bounded on the North
by lands of

on the South by lands of
on the East bv lands of

334 COCOA

CHAP.

on the West by lands of

Being part of the said Estate, on agreement

with the Owner to plant the same in Cocoa trees in a regular and
husbandlike manner, but the said agreement was not at the time
reduced into writing ; And whereas the Owner arid Contractor
are desirous of bringing the said existing Contract within the
provisions of the Agricultural Contract Ordinance of 1889

It is now agreed as follows :

1st. The Contractor shall continue from the date hereof to
plant such part of the said land as is not yet planted in Cocoa trees
in a regular and husbandlike manner, and complete planting the
whole within days ; such Cocoa trees to be planted at

(14) feet by (14) feet, and Immortelle trees to be planted at (42)
feet by (42) feet in the centre of the Cocoa rows, and shall keep
the whole of the trees heretofore and henceforth to be planted in
a good and husbandlike manner.

2nd. The Contractor shall not plant any Rice nor more than
one crop of Corn on the said land unless the consent of the Owner
in writing is first obtained.

3rd. The Contractor shall not remove any plants, timber, or
grass, or burn charcoal unless the consent of the Owner in writing
is first obtained.

4th. The Contractor shall destroy all ants' nests that are
and may come upon the land granted under this agreement.

5th. The Contractor shall plant and keep a nursery of Cocoa
and Immortelle trees planted from seed, and such plants are to be
used only for supplying the said lands when necessary.

6th. The Contractor shall weed or cutlass his contract four
times a year in February, May, August, and November, and supply
the missing trees at each cleaning, or the Owner may, if he thinks
fit, do so and charge the Contractor with the costs.

7th. The Contractor shall dig all small drains (12) inches by
(12) inches at the distance of feet from each other, and

spread the earth dug therefrom at his own cost, or the Owner may,
if he thinks fit, have them dug and the earth spread and charge
the cost to the Contractor. Owner to show the Contractor how
the drains are to be dug.

8th. The Contractor shall not trim his Cocoa trees or
Immortelle trees unless the consent of the Owner in writing is
first obtained, or under his direction.

9th. The Contractor shall not pick his Cocoa without notify-
ing the Owner at least twenty-four hours before picking.

10th. The Contractor shall not allow any foreign trees to
grow on his contract, such as Bois Lorme, Corkwood, Hog Plum,
Trumpet Wood, or any Stumps ; if he does the Owner may, if he

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 335

thinks fit, cut down such trees or stumps, and charge the Con-
tractor with the cost.

llth. The Contractor shall have the full benefit of all pro-
visions growing on the said land until the termination or cancella-
tion of the Contract.

12th. The Owner or any person authorised by him shall have
power at an y time to inspect the said Contract.

13th. The Owner or any person authorised by him shall
have power to order out of the land and out of the Contractor's
house any objectionable person not being the Contractor's married
wife.

14th. The Owner shall dig all main drains at his own cost.
The Contractor shall spread the earth dug therefrom and keep
the said drains clean.

15th. The Owner shall at the termination of this contract
pay to the Contractor for each bearing Cocoa tree the sum of
(twenty-four cents), for each young tree in flower which shall not
be less than three years old the sum of (twelve cents), for supplies
or trees not less than two years old the sum of (six cents).

16th. The Contractor shall pay the Owner the sum of

(twenty-four cents) for each missing Cocoa tree, and the sum of

for each missing Immortelle tree. It shall be lawful

for the Owner to deduct from the monies coming to the Contractor,

all monies (if any) due or owing by him to the Owner.

17th. Should the Contractor be convicted of any kind of
larceny ; or for conveying or being in possession of cocoa sus-
pected to have been stolen, such conviction shall operate as a
termination of the Contract, but the Owner shall within one month
of such conviction have the Contract valued and pay to the Con-
tractor the amount found due on or before the next regular pay
day after the Contractor shall have claimed the same.

18th. At the expiration of the Contract the Contractor shall
deliver up all drains of proper depth and width, all Cocoa and
Immortelle trees trimmed, and the contract clean and free from
grass or weed.

19th. This contract shall continue for the term of (five) years
from the date that the Contractor was let into possession, provided
that it shall be lawful for the Owner to defer the taking over of
the contract until the whole of the contract shall be bearing.

20th. It is hereby lastly agreed that it shall be lawful for
the Owner at any time, and from time to time after the expira-
tion of (five) years from the date on which the Contractor was
let into possession of the said contract, to take over the whole
or part or parts of the contract as to such Owner shall seem fit.
On the taking over of the said contract or such part or parts as

336 COCOA

CHAP.

aforesaid, the Owner shall pay to the Contractor at the rate
specified in clause fifteen with such deductions as mentioned in
clause sixteen.

In Witness Whereof the said Owner and Contractor have
hereunto set their hands in the presence of

Contractor.
Stipendiary Justice of the Peace.

Owner.

The sum paid per tree varies according to the situa-
tion and the supply of labour, but generally ranges from
15 cents to 25 cents (7^d. to Is.) per tree.

The contractor lives during the time the contract
lasts as a farmer on the land. He builds a very primi-
tive little house, clears the forest, and plants the crops
which he considers most useful for his purpose, as
plantains, bananas, cassava, cow-peas, tanias, some-
times also beans and ground-nuts or vegetables, and
between them the cocoa and its shade trees.

When, in accordance with the contract, the time has
come — usually after four years — the owner inspects the
land with the contractor, the number of bearing trees
and the number of those not yet bearing are figured out,
and the owner pays out to the contractor what he owes
him.

This system of planting by contract has its advantages
and its disadvantages. It is certainly a cheap and easy
way to get a certain area planted with cocoa, but the
difficulty is, of course, to have it planted carefully.
And while with an honest contractor the planter has a
good chance of getting a well-planted area with healthy
trees, he may be badly betrayed by a dishonest one :
inferior types of cocoa may be planted ; the young
plants may be treated carelessly, either being hindered
in their growth by too closely planted intercrops or by
insufficient weeding, or by not being regularly freed
from insects as borers ; several plants may grow so
slowly that one or more years are lost ; or it may even
happen that the contractor takes the land, grows one or
two catch crops and disappears without planting cocoa.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 337

And the worst is, that in such cases the owner can do
very little against the contractor, as he is generally
without a penny, and any attempt to recover damages
would be useless.

Therefore many a proprietor prefers to have his I
cocoa planted by "j.ay lflb^11T<" under his own super-/
vision, if he cannot get a reliable contractor, of whose
honesty he is sure.

Sometimes an intermediate plan is followed, and the
owner supplies the contractor with seed and with some
men chosen among his own labourers.

The upkeep of regular plantations is performed by
the planter with a certain number of labourers who are
living on the plantation. They are partly negroes,
partly East-Indian immigrants.

All labour is done as far as possible by task-work.
For instance, for the cleaning of 100 cocoa trees planted I
at 14 feet distance about 37 cents is paid, making the!
cost of weeding one acre about 75 cents, the picking J
of 110 Ibs. cocoa 70 cents (1 cent = one halfpenny).

This comparatively cheap labour and the easy way I
in which cocoa can be cultivated in Trinidad — no|
drainage being necessary and no very noxious diseases
being prevalent — make the cost of production low
and cocoa-growing very remunerative. According to
Mr. Edgar Tripp the cost of production, apart from
capital charges, is on the best estates about $7 per I
" fanega " (110 Ibs.), rising to $10 per " fanega "on less /
fertile or less well-managed properties ($l = 4s. 2d.),
included putting on the market at Port of Spain.

For clearing the forest the dry season — February,
March, April — is preferred, to permit a thorough burning.
No forest trees are left for shade ; the shade trees are all
planted. In former times forest trees were sometimes
left, and in old cultivations the large sand-box trees
(Hura crepitans) standing in the cocoa fields are
often troublesome. The reason for leaving this tree
may be found in the fact that the bark is very
poisonous and dangerous to the skin and eyes. In

z

338 COCOA

CHAP.

cutting sand-box trees many a labourer has been badly
injured or has even lost his eyes by the sharp milky
juice. It may be mentioned here that the juice of the
sugars-cane is a good remedy against it, and in Surinam
the labourers, when they go cutting forest which con-
tains sand-box trees, never omit to take a piece of
sugar-cane with them.

Quite different from Ecuador, where through the
whole country the type of cocoa is so very uniform, the
Trinidad plantations show a mixtum compositum of
all sorts of varieties, but all Forastero types, Criollo
not being grown in Trinidad.

To save confusion I refer to what was said about
the Criollo variety in Chapter V. It would be very
confusing to call " Criollo " in every country the variety
which is considered to be there the indigenous one.
In doing so the name " Criollo " could no longer
represent a definite variety or a well-defined class of
types. We had better keep the names " Criollo " and
" Forastero " over the whole world for the same varieties,
calling " Criollo " the variety with soft-skinned, deeply-
furrowed, warty fruits and white round sweet beans,
and "Forastero" the variety which has less warty or
even smooth fruits with a hard, woody skin, with not
such deep furrows and flatter beans, this latter variety
comprising all the sub -varieties running from the
" Angoleta," which is much alike the Criollo, through
the "Cundeamor" and " Amelonado" to the " Calaba-
cillo," with very hard-skinned fruits with almost a
smooth surface and very flat bitter beans.

If we accept the terms " Criollo " and " Forastero "
in this sense we can say that no " Criollo " is grown in
Trinidad, but of "Forastero" all sorts of types may be
found.

It has, however, not always been so.

Dr. de Verteuil1 tells us in his work on Trinidad
that from its first settlement Trinidad exported cocoa,
and that cocoa soon gained a reputation on account of

1 Dr. de Verteuil as quoted by Hart (Cacao, 2nd edition, 1900, p. 56).

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 339

its delicious aroma. According to Gumella it was
superior to that of Caracas and other places ; so much
so that the crops were bought and paid for before-
hand.

In the year 1727, however, a terrible "blast"-
either a hurricane or a blight — spread through the cocoa
plantations and complete ruin followed.

Thirty years later, some Aragonese Capuchin
Fathers were successful in their attempt to revive cocoa
growing in the island. They imported from the main-
land a new kind of cocoa which, though giving a
produce of inferior quality, was nevertheless promptly
propagated as being hardier. That is the Forastero
cocoa at present cultivated in the island.

Though only two varieties are described — the one
giving a produce of superior quality but not resistant
against diseases, and the other more resistant but
giving a produce of inferior quality, it is clear that the
varieties are Criollo and Forastero. It is interesting
to note that Trinidad imported its Forastero from
Venezuela, and doubtless from that part of Venezuela
where other districts obtained the Forastero variety,
namely, the basin of the Orinoco.

Whatever the historical facts may be, at the present
time no other varieties are cultivated in Trinidad than
Forastero varieties, but these are present in a great
diversity of forms ; and in the plantations we find all
types of Angoleta (called " Forastero " by Hart, Fig. 29),
of Cundeamor (Hart's "Trinidad Criollo"), arid of
Amelonado (Fig. Ill) mixed.

Still, the Angoleta and the Cundeamor are prevalent.

It is often the case in Trinidad, that after being
cleared the land is allowed to lie fallow and is planted
next year. Generally the distance adopted now is 12
to 15 feet (Olivieri recommends 12 to 13 feet on ridges
and elevations and 14 feet on flat lands and gentle
slopes). Generally speaking, 12 feet will be good on
poorer soil, 15 feet on rich soil. In older plantations we
find the trees generally closely planted at a distance of

340 COCOA

CHAP.

10 feet or even less, but this system is followed no
longer. Care is taken that no water remains standing
in the fields, and, when necessary, narrow trenches are
made ; but as cocoa is grown on hill-slopes, and not
on flat lands as in Surinam, while the rainfall is not

Photo. Jacobson.
FIG. 111. — An Amelonado type grown in Trinidad.

so extraordinarily heavy — as, for instance, in some parts
of Java and British India — the damage done by the
rain-water, either by keeping the soil too wet or by
washing away the earth, is not so much to be feared
in Trinidad. Still, in some plantations, where the land

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 341

is flat and the soil stiff, a regular system of open drains
is considered necessary.

Planting at stake and from nurseries are both prac-
tised ; as in Surinam, many planters also in Trinidad
are in favour of using nursery plants, and well-managed
nurseries are to be found here with the plants standing
at distances of 1 or 1^ feet, well covered with a roof of
banana leaves. But, as Hart remarks, the method of
stake has also advantages, and as explained in Chapter
VI. the combination of both systems may be found
the best for Trinidad also.

The coating of the seeds with lime or ash before
planting to avoid the attack of insects is generally done.

In Trinidad the choice of temporary shade plants does
not appear to be of great consequence. The banana,
the tania, and the cassava may be mentioned as mostly
used, but also pigeon peas (Cajanus indicus), castor-oil
plants (Ricinus), and corn (Zea Mays) are often to be
found in the young cocoa plantations.

When planted by a contractor these temporary
shade plants are planted in very different wTays and a
uniformly adopted system does not exist : the choice of
plants and the way of planting may be very different.
When the planter does the planting himself there is
generally more system in planting.

The rows of bananas are usually placed between
the cocoa rows and at half the distance of the cocoa,
the distance being 7^- feet if the cocoa is planted
at 15 feet. In this system sometimes tanias are
planted in the cocoa rowTs. Another system is to
plant in the cocoa rows a banana between every two
cocoa plants, while a banana is sometimes planted also
between the cocoa rows in the centre of every square
formed by four cocoa plants. Tanias, pigeon peas, and
cassavas are planted between the bananas and the cocoa,
and the more drought is to be feared on the land planted,
the closer the shade plants are put together. The
banana usually used as shade is the " Jamaica " or
" Gros Michel," the variety so largely cultivated in

342 COCOA

CHAP.

Jamaica, Costa Rica, Colombia, Panama, and Surinam
for export to America and Europe ; of the plantains
the so-called " Jumbi plantain" is preferred.

Of the tania different varieties are used, of which
Olivieri l gives a review. The "giant" or "plantain
tania " is one of the most common. Of this variety
the tubers become developed and good for reaping at
the end of ten to twelve months after planting ; some
seven tubers are then produced measuring 3 to 7 inches
in length.

By exposing, however, and breaking off the tubers without
rooting or digging out the plant, which process is called " castrat-
ing," two or three crops yearly can be reaped during the second
and third years after planting, each plant giving an average yield
of thirty pounds of tubers, provided after each digging the parent
rhizome is moulded up and covered with the removed and sur-
rounding earth to a height nearing the last internode below the
leaf-stalk.2

In Trinidad the cocoa plants and the permanent
shade trees are planted at the same time. For this
purpose no other trees are used than two Erythrinas
(" immortelles "), namely, for the low lands'the " Bocare "
or " Bocare Pinon " (Erythrina velutina), and for the
higher lands the " Anauca " or " Nauclero " (Erythrina
umbrosa).

The " Bocare " is closely related to the " Koffiemama "
of Surinam (Erytlirina glauca). Both have the same
appearance, and form a large and rather dense foliage
system. The leaf is composed of three leaflets, which
are not very large, about 10 to 12 cm. long and 6
to 8 cm. broad. But the leaflets of the "Bocare"
(E. velutina) are slightly hairy on the under surface,
while those of E. glauca are glabrous. The bark of
the "Bocare" is rather smooth and provided with
pointed nipple -like thorns (pinones), more or less
scattered along the trunk and the lower portions of the
branches. It is an easy grower, succeeding in all sorts
of soil, also in stiff clay and in soils where the drainage

1 Olivieri, Treatise, p. 44. 2 I.e. p. 45.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 343

is not very good. The legume or pod of the " Bocare"
is about 9 to 12 cm. long and contains two to five
seeds.

The " Anauca " or " Nauclero " (Erythrina umbrosa)
is only grown on the high lands, where the soil is of
good quality ; in low lands and poor soils it does not
succeed. Wherever it grows well, the "Anauca " attains
a much greater height than the " Bocare" and does not

O O

afford so dense a shade ; it is planted at wider distances
apart, generally at 40 to 45 feet. The . bark of this
shade tree is coarser than in the " Bocare," while the
thorny nipples are more profuse and sharper, but less
prominent. The legume or pod of the "Anauca"
measures about 15 to 30 cm. in length and contains
from five to eleven seeds.

These two Erythrinas are in general use in Trinidad.
They suit the purpose extremely well, giving the right
amount of shade to the plant and to the soil, and giving
a rich humus, dropping all their leaves in the dry season
—a very useful character, which has already been dis-
cussed in Chapter VI.

Another useful character of the " immortelles " is the
luxuriant profusion of their annual harvest of flowers.
Carmody analysed these flowers and found that they
were rich in nitrogen ; fifty immortelles (the number
standing on 1 acre) yielding 500 Ibs. of dry flowers
containing not less than 24 Ibs. of nitrogen.

It has been suggested that the " Saman" (Pitheco-
lobium Saman) would advantageously replace the
immortelles as a shade tree for cocoa. But the general
opinion is not in favour of this view. The shade of this
big tree with its enormous foliage system is considered
too dense, and it does not drop its leaves in the dry
season, leaving this character to the advantage of the
immortelles. Besides, the wood is brittle. Terminalia
bellerica, which produces the "myrabolan" of commerce,
has also been suggested. I cannot recommend this tree.

In the low lands where the "Bocare" is used, this
shade tree is planted rather closely — one shade tree to

344 COCOA

CHAP.

every three cocoa trees ; sometimes when the cocoa is
planted at a rather wide distance, there is a shade tree
to every two cocoa trees. Generally the distance of the
" Bocare " is 30 to 35 feet.

The " Anauca," on the higher lands, is planted wider ;
the shade afforded here is therefore less. One " Anauca"
is planted to every three or four cocoa trees, and the
distance of the shade trees is generally 35 to 40 feet.

These distances of the shade trees are rather close,
and it may seem at first sight that they could be
planted wider, but the general opinion in Trinidad is
that a close planting of the shade trees is necessary to
avoid suffering of the cocoa from drought.

Weeding is more or less carefully done. Generally
the established plantation is weeded only twice a year.

Pruning is done in Trinidad in very different ways,
and, as in some other countries, views about this part of
the culture are widely different. On several plantations
the pruning-knife or machete is used very indiscrimin-
ately, and not only a great number of young branches
but also thick and old ones are cut away without any
necessity, and after pruning the ground is covered with
a thick layer of branches and twigs. It is to be under-
stood that, seeing the results of this method, some
Trinidad planters have become enemies of pruning ;
they call themselves " anti-pruners " and their object is
to remove only the watershoots (suckers).

It must be said that the appearance of the trees on
plantations where this method is followed is much
better than on those where branches are cut away
incessantly and indiscriminately, while the production
is doubtless higher. But still a sensible and not too
heavy removal of the too numerous twigs in the centre
of the tree is useful in Trinidad as elsewhere.

Trinidad as well as other countries has cocoa diseases,
but none up till now is of such importance as to be
regarded as a calamity for the country.

The most important are the following :—

The ordinary "blackening of pods" (caused by

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 345

Phytophthora) is well known on all plantations.
Possibly it may have been the disease which destroyed
the Criollo crops about the year 1727, which led to
the introduction of the Forastero about 1757.

The canker is also well known and occasionally
causes loss of trees. This is also the case with the
" die-back " or Diplodia-disease (Diplodia cacaoicola),
which at present may perhaps be regarded as the most
serious disease.

Mr. Barrett1 especially pointed out that in many
cases the death of cocoa trees had to be attributed to
Diplodia or "die-back" disease, and he recommended
a careful removing of all diseased or dead wood and the
burying of pods or covering them with lime.

Besides, "thread-blight" and "horse-hair blight"
are sometimes met with. Neither of these diseases
is so prevalent that regular measures have to be taken
against them.

Among the insect pests the cocoa-beetle (Steirastoma
depressum) is by far the most important, but the
parasol -ant (Oecodoma cephalotes) is also sometimes
very troublesome.

The trees are flowering during the whole year but
most abundantly from June to September. Accordingly
the main crop is gathered during November, December,
January, and February, but during the whole year
cocoa is picked in a greater or smaller quantity.

The picking is done by means of a light cutlass or
machete as used in pruning, and for the fruits which
hang high in the tree a " cocoa-pruner " is used. This
cocoa -pruner (see Fig. 63, b) is attached to a long
wooden rod or bamboo, and consists of a blade, about
4 inches long, which is provided with a bent-down
narrow knife. With this instrument either a push
upward can be made (with the straight part), or a pull
downward (with the curved part).

The pickers are chosen amongst the most skilful
workmen.

1 Papers of the Agricultural Society of Trinidad and Tobago, 1907.

346

COCOA

CHAP

As to the further gathering (Fig. 112), what
Olivieri l says about it may be quoted here :—

The gathering of the picked pods is generally performed by
women and boys, who follow the pickers and gather the pods in
small disseminated heaps, either along the roads or in other
accessible spots, where the sudden swelling of rivers and ravines
will not carry them away. Often these small heaps are collected
into larger and less disseminated ones ; but in all cases, so as to

Photo. Jacobson.
FIG. 112. — Piling up and shelling pods in Trinidad.

obtain good results of fermentation, the breaking of the pods
ought never to be retarded beyond the week during which their
picking has been started. The pods are broken and opened with
a short, heavy and rather blunt cutlass, a work which is performed
with great dexterity by holding the pod with the left hand and
cutting part of the rind through a semi-crosswise manner. The
chop is accompanied by a twisted jerk of the cutlass which wholly
or partly opens the pod. In this way the pod is put before the
shellers, who either with the fingers or a small wooden pallete,

1 Olivieri, Treatise, pp. 85-86.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 347

scoop out the cacao seeds on an improvised tapis of green banana
leaves. Here the seeds or beans are cleaned by removing all
coarse pulpy strings and other debris, and then conveyed either in
panniers or sacks, to the fermenting house or chamber, where they
are measured with a standard flour barrel or its equivalent before
being finally put into their respective fermenting compartments.
All black and blighted pods, if mature and sound internally,
are shelled separately, and their beans, which are also fermented
before being put to dry, serve to produce an inferior article known
as "black cacao" which is generally sold locally. An ordinary
cacao " breaker " is able to cut and open for his day's work a
sufficient number of pods to produce from five to seven barrels of
cacao beans and to keep during the operation two women busily
engaged in scooping out the beans.

On flat cacao plantations, and where proper roads have been
established, the transportation of the cacao-beans is done with
donkey or mule carts, but on hilly estates crooking mules or
donkeys are used, and often when animal traffic is difficult and
impracticable, men and women have to be resorted to.

A good picker is expected to pick per day sufficient pods
to produce two or three barrels of beans, each barrel giving 110
Ibs. net of ready cacao.

What Olivier! says about the method sometimes
followed to pay the pickers per weight delivered is
also worthy of being mentioned : —

Some plantations establish regular picking gangs, where each
gang undertakes the picking and reaping of a certain number of
fields throughout the twelve months of the year at the rate of one
dollar to one dollar twenty cents (4s. 2d. to 5s.) per barrel of
cacao delivered in the fermenting house, without the estate
furnishing or providing animals for its transportation. In such
cases, however, the pickers demand a strict and constant super-
vision, as during meagre pickings they skip many trees and pick
only those where ripe pods are plentiful and of easy access.
Barring these naturally tricky tendencies, which must not be
overlooked, the system can only be considered advantageous and
satisfactory in those plantations where great difficulties are
experienced in the formation of suitable crooking or bridle roads,
and where pasture and grazing grounds often prove inadequate
for the economical and proper upkeep of the required number of
heads of crooking or pack-stock.

In fermentation there is in Trinidad not much

348 COCOA

CHAP.

uniformity. The structure of the sweating boxes as
well as the length of the fermenting process differ on
the different plantations.

Generally the sweating boxes are simply built, in
the same way as those used in Surinam. The flooring
is, of course, double ; the upper is lathed one-eighth of an
inch apart, so as to allow the juice to flow away. Each
compartment is 3 to 5 feet high, 3 to 5 feet deep, and
5 to 7 feet long. In these boxes the cocoa is placed to a
height of 3 feet. As in Surinam, a close covering of the
boxes is avoided, and generally the fermenting cocoa is
only covered with fresh banana leaves. When necessary,
the cocoa is transferred during the fermentation from
one box to the next, so as to obtain an equal fermenta-
tion through the whole heap.

As to the details, planters work differently, as well
as regards the moment in which the cocoa has to be
transferred to the next box, as in the length of time
required for the whole fermentation.

Mr. Edgar Tripp, the Secretary of the Agricultural
Society, gave me the following information :—

Regarding the time of fermentation, planters disagree, many
arguing that what may be gained in quality is lost in weight by
long fermentation, and, from a market point of view is therefore
not advantageous. But all the best-known and highest-priced
brands have been subjected to the longer process. Mr. Hart, a
leading authority, says : " Cocoa put to ferment on Saturday
should be turned on the following Tuesday and Friday, and taken
to the drying floor on Monday, thus giving a clear nine days'
fermentation," and so far as my experience goes, I believe from
eight to nine days is the average time on the best estates.

The temperature in the heaps ranges between 40° and
5C C., and care is taken that the temperature does not
ise too high, at any rate not higher than 50° C.

The moment the external pulpy mass of the cocoa-
beans has attained a thick greyish state of a dough-like
consistency, their removal to the drying or curing trays
becomes at once necessary.1

1 Olivieri, I.e. p. 90.

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 349

Washing the cocou after fermenting is not usual in
Trinidad ; planters are of opinion that the trouble and
the loss in weight are not compensated by a higher price.

Drying is generally done in Trinidad by exposure
to the sun, though artificial drying is also done on some
of the larger estates.

The drying in the sun is simply done " on large

FIG. 113. — Drying floors with movable roofs, Trinidad.
From Fauchere, Culture pratique.

wooden floors or trays which can be rapidly covered
when rain is about to fall, either by running -in the
trays under a fixed roof or having a movable roof over
a fixed floor (Figs. 75, 113). The latter is by far the
most common form of a drying house used in Trinidad,
though both systems are in use, separate or combined."

Hart gives the following description of the drying
houses :—

The houses are erected of wood, the floor being
made large or small according to the size of the estate.

350 COCOA

CHAP.

The general run of floor is about 40 to 50 feet long
by 18 to 20 feet wide. The sliding roofs are made
extremely light, placed on wheels, and are covered with
either plain or corrugated galvanised iron. The roof
is divided in the centre, and when the floor is exposed
each half is received by the frame-work contrived at
each end of the house. The central portion under the
flooring may be used for two sets of trays, one on each
side, which are made to run on wheels or light iron rails,
and so arranged as to be run out on frame-work at
right angles to the main frame-work of the building.

In these trays the cocoa is exposed to the sun after
being sufficiently fermented ; but in the middle of the
day it is the custom, if very clear, to close the house
for an hour or two, to prevent the excess of heat from
blistering the cocoa. The layer of beans is spread
about 3 or 4 inches thick over the floor and is turned
frequently during the time it is exposed to the sun.

Though often the use of artificial dryers has been
recommended to avoid the loss by " mildewed cocoa "
(slightly moulded cocoa) in rainy seasons, a good
number of planters are of opinion that the produce
obtained by artificial drying is never so good as when
dried in the sun, and they prefer to run the risk of
obtaining now and then "mildewed" cocoa than to
deteriorate the produce by artificial drying, but others
are convinced that such a deterioration is only
imaginary.

As regards the dimensions of the drying floor in
the ordinary system, an area of 100 square feet is
considered ample drying space for the proper curing of
330 Ibs. (150 kilograms) of cocoa at a time. Besides, it
is generally accepted that there must be accommodation
for drying one-fourth to one-fifth of the whole year's
crop. A plantation producing 600 to 1000 barrels (300
to 500 bags of 100 kilograms) must have an accommoda-
tion for drying some 200 to 225 barrels (10,000 to
11,250 kilograms), viz. a drying floor of 6500 to 7500
square feet, or about 700 to 800 square metres.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 351

The curing of cocoa, after fermentation is finished,
is effected in two ways in Trinidad — either the beans
are simply dried, as in most other countries, or they
are treated in a special way by means of red clay. Of
this " claying" process Olivieri gives a good description,
which may be quoted here : l-

Claying consists in the addition of dry red earth of a
ferruginous character and free from organic matter. The
addition of dry red earth promotes uniformity of colour among
the cacao:beans besides preserving their aroma ; while, on account
of its siccative nature, it also absorbs moisture and prevents
mouldiness. It is used in a finely pulverised state, which is
obtained by pounding the lumps or granules in a mortar at the
rate of half to quarter pound of coarse red earth for every barrel
of cacao. During the first day of exposure, or soon after the
transfer to the drying house the cacao-beans are cleaned and freed
of any remaining debris and pulpy strings; while at the close
of the same day, if the weather has proved dry, or the following
evening, if otherwise, they are heaped up longitudinally along
the centre of the tray. The morning after, and while the roof is
kept closed so as to prevent the powdered earth from being
blown off by wind or breeze, the earth is sifted over and along
the heap of the cacao-beans thus made either by means of a fine
sieve, or through a split oats bag. This operation is repeated
till the whole quantity of allotted earth has been applied, while
after or during the progress of each operation the heap of beans
is upturned and stirred with the usual wooden cacao shovel
without spreading out to an undue extent its longitudinal and
original formation. The earth becomes gradually absorbed by
the viscous mucilage then covering the cacao beans, which are
opened out along both sides of the tray after scraping and
cleaning the viscous substance adhering to the flooring. The
scraping is also carried on along the centre of the tray before
the beans are spread out in uniform thickness, ranging from 2J
to 3 inches, through its whole breadth.

The beans are then left under the care of a woman or boy,
who keeps walking through them to and fro in a close and
parallel manner to the side of the tray from which the walking
started. This movement is changed at intervals into a cross or
opposite but identical manner, and any pulpy threads or foreign
substances which may be brought out during the stirring are
also picked up and removed ; while all adhering or lumpy beans

1 Olivieri, Treatise, p. 94.

352 COCOA

CHAP.

are detached and spread. The long but light wooden rake for
stirring purposes becomes handier and more useful from the time
the cacao beans have obtained their slack or faded stage.
Stirring becomes then less frequent, and the person engaged can
start the gradual sifting and more minute cleaning of the beans
so as to have them cleaned throughout and in the best manner
possible before their dancing or trampling, and which must only
take place two or three days before the required state of complete
drying is attained.

The beans are then formed into heaps, averaging six to eight
barrels each, and while they are being heaped up they are gradually
sprinkled over with clear and clean water at the rate of about
nine gallons to every six barrels or Heap, till the whole heap has
become slippery in itself and clammy.

The trampling with the naked feet is started at this stage,
beginning at the top centre of the heap with two or three persons
till the gang can be increased to six or seven persons — women,
boys, and men — who must be kept within the centre of the ring
formed by the gradual sinking and spreading of the cacao heap.
The object of this restrained trampling is to add and promote
both rubbing and friction amongst the cacao beans without
allowing their mass to become disconnected, and thus avoid all
material cracking or breaking of the beans. This compactness
can be easily maintained with the aid of an ordinary bass broom,
while the wooden cacao shovel must only be used when the time
has arrived for the gradual upturning and shovelling in under
the feet of the tramplers the external self-formed cacao ring.
This stage can be easily detected as soon as the central mass be-
comes of a glossy appearance, which is followed by a gradual
cracking-like noise from the beans while being trampled. The
thorough and proper dancing of a cacao heap of the bulk and
sizes here stated will occupy from fifty to sixty minutes and
seldom less. Its attainment of perfection is indicated by an even
gloss and polish throughout the whole mass ; and, thanks also to
the elasticity then acquired, it will be found that the beans have
become rounder in shape, besides proving slippery and recal-
citrant to a second compact gathering or heaping up of their
mass.

The beans are then spread over the dry portion of the tray,
while the damp trampled area is being scraped and air- or sun-
dried. The trampling proves more effective and less wasteful in
water, etc., if done under cover or with the roof closed.

Soon after spreading or after a few hours of exposure the
last and final sifting is proceeded with by the one person
left in charge of the tray after dancing, and when the beans are

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 353

only stirred or raked at intervals. The sifting and cleaning is
proceeded with gradually without heaping up the beans by
pushing in front those to be cleaned, an operation which generally
ends with their proper and complete curing. This is recognized
when the beans crackle like dried walnuts and break easily under
the pressure of the hand or fingers, a test which must always
take place either soon in the morning or while the weather is
damp and cold. . . . The beans must never be bagged or heaped
up while still warm, and several hours ought to elapse before
bagging after the final closing of the roof. It is always safe,
therefore, to perform this work early in the morning, when the
beans are cool and not apt to sweat while in the bags. The same
objectionable reason to the water-flushing of the fermenting com-
partments applies also to the tray of a drying cacao house, which
ought only to be scraped dry and cleaned before claying and soon
after dancing.

We have discussed in Chapter VII. the significance
of claying and the use of it to prevent moulding of
cocoa, and we pointed out that this method is practi-
cable and indispensable when dealing with cocoa which
is only slightly fermented, and the pulp of which is
accordingly not wholly destroyed For Venezuela
Criollo, and other fine Criollos which cannot stand a
long fermentation without deteriorating in quality,
claying is desirable in order to make the remaining
parts of the pulp dry and not subject to moulding.

Whether claying is necessary, or even useful, in
Trinidad cocoa, produced from Forastero varieties,
which are fermented during four to nine days, seems
to me questionable. At any rate, cocoa of very good
and even superior quality comes unclayed from Trinidad,
dried in the ordinary way.

Besides, we know that claying is sometimes
exaggerated, and that the cocoa merchants in Trinidad
have sometimes complained about abusive claying,
much cocoa being offered for sale " coated with clay."

But still the Trinidad cocoa has on the market a
very good reputation, and fetches good prices.

The exports were as follows l :—

1 Figures from 1821 till 1891 quoted from Jumelle, Le Cacaoyer ; figures from
1895 to 1912 from Gordian.

2 A

354

COCOA

CHAP.

1821

1831
1841
1851
1861
1871
1886
1895
1901
1902

Kilog.

546,300

1903

850,000

1904

1,122,000

1905

2,498,600

1906

2,938,900

1907

8,889,900

1908

8,060,900

1909

10,480,400

1910

11,942,700

1911

17,612,700

1912

Kilog.

13,821,700
21,017,800
22,017,800
12,983,500
18,611,400
21,737,100
23,390,100
26,231,000
21,220,000
18,900,000

No accurate account has been kept of the area planted,
but it has been a constantly increasing one for many
years. According to official returns it amounted in

1890 to about 190,000 acres, increasing gradually till

1905-6 to 207,900 acres ;

1906-7 „ 214,973

1907-8 „ 226,880

1908-9 „ 245,706

1909-10 „ 245,706

1910-11 „ 290,200

1911-12 „ 322,508

1912-13 „ 325,503

An export duty amounting to about 9d. per 100
kilograms is raised for agricultural services.

Grenada l

The little island of Grenada, not larger than 430
square kilometres (168 square miles), may be considered
one of the important cocoa-growing countries. Its
export is steadily increasing, and reached in 1912
5,948,100 kilograms.

But it is not principally the quantity exported that
deserves our interest, it is the curious way of successfully
growing cocoa without shade trees (Fig. 114).

This method of cultivation is remarkable because
it is not followed in any of the other Antilles. In
Trinidad the general belief, which is supported by Mr.
Hart, is that growing cocoa without shade is impossible
— though it must be said that some planters no longer

1 Preuss, Expedition, pp. 35-38 and pp. 185-187 ; West Indian Bulletin, i.
p. 415 ; Bulletin No. 7 of the Inspectie van den Landbouw in West -Indie
(Surinam, 1906).

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 355

agree with this view. But it is at any rate not done
to any extent in Trinidad or any of the other Antilles.

In Chapter VI. we have discussed the question why
cocoa can be grown in Grenada without shade trees
and why planters there prefer that method, while in
hardly any other country is this the case — except in
Brazil and San Domingo.

As explained in that chapter, I do not consider the
conditions of climate of Grenada exceptional in any

FIG. 114. — Cocoa field without shade, Grenada.

way. The rainfall is not heavier than in the majority
of other countries, amounting to about 2000 mm. per
annum ; and we have no reason to suppose that the
sunlight is there less intense.

In my opinion, however, the use of shade trees is
not in the first place the affording of shade to the trees,
but the improving of the soil, by shading it, giving it
humus by the fallen leaves and flowers, by adding
nitrogen to the soil — in fact, influencing the soil in the
same way as green dressing does. These views have
been fully explained in Chapter VI.

356 COCOA

CHAP.

In accordance with this view is the fact that the
planter in Grenada, having no shade trees, does himself
what the shade tree does in other countries. He must
keep the soil in good condition, and has to till and
manure the soil in order to keep it loose, giving humus
and plant-food to the soil in the form of pen -manure
or other organic substance. In the meantime he has
to take care that the soil is as much shaded as possible
by the cocoa trees themselves, by planting them closer
than would be useful if shade trees were planted.

The principal difference between the cultivation of
cocoa without shade trees in Grenada and the ordinary
cultivation, is therefore the care which is given to the
soil in order to keep it in good condition in spite of
the lack of shade trees. This makes the cocoa cultiva-
tion in Grenada a more careful orchard cultivation than
is to be found in the other countries ; and I believe this
care for the soil is the secret of cocoa-growing without
shade.

But not every soil can be handled in this way
with the same success ; and we may readily assume
that success will only be met with when dealing with
soils which are loose and have a good constitution from
the first.

The first cocoa plantations in Grenada were estab-
lished on the mountains at a higher level than the
sugar estates. After the decline of the sugar industry,
cocoa was more and more planted in the low lands.

Therefore the soil of the cocoa plantations varies
from alluvial clay to more or less decomposed rock.
The best soil for cocoa is often considered the clayey
soil which still contains parts of the rocks by the
decomposition of which it was formed.

A special study of the Grenada soil has not yet been
made, as far as I know. Some samples have been
analysed, but we do not obtain in this way information
about its physical structure, and it would be interesting
to have such information in order to compare the soil in
Grenada, where cocoa can be grown without the soil-

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 357

improving shade trees, with the soils in other countries,
where those soil -improvers seem almost to be indis-
pensable.

One analysis may be given here :

Organic matters and combined water

Phosphoric anhydride

Sulphuric anhydride

Chlorine .

Iron peroxide .

Aluminium .

Manganese oxide .

Calcium oxide .

Calcium carbonate . .

Magnesium oxide .

Potassium oxide .

Sodium oxide .

Insoluble silica and silicates

Containing nitrogen

9-688

0-058

0-027

traces

12-033

12-710

0-249

1-183

0-099

0-680

0-428

1-102

61-743

100-000

0-224

As to the climate of Grenada, the following figures
are average-figures of the rainfall during five years at
two stations : —

RAINFALL IN MILLIMETRES

4

&
&

1

t
^

I

o5
1-5

>,

3

>-3

si
p

4

I

s

1

§

ft

I

Springburn
St. Patrick

180

90'

50

60

140

200

230

270

190

200

170

260

2040

Dim fe online

170

70

50

60

120

140

280

280

180

150

180

220

1830

The dry season lasts from February to April, whilst
the months of July and August are the wettest.

Averages of 2040 and 1830 mm. may certainly
not be considered as indicating a very heavy rainfall,
and there is therefore no reason to consider the heavy
rainfall as the circumstance which makes cocoa-growing
without shade possible in Grenada.

.The actual circumstances are : (l) a soil of fine
quality, (2) conditions which make the keeping of a

358 COCOA

CHAP.

sufficient number of cattle or sheep, or both, possible
and not expensive ; and (3) the absence of heavy winds.
Where these conditions are prevalent, the growing of
cocoa without shade trees must, as far as I can see,
always be possible.

All the Grenada cocoa plantations have a good
number of animals to provide for pen-manure. In
fact, as in Ecuador, where they are needed for transport
purposes, so in Grenada, where they are needed for
manuring purposes, the stock is regarded as an in-
dispensable part of the working capital. The stock
needs food, and so of each plantation one-fifth part is
kept in pasture lands and fields of fodder plants, while
four-fifths are planted with cocoa.

In order to avoid as much as possible loss of manure,
the animals are kept in a pen, in which they stay nearly
all the time that they are not in use. In this way the
excrement is easily collected.

A practical method was long ago adopted by the
owner of plantation Good Hope, who regularly covered
the ground of the pen with cut bush and litter and
spread at intervals a layer of mould over it and re-
covered it with litter. He obtained in this way after a
few months a thick layer of excellent manure.

When young, the trees need shade in Grenada as
well as everywhere else. For this purpose bananas are
mostly used, which are left standing during three or
four years, after which they are removed. However,
cassavas, yams, tanias, and other crops, even canes,
are often also planted between the young cocoa trees,
especially in the first and second years.

As mentioned, the planting distance is close in
Grenada — not wider than 9 to 12 feet. In this way
the soil is rather well shaded by the cocoa trees them-
selves when the temporary shade is removed after some
three or four years.

The importance of this close planting must not be
overlooked. It must be considered as one of the
necessary measures for successfully growing cocoa with-

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 359

out shade, and several attempts to grow cocoa without
shade may have failed because the trees were planted
at the same distance as when cultivated under shade.

From the beginning care is taken in Grenada to
keep the soil in good physical condition, not only by
applying pen-manure, but also by tillage. The method
of tillage is, however, different on different plantations.
Some planters claim to have obtained the best results
from a system of deep forking and liberal root-pruning ;
others maintain that they prefer a light turning over
or loosening of the soil, with as little disturbance of
the roots as possible — applying deep forking only to
trees which are in poor condition.

Manure is applied in the beginning of the rainy
season — May and June — but more or less the whole
year through, except when the soil is very wet.

About pruning, opinions vary in Grenada as in all
other cocoa-growing countries : one planter removes
every year a good number of twigs, while others only
remove the dead twigs and the suckers.

But great care is always exercised to keep the bark
clean from moss, a trouble which seems to be of more
importance in Grenada than in many other countries.

As explained, the cultivation without shade trees
compels the planter to spend more care on tillage and
manuring, but it gives him several advantages : —

First. The absence of shade trees saves the ex-
pensive work of pruning and cleaning the trees, and
losses so often caused by the falling of branches and
heavy epiphytes do not occur.

Secondly. The cocoa trees come much earlier into
bearing, and a full crop is usually obtained in the fifth
or sixth year.

Thirdly. It is generally accepted that the cocoa
without shade gives a higher yield. ' An average pro-
duction of 350 kilograms per acre is assumed on well-
managed plantations at Grenada. However, not enough
figures about different plantations are published to
establish this point satisfactorily.

360 COCOA

CHAP.

From the little plantation of Good Hope it is known
that very high yields were obtained. But this must
be an exception. It is mentioned that Good Hope
obtained an average of 650 kilograms to an acre.

A disadvantage of the system is, that the cocoa
trees do not last so long as when planted under shade
trees.

The system of growing cocoa without shade dates
only from the last fifteen to twenty years. Formerly
cocoa was grown under the same shade trees as in
Trinidad, and in exactly the same way. About twenty
years ago some planters observed that cocoa did well
without shade, and from that time the system has been
gradually more generally adopted.

The intensive way of tilling and manuring, together
with the necessity of keeping stock and not less than
one-fifth of the whole area devoted to pasture-lands
and fodder crops, is more suitable for small cultivations
than for large ones ; nearly all the cocoa plantations in
Grenada are small. Only a few are larger than 20 to
50 acres, and the majority are even smaller.

The exports of Grenada during the last eighteen
years were as follows : l —

Kilog.

1895 . . . 3,514,900

1896 . . . 4,581,800

1897 . . . 3,345,100

1898 . . . 4,544,300

1899 , . . 4,037,200

1900 '. . . 4,793,900

1901 . . -. 4,767,900

1902 . . . 5,191,900

1903 . . .' 4,827,600

Kilog.

1904 . . 6,009,800

1905 . . . 5,796,600

1906 . . . 4,931,500

1907 . . . 4,612,100

1908 . . . 5,108,200

1909 . . 5,441,400

1910 . . . 5,846,400

1911 . . . 5,948,000

1912 . . . 5,500,000

Grenada cocoa does not obtain as good a price as
the Trinidad article. The bean is smaller, but the
flavour is good.

The following figures of the prices of Grenada cocoa

1 The figures of the years 1895-1902 are quoted from West Indian Bulletin.
The figures of the following years are quoted from the Gordian.

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 361

and Trinidad on the London market illustrate the dif-
ference in prices :—

Grenada.

Trinidad.

Price per cwt.

Price per cwt.

1900

70s. to 73s. 6d.

68s. to 75s.

1901

67s. to 69s.

65s. to 70s.

1902

57s. to 64s.

58s. to 67s.

1903

51s. to 62s.

1904

52s. to 64s. 6d.

58s. to 76s. 6d.

kilograms.

The export duty amounts to about lOd. per 100

Dominica

Dominica lies just between Martinique and Guade-
loupe, both also cocoa-growing islands.

The island is very mountainous ; the rainfall ranges
from 1500 to 1750 mm. on the Leeward coast to over
5000 mm. in the interior. The roads are poor, and
communication is difficult and tedious.1

Cocoa and lime are the two important industries.

The exports of cocoa amounted to : 2

1904
1905
1906
,1907
1908

Kilog.

493,300
589,400
572,900
584,100

487,800

1909
1910
1911
1912

Kilog.
984,600
573,000
576,000
600,000

Until the last quarter of a century the exports of
cocoa from Dominica were very small, as it was produced
only by peasant proprietors. When, however, the crisis
overtook the sugar industry, many of the sugar planters,
feeling the effects of hard times, planted portions of
their estates in cocoa and limes, and from that time
the exports of cocoa began to increase.3

1 M. H. A. Tempany, Agricultural Labour Conditions on the Leeward Islands
(1910, edited by the Assoc. Internal. d'Agriculture Tropicale). / _

2 Gordian. \

3 Dr. Nicholls (Agricultural Conference in Trinidad, 1905).

362 COCOA

CHAP.

The practice in Dominica is not to use shade trees
in the ordinary way, but to plant the trees so as to
make them serve as wind-breaks. Experiments with
the planting of the Erythrina in the way it is done
in Trinidad has not been a success.

Dominica is situated in the hurricane belt, and the
trees are sometimes badly damaged by hurricanes and
strong winds. This was the case, for instance, in
1903.

Interesting manurial experiments carried on at
Dominica have been mentioned in Chapter VI.

As regards the labour conditions, men's wages
range from lOd. to Is. 4d., women's from 7d. to lOd.
The supply seems on the whole to be fairly ade-
quate, though at times there may be something of a
shortage.

An export duty of 2s. 5d. is raised for every 100
kilograms exported.

St. Lucia

The cocoa industry of St. Lucia has not shown much
progress during the last ten years. The methods of
cultivating are much the same as in Trinidad. Good
results have been reported from manuring with basic
slag and sulphate of potash.

The exports have been as follows :—

Kilog.

1895 . . . 369,000
1900 . . . 659,000

Kilog.

1906 . . 703,300

1907 . . . 779,600

1901 . . . 765,000 I 1908 . . . 614,500

1902 . . . 765,000 1909 . . . 552,900

1903 . . . 785,000 i 1910 . . . 743,000

1904 . . . 800,000 1911 . . . 940,000

1905 . . . 858,800 j 1912 . . . 900,000

St. Vincent and Montserrat

Both these islands export small quantities of cocoa.
The industry is, however, of little importance, cotton
cultivation being the main industry.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 363

V. GUADELOUPE, MARTINIQUE, AND THE OTHER
FRENCH COLONIES

The total amount of cocoa exported by the French
Colonies was as follows : —

Kilog. Kilog.

1906 . . . 1,262,000

1907 . . . 1,387.000

1908 . . . 1,421,000

1909 . . . 1,372,000

1910 . . . 1,575,000

1911 . . . 1,364,000

1912 . . . 1,500,000

Guadeloupe J

From Martinique the cocoa plant was brought to
Guadeloupe.

Up to the middle of last century a small area was
cultivated with cocoa in the north-eastern part of the
island (Grande Terre) ; the exports amounted at that
time to about 30,000 kilograms. At the present
time, however, no cocoa is cultivated at Grande
Terre ; but the decline of the industry in that part of
the island has been accompanied by a rise of cocoa
culture in the south-western part, called Basse Terre or
Guadeloupe in the strict sense. This industry has
gradually increased ; the exports amounted in 1874 to
85,000 kilograms, in 1891 to 331,300, in 1897 to
400,900, in 1907 to 781,500, which amount has not
yet been surpassed. In the years 1906 to 1910 the
exports were as follows : 2 —

Kilog.

1906 . . . 675,300

1907 . . . 781,500

1908 . . . 744,000

Kilog.

1909 . . . 594,300

1910 . . . 778,900

It is not to be expected that the industry will show
a much greater development, as the area suitable for
cocoa - growing seems not to be very large, the soil
of many parts being unsuitable for this crop.

The types of cocoa cultivated belong mostly to the
Amelonado variety ; the most common one is called
" Cacao Creole." All the other types are designated by

1 Guerin, Culture du cacaoyer (1896). 2 Gordian.

364 COCOA

CHAP.

the name " Cacao Cayenne," a designation which does
not seem appropriate in any way.

In the plain, with its alluvial soil, irrigation is
considered indispensable, and during the dry season the
young plants must be watered every week. For this
purpose trenches are made at distances of 20 or 25 feet.
From these trenches the young trees are watered by
hand, the irrigation by imbibition not being sufficient.
When the trees get older they may be watered less
frequently, for instance about once every month when
they are seven or eight years old.

In the second or third year the drainage is laid out
and the trenches are dug at distances varying from 25
to 50 feet, according to the character of the soil and
the humidity of the place.

For manuring, the best results have been obtained
with pen-manure; cotton-seed cake has also been applied
with success. Artificial manures containing phosphoric
acid and potassium had no appreciable effect ; the
application of lime, however, seemed to be useful.

Of the enemies the borer (probably Steirastoma
depressum) and the rats are the worst. The intro-
duction of the mongoose, which has resulted in other
islands in a great failure, has met in Guadeloupe with
success, according to Guerin (1896).

Martinique

In the seventeenth century the cocoa-tree was im-
ported into Martinique. It is told that in 1 661 the first
plants were brought from the continent by Benjamin
Dacosta.

By the end of the eighteenth century the cocoa
industry had become important. The area in cocoa con-
tained about 1-| million trees; and at that time
Martinique, together with San Domingo, produced
almost the whole of the cocoa consumed in France.

After that time, however, there was a decline, a
great part of the area being replanted with sugar cane.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 365

The exports in 1906-10 were as follows :—

Kilog.

1906 . . . 472,900

1907 . . . 502,800

1908 . 529,900

Kilog.

1909 . . . 592,900

1910 . . . 592,800

French Congo1

Cocoa is only cultivated to a small extent in the
French Congo. Since 1889 attempts have been made,
with more or less success, to establish cocoa plantations.
At the present time there are thirty-eight of them,
mostly situated along the borders of the Gaboon and its
affluents.

The first exports were made in 1896, and since they
have increased regularly, but slowly. In 1909, 103,358
kilograms were exported, in 1910 about 120,000 kilo-
grams.

Madagascar 2

Cocoa is cultivated in Madagascar to a very small
extent, and in a primitive way. It is worth mentioning
that the variety cultivated is a pure Criollo, Mada-
gascar Criollo (see Chapter V. ). The exports amounted
in 1909 to 22,967 kilograms, in 1910 to 28,000 kilo-
grams.

French Guiana, Mayotte, Ivory Coast, Dahomey,
Reunion, New Caledonia

These colonies possess very little importance as
cocoa producers. The several amounts exported in
the years 1909 and 1910 were as follows :—

1 Chalot and Luc, Le Cacaoyer au Congo francais (1906) ; Chevalier, Le
Cacaoyer dans I' Quest africain (1908), p. 213.

2 Fauchere, Culture pratique, etc., p. 159.

[TABLE.

366

COCOA

CHAP.

1909

1910

Kilog.

Kilog.

French Guiana .

22,814

18,327

Mayotte (Comoro Islands) .

21,826

25,727

Ivory Coast

5,136

7,589

Dahomey .

4,264

1,934

Reunion ....

3,603

1,557

New Caledonia . .

1,024

VI. VENEZUELA1

A century ago Venezuela was the most important
cocoa-growing country. It exported three times more
than Ecuador. Half a century ago, however, its cocoa
export was already surpassed by Ecuador, but by no
other country. But since then its place among the
cocoa-growing countries has become less prominent, and
Trinidad, as well as much younger cocoa countries such
as Brazil and San Thome, have become more important,
so that Venezuela now occupies only a fifth place, or
sometimes even a sixth place, being in many years also
surpassed by San Domingo.

As regards quality of the produce, however, Venezuela
keeps a premier place, as its Criollo produce is un-
surpassed, and its Forastero yields also produce of
high quality. From this point of view as well as from
a historical one we may call Venezuela the classical
home of cocoa, and especially of Criollo cocoa.

Jumelle2 gives some interesting facts about the
history of cocoa enterprise in this country.

In 1634 Dutchmen, established in Curagao, induced
the Venezuelans to export cocoa to Europe. Though
Spain prohibited cocoa export to any other country,
still the Venezuelans went on selling cocoa to Dutch
and English merchants in a clandestine way, and this to

1 Very little was known about cocoa culture in Venezuela before Preuss
gave us his excellent work (Expedition, etc.). I have to thank Mr. Sgobel in
Caracas for much valuable information about cocoa in Venezuela.

2 Jumelle, Gacaoyer (1900), p. 145.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 367

such an extent that Amsterdam got almost all the
Venezuela cocoa. From 1706 to 1722, it seems, not
a single Spanish ship came to Spain, and that country
was obliged to buy from other countries the cocoa of
its own colony at high prices.

In 1728 Philip V. granted the exclusive licence for
the cocoa commerce with Venezuela to a company of
noblemen of Biscay, and this company was able to get
back all the advantages which Spain had previously lost.
This state of affairs lasted till 1780, when the licence
expired, and the cocoa plantations mostly came into
the hands of rich Catalonians.

Only after the war of 1830, which resulted in the
emancipation of the country, did the trade really obtain
its independence.

In that year the export amounted to 3,600,000
kilograms, a very important quantity in regard to the
world-production of that time. Since then the produc-
tion of Venezuela has increased, but not appreciably
until recent years : —

COCOA EXPORT OF VENEZUELA

Kilog.

1830-1831 . . 3,600,000

1841-1842. . 4,800,000

1851-1852. . 5,400,000

1872-1873. . 3,442,500

1886-1887. . 6,975,400

1894 . . . 6,924,000

1896 . . . 9,562,000

1900 . . . 11,900,000

1901 . . . 7,860,000

1902 . . . 9,925,000

.12,550,000

1904 . . . 13,048,800

1905 . . . 12,700,600

1906 . . . 12,864,600

1907 . . .13,471,100

1908 . . . 16,303,200

1909 . . .16,847,700

1910 . . . 17,250,600

1911 . . . 17,381,000

1912 . . . 12,500,000

If Venezuela had not been disturbed by so many
revolutions and civil wars, and if it had not suffered
so many years under the despotic reign of President
Cipriano Castro, doubtlessly the whole economic situa-
tion would have been much better than it is now, and
the extension of the cocoa culture would have made
more progress.

368 COCOA CHAP.

It is, however, to be expected that under the reign
of President Gomez, Venezuela and its cocoa industry
will make greater progress.

President Gomez has shown himself not only a soldier
of uncommon bravery, but also, as Governor of the
Federated Districts, a statesman of great capacity and
strict reliability.

. As regards cocoa, a great thing has already been

done by this President, viz. the abolition of the heavy
export duties.

The cocoa plantations are almost wholly confined to
the coast, being situated in the littoral region from the
sea up to an elevation of about 1500 feet. In the
interior no cocoa is grown except along the banks of
the Orinoco river.

A rough sketch of the cocoa-growing regions of
Venezuela is given in Fig. 115.

As the most famous area may be regarded the
region between La Guayra and Puerto Cabello. Here is
grown the pure Criollo, the " Criollo legitimo," as the
Venezuelans call it ; and the places situated here — as
Chichiriviche, Cepe, Chuao, Choroni, Ocumare, Turiamo,
and Patonemo — are well known for their very superior
produce, which may be considered the finest in the
world.

Also west from Puerto Cabello, round San Felipe,
and along the Eio Yaracuy, cocoa is cultivated which
yields very fine qualities. This is also the case south
of the Lake of Valencia, near Guigue.

East from La Guayra, Rio Chico forms an important
centre ; the cocoa grown here — along the Rio Tuy
and along the coast between the mouth of this river
and the place Piritu — is no longer Criollo, but a
fine Forastero ; or, as they call them in Venezuela,
" Trinitario " varieties, namely, Cundeamor and
Angoleta types. The produce is very fine, though not
so superior as that of the Criollo of the parts above
mentioned and situated more eastward.

The produce of the whole western part of Venezuela

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 369

is known on the market as " Caracas " cocoa, and fetches
the highest market prices.

It is mainly shipped from La Guayra and Puerto
Cabello, and in small part from Maracaibo. Often
the cocoa shipped from the last-mentioned ports is
called "Puerto Cabello" and "Maracaibo."

The cocoa grown in the eastern part of Venezuela,
on the peninsula of Paria — round Cariaco, Carupano,

EmeryWalker so

FIG. 115. — Map showing cocoa-growing areas in Venezuela.

Kio Caribe, Aragua, Maturin, etc. — and along the
Orinoco, of which district Ciudad Bolivar forms the
centre, is of much inferior quality. This cocoa is
generally called " Carupano," and is the produce of the
coarser Trinitario (Forastero) varieties. It is mainly
shipped from Carupano.

As a rule, cocoa in Venezuela is not grown at a
higher altitude than about 1000 feet, but there are ex-
ceptions, as, for instance, in the country round Guigue,
where cocoa plantations are situated at an altitude of

2 B

370 COCOA

CHAP.

about 1400 feet, and here and there cocoa is even
grown at about 3000 feet.

But the most famous Criollo is principally cultivated
between Puerto Cabello and La Guayra, in the valleys
near the coast. These valleys, generally narrow, and
bounded by high mountains, are very fertile, the soil
being composed of fine particles of the rocks, washed
down by the rains from the mountains, together with
a large amount of humus. On this fertile soil, sheltered
from the wind by the high mountains, the Criollo
thrives remarkably well, and the cocoa plantations here
afford a great contrast, in their luxuriant growth,
with the poor vegetation of the Cactus and Agave
plants growing on the arid mountains which surround
them.

The plantations in this Criollo part of Venezuela
are mostly small, the spots where Criollo is cultivated
with success not being generally large.

Though conditions for growing the weak and fine
Criollo are favourable here, still plantations consisting
only of pure Criollo are getting rare. Generally we
find Forastero trees mixed with the Criollo trees ; and
this is not to be wondered at, for it is almost impossible
to keep a Criollo plantation pure when trees begin to
die in the fields. In the open spaces between old cocoa
trees young Criollo trees do not succeed, and the
planter is obliged to leave the spot open or plant a
Forastero tree. Generally he chooses the latter; and the
consequence is that many Criollo plantations get more
and more mixed with Forastero (Trinitario) trees, while
their produce gradually diminishes in quality. This
is the case in nearly all the Caracas cocoa districts.

Besides, it is not only for supplying the open places
in Criollo fields that planters use the Trinitario varieties,
but the advantages of this variety are so important
that many planters prefer it to Criollo to plant new
fields, even in the plantations situated in the true Criollo
country, between La Guayra and Puerto Cabello. They
choose for this purpose the very best types of Angoleta

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 371

or Cundeamor, with large round seeds, light coloured
and sweet, yielding a produce of fine quality, but not
so high priced as the superior Criollo produce. Never-
theless, the planters prefer the Trinitario, because of the
little care the trees require in comparison to the Criollo,
its larger yield, early bearing, resistance to disease, and
the easier preparation of the produce.

Besides, Criollo suffers soon when the season is dry,
and trees die from drought, while Forastero is only
little damaged ; further, the hot wind which comes from
the interior — a sort of sirocco — damages the Criollo
much more than the Forastero.

This preference for the Trinitario, and the diminish-
ing of the quality of the produce which is a consequence
of it, has often been a cause of complaint by the manu-
facturers.

Preuss mentions the opinion of a well-known chocolate
manufacturer, who wrote to him : l

The Caracas cacao goes backward in quality since about ten
years. We buy always the really first-rate qualities which, are
offered for sale, but we have more and more difficulty in obtaining
the quantity we need, though we pay 150 to 170 marks, and even
more. The really fine aroma and the nice taste, with a little false
taste of Swiss cheese, are hardly any more to be obtained. It is
with cacao as with other products ; the ordinary quality, produced
in large quantities, has improved (it is true that the price has
also got much higher), and the very fine quality is going backward,
because it does not pay.

I must confess that I never detected a taste of
Swiss cheese in cocoa, whether rough or prepared, but
nevertheless the opinion of the manufacturer about the
decline in quality is clear.

The different Venezuelan varieties have been
mentioned already in Chapter V. A few particulars
may be added here.

The Venezuelan Criollo has the irregular and very
warty appearance of all the true Criollos, with deep
furrows. The colour is mostly red, the number of

1 Preuss, Expedition, p. 226.

372 COCOA

CHAP.

Criollo trees with yellow fruits is small. According to
the colour the Venezuelans distinguish "Criollo legitimo"
with dark red, "Criollo amarillo" with yellow, and
" Criollo mestizo " (which means " half-caste ") with
yellow-and-red fruits.

The Trinitario of Venezuela contains all the sub-
varieties, from the finest Angoleta and Cundeamor,
which are in most respects much like the Criollo, to
the Amelonado, called here Sambito, and the coarse
Calabacillo, called here Cojon de Toro.

The finer Trinitario varieties, especially Angoleta
and Cundeamor, are to be found in the west of
Venezuela, where Criollo also thrives ; the coarser ones
(" Carupano")1 more in the eastern provinces.

It is very remarkable that, according to all the
Venezuelan planters, the Trinitario varieties, when
planted in the western parts of Venezuela (the Criollo
home), improve in quality. This is certainly a remark-
able fact. It is confirmed by Preuss's observation, who
noticed that even the types which do not belong to the
finer Forastero varieties, for instance Amelonado types
(Sambito), have in some respects high qualities which
they do not show in other countries. So we can find
in the district between Puerto Cabello and La Guayra
Sambito fruits which contain such beautiful round
beans that they are much like Criollo beans.

This improvement of Forastero varieties planted
in a Criollo field must be ascribed to cross -fertilisation
with pollen of the Criollo trees. It is interesting to
know that planters are very positive in affirming that
it is not only the offspring which shows these improved
characteristics, but even the imported tree itself. The

1 The name "Carupaiio" is confusing. Sometimes it is the name for the
whole Forastero group, and thus identical with "Trinitario"; sometimes it
indicates the more ordinary and coarse varieties ; but it is also used to indicate
a special group of Forastero types, each of which is again indicated with a
special name, as : Carupano legitimo, Carupano grande, Carupano mestizo,
Carupano parche, Carupano taparito, etc.

Further, " Carupano " is also the commercial name for all the cocoa produced
in the eastern part of Venezuela (especially the Orinoco delta), and mostly
shipped from the port of Carupano.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 373

improvement in the beans of the mother tree may easily
be explained by the fact that the bean is a product of
the fertilisation with pollen of the Criollo father, and it
is therefore not astonishing that Criollo characters are
to be found not only in the offspring, but also in the
bean of the interplanted Forastero tree.

On the other hand, the Venezuelan "planters have
observed that the presence of the Forastero tree has no
effect on the offspring of the Criollo. Even when
surrounded by Forastero trees, the Criollo gives always
an offspring consisting of pure Criollo trees.

It may be remembered here that exactly the same
facts have been observed in Java, and the present
author is able to confirm the observations made by the P \|
Java planters : Forastero hybridises and improves in CX
following generations when Criollo trees are in the f*
neighbourhood ; Criollo, however, does not hybridise, and
remains in following generations pure Criollo in spite of
the neighbourhood of Forastero trees.

The methods of cultivation in Venezuela are rather
simple, but not so primitive as in Ecuador, and by far
not so rough as in Brazil.

The forest is wholly cleared ; no trees are left ; and at
once the temporary shade plants are planted, such as
bananas ; also corn and other crops.

The seeds are planted directly on the spot (" at
stake"), usually at distances of from 9 to 12 feet; but
generally the planter has also a nursery for supplying
the places where the seedlings failed.

Together with the cocoa the shade trees are planted.
The same two Erythrina species are used as in Trinidad,
namely the Erythrina velutina, called here " Bucare
pionio," for the low lands, and the Erythrina umbrosa,
called here " Bucare anauca," for the higher lands. But
also different sorts of Guamo (Inga) are much planted,
and sometimes the Saman (Pithecolobium Samari) or
the Mijagua (Anacardium rhinocarpus). According to
Preuss, opinions widely differ about the value of the two
last-mentioned trees — some planters are very enthusiastic

374 COCOA CHAP.

about the Saman, while others consider it as not at all
suitable for the purpose, and so also with Mijagua. The
Guamos are used on the mountains, but more as shade
for coffee.

The following particulars especially concern the
western parts, where the Criollo and the fine Trinitario
are grown.

The Criollo requires when young much more care
than the Forastero (Trinitario), especially as regards
weeding, shading, and irrigation. For without irrigation
the growing of cocoa, especially of Criollo, would be
impossible, and there hardly exists one plantation in"
Venezuela where cocoa is grown without irrigation. {
This is no wonder in this country, where the rainfall is
small (as already told, we find on the adjacent mountain
a typical xerophytic or dry-land vegetation of Cactus,
Agave, etc.), while Criollo is very sensitive to drought.

Figures about rainfall in the cocoa districts seem not
to be available, but Preuss estimates the rainfall in the
cocoa districts near Guigue as amounting to no more
than 1200 to 1500 mm.

Generally the irrigation is of a primitive sort : the
water in the river and the brooks is retained a little by
walls of stone, and from here the water is conducted into
the plantations by means of open trenches.

Little is done in pruning ; only dead twigs and
watershoots are occasionally removed.

Diseases have not been very serious up till now.
The blackening of pods is well known ; and, when the
weather is propitious for the disease, losses are sometimes
sustained.

Picking is done with the ordinary cocoa-hook, which
is also in use in Trinidad and Surinam, while the pods
are opened with the cutlass, also in the same way as in
the countries mentioned.

The Criollo comes into bearing later than the
Trinitario or Forastero. When five or six years old it
gives its first fruit, and only when seven or eight years
old the crop begins to get important, and at ten years

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 375

old the tree is in full bearing. The Trinitario yields
fruit when three or four years old, and may be considered
to be in full bearing when eight years old.

Fermenting is done in a way rather different from
that in other countries, and the cause of this difference
is no other than the fact that there are very fine varieties
grown which yield a sweet produce and which are only
allowed a very slight and short fermentation.

The method of fermenting is as follows :l —

When a sufficient quantity of fresh seeds has been
gathered, they are spread out in the sun for a day.
For this purpose a quantity of a few hundred) kilograms
is sufficient, because, for the slight fermentation which
follows, no large quantities are required. The drying is
performed on large floors, made of burned-clay or brick,
sometimes covered with a coating of lime or cement.

While the cocoa is still hot it is gathered together
in a heap and covered with banana leaves, or it is put
into special sweating boxes.

The cocoa is only allowed to ferment one day.
After that time it is at once removed and stained.

This " staining " is done in the following way : —

Some cocoa is put on a sheet, and two persons, by
lifting up the corners and moving them alternately up
and down, cause the beans to rub against each other.
Then some dry red earth is poured on them, and again
the same manipulation is done with the sheet, till the
earth is equally spread over the beans.

Then again the cocoa is spread out on the drying
floor, and left there till it is completely dry.

The earth used for staining is found in many
places on the slopes of the mountains, but not every-
where ; and the planters of the plateau of Valencia, near
G-uigue, are obliged to fetch it from the coast near
Choroni. Sometimes the earth is pulverised in special
machines. And it is always carefully dried and sifted.

This method of " staining " is almost the same as
the method of " claying" in Trinidad ; and, indeed, the

1 Preuss, Expedition, p. 231.

376 COCOA

CHAP

meaning of it is the same. As explained in Chapter
VII. , the coating with earth has no other use than
to prevent the moulding of the cocoa, the pulp of
which has not wholly been removed by the short
fermentation. It is applicable only for the sweet and
fine varieties of cocoa, which can only stand short
fermentation, during which the pulp is only partially
destroyed. The remaining particles of the pulp could,
indeed, easily give rise to mouldiness of the cocoa in the
sacks, being hygroscopic (attracting water from the air),
and a good nutrient medium for fungi. The coating
with dry earth makes these remaining parts harmless,
and prevents the growth of fungi.

As it seems, the Venezuelans, however, do not under-
stand exactly the use of this common method. They
consider it as an old custom, through which the produce
acquires a nice appearance ; some consider it also as an
easy method to increase the weight. I think, however,
that these advantages are of minor importance in
comparison with preventing mouldiness.

For this purpose the coating with earth is in every
way suitable ; and I do not agree with authors who con-
sider it a method to be abandoned, and replaced by a
thorough cleaning of the beans. AVithout doubt also a
thorough washing, which removes all the remains of pulp,
would render the beans no longer subject to mouldiness ;
but we may be sure that in the meantime the fine
aroma would be more or less damaged — the quality
of these fine cocoa species being already damaged by
exposing them a little longer to the sun than is necessary.

The question, what is the cause of the superiority in
the quality of the Venezuelan produce is not easily
answered. But certainly this superiority is not due
alone to the varieties cultivated, as exactly the same
varieties are grown in other countries without yielding
such a fine cocoa. The Java Criollo and the Old Bed
Ceylon are as varieties identical with Venezuela Criollo,
and by far not so fine. It may therefore safely be
accepted that the local conditions of soil and climate

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 377

are of no less influence, and contribute to the superiority
of the Venezuelan cocoa.

This superiority is very prominent, and even persons
wholly ignorant of cocoa commerce and not cocoa experts
will notice at once the sweet aroma, in which a slight
chocolate taste is already to be recognised, and which is
so very different from the sour smell of the ordinary
produces, as Carupano and Surinam cocoa.

Perhaps it is not superfluous to state that the
information about using nutmegs in Venezuela to give
a special aroma to the produce is quite erroneous. This
spice is never used for this purpose.

The very finest brands of Venezuelan Criollo are
sold directly to the well-known French and Swiss
chocolate manufacturers. They take a distinct place in
commerce, and the very high prices paid for them are
not subject to fluctuations of the market as those of
other Venezuelan cocoas ("Caracas " and " Carupano ").

VII. SAN DOMINGO 1

The republic of San Domingo, though a part of the
same island (Haiti) as the republic of Haiti, exhibits
quite another development of its cocoa culture.

Though also in this republic the economic conditions
are not as they could and should be, the influence of
the United States, who control the money market,
makes the economic conditions in this republic more
stable. A regular and rapid extension of the culture
and increase of the exports are noticeable.

While the republic of Haiti is one of the oldest
cocoa-growing countries, San Domingo has only become
important in the last half of the nineteenth century,
but during the last twenty years it has rapidly outgrown
its sister republic, as is shown by the following figures of
the exports :—

1 It is as difficult to get particulars about San Domingo as about Haiti.
Through the kind help of Mr. A. A. Boom, Assistant Superintendent of the
Royal Dutch West India Mail, I am able to give a few particulars about San
Domingo.

378

COCOA

Haiti.

San Domingo.

Kilog.

Kilog.

1890

1,500,000

1,400,000

1900

2,112,000

5,963,000

1905

2,162,000

12,604,000

1908

2,709,000

19,005,000

1909

2,122,000

14,818,000

1910

1,851,000

16,623,000

1911

1,485,000

19,828,000

1912

2,000,000

20,900,000

The Government does its best to help the cocoa
industry, and a good thing has been the reduction of the
export duty, which amounted until 1910 to 8s. 5d. per
100 kilograms, but has now been reduced to one-half.
Besides, great efforts are made to improve the roads.
Also, for drainage and irrigation important works have
been undertaken.

As to the technical side of agriculture, however,
much remains to be done, and an agricultural department,
with an experiment station and garden, and able men
to advise the planters, would find in this country a large
field for useful work.

Cocoa is grown especially in the northern part of
the island. The rainfall is greater there than in the
south. The following districts are the most important
as regards cocoa culture: Puerto Plata, Sanchez, Moca,
San Francisco de Macoris, Salcedo, La Vega, Cotuy,
Samand, Sabana la Mar, Higuey, Seybo, Monte Plata,
San Cristobal, and a part of San Carlos. The best
quality of cocoa comes from Seybo, Higuey, Sabana la
Mar, and the southern part of Samana.1

Generally, planting in the open field ("at stake")
is practised. Three seeds are put into the soil at a
distance of 6 inches ; when the plants have reached a
height of about 1 foot, the strongest one is left and
the two others are removed.

1 The greatest amount comes at present from the country between San
Francisco de Macoris and Moca. The transport is here facilitated by the railway
to Puerto Plata and Sanchez.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 379

The distance of the trees is generally 3 Castilian
yards ( = 2 '5 2 metres ; 1 Castilian yard is 84 cm.). This
distance, equivalent to about 8 feet, is certainly too
small, and the more intelligent planters understand that
they have to plant wider ; a distance of 4 to 5 Castilian
yards, or 11 to 14 feet, is now adopted by several of
them; some prefer 6 Castilian yards = about 17 feet.

As temporary shade for the young cocoa the plantain
is generally used. The plantains are removed when the
cocoa has reached a height of 5 feet ; on some planta-
tions, however, every other row of plantains is left
standing, till the cocoa has reached its full size (after
about six years). Instead of the plantain (" platanos")
the banana ("guineos") is sometimes used, sometimes
also the " yuca " or cassava.

As shade tree sometimes a wild forest tree is left
standing, the " guarima," l a small tree ; but often the
whole forest is cleared. In this case between the
plantains or bananas a special shade tree is generally
planted, the " amapola," which is probably identical
with the " bocare " of Trinidad (Erythrina velutina),
the " bucare pionio " of Venezuela. In some districts, /
however, no shade trees are used at all, a remarkable ^°
fact, which shows again that this method of cultivating
cocoa is not so rare as is generally believed. We have
already seen that not only in Grenada, but also in
Brazil, this method is very general ; in Trinidad it is
becoming more and more popular ; and here we meet
it again in San Domingo.

On many plantations there is a natural drainage
and no special drainage-canals are dug, but it is believed
that on several plantations a drainage-system would
greatly benefit the trees and increase the yield.

Once or twice a year the full-grown fields are weeded;
young fields, however, are often not treated carefully
enough as regards weeding.

It is an interesting fact that budding of cocoa has
already been tried in this country by several planters.

1 I am unable to give the scientific name of this tree.

380 COCOA

CHAP.

The results, however, are not considered to be encourag-
ing. Hurricanes frequently occur in this country, and
the budded trees seem to be less resistant against wind
than trees grown from seed. Besides, it is considered
that the difficulties and the expense are not counter-
balanced by the advantages.

As regards the varieties, the most common type is
still a rather smooth Amelonado (wrongly called " Cala-
bacillo " by the San Domingo planters), brought
originally from Trinidad ; the yellow variety is more
common than the red one. Gradually, however, this
type is being supplanted by other finer varieties, because
planters know that the original Amelonado, with its
bitter taste, gives a produce of very ordinary quality.
From Venezuela the finer Forastero types, especially
of the Cundeamor variety, have been imported, and
seeds from Ecuador have also been imported. But
at present the old Amelonado is mostly to be found on
the plantations.

Among the enemies a sort of plant-louse (Aphis)
has been mentioned as being exceptionally noxious.
No general measures are taken against this pest. Spray-
ing with kerosene emulsion, however, has been proved
to be effective.

The normal yield per tree is estimated to be
1 lb., when about 200 trees are planted to the
acre. This yield of 200 Ibs. per acre is not a high one.
My correspondent, Mr. Boom, however, informed me
that, when the plantation is well cared for, an annual
yield of 750 to 800 kilograms per hectare (300 to 320
kilograms per acre) can be obtained.

The crop comes in through the whole year, but the
main crop is picked from March to June ; a second main
crop, though less important, is picked from October to
December.

As regards fermenting, planters seem to act differ-
ently. Generally, wooden sweating boxes are used, and
the cocoa is often left fermenting only for three days.
Some planters, however, ferment the old Amelonado

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 381

much longer, up to seven or eight days ; while the finer,
newly-imported varieties are left fermenting only during
from two to four days. After fermentation the cocoa
is run on hand-barrows into the open air and is dried
in the sun.

The small labourers, however, often do not ferment
at all. They simply spread out the cocoa on the soil
or on cow-hides and let it dry for some time. It
will be clear that the beans, treated in this way, are
still surrounded by the whole pulp, which, though greatly
dried, is still hygroscopic, absorbing water easily and
making the cocoa liable to " mildew " or mould. The
local merchants, who buy the cocoa from the small
labourers, are therefore obliged to dry it again ; but this
is only incompletely done in the warehouses, and the
cocoa often comes on the European market in an inferior
condition, mildewed or even rotten. The consequence
is that the Samana cocoa (this is the commercial name)
has a rather bad reputation on the European market.

Locally, the merchants pay at the present time
(1911) about $7 to $9 per quintal (50 kilograms), or 7d.
to 9d. per kilogram, which is certainly a low price, and
indicates an inferior quality.

The wages in the various districts are slightly
different; in some districts 30 to 40 Am. cents (is. 3d.
to Is. 8d.), in others 50 to 60 Am. cents (2s. Id. to
2s. 6d.) is paid, or 30 cents (is. 3d.) with food.

The plantations in San Domingo are mostly of
small size. The yearly yield is generally no more than
300 to 500 quintals ( = 150 to 200 bags of 220 Ibs.).
The number of those which produce 1000 quintals (500
bags) or more is very small.

The great progress of the cocoa culture in the last
twenty years may be seen in the following export
figures :—

Kilog.

1890 . . . 1,400,000

1894 . . . 1,975,000

1896' . . . 2,250,000

1898 . . . 3,993,000

Kilog.

1900 . . . 5,963,000

1901 '. . . 6,850,000

1902 .. . . 8,975,000

1903 . . . 7,825,000

382 COCOA

CHAP.

Kilog.

1904 . . 13,558,000

1905 . . . 12,604,000

1906 . ; . 14,313,000

1907 . . . 10,151,000

1908 . . . 19,005,000

Kilog.

1909 . . 14,818,000

1910 . . . 16,623,000

1911 . . . 19,828,000

1912 . . . 20,900,000

The prices paid for Samana cocoa on the European
market differ according to the way in which it has been
prepared. The plantation cocoa is much better paid
than the produce of the small labourer. Taken as a
whole, the Samana cocoa belongs to the ordinary sorts.
It is a little superior to Accra cocoa (Gold Coast), and
about of the same quality or a little inferior to San
Thome.

Formerly Germany was the most important con-
sumer, but lately the United States of America have
become still more important.

VIII. THE GOLD COAST l AND LAGOS

The Gold Coast (see map, Fig. 116) occupies a
special place among cocoa-growing countries, for the
remarkable growth of the industry, though mainly in
the hands of native small proprietors, finds no parallel
elsewhere. The first cocoa was exported in 1891, a
quantity of 80 kilograms being shipped to England ; in
1911 the export amounted to more than 40 million
kilograms (40,000 tons of 2200 Ibs.).

At the present time cocoa is grown in all the
districts of this Colony, and is also rapidly extending
to the adjoining Protectorate of Ashanti. It is only
the sandy and stony coast-region which is unfit for this
cultivation.

If the Government persists in its endeavours to
improve the cultivation, to find methods to fight the
prevalent diseases and pests, and to make the natives
adopt these methods, it may be expected that the

1 See the Annual Reports of the Agricultural Department of the Gold Coast,
and also Chevalier, Le Cacaoyer dans I'ouest africain (Les Ve'ge'taux utiles de
I'Afrique tropicale franqaise, fasc. iv., 1908, pp. 185-200).

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 383

industry will make still greater progress in the near
future.

The rainfall is rather low for cocoa-growing. In the
Botanical Gardens at Aburi (1500 feet above sea-level)
the average of ten years (1899-1908) was 46 '12 inches
(1153 mm.) ; at the Boonso Station the average of three
years was 75'9 inches (1897 mm.) ; and at the Kumassi

FIG. 116. — Map of the Gold Coast.

Station the average of three years was 62*8 inches
(1570 mm.).

The following figures show how the rainfall at Aburi
and Tarkwa varies in the different months : —

[TABLE

384

COCOA

RAINFALL IN MILLIMETRES

CHAP.

Aburi Botanical Gardens

Tarkwa Agricultural Station

(average of 10 years

(average of 5 years

1899-1908).

1904-1908).

January

23

41

February

60

52

March

128

174

April .

138

183

May .

125

245

June .

166

327

July .

92

126

August

44

21

September .

80

120

October

134

204

November .

117

175

December .

46

76

Total .

1153

1744

The comparatively small rainfall may be counter-
balanced to a certain extent by the great humidity of
the atmosphere, which is shown by the mists, which, at
any rate at Aburi, cover the hill throughout the whole
year during the night and the early morning. Never-
theless the cocoa trees sometimes suffer from drought,
especially when they stand under too light a shade.

The first small cultivations arose from seeds which
were imported from Kamerun (or Fernando Po ?) to
Manpong by a native. Sir William Brandford Griffith,
who was Governor of the Gold Coast from 1880 to 1895,
greatly encouraged the young industry, especially by
the distribution of cocoa seeds either free or at a low
price, and also by buying the first product from the
natives. He was well supported in this work by the
missionaries of the " Basel Mission."

In 1892 he established a Botanic Station at Aburi,
which has since contributed to a great extent to the
development of the cocoa culture. Some 5 acres were
planted with cocoa, and treated very carefully, so as
to be an example to the small growers.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 385

The latter settled by preference in the neighbour-
hood of the Botanic Station, which became in time a
centre of cocoa culture.

At first cocoa-growing was chiefly confined to the
province of Aquapim, but later it has been developed in
the other provinces such as Krobo and in such districts
as Akim, Kwahu and Fanti, and more recently a]so in
the districts north from Winnebah and Saltpond.

In the meantime the English Government has con-
tinued in helping and encouraging the industry. More
Botanic Stations have been established, and more officers
have been appointed to instruct the small growers.

Thus the cocoa culture has grown in this colony
more rapidly than in any other country — a consequence
of special conditions, of which the most important is
certainly the favourable soil, which permits success-
ful cultivation in spite of little care. The easy way in
which cocoa grows at the Gold Coast made it a culture
very suitable for the natives. But still the success
would never have been so striking if the population
had not been a diligent one and if it had not been
warmly supported by the Government.

The following figures of the exports will illustrate
the rapid growth of the industry :—

[TABLE
2 c

386

COCOA

COCOA EXPORT FROM THE GOLD COAST

Lbs.

Tons of 1000 kg.

Value £.

1890

0

0

0

1891

80

0-036

4

1892

240

0-108

4

1893

3,460

1-5

94

1894

20,312

9

547

1895

28,906

13

471

1896

86,754

39

2,276

1897

156,672

71|

3,196

1898

414,201

186

9,616

1899

714,929

322

16,064

1900 .

1,200,794

540

27,280

1901

2,195,571

988

42,837

1902

5,367,405

2,415

94,944

1903

5,104,761

2,297

86,250

1904

11,451,458

5,153

200,025

1905

11,407,608

5,133

186,809

1906

20,104,504

9,047

336,269

1907

20,956,400

9,430

515,089

1908

28,545,910

12,846

540,821

1909

45,277,606

20,533

755,347

1911

88,987,324

39,726

1,613,468

1912

86,568,481

38,624

1,642,733

As mentioned, the cocoa culture is carried on entirely
by small growers ; the areas are hardly ever larger
than 10 acres, and generally even much smaller.

The variety, everywhere planted, is a Forastero-
Amelonado, yellow when mature, and of the same type
as the common San Thome variety, which is known
under the local name " San Thome Creoulo." The
average length is 15 cm., the average diameter 7\ cm.
The seeds are flat.

Planting at stake and planting from nursery beds
are both done. With the first method, the natives
after clearing, and rather incompletely burning the
forest, make small holes with a primitive hoe, and
put several seeds in each hole. The planting is generally
rather irregularly done, and the distances between the
holes vary between 6 and 10 feet. In planting from

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 387

nursery beds the nursery is generally made in a
suitable corner near the house, and when the plants
have attained a height of 30 to 50 cm. they are re-
planted at the definite place. For this purpose the
natives pull the plants out of the nursery beds and
scrape with the hoe a small hole, which can just contain
the roots, and put in the plant. No manure of any
kind is added.

In cutting the forest a certain number of trees are
left standing, and these furnish a light shade. Mostly
useful trees are chosen, as, for instance, the oil-palm
(Elaeis guineensis\ the Cola nut (Cola acuminata),
and the native rubber (Kickxia elastica), but also
the Rokko (Chlorophora excelsa), Cola cordifolia,
Piptadenia africana and different species of Albizzia.

No care is spent on these trees, and, according to
Chevalier, the oil-palms get sometimes troublesome by
the great many epiphytes on the old, dry stalks of the
fallen leaves.

As a catch-crop, more than for temporary shade,
plantains are planted between the young cocoa plants,
also cassava and tanias.

Generally speaking, cocoa-growing on the Gold Coast
may be called in every sense a haphazard one. The
weeds are left growing too long between the trees ;
pruning is very rarely done, and even the suckers are
generally left. Only in the neighbourhood of the
Aburi Station is the good example given by the Station
followed, and a little more care given to the cultivation.

It is not to be wondered at that trees treated in
this way have only a short life and, as is reported,
they often begin to die at the age of twelve years. By
cutting the whole tree back, leaving only a stump of
the stem, a new growth can be obtained and the life of
the tree may be lengthened.

The fact that the cultivations are suffering from
different insects and fungi pests may partly also be
attributed to the careless way of cultivating. Much
damage is done throughout the Colony and Protectorate

388 COCOA CHAP.

by the following insects : (l) borers ; (2) an Hemipterous
insect of unknown species, which attacks the young
branches ; (3) an insect which attacks the pods (perhaps
a Helopeltis species, according to the Director of
Agriculture of Gold Coast), and by fungous diseases
as follows : (1) die-back (perhaps caused by Diplodia) ;
(2) white thread (Marasmius scandensf); (3) horse-
hair blight ; (4) canker ; (5) root fungus ; (6) crown-rot.

Of all these plagues the borers and the Hemipterous
insect, which attacks the young branches, are doing most
damage, especially the borers. They bore holes in the
stem and in the branches, and, according to the descrip-
tions, the damage done is still greater than that of the
West Indian borer (Steirastoma). It is probable that
the Gold Coast borer is the larva of another beetle.

To fight the borer a small piece of jagged wire is
pushed into the hole of the stem or the branch, and after
it has been worked up and down for some time, the
wire is pulled out and the hole filled up with clay ; but
in the majority of cases the branch is simply cut off.

The Agricultural Department is busy in drawing the
attention of the natives to the Hemipterous insect,
which attacks the young branches, and is giving in-
structions to fight the enemy. A notice issued by the
Department, and printed both in English and in the
native language may be quoted here :—

NOTICE TO COCOA-FARMERS

An insect pest has been discovered to be doing great damage
to the cocoa trees and, if allowed to spread, it may destroy the
whole industry. Every chief and farmer must do his utmost to
prevent the spread of this pest and so save the crops from the
danger which threatens them.

DESCRIPTION OF THE INSECT DOING THE DAMAGE

The insect when young resembles a tick or spider and is red-
dish in colour ; when old it is brown or black > and, though it
generally has wings, it cannot fly more than short distances. The
insect, young or old, has a trunk which, when not feeding, is
folded back.

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 389

TO PREVENT ATTACKS OF THE INSECT

(a) Plant the trees from 12 to 15 feet apart to keep them
strong and healthy.

(b) Keep the plantations clear of weeds, dead wood, and empty
cocoa-pods, which should be buried.

(c) Avoid too much shade.

TO RESIST ATTACKS

(a) If the trees are attacked and appear to be dying, cut
them off 18 inches from the ground, tar the" stumps, and burn all
the branches and decaying wood about the plantation, and turn
the soil over completely ; or

(b) Spray the trees with kerosene emulsion in the early morn-
ing when the insects are feeding. Kerosene emulsion is made as
follows : Take one Ib. of soap and four gallons of kerosene, cut
up the soap and boil it in two gallons of water ; when the soap
has dissolved, remove from the fire and add four gallons of kerosene
and mix thoroughly. To one bottle of this mixture add nine
bottles of water before spraying.

Sprayers and syringes for use with emulsion can be obtained
from the Agricultural Department on application.

(Sgd.) W. S. D. TUDHOPE,

Director of Agriculture.

In spite of the great damage done by these enemies,
a general system is not yet followed for combating
either insect or fungi pests, and every year great loss
follows, which could be avoided to a great extent if
the natives made more effort to combat the pests.

The main crop is picked in November and December.
After breaking the pods, the seeds are put in ordinary
boxes, not deeper than 25 cm. Often the natives use
simply empty boxes, in which merchandise has been
imported into the Colony ; by preference small gin-
cases are used.

The bottom of the boxes is covered with banana /*
leaves, then they are filled with the cocoa seeds, which *
are again covered with banana leaves. On the top
small boards are laid, and the whole is pressed with
heavy stones. The beans are allowed to ferment for
4 to 6 days.

390 COCOA

CHAP.

This method is, however, not generally followed, and
the way of fermenting adopted by the majority of the
natives is still more primitive. They simply put the
fresh beans into little heaps in a more or less sheltered
place. Now and then these heaps are turned over, but
neither fermenting nor drying is done with any care.
It will easily be understood that the fermentation
obtained in this way is very poor, and the cocoa is very
subject to moulding when lying in heaps, and also later
when ready for sale. This is not to be wondered at,
for the juicy pulp which surrounds the seeds is only
incompletely removed, in consequence of the insufficient
fermentation.

Still, when a little care is given, the cocoa is easily
dried in this country where the rainfall is not so great,
the sun-heat is always sufficient, and artificial drying is
not necessary.

The result of the imperfect curing is a product of
inferior quality. Insufficiently fermented, not washed,
more or less slightly moulded, and insufficiently selected,
the product of the Gold Coast, known on the market
as " Accra Cocoa," fetches, speaking generally, only low
prices.

The cocoa is sold by the natives in small quantities
of 4 to 5 kilograms to the agencies of the commercial
houses. Here the cocoa is dried a second time and
packed in barrels, which contain about 1000 kilograms.
These are rolled to Accra and shipped to Europe.
Almost the whole of the product is shipped from Accra ;
only small quantities are shipped from the ports of
Winneba, Saltpond, and Cape Coast.

As mentioned, the Government made a beginning,
under Sir William Brandford Griffith, and with the
view of encouraging agriculture the Botanic Station of
Aburi was established.

Afterwards the Gold Coast Department of Agri-
culture was established, which has under its control
four agricultural stations, viz. :

(1) The Aburi Botanic and Agricultural Station

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 391

(the headquarters of the Department), situated in the
Eastern Province, established in 1892.

(2) The Tarkwa Agricultural Station in the Western
Province.

(3) The Assuantsi Agricultural Station in the Central
Province.

(4) The Kumassi Agricultural Station in Ashanti,
recently started at the request of the Chief of Ashanti.

These stations distribute seeds and plants at a low
price to the small growers, and give demonstrations in
their gardens how to grow cocoa and other crops. At
the Aburi Station some 5 acres have been planted with
cocoa, and a much larger area has been devoted to this
culture at the Tarkwa Station. In these gardens all
the care they need is given to the plants. The seeds
are sown in nurseries under the artificial shade of palm
leaves lying on frames of bamboo or other wood. In
planting out, sufficient distance (14 to 20 feet) is left
between the trees, and instead of leaving certain forest
trees as shade, the whole forest is cleared and shade
trees of a special kind (Erytlirina umbrosa, or Pithe-
colobium Saman) are planted. The weeds are carefully
removed and diseases are combated.

It is not to be wondered at that the conditions of
these trees are quite different from those of the trees
of the small growers, and that they give a heavier
yield, viz. about double.

Trials have been made with a few plants of three
imported varieties, but according to the report of
1908 the results so far obtained have not been such
as would recommend their more extensive cultivation
to the exclusion of those at present grown.

The fermentation and drying of beans is at present
also receiving much attention, but among a primitive
people progress is naturally slow.

The work of the Department, however, is not confined
to the stations. One European and five trained native
instructors are touring throughout the Colony and
Protectorate visiting the native farms and demonstrating

392 COCOA

CHAP.

how to prune the trees, clear the land, make drains,
how to fight fungi and insect pests, etc.

From information kindly forwarded by the Director
of Agriculture it is evident that the Government is
satisfied with the results obtained. The Director adds :
" The fact that the natives receive these men (viz. the
travelling instructors) and are glad to welcome them,
shows that the money expended by the Government
is not being wasted, and within the next few years any
,one writing on the Gold Coast cocoa industry will have
quite a different tale to tell."

Lagos l

In this country the cocoa industry has developed
in the same way as in the Gold Coast, though not to
the same extent.

With the help and the encouragement of the Govern-
ment the natives have established an industry which
is increasing in importance every year.

Often the oil-palm (J57oeis)and cocoa are interplanted.
It is considered that the best-managed fields are those
situated near the village Okenla (district Egba).

From the Botanical Station of Oloke Meji and the
garden at Ebutte Metta a great number of cocoa plants
have been distributed by the Government.

The exports are as follows : 2—

Kilog.

1890 .. . 6,000

1895 ... . 22,000

1900 . . . 114,000

1905 . . . 454,400

1906 . . . 734,700

Kilog.

1908 . - . . 1,388,000

1909 . . . 2,276,300

1910 . . . 2,978,000

1911 . . . 4,471,000

1912 . . . 3,500,000

1907 . . . 947,500

IX. KAMERUN AND THE OTHER GERMAN COLONIES

Though these colonies are not yet very important
as cocoa producers, it is not impossible that in the

1 Chevalier, Le Cacaoyer dans V Quest africain (1908), p. 202.
8 Chevalier, I.e., and Gordian.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 393

future the cocoa industry, more especially in Kamerun,
will become important.

The exports of these colonies amounted to : *

Kilog.

1895 . . . 120,000

1900 . . . 261,000

1901 . . . 528,000

1902 . . . 65.8,000

1903 . . . 918,400

1904 . . . 1,109,200

1905 '. . . 1,454,200

Kilog.

1906 . . . 1,368,000

1907 . . . 1,966,300

1908 . . . 2,737,500

1909 . . . 3,823,300

1910 . . . 4,072,700

1911 . . . 4,404,000

1912 . . . 5,400,000

Kamerun has by far the most important cocoa
industry. The area planted with cocoa was estimated
in 1909 to amount to 8000 hectares (20,000 acres);
Samoa comes second with an area of about 2000
hectares (5000 acres) ; while Togo comes third with an
area of no more than 200 hectares. Cocoa is also
grown to a very small extent in German East Africa,
German New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and
Kaiser Wilhelmsland.

The labour question 2 has caused some difficulties,
as the natives of the coast-region, where the plantations
are situated, dislike regular and continued plantation
work. Therefore the estates are obliged to recruit by
means of the contract system labourers from inland ;
especially from the Yaunde district, also from Ossidinge,
Joh-Albrechtshohe, Bali, and Banyo.

In 1910 about 10,000 contract labourers were em-
ployed on the estates.

The contracts are made by sanction of the Govern-
ment. The labourers are contracted for six, twelve,
or eighteen months ; the travelling expenses to the
plantation and, after expiration of the contract, home
to the native village are paid by the estate. In the
contract it is stipulated in what way the labourer
will be paid : the payment is partly in food, partly
in cash; when the labourer gets his food free from

1 Gordian.

2 Die Arbeiterfrage in Deutsch-Ostafrica und Kamerun (published by the
Association Internationale d'Agronomie Tropicale, 1910).

394

COCOA

the estate the payment in cash varies generally between
eight and twelve shillings per month, according to the
training of the labourer.

The industry is chiefly in the hands of European
Companies. The attempts of the natives to grow cocoa
have not yet been a success.

The young cocoa culture in Kamerun is already
much troubled by diseases and enemies.1 Of fungoid
diseases the black rot of pods causes great loss, as is
not to be wondered at in a country with so much rain.

The yearly rainfall amounts to about 4000 mm.,
divided over the different months as follows : —

Jan.
40

Feb.
80

March.

Apr.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.
430

Nov.
150

Dec.

Total.

200

230

340

550

730

750

500

80

4070

A root disease, caused by an unknown root-fungus,
is also the cause of damage. Of less importance is the
Kamerun witch-broom disease (not to be confounded
with the Surinam witch-broom disease) (see Chapter
VIIL).

Of the insects the rind-bug (Sahlbergella singularis)
is the worst pest2 (see Chapter VIIL). Of less im-
portance is the borer, Monohammus ruspator.

Of the rodents the Kamerun hamster (Cricetomys
gambianus) is noxious in the fields by eating the seeds
of the ripe fruits, and in the nurseries by devouring the
seeds before germinating.

The Kamerun cocoa belongs to the ordinary sorts.
The best plantation cocoa, known as " Kamerun,"
fetches about the same prices as ordinary "Bahia" or
fair " San Thome" ; while the inferior Kamerun cocoa,
called " Victoria " by the merchants, does not get higher
prices than ordinary " Accra."

It has been suggested that the quality could be
much improved by cultivating finer varieties and

1 Von Faber, Die Krankheiten und Parasiten, etc.
2 Busse (Tropenpflanzer, 1905 ; and Bcihefte, October 1906).

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 395

especially by fermenting more carefully. It may,
however, be considered questionable whether finer
varieties (Criollo or Criollo-like Forastero) would thrive
in this rainy country. A good fermentation will probably
bring the " Victoria" up to the height of " Kamerun,"
but obtaining a still higher quality is not to be
expected.

Kamerun exported :

1907
1908

Kilog.

1,797,600
2,447,200

1909
1910

Kilog.

3,322,800
3,431,000

Togo cocoa, as yet, is unimportant. The cultivation
is almost entirely confined to the Misahohe district
and in the hands of the natives. Only one small
plantation is a European undertaking. It exported in
1910, 137,045 kilograms.

Samoa.1 — In Samoa the cocoa industry is only to
a small extent in the hands of European Companies.
Except five or six plantations of an area of some 300
to 500 acres each, the fields belong to small proprietors,
who are in possession of small areas of 10 to 100
acres.

The export amounted in 1904 to 19,500 kilograms,
in 1905 to 27,500 kilograms, in 1906 to 92,200, in
1907 to 116,500, in 1908 to 204,500, in 1909 to
386,800, in 1910 to 504,600.

The variety mostly cultivated is Criollo ; the type
is identical with the Java Criollo and the Ceylon Old
Red. The produce has much resemblance to Java and
Ceylon produce.

Also Forastero varieties are planted. The Forastero
was introduced some twelve years ago from Ceylon.

The labour question in Samoa is a difficult one ; the
Samoa native is not fit for steady labour. In 1908,
1000 Chinese coolies were imported for plantation
work.

1 Preuss, Uber Cacaobau und andere Plantagenculturen auf Samoa (Beihefte
Tropenpflanzer, 7. Marz 1907).

396 COCOA

CHAP.

X. CEYLON1

The cocoa plant was introduced into Ceylon by the
Dutch in the early nineteenth century.2 But the main
of the cocoa, cultivated at the present time, is probably
the offspring of plants obtained from Trinidad by Sir R.
Horton in 1834-35 and the varieties imported in 1880
and 1881 from the same place.3

The decline of the coffee culture, between 1870 and
1880, in consequence of the combined attacks of leaf-
disease and green bug, induced the planters to start
another culture, and from that time cocoa was cultivated
with much success.

The first export, in 1878, amounted to 500 kilograms;
in 1885, 343,300 kilograms were exported; in 1890
about 1,000,000 kilograms; in 1895 about 1,500,000
kilograms. From that time the following amounts
were exported : 4—

Kilog. Kilog.

1896 . . . 1,837,100

1897 . . . 2,221,700

1898 , . . 2,434,100

1899 • . . . 2,379,100

1900 . ..." . 1,890,400

1901 . ' . . 2,697,000

1902 . . . 2,673,100

1903 '. . . 3,075,300

1904 . . . 3,254,800

1905 . . . 3,224,900

1906 . . . 2,509,600

1907 . . . 4,699,600

1908 . . . 2,836,200

1909 . . . 3,570,000

1910 . . . 4,069,000

1911 . . . 3,064,000

1912 . . . 3,500,000

The most important crops in Ceylon are tea and
Para rubber, then follows cocoa. The number of estates
in 1909 was 2091 with a total area of 957,709 acres, of
which 30,016 acres were planted with cocoa. In 1910
the area in cocoa amounted to about 27,000 acres.
This acreage is apart from 5800 acres (approximately)

1 Literature about cocoa in Ceylon : — Herbert Wrigbt, Cocoa ; Circulars
and Agricultural Journal of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Ceylon (especially
vol. vi. No. 6, "Cacao Cultivation in Ceylon," by R. H. Lock) ; The Tropical
Agriculturist (Colombo, Ferguson).

2 Jumelle, Le Cacaoyer, p. 183.

3 Herbert Wright, Cocoa, p. 6.

4 Gordian.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 397

in native gardens. The total area in cocoa thus
amounted in 1909 to about 36,000 acres, in 1910 to
about 33,000 acres.

The following particulars are mainly taken from
Wright's and Lock's publications.

The combination of rainfall, temperature, and
elevation required for the profitable cultivation of cocoa,
eliminates many parts of the island for this product.
The large tracts of land in the hilly districts cannot be
included in the cocoa zone on account of low tempera-
tures or unfavourable moisture-conditions.

The amount of land suited for cocoa cultivation in
Ceylon is therefore limited, and the range of suitable
elevation is especially small, when compared with the
toleration displayed by tea and even rubber in this
respect. Thus cocoa is not expected to be really
successful in Ceylon below 500 feet or above 2000 feet
elevation. A rainfall of at least 60 inches (1500 mm.)
is considered to be necessary as well as a good protection
from strong winds.

Of the total area the districts around Kandy and
Matale account for some 27,000 acres, and the cultiva-
tion extends towards Teldeniya on the east and
Kurunegala on the west. A line drawn through
Peradeniya, Rambukhana, Nalanda, and Teldeniya will
enclose the greater part of this area. Practically the
whole of the cocoa in Ceylon therefore grows in quite a
small district.

The rainfall varies between 2000 and 4000 mm.
(80 to 160 inches).

The following are the details of a few cocoa-growing
districts : —

Annual Rainfall.

Elevation.

mm.

feet.

Heneratgoda

2653

33

Kandy

2038

1654

Matale

2110

1208

fo-n.

393 COCOA

In the Kandy district the south-west rains are heavy
during April and June, while in October and November
those from the north-east are still heavier. There is
a warm dry period in February and March, a hotter but
moister one during April and May, followed by seven to
eight months of rainy weather, when the temperature is
slightly lower and the humidity high.

The Criollo variety, called here " Old Eed Ceylon,"
has been in the beginning the only one cultivated, but
since ravages of diseases have become prominent, there
has been a tendency to replace this variety with the
more prolific varieties of Forastero, in the belief that
the latter was not so liable to these ravages.

o

The Forastero, however, has not answered in every
respect to expectations. The Helopdtis and the canker
appeared to attack the Forastero as well as the Criollo,
and this experience has induced some of the planters
to plant again the " Old Red " (Criollo).

May, June, and July is the time of full-blossoming,
and the main crop is obtained in the months of October,
November, December, and January.

As regards distance of planting, the opinions in
Ceylon agree with those of the Java planters : 15x15
feet is considered close enough for a good Forastero
under ordinary conditions, and it is the opinion of Mr.
Lock that this interval may be increased to as much as
20 x 20 in cases where soil and shelter are especially
favourable.

It seems that the banana is not used for preliminary
shade. In this respect cocoa culture in Ceylon and in
Java appear to correspond. In both countries the
dadap (Erythrina lithosperma) is considered the best
plant as well for temporary as for permanent shade — at
any rate when it is not subject to the attack of many
insect-enemies, as is the case in most parts of Java.

The way in which the dadap is used in Ceylon is
described by Lock * in the following way :—

1 Lock, "Cacao Cultivation in Ceylon" (vol. vi. No. 6 of the Circulars of
the Royal Botanical Gardens, Ceylon, February 1912, p. 95).

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 399

The best of all shade trees for Ceylon is almost certainly the _^ 7
dadap, which has the great advantage of growing well from large '
cuttings — indeed, the cutting can hardly be too large — so that
a fair-sized tree can be established by this method in a year or
two. At the outset as many dadaps as cacao trees will be
required, and these may be planted in the same lines as the cacao
plants and alternately with them, so as to admit of a free view
down the lines of cacao. As the dadaps grow they should be
pruned in such a manner that their branches are kept a few feet
above the tops of the cacao plants, and the leaves and twigs
removed during this process should be mulched close round the
young cacao. As soon as the branches of the dadaps have met
above the cacao so as to afford a tolerably close shade, the question
of thinning them out must be considered, and at the beginning of
the next wet season one in three of the dadaps may be cut down,
the leaves being again used for mulching. The process of thinning
should be continued year after year, until ultimately the dadaps
stand 45 by 45 feet in each direction — a condition which may
be reached five years after the time of original planting, when the
cacao will be just coming into bearing. A young dadap cutting
may now be planted in the centre of each square of old dadaps
to take the place of the latter when they have outgrown their
condition of greatest usefulness in two or three years more. The
old trees are then gradually cut down, and the store of organic
matter which they represent returned to the soil. In addition to
all this, the branches of the dadaps should be lopped periodically
at the onset of wet weather if the shade appears to be too
heavy.

All this planting and cutting out of shade trees may appear
unduly complicated, but there is no doubt that the proper treat- Sb^
ment of shade is the first essential of success in cultivating cacao eJtc-» \
in Ceylon. The use of the dadap ensures a sufficient supply of
nitrogen derived from the prunings and loppings constantly
returned to the soil, and no further supply of this expensive anid
necessary constituent will be required on good land if the
recommendations here given are carried out.

In the beginning, however, plantations were not very
particular about shade and contained several species
of trees, and while they are now by preference using
dadap (Erytlirina lithosperma), the mixed cultivation
with Hevea also has become .very popular. Of the
Erythrinas, E. lithosperma is preferred to E. umbrosa
on account of its more rapid growth, more luxuriant

400 COCOA

CHAP.

foliage, absence of thorns, and the way in which it
stands regular lopping once or twice a year.

Some other shade trees, however, are also met with
on the cocoa estates, especially Albizzia moluccana and
Albizzia stipulata, and the rubber species Castilloa
elastica and Manihot Glaziovii.

At the present time the planting of cocoa and
Hevea as a mixed cultivation is much in favour, and
it is extending, especially in the Matale, Dumbara,
Kurunegala, Polgahawela, and Kandy districts.

This interplanting has often been quite successful,
but care must be taken to plant the trees wider apart
than is the case when they are planted separately.
Wright 1 recommends to plant Hevea as well as cocoa
20 feet apart, so as to obtain approximately 100 rubber
and 100 cocoa trees per acre. As regards the yield, this
same author mentions that Ceylon estates, with Para
rubber trees eight to eleven years old planted through
slightly older cocoa, are now obtaining a yield of about
200 Ibs. of rubber and the same of cocoa per acre
per year.

But few planters are interplanting with Manihot
and Castilloa.

Weeding is done on most estates by contract ; the
contract coolies are paid 7 to 12 rupees (9s. to 16s.) per
acre per year. Some estates apply green manuring in
the young cocoa fields, in order to keep the weeds in
check and to improve the soil. For this purpose the
following plants have been recommended for Ceylon :
different Crotallaria species (C. striata, C. laburnifolia,
C. incana), Cajanus indicus, species of Indigofera
(/. anil, I. tinctoria, I. hirsuta), etc.

A fair amount of artificial manure is used on the
estates ; but, so far, systematic experiments have only
been carried on at Peradeniya in the Botanical Gardens.
From these" experiments it may be concluded that good
results were obtained from nitrogenous manures ; it is
a fact worth mentioning that the best results were

1 Cocoa, p. 84.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 401

obtained by green manuring with Crotallaria and an
application of lime to the amount of 2 tons per acre ;
the second-best results were obtained with nitrate of
sodium (800 Ibs. per acre) ; followed by cattle manure
(10 tons per acre).

For particulars reference may be made to the figures
given in the Annual Eeports of the Botanical Garden,
Peradeniya.

Systematic pruning of cocoa trees is an operation
which is hardly known or very rarely practised in
Ceylon. Cleaning the trees, however, is generally done,
often only after crop-time, during the dry months
from January to April ; in this case the work is done
together with the treatment of the stems against
canker.

The regular removal of all the suckers is generally
practised, and it has been recognised that the cultiva-
tion of suckers at the right time is often the means of
saving a plant which is attacked by canker disease.

The shelling or breaking is done either by means of
a knife or small cutlass, or by pressing the fruit against
a steel cutting surface lodged in a piece of wood. The
seeds are collected in baskets, and the shells are gener-
ally buried in pits.

The cocoa plant is attacked in Ceylon by a few
troublesome enemies. The most serious insect pest is
the Helopeltis, while of the fungoid diseases the canker
and the black rot of pods are often the cause of
considerable loss.

The canker disease began to get troublesome at the
end of the last century. At present the method of
catting and burning all the diseased parts is generally
adopted, and it is supposed that in this way the disease
is kept in check. It has been recommended to watch
the disease the whole year round, and not to wait for
the measures mentioned, but to inspect the trees every
month. The judicious thinning out of too dense shade
has also helped in fighting the disease. In some cases
good results were reported from a treatment of the

2 D

402 COCOA

CHAP.

cankered areas with strong reagents, especially strong
sulphuric acid.

Against the black rot of pods spraying was tried at
the Peradeniya Gardens, with good result.

Helopeltis was first noticed on cocoa in Ceylon in
1880. Every year the damage is a serious one, and
planters are as yet nearly helpless against this enemy.
The use of suitable shade trees is recommended, and
shade is considered to be the most important palliative.

A common pest in store-rooms is the larva of a
Pyralid moth (Ephestia).

For fermenting, the seeds are treated in Ceylon
about in the same way as is done in Java, which method
will be described later in detail. On the fermenting
floors the seeds are heaped up in heaps of four or more
bushels. Every day or every twelve hours the heaps
are turned over. About the time necessary to obtain
the right produce opinions are different. Some planters
ferment only during 1^ days, while others consider
it better to ferment during 2^ days or 3 days, or even
longer.

In most estates washing is carried out, and this seems
necessary when the beans have been subjected to a com-
paratively short fermentation, because it is otherwise
difficult to obtain a satisfactory drying.

Lock * gives the following description of fermenting
and washing in Ceylon : —

The beans and wet pulp are piled in cement tanks and covered
with plantain leaves and jute hessian, and are allowed to remain
for twenty-four hours. They are then uncovered arid partly
washed by stirring with water, which is allowed to drain away
from the bottom of the tank. After a further twenty -four hours
the same process is again repeated, and is followed by a final fer-
mentation period of twenty-four hours, the total period of fermenta-
tion being thus three days. The beans are then finally washed
and are ready for the final process of drying. The washing should
not be done too thoroughly, as it is found that the beans dry a
better colour if a certain amount of pulp is left adhering to the
surface.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 403

When the weather is favourable, the curing is done
by exposure to the sun. This method is preferred in
Ceylon on account of its cheapness and the better
quality of the produce. The most usual method is to
spread the seeds over large floors. Sometimes drying
waggons are used, as in Surinam, or movable roofs, as
in Trinidad.

When, however, the weather is rainy, the seeds are
cured in the curing house. Numerous types of such
houses are in use. According to Wright l most of the
curing houses in Ceylon consist essentially of two
chambers, the lower one being spacious and specially
adapted to receiving the hot air, and the upper one the
fermented seeds. The coir matting on the floor of the
upper chamber is covered with the freshly fermented
seeds, the hot air passed through this mass from below
upwards, and the moist air is drawn off by means of a
fan. In most cases the heat is drawn through the

O

chamber by means of a fan driven by hand or power,
and placed at the opposite end of the chamber, away
from the heating apparatus ; in some cases, however,
the hot air is driven through the lower chamber and
allowed to escape at the end of the building opposite
the fan. The air-space beneath is usually very spacious,
and by means of a series of brick baffle-plates the air
may be made to travel throughout its length before
commencing to ascend.

After curing, the beans are sorted and shipped. The
Ceylon produce has much resemblance to Java cocoa.
Both kinds are in good demand, principally on account
of the light colour and the comparatively sweet taste.
Accordingly, high prices are paid for well-prepared,
first -quality Ceylon. There is, however, little uni-
formity, and also much inferior Ceylon is brought to
the market.

As regards profit and cost of production, Lock gives
an estimate.

When the total area planted and the exports are

1 Wright, Cocoa, pp. 136, 137.

404 COCOA

CHAP.

compared, it turns out that the average crop is rather less
than 3 cwt. (150 kilograms) per acre. In well-cared-for
estates, however, the yield is higher, though it may be
regarded as questionable whether the estimate of 5 cwt.
(250 kilograms), which Lock regards as a mean estimate
for estates, is not a little high. An amount of 5 cwt.
represents a return per acre of about 200 rupees (about
£13:78.).

Of the expenses the most considerable item is labour.
The average rate of daily pay in the cocoa districts is
about 40 cents (about 6d.). A permanent force of more
than sixty coolies per 100 acres is never employed.
Supervision will cost about 15 rupees per acre, and
other expenses, including manure, perhaps 30 rupees
more. According to Mr. Lock, it will probably be safe
to take the cost of production as 75 rupees per acre for
the lowest estimate and 120 rupees for the highest
(1 rupee = Is. 4d.).

XL JAVA AND THE OTHER ISLANDS OF THE
INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO

Long ago the cocoa plant was imported into the
Malayan Archipelago. It is said that about 1560 the
first plants were brought to Celebes by the Spaniards.

In the northern part of this island (Minahassa)
it was cultivated, but only on a very small scale, in the
end of the eighteenth century ; the product was con-
sumed locally. About 1820, however, the culture was
extended in Minahassa ; this was in consequence of
increased demand in Manila for Minahassa produce.

The export from the port of Menado began about
1825, and increased a little up to 1838, when it amounted
to 91,740 kilograms. From that time a disease, the
nature of which can no longer be traced, began to
damage the cocoa fields in Minahassa. The cocoa
culture went backward, and the exports from Menado
diminished. At present the cocoa exports from Menado

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 405

are no longer of importance ; in 1909 only 30,050 kilo-
grams were exported.1

In Java the decay of the coffee culture was the
direct cause of the starting of cocoa-growing. When,
about 1880, the coffee plantations began to decline,
in consequence of the ravages of the leaf-disease
(Hemileia vastatrix), the first trials were made in
Middle Java, near Salatiga, to plant cocoa in the old
coffee fields. This seemed to be a success, and since that
time cocoa has been planted in fields of Coffea arabica
and of Coffea liberica in several plantations in Middle
and East Java.

At present cocoa plantations are to be found
principally in the regencies of Semarang, Solo, Peka-
longan, Kediri, Pasoeroean (in the southern part), and
Besoeki. They are scattered over these regions, and
are mostly situated on the slopes of mountains at an
altitude of 500 to 1800 feet; a few are situated on a
lower altitude, near the sea-coast.

The conditions of soil, temperature, and rainfall are
widely different in the several districts of Middle and
East Java, and this accounts for the fact that the methods
of cultivation show little uniformity.

As regards rainfall, an east monsoon — the dry season,
and a west monsoon — the wet season, can be dis-
tinguished. The east monsoon lasts from May to
October ; especially in the months of July, August, and
September droughts of several weeks are expected,
but the cocoa stands such droughts quite well.

The following figures of the rainfall on two estates
may be given as example : —

1 See Kanierling en Zehntner, " Voorloopig overzicht, etc." (De Indische
Natuur, 1901, p. 43).

[TABLE

406

COCOA

RAINFALL IN MILLIMETRES

CHAP.

"Widodaren" "Getas"

(Besoeki, East Java).

(Salatiga, Middle Java).

January

510

414

February

473

322

March

490

397

April .

332

247

May .

213

189

June .

150

152

July . . .

77

100

August

72

92

September .

92

108

October

243

196

November .

464

332

December .

484

386

Total .

3610

2935

The figures at Widodaren are the average figures for
the years 1886 to 1909; those of Getas are the average
figures for the years 1900 to 1909.

Cocoa would, doubtless, have become a culture of
more importance for Java if the two enemies, the cocoa
moth (Zaratha cramerella) and Helopeltis, had not
become so very destructive some fifteen years ago.
The moth especially reduced the crop to a great extent.
The natural consequence was a tendency among cocoa
planters to make the expenses as low as possible, and to
combine cocoa with other crops so as to get a larger
revenue from the plantation without making the
expenses much higher.

In this way cocoa cultivation has not grown in Java
on uniform lines and on principles acquired by experi-
ence of several generations. Every planter tries to
make the best of it, and has his own way of inter-
planting with other crops.

A great advantage in Java is the cheapness of labour.
It makes cocoa culture pay in spite of its enemies. In
most parts of Java a day-task of a man is paid 25 to 40

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 407

cents (5d. to 8cL), while a woman is paid 15 to 25 cents I
(3d. to 5d.) per day. In Middle Java and a great part|
of East Java as many labourers are obtainable as are
necessary.

The cost of production varies because the conditions
are so different in different parts of Java. For Middle
Java the following estimate may give an idea : —

Per bouw
(07 hectare).

Per pikul1 (60
kilograms).

Field work (except manuring and picking) .

Guilders.
20

Guilders.

Manuring ......

25 5

Picking 12-50

2-50

Fermenting and drying .... 5

1

Management and general expenses

12-50

2-50

Taxes

5

1

80

16

1 It is admitted in this estimate that 1 bouw produces as an average 5 pikul.

In this way the cost of production would be 16
guilders or £1 : 6 : 8 per pikul (60 kilograms), or about
25 cents (5d.) per kilogram.

When cocoa is planted in old coffee fields (Fig. 117),
where the shade has been left, temporary shade is not
used ; and the cocoa is grown under quite other con-
ditions than those in the more classic cocoa countries,
where a preliminary and comparatively dense shade,
such as bananas, is considered necessary to the young
cocoa plants.

The habit of cocoa plants planted in these old
coffee fields is, accordingly, not normal. The tree
ramifies at a rather low height (Fig. 118 and Fig. 35).
This may account for the system often followed of
letting a sucker grow up, in order to form a second
branch system above the first one.

When new fields are established in Middle Java,
the cocoa is often combined with randoe or " kapok "

408

COCOA

CHAP.

(Eriodendron anfractuosum) or with the Central
American rubber tree (Castilloa elastica). For tem-
porary shade the dadap (Erytlirina lithosperma Miq. =
Eryihrina liypaphorus Boerl.) is often used ; at present,
however, other plants are sometimes preferred, being
less liable to insect pests; the "lamtoro" (Leucaena
glauca) is just now very popular ; here and there the
" toeri " (Sesbania grandiflora) is used, or the " Sengon

FIG. 117. — Cocoa planted in an old coffee field (plantation "Getas").

The shade trees are Albizzia moluccana. On the right of the photograph is to be seen a Liberian
coffee tree, in the centre a young cocoa tree, behind the cocoa tree a nutmeg tree.

laut" (Albizzia moluccana), and sometimes, but rarely,
taro species (Xanthosoma sp.) (Fig. 119).

As regards the height at which cocoa is grown, in
the plains along the sea -coast the results are on the
whole the best. The attacks of the moth are not so
terrible here, in comparison with cocoa grown at some
1000 or 2000 feet above sea-level; the growth is
quicker and the yields are higher. But the number of
cocoa estates in the plains is small, most of the available
land in this region being already occupied by sugar
estates.

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 409

Above 1800 or 2000 feet the growth is still satis-
factory, but the yields are small, and the prolonged
growth makes conditions favourable to the moth. The
cultivation of cocoa is therefore considered not advisable
on lands above 1800 or 2000 feet.

In most cases the nursery system is followed.
Often pots are used for the purpose. Baskets are
generally considered unsuitable, because, when planted

FIG. 118. — Cocoa planted in an old coffee field (plantation ''Getas").

Shade is afforded by Albizzia and "kapok " trees, some of the latter being used as supports

for pepper.

out into the field, the baskets attract white ants, which
begin to devour the baskets, and sometimes afterwards
attack and destroy the young plants. Bamboo pots are
considered more practical ; these are used either in the
ordinary way (see Chapter VI. pp. 133-134) and removed
before planting by splitting them into two parts, or
they are split before, and the parts fastened together
by means of fibre. By this method all injury to the
young plants in splitting the bamboo is avoided (Fig.

4- n \ V O

6).

410

COCOA

CHAP.

A system, as far as I know only used in Java, is
the use of pots made of cow-dung and soil. In different
proportions the ingredients are mixed on the plantations.
One of the most convenient mixtures seems to be :

10 tins of cow-dung.
2 „ black-mould or clayish earth.
2 „ sand.
1 J „ fibre of the areng palm.

FIG. 119.— Young cocoa tree planted in an older cocoa field under the light shade of
" kapok" and temporary shade of taro (plantation "Siloewok Sawangan").

When these ingredients have been well mixed
together with the addition of water, the mixture is put
into a mould made of wood into which is pressed a
block to form the pot. Fig. 120 may give an idea of
the instrument.

The pots freshly made are dried and hardened in
the sun. When dry they are fit for use.

When these "dung-pots" are used in the nursery,
they must be kept under a roof, so as not to be
wetted by rain, and when the plants are watered this
must be done carefully, otherwise the pots break down.

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 411

When the plants are old enough to be planted into
the field, they are left in the "dung-pots" and put
together with these into the plant-hole. When the rains
come and pots and soil are thoroughly wetted, the pots
break down, and the roots of the cocoa plant have no
difficulty in penetrating the pots. Besides, in decom-
posing the pots give food to the young plants.

The only drawback to this system is that the pots
sometimes get too hard because the mixture has been
made with too much clay, or because they have been
dried too much in the sun.

The plant -holes are generally well prepared and
mixed with pen - manure. It is done so at least in

FIG. 120.— Implements used in making "dung-pots."

Th,! tin-plate b is fitted into the hole in a, which is then filled with the mixture. The
instrument c is then put into the hole and turned round, giving the shape. The tin-plate ft
helps to remove the "dung-pot" easily from a.

Middle Java. In this region the soil is not very rich,
perhaps in consequence of the coffee culture, which has
been practised for a hundred years or longer on these
soils. In East Java the soil is more fertile ; sometimes
virgin land is used here, and then the planters simply
loosen the soil a little before the cocoa is planted.

As already mentioned, cocoa culture was started
about 1880. About that time a few plantations in
Middle Java began to plant cocoa on a large scale in
the old cocoa fields ; the plantations " Tlogo," " Getas,"
" Djati Koenggo," all situated near Salatiga, were among
the first.

They all planted with red Criollo cocoa (Fig. 121),
this being the only variety abundant in Java, the yellow
variety being rare. A small cocoa field at the planta-

412 COCOA

CHAP.

tion " Medono " supplied almost all the seed for the new
plantations.

One of the planters of Middle Java, Mr. Henri
MacGillavry, however, was, for different reasons, not
satisfied with this variety, and judging from what he
learnt about the splendid quality and great productivity
of the Venezuelan Caracas cocoa, he expected that this
variety would be better for planting than the " Ked
Java cocoa" (Java Criollo). He tried to get this
Caracas cocoa, and imported in 1888 from Venezuela a

FIG. 121.— Java Criollo.

case with cocoa plants, which he got under the name
" Caracas cocoa." Only two plants arrived alive, and
one of these died soon. The only surviving plant was
planted out on the plantation "Djati Roenggo." It
turned out to be a Forastero variety of an inferior type.
Java may be deemed happy for this mistake of the
Venezuelan correspondent of Mr. MacGillavry. For
if, indeed, plants had been sent of the famous real
"Caracas" variety ("Venezuela Criollo"), this would
have been no acquisition of any value, this variety
being identical, or nearly identical, with Java Criollo.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 413

It may be that the Venezuelan correspondent did
not want to send the valuable type of his country ; at
any rate, the single tree which remained out of the
case from Venezuela proved to be an inferior Forastero,
a Cundeamor type, with small yellow fruits, and flat
beans of a dark violet colour (Fig. 122).1

If the progeny had been of the same quality as
this first Forastero tree, it would have been of little
value for the cocoa culture in Java. This, however,
was not the case. The trees, grown from seeds of
the imported tree, were very different among each
other, but all possessed distinct Criollo characteristics,
together with Forastero characteristics of the mother-
tree.

FIG. 122. — A fruit of the original Forastero tree imported into Java from
Venezuela (after Zehntuer).

The hybridisation was so apparent that Mr. Mac-
Gillavry called the progeniture " Djati Roenggo hybrid
cocoa," a collective name for all the descendants of
the imported Forastero tree of the plantation " Djati
Roenggo."

Like all the hybrids, the " Djati Roenggo " hybrid
is very inconstant, and shows a great variety (Figs.
123, 124). Among the different individuals, all sorts
of combinations of Forastero and Criollo character-
istics are to be found. Some trees (Figs. 124, 125)
have fruits which are hardly to be distinguished from
true Criollo fruits ; others have a clear Cundeamor
type (with a constriction near the stalk) ; some have
large, round beans, others have small, flat beans, etc.

1 Particulars about this introduction are to be found in Archie/ voor den
Landbouw in Insulindc, i. (1901), pp. 23 and 52.

414

COCOA

CHAP.

Generally the planters prefer this Forastero hybrid.
New fields are only in rare cases planted with Criollo ;
and also for supplying in old fields the " Djati Eoenggo "
hybrid is preferred. The growth of Criollo in old
fields is too slow. But the main drawback is its little
resistance against attacks of moth and Helopeltis.
When attacked by Helopeltis, the "Djati Roenggo"
hybrid does not suffer so much, because the dead twigs
are quickly replaced by new ones.

FIG. 123. — A common type of the " Djati Eoenggo" hybrid.

The Criollo characteristics, especially the large round bean, are apparent when compared

with Fig. 122.

Opinions are divided about the yield of both
varieties, but it is generally believed that the " Eed
Java cocoa " (" Java Criollo ") gives under favourable
conditions not a smaller, possibly a higher yield than
the " Djati Roenggo " hybrid.

This corresponds with the growth of both varieties.
Under favourable conditions, as, for instance, on rich,
virgin soil in East Java, the Criollo makes large strong
trees, which are in no respect weaker or smaller than

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 415

the Forastero trees, but on poorer soils the Forastero
shows its greater strength and vitality.

The pure, fine Criollo produce always fetches a
price a little higher than the Forastero, but the

A.

FIG. 124. — Different types of "Djati Roenggo " hybrid.
A. An Angoleta type. B. and C. Cuudeamor types.

difference in the case of produce of good Forastero
types is unimportant.

In addition to the group of " Djati Koenggo "
hybrids and the Java Criollo, a few trees of other

416

COCOA

CHAP.

imported varieties are found. The most remarkable is
a type standing just between a typical Angoleta and
a typical Amelonado, with a thick red fruit-wall and
large round beautiful beans, to be found at the plan-
tation " Assinan," and originally imported by the
Department of Agriculture, probably from Nicaragua
(Fig. 125).

In the old coffee fields the " dadap " (the Erythrina
species above mentioned) was formerly used everywhere

FIG. 125. — The Angoleta type of the plantation "Assinan."

as a shade tree, and it was quite suitable in every
respect. Generally it was planted at distances of
18x24 or 24x24 feet. But different insect pests
attacked this tree many years ago, and the pests have
increased to such an extent that at present the " dadap "
is only used for temporary shade. These enemies are
principally the dadap-bug or dadap-fly (Typlilocybe
erythrinae), which attacks the leaves and causes them
to drop as thrips does, and the dadap-borer, a beetle
(Batocera Hector).

This decay of the dadap has often caused damage

ix COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 417

when it was not quickly replaced by another shade tree.
It is, however, difficult to find a really suitable tree,
and it may be said that at present no shade tree has
been found which in every respect is suitable, like the
dadap before it was ruined by its enemies.

The most popular shade tree at the present time is
perhaps the " derris " (Deguelia microphylla), which
forms high trees with a light shade. In many estates
the results are satisfactory, but in some places the
"derris" seems to have a bad influence on the growth
of the coffee and cocoa. This is not the case with the
" lamtoro " (Leucaena glauca), which is very suitable
in many respects, as well for green manuring as for
permanent shade. In some places, however, this tree
does not grow well.

The quickly -grow ing " sengon laut" (Albizzia
moluccana) would have great advantages, if it were
not so liable to attacks of borers, while the allied
" sengon djawa " (Albizzia stipulata] is a very slow
grower. The " sengon djawa " has also the drawback
of being attacked by scale insects and lice, the excre-
ments of which cause the cocoa trees to be covered
with a black mildew.

Other trees have also been used with more or less
success, for instance Caesalpinia dasyrrliacliis and
Adenanthera pavonina. The Samau (Pithecolobium
Saman) has been tried, but is generally considered
unsuitable, getting too large and giving too dense a
shade.

On the whole the "lamtoro" (Leucaena) seems to
be in most cases the most recommendable. When
planted first at a distance of about 12x12 feet, it may
be thinned out later on, remaining finally 24 x 24.

All these shade trees afford a light shade, and it is
obvious that in Java the shade is much lighter than
on most estates in the American cocoa lands. The
Java planters all agree, however, that a more dense
shade is not recommendable, and would result in small
yields.

2 E

418 COCOA

As to the best planting distances opinions differ.
Often we find the Criollo planted at 12x12 feet,
which is generally a consequence of the gradual
replacing of Liberia coffee, which was planted at that
distance. But this is doubtless too close ; a distance of
15x15 feet is for Criollo more recommendable. For the
Forastero (" Djati Roenggo " hybrid) distances varying
between 12x12 and 18x18 have been adopted. When
the soil is not exceptionally fertile and the trees do
not grow very large, as is the case in Middle Java,
15x15 feet seems to me the best average distance.

When cocoa is not planted in old coffee fields in
Middle Java, it is often interplanted with kapok ; this
crop grows well on moderate altitudes, where the
rainfall is not too heavy. It gives a very light shade.
This, together with the fact that the kapok is not a
leguminous plant and a soil-improver, makes it necessary
to take measures in order to renovate the soil. This
is often forgotten by the cocoa planters. Usually the
cocoa and the kapok are planted at distances of 1 7 x 1 7
in the following manner : —

17 feet

000

1 7 feet -[ , x X X 0 = Cocoa.

*~ I
•0 <S J 0 0 x - Kapok.

The consequence of the interplanting with kapok
is that the soil gets poor, while the growth of the cocoa
is checked. This drawback can easily be avoided by
the use of green manures in the proper way. The
"lamtoro" (Leucaena glg/uca) is very suitable for this
purpose ; it is planted rather densely in rows between
the cocoa and the kapok, as shown below : —

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 419

0 ;

0 \
s
s

0
0

I 0

L

0 Cocoa.

X Kapok.

{ Row of

) "lamtoro."

The great advantage of the " lamtoro " is its remark-
able vegetative power ; it may be pruned every two or
three months, and each time a great amount of leaves
are obtained, which can be used as a green manuring
for the cocoa and the kapok.

Another plan is to plant the cocoa closely and to
thin out later on. A good system is to plant the cocoa
12 x 12- feet, and to thin out afterwards, leaving the
cocoa 12x24 (the kapok 24x24) (Fig. 43, p. 118).
But even when this system is used, the interplanting of
a leguminous plant is advisable.

On some plantations cocoa is successfully planted
with the Central American rubber tree (Castilloa
elastica) (Fig. 45, p. 121). This tree grows remark-
ably well in Middle Java, and it must be admitted that
the cocoa is not checked in its growth or damaged
by the presence of the Castilloa. Still, it seems that
the cocoa does not give as high yields as when grown
under the shade of a leguminous tree. Besides, the shade
given by the Castilloa is rather dense, and a regular
pruning is necessary to prevent the foliage system
getting too dense. It must also not be forgotten that
the Castilloa, like the kapok, is not a leguminous tree,
and misses all the advantages of a real shade tree, like
the Erythrina, the Inga, etc. ; it does not add nitrogen
to the soil, it does not loosen the soil by its roots, and
the leaves are not so useful in affording humus. This
makes it necessary to manure the fields thoroughly by
a humus-forming manure. The dense shade of the
Castilloa does not allow the growth of a leguminous
undercrop, except in the first few years, when cocoa and
Castilloa are young, and it is therefore necessary to use

420 COCOA

CHAP.

pen-manure, ground-nut refuse, rice-straw or another
manure of this kind, which makes the system expensive.
It is still a dubious question whether the interplanting
of Castilloa is advantageous or not ; for the yield of
this rubber tree is small (probably not more than 50 gr.
or 1/10 Ibs. per tree). Much depends on the market
price of rubber.

The planting distance is different on some estates.
In many cases a good system is 24 x 24 feet for
Castilloa and 12 x 18 for cocoa.

Another plant which is often seen in the cocoa fields,
sometimes only in one or two rows along the roads, is
the nutmeg (Fig. 117).

The kapok tree is often used as a support for the
pepper plant (Fig. 118).

In this way the cocoa fields have often become a
sort of " mixtum compositum " of different crops. We
may find combined numerous crops such as cocoa,
coffee, kapok, nutmeg, and pepper, and sometimes
Castilloa, and in such a case the Java planter is not quite
wrong when he calls his plantation " a grocer's shop."
On one of the estates the fields are all surrounded by
kola trees as wind-breaks. This tree is quite suitable
for the purpose, and the nuts pay well, but it has the
drawback of being attacked by the cocoa-moth.

Manuring is sometimes omitted on rich soils. But
on most plantations the soils have been cultivated
with coffee during many years, and it is no longer
possible to obtain a satisfactory growth without
manuring. Where pen -manure is available, this is
always used. It is generally an inferior sort, bought
from the people. If enough can be had, two kerosene
tins are given every year to each cocoa tree (one tin
contains about 30 kilograms of manure).

Most of the estates use only pen-manure, some
others pen-manure and ash, others again use ground-nut
cake or kapok cake, or both together.

On one estate the manager has solved the difficulty
of obtaining a good humus-affording manure by culti-

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 421

vating indigo on separate fields, and using the plants
as manure for the cocoa. This may demonstrate how
badly the necessity of manuring is felt in Java.

Also as regards soil management opinions differ.
This is not to be wondered at, on account of the great
differences existing between the various kinds of soil
in Java. On some estates, especially where the soil is
clayish, it is considered good to give, if possible, every
year a hoeing, but often, especially on stony soils, this
is not considered necessary, while some planters are even
of opinion that cocoa cannot stand a thorough root
pruning.

Not long ago it was a generally adopted system
to allow one sucker under the ramification (Fig. 61,
page 185). It may be considered probable that this
system was in consequence of the low height of the
branching of cocoa trees which had grown up in the old
coffee fields under the light shade of dadap or Albizzia,
without the more dense temporary shade of bananas.

Though the adaptation of this system may have
had some advantages there is no reason to regard it
as a necessity. Two branch- and leaf-systems are thus
formed, the lower one by the ordinary ramification of
the stem, and the upper one by the ramification of one
of the suckers, and in consequence an irregular form of
tree is formed which makes pruning, cleaning, and
treatment against diseases and pests difficult.

The system has therefore been gradually abandoned.
In the younger cocoa fields the ordinary method has
been followed, leaving no root-suckers, so that the
crown of the tree is only formed by the main ramification
of the stem.

As in all countries, pruning is done in different
ways ; on some estates it is not considered necessary,
while on others much care is spent to give a regular form
to the trees and keep the branch system open in centre.

On one estate the old Ecuador system is followed,
and all the suckers which sprout out at the foot
of the stem are left growing. In this way each tree

422 COCOA

CHAP.

has three, four, or five stems (Fig. 60). I cannot,
however, see any advantage in this method, and it has
certainly not been proved that the yield of trees, treated
in this way. is higher.

Flowering goes on on most estates more or less
through the whole year, and the time of the main
blossoming is different on different estates, and shows
also some variability in the following years. Also the
time necessary for the ripening process is not the same
everywhere. Generally speaking, it is shorter in the
plains, where the temperature is high. It takes about
four months and a half there. Up in the mountains,
where the climate is cooler, the ripening takes longer,
about 5 to 5^ months, in some fields even six months.

These circumstances result in that the season of the
main crop is different.

These different conditions are also the cause of the
lack of uniformity in " rampassing " on the different
estates, as we shall show below.

As already mentioned, the cocoa in Java is, probably
more than in any other country, subject to insect
pests.

The two worst enemies are the cocoa-moth and the
Helopeltis ; but in some parts of Middle Java the borers
are terrible enemies, especially the Glenea beetle. In
some plantations the canker does much damage.

These diseases and insect pests have already been
described in Chapter VIII. , and we need not again go
into details here. A few words are desirable as to
their influence upon the crops.

The moth began only to be important about 1895.
Before that time cocoa culture was very remunerative
and high yields were obtained ; yields of 10 pikul (600
kilograms) per bouw (0'7 hectare) (about 750 Ibs. per
acre) were no exception. But since the appearance of
the moth an average yield of five pikul is seldom obtained
(about 400 Ibs. per acre). Not only the yield but also
the quality is much affected by the moth. It is difficult
to estimate what is the total loss caused by the moth, but

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 423

it is estimated to be on an average yearly about fl.150
per bouw (about £7 to £8 per acre).

The moth is to be found in every cocoa field, and
every tree has more or less fruit damaged by this insect,
but in the plains, where the climate is hot, the loss is
not so great as up in the mountains. In the plains
the Helopeltis is the worst enemy.

These two pests dominate the whole system of
cultivation, and their presence must always be taken
into consideration with every cultural measure.

The moth makes it necessary to " rampas " every
year. As shown in Chapter VIII. , this means that
at the right time all the fruits hanging on the trees
are removed and destroyed. The right time of rampass-
ing is difficult to fix, and is a subject of continual
deliberation and discussion. The time of blossoming
and the time of picking depend, again, on the time of
rampassing.

The combating of the Helopeltis also requires much
consideration (see Chapter VIII.).

The borers are present over the whole of Java. On
several estates they are not of much importance, but in
Middle Java near Kendal the damage on some estates is
very important. In this same district rats are now and
then very noxious, while more towards the west, near
Pekalongan, the " badjing," a comparatively large rodent
(Sciurus notatus), is so numerous that a steady fight
is necessary.

The rats are more or less successfully killed by &i
means of poison ; by preference dead crabs treated with
arsenic are used — the smell of the crabs seems to attract
the rats.

In East Java, principally in fields situated at a short
distance from the forest, pigs and a small species of
deer, called "kidang" (Gervulus muntjak\ are some-
times troublesome ; in rare cases also a larger species of
deer (Cervus russa).

When the fruit is healthy, not attacked by moth,
2500 to 3000 fruits are necessary to obtain 1 pikul

424 COCOA

CHAP.

(50 kilog.) of marketable cocoa, or 40 to 50 fruits for

1 kilogram. Criollo and Forastero of fine type seem to
behave about the same in this respect.

The Criollo is generally fermented during lj? days,

2 days, or 2^ days ; every day the cocoa is turned over
once or twice.

The Forastero cocoa is generally fermented a little
longer ; but here also the methods are not always the
same.

The washing also is done in different ways.

On one of the Criollo growing estates which makes
a produce of a very fine quality the following method
is used :—

First day : the cocoa is put in the fermentation box
at about three o'clock in the afternoon. Second day :
early in the morning it is turned over into the second
box, in the evening it is turned over into the third box.
Third day : the beans are washed in the morning, and in
the evening they are put in fresh water and left there
until the following morning, when they are washed
again and dried.

Leaving the cocoa during a whole night in the
water is necessary, in order to wash off the rest of the
pulp which is still adhering in consequence of the short
fermentation (1^ days).

When the Criollo is fermented one day longer,
washing once is sufficient ; but the longer fermenta-
tion gives a darker colour and often a less equable colour
of the produce.

The following is the method more generally adopted :
The cocoa is turned over either once or twice a day.
Thus the cocoa placed in the afternoon of the first day
in the first box, is turned over in the morning of the
second day into the second box, the next morning into
the third box, and is removed in the morning of the fourth
day. It is well washed in running water, and dried.

The Criollo is always fermented in large open boxes
in low heaps or layers. The temperature is not allowed
to rise above 50° or 55° C.

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 425

The Forastero is often covered with bags during
fermentation, which lasts 2^ to 3^ days, and is turned
over once, or sometimes twice, a day.

Drying is done as far as possible in the sun (Fig.
126), and in drying houses, as described in Chapter VII.
The temperature is on some estates kept at 55° to 60°,
on others at 60° to 70°.

Sorting is always done carefully. \

The Java cocoa has a feeble aroma, but some estates

FIG. 126. — Drying cocoa on bamboo trays.

Photo. Roepke.

make a produce of rather a nice flavour. The bitter
principle is little developed. Its main good quality,
however, is its light colour. This makes it much in
demand for mixing with other kinds of cocoa in order
to obtain a light-coloured chocolate. For this purpose
it is an advantage that its aroma and taste are feeble.

For the first quality high prices are paid (see
Chapter X.), but much inferior cocoa is produced from
the pods which have been attacked by moths.

All the Java cocoa is shipped to Amsterdam, and

426

COCOA

CHAP.

sold on public auction by the brokers for each plantation
separately.

The exports (in kilograms) amounted to :

EXPORTS FROM JAVA

1884
1887
1890
1895
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904

Kilog.

12,100

1905

23,300

1906

150,000

1907

920,400

1908

1,266,100

1909

1,200,600

1910

827,800

1911

1,380,400

1912

977,400

Kilog.

1,030,100
1,815,800
1,750,200
2,278,200
2,367,300
2,478,900
2,360,300
2,033,400

From the other islands of the Archipelago
exports in the last twelve years were as follows :—

the

Celebes.

Sumatra.

Makassar.

Menaclo.

Ternate.

Amboina.

West.

East.

Bali.

Tot/ft !•

1900

9,300

58,407

2,285-

6,190

76,200

1901

19,132

39,008

896

7,000

-

66,100

1902

3,500

51,783

444

6,355

95

62,200

1903

6,665

76,026

1,736

4,500

278

50

89,300

1904

5,351

27,684

292

6,078

200

135

850

40,600

1905

5,766

31,866

10,016

445

141

5,267

53,500

1906

493

24,976

124

8,088

360

34,000

1907

102

57,547

106

7,745

295

65,800

1908

70,890

75

295

1,588

80,500

1909

357

30,050

1,600

41,000

1910

580

39,032

2,650

250

48,400

1911

8,375

16,431

9,398

4,460

38,664

1912

14,012

34,604

10,248

5,030

63,894

i

XII. JAMAICA

Cocoa was already cultivated in Jamaica at the time
the English conquered the island from the Spaniards
(1655). The industry experienced many ups and downs,
and did not acquire a great importance.

The present situation of the cocoa industry has been
obtained in the course of the last forty years ; from

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 427

1875 up to the present time a gradual increase and
extension has taken place, and the exports, amounting
to about 20,000 kilograms in 1875, have steadily in-
creased till 1912, in which year 3,400,000 kilograms
were exported.

The exports were as follows : —

Kilog.

1894 . . . 650,000

1898 . . . 1,000,000

1900 : . . 1,200,000

1901 . . . 1,350,000

1902 . . . 1,525,000

1903 . . . 1,696,700

1904 . . . 1,650,000

1905 1,357,600

Kilog.

1906 . . . 2,505,600

1907 . . . 2,218,700

1908 . . . 2,694,400

1909 . . . 3,214,100

1910 . . . 1,743,100

1911 . . . 2,783,000

1912 . . 3,400,000

Though these figures indicate that the cocoa industry
is not unimportant in Jamaica, the increase must be
considered as slow. The position of the cocoa culture
in this Colony was well described by Mr. Wm. Fawcett
at the Agricultural Conference in Trinidad in 1905.
Mr. Fawcett said :

The cacao industry in Jamaica is of considerable importance,
although rather overshadowed by the banana industry. Therefore
we do not look upon it as you do in Trinidad and Grenada, as one
of our great industries ; it is rather a subsidiary industry in
Jamaica : but I hope it will become in time one of our great
industries. The reason why it has not advanced quicker is that
the banana has been so very important. But now the planters,
seeing the bad effects of hurricanes, are gradually beginning to
plant their estates with cacao, and some have converted their
banana estates altogether into cacao estates.

The increase in the cultivation of cocoa has been
simultaneous with the extension of the banana industry.
This industry is the most important of all in Jamaica,
and the island owes to the banana the revival of its
agriculture after the decline of the sugar industry.

In fields where the bananas have been cultivated
for many years in succession, and do no longer yield a
paying crop, interplanting with cocoa has often been suc-
cessful. The bananas give a temporary shade to the

428 COCOA CHAP.

young cocoa, and are removed after some three years
when the shade trees have grown up.

It must, however, not be forgotten that bananas,
when planted for exporting the bunches, must be grown
in a different way than when planted as temporary shade.
In this last-mentioned case care must be taken that
the shade is not too dense, and when the cocoa and
the permanent shade trees get older, the bananas must
be removed gradually. It seems that this has not
always been done in Jamaica.

The planting, in time, of trees for permanent shade
is another matter which has not always been practised
in the right way. The absence of shade trees, at the
time they are needed, is in Jamaica more prejudicial
to the cocoa than in other countries, because strong
winds are not rare> and even hurricanes occur now and
then. Only in suitable and sheltered places can cocoa
be grown in Jamaica, as in other countries, without
shade, as on the north side of the island here and there.

The hurricanes make the question of shelter-belts
of great importance.

The types of cocoa grown belong to the Forastero
variety, as in all the other Antilles. Of the enemies,
the borer is to be considered the worst ; damage is also
experienced from the black rot of pods and the canker
disease.

In Jamaica the aversion of the negro and mulatto
population to field work on plantations is the same as
in Trinidad and in Guiana. The descendants of slaves
who were imported in former centuries prefer to work
hard during a few days of the week and rest the other
days, rather than devote themselves to daily, regular
plantation work. Though labourers are present in
sufficient numbers, Jamaica has been obliged, like
Trinidad and Guiana, to introduce British East Indians.
The opportunity offered by the Panama Canal to earn
high wages makes many of the natives emigrate. So
we find in Jamaica, side by side, emigration of the black
population and immigration of British East Indians.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 429

Agricultural labour, however, is not everywhere
deficient.1 In the districts devoted to cattle-raising,
and where land is very largely partitioned among small
settlers, labour is at least equal to the demand. In
areas where large sugar factories exist, and where fruit
cultivation (especially banana cultivation) is carried on
on a large scale, the deficiency in labour must be made
up by immigration.

XIII. CUBA

From the beginning of the nineteenth century cocoa
has been cultivated. The local consumption is im-
portant, and not until 1850 was cocoa exported. In
1857 the export amounted to about 491,000 kilograms.

Civil war hindered for a long time the development
of the industry, which made again a fresh start about
1880. Since that time a slow and irregular increase
has been noticeable ; the highest amount was exported
in 1906 (3,272,000 kilograms).

The fact that the sugar-cane cultivation occupies
the chief interest of the planters may be a cause of
hindrance to the development of the cocoa industry,
but greater influences are certainly the irregularity of
the seasons and the long periods of drought. The
years 1907 and 1908 were in this respect very un-
favourable, and the consequence was a decrease of
the exports to 1,713,800 kilograms in 1907 and to
862,600 kilograms in 1908.

Cocoa is especially cultivated in the east and in the
central parts of the island. The province Oriente is the
most important cocoa district ; next to it come the
provinces Santa Clara and Camaguez.

The exports amounted to :

Kilog.

Kilog.

1895 .

. 1,345,-000

1902 .

. 1,875,000

1900 .

. 1,671,200

1903 .

. 2,540,100

1901 .

. 1,750,000

1904 .

. 2,697,000

1 Agricultural Labour Conditions in Jamaica, by M. A. H. Miles, Collector-
General (edited by the Association Internat. d'Agric. Tropicale) (1910).

430 COCOA

CHAP.

Kilog.

1905 . . . 1,767,700

1906 . . - . . 3,272,000

1907 . . . 1,713,800

1908 . . . 827,000

Kilog.

1909 . . 1,940,000

1910 . . . 1,412,000

1911 . . . 1,251,000

1912 . . . 2,000,000

XIV. HAITI

Cocoa culture has been practised in Haiti for a long
time. With Trinidad it is the oldest cocoa country of
the Antilles. The Spaniards began to plant cocoa on
this island in the sixteenth century.

But it would seem that Haiti was predestined to be
visited by wars and revolutions.

It was the disturbed condition of the country after
the war with France in 1664 that caused the first
decline in cocoa cultivation ; but later, on the excep-
tionally fertile soil, it was started again.

In the beginning of the eighteenth century — in
1716 — a hurricane devastated the cocoa fields, as well
as the houses ; but gradually the culture was re-estab-
lished, and at the end of the eighteenth century the
export amounted to about 300,000 kilograms.

From that time the industry continued more or less
successfully. Periods of gradual extension were followed
by wars or revolutions, which devastated in a short
time what had been built up by several years' work.

So in 1789 the export was reduced to 75,000 kilo-
grams ; gradually it increased till, in 1801, it amounted
to 270,000 kilograms; in 1819 it was again reduced to
100,000 kilograms; but in 1824 the figure of 250,000
kilograms was reached. In 1828 it was reduced again
to 37,000 kilograms. From this time a more regular
increase began, as is shown by the following figures : —

Kilog.

1836 . . . 225,000

1843 . . . 350,000

1858 . . . 728,000

1862 . . . 871,000

1880 . . . 1,365,000

1894 . . . 1,000,000

Kilog.

1896 . . . 1,682,000

1898 . . . 1,621,000

1900 . . . 2,112,000

1901 . . . 1,950,000

1902 . . . 1,990,000

1903 . . . 2,175,000

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 431

Kilog.

1904 . . . 2,531,000

1905 . . . 2,162,000

1906 . . . 1,820,000

1907 . . . 2,226,000

1908 . . . 2,709,000

Kilog.

1909 . . . 2,122,000

1910 . . . 1,851,000

1911 . . . 1,485,000

1912 . . . 2,000,000

The principal ports from which cocoa is shipped are
Jeremie, Cape Haytien, Gonaives, and Port-au-Prince.

A few large plantations are in the hands of German
planters, but most of them are small and belong to the
negroes, who form the mass of the population.

The island could certainly be of much more im-
portance from the cocoa point of view. It is considered
to be very fertile, and all the natural conditions seem
to favour the culture ; but the incapable administration
and the repeated revolutions have long since proved
that the people cannot govern themselves. The export
figures show that, though there has not been an
important reduction of the crop during the last ten
years, still a material increase has not been made.

As regards quality, the Haiti cocoa belongs to the
inferior kinds.

XV. FERNANDO Po1

The introduction of the cocoa plant into Fernando
Po — a Spanish possession — dates from the sixteenth or
seventeenth century, but only towards the end of the
nineteenth century did the cocoa industry begin to be
of importance.

Cocoa is chiefly cultivated in the coast districts.
In the interior no regular plantations are to be found,
and the virgin forest is inhabited by the natives, who
cultivate in a primitive way bananas and the oil-palm.

No large rogas are to be found here as in San Thome ;
the comparatively small plantations are mostly in the
hands of Spaniards, Portuguese, German, and English
planters.

1 Chevalier, Le Cacaoyer dans I' Quest africain, p. 209.

432 COCOA

CHAP.

As in San Thome the labour question is a difficult
one. Formerly the natives of the Gold Coast and
Lagos came in sufficient numbers to Fernando Po and
made a contract for two years. But the Governments
of the countries mentioned have checked this exodus,
judging it better to have these labourers growing cocoa
in their own country. At the present time the
Portuguese and Spaniards employ principally people
from Liberia and from the island of Bubis.

The methods of cultivation are about the same as in
San Thome.

The produce is almost entirely exported to the
mother-country Spain.

The amounts exported were as follows : l —

Kilog.

1902 ... . 1,198,600

1903 . . . . 1,499,000

1904 . . . 2,010,800

1905 . . . "1,862,900

1906 . . . 1,557,900

1907 ; . \ . 2,438,900

Kilog.

1908 . . . 2,267,200

1909 . . . 2,669,000

1910 . . . 2,349,000

1911 . . . 3,000,000

1912 . . . 2,300,000

XVI. SURINAM

Surinam is one of the old cocoa countries.

It is said that in 1684 Chevalier de Chatillon
brought the first plants from the Orinoco Valley to
Surinam, and in the beginning of the eighteenth century
the first plantations were started.

The first exports were made in 1725. Gradually the
exports increased and amounted to 180,000 kilograms
in the middle of the eighteenth century, and to about
230,000 kilograms in 1790.

The first part of the nineteenth century was an
unfortunate time for this colony, and, like other in-
dustries, the cocoa industry went backward. In the
middle of the century, however, the cocoa culture became
more important — partly in consequence of a large demand

1 Gordian, February 18, 1910, and September 19, 1912.

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 433

from America, partly because of the decline of the sugar
industry, causing several sugar plantations to be turned
into cocoa.

From this time the area devoted to cocoa was
gradually extended and the exports increased again,
reaching in 1870 the amount of 500,000 kilograms, in
1880 about one million kilograms, and in 1895 about 4^
million kilograms (4,456,300 kilograms).

At that time the disease known as " witch-broom "
(" krulloten ziekte ") began to attract attention, and
year after year the damage experienced was greater.
The exports decreased, and in 1904 not more than
854,000 kilograms were exported. This was the most
critical year ; since then there has been an increase,
the exports reaching in 1910, 2,042,500 kilograms. The
exceptional drought in 1911 caused again a decline in
1911 and 1912.

The exact export figures are as follows : —

Produced by the

Produced by the small

Total amount of

plantations.

proprietors.

export.

Kilog.

Kilo-.

Kilog.

1893

2,788,000

701,000

3,489,000

1894

2,645,600

603,500

3,249,100

1895

3,166,100

1,290,200

4,456,300

1896

2,440,500

862,000

3,302,500

1897

2,829,200

753,000

3,582,200

1898

2,218,700

611,700

2,830,400

1899

3,395,800

464,100

3,859,900

1900

1,863,900

1,063,300

2,927,200

1901

2,384,000

779,400

3,163,400

1902

1,683,300

671,800

2,355,100

1903

1,353,500

861,100

2,214,600

1904

487,500

366,500

854,000

1905

916,400

765,400

1,681,800

1906

792,500

678,000

1,470,500

1907

912,000

713,200

1,625,200

1908

932,000

767,200

1,699,200

1909

1,143,200

754,300

1,897,500

1910

?

?

2,042,500

1911

?

?

1,565,000

1912

I

?

1,000,000

2 F

434 COCOA

We may expect that the production will rise again,
since a remedy has been found for the witch-broom
disease. The conditions of soil and climate are suitable
for cocoa culture, and before the witch-broom disease
reduced the yield per acre to 30 kilograms or even less,
cocoa-growing was a very paying business in Surinam.

In some respects, however, the conditions make the
work in this colony more difficult than in other cocoa-
growing countries.

Every one who visits Surinam for the first time is
surprised to see plantations established on alluvial
soil, near the sea and on sea-level, each plantation
surrounded by a strong embankment, to protect it from
being flooded, and provided with a wide system of
draining canals.

Preuss wrote in his book : l

In opening this country, the Dutch have accomplished an
extraordinarily difficult and a splendid work. Perhaps no other
people would have had the courage as well as the ability to drain
the whole country by an extensive system of canals, and to protect
it by means of strong embankments, with sluices, from being
flooded by the sea or by flood-waters.

Indeed, this circumstance makes agriculture in
Surinam a difficulty unknown in other countries.

All the plantations, with the exception of two or
three, are situated along the rivers (Fig. 127) : the
greatest number is to be found along the Commewijne
Kiver ; a good number are situated along the Surinam
Eiver, and a few along the Saramacca, the Cottica, the
Nickerie and the Para Kivers.

These rivers are all broad and slow-flowing streams
and subject to the tide-movement of the sea. The differ-
ence in height between high-tide and low-tide measures
about 4 feet when neap-tide, 8 feet when spring-tide.
With high-tide the level of the river is above the level
of the plantations ; with low-tide it is under this level.

It is therefore clear that every plantation must be

1 Preuss, Expedition, p. 13.

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 435

surrounded by a strong embankment to prevent the
water of the river flooding the cocoa fields at high-tide :
an accident which would have very serious results,
because the river - water is brackish near the sea,
where the plantations are situated, and in time of
drought even salt. The front embankment has to
keep away the river-water, while it is the task of the
back embankment (or " back-dam " as it is sometimes
called) to keep away the bush- water or swamp- water
behind the plantation, which rises in the rainy season to a

FIG. 127. — Plantation in Surinam (plantation " Vredeuburg").

considerable height. When the rainfall is exceptionally
heavy, a break in the back-dam sometimes occurs ; this
is always a serious thing, which needs immediate repair
to avoid the loss of the low-lying fields.

The planter must therefore never forget to keep his
embankments in good order. But a matter of still
greater care, and which needs constant attention, is the
drainage.

In these low-lying lands there is no natural drainage
as in those countries where cocoa fields are situated
on the slopes of the mountains, and the planter in

436

COCOA

CHAP.

Surinam must get rid of the superfluous water by
means of an elaborate system of canals (Fig. 128) which
communicate with the river by means of a sluice (Fig.
129). The sluice is closed at high-tide ; at ebb-tide,
when the water is sufficiently low, the sluice is opened
and the water flows from the plantation through the
main canal into the river.

The soil is a very heavy clay soil of a compact

Sluice

River
FIG. 128. — Scheme of a Surinam plantation, with its drainage system.

a. Scheme of the whole plantation.

b. Details of the drainage.

consistency. It slowly gives away the rain-water it
has absorbed, and consequently the number of drain-
ing canals must be great. Generally the distance
between two canals is not more than about 30 feet
(10 metres) ; when the distance is greater, the centre
of the bed between the canals is insufficiently drained.

Thus the whole plantation is divided into beds,
about 30 feet broad, and separated by small drains
about 3 feet wide and 2 feet deep, called "small

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 437

trenches" (Fig. 130). The small trenches are not
allowed to be longer than about 150 metres; they end
into a common canal (draining canal of the second
order), generally 4 to 5 feet deep and about 5 feet broad,
called " trekker," which means "puller" — this canal
pulling the water from the small trenches into the
main trench.

Generally the arrangement is as indicated in Fig. 128,

FIG. 129.— Sluice of the main drainage canal (plantation " Vredeuburg ").
The sluice is opened (drawn up) and the water is running under the sluice-gate to the river.

with a main trench running on each side of the planta-
tion ; the two main trenches meet behind the front
embankment and run together into the canal in which
the sluice is built.

As mentioned, the sluice is opened in the rainy
season at every low-tide, therefore twice a day. When
the rains are no longer heavy it is only opened when it
seems necessary, and in the dry season the sluice remains
closed all the time, and is even calked in order to prevent
the inflow of river-water, which is very brackish at this

438

COCOA

CHAP.

time of the year.1 Often for the same purpose a dam
is made behind the sluice in the main trench, which
dam is removed when the rain comes.

Sometimes a large trap-door sluice is used, which
opens only towards the river : when the river sinks, the
water in the main trench thrusts open the door of
the trap-door sluice and runs out ; when the river rises
again, it closes the door. Though these trap -door
sluices do not need constant watching to be opened at

FIG. 130. — A small trench separating two beds (plantation " Susannasdaal ").

low-tide and closed at high-tide, they cannot be wholly
left alone, and special care must be taken that no drift-
wood or waterweeds come between the sluice-door and
the sluice, which would allow the brackish water at
high-tide to run into the main trench.

It will be clear that the building of the embankment
and the sluice, but still more the digging of the drainage
system, means an enormous expense. For a plantation

1 In Bulletin No. 13 of the Department of Agriculture in Surinam the
Government analyst, Dr. Sack, gives figures of the amount of salt contained in
the river-water of different rivers at high-tide and low-tide in the different
months.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 439

like the one in Fig. 128, this expense under present
labour conditions may be estimated to be about f. 3 6, 000
(£3000), while the building of the sluice involves an ex-
pense of about f.12,000 to f.18,000 (£1000 to £1500).1

In the old time of slavery a great amount of work
of this sort was done by the slaves, arid the establish-
ment of the plantations dates from that time. It is
questionable if it would pay at the present time — even
when we eliminate the influence of the witch-broom
disease — to establish a cocoa plantation where the
whole drainage system has to be laid out. But this
is seldom necessary. The number of plantations,
abandoned after the abolition of slavery, was com-
paratively large, and when one desires to start a new
plantation it would be possible to obtain an abandoned
one, which would have more or less useful portions of
old embankments and drainage works.

Not only the establishment of the drainage system
is expensive, the upkeep also requires annually a large
sum, which has not to be spent in other countries
where there is a natural drainage. For a plantation
of some 300 acres this yearly expense is at least f.1200
(£100), including repair of sluices.

Against this drawback Surinam has compensations.
There is a rich soil, which gives very fair returns and
— a great advantage — easy means of communication
along the rivers of the plantations with the port of
shipment at Paramaribo.

All transport takes place along the river, and the
tide-movement is of great use. Without any special

1 For the reader who takes an interest in drainage works the following
specification of labour expenses may be given here : —

DIGGING OP EMBANKMENTS AND TRENCHES FOR A PLANTATION OF 300 ACRES.

Front embankment (600 metres) . . . f. 1,800

Side embankments (4000 metres) . . . 8,000

Back embankment (600 metres) .... 1,200

Digging of the main trench (5200 metres long) . 10,800

Digging of the navigation trench (2000 metres) . 4, 000

Digging of the pulling trenches .... 2,700

Digging of the small trenches . . . • ... 6,000

Total cost of digging work . . f. 34, 500, or about £3000.

440 COCOA

CHAP.

moving power, boats and even open punts can go to
and fro to town, making use of the tide-movement of
the river, going down the river with the ebb-tide and
up the river with the flood-tide.

This makes the transport of the crop to Para-
maribo, as well as the conveyance of implements and
other goods from the town, very cheap and easy, and
the cocoa-planter is in this respect in a much better
position here than in other countries, where all the
goods have to be carried by mule-carts to and from
the plantation, often across mountains.

All the plantations are situated along the coast zone
on the heavy clay, which is brought there by the sea.
The origin of this clay is to be found in Brazil : the
Amazon throws constantly an enormous amount of
mud into the ocean, and the current which runs along
that part of the coast of South America carries it to
the coast of Surinam.

This sea-clay, which constitutes the soil of almost
all the plantations — here and there a sand-ridge runs
through the clay — is a heavy but a rich soil. In the
rainy season it is very slippery, while it is very hard
and cracks deeply in the dry season.

Of the many analyses one may be mentioned, made
by Professor Harrison in Demerara. This soil can be
regarded as being of an average constitution : —

Organic matters and combined water . . 15-452

Phosphoric anhydride . . . . . 0-139

Sulphuric anhydride . . . . • 0*047

Chlorine ....... trace

Iron peroxide . . . . . . 5*952

Alumina . . . ... . . 16-076

Manganese oxide . . . . . . nil

Calcium oxide . . . . . .0-495

Calcium carbonate ...... nil

Magnesium oxide . . . . . . TO 71

Potassium oxide . . . . . . 1-072

Sodium oxide 0*258

Insoluble silicate and silicates .... 59-438

100-000
Containing nitrogen ..... 0'306

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 441

The chemical composition is remarkable for its very
high amount of potassium oxide (about 1 per cent) and
for the total absence of calcium carbonate (carbonate of
lime). Also the high percentage of iron is remarkable.
As regards the absence of carbonate of lime, attention
has often been drawn to this fact, and it has been
supposed that it may be the cause of various undesirable
facts, as, for instance, the extraordinary stiffness of the
soil, or the unsatisfactory growth of some crops, or the
presence of diseases in the cocoa. But the addition
of carbonate of lime or lime oxide has never had the
effect expected. For the cocoa tree such an addition
has always turned out to be quite useless. The cocoa
tree seems to find in the soil enough lime in another
form.

However this may be, the soil is certainly very suit-
able for cocoa-growing. For years and years cocoa may
be cultivated on it without any manuring and without
showing any decline in yield.

Moreover, manuring with chemical manures such as
basic slag, superphosphate, gypsum, guano, has always
had as little success as manuring with lime.

The stiffness of the soil and its little porosity allows
the air to penetrate only to a rather low depth, and only
the surface, to a depth of 2 feet or '2Jr feet, is sufficiently
aerated to be suitable for the growth of the roots of the
cocoa tree.

Thus the cocoa tree has developed into a " surface
feeder." The opinion expressed in so many handbooks
that the cocoa tree needs a deep soil to develop
its tap-root, is therefore not strictly correct. In
soils the cocoa tree grows successfully with only
superficially developed root system. In Surinam a
tap-root is only present in young trees.

Another thing which can be seen in Surinam is
the remarkable amount of salt in the soil which a
cocoa tree can stand.

Several small proprietors who have their grounds
near the river are only partially protected against the

442

COCOA

CHAP.

brackish water of the river : through the primitive
sluices or through holes in the front embankment, often
this water comes constantly into their cultivations.
But nevertheless the cocoa grows well.

It must, however, be pointed out that in these
places the cocoa is accustomed to grow in a brackish
soil from its early infancy. When, however, in a
regular, well-drained plantation, well protected against
the river-water, brackish water enters accidentally into
the cultivation, the cocoa tree, accustomed to grow in
a soil with very little salt, begins at once to suffer.

The rainfall in Surinam amounts to about 2100
to 2300 mm. per annum. The average rainfall in the
different months for eleven years (1899-1909) was as
follows (in millimetres) : —

Jan.

Feb.

March.

April.

May. June.

July. Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Total.

220

182

221

240

316 ; 293

219 142

70

66

122

220

2311

The months of May and June are always very wet,
and in April and July sometimes the rainfall is also
heavy ; in August the rainy season gradually ends with
a few heavy showers, generally accompanied by thunder-
storms and heavy winds, while September and October
are dry ; in November rains begin to fall again, and in
December the whole vegetation looks fresh, with new
leaves as in spring-time. January till April is a very
unreliable season. This is the coolest time of the
year : the night temperature is sometimes as low as
20° C. (68° F.), and the climate in these months is
delicious. In the dry season, however, it is generally
very hot, the thermometer sometimes indicating 35° C.
(95° F.) in the shade.

In the dry season the shade trees (the so-called

" Koffiemama " or Erytlirina glauca) drop their leaves

—a useful, habit, resulting in a very little evaporation

of these trees and an inconsiderable absorption of water

from the soil by their roots. Another good result is the

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 443

abundant flowering of the cocoa tree. From this time
flowering goes on till the heavy rains come in May
and June. The cocoa tree needs in Surinam about four
months and a half to ripen its fruit ; accordingly, the
trees begin to bear about January or February, while the
main crop generally comes in the months of April, May,
June, July, while in the end of the year again a little
is picked. But there are exceptions to this rule : on
some plantations, for instance, the crop is always late,
and the main crop is not reaped before June and July.

The following figures may give an idea of the amounts
reaped in the different months. They indicate the quan-
tities (in kilograms) sold to the local merchants : —

1909.

1910.

January

12,100

12,400

February

24,900

15,600

March

61,400

36,800

April .

126,400

295,800

May .

624,900

336,000

June .

568,300

500,900

July .

229,000

354,300

August

95,300

165,400

September .

59,200

76,000

October

36,600

82,700

November .

32,500

89,100

December

23,600

77,400

Total .

1,897,200

2,042,500

The number of the original inhabitants — the Indians

—is so small that these people are of no significance

from an economical point of view, and in old times an

important slave-trade was necessary to import every

year the number of slaves required for the plantations.

After the emancipation of slaves in 1863 the planta-
tions had to look for other people to get the work done ;
for the negroes, now free, refused to work any longer
in the fields.

444 COC,OA

CHAP.

An attempt to employ Barbadians and Chinese was
not a success, and it was proposed to make a trial with
British East Indians, who had already shown in Trinidad
and Demerara to be good workmen. For this purpose
the Dutch Government made a contract with the
English Government, and an immigration law was
established.

This immigration of East Indians — begun in 1873
—has been in many respects successful ; these people,
good labourers, are diligent and very thrifty. The
only drawback is that they are rather suspicious and
easily upset. Murders are not rare occurrences among
them, and more than one planter has been killed by his
East Indian people, sometimes for trifling grievances.

In 1896 the Government began also to introduce
Javanese labourers. These are in many respects
superior to the East Indians. They have a natural
instinct for garden work, and on the plantations they
are splendid for all work which requires special care
and skill, as, for instance, pruning, and collecting noxious
insects. But also for clearing the forest the Javanese
are very useful labourers. It is true that money is
not such an important matter to the Javanese, and
money cannot induce him, like the East Indian, to
work day and night in case the manager thinks it desir-
able. It is, however, a great advantage to the planter
to work with people not only quiet and easily satis-
fied, but also steady and skilled workmen. This is the
reason why at present the Javanese immigrant is
generally preferred to the East Indian.

The Government settled what is to be considered
as a day's task, as well in digging work, forking of the
soil, and weeding, as in all other work to be done on
the plantation, and while the planter binds himself to
pay to the immigrant or " contract labourer " for the
day's task 60 cents (1 sh.), to give him a house, and
medical help in case of illness, the contract labourer is
bound to perform each day at least a day's task.

The control of the immigration, the treatment of

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 445

the immigrants on the plantations, the hospitals, and
the houses, gives the Government in Surinam a lot
of trouble, and is entrusted to a special Department of
Immigration. In this way an absolute guarantee is
obtained as well by the planter as by the immigrant.

This system has made agriculture possible after the
emancipation of the slaves. It is true that the labour
obtained in this way is not cheap, the building and
upkeep of hospitals and houses and the nursing of
the sick people require much money, but we must not
forget that in many countries of South and Central
America labour is still more expensive, and high wages
have to be paid up to a dollar a day.

Some idea of the wages may be gathered from the
following examples : for digging work about f. 1 is
paid per 3000 cubic feet, forking about f.15 per acre,
weeding about f.4, hoeing about f.6, clearing the bush
about f.16, clearing the virgin forest about f.32 per
acre (f.l = ls. 8d.).

In one respect the East Indian is much superior
to the Javanese : he is more successful as an independ-
ent labourer. After the expiration of the contract the
Government gives many facilities to the men who want
to remain in Surinam to settle as small proprietors.
Many an East Indian has settled in this way and is
now a successful small proprietor. The Javanese, how-
ever, have in this respect not the same skill and assiduity
as the British Indians. But still a certain number of
Javanese have latterly settled as small proprietors.

In bringing new land into cultivation, land is chosen
by preference on which in old times coffee or sugar has
been cultivated and which is covered with secondary
bush (" kapoewirie "). Much of the old drainage system
is still present in such fields, and this makes the digging
work less expensive than when virgin land has to be
cleared and all the small trenches and " pullers " and
part of the main trench have to be dug.

The clay-soil, already described, is rather uniform,
but nevertheless it is in some places more productive

446 COCOA CHAP.

than in others, and it is not everywhere of the same
compactness. The presence of wild -growing plants
belonging to the Musa family (family of bananas, etc.)
is generally regarded as a proof of fertility, also the
occurrence of certain palm species, as the " palisade
palm " (Euterpe oleracea) and the royal palm (Orcodoxa
regia), while other plants are regarded as indicating a
less suitable soil.

When the forest has been cleared, the wood is
arranged into rows running longitudinally in the middle
of the beds, leaving at each side place to plant one
or two rows of bananas or plantains, which are the
temporary shade plants commonly used (Figs. 131, 132,
and Fig. 36). Generally, the rows of wood are slightly
burned ; a too heavy fire is undesirable and spoils the
soil.

Sometimes, however, one crop of corn (maize) is
grown immediately after clearing the forest. Among
small proprietors this is a general practice.

Formerly the plantain1 was cultivated during a
few years before the cocoa was planted. This was a
very paying crop, because the plantain together with
salt fish was the food of the people ; the negroes cannot
do without it, and not less than about f.l (is. 8d.) was
paid for one bunch.

In those days the planter sometimes got, in the
first years after clearing, a return from his plantains
as remunerative as later from his cocoa.

The plantains were generally planted at a distance
of 8 to 10 feet. But plantains cannot be cultivated
during many years ; after a few crops, generally after
two or three years, the bunches begin to get very
small. Before that time, cocoa and shade trees were

1 As to the difference between the plantain and the banana there is some-
times some misunderstanding. It may therefore be pointed out here, that the
plantain is the variety which is never eaten raw, but always boiled or baked
in ripe or unripe condition ; in several parts of South America the plantain is
much appreciated by the people and always higher prices are paid for it than
tor the banana, which is eaten raw, more as a fruit than as a food. It is rather
confusing that in Surinam the name for the plantain is " banaan" or " banan,"
while the name for the banana is "bacove,"

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 447

planted between them, and, where it seemed neces-
sary, the easily growing apple-banana or fig-banana was
planted as temporary shade.

Plantain-growing, however, is no longer so paying as
it was some years ago. The number of small proprietors
has increased, and the plantains are no longer so scarce.
Besides, the people are gradually using more rice for
their food. Now not more than 15 cents (3d.) is paid
for a bunch of plantains.

FIG. 131. — Young cocoa under temporary shade of plantains.

The field belongs to a small proprietor ; the shade is rather dense ; fruit trees have been

interplanted.

At the present time the banana is more used for
temporary shade than before. Since 1906 the " Gros
Michel " or " Jamaica variety " has been grown for export
of the fruits. This makes banana-growing more paying
than it was formerly when the fruits had practically very
little value, being only saleable on the local market
(Fig. 132).1

1 Since this chapter was written the banana industry has met with much
difficulty in Surinam, in consequence of the so-called "Panama disease." At
present (January 1914) there is no export of bananas of any importance.

448

COCOA

CHAP.

Bananas are in one respect more suitable for tempor-
ary shade because they are easier grown than the
plantains ; they grow for many years without showing
a decline in growth on the same field, while plantains
begin to get weak, sometimes after having given only
one or two crops.

This is especially the case when they have not been
cultivated carefully, as often happens on the grounds
of small owners ; and here the drawback mentioned has

FIG. 132. — Cocoa just planted out between "Gros Michel" bananas.

often been badly felt. Often the plantain begins to
decline rather suddenly before the shade trees have
grown large enough to give sufficient shade. Some-
times also the small proprietor is careless, and waits too
long before planting the shade trees (Fig. 133 and
Fig. 37).

The consequence is that the young cocoa is left
suddenly without shade ; and this has often been the
cause of the death of many young cocoa trees.

This fault is easily avoided when not only plantains
are planted but also bananas ; and it has been the object

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 449

of the Department of Agriculture to induce the small
proprietors to plant not only plantains, but alternately
a row of plantains and a row of bananas. When the
former begin to decline, sometimes suddenly, and the
shade trees are not yet big enough, the bananas are
still there to protect the young cocoa.

For this purpose the banana already mentioned,
namely, the " Gros Michel" or "Jamaica banana," is
the most suitable on sandy soils ; the easiest grower

FIG. 133. — A cocoa field belonging to a small proprietor.
The cocoa stands without sufficient shade.

on clay soils, however, is the so-called "apple banana"
(called " fig banana " in the West Indian Islands).

The planters do not use any other plants for tem-
porary shade than the plantain and the banana, the
small labourer, however, using not only these two,
but also cassava and tanias. This, combined with the
fact that these people often plant the bananas and
plantains too closely, results not seldom in a too dense
shade which makes the cocoa grow up in spindling
form.

2G

450 COCOA

CHAP.

Together with the cocoa the cuttings of the shade
trees, the " kofiiemama " or Erytlirina glauca, are
planted ; large cuttings 3 or 4 feet in length are generally
,and successfully used for the purpose, and after three
years the shade afforded by these trees is sufficient to
replace the plantains or bananas.

Formerly the custom was to plant the cocoa closely,
at 12 feet or sometimes less. But later 15 feet was
adopted ; afterwards 1 8 feet was considered a good
distance, and there has recently been a tendency to
make the distance still greater.

In this respect, however, there has been a reaction,
and, without adopting the idea of the negroes, " more
trees more cocoa," planters have seen that, though trees
planted at distances of 18 to 24 feet may develop
beautifully, the increase of production per tree under
such conditions is not enough to give a higher return
per acre. It is now estimated that the best results are
obtained when the cocoa trees are planted at a distance
of about 15 x 18 feet, or 18 x 18 feet, or 15 x 24 feet,
while the shade trees are planted at a distance of 50
to 80 feet in the row, the rows being at a distance of
30 feet (one row of shade trees on each bed of 30 feet).

Sometimes plant-holes are made, but not always ; and
it seems not absolutely necessary. As previously stated,
the cocoa plant in Surinam is a surface-feeder, and it
must be so, because in the rainy season the water
always stands at a high level in the soil. The roots
cannot live in the deep layers, and therefore a deep
loosening of the soil would be useless. But a superficial
loosening is useful, and the covering of the soil round
the newly-planted tree with fallen leaves and refuse of
weeding improves the growth.

A system of regularly covering the soil round the
young tree with banana leaves, as is done on the planta-
tion " Susannasdaal," has very good results. It pre-
vents the soil getting dry in times of drought, as well
as getting stiff by heavy rains.

Planting at stake is generally done, but in most

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 451

cases the planter is prudent enough to keep a nursery
in addition. When by unfavourable circumstances, for
instance exceptional drought or an attack of mole-
crickets, a number of young plants in the field do not
succeed, the plants in the nursery are still there to fill
the vacant places.

As shade one kind of tree is used, namely, the
Erythrina glauca, which resembles the " bocare " of
Trinidad (Erythrina velutina). The " bocare " is
occasionally also to be found as shade tree in Surinam.

Erythrina glauca has been used for centuries as
shade tree, formerly for the coffee, now for the cocoa ;
the name " koffiemama " (mother of the coffee) dates
from olden times.

This tree is in many respects very suitable for the
purpose. It grows easily in the compact clay soil and
gives a splendid shade ; it is not attacked by diseases
or insect pests, which weaken it or render it sick or
make it die. The big caterpillars which cover the tree
almost every year, mostly in the months of January
and February, cannot be regarded as troublesome ; the
result is only that the tree is leafless for some time, but
very soon new leaves are put forth, while in the
meantime the caterpillars have disappeared. At such
times the soil is covered with the excrements of the
caterpillars ; and in this respect they certainly give a
manure to the soil which is not without value.

The only trouble which the " koffiemama " gives, is
the care which has to be taken to make the foliage
system not too low and to keep it high. When the
trees are young, the lower branches have to be removed,
and the trees have to be systematically trimmed.
When once full-grown, the branches which develop
again on the stem or on the lower branches have
to be removed regularly. This work requires skilful
labourers, in order not to damage the cocoa trees by the
falling branches, and for this work the best Javanese
coolies are employed. It must be said that these people
are remarkably handy at this work ; they cut the

452 COCOA

CHAP

branches and make them fall so carefully that hardly
ever any damage is done to the cocoa trees.

The " koffiemama " has also to be cleaned from
epiphytes, especially so-called "wild pine - apples "
(plants belonging to the Bromelia family). When
this work is not regularly done, it not only gets difficult
and expensive to have it done, but also the risk is run
that the branches will break under the heavy weight of
the epiphytes and damage the cocoa trees.

The arrangement of the beds 30 feet broad, separated
by small trenches, and all planted with two regular rows
of well-formed cocoa trees, gives the cocoa plantations in
Surinam a regular and orderly appearance ; besides,
never more than one tree is allowed to grow in the
same place, and watershoots are always removed ; the
trees make, therefore, an impression of being well cared
for.

People who know how disorderly the appearance
of cocoa plantations is in other countries, are always
impressed by the regularity and cleanliness of the
Surinam plantations. Preuss says,1 speaking about
Trinidad : " When the cocoa plantations in Surinam,
which I saw, are compared with well-attended gardens,
those in Trinidad may be really called ' plantations.' '

In Trinidad one finds here and there a forest tree,
for instance sand-box trees (Hura crepitans), left
standing in the cocoa fields. In Surinam, however,
this is never the case; only the "koffiemama" trees,
planted in one row on each bed, are allowed to shade
the cocoa here.

Once the plantation is established, the field work
consists in weeding, keeping the trenches clean and
in good order, pruning, picking, and fighting the
diseases and enemies.

Tillage of the soil is rarely done. Sometimes,
however, when a field has suffered and the trees are
in weak condition, the field is forked, leaving round
the tree a circle of some 6 feet diameter unforked, and

1 Preuss, Expedition, p. 180.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 453

this manipulation is generally very successful, the trees
appearing to appreciate the loosening of the stiff clay
soil ; sometimes the planter only forks the weak trees
in his different fields. It would be too expensive to fork
the whole plantation. Generally no tillage at all is done.

Weeding is done two to four times a year — accord-
ing to the amount of shade. When the cocoa trees
are full-grown and not planted too widely, the soil
is so shaded that weeding twice a year is sufficient.
In rainy months, especially in May and June, the
weeds grow very quickly ; in the dry season, however—
September, October, November — the fields may be left
unweeded for longer time.

In the most critical years of the witch-broom disease
(1904-1905), planters had to be as economical as
possible, the receipts being very small. In those years
weeding as well as the other labour was reduced as
much as possible, and the fields remained often half a
year and longer in high weeds. When these weeds
were of the "soft" or "harmless" sort — and these
weeds are always prevalent on good soil under sufficient
shade — the harm done was indeed much less than
would be expected, and it was apparent how hardy
a plant cocoa is and with what little care it will
grow when soil and climate are suitable. On soils,
however, where " hard " or " noxious " weeds (grasses,
etc.) were prevalent — for instance on places with little
shade — the bad effect of too little weeding was very
apparent.

The heavy rains wash away earth and fallen leaves
from the beds into the small trenches ; every year a
certain number of them have to be cleaned and deepened.
Also the main trench has to be cleaned from water-
weeds, which prevent the free flowing of the water
when the sluice is open for drainage, and which make
also the navigation with boats and little open punts
difficult.

Pruning is considered by some planters to be
absolutely necessary ; many, however, do not remove

454

COCOA

any twig or branch but the dead ones and the
suckers (Fig. 134). So, as in most other countries, the

FIG. 134. — A cocoa tree about five years old, normally developed, unpruued.

opinions about pruning of cocoa are divided. Never,
however, are suckers purposely left ; and a second
foliage system above the first one, as is found in Java,

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 455

is here never allowed to develop. Only when the tree
is weakened or in bad condition — for instance, being
damaged by worms or otherwise — one sucker at the
foot of the tree is allowed to grow up in order to
renew the tree. My opinion is that for many trees in
Surinam a light pruning is useful. It improves its
bearing power to keep the foliage system not too dense
in the middle of the tree. It must not be forgotten
that every tree must be considered individually and a
single rule cannot be given, but in many trees in
Surinam the natural growth tends to make the foliage
system very dense and the removal of a part of the
twigs in the centre of the tree seems to be useful
(Fig. 135).

Picking is performed by means of the ordinary
cutlass, and, for the fruits hanging at the higher
branches, by means of a cocoa -hook of the form
indicated in Fig. 63 6.

The variety most generally planted is the Amelonado,
though here and there other Forastero types are to be
found. Criollo, however, is nowhere present.

It may be that this fine variety, which is in many
respects less strong than Forastero, would not be suit-
able for being planted on a large scale ; most probably
the stiff clay soil would not suit its requirements.
In the Experimental Garden of the Department of
Agriculture a few Criollo types were planted on a sandy
soil ; some strong trees were obtained, but the majority
were weak ones.

Of the Forastero variety, however, many types are
present. Most of them, however, belong to the
Amelonado group. The most common type (Fig. 136,
and Fig. 32, p. 92) is rather smooth and broad.

The types vary a little on different plantations.
On some plantations a short Amelonado, a little pointed
towards the apex (Fig. 137), is the most prevalent one ;
on other plantations the most common type has rather
deep furrows, and resembles the Ecuador Amelonado
(Fig. 138), or it is rather broad or rather smooth,

456 COCOA CHAP.

approaching the Calabacillo. Often the fruits are more
or less "bottle-necked " (Fig. 139).

FIG. 135. — Cocoa tree three years old, pruned.

The average size of the type of fruits illustrated
in Figs. 32 and 136 were as follows: length, 1C cm.;

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 457

diameter, 8^ cm. ; weight, 559 gr. ; weight of the seeds,
~128 gr. ; number of seeds, 41 ; weight of one seed, 3'1 gr.

FIG. 136. — The common Surinam Amelonado type
(see also Fig. 32).

The seeds are dark violet and of a bitter taste,
rather flat, as in most Amelonado types.

FIG. 137. — Another type of Surinam Amelonado.

Ked as well as yellow types are present ; neither
is prevalent.

Besides, there are to be found other Forastero
varieties, but they are not so general as the ordinary

458

COCOA

Surinam Amelonado, and occur only occasionally here
and there. Two may be mentioned ; they are known
by the local names " Caracas " and " Alligator," names
which are both equally confusing.

The "Caracas" variety is an intermediate form
between the Amelonado and the Angoleta type. The
fruits are short, but longer than those of the Surinam
Amelonado ; the furrows are deeper, the surface is a
little more warty. The colour is red. The name is
very confusing, because this variety, with its flat beans,
has nothing to do with the Venezuela Criollo which

FIG. 138. — A Surinam Amelonado with com-
paratively deep furrows, resembling the
Ecuador Amelonado.

Fio. 139.— Two "bottle-necked" types of
Surinam fruits.

gives the produce known on the market as " Caracas,"
and stands far away from the finer Forastero varieties
cultivated in the coast region of Venezuela near Caracas.

The " Alligator " variety is more elongate, pointed
towards the apex ; the furrows are rather deep ; the
colour is red or yellow. According to the form of the
fruit it is a Cundeamor type. The name of this type
also is not appropriate, because the name " Alligator
cocoa " is generally given to the Theobroma pentagona.

Up till recently no figures were given by the planta-
tions to show the average production. Generally the
yield per acre was considered to be very high, and

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 459

it was commonly assumed that 3 bags (300 kilograms)
or more could be considered as an average. Recently,
however,1 figures were obtained of the total acreage
of the plantations and the production.

These figures show that, in the time that the witch-
broom disease had not reduced the yield as it has
done lately, the yield per acre was a little more than
200 kilograms.

The figures are given below. It must be understood

O O

that they refer only to the plantations, and not to the
grounds of the small labourers.

Total surface of the Total production of the
plantations in acres. plantations in kilograms.

I

Yield per acre in
kilograms.

1893

12,700

2,788,000

219

1894

13,302

2,645,600

199

1895

13,632

3,166,100

232

1896

13,675

2,440,500

178

1897

14,435

2,829,200

196

1898

15,041

2,218,700

147

1899

15,370

3,395,800

221

1900

15,230

1,863,900

122

1901

15,598

2,384,000

153

1902

15,750

1,683,300

106

1903

15,828

1,353,500

85

1904

14,677

487,500

33

1905

14,091

916,400

65

1906

13,874

792,500

57

1907

13,781

912,000

66

1908

13,481

932,000

69

1909

about 13,200

1,143,200

about 87

From 1899 the decline of the yield per acre, caused
by the witch-broom disease, was very marked, but in
the years 1896-1899 the production was also in-
fluenced by the disease. In 1904 it was reduced to
the very low yield of 33 kilograms per acre ! But
all the figures from 1896 up till now must be con-
sidered as exceptionally low, and the normal average

1 Van Hall en Drost, De krullotenziekte der cacaoboomen (Bulletin No. 16
of the Department of Agriculture, Surinam], pp. 39, 41 ; and Proceedings of the
Agricultural Society of Trinidad and Tobago, December 1909, pp. 46, 49.

460 COCOA

CHAP.

may be regarded as amounting to a little more than
200 kilograms per acre.

To the regular field work of the plantation belongs also
the fight against pests and diseases (see Chapter VIII. ).

One pest has to be combated on all plantations,
namely, the larvae of the cocoa beetle (Steirastoma
depressum). These occur during the whole year,
boring channels through the branches and the stem.
They have to be cut out with a knife. For this purpose
a regular gang of trained grub-collectors (" wurmen-
zoekers ") is employed, and after the close of the day's
work these labourers have to show what they have
collected. Sometimes they are paid simply by day-
task, but sometimes they are paid per piece, or per
weight of grubs collected.

As pointed out in Chapter VIII. , not only the larvae
but also the beetles are harmful, and to eradicate the
pest not only the larvae, hidden in the wooden parts
of the trees, but also the beetles have to be caught.
These are fiying from tree to tree, well protected by
their greyish colour, resting here and there, gnawing
at the bark of the young twigs, and the females
depositing their eggs in crevices or holes of the bark.

In order to catch these beetles, the Javanese
immigrants found out a handy method. They noticed
that the bark of the wild " cotton tree,'1 or, as the
negroes call it, " cancantree " (Bombax ceiba), had a
special attraction for the beetles, and on pieces of this
bark attached to the branches of cocoa trees soon a
certain number of beetles were to be found, apparently
attracted by the odour of the bark. In this way a
great number of beetles were easily caught.

There are different species of cocoa beetles, but
by far the most common is Steirastoma depressum
(Fig. 87), the larvae of which construct their channels
rather superficially, at any rate not deep in the trunk
of the trees.

In neglected fields this beetle causes an enormous
damage, and its presence is at once visible by the great

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 461

number of dead branches, for it chooses by preference
the place of insertion of small or large branches and,
boring in several directions in the young wood and the
bark of the branch, it practically rings the branch and
kills it.

Especially in places where the cocoa has suffered
from wind, from drought or otherwise, or where the
growth has been rather weak, the trees are affected
by another enemy, the thrips. Sometimes the trees
attacked by these insects are to be found scattered here
and there in the fields ; often, however, rather large
areas are attacked at the same time. The leaves get
yellowish and fall off, and for some time the trees stand
almost leafless. New leaves are made again ; but when
the thrips again attacks the new leaves, often the tree
is much weakened and dies. This pest must have been
present for some time in Surinam ; before the cause of
the disease was known planters called it "leaf-disease."
The " leaf -disease" is nothing else but the "thrips
disease," the same which damages the cocoa trees in
several West Indian islands (Grenada, St. Vincent, etc.).

When the cocoa tree makes new leaves, the young
leaves are often attacked by caterpillars belonging
to a small moth of the family of Geometridae. Some-
times very little of the leaves, only the nerves, are left ;
but, though such an attack weakens the tree, the results
are not serious.

The "parasol ant" exists in Surinam, as it does in
all other tropical lands and islands of South America ;
but the damage done to the cocoa in Surinam is
unimportant — unlike Trinidad, where the parasol ant is
regarded as one of the worst cocoa enemies. In Surinam
the nests found in the plantation are carefully destroyed
by means of carbon bisulphide. The coffee trees, and
especially the orange trees, also the mango trees, are
preferred by the parasol ant to the cocoa tree ; and while
of the former sometimes a great number of trees are
defoliated in one night, this is very seldom the case
with the cocoa trees.

462 COCOA

It must Dot be overlooked that the cocoa fields on
the plantations in Surinam are shut off from the
surrounding forests by the main drainage trenches
which surround the plantation, and only by means of
the few bridges or timbers access is obtained to the
fields. When the planter therefore takes care to have
no nests in his own fields, he is seldom troubled by
parasol ants.

Young plants just unfolding the first few leaves
above the cotyledons are often badly damaged by mole-
crickets (Scapteriscus). These insects cut the young
stem just above the soil ; and it happens sometimes
that of a whole field not a single plant is left standing.
These insects (called " coti-coti " in negro English,
which means " cut-cut ") are very common, and their
presence makes it always necessary to keep a nursery.
For it is easier to keep them away from the nursery
than from the fields, and when the plants have once
attained a certain height they can be transplanted into
the field without fear, for large plants are no longer
attacked by the " coti-coti."

Of larger animals only the deer may be mentioned.
These are sometimes troublesome, damaging the bark
of old trees with their horns.

Among the fungus diseases may be 'mentioned the
witch-broom disease (Figs. 84-86), the canker (Fig.
80), the die-back disease (Fig. 81), and the blackening
of pods. These diseases have already been described
in Chapter VIII., but a few words may be added
here.

Towards the end of the last century the cocoa
culture was gradually becoming more important in
Surinam. Every year the acreage extended and the
export increased. In 1895 the export reached a
total of 4,456,300 kilograms, but in that same year
the plantations in the Saramacca district began to
suffer from a new disease, the witch-broom disease,
which caused every following year greater losses, and
in the years 1895 to 1900 the production of this

COCOA GROWING COUNTRIES 463

district decreased from 267,000 kilograms to 84,500
kilograms.

Gradually all the districts of the colony became
infected. Along the lower course of the Commewijne
and Surinam River, where most of the plantations are
situated, the maximum production was obtained in
1899—2,292,000 kilograms ; but in the following years
a rapid and disastrous decrease was experienced, and in
1904 only 173,700 kilograms were obtained. This will
give an idea of the calamity the witch-broom disease
brought to the colony. Also the exports figures given
on p. 433 show the rapid decline from 4^ million
kilograms in 1895 and a little less than 4 million
in 1899 to 854,000 kilograms in 1904.

The uncertainty whether it would be possible or not
to combat the disease induced the Government to make
a trial to establish a new culture. In 1906 about thirty
plantations began to cultivate bananas with money
advanced by the Government.

Though up till now this culture has not been a finan-
cial success, it has helped to save several plantations
from being abandoned. The bananas were sold to the
United Fruit Company, and every week the bananas
were exported by special fruit ships to New York.1 In
the early years the " Gros Michel" variety was planted,
but the serious disease (the so-called " Panama disease")
which attacked this variety led to the planting of a
more disease -resisting variety, the so-called "Congo"
banana.

It is not impossible that the culture of the " Congo "
bananas will be a success. If this could be obtained
it would help to extend the area planted with cocoa,
making the first few years during which the cocoa
may be cultivated under shade of the Congo banana
remunerative.

As explained in Chapter VIII. , a method has been

1 Since this chapter was written the United Fruit Company has discon-
tinued the buying and export of bananas. At the present time (January
1914) there is no export of bananas from Surinam. Planters are busy with
negotiations with other companies for selling their bananas.

464 COCOA

CHAP.

found to fight the witch-broom disease. It has been
shown that it can be combated by " cutting back" the
branches, followed by spraying with copper -sulphate.
This means that the future of cocoa-growing in Surinam
may be regarded with more confidence.

The witch-broom disease is often accompanied with
the " die-back " disease, caused by Diplodia cacaoicola,
and in the last ten years the effects of this disease
have been in a sense still worse. For, while the witch-
broom disease caused a great loss of fruits and a great
decrease of the yield, the result of the die-back was
a loss of trees. And this amounted to such a high
percentage in many fields that several had to be
abandoned.

The table on p. 459 shows how the acreage on the
plantations gradually decreased from 15,828 acres in
1903 to 13,481 acres in 1908. This is all the direct
effect of the die-back disease and an indirect con-
sequence of the witch-broom disease, for the loss caused
by thrips is only very small in comparison with the loss
caused by the die-back.

Of less importance is the " canker " disease. It
appears only here and there in the fields, and seems to
get disastrous only in times of heavy rainfall on
plantations where the drainage or the embankments
are not in order. In the rainy year, 1907, it was
evident that the canker appeared as a serious disease
only on some plantations along the Saramacca River,
where the trees had been standing in the water for
several days.

" Blackening of pods " occurs often when rain falls
continuously with very little sun, as sometimes happens
in April, May, or June. Against this disease, as well
as against the die-back disease, the burying of fruit-
shells after breaking would be a very useful thing, for
both the Pliytoplithora and the Diplodia live on the
shells. But this method is very seldom followed, and
generally the heaps of shells remain unburied in the
fields.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 465

The pods are thrown into heaps by the pickers, and
generally women perform the work of breaking or
shelling, which is done by means of the ordinary
cutlass. The beans are put into baskets, which are
conveyed by boats along the main drainage trench or
along the transport trench to the fermenting house.

First, however, the amount is measured in boxes,
specially made for this purpose, 65 cm. long, 45 cm.
broad, and 50 cm. high. Every inch in depth in-
dicates an amount of fresh seeds of about 8 kilograms
(yielding about 2^ kilograms marketable cocoa).

The beans are subjected in Surinam to a long
fermentation, lasting from five to eight days. When
the beans are subjected to a shorter and less thorough
fermentation they remain leathery and tough instead
of getting brittle, the seed-coat remains adhering to the
cotyledons instead of being brittle and easily removed,
while the colour of the seeds is brownish violet instead
of brown.

For fermenting usually a special house is built
provided with six or eight sweating boxes. The house
is about 10 to 15 m. long and 3 to 4 m. high. Each
box is about 5 to 6 feet broad, 6 to 7 feet deep, and
5 to 6 feet high, and is wholly made of timber ; also
the walls of the house are made of timber by prefer-
ence of the "bolletree" (Mimusops balata), (Fig. 67).

The boxes are separated by double boards, which
can easily be removed ; the loose planks, forming the
front of the boxes, can be drawn out, thus making it
easy to clean the boxes when necessary.

The bottom of the boxes, which contains holes to let
the fermenting fluid flow away, is, for this same purpose,
inclined forwards ; this is also the case with the part of
the cemented floor of the house which lies about 10 to 20
cm. under the bottom of the boxes. In this way the
fermenting fluid flows into an open gutter, made in the
cemented floor of the house, along which it flows away.

The fresh cocoa-beans are put into box No. 1, and
covered with fresh banana leaves. Generally the beans

2 H

466 COCOA

CHAP.

are heaped up not higher than 3 feet. The next day, in
the morning, the cocoa is turned over into box No. 2,
and box No. 1 is cleaned, and thus made ready to receive
the fresh beans from fruit picked that day.

So the cocoa is turned over every day into the
adjoining box and picking can go on every day, when a
sufficient number of boxes is present. The fermentation
is considered to be complete on the morning of the fifth,
the sixth, the seventh, or the eighth day. As ferment-
ing never lasts longer than seven days and eight nights,
not more than eight boxes are needed.

Generally, however, the fermentation is finished
after four days and five nights, but under unfavourable
circumstances it may last as long as seven days and
eight nights. This is, for instance, the case when only a
small quantity of pods have been picked (as happens
in the beginning and at the end of the harvest), and
also when the weather is dry. It will be clear that in
small heaps the temperature does not rise so quickly and
so high as in large heaps ; but it is not well understood
why in dry weather fermenting is slower in Surinam.

Drying was in old times only done by means of sun-
heat, and for this purpose each plantation had large floors
made of stone with cement. On these floors the cocoa
was spread out in the morning and heaped up into large
heaps at sunset till it was completely dry.

But as the main crop is reaped in the rainy part of
the year (May to July), often much difficulty was experi-
enced to get the cocoa dry, and in times of little sun and
much rain it could hardly be avoided that much of the
cocoa was lost by mildew.

An improvement was the establishment of large
wooden trays (Fig. 72), moved on rails, which could be
rapidly pushed under the cocoa-shanty or cocoa-house
(" cacao-loods ") when rain came. As soon as the rain
ceased they were again pushed outside the house.

But this arrangement was sometimes unsatisfactory ;
though the cocoa was not wetted by rain there was
sometimes so little sun that drying was too slow and

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 467

moulding occurred. Therefore artificial drying was
started, and now almost all the large plantations are in
possession of a drying apparatus. Most of them use
a " Guardiola," and this apparatus has proved to work
quite satisfactorily in Surinam ; the drawback experi-
enced in other countries, namely, the breaking and
crushing of beans, when it contains an excessive weight
of beans, is not felt in Surinam. It is admitted that

Fig. 140. — Building used for storing the drying waggons and the cocoa alter curing
(plantation "Susannasdaal ").

The drying waggons may be seen outside the building. The tall chimney dates from the time
when sugar was cultivated on the estate.

the produce dried in the " Guardiola " is of the best
quality. Another apparatus, the " Huizer apparatus,"
is used on some estates. It dries quickly and perfectly,
but it does not work so cheaply as the " Guardiola."

The arrangement of the curing establishment on
the Surinam plantation is generally so that a house or
shanty is always present (called the " cacao-loods "),
which is generally a large building (Fig. 140) with a
ground-floor and often a second floor ; it contains on
the ground-floor the trays on rails, and here is also room

468 COCOA CHAP.

for putting the cocoa into bags ; it is generally used as
store-house for implements, and sometimes a part of it is
used as sweating room. Sometimes a special sweating
room is present, separate from the cocoa-shanty.

On those plantations where no trays are used, always
the large, old-fashioned drying floor is still present,
adjoining the curing establishment.

Though several plantations are in possession of an
apparatus for artificial drying, they use as much as
possible the sun-drying, be it on the drying floor or on
the trays. It is cheaper, and the produce is to be pre-
ferred when dried in the sun. But in very rainy weather
the drying apparatus must be used.

In large rowing-boats the bags, containing 100 kilo-
grams each, are brought from the plantation by the river
to Paramaribo, and generally sold there to the merchant
who ships the cocoa to New York.

It may be interesting to give here an estimate of
the cost of production of cocoa in Surinam on a planta-
tion of average size (300 acres), and producing the
average of old times (630 bags of 100 kilograms or 210
kilograms per acre).

Such a plantation, when once established, will have
yearly the following expenses :—

Field Work —

1. Weeding (f. 5 per acre) . . . . . . f. 1,5 00

2. Priming, destroying noxious insects, and fighting dis-

eases (f.10 per acre) ... . 3,000

3. Upkeep of the drainage system .... 900

4. Picking, fermenting, drying, making the cocoa ready

for the market . .... 2,400

5. Care of shade trees . ... . . . 300

6. Headmen and watchmen . . . . . . 1,200

Immigration Expenses —

7. Hospital expenses ....... 900

8. Contract expenses (the repairing of the houses of the

immigrants is included sub 11) . . . . 2,184

Carried forward . . . f. 12,384

IX

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 469

General Expenses — Brought forward . . f. 12,384

9. Wages of manager and overseers . . . . 4500

10. Taxes

11. Repairing of houses, boats, sluices, implements

12. Depreciation on buildings, etc. .

13. Diversa .

100
1500
2000

616

(f.l = Is. 8dL).

Total . f. 2 2,000

The produce being estimated at 60,000 kilograms, the
cost of production of 1 kilogram may be estimated at
about 37 cents. With a local market price of 60 cents
this estate would make f.37,800 (£3000), leaving a net
profit of f.l 6,000.

Of course the expenses vary on different estates ; the
above-mentioned expenses are rather low — the cost price
on other estates may rise to 40 or even 45 cents.

The cocoa is generally sold to merchants in Para-
maribo, who ship it mostly to New York ; only a small
portion is sent to Europe and sold in Amsterdam.

The prices paid by the merchants to the planter
in the last few years were as follows : —

PRICES PAID LOCALLY (PARAMARIBO) FOR PLANTATION COCOA

(in cents per kilogram ; 5 cents = Id.) l

Year.

January.

April.

July.

October.

Average of the
whole year.

1901

74

75

75

721

74

1902

72J

70

68

68

69

1903

67^

62|

60

64

65

1904

63

63

63

63

63

1905

63

61

60J

57

60

1906

551

54J

55

721

56

1907

90"

87

931

115

89

1908

92

80

65~

60

72

1909

60

60

60

60

60

1910

54

54

54

54

54

The averages are made up for the whole lot of

1 Taken from the local newspaper, De West, of February 10, 1911.

470 COCOA CHAP.

plantation cocoa bought by the merchants in the
different years. For the cocoa of the small labourers a
few cents less is paid per kilogram.

XVII. BELGIAN CONGO

Belgian Congo is not yet an important cocoa country,
but it may be regarded as promising.

The climatic conditions are considered to be quite
suitable, and the Congo negro is well fitted for agri-
cultural work.

Up till now, however, cocoa has not become a culture
of the small proprietors. The negroes are working more
in the forest at present, especially in collecting native
rubber, a work to which they have been compelled
by the Government. But it may be trusted that the
Government will start another policy, and encourage
the small proprietors to take up different cultures,
especially cocoa, and to do it well.1

The exports have been : —

Kilog.

1901 . . . 4,000

1902 . . . 16,000

1903 . . - . 89,000

1904 . . . 231,000

1905 . . . 195,000

1906 . . - . 402,000

Kilog.

1907 . . . 549,000

1908 . . . 612,000

1909 . . . 769,400

1910 . . . 901,900

1911 . . . 681,000

1912 . . . 800,000

XVIII. CENTRAL AMERICA AND COLOMBIA

Central America is not only the country where the
cocoa has been cultivated for centuries, but several
sorts of Theobroma are found there growing wild.

This is the case with the " Cacao lagarto" (Theobroma
pentagona), the " Pataste " (Theobroma bicolor), the
Theobroma angustifolium, while also the ordinary
cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao) grows wild in many
places, though probably not spontaneously, it being
probable that in olden times the Indians imported it
from South America.

1 Since this chapter was written, the Government has started this work.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 471

Though these facts would seem to indicate that in
Central America conditions were favourable for cocoa-
growing, still in none of these countries has it become
an important business, and only from Costa Rica a
small amount is yearly exported.

On the other hand, though the export is very small
and Central America does not play a role of any
importance from a commercial point of view, the
production for home consumption is not unimportant,
the inhabitants of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica being large cocoa drinkers.

The demand for cocoa is therefore considerable in those
countries, and especially for the home-grown produce.

The Central American people do not like the cocoa
from abroad. The Ecuadorian cocoa, which is imported
to satisfy the krge demand, is regarded as decidedly
inferior to the home-grown cocoa, while the fine
chocolate- and cocoa-brands from Europe are not at all
appreciated.

The people want the Central American cocoa, and
by preference the produce of their own country. The
Nicaraguan considers the Nicaraguan cocoa as being the
best ; the man in Mexico the Mexican cocoa.

High prices are paid for it on the local market —
much higher than the produce ever could fetch on the
European market.

Preuss l gives the following interesting figures of
prices paid in 1900 on the local retail market in
Managua (Nicaragua) for different Central American
kinds :—

s. d.

1 lb. Nicaragua . . . . . . .18

1 „ Salvador . .17

1 „ Soconusco (Guatemala and Mexico) . .17

1 „ Cauca (Columbia) . . . . .15

These prices are certainly very high, but the Central
American pays them, anxious to drink real cocoa.
What we are consuming under that name would not

1 Preuss, Expedition, p. 270.

472 COCOA

CHAP.

be accepted as such by him. Only very little sugar
is added to the mild Central American cocoas, while
the European manufacturer is obliged to add a large
amount of sugar to the comparatively bitter produce of
Ecuador, Bahia, or San Thome'. In this way we get a
produce in which the true cocoa aroma is concealed by
the sugar ; and Preuss may be right in saying that the
Central American as regards cocoa is more discriminate
than we Europeans are. Very little has been published
about cocoa culture in these republics. The most
valuable information is that contributed by Preuss in
his well-known book.1

Mexico

The country where Europeans saw the cocoa tree
for the first time, and from where the first cocoa was
shipped to Europe, has not become an important cocoa
country from a commercial point of view. Cocoa must
be imported to supply home consumption.

The following are the important cocoa-growing
states : Chiapas, producing about 1^ million kilograms ;
Tabasco, producing about 1 million kilograms ; and
the states of Vera Cruz, Guerrero, Michoacan, Oaxaca,
Tepic, and Chihuahua, producing together about half
a million kilograms. Besides 50,000 to 100,000 kilo-
grams are yearly imported from Ecuador.

In Mexico it is considered that the best quality of
produce is obtained in the state of Tabasco. According
to Preuss, the variety which yields this produce is
characteristic by its very large and heavy fruits, which
have a green colour and get yellowish when ripe ; the
fruit- wall is very thick, the furrows are deep, the surface
is warty. The seeds of this variety are not large,
medium-sized, or even small, but quite round — not flat.
The taste and the appearance of the marketable produce
are good, but the aroma is not strong.

Consignments have now and then been sent to

1 Preuss, Expedition, pp. 255-275.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 473

Europe, and at first the merchants were very enthusiastic
about its beautiful appearance ; but the German manu-
facturers did not like it, and considered it to be of
inferior quality on account of its lack of aroma and its
grassy taste.

A cocoa well known in Europe, the Soconusco, has
long been regarded as the produce of Mexico ; it has the
reputation of being very fine. It is, however, only
for a small part — or perhaps not at all — a Mexican
produce. In the district of Soconusco (in the state
Chiapas) 'little cocoa is grown, and the cocoa of that
name seems to come mostly from Guatemala.

Guatemala

Especially in the south-western part of Guatemala
cocoa is cultivated. The natural conditions seem
favourable, the rainfall is larger than in Nicaragua and
San Salvador, and the soil very fertile.

Not only the different varieties of the ordinary
cocoa tree, but also Theobroma pentagona grows into
big, healthy trees.

The varieties of Guatemala, observed by Preuss,
were all Forasteros, of different types — Cundeamor as
well as Amelonado and even Calabacillo types, but all
with round whitish beans.

It is generally fermented for one or two days, and
afterwards washed.

The sweet taste and the light colour are in favour
of the produce, but, like the Mexican Tabasco, the
aroma is feeble. The opinion of European manu-
facturers about this cocoa was unfavourable ; the
insufficient fermenting and the feeble aroma made it
unacceptable to European taste.

Preuss had the opportunity of seeing the culture in
Trapiche grande and San Isidro. As shade trees all
sorts of forest trees are left standing, among which the
" Pataste" (Theobroma bicolor) is the most interesting.
But also some trees are planted for shade, for instance,

474 COCOA

('HAL'.

the rubber tree (Castilloa elastica), and Myroxylon
Pereirae (which yields the balsam of Peru). The Gas-
tilloa, however, is regarded with some distrust, because
it is said to have a bad influence on the cocoa trees.

The best plantation, which Preuss saw, was the
plantation of Aguna. As contrasted with other so-
called plantations in Guatemala, the trees are planted
here at regular distances (4 varas = about 3*3 m. or
1 1 feet apart) ; they are well cared for and are regularly
pruned. Forest trees are left standing for shade. One
tree, the so-called " Molinillo," was considered there to
be very suitable ; to Preuss, however, it seems to be a
little doubtful whether this opinion is right or not ;
the growth of this tree is pyramid-shaped, and the
branches are arranged in table form, as in the " tropical
almond" tree (Terminalia Catappa).

In this plantation different varieties are grown, of
which may be mentioned the red and the yellow
Alligator cocoa, " Lagarto Colorado " and " Lagarto
amarillo " (Theobroma pentagona), and a variety
which is much like the Nicaragua Criollo.

The fresh beans are put into a wooden box and are
left here fermenting for one day. Next day they are
spread out into the sun for a few hours, after which
they are put again into the box and left fermenting for
the rest of the day ; the third day the same operation
is done again. Finally, the cocoa is dried in the sun.

The cocoa is not washed at Aguna, as is otherwise
the custom in Guatemala. This may be the reason
why the aroma of the Aguna cocoa is stronger than that
of other Guatemalan cocoa.

The production of Guatemala is estimated to be
about 200,000 to 300,000 kilograms. About 50,000
kilograms are yearly imported from Ecuador.

Honduras and San Salvador

These two countries are of little importance as
regards cocoa-growing.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 475

In Honduras the cocoa from Gualan near Omoa is
considered the best.

In San Salvador the culture has been wholly
abandoned, but has been taken up again some twenty
years ago.

The produce is treated as in the other parts of
Central America ; after one or two days' fermenting it
is washed.

As in the Mexican and Guatemalan cocoa the taste
of the San Salvador produce is sweet and the colour
fine, but the aroma is very feeble.

Preuss l gives a description of a plantation near
Sonsonate. He obtained the impression that cocoa could
grow very well here and the cultivation would be a
success. It had, however, been neglected for a long
time. The varieties cultivated were again " Lagarto "
(Theobroma pentagona) and another variety, much
like Criollo. The beans are round but small, white or
slightly violet. As shade trees were used : Chico
Zapote (Achras Sapota), Zapota Mamey (Lucuma
mammosa), Breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa), Mamey
(Mammea americana), three kinds of Inga, etc.

No cocoa of any importance is exported ; about
50,000 kilograms are imported yearly from Guayaquil
(Ecuador).

Nicaragua

Nicaragua is the most important cocoa country of
the Central American republics.

It is not only famous^ for its well-known Criollo, the
Nicaragua Criollo, which gives the largest beans of all
the cocoa varieties (see Chapter V.), but the methods
of cultivation are more careful here than in the
neighbouring republics.

A few comparatively small plantations are situated
near the little town of Grenada (Nicaragua Lake), but
the best-managed are near Nandaime (Pacific coast).
The plantations " Valle Menier" and "Las Mercedes"

1 Preuss, Expedition, p. 266.

476 COCOA

CHAP.

may be mentioned especially. The first plantation
belongs to the well-known French manufacturer, Menier,
the last-mentioned one to a Hamburg firm.

When one arrives in this country in the dry season
it gives an impression of being so dry and windy that
it can hardly be understood how cocoa can be grown
here.

From the north or north-east the strong, dry wind is blowing.
This disagreeable wind is prevalent during the dry season in the
whole of Central America. Even during the night it does not give
way. The roads are dusty. The thick layer of dust on the leaves
shows that rain has not fallen for a long time, and the atmosphere
does not give the impression that rain may be expected soon. The
whole vegetation, with the many thorny acacias and the hedges
made of gigantic representatives of the cactus family, shows that
the yearly amount of rain must be very small.1

The dry season lasts from November till May. The
whole amount of rain is estimated to be no more than
1800 mm. (45 inches).

Cultivation is only possible here by means of irriga-
tion. In order to keep off the wind, the plantations
are wholly surrounded by rows of closely-planted mango
trees, and also along the roads in the plantations mango
trees have been planted.

Shade trees as well as cocoa trees are kept low ; this
gives a dwarfed appearance to the fields. The number
of shade trees used is large : sometimes one shade tree
is planted to every cocoa tree.

On the Atlantic coast, however, the region is not
so arid and the rainfall is greater. This part of
Nicaragua seems therefore to have a more suitable
climate.

The following kinds of trees are used in Nicaragua as
shade trees : " Madre de cacao " or " Madera negra "
(Gliricidia sepium) ; "Quelite" (a kind of Jatropha),
which gets not higher than 4 metres; "Elekeme"
(Caesalpinia exostemma) and two kinds of Erythrina,
one of which, called " Pito," is a small tree much like

1 Preuss, I.e. p. 261.

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 477

Erythrina corallodendron,1 while the other seems to
be identical with the " Anauca " of Trinidad (Erythrina
umbrosa). Also the "Pataste" (Theobroma bicolor) is
used as a shade tree.

Chiefly planted are the "Lagarto" (Theobroma
pentagona) and the " cacao del pais " or Nicaragua
Criollo, both cultivated here since memory of man.
Besides, the " cauca," a Forastero variety from Columbia,
and other Forastero varieties from Trinidad have been
imported ; they have been planted out at the plantation
"Las Mercedes."

The advantages and the disadvantages of the two
first-mentioned ones and of the imported varieties
(" cacao estrangero " = cocoa from abroad) are the same
as the advantages and disadvantages of Criollo and
Trinitario (or Forastero) in Venezuela.

The quality of the " cacao del pais " (which name
includes often " lagarto " and " Nicaragua Criollo ") is
superior to the quality of the " cacao estrangero," but
the growth of the imported Forastero varieties is so
much quicker, the bearing power and the resistance
against diseases is so much greater, that in many cases
the "cacao estrangero" will have the preference. This
is especially the case when old fields of "cacao del
pais " have to be supplied.

In the plantation the two groups are always kept
separately, as well during fermenting and drying as
for selling.

In Chapter V. the Nicaragua Criollo has been
described. This type is doubtlessly a Criollo, and
belongs to the same Criollo group as the Venezuela
Criollo, but it takes a place apart. Very characteristic
of this type are the large seeds — larger not only than
in Venezuela Criollo, but even larger than in any other
variety.

The produce of this " cacao del pais " is considered
in Central America to be the finest of the world, and

1 Preuss mentions that the buds are eaten as salad and have a strong
narcotic effect.

478 COCOA

CHAP.

as much as Is. 8d. per Ib. is paid for it on the local
market. The European manufacturers, however, would
not pay so much, considering again the aroma and the
taste as being too feeble.

In some respects the culture cannot be said to
be backward, and the irrigation is especially worth
consideration. The water is conducted into small canals
made of cement, which bring it to the different parts
of the plantation. From these canals the water is
allowed, when necessary, to run into the shallow irriga-
tion trenches, of which one is present for each row of
cocoa trees.

The pruning is also done with care, but the picking
is effected in a very primitive way, the fruits being
simply twisted off by means of a fork-shaped instrument
fixed on a pole of wood.

The " cacao del pais " is generally fermented during
two days, the "cacao estrangero " at " Valle Menier"
during four to five days. Washing is not done.

About 30,000 to 50,000 kilograms cocoa is yearly
imported into Nicaragua from Guayaquil (Ecuador).

Costa Rica

Though the cocoa tree seems to grow well in Costa
Rica, along the Atlantic as well as along the Pacific
coast, the culture has no great importance.

Most cocoa is cultivated along the Atlantic coast,
where the climate seems to be the more appropriate, on
account of its larger rainfall.

A good class of produce is obtained from Matina,
near Port Limon.

The Government of Costa Rica is anxious to
encourage the culture of cocoa by affording premiums,
but apparently without great success.

Still, a small quantity has been exported during the
last decennium ; the exports in 1906-1912 amounted
to:

COCOA-GROWING COUNTRIES 479

Kilog. Kilog.

1906 . . . 176,000 I 1910 . . . 184,000

1907 . . 278,000 1911 . . . 343,000

1908 . . . 340,000 1912 . . . 400,000

1909 . 235,000 !

Colombia

In Colombia cocoa culture is on a moderate scale ;
but it is of no importance from a commercial point
of view, as almost all the cocoa is consumed locally
and very little is exported.

It has been estimated that about 12,000,000 Ibs.
are used for home consumption, the number of inhabit-
ants being 4,000,000, and the consumption per head
3 Ibs.1

As an example how popular cocoa is, it may be
mentioned that the servants are paid not only in wages
but also in a fixed ration of cocoa per day.

In several districts cocoa is cultivated, for the
greater part in small fields not larger than a few acres.
These are to be found over the whole country, especially
along the Magdalena River, above Honda ; in the whole
Cauca Valley, in the Simi Valley, and in the neighbour-
hood of Santa Marta, where the bananas are the main
culture.

The produce is mostly made into chocolate by the
inhabitants themselves, not in large factories. A few
factories exist in Carthagena and Bogota.

The produce of the Cauca Valley is well known also
on the European market, though only small lots arrive
here now and then. The great drawback, however, of
this part of Colombia is its situation so far away from
the port (Buenaventura), and the cost of transport to
the port is so high that it hinders the extension of the
cocoa culture in the Cauca Valley.

Along the Atlantic coast conditions are better ;
especially near Rio Frio an extension of the cocoa culture
may be expected.

1 Juraelle, Le Cacaoyer, p. 144.

480 COCOA

CHAP. IX

Cocoa is also cultivated in the provinces Bolivar,
Magdalena, near Santander, and in the Tolima district.

In this last-mentioned district the rainfall is small
and irrigation is applied. The produce obtained here
is of the finest quality. It is wholly consumed in the
country itself.

The export is insignificant. Exact figures are not
available, but it may be estimated that no more than
300,000 to 400,000 kilograms are exported yearly,
mostly to France.

i

XIX. PERU AND BoLiviA1

Cocoa is cultivated in Peru and in Bolivia, but to
a very small extent. Exports of any importance are not
recorded.

In Peru cocoa is cultivated principally in the zone,
called " La Montana," situated between the chain of
the Andes and Bolivia. The " cacao de Cuzco," obtained
in this district in the valleys of the Urubamba and the
Paucartambo, is said to be of high quality. This cocoa,
however, does never come to Europe, the means of
communication with the coast being too difficult.

Sometimes a small amount is exported of the pro-
duct, obtained near the coast in the north-western part,
near Piura and Lambayeque.

In Bolivia the cocoa plant is found in the forests
and is used by the natives.

1 Jumelle, Le Cacaoyer, p. 154.

CHAPTER X

COMMERCE

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MARKETABLE BEAN

THE chemical constitution of the marketable bean has
already been discussed in Chapter III.

A few words may now be said about the general
and microscopical texture.

In the marketable bean the seed-coat and the
kernel or embryo are easily recognisable. When well
prepared (fermented and dried) the seed-coat is quite
free from the kernel ; it surrounds it as a thin, very
brittle, free cover.

In some kinds of cocoa, especially the varieties

grown in Western Venezuela (" Caracas," " Porto
abello," " Maracaibo ") and sometimes also in the
Trinidad cocoa, the seed-coat is covered with a very thin
layer of red earth. In other kinds of cocoa the seed has
a very clean appearance, as in well-washed Java cocoa
and in good quality Ceylon. Of many sorts, however,
and among them the fine, high-priced Ecuador cocoa,
the appearance is not good, the colour is uneven, and
shows that little care has been taken in fermenting and
curing.

The kernel in a well-prepared bean is always very
brittle. The colour is light brown in some of the finer
sorts, as in the cocoas of Western Venezuela, Ceylon,
and Java ; in most sorts, however, it is dark brown
or reddish brown, sometimes with a slight violet tinge.

481 2 I

482 COCOA CHAP.

Generally the dark sorts have a bitter taste, while the
lighter coloured are generally sweeter.

Not only in appearance, but also in fragrance and
aroma, each sort has its own character.

The finest sorts, as " Caracas " and " Porto Cabello "
(Venezuela) and "Arriba" (Ecuador), have a distinct
and pleasant chocolate-aroma, but in most other sorts,
and especially in the more ordinary ones, this aroma is
wholly, or almost wholly, concealed by the acid odour
of fermentation, or, more correctly, of acetic acid.

In this book there is no space for the description
of the microscopical characters. It will be sufficient
to refer to special books, in which this subject is treated.1
Only one well-known microscopical character may be
mentioned here, the so-called " corpuscules of Mitscher-
lich."

The outer cell-layer, the so-called epidermis, of the
seed-lobes shows under the microscope little multicellular
outgrowths or trichomes, which are more or less club-
shaped, while the contents of its cells are dark coloured.
These " corpuscules of Mitscherlich " are so character-
istic for the cocoa-seed, not occurring in any other
vegetable produce, that they are of great use in detect-
ing whether or not a certain material contains cocoa.

THE MOST IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL COCOA-SORTS

In Chapter IX. the several cocoa countries were
dealt with, and a few observations were made about
the produce of each one.

Here the different commercial kinds of cocoa may
be treated a little more in detail.

Ecuador

This country produces the three important com-
mercial sorts : " Arriba," "Balao," and " Machala," and
the less important " Manabi." " Arriba" is by far the

1 Zipperer, Die Schokoladen-fabrikation, p. 11 ; Schimper, Anleitung zur
mikrosTcopischen Untersuchung der Nahrurtgs- und Genussmittel (Jena, 1886).

COMMERCE 483

most important, as annually 20 to 27 million kilo-
grams come to the market ; of "Balao" and " Machala"
about 5 to 6 and 2 to 3 million kilograms ; of
" Manabi " about 1 to 2 million kilograms.

Finally, a fifth sort, called " Esmeraldas," comes also
from Ecuador. This is good, if sound, which it seldom
is ; but the quantity is small.

Of the other more important market sorts, " Arriba"
is the finest in quality. It is produced all through the
year, but the regular crop is from March to June, when
the cocoa attains its finest quality and is quoted in the
European markets as " prime red summer Arriba." It
is principally sent to Europe. A little goes to England,
but the largest part is shipped to " Havre for option,"
and of this the greater part goes to Germany and
Holland.

" Balao " comes in principally from May to October,
but mostly in September and October. It is consider-
ably inferior to " Arriba." This cocoa is principally
consumed in Spain.

" Machala " is, like the other two mentioned, to be
obtained the whole year round. The price varies
according to the quality, but generally it is a little
lower than " Balao." The cocoa is in good demand
both in Germany and the United States.

The " Esmeraldas " comes from the province of that
name.

The appearance of Ecuador cocoa generally is not
very good. The beans are flat and irregular in form,
and not of equal colour. In section the beans
appear to be darker at the outside and more light-
coloured in the centre, a consequence of the slight and
incomplete fermentation. The skin of " Arriba " is a
little lighter coloured than the skin of the other sorts.

The aroma of the " Arriba," especially of " summer
Arriba," is fine, and the typical flavour of chocolate
is clearly perceptible. In a less degree this is also the
case with "Machala" and "Balao."

The taste of " Arriba " is rather sweet. Of the

484 COCOA

CHAP.

other marketable sorts the bitter principle is a little
more developed.

It must be mentioned, however, that the quality of
" Arriba," especially of " summer Arriba," has not been
improving in the last few years. It is to-day often
claimed that the flavour and taste are no longer what
they were formerly. The cause by some is said to be
the same as in Venezuela — the planting of inferior
varieties.

This opinion is not correct. Some time ago Venezuela
seed was tried in Ecuador in the Arriba districts, but
the entire production resulting from the trees does not
amount to 1000 quintals per annum, and cannot possibly
influence the quality of the 590,000 quintals which the
crop reaches.

The average measurements of the "Arriba" beans
are : 24 mm. long, 15 mm. broad, 6 mm. thick; weight of
one seed, 175 gr. ; of" Machala " : 22 mm. long, 13 mm.
broad, and 5 mm. thick; weight of one seed, 1*17 gr.1

Brazil

" Bahia cacao " 2 is the most important cocoa of
Brazil.

The produce has little uniformity, and shows great
differences in quality. When well prepared, Bahia
cocoa fetches a rather good price, but is always much
lower priced than Ecuador cocoa, and also than Trinidad
cocoa, which both belong to the " fine " sorts, while
Bahia is one of the best " ordinary."

Speaking generally, Bahia cocoa competes with
Samana and San Thome cocoa, but is generally regarded
as slightly superior, and accordingly a little higher priced.
Much of the Bahia cocoa goes to Germany, England,
and France.

The other important Brazil cocoa is the " Para " or

1 These figures and those of the other sorts of cocoa are taken from the
book of Zipperer, Die Schokoladen-fabrikation.

2 This "Bahia" must not be confounded with the " Bahia-cacao" of
Ecuador, which is better called "Manabi," or Bahia de Caraques " or " Cara-
ques," to avoid confusion.

COMMERCE 485

" Para Maranhao," of which yearly 3 to 5 million
kilograms come to the market. It is of better quality
and higher priced than " Bahia." Most of the " Para "
goes to France.

The taste of " Bahia " is bitter. The colour is dark
brown, with a violet tinge, at the outside almost black.
The beans measure : 23 mm. long, 14 mm. broad, 4 mm.
thick ; average weight, 1 *2 gr.

"Para" has seeds of a dark reddish colour; they
are not so flat as those of " Bahia."

San Thome

This cocoa with " Bahia " is the most important
representative of the " ordinary " sorts. The exports
have reached about 35 million kilograms.

The market prices vary considerably according to
the preparation, which is generally given with good care.
The best " San Thome " fetches generally a price a little
lower than the best " Bahia " and little higher than the
best " Samana."

Up till lately a great deal of San Thome cocoa went
to English manufacturers. As mentioned in Chapter
IX. a combination of important English cocoa manu-
facturers decided to boycott the San Thome cocoa,
because they had philanthropic scruples as to the
way in which the labourers were contracted for and
treated in San Thome. The object was to induce the
San Thome planters to change their labour system.

The result, however, has been that the cocoa of
San Thome now goes to other markets, principally
to Germany and Holland, and also to America.

Trinidad

The Trinidad cocoa is one of the fine sorts. It
ranges immediately after the best Ecuador.

Besides, the produce of the plantations is very
uniform.

486 COCOA

CHAP.

The beans are large, broad, and more or less flat—
at any rate not quite round. The colour is dark brown.
The average figures are: 25 mm. long, 18 mm. broad,
4 mm. thick. The greater part is " unclayed," or
slightly only.

Venezuela

The country produces the commercial sorts known
as "Caracas," "Porto Cabello," " Maracaibo," " Caru-
pano," and "La Guayra."

The three first-mentioned are the very finest sorts
which come to the market. They are grown in the
eastern part of Venezuela, and shipped from La Guayra,
Porto Cabello, and Maracaibo. "Porto Cabello" and
" Maracaibo " are higher priced than " Caracas," and
a small quantity fetches fancy prices.

The very superior brands, however, which are pro-
duced in Venezuela, appear on the market in small lots.

The beans are nearly always treated with red earth
("clayed") to avoid moulding. This gives them a
light reddish-brown or dark-orange appearance.

The size of the beans is large. They are not flat,
but round and large in diameter. The interior colour
is light reddish brown, lighter than other sorts with
the exception of Javas and Ceylons ; the taste sweet
(bitter principle very little developed) ; the aroma
strong and pleasant, chocolate-like, and nutty.

The average figures of " Caracas " are : 23 mm. long,
15 mm. broad, 8 mm. thick; weight of one seed, 177
gr. ; of "Porto Cabello" : 24 mm. long, 15 mm. broad,
8 mm. thick ; weight of one seed, 1'25 gr.

A great part of " Caracas " and " Porto Cabello "
goes to France and Spain.

"Carupano" is the produce of the eastern part of
Venezuela, especially of the Orinoco Valley. Its quality
is much less fine than of the Venezuelan sorts mentioned
above. It has flat beans, of a dark colour and a bitter
taste. The size is much smaller than of the beans of

COMMERCE 487

"Caracas" cocoa. They are not clayed, and are more
like Trinidad in quality.

The export of the three principal different harbours
amounted to :

La Guayra (" Caracas ").

Porto Cabello.

Carupano.

1908
1909

Kilog.
5,700,500
8,240,100

Kilog.
3,414,700
2,113,500

Kilog.
4,098,000
4,238,800

San Domingo

This cocoa is known under the name " Samana" or
" Samana Sanchez.'' The harbours from which it is
shipped are Puerto Plata, Sanchez, Samana, and Santo
Domingo. Though the produce bears generally the
name of the port Samana, this is not the most im-
portant. At present Sanchez and Santo Domingo
(harbour) ship the greatest part.

The produce now belongs to the most ordinary sorts,
and is often used by the manufacturers for mixing with
better sorts for the manufacture of cheap chocolates.

This cocoa shows very little uniformity, and the
prices differ greatly according to the manner of prepara-
tion. Taken as a whole it is lower priced than ordinary
" Bahia" and ordinary " San Thome"."

Gold Coast

The " Accra" cocoa is as yet one of the most ordinary
and lowest priced sorts. Only Haiti is still lower
priced. The inferiority is mainly due to the fact that
it is wholly obtained from small growers ; the fermenta-
tion and drying are therefore generally primitive, and
there is no uniformity.

But of late a great improvement is perceptible, and
with improved communication from the interior to the
shipping ports the large amount of " country damage "

488 COCOA

CHAP.

is decreasing greatly. For well-fermented lots it now
ranks in value along with " Bahia," and on account
of the enormous increase of the crop it is much in
demand to-day.

Grenada

Grenada cocoa belongs to the fair cocoa sorts.

It remains always slightly lower priced than Trinidad,
and may be compared with Surinam and Carupano.
The beans are smaller than those of Trinidad, and the
taste is rather bitter.

Ceylon

Well-prepared first quality " Ceylon " is a fine sort,
which fetches a high market price — higher even than the
Ecuadorian " Arriba," and not much less than "Caracas."

But not all the " Ceylon " is first quality. The
produce is very different, and much inferior Ceylon
cocoa comes into the market.

The aroma is not strong, and in this respect it is
much surpassed by the fine American sorts, like
"Porto Cabello," "Ecuador," "Trinidad," etc., but the
appearance is very pleasant. The bean is rather round
(not flat) and light coloured ; the skin is smooth and
uniform (greatly a consequence of careful washing).

Average figures : 20 mm. long, 12 mm. broad, 7 mm.
thick ; average weight, 1 gr.

Java

Java cocoa has a close resemblance to " Ceylon."
The beans are generally a little larger and rounder ; the
colour is lighter.

Average figures : 23 mm. long, 12 mm. broad,
9 mm. thick; weight, 0'8 gr.

The first quality Java is high priced ; it has large
beans of a good appearance and very light colour.
Much of the Java cocoa, however, is second-rate, or

COMMERCE 489

even very inferior. This is almost wholly in con-
sequence of the attacks of the " cacao-moth," the enemy
which causes every year enormous losses, and makes
the pods either totally worthless or spoils the beans.
These injured beans are also fermented and cured, but
yield a produce of inferior quality.

Jamaica

Jamaica cocoa belongs to the better sorts, but the
produce is not very uniform, and the quality is not
quite equal to Trinidad, although much like it.

Surinam

The same can be said of the quality of Surinam
cocoa. This produce, however, is very uniform. Very
little of this sort comes to the market. Almost the
whole crop is sold to local merchants who are agents
of special American manufacturers.

There are, generally speaking, only two qualities :
plantation cocoa and the produce of the small pro-
prietors. The plantation cocoa is very uniform ; the
bean is flat and dark coloured, well fermented and well
dried ; the produce of the small proprietors is less
uniform, and generally incompletely fermented and
dried ; the price paid for it, however, is only a little
lower.1

Haiti

Haiti cocoa belongs, like " Samana " cocoa of the
neighbour republic, San Domingo, to the ordinary sorts,
but it is inferior to the Samana". Very careless pre-
paration, very little uniformity, dirty admixtures, make
merchants and manufacturers often afraid to buy this
cocoa.

Kamerun

Kamerun cocoa is of ordinary quality, and may be
compared with Bahia cocoa. A great part is of very

1 The information given by some handbooks, that the lowest quality of
Surinam cocoa is a produce of Avild-growing cocoa, is a mistake.

490 COCOA

CHAP.

inferior quality, and is not better than the cocoa from
the Gold Coast. The Kamerun cocoa of lower quality
bears the commercial name " Victoria."

The taste of the Kamerun cocoa is bitter, and the
beans are small and flat, whilst many lots are " smoky "
in flavour on account of defective artificial drying, as
used to occur with Thome cocoa.

MARKETS 1

The commerce takes place partly in the countries
of production and partly in Europe and New York.

In the different ports from which cocoa is shipped,
cocoa merchants are established, who buy the cocoa
from the planters, and ship *it to Europe or New York
direct to manufacturers or to merchants there. In
Java, however, the planter usually ships it direct to
the merchant, who sells it for him at auction in
Amsterdam.

From San Thome the cocoa goes direct to Lisbon
merchants.

When the local commerce is important, it greatly
influences the prices paid on the world market, especially
when the local merchants are working in a speculative
way.

Large quantities of cocoa are nowadays shipped
from the cocoa-growing country direct to the manu-
facturers in the different countries, but the greatest
part is conveyed to one of the ports of arrival, where
an important cocoa market exists. Of these ports
five of importance are in Europe — Hamburg, Havre,
London, Amsterdam, and Lisbon — and one in America
- New York. Of minor importance are Bordeaux,
Bremen, and Liverpool.

1 The reader who takes an interest in the commerce of cocoa is strongly
recommended to read the interesting little book of Walter Stollwerck, Der
Kakao und die Schokoladenindustrie (Jena, Fischer, 1907), while the German
fortnightly review, Gordian, is always well informed as well about production
and commerce as about industry and manufacture.

In speaking of the cocoa markets and the customs in trade I have for the
most part followed these two sources.

COMMERCE 491

Lisbon derives its importance from the fact that
nearly all the cocoa from San Thome and Principe goes
to its market.

In the same way Amsterdam is only of importance
as a market for Java cocoa. In 1911, 31,669 bags of
cocoa came to the Amsterdam market, of which 31,223
were Java cocoa; in 1910, 26,064 bags, of which
25,834 came from Java. It is customary on the
Amsterdam market to sell the cocoa at public auction.

Of far greater importance are Hamburg, Havre,
London, and New York.

Some twenty-five years ago London was the most
important market. The supply amounted to about
9 million kilograms, while in Havre about 6 million
and in Hamburg about 5 million kilograms came to
the market.

Since that time, however, conditions have changed,
and the supply in London has not grown in accordance
with the growth of the world production. In the same
way as the importance of London decreased, Hamburg
and Havre increased.

About 1891 the arrivals at Havre attained the
same figure as those of London (about 13 million
kilograms). After that time Havre surpassed London
more and more, and in 1905 the supply of Havre was
38 million kilograms, of London only 12*6 million
kilograms. Hamburg surpassed London for the first
time in 1896; in 1905, however, its supply amounted
to more than three times the London supply.

Up till 1908 Hamburg surpassed both Havre and
London, but gradually Havre has again gained more
importance, and in 1909 it again surpassed Hamburg.
In this year the arrivals were :

Havre. Hamburg. London. New York.

1909 762,701 731,214 270,642 577,304 bags
(1 bag contains about 70 kilograms.)

The arrivals in the four principal ports were in the
last four years as follows : —

492

COCOA

CHAP.

ARRIVALS, IN BAGS OF ABOUT 70 KILOGRAMS.

Hamburg.

Havre.

London.

New York.

1909

731,214

762,701

270,642

575,065

1910

803,991

809,242

238,524

569,296

1911

1,134,247

756,397

257,174

674,294

1912

1,007,605

668,152

267,597

762,017

The favourable and cheap conditions of sale prob-
ably account for the great increase in importance of
Hamburg, while the unfavourable or, at any rate, less
favourable selling and handling conditions of London
must be responsible for the decline of its cocoa market.

The sale on the Hamburg market may have been
favoured by the situation of the port in regard to
countries on the Continent. Both in Germany itself,
and also in Russia and Austria, cocoa manufacture
has made great progress. Also the great increase in
importance of the German merchant-fleet must have
favoured the Hamburg market.

The New York market is only important for the
sales in the United States. Nearly all the cocoa brought
to the New York market is sold for consumption
in North America. Its importance is therefore almost
wholly dependent on the consumption within that area.

The purchase of cocoa takes place in various ways.

Either it is bought by the manufacturer on one of
the world markets, or directly in the country of pro-
duction, this latter mode being greatly on the increase.

The cocoa destined for sale on the world's market,
for instance at Hamburg or Havre — a manner of buying
indicated by the term "loco" —is imported by the
merchant and stored in sheds or store-houses, and the
manufacturer buys it there from the importer either
directly or indirectly.

When the manufacturer purchases the cocoa from
the country of production, he can do it either directly

COMMERCE 493

from a merchant in that country or through a cocoa
merchant in Europe.

By either of such means the manufacturer in Europe
can pay the freight and insurance, and the merchant
abroad has simply to deliver his cocoa on board the
ship (" f.o.b." = free on board). Or the cost of freight
is included in the price, indicated by " c. & f." (which
means, cost and freight included), or, not only is the
freight included, but also the insurance (indicated with
"c.i.f.," viz. cost, insurance, and freight included).

It will be clear that prices differ according to the
manner in which the transaction is made, either " loco,"
f.o.b., c. &£, or c.i.f. In these dealings may also be
included the loss in weight of the cocoa during the
voyage, in respect of which special mention is made
when the transaction is done f.o.b., c. & £, or c. i. f.

MARKET PRICES OF DIFFERENT SORTS OF COCOA

In the beginning of this chapter a short description
was given of the most important sorts of cocoa, and it
was stated that there were great differences in character
and quality according to the country in which the cocoa
was grown.

Though in this way each country occupies a special
place as regards quality, it is difficult to indicate exactly
the right place for each country. The reason lies in the
fact, that in some countries the produce is very unequal
and comes to the market in very different qualities.

On general lines the most important sorts of market
cocoa may be compared as follows.

The highest prices are paid for the cocoa of the
western parts of Venezuela, first of all for " Maracaibo "
and " Porto Cabello," and secondly for " Caracas " ; then
follows the Ecuador cocoa, with " Arriba " first, and at a
distance " Balao " and " Machala " ; close to these follows
" Trinidad." From Java and Ceylon, however, the best
brands are higher priced than both Ecuador and Trinidad,
but, on the other hand, very inferior lots come to the

494 COCOA

CHAP.

market from Java and Ceylon. Trinidad is followed by
" Grenada " ; about of the same value are " Surinam " and
" Carupano." Then come the best " Bahia " and the best
quality of " Kamerun," while " Samana " and " Thome "
are again a little lower in price ; " Accra," " Victoria,"
and, finally, " Haiti " close the list, with the most inferior
sorts.

Average prices paid for the different sorts on the
Hamburg market during the years 1901-1905 are to
be found in Stollwerck's book. The average of the five
years together may be mentioned here :

AVERAGE PRICES PAID FROM 1901 TO 1905 ON THE HAMBURG MARKET
(in marks for 50 kilograms net ; 1 mark= Is.) l

Maracaibo and Porto Cabello . . 81J-118

Caracas 62 -98

Guayaquil . ' . . . . 65 —78

Ceylon and Java . , . . . 54 -82j

Trinidad . . , \ . . . 62 -73

Grenada ... . . . 58 -64

Kamerun ...... 54 -60

Bahia ... . . . 54 -59

Thome . . . . . . 49 -58

Samana . . ; . . . . 51 -54

Victoria and Accra . . . . 50-53

These figures may give an approximation of the
value of the most important commercial sorts during
1901-1905. Since then, however, the qualities of many
cocoa-producing countries have greatly improved, so that
San Thome and Accra cocoas are becoming the leading
ordinary qualities.

Some market prices of 1909-1911 on the Hamburg
market may be added.

1 From Stollwerck, I.e. p. 48.

[TABLE

COMMERCE

495

AVERAGE PRICES DURING 1909, 1910, AND 1911 ON
THE HAMBURG MARKET

(in marks for 50 kilograms net ; 1 mark= Is.)

1909.

1910.

1911.

Summer Arriba
Trinidad

66

56-58

65
55-57

61J

57-59

Kamernn

51

50

54

Bahia ....

51-55

50-53

51-56

Thome" ....
Samaria ....

47-52
49

46-50

51-54J
51

Accra ....

47

47

48-50

Haiti ....

45

44

45

We should not omit to call attention to the fact,
that it is principally the ordinary sorts which have
increased in quantity. We may follow the Gordian
and divide the different sorts of cocoa into two groups-
one containing the cocoas of fine and of fair quality, the
other containing the ordinary sorts — and classify them
as follows : —

Fine sorts : Venezuela, Ecuador, Trinidad, Grenada,
Ceylon, Java, Jamaica, Surinam, Lesser Antilles.

Ordinary sorts : Bahia, Kamerun, San Thome,
Saman^,, Accra, Haiti.

The figures of production of these two categories (in
kilograms) are—

Fine.

Ordinary.

Fine.

Ordinary.

Kilog.

Kilog.

Per cent.

Per cent.

1895

60,218,000

15,995,000

79

21

1900

64,823,000

37,253,000

63

37

1905

78,831,000

65,981,000

55

45

1909

94,000,000

111,000,000

46

54

1912

72,042,000

154,577,000

32

68

This shows the much greater increase of the ordinary
sorts. In 1895 they amounted to 21 per cent of the

496

COCOA

CHAP.

world production (the fine sorts to 79 per cent) ; in 1912
to 68 per cent (the fine sorts only to 32 per cent).

These figures indicate that the quality of cocoa, taken
as a whole, is falling off owing to the prevalence of
sorts of lower quality.

In the different industrial countries the extension of
the industry was not in the same way influenced by the
increasing predominance of the ordinary sorts. The
share of the ordinary sorts in the world production and
in the consumption of the most important countries in
1903 and 1909 may be estimated from the following

review

PERCENTAGE OF ORDINARY SORTS USED IN THE INDUSTRY.

1903.

1909.

United States, America
Germany ....
France
England

Per cent.
40
62
41
43

Per cent.
54
75

48

46

i

!

It is apparent from these figures that the ordinary
qualities play an important role in the German industry,
which is also the case in Holland and England to-day.
In all the other countries their role is less important.
In France a large amount is still used of the finer sorts.
This may partly be a consequence of the higher quality
of the chocolate manufactured in that country ; but
the fact that the industry of powdered cocoa is so
important in Germany and Holland accounts also for
its demand of ordinary sorts. Powdered chocolate
grows more and more important as a cheap beverage
for the people, and cheap cocoa is needed for its
manufacture.

As a rule the prices of the different sorts approxi-

1 Gordian, No. 364, June 1910, pp. 3514-3517.

COMMERCE

497

mately follow each other, but , their mutual position on
the market may be slightly different in different years.
The market prices ruling at Havre for " Trinidad"
and "Guayaquil" cocoas for the years 1890 to 1900
will give some idea of the fluctuations in those years
(the prices are in shillings per 50 kilograms) :—

Trinidad.

Guayaquil.

Trinidad.

Guayaquil.

1890

63-64

76-79

1901

67-68

68-72

1891

64-65

67-89

1902

63-64

66-74

1892

65-66

68-88

1903

59-61

64-73

1893

74

72-82

1904

59-60

66-74

1894

61-62

57-67

1905

54-56

66-74

1895

54

48-58

1906

54-84

75-90

1896

46-47

48-57

1907

86-111

92-119

1897

57-59

59-65

1908

60-90

71-115

1898

75-77

75-80

1909

54-62

52-70

1899

70-71

68-74

1910

53-58

54-70

1900

71-73

75-79

1

The rise in 1892-1893 was followed by a fall in
1894-1896, which must be regarded partly as a con-
sequence of the enormous increase of the stock. An
increase of the consumption of cocoa (a consequence of
the low price) and a small crop in 1896 were the natural
cause for the rising of the market in 1897-1898.

It must, however, not be forgotten that prices are
also influenced from time to time by speculation. As
an instance may be quoted the fall of prices in 1904-
1906. In 1906 the most important plantations in San
Thome and some bankers in Lisbon combined to fight
the speculators ; a capital of £600,000 enabled them to
retain large quantities of cocoa and to keep them in
stock. This obliged manufacturers to offer higher
prices and the consequence was a hausse. The price
for San Thome, for instance, which was 48*60 marks in
the summer of 1906, rose to 6 9 '50 marks in November ;
Trinidad, which was 54*90 marks in the summer, rose
to 75*00 marks in November. Here again speculation

2 K

498 COCOA

CHAP.

played an important role, and the conditions remained
favourable for the speculators in the first half of 1907
in consequence of the small stock.

Also in consequence of speculation, a gradual rise
of the prices which took place in the first months of
1907 was followed by an enormous and quite unusual
rise in July 1907. In August, September, and October
this unusual situation, for which no natural cause could
be found, remained. As much as 102 to 106 marks wras
current for "Accra " on the Hamburg market, and 107
to 114 marks for "San Thome." A sudden fall in
November was a return to more normal conditions,
but it was accelerated by the financial crisis in America,
the sellers being afraid to do business with America
and preferring to sell at low prices.

In 1908 large crops in several of the principal
countries (Ecuador with an increase from 20 to 29
million kilograms, Bahia from 21 to nearly 30 million
kilograms, etc.) formed the natural cause of the fall in
price in that year.

1909 from a commercial point of view was a very
quiet year. Almost the same prices were paid the whole
year through. On the Hamburg market, for instance,
the prices were all through 57 to 58 for " Arriba," 54 to
55 for "Machala," 50 to 51 for "Bahia," 50 to 52 for
" San Thome," 47 to 47^ for "Accra." This may
partly be attributed to the very large production. As
mentioned, the stock amounted in the beginning of
1909 to no less than 48 per cent of the world con-
sumption ; with such a large stock, enough to meet the
demand for almost half a year, there was no room for
speculation.

Also in 1910 the cocoa-market was quiet and prices
remained low. Only a slight rise took place. On the
Hamburg market the prices were in January 47 for
" Accra good," 50 for " Bahia fair," in December 48 for
Accra, 51 for Bahia (in marks for 50 kilograms).

In 1911 again a slight hausse occurred, but in
December prices were about the same as in January ;

COMMERCE

499

Accra, Samana, Thome, and Trinidad a little higher,
Ecuador and Bahia a little lower.

In 1912 prices went upwards, and the year closed
with 56 for " Accra good " and 58 for " Bahia fair."

WORLD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

The production of cocoa in the different countries
in following years has been mentioned in Chapter IX.
We may give here a review of the total production
in the last five years : 1-

PRODUCTION IN TONS OF 1000 KG.

1908.

1909.

1910.

1911.

1912.

Gold Coast

12-946

20-534

23-112

40-357

39-500

Ecuador ....

32-119

31-564

36-305

38-804

35-500

San Thome

28728

30-261

36-665

35-000

35-500

Brazil ....

32-956

33-818

29-158

34-994

30-000

Trinidad ....

21-370

23 -390

26-231

21 -220

18-900

San Domingo .

19-005

14-818

16-623

19-828

20-900

Venezuela ....

16-303

16-848

17-251

17-381

12-500

Grenada ....

5-159

5-441

5-846

5-948

5-500

Lagos ....

1-388

2-276

2-978

4-471

3-500

German Colonies .

2-738

3-823

4-073

4-404

5-400

Ceylon ....

2-836

3-570

4-069

3-064

3-500

Fernando Po . .

3-001

2-726

2-349

3-000

2-300

Jamaica ....

2-694

3-216

1-743

2-783

3-400

Java

2-378

2-460

2-579

2-460

2-000

Surinam ....

1*699

1-897

2-043

1-565

1-000

Haiti ....

2-709

2-122

1-851

1-485

2-000

French Colonies

1-421

1-372

1-575

1-364

1-500

Cuba

•827

1-940

1-412

1-251

2-000

St. Lucia ....

•615

•553

•743

•940

•900

Belgian Congo

•612

•769

•902

•681

•800

Dominica ....

•488

•985

•573

•576

•600

Columbia ....

•621

•730

•297

•400

•400

Costa Rica

•340

•235

•184

•343

•400

Other Countries .

•800

1-000

1-000

1-500

1-500

Total . .

193753

206-337|

219-562

243-819

230-000

An impression of the world-consumption may be got
from the following figures : 2—

1 Gordian, 1912-13.

Ibid.

2 K2

500

COCOA

CONSUMPTION IN TONS OF 1000 KG.

1908.

1909.

1910.

1911.

1912.

United States .

42-615

53-379

50-315

58-965

57-000

Germany ....

34-352

40725

43-941

50-855

55-100

France ....

20-445

23-254

25-068

27-340

26-900

England ....

21-052

24-264

24-082

25-396

28-100

Holland ....

15-821

19-387

19-187

23-536

24-900

Switzerland .

5-821

6-684

9-089

9-852

10-300

Spain

6-580

5-980

5-517

6-379

5-300

Other Countries

18-455

21-165

23-967

27-665

32,400

Total . .

165-141

194-838

201-166

229-988

240-000

CHAPTER XI

NOTES ON COCOA AND CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY1

THE simplest way of preparing cocoa for human
consumption is well known in every country where
cocoa is grown. In Surinam, for instance, every negro
cook knows how to prepare chocolate-cakes resembling
those which were formerly used in Europe before Van
Houten invented his method of preparing "soluble"
cocoa-powder.

The simple way of preparing chocolate - cakes is
as follows : — The beans are first roasted. When the
quantity to be prepared is rather large, this is most
conveniently done by the baker. Thereupon the beans
are crushed on a clean table by means of a piece
of wood, or an empty bottle which is pressed and rolled
over the beans ; this has no other purpose than separat-
ing the cuticles from the kernels. The light cuticles
are removed by means of fanning with an ordinary
little fan, made of native fibre. The kernels are then
ground in a hand-mill ; this results in a fatty mass,
which melts to a semi-fluid pap when put in the sun,
and solidifies again when placed in the shade. A little
condiment is added, such as vanilla, cinnamon, and
pimento. The chocolate is then cut into little cakes.
This sort of chocolate is made with sugar and milk or
water to a very nourishing, but rather heavy beverage,
owing to the retention of the cocoa-fat.

1 In this chapter only a few of the most important facts about manufacturing
and consumption are mentioned. The reader who takes interest in this subject
may be referred to Zipperer's well-known book (Die Schokoladen-fabrikation).
The statistics about consumption are yearly published and critically reviewed
in the Gordian.

501

502 COCOA

CHAP.

The above-mentioned simple operations are also the
most important in the modern manufacture of chocolate.
In the manufacture of cocoa-powder, which is at present
mostly used in the preparation of cocoa for drinking
purposes, the cocoa undergoes still another important
manipulation, namely, the removal of a great part of
the cocoa-fat or cocoa-butter.

It was the Dutch manufacturer, Van Houten, who
in 1828 took out a patent for this invention, which has
proved of the greatest importance for the manufacture
and consumption of cocoa, as was already mentioned
in Chapter I. The many powdered cocoa-brands, which
are turned out to-day by different manufacturers, are
all more or less manufactured by means of the method
invented by Van Houten.

One of the important tasks of the up-to-date manu-
facturer is to select his various cocoas and to mix them
in order to obtain the desired taste. The proportion
in which this is done is the secret of the manufacturer.

The first manipulation in the factory is always the
cleaning. This is generally done in a machine, by
which the beans are revolved in a cylinder made of wire-
netting or some other stuff, through which the impurities
but not the beans pass. After this the beans are again
sorted.

By the succeeding process, the roasting, the aromatic
flavour is more fully developed and the bitter taste
reduced, at the same time the cuticles are made more
brittle, which makes them easier to be removed. For
this purpose large boxes are used which are kept con-
tinually and rapidly turning, and are heated by means
of hot air or steam. Care must be taken that the right
temperature is maintained, and that the beans are left
neither too long nor too short in the boxes.

The breaking is done by the breaking-machines, in
which also the kernels and cuticles or shells are sepa-
rated. In order to obtain an accurate separation, a rather
complicated construction of these breaking-machines is
necessary. By means of a strong current of air the

xi COCOA & CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY 503

shells are removed. Special machines separate the
embryos again from the rest (the seed-lobes or kernel
proper). This is done by means of centrifugal power,
which throws the heavier embryos away.

The mixing of the different sorts is the next
manipulation.

When soluble cocoa-powder is to be made, the cocoa
is freed from a great part of its fat, the cocoa-butter,
by means of strong hydraulic presses. By the best and
strongest machinery about 53 to 60 per cent of the fat
is pressed out, the beans containing before treatment about
50 parts of fat against 50 parts of other substances, and
after pressing 20 to 23Jr parts of fat against 50 parts
of other substances.

After the pressing out of the fat, the cocoa is made
" soluble." This is done in different ways. That mostly
used is the " Dutch method," viz. the treatment of the
cocoa with carbonate of magnesia, or with carbonate of
potassium, of sodium, or of ammonia. This results
not really in the " solubility " of the cocoa in the true
sense of the word, but it keeps the powder better
suspended in water or milk and not sinking so quickly
to the bottom.

The manufacture of sweet chocolate is entirely
different from that of powdered cocoa. After cleaning,
breaking, and roasting, the necessary cocoa-sorts are
mixed and roughly ground. Thereupon the cocoa is
warmed and mixed with sugar and other substances.
This is done by special machines, which divide the
mass very minutely. In general terms the proportion
of sugar added to the cocoa is about 1 to 1. Finally,
the air contained in the chocolate is drawn or pressed
out by another machine, and the chocolate is moulded
into the form required.

The many different sorts of chocolate are made
by special methods, requiring special machinery and
special substances to be added (for instance, cocoa-
butter or milk), but this need not be described here.

The different products of cocoa manufacture are

504 COCOA CHAP.

therefore powdered cocoa, chocolate, cocoa-butter and,
finally, the chaffy shells or cuticles.

The cocoa-fat or cocoa-butter is a much-appreciated
by-product of cocoa manufacture.

In connection with the fact that the industry of
cocoa-powder is so important in Holland, Amsterdam
is at present the most important market for cocoa-
butter. The price fluctuates from 60 cents (Is.) to
about one guilder (Is. 8d.) per ^ kilogram (in 1907 the
abnormally high price of 2s. was paid). While being
obtained in the manufacture of cocoa-powder, it is
again used for the manufacture of chocolate. But it
is also of great value for the manufacture of unguents,
pomades, and tooth-pastes.

The cuticles. — As has been stated in Chapter III.
the shells or cuticles contain, generally speaking, the
same constituents as the kernels. They are sometimes
used as a substitute for cocoa, and are, for instance,
used in the manufacture of different sorts of " coffee "
(Kneipp Malz Coffee a.o.), and in some countries for
making infusions, which are used as a cheap beverage
instead of tea. This is done, for instance, in Switzerland
and Ireland.

Mixed with straw they form a valuable food for
cattle and sheep. They are also sometimes used as
manure.

INDUSTRY IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

The enormous increase of the world's production of
cocoa shows how the consumption has increased during
the last decade (see Chapter IX.). Accordingly the
manufacture has made extraordinary advances in the
different countries concerned.

The most important industrial countries are : the
United States of America, Germany, France, England,
Holland, and Switzerland. Of less importance are
Spain, Belgium, Austria, Eussia, Italy, and Canada.

The amount of cocoa imported for local manufacture
by the chief countries is as follows :—

COCOA & CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY 505

1885.

1904.

1912.

Kilog.

Kilog.

Kilog.

United States .

4,676,000

32,329,000

57,000,000

Germany

3,300,000

27,101,000

55,100,000

England .

6,630,000

20,536,000

28,100,000

France .

12,203,000

21,794,000

26,900,000

Holland .

1,227,000

12,186,000

24,900,000

Switzerland

1,203,000

6,839,000

10,300,000

In 1885 France was by far the most important
cocoa manufacturing country, England came second.
Since that time the relative importance of both
countries has considerably diminished, while the rela-
tive irfiportance of Germany and the United States
has increased. At present the United States comes
first, Germany second, and England third, as indicated
in the list.

INDEX

Acacia Cyclops, 101

Acacia pycnantha, 100

Accra cocoa, 487

acetic acid, developed by fermentation,

30, 205

Achras Sapota, 99, 475
acreage : Brazil, 310 ; Ceylon, 396 ;

German Colonies, 393 ; Surinam,

459 ; Trinidad, 354
Adenanthera microsperma, 99
Adenanthera pavonina, 99
advocado, 322
Albizzia, 387
Albizzia Lebbek, 100
Albizzia moluccana, 99, 148, 400, 408,

417

Albizzia odoratissima, 100
Albizzia stipulata, 148, 400, 417
alcohol, developed by fermentation, 30,

205
Alligator cocoa. See Theobroma

pentagona

"Alligator variety" in Surinam, 458
almagicos, 290
alternate forking, 163
amapola, 379
amarillo, 67
Amelonado variety, 67, 81, 83 ; in

Ecuador, 88 ; in San Thome, 91 ;

in Surinam, 91 ; in Venezuela, 92 ;

in Guadeloupe, 93
Amsterdam, 490

Anacardium rhinocarpus, 298, 373
analysis of soils, 21 ; of tree and fruits,

24, 27, 29 ; of stem and branches,
25 ; of twigs and leaves, 25 ; of seeds,

25, 29, 33 ; of fruit-husks, 25, 29 ;
of fresh beans and cured beans, 33 ;
of marketable bean, 33, 34

Anauca, 343. See Erythrina umbrosa
Angoleta, 81, 82 ; Java Angoleta, 86,

413 ; Trinidad Angoleta, 86, 339 ;

Venezuelan Angoleta, 86, 372
ants, 132, 345, 461

ants against Helopeltis, 277

area under cocoa cultivation. See

acreage

aroma of cocoa, 201, 204
Arriba, 89, 290, 296, 482
Arriba cocoa (commercial), 482
Arriba variety, 89

arrivals on different markets, 491, 492
articulation of leaf, 44
artificial drying, 218
artificial manures, 169, 174, 175
Artocarpus incisa, 475
Artocarpus nobilis, 100
astringent matter in cocoa, 32, 35.

See bitter-tasting matter in cocoa
at stake planting, 125
Attalia cohune, 298
available plant-food, 167
Azadirachta indica, 101

Bacterium of fermentation, 30

Bactris, 332

badjing, 287, 423

Bahia (Brazil), 306 ; historical, 7

Bahia (Ecuador), 290, 296

Bahia cocoa (Brazil), commercial, 484

Bahia cocoa (Ecuador), commercial, 293

Balao, 89, 290, 296, 482

Balao cocoa (commercial), 482

Balao variet}7, 89

balisier, 332

bamboo, 100

bamboo-pots, 133

banana, 110, 427, 447

baskets for cocoa-plants, 133

basic phosphate, 169, 171

basic slag, 169, 171

Batocera Hector, 416

bean. See marketable bean ; see also seed

Belgian Congo, 470

Belippa lohor, 238, 280

Bijao, 293

birds, 239

bisulphide of carbon, 132

507

508

COCOA

bitter-tasting matter in cocoa, 32, 35,

201
blackening of pods. See black-rot of

pods

black-root disease, 243
black-rot of pods, 238, 250, 260, 344,

394, 402, 464

blast (in the West Indies), 6, 339
boars, 287
Bocare, 342, 451. See also Erythrina

velutina
Bocare pinon, 342. See also Erythrina

velutina
boengkil, 179
bois lezard tidele, 332
Bolivia, 480
bolletree, 202

Bombax ceiba, 265, 266, 460
bone dust, 169
borotillo, 298
Bordeaux, 469
Bordeaux mixture, 131, 241
borers, 236, 263, 345, 364, 388, 423,

460

branch, 43 ; analysis, 25
Brazil, 306 ; historical, 7
breadfruit, 475
breaking of pods, 195
Bremen, 490
brown-root disease, 235
brown-rot of pods, 238
Bubroma, 400
bubuk-beetle, 237, 248, 271
bucare anauca, 373. See also Erythrina

umbrosa
bucare pionio, 373. See also Erythrina

velutina

budding, 136, 139, 379
bullet tree, 202
burning the wood, 96
burying of fruit-husks, 190
butyric acid, 206

cacaguata, 1

cacao. See cocoa ; see Theobroma cacao

cacao amargo (Venezuela), 74

cacao amarillo redondo (San Thome),

326

cacao caranja (San Thome), 326
cacao Cayenne (Guadeloupe), 364
cacao Creole (Guadeloupe), 93, 363
cacao del pais (Nicaragua), 78, 477
cacao dos rabos (San Thome), 327
cacao dulce (Venezuela), 74
cacao estrangero (Nicaragua), 78, 477
cacao lagarto. See Theobroma penta-

gona

cacao nacional (Ecuador), 88
cacaonine, 31, 33, 37
cacaool, 32, 37, 209

Cadbury, 318

Caesalpinia dasyrhachis, 148
Caesalpinia exostemma, 476
Caesalpinia sapan, 101
caffeine, 33, 37

Cajanus indicus, 110, 114, 115, 400
Calabacillo, 67, 81, 85, 93
Caladium, 332
Camerun. See Kamerun
camphor, 116
cana brava, 293
cancantree, 460
canker disease, 236, 245, 464
Caracas variety, in Ceylon, 74 ; in Suri-
nam, 458

carbon bisulphide against ants, 132
carbonate of lime as a manure, 169,

171
Carupano cocoa, 71, 86, 326, 369, 372,

486

Carupano grande, 86
Carupano grande mejor, 86
cassava, 110, 113, 115
Cassia florida, 99
Cassia siamea, 100
Castilloa elastica, 100, 116, 118, 120,

148, 153, 298, 400, 408, 419, 474
castor-oil plant, 114
catch-crops, 98. See also intercrops
caterpillars, 280
Catoxantha bicolor, 236, 270
cauliflorous, 46

Cayenne cocoa (Guadeloupe), 364
Ceara rubber. See Manihot Glaziovii
Cecropia peltata, 293, 332
cedar, 332. See also Cedrela
Cedrela odorata, 99, 332
Cedrela serrata, 100
Cedrela Toona, 100
Central America, 470
Central American rubber. See Castilloa

elastica

Cervulus muntjak, 287, 394
Cervulus russa, 287, 423
Ceylon, 396 ; historical, 8, 11 ; soil

analysis, 28 ; commercial, 488
Ceylon Criollo, 74, 398
Chaetodiplodia, 249
chataigne maron, 265
chemistry, 20

chemical manures, 169, 174, 175
chico zapote, 475
Chile saltpetre, 169
chillies, 116

Chlorophora excelsa, 387
chocolate (sweet), 503
chocolate-cakes, home-made, 501
chocolate industry, 501
chocolate moth, 239. See also Ephestia

elutella

INDEX

509

chocolate soil (Trinidad), 332

chocolatl, 3

clmpon wilt, 237, 259

Citrus tree, 116

claying, 225, 351

clean weeding, 158

cleaning of the trees, 181

clearing of the forest, 95

climate, 13: Ecuador, 289 ; Bahia, 309 ;
San Thome, 311 ; Trinidad, 329 ;
Grenada, 357 ; Dominica, 361 ; Gold
Coast, 383 ; Ceylon, 397 ; Java, 405 ;
Surinam, 442 ; Nicaragua, 476

Clitoria cajaiiifolia, 115

close planting, 124

cocoa-butter, 9, 35, 504

cocoa-fat. See cocoa-butter

cocoa-hooks, 193

cocoa industry, 501

cocoa-moth, 238, 281, 406, 423

cocoa-pigment, 208

cocoa-powder, 9, 503

cocoa-red, 31, 33, 207, 208, 209

cocoa-sorts (commercial), 482

cocoa-vinegar, 203

coconut, 116

Coffea liberica, 100

cojon de toro, 85, 372

cola-nut. See Cola acuminata

Cola acuminata, 38, 387. See also
Stcrculia kola

Cola cordifolia, 387

Colletotrichum luxificum, 237, 238, 253

Collocasia, 114

Colorado, 67

Columbia, 470, 479

Comoro Islands, 366

commerce, 481

commercial cocoa-sorts, 482

Cornpositae, 157

Congo (Belgian), 470

Congo (French), 365

constituents of soils, etc. See analysis
of soils, etc.

consumption of cocoa, world-consump-
tion, 500 ; in England, 10

contact-poisons for insects, 242

contract (planting by), 333

corosa, 298

corpuscules of Mitscherlich, 482

Corticium javanicum, 236, 251

Corticium lilacino-fuscum, 236, 253

cost price. See price of production

cost of production. See price of produc-
tion

Costa Rica, 478

coti-coti, 131, 462

cotton, 116

cotton tree, 265, 460

countries (where cocoa is grown), 14, 289

dadap, 148

dadap-borer, 416

dadap-bug, 416

Dahomey, 366

dancing cocoa,, 227, 352

dead branches (removing of), 190

dead trees (removing of), 191

deer, 287

Deguelia microphylla, 148, 417

derris, 417

dichasium, 47

die-back disease, 236, 248, 280. See
also Diplodia cacaoicola

Diplodia cacaoicola, 236, 243, 248, 280,
345, 464

diseases of cacao plant, 233 ; causes of,
234 ; classification, 234 ; methods of
combating, 239 ; prevention, 189 ;
in Ecuador, 300 ; San Thome, 327 ;
Trinidad, 344 ; Venezuela, 374 ; San
Domingo, 380 ; Gold Coast, 387 ;
German Colonies, 394 ; Ceylon, 401 ;
Java, 423 ; Surinam, 460

distance of planting, 120 : Ecuador,
295 ; Brazil, 308 ; San Thome, 321 ;
Trinidad, 339 ; Grenada, 358 ; Vene-
zuela, 373 ; San Domingo, 378 ; Gold
Coast, 386 ; Ceylon, 398 ; Java, 409,
418 ; Surinam, 450

djamoer oepas, 236, 251

Djati Roenggo hybrid, 413

Dolichoderus bituberculatus, 277

Dominica, 361

Dominican Republic. See San Domingo

dormant plant-food, 167

drainage, 101 : Ecuador, 299 ; Guade-
loupe, 364 ; San Domingo, 379 ;
Surinam, 436

dried blood as a manure, 169

drought in Java, 17 ; in San Thome, 17

dryers, 219

drying, 215 : Ecuador, 303 ; San Thome,
325 ; Trinidad, 349; Gold Coast, 390 ;
Ceylon, 403 ; Java, 425 ; Surinam,
466

drying apparatus, 219

drying-houses, 225, 349, 403

drying-waggons, 216, 466

dung- pots, 410

Dutch East Indies, 404 ; historical, 9

Dutch Guiana. See Surinam

duty (export-) : in Ecuador, 305 ; San
Thome, 327; Trinidad, 354 ; Grenada,
361 ; Dominica, 362 ; Venezuela, 368

Ecuador, 289 ; historical, 10
Ecuador Amelonado, 88
Ecuador-bug, 278

Ecuador cocoa, commercial sorts, 482
Ecuador Cundeamor, 88

510

COCOA

Elaeis guineensis, 322, 387, 392

Elekemc, 476

enemies of cocoa plant, 233

Ephestia elutella, 239, 402

Eriodendron anfractuosum. See kapok

Erioglossum, 283

Erythrina glauca, 146, 342, 442, 451

Erythrina lithosperma, 100, 148, 398,
399, 408

Erythrina oralifolia, 100

Erythrina nmbrosa, 99, 146, 298, 342,
343, 373, 391, 399

Erythrina velutiua, 99, 146, 298, 342,
373, 379, 451

Esmeraldas, 290 ; commercial sort,
483 ; variety, 88

essential oil in cocoa, 32, 201, 208

establishment of the plantation, 94

Eugenia malaccensis, 100

Eutheobroma, 39

Euterpe oleracea, 446

evaporation of water, by weeds. 155 ;
by shade trees, 156

experimental plots, 172

export of cocoa, from different countries
in the last five years, 499 : Ecuador,
294 ; Brazil, 307 ; San Thome, 313 ;
Trinidad, 354 ; Grenada, 360 ; Do-
minica, 361 ; St. Lucia, 362 ; Guade-
loupe, 363 ; Martinique, 365 ; French
Congo, 365 ; Madagascar, 365 ;
French Colonies, 365 ; Venezuela,
367 ; San Domingo, 378, 381 ; Gold
Coast, 386 ; Lagos, 392 ; German
Colonies, 393 ; Samoa, 395 ; Ceylon,
396 ; Java, 426 ; Dutch East Indies,
426 ; Jamaica, 427 ; €uba, 429 ;
Haiti, 430 ; Fernando Po, 432 ;
Surinam, 433 ; Belgian Congo, 470 ;
Costa Rica, 479 ; Columbia, 480.

export-duty: Ecuador, 305 ; San Thome,
327 ; Trinidad, 354 ; Grenada, 361 ;
Dominica, 362 ; Venezuela, 368

external fermentation, 206

farmyard manure, 169, 171, 175, 178,
420

fermentation, 30, 201 : Ecuador, 302 ;
San Thome, 323 ; Trinidad, 347 ;
Venezuela, 374 ; San Domingo, 380 ;
Gold Coast, 389 ; Ceylon, 402 ; Java,
424 ; Surinam, 465 ; Nicaragua, 478

fermenting boxes, 202, 210

fermenting floors, 210

Fernando Po, 431

Ficus, 332

field-work, establishment of the planta-
tion, 95 ; on the established planta-
tion, 153

fighting of diseases and pests, 239

Filicium decipiens, 100

floods, 102

flower, 46, 51

flower-cluster, 48

flower-stalk, 57

Forastero, 67, 68, 69, 80, 104, 123,
202, 368, 372, 413

forking, 160

French Colonies, 363

French Congo, 365

French Guiana, 366

fruit, analysis, 25, 27, 29 ; develop-
ment, 56 ; varieties, 65

fruit-cushion, 56

fruit-husks, analysis, 25, 29 ; burying
of, 190

fruit-stalk, 57

fungicide mixtures, 241

fungus diseases, 242

geographical distribution of cocoa, 13,

14

German Colonies, 392
Glenea novemguttata, 236, 267
Gliricidia maculata, 99
Gliricidia sepium, 476
Gold Coast, 382 ; historical, 8, 11
Gold Coast cocoa, commercial, 481
grafting, 136, 137
green -dressing, 114, 400
green-manuring, 114, 400
Grenada, 354 ; historical, 11 ; soil

analysis, 23

Grenada cocoa, commercial, 488
ground-nuts as intercrop, 116
ground-nut cakes, 179
Gryllotalpa. See mole-cricket
guabo, 298
guabo machete, 298
Guadeloupe, 363 ; historical, 6, 11 ;

soil analysis, 23
Guadeloupe Amelonado, 93
Guadua angustifolia, 293
guamo, 148, 373
Guardiola dryer, 221
guarima, 379
guarumo, 293
Guatemala, 473
Guiana (Dutch). See Surinam
Guiana (French), 366
guineos, 379

Haiti, 377, 430 ; historical, 6, 7, 11

Haiti cocoa (commercial), 489

Hamburg, 490

hamster in Kamerun, 287, 394

hardening of pods, 238, 254

Havre, 490

height of cocoa tree, 400

helada, 301

INDEX

511

Heliconia, 332

Heliconia Bihai, 293

Heliconia latispatha, 293

heliotropism, 45

Helopeltis, 238, 272, 398, 402, 406, 423

Hemileia vastatrix, 405

Herpestes mungo. See mungoose

Herrania, 39

Hevea brasiliensis, 100, 116, 117, 148,

400

Hibiscus esculentus, 266
historical, 1
hoeing, 160, 165
home -country of cocoa, 13, 290
Honduras, 474
hooks (cocoa-), 193
horse-hair blight, 236, 253
Huizer drying apparatus, 223
hule. See Castilloa elastica
Hura crepitans, 332
hybridisation, 54, 80, 136, 373, 413
hybrids, 54, 80, 136, 373, 413
hygienic measures for cocoa, 190
Hymenochaete noxia, 235, 243

immigration. See labour

immortelle. See Ery thrina velutina and

Erythrina umbrosa
import of plants and fruits from distant

countries, 105
import of cocoa for local manufacture,

504

Indigo. See Indigofera
Indigofera, 115, 400, 421
induration of pods, 238, 254
industry (cocoa and chocolate), 501
Inga, 148, 150, 298, 373, 475
Inga lamina, 148

insect pests, 233, 261. See also diseases
insecticide mixtures, 241, 278 j
intercrops, 114

intercrossing. See hybridisation
internal fermentation, 206
in terplan ting : with bananas, 110, 427,

447 ; with Castilloa, 400, 419 ; with

Hevea, 400 ; with Manihot Glaziovii,

400, 419. See also temporary shade

and shade trees
intoxication - poisons against insects,

242

Ipomaea batatas, 115
Irina glabra, 283
irrigation : in Venezuela, 17, 374 ;

Guadeloupe, 364 ; Nicaragua, 476,

478; Columbia, 480
Ivory Coast, 366

Jamaica, 426 ; historical, 6, 7, 11
Jamaica cocoa (commercial), 489
Jatropha, 476

Java, 404 ; historical 9, 11 ; droughts,

Java Angoleta, 86

Java cocoa (commercial), 488

Java Criollo, 75, 411, 414

Java Forastero, 413

Jose Guardiola's Patent, 221

Kainite, 169

Kamerun, 392

Kamerun cocoa (commercial), 489

kapok, 115, 116, 118, 153, 269, 407,

408, 418

Kickxia elastica, 387
kidang, 287, 423

kome-mama. See Erythrina glauca
krulloten, 254

labour conditions : in Ecuador, 304 ;

San Thome, 315 ; Trinidad, 337 ;

Dominica, 362 ; San Domingo, 381 ;

German Colonies, 393 ; Samoa, 395 ;

Ceylon, 404 ; Java, 406 ; Jamaica,

428 ; Fernando Po, 432 ; Surinam,

444

ladrones, 299
lagarto (cacao). See Theobroma penta-

gona

Lagos, 382, 392
La Guayra, 368
lamtoro. See Leucaena glauca
Lasiodiplodia, 249
layering, 136, 144
leaf, 43 ; analysis, 25
leaf-system, 43
leaflets, 45

Leguminosae, 114, 150
leguminous plants, 114, 150
lemon grass, 116
Leucaena glauca, 112, 115, 148, 408

417, 418
Lisbon, 490
liso variety, 67
Liverpool, 490
Lucuma mammosa, 475

Machala, 290, 482 ; variety, 89

Machala cocoa (commercial), 482

machete, 344

macigale, 290

Madagascar, 365

Madagascar Criollo, 77

madre del cacao, 476

madre negra, 476

Mahagony tree. See Swietenia

mahagoni
raamey, 475
mammals, 239
Mammea americana, 475
Manabi, 290 ; variety, 89

512

COCOA

Manabi cocoa (commercial), 482
management of the land after the

clearing of the forest, 98
mancha, 300
Mangifera indica, 99
Mango tree, 99
Manihot Glaziovii, 100, 400
Manihot utilissima. See cassava
manures (list of most important), 169
manuring, 165 : Ecuador, 299 ; San

Thome, 318 ; Grenada, 358, 359 ;

Guadeloupe, 364 ; Ceylon, 400 ;

Java, 420
manuring experiments, 171 ; golden

rules, 172

Maracaibo, 369, 486, 493
Maracaibo cocoa (commercial), 486
Marasmius equicrinus, 236, 253
marcotting, 136, 144
marketable bean, 482 ; analysis, 33, 35
market prices : in Europe and America,

493 ; in Grenada, 361 ; in Surinam,

469 ; in Nicaragua, 471, 493, 497
Martinique, 363, 364 ; historical, 6,

11 ; soil analysis, 23
Mayfarth's patent dryer, 21 9
Mayotte, 366
Melia dubia, 100
mendjangan, 287
Mesua ferrea, 100
Mexico, 472; historical, 1
mice, 132
mijagua, 298, 373
Mimusops balata, 202
Mitscherlich (corpuscules of), 482
mole-cricket, 126, 131, 231, 261, 462
molinillo, 474

Monohammus fistulator, 236, 269
Monohammus ruspator, 269, 394
Montserrat, 362
Morinda citrifolia, 100
Morris's classification, 67
mosquilla, 238, 278, 300
moubin, 332
mountain-cabbage, 332
mouse, 132

movable roofs for dry ing, 217
mulching, 169, 171, 175, 177, 178
mungoose, 287, 364
muntjak, 287
Musaceae as weeds, 157
Mycoderma aceti, 205
myrabolam, 343

Myristica fragrans. See nutmeg
Myristica laurifolia, 100
Myroxylon Pereirae, 472

naphthalin, 132

nauclero, 342. See also Erythrina
umbrosa

Necator decretus, 251
Nephelium lappaceum, 283
New Caledonia, 366
New York, 490
Nicaragua, 475
Nicaragua Criollo, 77, 477
nitrification, 161
nitrifying bacteria, 161
nitrogenous manures, 169, 175
nurseries, 125, 128

nutmeg, as intercrop, 116, 153 ; not
used as addition to the cocoa, 377

Ochroma piscatoria, 293

Ocroplant, 266

Oecodoma cephalotes, 132, 345. See

also parasol ant
oil-palm, 322, 387, 392
Old Red Ceylon, 74
Oreodoxa, 332, 446
Ormocarpum sennoides, 115
Orthocraspeda trima, 238, 280
ovary of the cocoa-flower, 52

Pachira aquatica, 265

palanca, 301

palo de balsa, 293

palo de leche, 298

palo prieto, 298, 299

Papilionaceae, as weeds, 257

Para, 306 ; historical, 7

Para cocoa (commercial), 484

Para Maranhao, 485

Para rubber. See Hevea brasiliensis

paraffin method for preserving cocoa-
fruits, 105

parasol ant, 132, 345, 461

pataste. See Theobroma bicolor

patch-budding, 140

Pelargoderus bipunctatus, 236, 269

Peltophorum ferrugineum, 99

pen manure, 169, 420. See also farm-
yard manure

pepper as intercrop, 153

Persea gratissima, 322

Peru, 480

Peru guano, 169

pests. See insect pests

picking, 192: Ecuador, 301; San Thome,
323 ; Trinidad, 345 ; Venezuela,
374 ; San Domingo, 380 ; Surinam,
455

pigeon pea. See Cajanus indicus

pink disease, 236

Piptadenia africana, 387

Pithecolobium Saman, 99, 148, 299,
343, 373, 391

pito, 476

plantain for temporary shade, 110, 446

plant-holes, 127 ; San Thome, 319

INDEX

513

planting at stake, 125

planting by contract, 333

planting distance and planting
methods, 120 : Ecuador, 295 ; Brazil,
308 ; San Thome, 320 ; Trinidad,
339 ; Grenada, 358 ; Venezuela,

373 ; San Domingo, 378 ; Gold
Coast, 386 ; Ceylon, 398 ; Java,
409, 418 ; Surinam, 450

platanos, 379. See also plantains

podadera, 193, 301

podon, 301

pollarding the tree, 257

pollination, 53

Porcelaine variety, 78

Porto Cabello, 368

Porto Cabello cocoa (commercial), 486

pots for cocoa-plants, 133, 409, 410

powder (cocoa-), 9, 503

price of production : in Ecuador, 305 ;
Java, 407 ; Surinam, 468

prices (market-) in Europe and America,
493 ; in Grenada, 361 ; in Surinam,
469 ; in Nicaragua, 471, 493, 497

Principe, 310

production (world-), 499

propagation (vegetative), 136

pruning, 181 : Ecuador, 299 ; Brazil,
308 ; San Thome, 323 ; Trinidad,
344 ; Grenada, 359 ; Venezuela,

374 ; Ceylon, 401 ; Java, 421 ;
Surinam, 453 ; Nicaragua, 478

Pterocarpus indicus, 100
Pterocarpus marsupium, 100
Puerto Cabello. See Porto Cabello

Quelite, 476
quicklime, 169

rainfall in cocoa -countries, 16, 19:

Trinidad, 329 ; Grenada, 357 ;

Dominica, 361 ; Venezuela, 374 ;

Gold Coast, 383 ; Kamerun, 394 ;

Ceylon, 397; Java, 406; Surinam,

442

ramification of cocoa tree, 40
rampas method, 283, 422, 423
randoe. See kapok
rats, 126, 132, 285, 327, 423
replanting old fields, 97
Reunion, 365 ; soil analysis, 23
Ricinus communis, 114
rind-bug in Kamerun, 237. 278. 394
roempoet toeri, 115
rokko, 387
roofs (movable) for drying cocoa, 217,

224

root, 42

root-diseases, 235, 242, 261
root-fungus, 243

root-insects, 261
rorako, 115
rose apple, 100

Saccharomyces, 205. See also yeast

saddle-grafting, 137

Sahlbergella singularis, 237, 238

St. Lucia, 362

St. Vincent, 362 ; soil analysis, 21,
23

salt in soil, 24

Samana, 378

Samana cocoa (commercial), 407

Samana-Sanchez, 487

Saman. See Pithecolobium Saman

Sambito, 83, 92, 372

Samoa, 395

Samoa Criollo, 76, 395

sandbox-tree, 332, 452

San Domingo, 377 ; historical, 11

San Domingo cocoa (commercial), 487

San Salvador, 474

San Thome, 310 ; historical, 8, 11 ;
droughts, 17

San Thome cocoa (commercial), 485

San Thome creoulo, 91

sanitation. See hygienic measures for
cocoa

Sapium utile, 298

sapodilla. See Achras Sapota

Scapteriscus didactilus. See mole-
cricket

Schinus terebinthifolius, 101

Sciurus notatus, 287, 423

Schleicheria, 283

seed, analysis, 25, 29, 33 ; selection,
106; treatment before sowing, 107

selection, 107

sending cocoa - fruits to distant
countries, 105

sengon djawa. See Albizzia stipulata

sengon laut. See Albizzia moluccana

sepals, 51

Sesbania grandiflora, 408

shade (temporary), 107

shade trees, 97, 146 ; use of, 148 ;
cocoa-culture without, 124, 148,
176, 309, 354, 358, 360 ; shade trees
in Ecuador, 298 ; San Thome, 322 ;
Trinidad, 342; Grenada, 354, 358,
360 ; Dominica, 362 ; San Domingo,
379 ; Ceylon, 398 ; Java, 407,
416 ; Jamaica, 427 ; Surinam, 446,
454 ; Nicaragua, 476

shells, use in manufacture, 504

shelter-belts and wind-breaks, 97, 99 ;
in San Thome, 311, 323, 428 ;
Dominica, 362 ; Nicaragua, 476

shoots, 41, 44

Soconusco cocoa, 78, 473

514

COCOA

soil, 20 ; San Thome, 311 ; Trinidad,

331 ; Grenada, 355 ; Surinam, 436,

440

soil-analysis, 21
soil-management, 160
soluble cocoa, 9, 303
sorting, 228

sorts (commercial cocoa-), 482
sowing, 125
splice-grafting, 137
Spondias lutea, 332
spraying, 131, 241
spraying machines, 241
squirrels, 285
staining cocoa, 226, 374
stamina, 51
staminodes, 51
Steirastoma depressum, 236, 264, 345,

364, 460
stem, general appearance, 40 ; analysis,

25
Sterculia kola, 283. See also Cola

acuminata
Sterculiaceae, 38
Stilbella nana, 236, 237, 253
stomach poisons, 242
suckers, 41, 44

sulphate of ammonia, 169, 171
sulphate of copper, 241
sulphate of potash, 169, 171, 181
sun-diying, 215
sun, influence on soil, 98
superficial hoeing, 165
superphosphate, 169
Surinam, 432 ; historical, 7, 11 ; soil

analysis, 23, 24
Surinam Amelonado, 91
Surinam cocoa (commercial), 489
sweating boxes, 202, 210
sweet chocolate, 503
sweet potatoes, 115
Swietenia macrophylla, 99
Swietenia mahagoni, 99

Tabasco cocoa, 78, 472, 473

tagua, 298

tannia, 110, 114. See also taro

tannin (so called), 32

Taphrina Bussei, 237, 259

taro, 408. See also tannia

temperature of cocoa-countries, 14 ; of

cocoa during fermentation, 31, 202,

206

temporary shade, 107
Terminalia bellerica, 343
Theobroma, 38
Theobroma alba, 40
Theobroma albiflora, 39, 63
Theobroma angustifolia, 40, 63
Theobroma balaensis, 39, 63

Theobroma bicolor, 39, 47, 59, 470,

473, 477

Theobroma cacao, 38, 39, 40
Theobroma glauca, 40
Theobroma grandiflora, 40, 63
Theobroma lacinifolia, 39, 64
Theobroma Mariae, 39, 62
Theobroma Martii, 40
Theobroma microcarpa, 40, 63
Theobroma pentagona, 39, 57, 121, 138,

470, 473, 474, 475, 477
Theobroma pulcherrima, 39, 62
Theobroma simiarum, 40, 62
Theobroma speciosa, 40, 62, 256
Theobroma sphaerocarpa, 326
Theobroma subincana, 40, 63
Theobroma sylvestris, 40
theobromine, 31, 33, 36, 201, 208
Thespesia populriea, 101
thinning-out system, 124
thomasphosphate, 169, 171
Thome. See San Thome"
thread blight, 236, 253
thrips, 238, 280, 461
Thyridaria root-rot, 243
Thyridaria tarda, 243, 249
tillage, 160
toeri, 408
Togo, 395

transplanting from nursery, 127, 133
tree (cocoa-), general appearance, 40 ;

analysis, 24

trimming-up system, 187
Trinidad, 328 ; historical, 5, 11 ; soil

analysis, 21, 23
Trinidad Angoleta, 80
Trinidad cocoa (commercial), 485
Trinidad Criollo, 88
Trinidad Cundeamor, 88
Trinidad Forastero, 86
Trinitario, 71, 74, 368
Trinitario amargo, 85
trumpet tree, 332
tumbadores, 195, 301
Turpinia, 283
twigs, 43 ; analysis, 25
Typhlocybe Erythrinae, 416

unavailable plant-food, 167

Van Houten, 9, 502

varieties, 64; classification, 67, 68, 81,

94; in Ecuador, 298; San Thome,

325 ; Trinidad, 338 ; Venezuela, 368 ;

San Domingo, 380 ; Gold Coast, 386 ;

Kamerun, 394 ; Ceylon, 398 ; Java,

413 ; Jamaica, 428 ; Surinam, 455 ;

Central America, 470, 474, 477
varieties, procuring new ones from

distant countries, 105

INDEX

515

variety, to plant, 103
Vateria acuminata, 100
vegetative propagation, 136
Venezuela, 366 ; historical, 5, 11 ;

irrigation, 17 ; soil analysis, '23
Venezuela Amelonado, 92, 372
Venezuela Angoleta, 86, 372
Venezuela cocoa (commercial), 486
Venezuela Criollo, 73, 368, 371
Venezuela Cundeamor, 87, 372
Venezuela Forastero, 368, 372
vertical forking, 164
Victoria cocoa, 395 ; commercial, 489
vinegar (cocoa-), 203
Vitex capitata, 332

washing cocoa, 212, 402

watershoots, 41, 44

weathering of the soil, 170

weeding, 153 : Ecuador, 299 ; San
Thome, 323 ; Trinidad, 344 ; San
Domingo, 379 ; Ceylon, 400 ; Surinam,
453

weeds, influence of, 154 ; evaporation
of water, 155 ; advantages and dis-
advantages, 157

weight (loss in) of cocoa during
fermentation and curing, 227

weight of fruit-husks and seeds, 26

West Indies, 328 ; historical, 5, 6, 11

white-root fungus, 235, 243

wild fig tree, 332

wild-growing cocoa, 66, 290

wild plum tree, 332

wind, 97, 98

wind-breaks and shelter-belts, 97, 99 :

San Thome, 311, 323, 428 ; Dominica,

362 ; Nicaragua, 476
witch-broom disease in Kamerun, 237,

259, 394
witch-broom disease in Surinam, 237,

253, 433, 462

world- consumption of cocoa, 500
world-production of cocoa, 499

Xanthosoma, 114, 408
Xerospermum, 283
Xyleborus, 237, 248, 270

Yeast of fermentation, 30, 205

yield, 196 : Ecuador, 302 ; Brazil, 310 ;

San Thome, 323 ; Grenada, 360 ;

San Domingo, 380 ; Ceylon, 404 ;

Surinam, 459
yuca, 379

Zapota Mamey, 475

Zaratha cramerella. Sec cocoa-moth

Zeuzera coffeae, 237, 271

Zeuzera in Africa, 272, 327

THE END

Printed by R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, Edinburgh.

WORKS ON

TROPICAL AGRICULTURE

THE COCO-NUT. By EDWIN BINGHAM COPE-
LAND, Professor of Plant Physiology and Dean of the
College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines.
Illustrated. 8vo. [Autumn 1914.

The aim of this book is to give the knowledge and advice which
will qualify. a person for the practice of coco-nut raising. Mr.
Copeland's own fund of information has been amplified and
substantiated by the work of the students in his classes. Each
student has had the care of a small group of trees and has
kept full records covering every step in coco- nut culture,
from the preparation of the seed bed to the utilization of the
product. It will thus be seen that the correctness of the state-
ments regarding matters of practice has been very thoroughly
proved.

The book is divided into six chapters, dealing respectively
with The Physiology of the Coco-nut, Climate and Soil. Diseases
and Pests, Selection and Treatment of Seed, Field Culture, and
Coco-Nut Products.

SPICES. By HENRY N. RIDLEY, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Illustrated. 8vo. 8s. 6d. net.

NATURE. — " A book of this kind must appeal mainly to planters
in the tropics, and Mr. Ridley's extensive experience of the needs of
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is a valuable addition to the rather scanty literature of tropical
agriculture."

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIST. — "Fascinating reading as
well as valuable information for those engaged in the cultivation of
spices are furnished by Mr. Ridley's work."

ECONOMIST. — " Mr. Ridley's book, besides giving a great deal
of interesting historical information, contains much valuable technical
and statistical matter, which render it of great use both to the planter
of spices and to the student of commerce."

LONDON : MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD.

WORKS ON

TROPICAL AGRICULTURE

THE COTTON PLANT IN EGYPT: STUDIES
IN PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS. By W. LAWRENCE
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economic importance. Starting with the intention of improving the
Egyptian cotton crop, the author found himself led on from one
problem to another, and to the solution of each he makes a real
contribution, often approaching to the dignity of discovery."

JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC BIOLOGY.— -" A most interest-
ing volume, full of important results."

THE DISEASES OF TROPICAL PLANTS.

By Prof. M. T. COOK, Ph.D. Illustrated. 8vo.
8s. 6d. net.

J^ROPICAL LIFE. — "This is a book the appearance of which
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much even of a good thing. Plant-diseases are not a good thing, but
a very bad one, so we may be excused for saying that no one can
have too much information about them, and although the amount that
has been crowded in this book is marvellous, yet we only regret that
there is not still more."

JOURNAL OF BOTANY. — "The illustrations are abundant
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SYLVICULTURE IN THE TROPICS. By

A. F. BROUN. Illustrated. 8vo. 8s. 6d. net.

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ing information which should make it a useful guide to foresters,
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BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE.— " This
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LONDON : MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD.

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