BER it tie r

LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY OF
CALIKXHM

COFFEE AND INDIA-RUBBER
CULTURE IN MEXICO

PRECEDED BY

GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL NOTES
ON MEXICO

BY

MATIAS ROMERO

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS

NEW YORK AND LONDON
3be Knickerbocker
1898

COPYRIGHT, 1898

BY
MATIAS ROMERO

Ube fmfcfcerbocfeer flregs, -flew i)orft

INTRODUCTION.

When, after serving five years, from 1868 to 1871, as Secretary of
the Treasury in Mexico under President Juarez's administration, I was
obliged to resign, my health being so greatly broken down as to make it
impossible for me to continue discharging the duties of that responsi-
ble, and at the time, very difficult office, feeling that if I remained in
the City of Mexico, I could not regain my health as I would be subject
to continual mental excitement, I made up my mind to live in the
country and occupy my time in agricultural pursuits. Before deciding
what branch of agriculture I should follow, I made a tour of inspec-
tion to the most favored regions of Mexico and found that india-rub-
ber and coffee raising seemed to be the most promising and profitable
undertakings.1 The place which I thought best adapted to both of
these products was the district of Soconusco, one of the counties of

1 I take the following from an article entitled " Settlement of the Mexico-Guate-
mala Boundary Question," that I published in vol. xxix., No. 2, 1897, of the Bulletin-
of the American Geographical Society, of New York :

" The office of Secretary of the Treasury of Mexico was, until recently, the most
difficult of administration, because, the Federal Treasury being in a state of chronic
bankruptcy, it was impossible to pay on demand all its obligations, and the Secretary-
had to distribute the daily receipts in the best way he could ; so that all creditors pre-
sented their claims to him, thus placing in his hands almost all the details of that
office, which, added to several other causes, too numerous to specify here, increased
considerably the Secretary's labors. Therefore, a hard-working and conscientious
man, holding that office, had to work eighteen hours every day, as long as he was able
to do so, and that at a place nearly 8000 feet above the level of the sea, where the
decreased atmospheric pressure seriously affects the nervous system, and does not per-
mit of prolonged and constant mental labor.

" I remember that the Emperor Napoleon, believing, during the French interven-
tion, and while Maximilian was in Mexico, that there was no Mexican capable of
managing the finances of the country, sent to Mexico, for that purpose, two French
officials, who were doubtless expert financiers, and who, being naturally very anxious
to please Napoleon, expecting promotion at home if successful, worked very hard to
satisfy him, with the result that after a few months one of them, M. Bonnefons, re-
turned home very sick and soon afterward died, and his successor, M. Mantenant,
returned to France insane. I have had occasion to notice that even young and strong
men suffer severely after a few months of prolonged mental work, from what Mexican.

iv Untrofcuction.

the State of Chiapas, in southeastern Mexico, bordering on Guatemala,
and I concluded to settle there and apply myself to coffee and india-
rubber culture.

In the meanwhile, coffee raising had attained considerable develop-
ment in Guatemala, the Guatemalan coffee being very highly esteemed
in foreign markets, and I determined to make a tour of inspection in
Guatemala and examine the principal coffee plantations, in order to
learn what was the best way to make a plantation and keep it produc-
tive. I, of course, tried, during this time, to collect all the information
I possibly could about these two branches of agricultural industry.

Finally I undertook to make a coffee plantation in the high lands of
Soconusco — located from four to five thousand feet above the level of
the sea— as, in my opinion, a temperate zone is the proper one for that
tree ; and another for india-rubber in the lower lands of the district,
which are warm, damp and marshy. I acquired some experience by
these experiments and I made a study of the subject, not only in coffee
plantations in Mexico and Guatemala, but in other countries where I un-

doctors call brain anaemia, and which, if the patient does not cease working or leave
the city, it generally has an early and fatal termination.

" After having worked very hard in Washington during the French intervention
in Mexico, from 1861 to 1867, as the official representative of my country, I was called
by President Juarez, on my return home on the i$th of January, 1868, to the Treasury
Department, and I remained in that office up to June 10, 1872, working as hard, if
not harder than any of my predecessors, so that I am surprised that I did not succumb
to the severity of my labors. It is true I was then young, and, owing to my regular
habits, I was physically vigorous ; but the labor imposed upon me was enough to kill
anybody. In the early part of 1872, I could not sleep, nor digest and assimilate my
food, and altogether I was in such a condition that a few months more of such work
would certainly have ended my life. I found myself under the necessity, therefore,
of retiring from the Cabinet, which I did, availing myself of the close of the session
of the Mexican Congress, especially dedicated to approve the appropriations for the
following fiscal year and to vote the taxes to defray them. I also desired to afford
President Juarez an opportunity to appoint new men to his Cabinet, as he had inau-
gurated a new Presidential term on the ist of December", 1871, and it was customary
to make on such occasions a total or partial change of Cabinet.

" I realized that to restore my health it would be necessary for me to lead for some
years a hygienic life and to avoid excessive mental labor, and as this would not have
been possible had I remained in the City of Mexico, I made up my mind to live in the
country, devoting my time and energies to agricultural pursuits, since, having no for-
tune, I had to earn my living by my own work. I visited several desirable places in
Mexico, and finally decided to settle in a place quite remote from the Capital, because
I did not desire to return to public life, for which I had never had any inclination.
I selected the town of Tapachula, the county seat of the District of Soconusco, in the
State of Chiapas, adjoining Guatemala, located on the Pacific slope, because it was
one of fine agricultural resources and of great promise ; and, early in 1873, I settled
there, bought some public land and started a coffee plantation in the high lands, and
one of india-rubber in the low ones, and did some commercial business, buying coffee
for export, and importing agricultural implements and commodities."

flntrofcuction. v

derstood coffee raising was also very prosperous, like the Island of
Ceylon, in the East Indies, and Brazil, which is now and has been for
many years, the largest producer of coffee in the world.

When I considered that I had mastered the subject as thoroughly
as I could without having any technical education for the purpose,
having acquired only practical information and accepted such prin-
ciples as my common sense made clear to me, I thought that I would
give the benefit of my experience to other people, both in and out of
Mexico, who might desire to engage in this industry. I wrote, there-
fore, a little manual on coffee culture on the southern coast of the State
of Chiapas. The knowledge I gained in making a plantation allowed
me to acquire practical experience on this subject, so that my opinions
there expressed are well-grounded and perfectly correct so far as the
southern coast of the State of Chiapas is concerned. In each locality,
the conditions vary according to the position of the mountains, the pre-
vailing winds, the rainfall and other circumstances which produce
various meteorological phenomena affecting materially the climate ; it
would be difficult, therefore, to give rules in detail which would apply
absolutely to all localities, as what is desirable in one may be very ob-
jectionable in another affected by different climatological conditions.

For that reason, I confined my study to the southern district of
Chiapas, which I knew quite well, and tried to verify my theories by
what I had learned of coffee planting in other places, and especially
in Ceylon, as I had found books which stated in a very clear and con-
cise manner the system prevailing there of planting coffee — information
which I found was very difficult to obtain from other countries, including
even Brazil. I published in Mexico three editions of my manual, cor-
recting and adding to each new one — the last one being published in
July, 1874. There was, at the time, no interest in coffee culture
and very little attention was therefore paid to my manual. By the
advice of a friend, I placed in a bookstore about fifty copies on sale,
and four or six years later, only two or three had been sold.

When the price of coffee began to rise considerably, especially af-
ter 1890, the culture of coffee received a great impetus, and the plan-
tations were very much extended, the price became very lucrative, as
it was sold at the plantation as high as 35 cents a pound in silver ; that,
of course, was a great stimulus to increase its production. However,
during the year 1897 the price fell considerably, as it was sold, I believe,
at 12 cents a pound in silver at the plantation, that being still a remu-
nerative price. When the interest in coffee-raising was at its height in
Mexico, the Mexican Government made, in 1893, a fourth edition
of my manual, but it was merely a republication of the former one,
without any change at all. Since the third edition of that book was
published, a great deal of interest has been awakened in the culture of

vi Introduction,

coffee and I have received innumerable requests for copies of the
manual from various sections of Mexico, and also from young men in
the United States who, having heard of the great profits of coffee rais-
ing, are disposed to undertake coffee planting in Mexico. I have
therefore concluded, in the interest of that industry and its develop-
ment in Mexico, to publish an English translation of my manual.

My public duties for the last eighteen years have not allowed me
much time to make new studies on coffee culture, but the interest I take
in coffee raising has made me read all that came in my way on the sub-
ject ; and I also made in 1896 special visits to the new coffee districts
in the State of Oaxaca, Mexico, to study their conditions. I am very
sorry that I have not the time indispensable to revise this edition, and
have to publish it as it came out in Spanish, several years ago. To
understand it well the reader must bear in mind that it was written in
Soconusco County, State of Chiapas, nearly a quarter of a century ago.

I am very sorry that my present engagements have prevented me
from revising this paper up to date ; that is, changing such views ex-
pressed in the same as my experience has taught me not to be entirely
correct, at least in so far as other regions outside of the southern coast
of Chiapas are concerned, as that would require more time than I can
afford, and in my inability to do that work, I prefer to use the paper
I wrote long ago, exactly in the shape in which it then came out.
Since that time, all circumstances and conditions of coffee raising have
materially changed. The price of land has increased twenty times, as
a caballeria, which was worth $50 in 1874, has been recently sold at
$1000 ; wages have gone up twice or three times higher than they were
then, and all the estimates of the costs and expenses to be approximate
to present conditions would be required to be at least triple, and in some
cases even this figure would not represent the exact cost. Besides, any
mistake, especially in the selection of a site for a coffee plantation, may
cause very serious losses, in the shape of increased expenses for plant-
ing and keeping it, and reduced receipts caused by small crops.

In 1893 and 1894 I was involuntarily drawn into a controversy with
an American gentleman, who advocated the low lands of the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec as the best suited for coffee and india-rubber culture,
and in that correspondence I expressed some views concerning that
subject in other regions than the southern coast of Chiapas, which con-
tained some ideas formed since the book was written. I append to
this paper that correspondence.

When I settled in Soconusco it was a wild county, which on ac-
count of its distance from the capital of the Republic, its isolation
from the rest of the State of Chiapas, and the unsettled condition
which often prevailed in Mexico, had made it almost an independ-
ent principality, ruled with an iron hand by an unscrupulous and

Untrofcuction. vii

irresponsible local chieftain, who had been able to overpower all oppo-
sition. I tried to obtain his support for the development of the country,
and he seemed to give it to me cheerfully, and I worked earnestly for
the purpose of establishing the supremacy of the Federal government
and the Federal laws which amply guarantee personal and property
rights, and I succeeded in having Federal troops and Federal judges
sent there for that purpose. His antagonists, however, availed them-
selves of the opportunity of his losing power to drive him out of the
place, and he, with the natural suspicion of ignorant men, thought I
was the cause of his overthrow, and that I had been working for it, and
decided to get rid of me at any cost. Besides, the then President of
Guatemala, General J. Rufino Barrios, who suspected my going to Soco-
nusco with some scheme hostile to his country and himself,1 assisted
the Soconusco leader against me, and both plotted against my life, but
I was saved in an almost miraculous manner. My coffee plantation
had before, and while I was making it, been partially destroyed by

1 The following extract from my paper on the " Settlement of the Mexico-Guate-
mala Boundary Question," just quoted, states the nature of my relations with General
Barrios, the President of Guatemala, while I was in Soconusco :

"Public men in Guatemala are generally very suspicious, and especially were
they so when Mexico was concerned, and when they saw me living as a farmer in a
very humble frontier town adjoining their country, they imagined that I must have
some hostile designs against Guatemala, and that my farming was only a pretence to
cover my hidden designs. General J. Rufino Barrios became President very soon af-
ter I settled in Soconusco, and he, as well as most of the persons around him, thought
that I had gone there either with the purpose of attempting to make myself dictator
or ruler of Guatemala, or to work for the annexation of that country to Mexico, which
liad been for some time the great bugbear of Guatemalan statesmen. Judging by what
they had sometimes seen in their own country, they imagined that a man who had been
Secretary of the Treasury of Mexico for five years was, or ought to be, a millionaire,
and consequently they thought it an absurd idea that he should try to earn his living
by honest labor.

" Although I had been warned of this danger, I did not at the time fully realize
its gravity, because I did not know how suspicious of Mexico and how hostile to her
the people of Guatemala were, and I tried to allay their fears by going myself to the
City of Guatemala to make the acquaintance of its public men and to inform them of
my reasons for having settled in Soconusco, and of my purposes for the future ; but,
judging me by the standard of their own views and principles, as it is natural for peo-
ple to do, this act of mine probably only served to confirm them in their suspicions.

" General Barrios himself, whom I met in the City of Guatemala, before be-
coming President, treated me with the greatest duplicity. At the same time that
he pretended to be a friend of mine, and in some ways acted as such, probably in
order the better to deceive me by inspiring me with confidence in his sincerity,
— as when he sent me his power of attorney, authorizing me to draw upon his funds
in bank and attend to his private affairs, especially to a farm he had in Soconusco, —
he actually believed me to be his rival, and therefore his worst enemy, and he did all
he could against my person and property, but always in an underhand manner, so as
not to appear personally responsible."

viii Untrofcuctiou.

neighboring Guatemalan Indians, encouraged, I was sure, although I
could not prove it, by President Barrios, under the plea that I was
making it in Guatemalan territory.

My sudden departure from Soconusco made me abandon and lose
everything I had there. I, therefore, did not see grown the trees I had
planted, but they grew well and yielded a large amount of fruit, of
which a relative of mine availed himself, who made out of that plan-
tation a large fortune, and finally bought from me the land occupied
by the plantation at about the price of land there when the purchase
was made.

In the several trips of inspection which I made in Mexico, I was
careful to study coffee culture in every district I visited, and I pub-
lished in the newspapers the result of my studies in the shape of
articles relating to each district. They were finally reprinted in a
book on the State of Oaxaca, which I published in Barcelona in 1886.
It would take a great deal of space to publish them here, and they do-
not contain, so far as rules for coffee culture are concerned, any more
information than appears in my manual on the subject.

As Mexico is so little known in the United States, I thought it con-
venient for the benefit of the readers in this country that I should pre-
cede my manual with another paper on " Geographical and Statistical
Notes on Mexico," which I have just published, and which to an
American reader gives more recent information than I have seen col-
lected in any single book in the English language.

WASHINGTON, January 31, 1898. M. R.

MONEY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Before Mexico adopted the metric decimal system we used the old
Spanish weights and measures.

The measures used in this book are those in vogue in Soconusca
when this manual was written, namely : the vara as a unit of linear
measure, which is 2.75 English feet or about 33 inches ; and for land
measure the Cuerda, which is a square of 25 varas on each side or 625
sq. varas, the Caballeria, which has 609.408 varas or 105} acres and
the square league which is a square of 5,000 varas on each side or
25,000,000 sq. varas and equal to 4339.4 acres. The pounds are also
the Mexican pounds equal to 1.014 English pounds.

The Mexican dollar was divided into eight parts, each of them
called a real. The real, which was 12^ cents, was divided into two
halves called medios, and each media was divided into two halves called
cuartillas, and each cuartilla was divided into two halves called octavos,

In Mexico we use the thermometer with the Centigrade scale, and
the way in which this scale can be reduced to the Fahrenheit scale
used in this country is well known.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

CONTENTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL

NOTES ON MEXICO i

PART I. GEOGRAPHY .... 3

Location, Boundaries and Area 5 ,

Location 5

Boundary with the United States 5

Boundary with Guatemala ,6

Boundary with Belize . . . . . . r. * 6

Cession of Mexican Territory to the United States . ,...'. . 7 «

General Characteristics 8 »

Geology . . . . . . . . • 12

Mining . . .13

Silver 13

Real del Monte Company .15

New Mines, Topia 17

Li Hung Chang and the Mexican Silver Mines . . .18

Gold . . . 19

Coinage of the Precious Metals 21

Coinage of Mexico from the Establishment of the Mints

in 1537 to the End of the Fiscal Year 1896 . . .21

Iron . . 21

Iron Foundries ... 22

Copper . . . . . • > • • • • .22
Quicksilver . ........ 23

Coal . . . \ , ' 23

Mexican Miners . . . . . . . . 25

Mining Laws 25

Mints and Duties on Silver 27

Smelting Plants 28

Mexican Metallurgical Company 28

National Mexican Smelter at Monterey .... 28

x Contents.

PAGE:

Central Mexican Smelter 29

Velardena Mining Company 29

The Chihuahua Mining Company 29- .

The Mazapil Copper Company, Limited .... 29
Sabinal Mining and Smelting Company, Chihuahua . . 29

La Preciosa 29

The Boleo Smelter .... . ,: . . . 29

Orography . . . . . . . . .29

Hydrography ...... . . V" . 32

Climate •> • • -35

Summary of the Meteorological Observations Taken in

Several Cities of Mexico during Several Years . 3&
Summary of the Meteorological Observations Taken in

Several Localities of Mexico during the Year 1869 . 39
Mexico as a Sanitarium . . . . . . . • 4*

Flora . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Coffee 44 •

Sugar-cane .45

Tobacco .......... 45

India-rubber ........... 46

Cotton 48

Agave 48

Henequen .......... 49

Pulque . . . . 49

Cactus . . . . . , . ... . 51
Cocoa . . . . . . . . . • . 51

Vanilla . . . . v, .52

Silk Culture . . , . . . . . . . 53

Cochineal . -53

Rice . 53

Chicle, or Chewing-gum 53

Yuca 54

Ginger . . 55

Canaigre • 55

Peppermint 55

Cabinet and Dye Woods 55

Grasses . . . . . . . . . . .56

Alfalfa . | 56

Cattle-raising 56

Sheep . . ' V 58

Products of Cold and Temperate Regions . . . . 58

Fruits . . . '- •' 58

Oranges * . . . . . • • 59

Lemons . ........ 60

Contents. xi

PAGE

Limes and Shaddocks . . . . . . . . 61

Bananas . . . . . . . . . .61

Pineapple .......... 62

Cocoanut .......... 62

Mangoes .63

Alligator Pear 63

Mamey A "\ . 63

Zapote » . 63

Papaya ........ > •_•»>- , 63

"Flowers .* . : ,. .. . 63

Irrigation v - . . . ... 64

The Nazas Irrigation . . . » . i » , 67

Fauna ........ . . . K,fy 70

Ethnology . . V 72 »

Mexican Indians ......... 72 •

Increase of Mexican Population 76 •

Decrease of the Indian Population . . . . • 77 *

The Spaniards in Mexico . . . . V • . 78

English and Germans in Mexico . . « . # r- 79 »

Americans in Mexico . ... . , v . . 79

Ruins . . . ,:- , . . f , t -. , . 80

Uxmal . . . . , . . / . . . 80

Palenque . . . , . . . «... .81

Cholula . . . . . .... . 81

Teotihuacan . . . . . . . . « 81

Mitla . . . . . . . .... 83

Languages . . . . . . . ^ . 85

Synopsis of the Indian Languages of Mexico according to

Don Francisco Pimentel . . . .... 86 «

Population . . . . . 89 -

Classification of Mexican States 90

Area and Population of the United Mexican States . . 91 •

Religion . ^. . . . . . . . . 92

Protestantism in Mexico . ... . . 95

Political Organization . . . . . . . . r 98

Political Division . . . . . . .... 99

Army and Navy . , . . . . ;. , .. ' w » 99

Education . . . . . . ,. . . . . 100

Universities Established by the Spanish Government . , 101

School of Medicine ... ,, . . . ,. 102

School of Engineering ........ 103

Mexican Technical Schools in the Present Time . . . 103

Reorganization of the Technical Colleges .... 104

Primary Education 104

xii Contents.

PAGE

School Statistics . . 105

Libraries . • . . . . . . . . 106

Newspapers . . . . . . . . . . 106

The Valley of Mexico 106

The City of Mexico . .107

Climate .no

Mortality in the City of Mexico . • . : . ., . . in
Climatological Data of the City of Mexico . . . .112

Summary of the Meteorological Observations of the City of

Mexico in 1896 . . •'. * . . . . . 113

Railways . . . . . . • • • • • IJ5

President Diaz's Railway Policy . . . . . . 117

President Diaz's Statistics on Mexican Railways . . . 118
Financial Condition of Mexican Railways f . . . 119
Annual Buildings and Earnings of Mexican Railways . 120
Approximate Tonnage Moved by Central, National, Inter-
oceanic, and Mexican Railways for Ten Years ended

December 31, 1896 , 121

Telegraphs . . . . ..121

Postal Service 123

Public Lands 124

Immigration. . . . . 125

Immigration from the United States . . . . . 126

Public Debt. . .... . .'•'. . . .129

Banking .... . . . . . . . 131

Patents and Trademarks . . ... . . .132

Patents . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Trademarks . . . . . ... . 132

Shipping and Communications . . . . * . . 133

Money, Weights, and Measures . 133

Non-Official Publications (English) ... . . 134

PART II. — STATISTICS . . . .135

Revenues and Expenses i37«

Revenue and Expenses of the Federal Government of Mexico

in 1808 and from 1822 to June 30, 1867 . . . 139
Revenue and Expenses of the Mexican Government from

July i, 1867, to June 30, 1888 . . . ./ 140

Revenue and Expenses of the Mexican Government from

July i, 1888, to June 30, 1896 . . . . . 141
Federal Appropriations during the Fiscal Years from 1868 to

1895 . 142

Sources of Revenue • • X43

Import Duties . ' V • . 143

Contents. xiii

PACK

Additional Import Duties 144

Export Duties .... .... 144

Amount of Import Duties 144

Custom Receipts from 1823 to 1875 145

Internal Revenue ......... 146

Receipts of the Custom Houses during the Twenty-seven

Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 1896 . . /. . 147
Internal Revenue Receipts from January i, 1875, to June

30, 1896 . . . . . . . . . 148

Direct Taxes 148

Receipts from Direct Taxes in the Federal District during

the Twenty-seven Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 1896 . 149

Revenues of the Mexican States from 1884 to 1895 . . 150
Expenses of the Mexican States from 1884 to 1895 . .151

Revenues of the Municipalities of Mexico from 1884 to 1895 152

Expenses of the Municipalities of Mexico from 1884 to 1895 153

State and Municipal Finances ........ 154

Foreign Trade .... . . . . . . 155

Imports. . . . • •-.. . . . . . . 155

Mexican Imports and Exports from 1826 to 1828 . . 155
Imports in Mexico from July i, 1872, to June 30, 1875, and

in the year 1884-1885 . . . . . 156
Imports in Mexico from July i, 1885, to June 30, 1886, and

from July i, 1888, to June 30, 1890 . . 157
Imports in Mexico from the Fiscal Year 1892-1893, to the

Fiscal Year 1895-1896 . . . ... 158

Exports ..- . v . 159

Imports in Mexico by Countries in the Fiscal Years 1888-1889

and 1889-1890, and Imports and Exports by Countries

and Custom Houses in the Fiscal Years 1894-1895 and

1895-1896 . . . * ..... 160
Exports of Mexican Commodities from July i, 1886, to

June 30, 1896 . . . . . . . . 162

Statement of Exports of some Agricultural Products during

the Fiscal Years from July i, 1877, to June 30, 1896 . 164
Value of Imports from Mexico from July i, 1882, to June

30, 1892 . ... . . . ; . 165

Resume of Total Imports . ^ . . . . . :. 167

Destination and Value of Exports from Mexico in the Fiscal

Years from 1882 to 1892 . . . ... 168

Total Exports . ..;.'; 169

Trade between Mexico and the United States . . . ,- 170
Total Imports to Mexico and Imports from the United

States for the Fiscal Years 1872-1873 to 1895-1896 172

xiv Contents*

PAGE

Total Exports from Mexico and the Exports to the United

States from 1877-1878 to 1895-1896 .... 173
Statement of the Commercial Transactions between Mexico

and the United States from 1826 to 1850 . . .173
Commerce in Merchandise between the United States and

Mexico by Years and Decades from 1851 to 1897 . 174
Total Commerce between the United States and Mexico by

Years and Decades from 1851 to 1897 . . . 175
Quantities and Values of the Principal and all other Articles

of Imports into the United States from, and of Exports

from the United States to, Mexico, 1858-1883 . . 176
Quantities and Values of the Principal and all other Articles

of Imports into the United States from, and of Exports

from the United States to, Mexico, from 1889-1897 . 181

Increase of Trade during the year 1896-1897 . . .184

Leading Merchandise Imports from Mexico . . .184

Exports from the United States to Mexico . . . 184

Tropical Products Supplied by Mexico to the United States 185

Cattle Exported to the United States . . . ... 186

Coinage . ;.. . . .„ . . .i .-•-." . .. 186

Coinage by the Mexican Mints from their Establishment in

J53S to June 30, 1895 .187

Production of Gold and Silver in Mexico in 1879-1880, 1889-

1890, and 1894-1895 . ... . . . 188

Export of Precious Metals and Minerals from Mexico in the

years 1879-1880, 1889-1890, and 1894-1895 . . 188

Exports of Silver from July i, 1872, to June 30, 1896 . . 190

Mexican Gold Exports . . .... . . . 190

Mexican Gold Exported to the United States . . . 191
Imports of Gold Bullion, Ore, and Coin from Mexico into

the United States from 1891 to 1895 . . . . . 191
Imports of Gold Bullion, Ore, and Coin from Mexico into

the United States from 1892 to 1896 . ... • 191
Gold Exported from Mexico to the United States from 1891

to 1896 » . . . .-,.'. . 192

Railways . . . . . .,; . -« . . . 193,

Statement by the Department of Communications of Mexico

of the Railroad Mileage in Operation on October 31,

1896 . . . . . . /. . . . 193

Resume of Railways in Mexico in 1895 , . . 195

Mexican Central . ... . . , . . . . 196

Mexican National . . . » . . . . . 196

Earnings and Expenses of the Mexican National from 1889

to 1896 t . , '..'*. * . . . 198

Contents

XV

PAGE

Mexican International 199

Mexican Southern ......... 200

Other Railroads ........ : ; 201

Mexican Railroad .V. 201

Interoceanic Railway . . • ;- -y • m • >9 t 2O2

Sonora Railway . . . .... . . 202

Hidalgo and Northeastern Railway . . . ' Y . 202

Merida and Progreso Railway . '->\ ", . , . . 203

Tehuacan and Esperanza Railway . ..... 203

Merida and Peto Railway ..-.."., . . 203

Sinaloa and Durango (Altata to Culiacan) Railway . . 204

Merida and Campeche Railway. » . V • ' v. • 204

Merida and Valladolid Railway .. . . . . 204

Tlalmanalco Railway . . . . . . „ ' . 205

San Juan Bautista and Carrizal Passenger Railway . . 205

San Andres and Chalchicomula Railway . . . . 205

Orizaba and Ingenio Railway ... . . . 206

Santa Ana and Tlaxcala Railway . . . . . 206

Cardenas and Rio Grijalva Railway . . . . . 206

Toluca and San Juan de las Huertas Railway . . . 207

Vanegas, Cedral, Matehuala, and Rio Verde Railway . 207

Merida and Izamal Railway . ..; . . . . 207

San Marcos and Nautla Railway . . . . . 207

Monterey and Gulf Railway . . . . . . 208

Cordova and Tuxtepec Railway . . . . . 208

Maravatio and Cuernavaca Railway . , . . . 208

Salamanca and Santiago Valley Railway .... 208

Monte Alto Railway . . . ... . . 209

Valley of Mexico Railway . . . . . . . 209

Puebla Industrial Railway . . . . . . 209

Mexican Northern Railway . . ; . • . . 209
Mexico, Cuernavaca, and Pacific Railway . , . 209
Federal District Tramways . . « . . . 210
Veracruz and Alvarado Railway . » ;, : ». . . 210
Total Traffic and Receipts of Mexican Railways . . . 210
Traffic and Receipts of the Mexican Railways . . . 211
Railway Subsidies Paid by the Mexican Government . . . 211
Subsidies Paid by the Mexican Government to Railway Com-
panies up to June 30, 1896 . . . . . 212

Detailed Statement of the Subsidies Paid by the Mexican

Government to the Railway Companies . . . 213

1. Mexican Railway . . . ... , . 213

2. Hidalgo Railway \ ' . . ". > •. . . 213

3. Veracruz & Alvarado Railway . . . • " . . 213

xvi Contents.

PAGE

4. Merida & Peto Railway . . . . . .213

5. Interoceanic Railway . . . . . . .214

6. Occidental Railway . . . . . . .214

7. Mexican Central and sundry branches . . . .214

8. Mexican National and branches 215

9. Sonora Railway with a branch 216

10. Me"rida & Valladolid Railway with a branch . .216

11. Me"rida & Campeche Railway via Kalkini . . .216

12. San Marcos & Nautla Railway 216

13. Toluca & San Juan de las Huertas Railway. . .217

14. Vanegas, Cedral, Matehuala, & Rio Verde Railway . 217

15. Jimenez & Sierra Madre Railway . . . .217

16. Mexican Southern Railway 217

17. Tonala & Frontera Railway . . . . . .217

18. Monterey & Mexican Gulf Railway . . . .218

19. Tecolula & Espinal Railway 218

20. Pachuca & Tampico Railway . . . . .218

21. Maravatio & Iguala Railway . . . . .218

22. Mexican Northeastern Railway 218

23. Veracruz & Boca del Rio Railway . . . .219

24. Tula, Zacualtipan & Tampico Railway . . .219

25. Matamoros, Izucar, & Acapulco Railway . . .219

26. Lower California Railway 219

27. Monte Alto Railway . . . . . . .219

28. Tehuantepec Railway . . . . .. .219^

1. Contractors, Edward Learned & Co. | . . '* . 219

2. Contractor, Mr. Delfin Sanchez . . . .220

3. Mac-Murdo Contract . ..... 220

4. Stanhope, Hampson, & Corthel Contract. . . 220.
Public Debt 221

Statement of the National Debt of Mexico to June 30, 1896 221

Statement of the Federal Public Debt on June 30, 1896 . 222

Post-Office and Telegraph Service 223

Post-Offices in Mexico in 1895 by States . . . .223
Earnings and Expenditures of the Post-Office and Telegraph

Services from July i, 1869 to June 30, 1896 . . 224
Number of Pieces Transported by Mexican Mails from 1878-

1879 to 1894-1895 225

Banks ............ 225

List of Mexican Banks ........ 225 •

Situation of the Mexican Banks on December 31, 1894 . 226

Public Lands 226 j

Free Titles of the Indian-town lands issued to the inhabitants

from 1877 to 1895 ..... > . 227

Contents*

PAGE

Titles issued for unwarranted possession of Public Lands by

Private Parties in 1894 and 1895 .... 227
Titles of public lands issued to Private Parties in 1894 and

1895 227

Titles issued in 1894 and 1895 to Surveying Companies . 228

Education . : , / . 228

Newspapers Published in Mexico in 1895 . . , . 228
Public Schools supported by the Federal, State, and Muni-
cipal Administration's in 1895 . ... . 229
Schools supported by Private Parties * ., ... ./ . 231
Public Libraries in Mexico . . . . ; .. ',-.,. . 233

Manufacturing Establishments in Mexico in 1893 ... ,..., . 233

Summary of Factories existing in Mexico in 1893 ., .... . . 236

Navigation . - .' . .,, ..... v • 237

Vessels arrived at Mexican Ports in 1895 . . . . 238

Vessels departed from Mexican Ports in 1895 . ... . 239

Resume" of arrivals and departures from 1885 to 1895 . . 239

Foreign Passengers arrived at Mexican Ports in 1895 . . 240

Foreign Passengers departed from Mexican Ports in 1895 . 241
General resume* of Passengers arrived and departed by Port

and Rail in 1895 . . . . * . ... . . . 242

Vessels arrived at and departed from Mexican Ports during

the Fiscal Years 1894-95 to 1895-96 . . . . 243

Agricultural Products :

Resume* of Agricultural Products in Mexico . . . 243

Conclusion . » • 244

ADDENDA . . . . . 245

Federal Revenue and Expenses of Mexico in the Fiscal Year

1896-97 . . . 245

Imports and Exports of Mexico by Countries and Custom-

Houses in the Fiscal Year 1896-97 . . . . . 246

Trade between Mexico and the United States during the first

nine months of the Calendar Year 1897 . . . . 247

Mexican Exports to the United States . . ... 247

Mexican Imports from the United States . . . * . . 248

APPENDIX . ... .249

Mexico as a Central American State ... . . . 249

Five States of Central America . . . . , ., . 250

Mexico ... . ... . . . ,. . , 251

Geographical Extension of Central America . . . . . 251

xviii Contents.

PAGE

Mexican Profiles . . . . 253

From Veracruz to Mexico by Orizaba, by the Mexican

Railway . . . . . . .'•-". . 253

From Apizaco to Puebla, a branch of the same road . . 253

From Veracruz to Mexico, by the Interoceanic Railway . 254
From the City of Mexico to Morelos, a branch of the same

road . , . . . . . . . 254

From Puebla to Izucar de Matamoros, a branch of the same

road . . . . 255

From Mexico to El Paso del Norte or Ciudad Juarez by the

Central Mexican Railroad ... . . . 255

From Aguascalientes to Tampico, a branch of the same road. 257
From Irapuato to Guadalajara, a branch of the same road . 258
From Mexico to Laredo Tamaulipas by the Mexican Na-
tional Railway 258

From Acdmbaro to Patzcuaro, a branch of the same road . 261
From Piedras Negras or Ciudad Porfirio Diaz to Durango,

by the Mexican International Railway . • . . 261
From Sabinas to Hondo, a branch of the same road . .262

From the City of Mexico to Cuernavaca and Acapulco . 262

From Puebla to Oaxaca, by the Mexican Southern Railway. 263
From Coatzacoalcos to Salina Cruz, by the National Te-

huantepec Railway . ... . . . 263

From the City of Mexico to Pachuca, by the Hidalgo and

Northeastern Mexican Railway ..... 264

Northeastern Railway from Mexico to Tizayuca . 264

Hidalgo Railway to Tuxpan . ...... • • 264

From Tepa to Pachuca, a branch of the Hidalgo Rail-
way . . . . . . . . 264

From San Augustin to Irolo, a branch of the Hidalgo

Railway . . . . . . . 264

Bridie-Path from Durango to Mazatlan . . . . 265

Wagon Road from Manzanillo to Guadalajara . . . 265

Wagon Road from Tehuacan to Oaxaca and Puerto Angel . 266

THE VALLEY OF MEXICO'S DRAINAGE . 266

Topographical Conditions of the Valley of Mexico . . 267

Work done by the Indians . . . , . . . 267

Work done by the Spaniards 269

Work done by the Mexican Government , . . . 274

The Tunnel . .. . . . . . . . . 276

The Canal . . . . . . . '. . . . 277

The Sewage . ... • • •- ... .279

Completion of the work . ... . . . 279

Index 407

CONTENTS OF COFFEE CULTURE ON THE SOUTH-
ERN COAST OF CHIAPAS . . . . t 281

Coffee Culture on the Southern Coast of Chiapas . , . 283

I. Introduction . ... . . . . . 283

II. Future of Coffee Culture in Mexico . . . . . 285

III. Advantages and Disadvantages of Soconusco for Coffee

Growing. . , , . . . "-. . . . 286

1. The Advantages which Soconusco Offers for the Culti-

vation of Coffee . * ..'• . « . . . 286

A. Advantages of the Soil and Climate of Soconusco . 286

B. Cheapness of Labor in Soconusco . . . . 287

C. Proximity of Good Coffee Land to the Sea . . . 287

D. Facility with which the Expenses of Coffee Grow-

ing may be Defrayed by Raising Other Crops at

the Same Time on the Same Land . . . 288

2. Disadvantages of Coffee Raising in Soconusco .. . 289

IV. Conditions of Land Suitable for Coffee , . . . 291

1. Nature of the Land and its Configuration . . . 291

A. Land Suitable for Coffee . . " ', . .-. . 291

B. Layer of Vegetable Soil 292

C. Depth of the Layer of Vegetable Soil ... . 292

D. Land of Volcanic Formation . . . .* . 292

E. Virgin Forest Soil and Cultivated Soil • • . 292

a. Virgin Forest Land . . . . .... 293

b. Land Recently Cleared . . . . . 293

c. Land Best Adapted for Coffee . „ . . 294

F. Configuration of the Land . . , . . . 294

a. Advantages of Level Ground ... . . 294

b. Advantages of Hilly Ground . . . . 294

c. Configuration of the Ground Best Suited for

Coffee . . . . . . * 295

2. Temperature . . . . ... . . 295

3. Altitude above the Level of the Sea . . . . 295

A. Productiveness of the Coffee-Tree in Relation to

Altitude . . ... . . . . 296

B. Advantages of High Lands . . . . , . 296

xx Contents*

PAGE

IV. Conditions of Land Suitable for Coffee — Continued

C. Altitude Most Suitable for Coffee Growing . . . 296

D. Altitude of Various Places in Soconusco . . . 297

4. Exposure to the Sun . . . .- . 297

5. Protection against the Winds . . . . . . 298

6. Humidity .... . . , » . . 298

7. Streams . . . . , . • » • • 29&

8. Sites for Building Purposes . . . '. « . 299

V. Coffee Cultivation . . . . . . , ,-''• . 299

1. Shade " . .-* . . . 300

A. General Considerations Regarding Shade . . . 300

B. Advantages of Shade . » . „ > . . 301

C. Disadvantages of Shade . . . . . . . 301

D. Rules Regarding Shade ... , . .301

E. Trees to be Preferred for Shade . . ' . . . 302

2. Distance between the Plants . V. . . . 302

A. General Considerations Regarding Distance » . 302

B. Number of Plants in Each Cuerda . . , . 303

C. Yield of Each Cuerda . . 304

D. Area Required by Each Tree . . . . . 304

E. Advantages of Long Distances . . . , 305

F. Advantages of Short Distances . . . . . 305

G. Rules Regarding Distance . . * . . . 305

3. Nursery . . . . . • • • • • 3°^

A. Advantages of a Nursery . . . . . , 307

B. Land Suitable for a Nursery and its Location . . 307

C. Seed-Plot . .308

D. Nursery from Seed . 308

a. Preparation of the Ground for the Nursery . . 309

b. Time for Planting . . .... . . 309

c. Seeds . \ » . . . . . . . 309

d. Sowing the Seed . . . . . . 310

e. Replanting . . . . '. . . . 310

f. Cultivation .... ,. . . . 316

g. Pruning . . . . . ... 311

h. Time for Transplanting . . . . . 311

E. Nursery Formed from Young Plants . . , . 311

F. Nursery Formed from Slips . . . ... 311

G. Nursery of Plants for Selling . . . .312
H. Nurseries in Ceylon .312

4. Preparation of the Ground for Planting Coffee . . 313

A. Felling the Trees « . . 313

B. Simultaneous Sowing .... ' . . . 314

C. Forming of a Plan for a Plantation . .' , . 314

Contents, xxi

PAGE

V. Coffee Cultivation — Continued

D. Staking 314

a. Object, Advantages, and Time of Staking . .315

b. Staking in Soconusco . . . . r , 315

c. Staking in Ceylon . . . . . .'•;' 316

Laborie System . . . ...... 316

Sabonadiere System . . . . . . 316

Respective Advantages of the two Systems . . 317

E. Digging the Holes . . ."' . . . 317

a. Time for Digging the Holes . ... . 317

b. Manner of Digging the Holes . ; . •. .. 318

c. Size of the Holes . . . * . ;. . 318

d. Planting without Holes . . . * . . 318

5. Transplanting . ... . . v . '•>. . 318

A. Time for Transplanting . . / . . . 319

B. Transplanting with the Earth Adhering to the Roots 319

a. Advantages of Transplanting with the Earth Adher-

ing to the Roots . . .' . • ; ' • . . . 319

b. Manner of Transplanting with the Earth Adher-

ing to the Roots . . . . * . . 319

c. Quantity of Earth Adhering to the Roots . . 320

d. Size of the Plants at the Time of Transplanting 320

e. Pruning the Root of the Plant in Transplanting . 321

C. Transplanting with the Root Free from Earth . . 321

a. Manner of Planting Coffee-Trees with the Roots

Bare . . . . . . . . .321

b. Disadvantages of Transplanting with the Roots Bare 322

c. Case in which Transplanting should be Done with

the Roots Bare ....... 322

D. Transplanting in Slips . . . . . . 322

E. Transplanting in Ceylon .' . . . , * 322

6. Cultivation of Coffee . . . . . . . 323

A. Clearing the Ground . ... . . . 323

a. Necessity and Advantages of Weeding . . . 323

b. Manner of Weeding . . . .-. . . 324

c. Number of Weedings to be Made During the Year 324

d. Weeding in Ceylon . . , . . . . 325

B. Replanting . '. . . . - . * . . 325

C. Pruning . . ... . . * < * .325

a. General Considerations on Pruning . ^ . 326

b. Principles of Pruning . . . V- . . 326

c. Advantages of Pruning . . . . ... 327

d. Topping ... . . . . . . 328

e. Pruning . ... . . ... 329

Contents*

V. Coffee Cultivation — Continued

f. Rules for Pruning ....... 329

System of Laborie ...... 329

System of Sabonadiere ..... 330

System of a Practical Cultivator of Ceylon . . 331
System of the Observer of Colombo . . .331

g. Manner of Pruning . t& . . . 332
h. Time of Pruning . . . ». . . 333

D. Cultivation of Coffee in Ceylon . . . . . 333

a. Making Roads . . . -^: »: .%. . 334

b. Drainage . . . .... . -335

c. Making Trenches . . . *.. * . . 335

d. Loosening the Earth . .... 336

e. Making Ridges . . . . » . . 336

f. Irrigating ........ 336

g. Enemies of the Coffee-Tree . . . » . 336

Grubs ......... 337

Rats ........ -337

Coffee-Bug ........ 337

Ants ... ..... 337

7. Fertilizers ......... 337

A. Necessity for and Advantages of Fertilizers . . 338

B. Fertilizers Used in Soconusco ..... 338

C. Fertilizers Used in Ceylon . . . •„ . , . 338

a. Substances which are Used as Manure . . 339

Cattle-Dung . ... . .; . . 339

Bones ...... k . . 339

Super-phosphates. . .... . . 339

Pulp of the Fruit . . . : V . . 339

Prunings ..... « . V 339

Mana Grass . . . . ; . . , • * . 339

Salts of Ammonia . . . . . 340

Wood- Ashes ..... . . 340

Burnt Clay ........ 340

Lime ....... . . 340

Guano ....... *. . 340

Mixtures of these Substances . . _-* . 340

b. Manner of Applying Fertilizers to the Soil . . 340

c. Period at which the Fertilizers should be Used 341

d. Cost of Fertilizers ....... 341

8. Gathering of the Crop ..... . . 342

A. Gathering the Crop in Soconusco . . . . 342

a. Time at which the Coffee-Tree Begins to Bear

Fruit ....... , . 342

Contents*

V. Coffee Cultivation — Continued

b. Time during which the Coffee-Tree Continues

Bearing Fruit ...... . 342

c. Blossoming and Fructification of the Coffee-Tree . 343

d. Gathering the Crop . . * '* . . 343
B. Gathering the Crop in Ceylon . \ '.'"•"•'• • • 344

9. Preparation of the Coffee for the Market . * . . 344

A. Preparation of Coffee in Soconusco . • . . 345

a. Pulping . . . '.<":: ''••;••;. . > . 345

b. Washing > . . < . . *• . . 346

c. Separating the Good Coffee from the Bad . . 346

d. Exposure to the Sun . ;:.v ,, ~*' i . 346

e. Shelling . . ... • » » • • • 347

f. Dyeing . . . . ;" . . . . 347

g. Winnowing . . . , S> . » . 347
h. Sorting the Coffee . . . . • v • . . -. . 347

B. Improvement in the Preparation of Coffee in So-

conusco . . . . .. < * . * 348

C. Preparation of Coffee in Ceylon . . .- • •, . . 348

VI. Profits of Coffee Culture ....... 350

i. Cost, Productiveness, and Net Profits of Coffee in So-

conusco . . . * . . * -.• -. 350

A. Cost of a Plantation in Soconusco . . . .351

a. Value of the Ground . . . . * . 351

b. Expenses of the First Year . ... . .351

Preparation of the Ground . « - . . .351

Seed ...... . » " . 351

Transportation, Planting, and Weeding . .351

Other Expenses . . . | . . . 351

c. Expenses of the Second Year ^ « . .352

Preparing the Ground . . »• . . . 352

Staking . . ... ; ; . . 352

Drilling Holes . .... 4 * . 352

Transplanting . . . ... • 352

Weeding . . . . . . ... 352

Other Expenses . . . . . . .352

d. Expenses for the Third Year . .: . .»" * 352

Weedings . . . ... . . .352

Threshing Floors . , . * . .352

Pulper . . . >, • • • .352

Retrilla . . . . • * ." ' . v ' < 352

Fanner . : . « < « • . * * 352

Oxen . . . . . . . v . 352

Picking the Fruit \\ . . * . / 352

Contents*

VI. Profits of Coffee Culture— Continued

Other Expenses . . . . . . .352

e. Expenses for the Fourth Year . . . .352

Weedings ........ 352

Threshing Floors 1 ..... 352

Machinery . . . ;. ; . . . 352

Picking the Fruit . . . . . . 352

Other Expenses . . . . . . . 352

f. Resume" of Expenses . . . . . .352

B. Productiveness of a Plantation in Soconusco . . 353

C. Profits of Coffee in Soconusco . :. . . . .353

2. Cost, Productiveness, and Profits of Coffee in Barcenas

Plantation . . . .... . 354

A. Cost of Coffee in Barcenas . . . , . . 354

Nursery and Seeds . . . . . . . 354

Stakes and Holes ..... «, . 354

Preparation of the Ground . . . . . 354

Transplanting ....... . 354

Weedings ........ -354

Other Expenses ........ 354

B. Productiveness of Coffee in Barcenas .... 354

C. Profits of Coffee Culture in Barcenas .... 354

3. Cost and Profit of Coffee in Ceylon .... 355
First Year — September, 1865 , ..... 355

January, 1866 . . . . . . . . . 355

March to December 31, 1866 . . . . . 355

Second Year — January to December, 1867 . . .. 356

Permanent Buildings . . . ... . 356

Third Year— January to December, 1868 . . '. . 356

Permanent Buildings . . . . . . • 357

Crop Expenses . . . . . ... 357

Recapitulation ...... • • • 357

VII. Conclusion ....... * • • 359

APPENDIX . . . . . 361

Causes which Determine the Climate of a Locality . , . 361

1. Latitude ........ .- * 362

2. Altitude .......... 362

3. Location of Mountain Chains ...... 362

4. Proximity or Distance from the Sea . . . . 363

5. The Inclination which the Country Bears to the Course

of the Sun ....... .• ... , . 363

6. The Geological Character of the Soil ... . , 363

Contents*

Causes which Determine the Climate of a Locality — Continued

7. The Degree of Cultivation of the Soil . . . . 363

8. Prevailing Winds ........ 363

9. The Quantity of Annual Rainfall ... .: • 364
Controversy about the Tehuantepec Lands for Coffee . . 364

Letter of October 15, 1893, from M Romero to the Editor

of the India-Rubber World, of New York ' ,< . 364
Rubber Shade for Coffee Plantations . . ' . . . 365
Letter of October 30, 1893, to the Editor of the India-
Rubber World, by F. O. Harriman, in Response to
M. Romero's Letter . ;-. . . . . . 365

Another Response to Senor Romero . . . . . 367

Letter of November 9, 1893, to the Editor of the India-
Rubber World, by J. P. Harriman, in Response to M.
Romero's Letter . V ,. • . . . '. . 367
An Answer from Senor Romero . . . .: . . . 367

Letter of December 16, 1893, from Senor Romero, in
Response to F. O. and J. P. Harriman's Letters to the
Editor of the India-Rubber World . - ,• . . 367

INDIA-RUBBER CULTURE IN MEXICO * 371

Introduction . . . . . ... . . 373

India-Rubber Culture in Mexico . . . • . ...... . 377

I. Introduction « . . 377

II. Description of the Rubber-Tree — Botanical Name — Chemi-
cal Analysis — Specific Gravity of Rubber — When Rubber

was First Used— Vulcanized Rubber ... . 378
III. Importance of Rubber as a Raw Material . . . .381

IV. Profits of the Culture of the Rubber-Tree . . . . 382

V. Proper Conditions to Form a Plantation of Rubber-Trees 383

1. Climate and Land Best Adapted to the Culture of the
Rubber-Tree . . . . . . • •'..-- • 385

2. How to Form a Plantation of Rubber-Trees . . . 386

3. The Rubber-Tree must be Planted in the Sun . ,* • 38&

4. Distance Needed in Planting Rubber-Trees ... 389

5. Care Required for the Culture of the Rubber-Tree . 389

6. Time Required for the Tree to Produce Rubber . . 390

7. Quantity of Rubber that Each Tree can Yield . .391

8. Method of Extracting Rubber without Destroying the
Tree . . . . . 392

VI. Probable Cost of a Plantation of Rubber-Trees . . -393

Contents.

VII. Information relating to rubber in the Province of Para,

in Brazil. . ^ . . . . , . . 395

Letter of September 26, 1872, from Mr. Romero to James
B. Bond, Esq., Inquiring about the Cultivation of Rub-
ber in Para, Brazil . . ... . . 396

Mr. James B. Bond's Answer of October 22, 1872,10 Mr.

Romero's Letter, Giving the Information Asked . . 396
VIII. Data on the Rubber of Assam, in Asia . . . . 398

IX. Statistical Data relating to Rubber ..... 400

Export of Rubber from Para from 1851 to 1870 . » 401
X. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . 402

APPENDIX ... . . 403

Letter of January 21, 1873, of Charles M. Travis, U. S. Consul,
to M. Romero at Tapachula, Mexico, Dated at Para, Brazil,
Enclosing Letter from James B. Bond relating to India-
Rubber Culture in Brazil ..... . . . 403

Letter from James B. Bond, Dated at Para, Brazil, January 8,
1873, Answering M. Romero's Questions to Charles M.
Travis about India- Rubber Culture . . . . . 403

Letter from James B. Bond, Dated at New York on February 26,
1873, to M. Romero, in Mexico, Giving him Permission to
Publish his Previous Letter , . . . . . 405

Letter from Dr. Edgar Zeh to Editor of the India-Rubber World,

asking for Information about Planting India-Rubber Trees. 406

Note of the Editor of the India-Rubber World, of New York,
in the March 15, 1894, Number of that Paper, in Answer to a
Request for Information by Dr. Edgar Zeh in Regard to
Planting India- Rubber Trees in Mexico, and the Expense
and Profits of the Same . .... . . ; 406

Index ............ 413

GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL NOTES
ON MEXICO

GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL
NOTES ON MEXICO.1

(Corrected to June 30, 1897.)

FOR a long time past I have felt the need of a short treatise con-
taining geographical and statistical information about Mexico,
to answer the many queries received on that subject by the Mexican
Legation in Washington. A statistical abstract about Mexico, such as
most nations publish every year, is greatly needed, especially now
when the attention of business men and young men is awakening to the
possibilities of Mexico. It was partly with the purpose of supplying
that need that I prepared this article, which will, I hope, at least serve

1 This article first appeared in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society
of New York of December 31, 1896. A club of the City of Washington requested
me, in January, 1888, to deliver a lecture on Mexico, and, as I had not time to prepare
one, I consented to give an informal talk on the subject, which I did on January i6th
of that year. Most of my talk was taken down by a stenographer, and was the basis
of the article which appeared in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society
of New York. That Society did me the honor of electing me one of its honorary
members, at the request of Honorable Frederick A. Conkling, on January 25, 1870,
and I have ever since felt that I owed it a debt which I could only pay by sending it
a contribution about Mexico. The pressure of my official duties in Washington on
the one hand, and my inability to treat properly the many subjects connected with a
description of Mexico, added to the difficulty of compressing them into a few pages ;
on the other, delayed that work much longer than I desired or expected. I have
added considerably to this article in the present edition, especially in that part which
embraces statistical information about Mexico, and I am sure that in so far as concerns
the fulness of that information and the most recent data, my article stands above any
previous publication on the subject.

I

2 <3eoarapbical an& Statistical Iftotes on dDejico,

to call attention to that country, and awaken a desire for reading other
and better monographs and books on Mexico written by more com-
petent men. I have borrowed from the descriptions of others, espe-
cially in what appears under the heading of Geology, Geography, and
Fauna.

PART I.

GEOGRAPHY

I. GEOGRAPHY.

LOCATION, BOUNDARIES, AND AREA.

Location. — Mexico is situated between 14° 30' 42' and 32° 42' north
latitude, and between 86° 46' 8* and 117° 7' 31* 89 longitude west
of the meridian of Greenwich, embracing therefore 18° n' 18* of
latitude and 30° 21' 23* 89 of longitude. It has an area of 767,326
square miles. It is bounded on the north by the United States of
America, on the southeast by Guatemala and Belize, on the south and
west by the Pacific Ocean, and on the north and east by the Gulf of
Mexico and the Carribean Sea.

Boundary with the United States. — The boundary with the United
States is fixed by the treaties of February 2, 1848, and December 30,
1853, and begins at the mouth of the Rio Grande River on the Gulf
of Mexico, follows the river for 1136 miles, beyond El Paso, Texas, to
the point where it strikes parallel 31° 47' north latitude, and from
there runs along said parallel for a distance of one hundred miles, and
thence south to parallel 31° 20' north latitude ; from there west
along this parallel as far as the mth meridian of longitude west of
Greenwich ; thence in a straight line to a point on the Colorado River,
twenty English miles below the junction of the Gila ; thence up the
middle of the said River Colorado to the intersection with the old line
between Upper and Lower California, and thence to a point on the
Pacific Ocean, distant one marine league due south of the southern-
most point of the Bay of San Diego ; the total distance from El Paso
to the Pacific being 674 miles. The whole extent of the boundary line
between the two countries is 1833 miles.

The boundary line with the United States runs from southeast to
northwest, the mouth of the Rio Grande being in 25° 57' 14" 74*' north
latitude ; while the line reaches on the Pacific latitude 32° 32' i* 34"' ;
the point where the boundary line strikes the Colorado River is farther
north, reaching 32° 42' of north latitude. Mexico has, therefore, on
the western, or Pacific side, 6° 34' 46' 20" of latitude more than on the
eastern or the Gulf of Mexico side.

6 Geograpbtcal motes on fl&ejico,

Boundary with Guatemala. — The boundary with Guatemala is fixed
by the treaties of September 27, 1882, and April i, 1895, and runs from
a point on the Pacific coast three leagues distant from the upper mouth
of the River Zuchiate, and thence, following the deepest channel
thereof, to the point at which it intersects the vertical plane which
crosses the highest point of the volcano of Tacana, and distant twenty-
five miles from the southernmost pillar of the gate of Talquian, leav-
ing that gate in the territory of Guatemala ; the determinate line by
the vertical plane defined above until it touches the River Zuchiate at
the point of its intersection with the vertical plane which passes the
summit of Buenavista and Ixbul ; the determinate line by the vertical
plane which passes the summit of Buenavista, determined by the astro-
nomical observations, and the summit of the Ixbul hill from where it
intersects the former to a point four kilometres beyond said hill ;
thence to the parallel of latitude which crosses the last-named point,
and thence eastward until it reaches the deepest channel of the Chixoy
up to its junction with the Usumacinta River, following that river
until it reaches the parallel situated twenty-five kilometres to the south
of Tenosique in Tabasco, to be measured from the principal square of
that town ; the parallel of latitude referred to above, from its inter-
section with the deepest channel of the Usumacinta, until it intersects
the meridian which passes at one third of the distance between the
centres of the Plazas of Tenosique and Sacluc, this distance being
calculated from Tenosique ; from this meridian, from its intersection
with the parallel above mentioned to the latitude of 17° 49' ; and from
the intersection of this parallel with the latter meridian indefinitely
toward the east.

The southern end of the Guatemalan line on the Pacific is in 14° 24'
north latitude, while the northern end, on the Caribbean Sea, is in 17°
49' north latitude, being a difference of 3° 25' in favor of the latter.
The calculated length of the southern boundary is 642 miles.

Boundary with Belize. — To the southeast of Yucatan extends the
territory of Belize, occupied by a British settlement under a permit
granted to them by the Spanish Government to cut wood within the
limits mentioned in the treaty concluded between the Kings of Great
Britain and Spain on November 3, 1783, and amended on July 14,
1786.

British Honduras, according to Mr. George Gil, F.R.G.S., in his
book, " British Colonies," published in London in 1896, was declared
a separate colony of Great Britain, under a Lieutenant-Governor sub-
ordinate to the Governor of Jamaica, in the year 1862, previous to
which time it had been a dependency of Jamaica. In 1884 a Governor
and Commander-in-Chief was appointed, by Letters Patent, and thus
the colony became independent of Jamaica. On April 30, 1859, Great

^Location, Boundaries, and Hrea, 7

Britain signed a treaty with Guatemala, within whose boundaries most of
British Honduras was situated, defining the boundary of that colony.

The limits between Mexico and Belize are defined by a treaty signed
at the City of Mexico on July 8, 1893, and ratified by the Mexican
Senate on April 19, 1897, and begin at the mouth of Bocalarchica —
a strait which separates the State of Yucatan from Ambergris Key
,and adjacent islands, runs along the centre of the channel between said
islands and the mainland, in a southeasterly direction, until it reaches
the parallel 18° 9' north latitude ; thence northwesterly at an equal
distance between two keys marked on the map annexed to the treaty,
to meet the parallel 18° 10' north latitude ; thence, turning toward the
west, along the neighboring bay, as far as 88° 2' west meridian, thence
toward the north until it reaches the parallel 18° 25' north latitude,
thence it runs toward the west as far as meridian 88° 28' $2" north, this
point being the mouth of the Hondo River ; thence following its
deepest channel, passing to the west of Albion Island and running up
the Arroyo Azul until the latter stream crosses the meridian of the
Garbutt Falls at a point north of the boundary lines of Mexico,
Guatemala, and British Honduras ; and from that point following the
meridian of Garbutt Falls, running in a southerly direction up to 17° 49',
north latitude which is the boundary line between Mexico and Gua-
temala, leaving the so-called Snoska or Xnobba River in a northerly
direction and in Mexican territory.

Cession of Mexican Territory to the United States. — Mexico has ceded
to the United States, by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo of February
2, 1848, and the Gadsden Treaty of December 30, 1853, 930,590 square
miles, comprising over one-half of her former territory. The same
cession is considered in the United States under three heads — first
under the boundary treaty signed in Washington on April 25, 1838,
^between the United States of America and the Republic of Texas,
under which Texas was annexed to the United States in 1845; second,
under the cession of the Guadalupe-Hidalgo Treaty, and the third
under the Gadsden Treaty.

As Mexico did not recognize the independence of Texas until the
treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo was signed, we consider that she only
gave her consent to that annexation by said treaty, and therefore that the
•cession of territory made then to the United States embraced also Texas.

Mr. S. W. Lamoreaux, former Commissioner of the General Land
Office, published in 1896 a map of the United States, which contained
in detail the different sections of territory annexed to the same in dif-
ferent periods from France, Spain, Mexico, and Russia, where the
Mexican annexations are clearly defined. From official data of that
office, I take the following figures representing the area of each of
the Mexican cessions :

8 (Beograpbical Botes on

First, annexation of Texas, which embraces in whole or in part the
following States and Territories :

Sq. Miles.

Texas 265,780

Colorado, in part 18,000

Kansas, in part 7,766

New Mexico 65,201

Oklahoma 5,74°

Total 362,487

Second, cession by the Guadalupe-Hidalgo Treaty, em-
bracing in whole or in part the following States and Terri-
tories :

Sq. Miles.

Arizona 82,381

California 157,801

Colorado, in part 29,500

Nevada 1 1 2,090

New Mexico 42,000

Utah 84,476

Wyoming, in part 14,320

Total 522,568

Third, cession by the Gadsden Treaty, containing ad-
ditions to the following Territories :

Sq. Miles.

Arizona 3*,535

New Mexico 14,000

Total 45,535

Grand Total in Square Miles 930,590

General Characteristics. — Mexico is bounded on the east by the
long curve of the Gulf of Mexico and by the Caribbean Sea, and its
eastern coast is 1727 miles long; on the west it is washed by the
Pacific Ocean, its coast describing the arc of a still larger circle, for a
length of 4574 miles ; but after passing the latitude of the City of
Mexico, about the meridian 19° of north latitude, going south, the
continent makes a decided turn towards the east, the Gulf of Mexico
forming the northern border, and the Pacific Ocean the southern
border.

Mexico has the shape of a cornucopia, with its narrowest end
tapering toward the southwest, its convex and concave sides facing

^Location, Boundaries, anfc Brea. ^

the Pacific and the Atlantic, respectively, and its widest end toward
the north, or the United States. I look forward to the time, which I
do not think far distant, considering our continuity of territory to the
United States and our immense elements of wealth, when we shall be
able to provide the United States with most of the tropical products,
such as sugar, coffee, tobacco, india-rubber, etc.,1 which they now im-
port from several other countries.

The widest portion of Mexico is, therefore, its northern extremity,
or its boundary with the United States. The narrowest point is the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec, about one hundred miles from one ocean to
the other ; and after passing it the country expands again to the south-
east towards Yucatan and Chiapas until it reaches the boundary with
Guatemala and Belize.

Yucatan resembles but little in its configuration Mexico proper, as
it is a level country formed by coral reefs and beds, and whose ruins
show it to have been the seat of a high civilization and an advanced
people.

Although the greater part of Mexico is on the North American con-
tinent proper, as the Isthmus of Panama divides North from South
America, a large portion of it lies in Central America. Geographically
speaking, Central America is the portion of North America embraced
between the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and Panama, and of this vast
territory Mexico holds about one-third. In a paper published in the
Bulletin of the American Geographical Society of New York, of March
31, 1894, I dealt especially with this subject.2

The broken surface of Mexico formerly made travelling there very
difficult, for which reason the country was but little known, even by
Mexicans themselves, as its configuration did not allow of the building
of good roads, and to travel any considerable distance it was necessary
to go by mule paths, without comfortable inns, and running great risks,,
owing to the disturbed condition of the country. It required, there-
fore, time, expense, endurance, and an object in view to travel widely
there. I was always desirous of knowing as much as possible of the
country, and I have made long trips, many of them on horseback,
solely for the purpose of studying certain regions, and I think that
before the railway era, I was perhaps one of the Mexicans who knew

1 In his Notes on Mexico, Lempriere, a distinguished traveller and historian, says :
" The merciful hand of Providence has bestowed on the Mexicans a magnificent land,
abounding in resources of all kinds — a land where none ought to be poor, and where
misery ought to be unknown — a land whose products and riches of every kind are
abundant and as varied as they are rich. It is a country endowed to profusion with
every gift that man can desire or envy ; all the metals from gold to lead ; every sort
of climate, from perpetual snow to tropical heat, and of inconceivable fertility."

2 A copy of that paper is appended to this article.

io Geoarapbical IRotes on flDejico,

most of the country and who could, therefore, most clearly realize the
difficulty of knowing it thoroughly. From this it can be readily under-
stood how difficult it would be for a foreigner, without any previous
knowledge of the country and ignorant of its language, to know it by
a few days' sojourn there. Yet many travellers who have been in
Mexico only a few days write about it on their return home, just as if
they knew it perfectly, making necessarily many serious and sometimes
laughable mistakes.

The natural beauties of Switzerland are well known ; but to me that
country is hardly to be compared with Mexico, as everything in Mexico
is on a much grander scale. In the latitude in which Switzerland is
situated the snow line is quite low, and, therefore, most of the peaks of
the Swiss mountains, while not so high as the Mexican mountains, are
covered with perpetual snow, which embellishes the country, and which,
melting in summer, supplies the beautiful lakes of that country with
fresh water. Therefore, only in the beauty of many snow peaks,
beautiful fresh-water lakes, good roads, and fine hotels has Switzerland
the superiority over Mexico.

Historians, travellers, and writers of the present day compare Mexico
with Egypt. There is no doubt that between the legends and romance
with which the history of each of these countries abounds there is a
striking resemblance. The pyramids and ancient relics in the form of
buildings, images, and undeciphered hieroglyphics on stones, coins,
etc., found in both countries, all contribute to the general belief that,
centuries ago, the people of Mexico and Egypt were connected by
some tie, were in some way of the same race and had the same ideas.
To-day in Mexico, the manner of living, of cultivating the soil, and
many other peculiarities in the manners and customs of the Mexican
people forcibly remind the traveller of Upper and Lower Egypt.1

1 In a very bright article about Mexico by Mr. Charles Dudley Warner, published
in Harper's Illustrated Monthly Magazine for June, 1897, 1 find the following sentence
supporting my assertion :

" In the cities he is reminded of Spain, and often of Italy (since the Catholic Church
prevails), but in the country and in small towns the appearance is Oriental, or rather
Egyptian. This resemblance to Egypt is due to the color or colors of the inhabitants,
to the universal use of the donkey as a beast of burden, to the brown adobe walls and
mud huts covered with cane, to the dust on the foliage, the clouds of dust raised
in all the highways, and to a certain similarity of dress, so far as color and rags can
give it, and the ability of men and women to squat all day on the ground and be
happy."

Mr. Theodore W. Noyes, of Washington, in a descriptive article on Mexico, pub-
lished in December, 1895, makes the following parallel between Mexico and Egypt :

44 . . . The Egyptian shaduf finds its counterpart in the well sweep of Irapuato
where strawberries are grown and sold every day in the year, and where irrigation is
resorted to, systematized, and on a grand scale. In the absence of trees and rocks

^Location, Boundaries, an& Brea. n

I, myself, although I have only visited Lower Egypt, and that as a
tourist in a very hasty manner and for a very few days, was greatly
struck by the great similarity that I found between the two countries
and between the habits of the native Egyptian and the Mexican In-
dians. The Egyptian plows are used by the Mexican Indians, and
they are drawn in Mexico as in Egypt by oxen whose yokes are fast-
ened to their horns, while in other countries they are fastened on their
necks. Several of the agricultural products of Egypt and Mexico are
exactly the same, and the way in which foods are prepared in both
countries is, too, very similar ; and I also found similar traits and
race characteristics between the Egyptian Copts and some tribes of
the Mexican Indians.

The great difference between Egypt and Mexico is that Mexico
lacks " irrigation," which has made Egypt — that small corner of the
earth — the most remarkable and productive country in the world.
Owing to the great stretch of latitude from the Rio Grande to the
Guatemala boundary, everything that grows in Egypt, and in fact in
any other part of the world, can be produced in Mexico by the aid of
irrigation.

the Egyptian shaduf is small, is composed of prepared timbers, and the counterpoise
to the well bucket is an immense chunk of dried, hardened Nile mud. The Mexican
shaduf utilizes a forked tree and swings across it a long tapering tree trunk or branch,
and the counterpoise consists of a large sink stone or mass of stones fastened together.
Although Mexico stretches farther south than Egypt, the two countries lie, generally
speaking, between the same parallels of latitude, but the altitude of Irapuato is 5000
feet above the sea-level of the Nile, so that the same degree of undress is not
expected or found in the Mexicans as in the Egyptian shaduf workers. I saw, how-
ever, in the neighborhood of Irapuato two Indians at well sweeps working side by side
who were dressed only in white cotton loin cloths, who looked like the twin brothers of
shaduf workers whom I have seen photographed on the Nile. . . . The water-
carrier of Cairo is much like his brother of Guanajuato, where a long earthen jar is
used. The groups about the fountains with jars of water bodily borne on the women's
heads or on a protecting turban-like ring, or balanced on the men's shoulders, are also
Oriental. Corn is ground between two stones in Asiatic fashion.

'* Egyptian sand spouts are common. Also Egyptian types of domestic utensils
of pottery. The Mexican woman with a baby at her back securely fastened in the
reboso, which throws the infant's weight on the mother's shoulders, is to be compared
with the Egyptian woman whose reboso covers her face while the child straddles her
shoulders, holding to her head and leaving her hands unfettered as in the Mexican
fashion. There are no Egyptian camels, but even more numerous donkeys, the patient
burros. The Indian villages, either of adobe or bamboo, the thatched roofs and organ
cactus fences, and alive with goats, donkeys, or snarling curs, are African in effect.
There Aztecs picture writings resemble the Egyptian, the paper being made from the
maguey instead of the papyrus. The Aztecs employed captives on great public works
as in Egypt. Mexico thus has pyramids with much broader base than those of Egypt,
though not nearly so high, and idols quite as ugly. Gold ornaments, beads, and other
highly prized antiquities are found in the tombs as in Egypt."

0eo0rapbical Hotes on

GEOLOGY.

The geology of Mexico has been but imperfectly studied. In the
higher ranges the prevailing formations are granite, which seem also
to form the foundations of the plateaus, above which rise the traps,
basalts, mineral-bearing porphyries, and more recent lavas. Hence,
Lyell's theory that Mexico consisted originally of granite ranges with
intervening valleys subsequently filled up to the level of the plateaus
by subterranean eruptions. Igneous rocks of every geologic epoch cer-
tainly form to a large extent the superstructure of the central plateau.
But the Mexican table-land seems to consist mainly of metamorphic
formations which have been partly upheaved, partly interpenetrated,
and overlaid by igneous masses of all epochs, and which are chiefly
represented by shales, greywacke, greenstones, silicious schists, and
especially unfossiliferous limestones. All these formations are alike
remarkable for the abundance and variety of their metalliferous ores,
such as silver, silver glance, copper, and gold. Gneiss and micaceous
schists prevail in Oaxaca and on all the southern slopes facing both
oceans. But the highest ranges are formed mainly of plutonic and
volcanic rocks, such as granites, syenites, diorites, mineral-bearing
trachytes, basalts, porphyries, obsidian, pearlstone, sulphur, pumice,
lavas, tufa, and other recent volcanic discharges. Obsidian (itzli) was
the chief material formerly used by the natives in the manufacture of
their cutting implements, as shown by the quarries of the Cerro de las
Navajas (Knife Cliff), near Real del Monte and Pachuca in the State
of Hidalgo. Vast deposits of pumice and the purest sulphur are found
at Huichapam and in many of the craters. But immeasurably the
most valuable rocks are the argentiferous porphyries and schists of
the central plateau and of Sinaloa, unless they are destined to be
rivalled by the auriferous deposits of Sonora. Horizontal and strati-
fied rocks, of extremely limited extent in the south, are largely devel-
oped in the northern states, and chalk becomes very prevalent towards
the Rio Grande and Rio Gila valleys. To this chalk and to the sand-
stones are probably due the sandy plains which cover vast tracts in
North Mexico, stretching thence far into New Mexico and Texas.
Here the Bolson de Mapimi, a vast rocky wilderness inhabited until
recently by wild tribes, occupies a space of perhaps 50,000 square
miles in Coahuila and parts of the surrounding States.

None of the horizontal layers seem to be very rich in ores, which
are mainly found in the metamorphic, palaeozoic, and hypogene rocks
of Durango, Chihuahua, and the south. Apart from Sinaloa and
Sonora, which are now known to contain vast stores of the precious
metals, nearly all the historical mines lie on the south central plateau at
elevations of from 5500 to 9500 feet. A line drawn from the capital to
Guanajuato, and thence northwards to the mining town of Guadalupe

13

y Calvo of Chihuahua, and southwards to Oaxaca, thus cutting the
main axis of upheaval at an angle of 45°, will intersect probably the
richest known argentiferous region in the whole world.

Of other minerals the most important are copper, found in a pure
state near the city of Guanajuato, and associated with gold in Chihua-
hua, Sonora, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, and elsewhere ; iron in
immense masses in Michoacan and Jalisco, and in Durango, where the
Cerro del Mercado is a solid mountain of magnetic iron ore ; lead
associated with silver, chiefly in Oaxaca ; tin in Michoacan and Jalisco ;
sulphur in many craters ; platinum, recently found in Hidalgo ; cin-
nabar, also recently found in Morelos and Guerrero ; " steppe salt " in
the sandy districts of the north ; " bitter salt " at Tepeyac and many
other places ; coal at various points ; bismuth in many parts ; marble,
alabaster, gypsum, and rock-salt in great abundance throughout the
plateaus and the sierras.

MINING.

Mexico is, perhaps, the richest mining country in the world, and
the production of silver — notwithstanding the imperfect methods
and other drawbacks with which it has contended — represents over
one-third of the product of the world, according to official statis-
tics. Almost all the mountains of Mexico are of the metalliferous
character, but those which seem richest in mining deposits are the
western cordillera, extending from the State of Oaxaca to Sonora, a
distance of about 1600 miles from northwest to southeast.

Humboldt gave as his opinion that Mexico would be " the treasure
house of the world." Subsequent history has, in a great measure, con-
firmed the opinion of the great savant of his time. Still a more con-
servative authority has quite lately asserted that only one-tenth of
the mining resources of Mexico is known. This last estimate, I am
sure, is inside rather than outside of the facts. Mexico has always
been considered the great silver producer, and, considering her area,
and taking the century as a measure, she is the greatest silver producer
of the world.

Silver. — The central group of mines in the three mining districts of
Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and Catorce, in the States of Guanajuato, Zaca-
tecas and San Luis Potosi, which have yielded more than half of all
the silver heretofore found in Mexico, lies between 21° and 24° 30' N.,
within an area of about 13,000 square miles. Here the Veta Madre
lode of Guanajuato alone produced $252,000,000 between 1556 and
1803.

In the beginning of this century Humboldt found two Guanajuato
mines — the famous " Conde de Valenciana " and the " Marques de
Rayas " — producing annually 550,000 marks, 4,400,000 ounces, of silver,

14 Geo0rapbfcai wotes on

one-seventh or one-eighth of the entire American output. From Janu-
ary i, 1787, to June n, 1791, the Valenciana yielded 13,896,416 ounces
of silver, its ore averaging a little over 100 ounces to the ton. Though
flooded, this fine old mine is still far from exhausted.

Gold occurs chiefly, not on the plateau in association with silver,
but on the slopes facing the Pacific, and apparently in greatest abun-
dance in Sonora, near the auriferous region of Lower California. The
production would have been larger if an improved process of reducing
the metals had been used, but during the whole colonial period and up
to the present time, we have used the patio system, which consists in
grinding the ore, stirring it until it is reduced to a fine dust and mixing
it then with salt and copper amalgam ; after the paste dries somewhat,
salt is added in proportion to the amount of silver supposed to be in the
ore ; the material is then mixed with shovels and trodden by mules, and,
after a day or two, another mixture of copper, vitriol, and salt is added ;
after that it is mixed and trodden again ; then quicksilver is finally
added, and then more mixing and treading. This process is repeated
from five to fifteen times until the silver and quicksilver unite to form
an amalgam, which is gathered into bags, and that requires about forty
days. Most of the quicksilver is squeezed out and the rest is evapo-
rated and run off into tubs. This method saves 50 or 60 per cent, of
rich ore and, besides being very long, is rather imperfect, as it leaves a
great deal of silver in the ore, and only rich ores could be treated by it ;
but it was on the whole the easiest and cheapest.

Some of the old mines were worked until finally they became so deep
that, with the methods then used, as buckets were employed instead of
pumps, and steam had not been employed as power, it was impossible
to drain them. Naturally in a deep mine the water flows in from
springs, and the deeper a mine becomes the more water it has. These
mines were worked until it was seen that it was impossible to drain
them, and then they were abandoned, even though they were rich in
metals. During our war of independence almost all the mines were
abandoned for the want of guarantee to life and property, and the
mining industry, therefore, declined considerably ; but recently the old
mines have been worked again and the production of silver has in-
creased very considerably.1

1 Mr. J. A. R. Waters of the firm of Waters Bros. , Mining Engineers of the City
of Mexico, said of his visit to the Jesus Maria District of the State of Chihuahu, where
he went to examine the mine worked by the Pinos Altos Co. , as follows :

' ' The district is very thoroughly mineralized and is pierced by veins more frequently
than any district I ever saw. The general formation is very similar to that of Cripple
Creek, with the exception that it is not traversed by the great porphyry dikes that occur
there and in other parts of Colorado. The country formation is largely braccia. The
ore is generally free milling, and is treated with stamps and pan amalgamation, the
finer ores being treated with Huntington mills. There is little waste of values."

15

Real del Monte Company. — It would be interesting to refer briefly to
the ups and downs of one of the mining enterprises of Mexico — the
Real del Monte — as a typical case which exemplifies what has happened
with many other of our mines, namely, that sometimes they yield large
profits, and soon afterwards they cause tremendous losses. The Real
del Monte is located about three miles from Pachuca, a large mining
centre and the capital of the State of Hidalgo, distant about sixty miles
southeast of the City of Mexico.

In 1739, a Biscayan, by the name of Don Pedro Jose Romero de Ter-
reros, came from Santander and settled in Queretaro. He acquired
a fortune of $60,000 in a small store in 1749, closed up his affairs, and
started to return to his native land. On reaching Pachuca he met an
old mining friend, Don Jose Alejandro Bustamante, who called his
attention to the Real del Monte. In company with Bustamante he
staked out the Biscaina, Santa Brigida, and Guadalupe mines and began
to get the water out, but they soon exhausted their united funds. How-
ever, they succeeded in raising money in the City of Mexico on hard
terms and drained their properties by a tunnel, which started at Moran,
on the northern slope of the mountains, and, running 9000 feet through
hard porphyry rock, struck the vein at a depth of 600 feet. This was
accomplished a few years later in 1759. Bustamante by this time had
died, but Terreros continued the work. On striking the vein he drained
it, and in 1760 began the erection of the Hacienda de Regla, to work
the rich ore he was taking out. He took out $15,000,000 at a small
cost, repaid his advances, built and presented to the King of Spain
a man-of-war and 4700 bars of silver, for which he was created Conde
de Regla. He lived in grand style in the City of Mexico, and built a
palatial residence on Cadena Street.

He died in 1781, and was succeeded by his son, the second Conde,
who from 1774 to 1783 struggled with the water, which, as depth was
attained, was very severe ; according to Ward, twenty-eight horse-whims
were employed in the drainage at great expense and unsuccessfully.
However, they had gotten down to 324 feet below the Moran adit on
the Biscaina vein in the Guadalupe and Santa Teresa shafts. The
production was $400,000 per year, drainage costing $250,000 per
year, and sinking was abandoned, and the work was confined to
drifting above water level.

From 1801 to 1809, $300,000 per year was taken out, but the cost
of extraction was severe. Humboldt visited the property, and in 1810
the war of independence broke out, and all operations were suspended.
Meanwhile the water rose and the Moran tunnel caved in, and so
allowed the water to rise to an enormous height, and the district went
to rack and ruin.

In 1822 the Conde's administrator, Don Ignacio Castelazo, made a

16 <5eo0rapbfcal flotes on

report, and by his Italian mining friend, Rivafinoli, sent it to the
Conde, who was living in England.

That country was only too anxious to reap for themselves some of
the spoils that Spain had gleaned from Mexican mines. Here was
their opportunity, many became interested, and the celebrated mining
expert of that day, Mr. John Taylor, the founder of the present Lon-
don firm now so heavily interested in South Africa, Taylor Bros., was
sent to make an examination, and in 1824 the English Real del Monte
Company was formed on the following terms : — The company leased
the mines and haciendas for twenty-one years : ist. The capital in-
vested was to be returned from the products of the mines with interest ;
2d. The Conde was then to have one-half of the remaining proceeds
yearly ; 3d. Meanwhile he was to receive $16,000 per year as an ad-
vance against his portion or anticipated profits. In case of failure of
this third clause the lease would be cancelled and everything revert to
the Conde. As the outlay amounted to over $5,000,000 and no profit
ensued, it amounted to a rent of $16,000 per year.

In 1824 Captain Vetch, of the Royal Engineers, was sent out as
manager. He brought three ships filled with one thousand tons of
machinery, pumps, etc., and after untold trials in transportation and
erection, finally got them to their destination. All this was done by
English engineers, machinists, miners, and workmen, nearly all Cor-
nishmen, under the direction of Colonel Colquhoun, a Peninsular
veteran, who finally died of yellow fever with over fifty of his men.
After unheard-of troubles they got everything by 1826 safely landed
in the Real del Monte. The magnitude of the task may be understood
when the almost roadless condition of the country is considered, and
the bringing up of the machinery from the coast was a splendid exam-
ple of British tenacity and pluck.

Captain Vetch had now cleaned out the Moran adit and the Dolores
shaft, and the machinery was at once erected. The stock now rose
from $500 to $8000 per share. The Conde had, in the meanwhile,
borrowed money from the company and made the twenty-one-year
lease perpetual, the annual rent of $16,000 remaining in force.

By 1829 Captain Vetch had grappled with the water question, and
with an annual cost of $30,000 had accomplished what the first Count
had paid $250,000 for,and extracted metal 324 feet below the Moran adit.

Captain Tindall, R.N., succeeded Captain Vetch, and a new shaft
(1830) was commenced on the Santa Teresa and called the Terreros
shaft. It was 1140 feet to the vein and was started at four points, and
was connected in 1834 by drifts run from several levels, and then
raised and sunk on. The work came out as true as if it had been
done from the surface, thanks to the correctness of the plans of the
English mine surveyors.

/IDfnfng, 17

A 54-inch engine was erected, and with it they sank to 720 feet
"below the Moran adit. At this point water overpowered them. This
was in 1838, and Captain John Rule, who had succeeded Captain Tin-
dall, put in a 75-inch engine at Dolores, and removed the 54-inch one
to Acosta. Captain Rule enjoyed a salary of ^"10,000 per year, and
all other payments were in proportion. He struck two bunches of
rich ore, one on the Santa Brigida, near Acosta, and the other on La
Biscains, near Dolores. From these two and one at Torreros they
had produced $10,481,475 at a cost of $15,381,633 or nearly $5,000,000
loss in twenty-three years. By 1846 the stock had fallen to $12.50
from $8000 a share.

In 1848, Mr. J. H. Buchan arrived, representing the English stock-
holders. He found water in the mines and increasing ; a heavy debt
of $5,000,000, bearing a tremendous interest ; no money on hand and
no ore. So in October, 1848, by order of the bondholders he turned
over the business to a Mexican company — the present one — composed
of Manuel Escandon, Antonio and Nicanor Beistegui, Mr. Mackintosh,
and others for the paltry sum of $130,000. The haciendas, stock, and
ores on hand were worth millions, but the English company could not
dispose of them.

This was the end of the famous English Real del Monte Company.
Their Mexican successors reduced expenses, completed the adit from
Omotitlan commenced by the first Conde, which, running 13,500 feet,
cut the mines mo deeper and struck immediately the bonanza in the
Rosario, which tradition says had previously been discovered and
covered up by Captain Rule.

New Mines, Topia. — We have now a great many districts that were
not known by the Spaniards and have recently been discovered. No-
table among them is the Sierra Mojada district in the State of Coahuila.
The State of Durango has, on the west slope of the Sierra Madre
mountains, the mining camps of Topia, Sianori, Birimoa, Gusanillas,
Canelas, Ventanos, El Pando, Rodeo, and San Fernando ; and with
the exception of San Fernando they are close together, a square, one of
whose sides is forty miles, would almost cover them all. This section
has all the elements to form the basis of a great mining and smelting
centre, as is evident by the great deposits of galena in the Topia dis-
trict ; in fact, this is the only place on the coast where lead ore is
found in abundance ; and smelting, if done at all, must rely on Topia
for its supply of lead ores. In no other part of Mexico are lead ores
so cheap, because of the fact that to realize on them at all they must
be transported on mule-back to Culiacan in the State of Sinaloa, a dis-
tance of 106 miles, at a rate of $26.40 silver per ton, and from there
by rail to Altata, a distance of thirty-nine miles ; and from Altata by
steamer to San Francisco, or to Guaymas, and thence by rail to the

1 8 Oeoarapbical motes on

smelters in the United States, very much at the same cost. La
Liona mine of this district is a very rich mine, its vein being almost
vertical, and is tapped from both sides of the mountain, with tunnels
at right angles to the vein. Where the tunnels intersect the vein, the
vein is driven on in both directions from the tunnels ; stopes are
opened, and chute's for ore are put in every seventy-five feet. The
vertical distance between the tunnels is 125 metres. This mine can
easily produce one thousand tons per month of clean galena, and
would produce that much metal if there was a market for it.

There are other mines as large and perhaps better than La Liona, as,
for instance, La Madrugada mine, formerly owned by Santa F£ Railroad
employees, but now controlled by Mr. Charles Miller, of Franklin, Pa.,
connected with the Standard Oil Company. Topia is a great dry-ore
camp as well. One thousand tons of dry ores can easily be mined
there per month, were there a market for them, such as a commercial
smelter located centrally to treat the ores of this and adjoining districts.
Such smelter would have the advantage of an inexhaustible supply of
good water the year round, fine iron ore, and limestone for fluxes.

At Topia there are four mills for the treatment of zincy ores, and
dry ores assaying below one hundred ounces silver per ton. The
lixiviation process by hyposulphite of soda is employed in the four
mills or haciendas, two of them employ occasionally the patio process
as well. Two of the mills and two mines are lighted by electricity ;
the dynamo that furnishes light for one of the mills' and both of the
mines is driven by water power. Below the mills operated by water
power, there is sufficient fall and sufficient water to furnish the power
to operate compressed-air drills in all the large mines.

The other mining camps of this district, although not so well devel-
oped as Topia, are also in process of development and in a very good
condition. Velardena is also in the State of Durango, but on the other
or eastern side of the mountains, and is located in a comparatively new
district, where the previous owners had failed. Mr. James F. Mathews
purchased the Velardena property, erected a smelter after the Interna-
tional Railroad Company had extended their main line from Torreon
to the city of Durango, passing near the mine, and from the beginning
has run five of the six furnaces almost continuously. During 1896 the
Velardena smelter smelted on an average 175 tons of ore per day.

Li Hung Chang and the Mexican Silver Mines. — When Li Hung
Chang, the Chinese Viceroy, was in Washington, in August, 1896, he
inquired of me about the production of the Mexican mines, and I, trying
to be conservative, informed him that they produced about $50,000,-
ooo a year. He then inquired how long they would continue yielding
that amount. I answered that it was uncertain, but that, judging from
present appearances, it could safely be said that it might be for one

/HMning* J9

hundred years. This seemed incredible to him, and he said that I had
been so long absent from Mexico — for he had previously asked me how
long I had been in this country — I could not know the real wealth and
abundance of our mines, and he was very positive that I had made a
mistake. He assured me that the silver mines in China yielded occa-
sionally something, but soon were exhausted, and it was impossible to
get any silver out of them, and judging the Mexican silver mines from
those he had seen at home, he was, of course, incredulous as to their
yield.

Some years ago, and when the Mexican mines only yielded about
$20,000,000 a year, I predicted that their annual yield would reach
$100,000,000, and that prediction is about being verified, as the present
product exceeds $60,000,000.

Gold. — Gold was used freely in Mexico before the Spanish con-
quest, and history teaches us how Cortez induced Montezuma to
deliver to him his gold treasury.

As soon as Mexico was conquered, Bernal Diaz del Castillo, one of
the cotemporary historians, tells us that Cortez inquired vefy carefully
about the place where the Indians obtained their gold, whether there
were placers, mines, or washings, and his agents were taken to some
localities in the State of Oaxaca, where they were told was the gold
supply, but, whether the Indians concealed the real location of the
gold deposits, or for other reasons, the Spaniards did not obtain much
gold. I have known recently of unavailing efforts having been made
of persons from the United States who have tried to ascertain the
localities where the Indians obtained their gold, that is — the places
which were shown to Cortex in Oaxaca as gold deposits.

There is a river in the State of Guerrero which flows over a coun-
try with hills abundant in gold formation, which carries nuggets that
the natives find without any difficulty, and it is called for that reason
the Gold River. That river passes over some mountains where gold
is found, and then comes to a place where a natural dam is formed,
and the gold carried by the washings in the rainy season sinks when
reaching that place, and every indication shows that there must be a
very large deposit of gold there. A military engineer suggested, the
last time I was Secretary of the Treasury in Mexico, that the bed of
the river be changed by the Mexican Government, a work which did
not present serious obstacles, and thus allow excavations to be made
and the gold deposits found. It was thought advisable to make some
preliminary examinations in the way of boring, and for that purpose
the necessary orders were issued to send soldiers there, but I under-
stand the project was given up and nothing was accomplished. I have
no doubt that at some future time that matter will be taken up, and a
great deal of gold will be found there.

20 Oeogtapbical Botes on flDejico,

Our production of gold has so far been comparatively small, be-
cause the mining and reduction of gold are more difficult and expensive
than the same operations in silver, and our gold production has really
been the amount of gold which has been found in our silver. For
many years, when the amount was small, it was not separated, and for
that reason old Mexican dollars have in China greater value than newly
coined ones; but recent improvements have made it easy and cheap to
make the separation of the two metals. Now that gold has risen so
much in value, its mining is beginning to be developed in Mexico on a
comparatively large scale, and I have no doubt that before long
Mexico will be one of the largest gold producers of the world.

Mexico is an undeveloped country, in fact there are parts of
Mexico as unknown as was Central Africa a few years back. From
the Sonora gold district, south, on the west side of the Sierra Madre,
to the State of Oaxaca, there is a gold belt as rich as California, Alaska,
and South Africa combined. It is known that in the State of Sinaloa
there are gold placers and gold washings, and that they are also found
in every State from there south on the line of this belt.1

The gold output of Sonora, now beginning to attract attention, is
only the first contribution of Mexico to the world's stock of the yellow
metal. The west side of the Sierra Madre has a belt rich in gold, and
when the world discovers this fact capital will flock to Mexico to dig
it out, and Mexico will become one of the first gold producers of the
world, as she has been in silver.

Specimens of " float " rich in gold have been brought from the State
of Guerrero. These indications of gold have not been followed up,
because no one has been progressive enough to advance the means
necessary to prospect this belt. To prospect in a country where often
water fit to drink must be carried, where food for man and beast must
be carried, and where in many places roads must be cut with machete
and axe, cannot be done without the spending of money in outfit and
expenses.

The principal gold-producing States will be Sonora, Sinaloa, Guer-
rero, and Oaxaca, but in all of them gold-mining is yet in its
beginning.

1 I take from a report of Mr. Cramer, a mining engineer sent to Mexico by the
Geological Society of Washington, D. CM as Commissioner to explore the gold fields of
that Republic, the following, which refers to only one of the many new gold fields that
are being found there :

" There exists an extensive ' gold placer ' situated about thirty miles from Durango
in the mountain devoid of vegetation ; the rock that is found in greater quantities is
porphyry. I estimate that one ton of ore will yield at least $50 of gold.

" Gold is found all over the mountain, though in such imperceptible filaments
that it is hard to recognize it with the naked eye ; however, every piece of stone con-
tains the same proportion of gold."

21

Coinage of the Precious Metals. — Mexico has produced about one-
half of the silver supply of the world. In the statistical portion of this
paper I shall give full details of the production of gold and silver in
Mexico, coinage, etc., and here I will only append the total coinage of
gold and silver according to official statistics of the Mexican Govern-
ment, which is the following :

COINAGE OF MEXICO FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MINTS IN
I537 TO THE EN]D OF THE FISCAL YEAR OF 1896.

COLONIAL EPOCH.
Pillar coin 1732 to 1771

GOLD.

SILVER.

COPPER.

TOTAL.

$ 8,497,950
19,889,014

$ 752,067,456
441,629,211

$ 200,000

$ 76o,765,406
461,518,225

INDEPENDENCE.

40,391,447
$68,778,411

888,563,989
$2,082,260,656

342,893
$ 542,893

929,298,329
$2,151,581,960

$ 557,392
45,040,628

$ 18,575,569
740,246,485

$ 19,132,961
790,522,290

$5,235,177

REPUBLIC.

Eagle coin, from i July, 1873, to 3° June, 1896

$45,598,020

$ 758,822,054

$5,235,177

$ 809,655,251

$11,561,080

$ 557,581,690

$ 203,296

$ 569,346,066

SUMMARY.

Colonial Epoch .. .1537 to 1821 $2,151,581,960

Independence 1822 to 1873 809,655,251

Republic 1873 to 1896 569,346,066

Total $3,530,583,277

Iron. — Iron, the most useful of all the metals, is found in such vast
abundance in Mexico that, could it be even partially utilized, that Re-
public would become one of the wealthiest of modern communities.
One of the largest mines was discovered by Gines Vazquez del Mer-
cado, in Durango, in 1562, and its appellation of " Cerro del Mercado"
still preserves his name. The hill, which is 4800 feet long by uoo feet
in width and 640 feet in height, is almost a solid mass of mineral, aver-
aging about seventy per cent, of metal and from which could be ex-
tracted more than 300,000,000 tons of solid ore ; this only to the level of
the plain, beneath which it probably extends to an unknown depth.

The iron is also magnetic to a high degree and its power is greater
when the grain is fine. This may delay fusion, but the result is an ex-
cellent wrought iron, with none of the inconveniences caused by earthy
substances mixed with the iron. I have no doubt that when the coal
mines are developed the iron industry will make great strides and
that we will be able to manufacture most of at least the low grades of
the iron goods required for our comsumption. In several other places
besides our Iron Mountain we have iron with very little phosphorus,
which makes first-class steel and is as good as the best produced in
Cuba or Spain.

22 Geoatapbfcal IRotes on

The deposits of iron in Mexico are sufficient to supply the universe
for centuries to come. There is but one thing lacking, and that thing
is — cheap fuel. Nature never works by halves ; those immense de-
posits of iron never were put where they are without the means near
at hand for their utilization. Coal exists, but it has not been mined yet
on a large scale, as it will be hereafter.

But even at the present time the principal supply of pig-iron comes
from native ore, the output being consumed by the producers in the
manufacture of iron goods. The main iron mines now being worked
are located at Durango, Zimapdn, Zacualtipan, Tulancingo, and Leon.
For the most part these mines are found in the midst of great forests,
in consequence of which cheap fuel is found in the form of charcoal,
the iron made from which being of very superior quality, free from
phosphorous, and, price and other things being equal, is always pre-
ferred to the imported pig. It is manufactured in charcoal furnaces
exclusively.

There is, however, quite a considerable amount of pig imported,
principally from Alabama, and Scotch pig from England. The great
drawback to importations heretofore has been the immense quantity of
scrap iron, which, during the lapse of centuries, had accumulated, un-
used, throughout the Republic. This, however, is becoming well-nigh
exhausted ; and for that reason the demand for imported pig is increas-
ing, the native output not keeping pace with the need for it. Much
scrap iron also has come from railroads, another source of supply
which is not increasing with the demand.

Imported pig ranges in price in the City of Mexico from $50 to $60
silver per ton, the native producers aiming to keep their price just
about the same.

Iron Foundries. — There are in the City of Mexico, in addition to
several small ones, seven large foundries, as follows : the Mexican
Central Railroad foundry, the Mexican National Railroad foundry,
the Artistic, the Delicias, Charreton Bros., V. Elcoro & Co., and
Hipolito David. There are also large foundries at Pachuca, Puebla,
Chihuahua, Durango, and Monterey, as well as smaller ones at Irapuato,
Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Veracruz, Guadalajara, Mazatlan, Oaxaca, and
Morelia.

Copper. — Copper is now quite an important product of Mexico, and
is used to a certain extent in the country, but as the supply far exceeds
the home demand, it is exported to the United States and Europe.
That which finds its way to this country enters chiefly in the form of
matte, and is refined into casting or electrolytic copper. What goes to
Europe is blister copper, or approximately so, from the Boleo mine in
Lower California, where a French company is working a large group
of copper mines. The point of most activity is Santa Rosalia, on the

23

Gulf of California, where the company treats the ore in its own smelt-
ing plant adjoining. The matte, or black copper, is sent to Europe in
the same vessels that bring out coke. The company gives employ-
ment to thousands of hands directly and indirectly, owns its own
steamers, and solicits workmen all along the coast. But this enter-
prise, large as it is, shows the progress that has been made and the
difficulties overcome by individuals. The country itself is arid and
sterile, and there is little encouragement for others to prospect, or
even develop, when found, apparently good prospects, owing to the
natural difficulties to be overcome and the vast capital necessary to
successfully carry on mining operations ; as success is hardly to be
obtained except by treating the ores on the ground, as the Boleo Com-
pany has done.

At the same time the enterprising firm of Guggenheim has estab-
lished its works at Aguas Calientes, adding very considerably to the
copper product, and the increase of matte shipments from San Luis
Potosi and Monterey makes a large difference from former returns.
To judge from the official figures, the amount of copper produced in
1896 was not less than 22,000 metric tons, the greater production being
from the Boleo mines.

Quicksilver. — The production of quicksilver can only be approxi-
mated from imports, as the native production is far short of the re-
quirements of the country. In 1895 the amount imported was 818,704
kilos, with a value of $541,664, while during the past year the amount
imported was 854,526 kilos, with a value of $574,153. The only infer-
ence to be drawn from these figures is that the production in Mexico
in the past year as compared with 1895 ^as not increased, and the
figures of production given in the Engineering and Mining Journal of
1895 may be accepted as correct for 1896.

Coal. — Fuel is perhaps the greatest and most pressing need of
Mexico. For centuries the population of the whole country has used
wood for fuel, until the most thickly inhabited portions of the country
are completely destitute of trees. This condition of things is a very
serious objection to the increase of manufacturing, as it is impossible
to manufacture cheaply when fuel commands a very high figure. Coal,
which has to be transported sometimes for thousands of miles before it
reaches the centre of the country, becomes very expensive. At present
rates the cost of wood in the City of Mexico is equal to $14 a cord,
while coal ranges from $16 to $22 per ton according to grade, and one
source of supply is the artificial fuel of compressed coal dust brought
from England, and in use not alone on the Veracruz Railway, but in
various local industries, while coal also comes from West Virginia,
Alabama, etc. The distances of the sources of coal supply and its
consequent cost led to the attempt of utilizing the peat deposits which

24 <Beo0rapbicai IRotes on

are of great extent and practically inexhaustible within ten miles of
the City of Mexico.

In the Tlahualilo district of the State of Coahuila, for instance,
owing to the distance from the nearest coal mines, the question of fuel
is very important, as there are at present more than three hundred
horse-power in constant use, and the amount is steadily increasing.,
The main supply is from the mesquite brush, which is cleared from the
new lands as the work of ditching and preparation advances. The
hulls of the cotton seed also make a hot but quick fuel for some of
the larger stationary engines. The wheat, straw and cotton bushes are
utilized for brick-burning and for the domestic purposes of the labor-
ing population.

Those acquainted with industrial conditions in Mexico and making
investigations with a view to the establishment of new industries in
that Republic, are consequently impressed with the fact that, in spite
of the cheap labor, favorable climatic conditions, and good home
markets, the lack of cheap fuel is exceedingly detrimental to a large
proportion of the industries of this country ; but fortunately large de-
posits of coal are now being discovered in the Republic. At Salinas,
in the State of Coahuila, a large bed of coal is being worked by the
International Railroad Company, which furnishes fuel for that road
and even for a portion of the Southern Pacific Railroad and for some
of the manufactories in Monterey. In the district of Tlaxiaco, in the
State of Oaxaca, a very rich coal-field has been discovered, but for the
present it is inaccessible and before a railroad can be built to tap it
it cannot be used, as the expense of transportation would be exceed-
ingly high. Sonora contains a carboniferous area, several miles in ex-
tent, with innumerable veins from five to sixteen feet in thickness, of
hard, clean, anthracite coal, carrying as high a percentage in fixed car-
bon as the best coal mined in Wales. The ledge is thirty miles in
length and averages sixteen feet in width, showing a quantity sufficient
to supply the entire Pacific coast with anthracite coal of the first quality
for years to come. The configuration of that State and the proximity
of the sea make it comparatively easy to work it.

At Jiquilpan, State of Michoacan, almost immediately south from
Negrete station on the Guadalajara branch of the Mexican Central
Railroad, a large coal-field has been discovered. While it is not prob-
able that either anthracite or first-class bituminous coal will be found
in these fields, still the great value of even an ordinary class of coal
will be appreciated by those acquainted with industrial conditions in
Mexico. The coal measures of the Chapala district probably belong
to the tertiary period, and lie in stratified rock overlaid by an outflow
of basalt or lava, at an elevation of 250 or 300 feet above Lake Cha-
pala. The general series of rocks has been examined and pronounced

^Dining. 25

as coal-bearing by an eminent geologist. The measures are quite ex-
tensive, being easily traced from Yurecuaro to near Ameca with oc-
casional interruptions through volcanic intrusion. The developments
already made, show that the coal or lignite veins extend over perhaps
thirty square miles. How much beyond these limits, it would be im-
possible to state. It exists in considerable quantities. There are a
number of veins overlying each other, and varying from two inches to
fifty inches in width ; but, as the explorations have not yet found the
veins in place, it is impossible to say exactly what their condition will
be. A feature which adds considerably to the value of these deposits
is an extensive deposit of bog iron in the immediate vicinity. If
further exploration discovers considerable quantities of commercially
valuable coal, it is easy to estimate the results to the industries. Other
beds of coal have been discovered but of less consequence, and in
several of the northern states of Mexico there are known to exist large
deposits.

Mexican industries will be completely revolutionized when they can
use cheap coal instead of wood for all purposes, thus cheapening the
cost of manufacturing by using cheaper fuel, which is so important an
item of expense in manufacturing.

Mexican Miners. — While the laborers employed in Mexico will not
compare in efficiency with the labor of the miner in the United States, it
must be borne in mind that the American miner works eight hours and
receives $3 per day, or $6 in Mexican money, and $6 in Mexican
money will employ from eight to twelve Mexicans, wages varying from
5oc. to 75c. per day. As for the climatic conditions, it is only necessary
to say that in all the mining districts of Mexico a miner can work 365
days in the year. There is never any snow or cold weather in winter,
and the heat in the summer is not so extreme as in St. Louis, Chicago,
or New York, and never enervating. A pair of blankets at night are
indispensable every night in the year.

Mining Laws. — The mining laws of Mexico issued during the
Spanish rule, which were kept in force until 1884, were both liberal and
wise, and were intended to encourage mining. The domain of the
mines remained in the Government and it gave temporary titles to any-
body who discovered one, and who was willing to work it, but only as
long as work was done in the mine. When the discoverer or owner
could not for any reason continue to work it, and allowed a certain
time to elapse without doing any work, the mine reverted to the
Government and anybody else willing to work it could obtain a tem-
porary title over it. This system was changed, by our Mining Code of
1884, to the effect of giving the mines in fee simple to the discoverers of
the same, whether they were worked or not by those who denounced
them, and the only cause for forfeiting the title is the failure to pay a

r26 6eo0rapbical Betes on

-tax of $10 per pertenencia, a " pertenencia " being OUT unit of a mining
property and consisting of a hectare or a square 100 metres on each
side, equivalent to 2.47 acres. The rights of the owner of the land
are not interfered with, and in case anybody discovers a mine upon
another man's property, the landlord continues to own the surface, and
all the discoverer is entitled to is the mineral underground and so
much of the surface as is necessary to work it, for buildings and
other mining requirements, and for that the owner of the ground is
compensated by agreement, or, if no amicable agreement can be
reached, by arbitration.

Mining litigation is quite rare in Mexico, and it does not take long
to get a final decision, as mining cases are tried before a single judge,
and appeals lie to the Supreme Courts of the different states, and to
the Federal Supreme Court in Mexico. To the honor of the courts in
Mexico be it said, as may also be said of the judiciary in the States and
the United States Federal Courts, they are above reproach.

A concise statement of the provisions of the present mining laws
of Mexico will not be out of place here.

The law grants to all inhabitants of the country the right to acquire
and work mines. He has to denounce a new mine. A denouncement
means making a location. When the location of a claim has been
determined upon, all possible data are obtained concerning it before the
denouncement is made. It may be a rich old mine, and yet if the law
has not been complied with it is subject to relocation. The law grants
to any inhabitant of the Republic the right to explore for mineral.
All districts have their mining agents and all the prospector has to do
is to have the regular form of petition used in making out a denounce-
ment, as it is called, made out and submitted to the mining agent of
.the district. If there does not happen to be a mining agent in the
district, the petition is presented to the local postmaster. The expense
of registering the petition is $i. After registering the petition, the
mining agent has thirty days in which to appoint an expert to examine
the property, who has eight days in which to reply to the summons,
and if he accepts the service, the mining agent issues in duplicate a
document stating that the claim has been denounced and directing
objecting parties to make known their prior claims within a period of
four months from the date of the denouncement, or forfeit any right to
the property.

The charge of the expert for making a report upon the claim, to-
gether with the plans, is about $15 per claim and travelling expenses.
The expert has sixty days in which to send in his plans and report.
The notification that the property has been denounced is published in
the official journal of the district, the cost of which varies in the
.different states, from $2 to $4 being the usual fee.

/IDining, 27

The cost of making up a mining title is from $10 to $12. Titles,
when once granted, unless fraud is shown, are irrevocable so long as the
taxes are paid, which are ten dollars per year on each " pertenencia,"
and no work or manual labor is necessary to hold the same. The taxes
may be paid quarterly or annually, at the discretion of the holder, to
the mining agent of the district in which the property is denounced,
or by special arrangement they may be paid at the office of the Fed-
eral Treasury in the City of Mexico. After the title is granted, it
must be registered in the district where the denouncement is made,
and also entered upon the books of the stamp office, for which no fees
are charged.

MINTS AND DUTIES ON SILVER.

Under the Spanish laws all silver paid a duty ; and as most of it
was coined, that duty was levied on coinage, and the exportation of
bullion was prohibited ; but of course a great deal was smuggled, both
during the Spanish rule and still more when Mexico was opened to
foreign trade after our Independence. When I occupied for the first
time the Treasury Department of Mexico in 1868, it seemed to me an
outrage against the mining industry of the country to require the
miners — especially those who were far removed from the mints — to
take their bullion from the mints, at a heavy expense and risk, coin it
there and take it back to the mines, and from there to the ports to be
exported to London, where it was often again turned into bullion ; and
as the contracts made with the lessees of the mints did not allow the
free exportation of bullion, I proposed and succeeded in having en-
acted a law for the purpose of allowing bullion to be exported, pro-
vided that it paid the coinage duty at the respective custom-houses for
the benefit of the mint's lessees ; and this condition of things, extra-
ordinary as it may seem, was a great relief to the silver producers, and
continued until the Mexican Government could recover all the mints
and be free to legislate on the subject, which it was able to do par-
tially during my last incumbency of the Treasury Department ; they
all since having been recovered.

We had thirteen mints in the country to coin the silver extracted
from our mines, which, in the precarious condition of the Mexican
Treasury, were sometimes rented to private parties who advanced a
sum that seemed large at that time, although it was a trifle in compari-
son to their profits, as they collected a duty of nearly 4^ per cent,
upon the amount of bullion coined, and they credited to the Govern-
ment only i-J per cent, of the same, the laws requiring that only coined
silver could be exported. But now that silver can be transported easily
from the mine to the mint, since a railway system has been built, the
mints have been reduced to four, — one in the City of Mexico, which

28 6eocjrapbical Wotes on /l&ejico,

is the principal one ; one at each of the cities of Guanajuato, Zacatecasr
and Culiacan, the last being the capital of Sinaloa.

Besides the mint or coinage duties, silver was taxed in Mexico with,
an export duty which sometimes was as high as twelve per cent, on the
value of the silver, which, together with the mint duty, amounted to
seventeen per cent., not taking into account other taxes and local duties.
Only the rich character of the Mexican mines could stand that burden.

The duties on silver have been readjusted and reduced consider-
ably, until now they only amount, as established by the law of March
27, 1897, to a coinage duty of two per cent, and a stamp duty of three
per cent., which are paid at the Assay Office of the Mint when coined,
or at the custom-house when exported in bullion, ores, or other com-
pounds. When exported in ores in their crude condition, the duty has
a rebate of ten per cent. A small duty representing the cost of the
operation is also charged for assaying, refining, smelting, and separat-
ing the metals.

SMELTING PLANTS.

The Tariff Act of October i, 1890, having levied a duty upon lead
ore, which prevented that Mexican product from coming into the
United States in the shape it had come before, the American com-
panies, who had been developing the lead ore in Mexico, established
smelting plants in the country for the purpose of treating there the
lead ore, and sending it as pig-lead to the United States.

The smelting plants that have been established in Mexico, and
their capacity and output, taken from official data received from the
Mexican Government, up to December 31, 1896, are the following :

Mexican Metallurgical Company. — This company, of which Mr.
Robert S. Towne is president, obtained a charter from the Mexican
Government on March 20, 1890, to establish five smelting plants in
Mexico, two with the minimum capacity of 200 tons a day, two of 150
tons, and one of 100 tons. The first one is located at Morales, five
kilometres west of the city of San Luis Potosi. During the fiscal year
1895 to 1896, this plant received 62,370 and 020/1000 metric tons of
ore from the States of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Guanajuato,
Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Nuevo Leon, Queretaro, San Luis Potosi,
and Zacatecas. This plant yielded during the same year 16,019 and
070/1000 metric tons of base lead bullion, with 3,198,924.14 troy
ounces of silver, valued at $4,882,177.50 ; and 8268 and 37/100 troy
ounces of gold, valued at $161,338.63.

National Mexican Smelter at Monterey. — This company, whose
president is Mr* Daniel Guggenheim, obtained a charter from .the
Mexican Government on October 9, 1890, to establish three smelting
plants in Mexico, two with a minimum capacity of 300 tons per day,

29

and one with 100 tons. The first plant is located in the outskirts of
the city of Monterey, has ten furnaces of the water-jacket system, and
seven smelting furnaces for lead ore. From July, 1892, to June, 1896,
this plant has smelted 521,809 and 769/1000 metric tons of ore, yield-
ing 78,067 and 141/1000 tons of lead, with 515,382 kilograms of silver,
with a value of $21,824,597.93, having used foreign coke to the value
of $1,474,385.81, and Mexican coke to the value of $73,268.08.

Central Mexican Smelter. — The second smelter of the Guggenheim
Company is located at Aguascalientes. It has a department for con-
centrating copper ores, one for smelting the same ores, consisting of
three furnaces, and another with four furnaces for smelting lead ores.
This plant smelted from the 26th of December, 1895, 606 and 190/1000
tons of lead, containing 6502 kilograms of silver and 28 and 71/100
kilograms of gold, with a value of $341,091.

Velardena Mining Company. — This company, whose president is Mr.
Edward W. Nash, obtained a charter from the Mexican Government
on May 15, 1893, for the construction of two smelting plants in Mexico,
with a capacity of 200 tons a day each. From November 30, 1893, to
June 30, 1896, this plant smelted 110,000 tons of ore, yielding 9069
and 680/1000 tons of lead containing 1,850,685 troy ounces of silver
and 6192 ounces of gold.

The Chihuahua Mining Company. — This company, whose president
is Mr. John B. Shaw, obtained a charter from the Mexican Govern-
ment May 26, 1893, and is located near the city of Chihuahua. Up to
July 28, 1896, it had smelted 28,555 tons °f lead °re, yielding 3761
tons of lead and 529,450 troy ounces of silver.

The Mazapil Copper Company, Limited. — This company established
a plant at Concepcion del Oro, Zacatecas, and has smelted 5000 tons
of lead ore containing silver.

Sabinal Mining and Smelting Company, Chihuahua. — This company
owns the mines of Santa Juliana and Santa Inez, which yield 30 per
cent, of lead, with a mixture of silver, and smelts their ore, notwith-
standing that the cost of a ton of coke amounts to $37.50.

La Preciosa. — A smelter under that name has been established at
Tepeyahualco, State of Puebla, but I do not have any data about the
company owning it, and the date of its contract with the Mexican
Government, nor the amount of ore smelted there.

The Boleo Smelter. — I have already spoken of this plant, which
smelts copper ores at Santa Rosalia, Lower California.

OROGRAPHY.

Mexico is traversed by two cordilleras or high ranges of mountains
running almost parallel to the coast, one along the Gulf of Mexico
and the other along the Pacific Ocean. The former runs from ten to

30 Oeograpbicai iRotes on flDejico,

one hundred miles from the coast, leaving an imperceptibly inclined
plane from the sea to the foot of the mountains ; while the cordillera
on the Pacific side runs, on the whole, very near the coast, leaving a
very narrow strip of land between the same and the sea, and from this
run several branches in different directions. The most continuous
range is the Sierra Madre of the Pacific, which may be traced, at a
mean elevation of over 10,000 feet, from Oaxaca to Arizona. Parallel
to this is the Lower Californian range (Sierra de la Giganta) 3000
feet, which, however, falls abruptly eastwards, like the Atlantic escarp-
ments. The California peninsula seems to have been detached from
the mainland when the general upheaval took place which produced
the vast chasm now flooded by the Gulf of California. Corresponding
with the Sierra Madre on the west are the more interrupted eastern
scarps of the central plateau, which sweep around the Gulf of Mexico
as the Sierra Madres of Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas at an elevation
of about 6000 feet. These are crossed by the routes from Tula to
Tampico, the highest pass being 4820 feet ; from Saltillo to Monterey
3400, and at several other places.

Of the central cross ridges the most important orographically and
historically is the Cordillera de Anahuac, which surrounds the Mexi-
can (Tenochtitlan) and Puebla valleys, and which is supposed to cul-
minate with Popocatepetl and Ixtacihuatl. But these giants belong to
a different or rather more recent system of igneous upheaval, running
from sea to sea between 18° 59' and 19° 12' N. in almost a straight line
east and west, consequently nearly at right angles to the main axis of
the central plateau. The line is clearly marked by several extinct
cones and by five active or quiescent volcanoes, of which the highest
is Popocatepetl, lying south of the capital, nearly midway between
the Pacific and the Atlantic. East of the central point of the system
are Citlaltepetl, better known as the peak of Orizaba, on the coast
south of Veracruz, to which correspond on the west the recently
upheaved Jorullo in Michoacan, Colima (12,800) near the coast in
Jalisco, and the volcanic Revillagigedo group in the Pacific. South
of this line and nearly parallel, are the sierras of Guerrero, and south-
east of the Tehuantepec Isthmus those of Oaxaca and Chiapas towards
the Guatemala frontier. In the same direction run the islands of Cuba
and Hayti, which probably belong to the same Central American system.

In the course of centuries these high mountains have become dis-
integrated by the rains and other natural elements, and a great many
spaces between them filled up, forming a series of valleys and other
spots quite delightful in climate and very rich in agricultural resources.
This series of valleys, which we call the central plateau, runs from
about one hundred and fifty miles east of the City of Mexico, travers-
ing all of Mexico in a northwesterly direction. So level is the plateau

that even when there were no wagon roads in Mexico one could travel
in a carriage from the City of Mexico to Santa Fe. Baron Humboldt
and other geologists considered the cordilleras of Mexico as a portion
of the Andes of South America, which originate in Patagonia, extend-
ing over the whole of that continent ; but researches were made spe-
cially by a corps of engineers, who surveyed Mexico during the French
Intervention, arrived at a different conclusion, and consider that the
Andes proper end in Panama, and that the Mexican cordilleras are
entirely independent from that lofty chain of mountains.

In contrast with the plains and at times barren districts of the
central plateau, it is occasionally broken by depressions of the soil,
known as barrancas, descending sometimes one thousand feet and
measuring several miles across, which are covered with a luxuriant
vegetation of trees and shrubs, and watered by small streams running
through the middle of the valley. Among the most remarkable ones are
the barranca de Beltran descending the western slope from Guadalajara
to Colima, and the barranca de Mochitilte from Guadalajara to Tepic.

One of the pre-eminently interesting features of Mexico is the
mountain of Jerullo, in this section, which has been born within recent
times. The natives described to Alexander von Humboldt the con-
vulsions of the earth during its birth, and the frightful spectacle of the
huge mass thrusting its giant shoulders among its neighbors, making
room for itself in their ranks.

The best way to illustrate the broken surface of Mexico is to give
the altitudes of some of the principal localities, both from the coast to
the interior and from the interior back to the coast, taken from the
measurements made by the railroad companies and by the engineers of
the Mexican Government in the national wagon roads where railroads
are not yet running. I append to this paper a list of such altitudes,
with their distances, whenever I have been able to find them, which
I consider the best illustration that could be presented on this subject.

MOUNTAINS.

STATES.

ELEVATION
IN FEET.

17 ^dO

Orizaba

Veracruz and Puebla

17 ^62

Toluca

Mexico

je oiO

Ixtacihuatl

Mexico and Puebla

16 076

Colirna

Jalisco

I/I ^67

Zapotlan . . .

Jalisco

12 743

San Martin or Tuxtla

Veracruz

4Q2I

12 4.6?

4 265

Chiapas. ... . ...

7 436

Federal District

9731

Ajusco

Federal District

13 628

Cofre de Perote

Veracruz . .

13 4Ie>

11,141

Pico de Ouinceo

Michoacan ... .

IO QCK

Veta Grande

Zacatecas

9,I4O

32 Geograpbical IRotes on

The above are the principal mountain peaks of Mexico, the first
ten being volcanoes, with their heights according to the most recent
measurements :

HYDROGRAPHY.

The eastern Mexican coast, washed by the Caribbean Sea and
the Gulf of Mexico, is low, flat, and sandy, except near the mouth of
the Tabasco River, where at some distance from the coast appear the
heights of San Gabriel, extending northeast and southwest for sev-
eral miles ; but the majestic mountains of Veracruz, especially the
volcano of Orizaba, visible for many leagues to seaward, form a pictur-
esque background which relieves the monotony of the shore region of
that State. On the Pacific side the coast, although generally low, is
here and there roughened by spurs extending from the cordillera to
the ocean.

The principal gulfs are those of Mexico, California, and Tehuante-
pec, the first of which ranks among the largest in the world.

We are not blessed with good harbors on the Gulf coast. Vera-
cruz is an open roadstead, and we are now spending large sums of
money in trying to make it a good port. Our best harbors are on the
Pacific coast, as Acapulco, which is a large one ; Manzanillo, a very
fine although a very small one ; and La Paz, on the Gulf of California.
By artificial means we expect to improve our harbors considerably.

The development of the harbor of Tampico is remarkable. A
short time ago the depth of the bar roadstead was only eight or nine
feet. Now steamships drawing twenty-four feet of water enter the
port. The deepening of the entrance to the harbor has been accom-
plished by means of jetties, just as the mouth of the Mississippi was
deepened by the Eads jetties. A very large part of the imports of
Mexico enter now by the port of Tampico.

The more noteworthy bays are those of Guaymas, Santa Barbara,
Topolobampo and Navachiste, in the Gulf of California ; Concepcion,
La Paz, and Muleje, on the west coast of the same gulf ; San Quentin,
Magdalena, and Amejas, on the Pacific coast of Lower California ; and
San Bias and Valle de Banderas, on the coast of Tepic.

We have no lakes as large as those with which the United States
is favored, and the Lake of Chapala, a beautiful spot where country
houses are now being built, is the largest lacustrine basin in Mexican
territory. The Valley of Mexico has six lakes, two of fresh and six of
salt water. The other lakes in Mexico are Catemaco, in the State of
Veracruz ; Cairel and Carpintero, in the State of Tamaulipas ; Encan-
tada, in Tabasco ; Bacalar, in Yucatan ; Alcuzague, in Colima ; Cuit-
zeo, Tacascuaro, and Patzcuaro, in Michoacan ; Yuriria, in Guanaju-
ato ; and Meztitlan, in Hidalgo.

33

Mexico has a great many islands, situated near the coast, although
not any of very great area, the greater number being uninhabited,
although some of them are very fertile, and could be the seat of a
large population. Among the most important are : El Carmen,
the largest in the Gulf of Mexico ; San Juan de Ulua and Sacrificios,
opposite the port of Veracruz ; Mujeres, in the Caribbean Sea ; Guada-
lupe, about seventy-five miles from the west coast of Lower California;
the Tres Marias group, about thirty miles from the same coast ; the
Revillagigedo group, not far from the coast of Colima ; and adjoining
the coast of the State of Michoacan, the Alcatraz Island.

As I have already stated, Mexico has a very broken surface, with
high mountains, causing streams to run down a very inclined plane,
forming torrents with rapid cascades, which contribute to embellish
the natural features of the country. These conditions, however, pre-
vent us from having large navigable rivers, and furnishing a cheap
way of transportation, which is one of the greatest advantages the
United States enjoys, and which so largely contributed in its early
days to the development of the country, making transportation to long
distances both easy and cheap. While the torrents descending from
the mountains afford an immense water-power — which, in the course
of time, may be used as a motor for industrial purposes — they meet
when they reach a valley and run smoothly there through a ravine
until finally they reach the coast, and it is therefore only at a compara-
tively small distance from the sea that they can be made navigable.

Our principal rivers, measuring their positions from north to south,
are the Rio Grande — which from El Paso, Texas, to the sea, is the
boundary line between the two countries, and which used to be a large
river ; but as it rises in Colorado and passes through New Mexico,
and the inhabitants of both have taken for irrigation purposes most of
the water that it carries, it becomes entirely dry during the dry season
after the freshets, very much to the distress of the inhabitants of its
borders from El Paso to Ojinaga, especially on the Mexican side, which
has been inhabited for three hundred years, the people using the water
for irrigation — on the other side there being hardly any population, —
and now they find that their farms are entirely worthless for want of
water. After passing Presidio del Norte, now called Ojinaga, the Con-
chos River and other tributaries of the Rio Grande River supply it with
water, although not to the extent it had before the water was taken in
Colorado and New Mexico. The Mescala, or Balsas River, rises in
the central plateau near the Valley of Mexico, passes by the State of
Puebla to the southwest, by Mixteca of Oaxaca, and finally empties
into the Pacific at Zacatula. As indicated by its name, it is, to a lim-
ited extent, navigable along its lower reaches ; above the bar it is
accessible to small craft, which, higher up, are arrested by rapids,

VOL. 1—3

34 Geootapbtcal IRotes on

Whirlpools, and a high cascade. The Panuco River rises north of the
Valley of Mexico. Under the names of Tula and Montezuma it de-
scribes a vast semicircular bend towards the west across the Hidalgo-
uplands and collects the waters of the Huasteca of Veracruz and Ta-
maulipas, beyond which it is joined by the various streams flowing:
from Queretaro, and finally empties into the Gulf of Mexico at the
port of Tampico. The Tampico bar, improved by jetties, is now the
best harbor on our Gulf coast. The Rio Lerma or Santiago, the
Tololotlan of the Indians, is also a considerable stream. By the
riverain populations it is, in fact, known as the Rio Grande, while
the inhabitants of Michoacan call it also Cuitzeo, from the large
lake situated in their State. It rises in the State of Mexico in
the very centre of the Anahuac plateau, and its farthest sourcesr
issuing from underground galleries, descend from the Nevado de
Toluca down to the twin lake of Lerma, the remains of an inland
sea which formerly filled the Upper Toluca valley north of the Ne-
vado volcano. At its issue from the lake, or rather marshy lagoon,
the Lerma stands at the great altitude of 8600 feet, and during its
winding northwesterly course across the plateau, the incline is very
slight. In this upland region it is swollen by several affluents, some of
which, like the main stream itself, flow from lakes dotted over the
table-land. After completing half of its course at La Barca, the Ler-
ma is still 5600 feet above sea-level. Here, some 280 miles from its
source, it enters the large Lake Chapala, near its eastern extremity ;
but about twelve miles below the entrance it again emerges through
a fissure on the north side of the lake, and still continues to flow-
throughout its lower course in the same northwesterly direction.

The Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers, rising in the State of Chiapas,,
after being joined by many others, some of them coming from Guate-
mala, empty into the Gulf of Mexico by one of its mouths at the city
of Frontera in the State of Tabasco. The Papaloapam River rises in
the State of Oaxaca, passes through the State of Veracruz, and emp-
ties into the Gulf of Mexico at the town of Alvarado, a few miles south
of Veracruz.

The rains increase considerably the amount of water in the rivers,,
but as their duration is not very long this soon subsides. When the
streams rise near the sea, as is the case on the coast of Chiapas on the
Pacific, they become so swollen immediately after the rains that it is
impossible to ford them, and as there are no bridges, it is necessary to
wait until early the next day when the freshet has subsided.

Springs are rare, and some of the rivers run in deep mountain beds,
without receiving smaller tributaries, while the rapid evaporation on a
light soil, covering porous rocks, leaves the surface dry and hot and
unable to support much vegetation beyond the cactus and low grasses.

Climate, 35

We are blessed with quite a number of mineral springs, although
very few of them are used, most of them being at places not easily ac-
cessible ; but in this regard I do not think we have any cause to envy
any other country.

CLIMATE.

By looking at the map it will be perceived that Mexico, being inter-
sected by the Tropic of Cancer and stretching across eighteen parallels
of latitude, must, from its position alone, necessarily enjoy a great
diversity of climate. But from its peculiar configuration this feature
is affected far more by the altitude of the land than by its distance
from the pole or the equator. This is especially true of the more
fertile and populous section lying within the torrid zone, where three
distinct climatic regions are distinguished, not according to their hori-
zontal, but according to their vertical position. The warm climate
has the heat of the torrid zone and prevails on the sea-coast in the
sandy and marshy tracts fringing the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific
Ocean, in other low places below 3000 feet above the level of the sea,
and in some of the valleys higher than that, but protected entirely from
the winds. But the night breezes refresh the temperature in the even-
ing and make it bearable during the day, the heat never being so
oppressive as it is in summer in the more northern latitudes. This
region is also much refreshed in summer by the rains, which are
abundant and fall regularly during that season. The heat of the sun
increases considerably the evaporation from the sea, and when the
evaporation reaches the cool atmosphere of the sky, it is naturally con-
densed into water and falls in this region. The rains begin generally
in June, increase considerably in July, and end in November, although
this varies in different regions, the rains lasting longer in those near
the sea than in the inland districts. They are so abundant that they
form the main reliance of the agricultural industry, and there are few
regions which use water for irrigation, depending entirely upon the
rainfall ; therefore, when in a year by some atmospheric phenomena,
the rains are late or very scarce, we had a famine in Mexico, which
can now be averted by importing cereals through our railroads, as was
the case in 1893. The rains fall regularly and at fixed intervals, that
is, about from one to three hours every day, and after the rain is over,
the atmosphere is clear and pleasant, and in well drained places the
ground becomes dry, so that it causes no inconvenience to the in-
habitants.

The rains have such a decided effect on the atmosphere that in
most of the country the seasons are divided into the rainy and dry
season, and very few realize what spring and fall mean. As our climate
is so even, the trees do not lose their leaves at any given time, but one

36 <3eoarapbicai Botes on flDejico*

by one as they grow old and die ; and as the leaves die they are re-
placed gradually and imperceptibly by new ones, so that the phenome-
non familiar to northern latitudes, of trees losing all their leaves in the
autumn and regaining them in the spring, is quite new to anybody
going to a temperature that has both extremes.

The differences of climate depending upon the different degrees of
altitude are so great in Mexico that the vegetable products of this vast
country include almost all that are to be found between the equator
and the polar circle.

The mean temperature in the hot region varies from 77 to 82 de-
grees, Fahrenheit, seldom falling below 60, but often rising to 100
degrees, and in the sultry districts of Veracruz and Acapulco occa-
sionally to 104 degrees, although the heat is not oppressive as is the
summer heat of the eastern portions of the United States. The vege-
tation is, of course, in consequence entirely tropical. In the southern
region the climate on both seaboards may be described as humid, hot,
and rather unhealthy, and in places where stagnant water and marshes
exist — which are often found on the coast on account of the sea water
flowing in and remaining there — intermittent and remittent fevers pre-
vail, and in some localities during the summer yellow fever and black
vomit are endemic. These conditions could easily be remedied by
proper drainage of the swamps and marshy districts.

The heat of the Gulf of Mexico when the atmosphere begins to cool
in the polar regions causes a depression in the barometer, and conse-
quently very strong north winds, which sweep over the coast with ter-
rible force, causing great havoc. They generally begin in September
and last until the winter season sets in about December. As the
country is narrow, the effect of the north wind is felt all over it and
that is the prevailing wind. In the City of Mexico, for instance, not-
withstanding its altitude and that it is protected by high mountains
from the northern winds, the temperature falls when the northerns
prevail on the Gulf coast, and it becomes cloudy and drizzly, and the
same effect is felt, more or less, in other portions of the country. As
the country narrows towards the southeast, especially at Tehuantepec,
the northern wind blows with but small obstacles, and its force and
effects are felt all over it. The districts in the mountains bordering
the Pacific are affected in the same way as the City of Mexico.

From 3000 to 5000 feet above the level of the sea is located our
temperate zone, which succeeds the hot zone in a verticle position,
and embraces all the higher terraces, and portions of the central
plateaus themselves. The mean temperature is from 62 to 70 degrees,
Fahrenheit, varying not more than 4 to 5 degrees during the season,
thus making one of the very finest climates on the face of the earth.
In this privileged region both extremes of heat and cold are unknown,

Climate* 37

and it has several cities — Jalapa and Huatusco in the State of Vera-
cruz, Chilpancingo in Guerrero, Ameca in Jalisco, and many others too
numerous to mention here. As these places are generally located on
the slopes of mountains and not far removed from the ocean, the
evaporations from the sea form clouds which are detained in their
course by the high peaks and are precipitated into rain. In this
region the semi-tropical productions are abundant, and with them are
often combined the products of tropical and cold regions. I have
seen in my own native place, the city of Oaxaca, located in the
temperate region, a farm where wheat and sugar-cane were growing on
the same piece of ground.

The cold region is located from 7000 feet above the sea-level up-
wards, and has a mean temperature of from 59 to 63 degrees,
Fahrenheit. Most of the grand central plateau is located in this region,
except in such places as are in a great depression of ground and in
deep ravines, where a warm temperature and tropical products are
found. The rainfall is about five times less than in the temperate zone.
This region, of course, produces all the growths of the cold latitudes,
as wheat, oats, apples, etc., etc.

The portion of the country that is most thickly inhabited lies in
the central plateau, and is quite high above the level of the sea, and
so sheltered from the winds and storms by the mountains as to make
the climate even, temperate, and delightful. The impression pre-
vails in the United States that Mexico, lying to the south and run-
ning towards the equator, must be much warmer than this country ;
but this is not so. Even in warm places, like the lowlands on the
coast, we do not have the extreme hot weather that is experienced
in summer in the United States. The sea breezes refresh the atmos-
phere at night and cool it considerably, making, therefore, a very
great contrast with the summer heat in this country. The medium
climate of the Valley of Mexico, for instance, which is the one that
has been best observed and understood, varies comparatively little
between summer and winter, its greatest variations being between day
and night on the same day.

The climatic conditions of Mexico are undergoing great changes on
account of the destruction of the forests. The country had formerly
a great deal of rain and much humidity in the atmosphere, being
covered with thick forests ; but with the difficulty of transporting the
coal already found, the population has had to depend entirely for their
supply of fuel upon charcoal, and this has in the course of time
denuded the mountains, changing very materially the climatic con-
ditions of some regions in the country. But in the lowlands, being
thinly inhabited, the case is different, and the country is still so thickly
wooded that it is impossible to pass through it, unless an open path

(3eo0rapbical iRotes on

is made with a great deal of difficulty, by felling very high trees and
low brush and weeds. In this region abound forests of mahogany,
cedar, rosewood, etc. I will later state more in detail the conditions
of the fuel question in Mexico.

As a whole, the Mexican climate, if not of the most invigorating
nature, is certainly one of the most delightful in the world. The zone
of temperate lands, oceanic slopes, enjoy an everlasting spring,
being exposed neither to severe winter, nor to intolerable summer
heats ; in every glen flows a rippling stream ; every human abode is
embowered in leafy vegetation ; and here the native plants are inter-
mingled with those of Europe and Africa. Each traveller in his turn
describes the valley in which he has tarried longest as the loveliest
in the world ; nowhere else do the snowy crests or smoking volcanic
cones rise in more imposing grandeur above the surrounding sea of
verdure, all carpeted with the brightest flowers. In these enchanting
regions there is still room for millions and millions of human beings.

The following table prepared by the Meteorological Observatory of
the City of Mexico shows the meteorological conditions of the
principal Mexican cities during several years, their elevation upon the
sea-level being marked in metres and the temperature under the
Centigrade scale.

SUMMARY OF THE METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN IN SEVERAL
CITIES OF MEXICO DURING SEVERAL YEARS.

LOCALITIES.

rt
_1

fc

a

ITS
rt %

4-»-*

S*

33 M

H

Number of years 1 1
of observation.

Mean barometrical
pressure.

TEMPERATURES
IN THE SHADE.

Relative humidity. |

CLOUDS.

WIND.

Rainfall. Average
for a year.

X
•

£

e"
'£

1

>

•<

j?g

"S'o

> OJ

<U £

H

1.1

*c3 tj

> a)

s.S

Oi-o

if

S|

0 /

25 40

25 25

24 48
24 II

22 46
22 C

22 4

21 53

21 4I

21 7

m.
495-6
1633.0
34-2
4.0
2496.
1890.
1924.
1861.
376.
1798.

i

4

i

4

10

9
10

i
i
*4
5

2

7
3

i
i

mm.
709.1
632.1
754-9
759-3
573-4
613.4
607.8
605.1
765-1
617.4
601.3
763-o
636.2
613.8
574-8

0

33-2
34-o
35-9
34-i

21.8

33-9
24.0

29-5
34-o
35-6
3°-7

35-5
33-i
27.2

0

n'l

—2.8
J2-5

10.3

6.1
—1.8

12.2
2.8
10. 0

— I . I
i-3

-4-5
"0.6

0
21.0

16.8
25-6
25.2
13.2
17.4
18.2
18.6
23-0
18.9
17.6
24-5
19.7
18.1
I3-7
18-3

61

62

3

60

57

8i

66

53
59
59
60

4-4

. . . „ . . .

S.E.

N.

1.4

mm.
34I3-5
527-3
125.2
519-2
819.1
389-0
537-0
542-2
2019.3
729.8
964-5
1654-3
861.9
602.2
436-8
567-1
1110.4
614.8
668.1
926.0
2264.0
649-3

Saltillo Coah

3-4
3-2
4-4
4.0

N.W.
S.E.
W.
S.S.E.

N.W.
S.E.
E.
W.S.W.

N

i.7

2.6

i-3

1.2

San Luis Potosi, S. L. P.
Pabellon Ag

Aguascalientes, Ag
Huejutla, Hid

4-9
5-3
4-3

' s.w.' '

N.'N'.W'.

"0.6

20 59

20 41

20 35
20 7
19 49

I567-
1850.
2460.
1976.

N.W.

w.

....

Guadalajara, Jal

4.1

4.2
3-5
4-3
5-o

4-7

4.8

' S.W.' '
E.
E.
S.W.

E'.N'.E.'

N.

E.

N.E.
N.E.
W.
N.W.
N.W.
N.E.
N.E.
W.

o 6

2 4

'o 8
1 9

Pachuca Hid ....

San Juan del Rio, Que. .

Mexico D F

19 26

•19 12
I9 03

18 36
17 04

2282.
2322.
2172.

3-
1541.0

15
9
J4

i
i

586.4
583.6
593-2
760.4
636.6

31.6
28.6
3i-9

—1.7
0.8
— i.i

iS-4
iS-5

*5-7
25.3

20.6

60
62

£

80

Tacubaya D F

Puebla, Pue
Tlacotalpam, Ver

32-9

6.2

Climate.

39

KEN I
1869.

CAL OBSERVATI
DURING THE

•pU009S J3d

-oopA uinunx

APO
ION

Prevailing
direction.

•puooas aad A"}I

Dominan
direction.

JU(UIB

-UB U

jo

Rainiest
Month.

S :

•^

5

.010

S txv

g M

B

t~.H
Ot^

TEMPERATUR
IN THE SHAD

METRIC
E RED
TO 0°.

me

•T53S 3X{}

CM

H •

C *
B

. .

-r--

c* ••^•ioco*O'<t"»^hcot^'Ci

oo q n c>« . .

•*• -*-vo f» -»f CO •* 10 vo-^-vr, -rrocn-^-.ro-^-ro-^-.

o fxoo oo M o o\oo o M

M 0
D~OO

SIS.

O<5

iit$&i£t&
SfSSSiM

I 00 1000 00 M -4-VO

•*« <> o \o ts OMO moo i-oo t.
• fll M o ct do oo n M 14 ^M ^

txvo (?jvo vo

txf«0\t-» OOOfO N-^- O-OO t>. O>OO IN VO VO OVO • • f) M
OOO« t^M^ -J- <^ LT> IN 10 0 oo OvOO •* Oi •«• • • 10 »O

1 i

vo^fO^-^OfOOH H co H vo O H ^"VO "$-00 W oo • M M in
cocococoro'«'CO'*-co ro^cococococowcowcoc* • co ro co

m-*in vr>-*-MiOMOvOOHONf)O<';-«fOvo

o>o>

•* "^

•*• d> M >-•' oo* rn N oo oo" w ci vo' d M o
vovoo> OvWM^-r^owio rovo N vo
t-. ts. to to t-,vo vo >0 Svo *rjvo iovo io

vo -^od vo f^i -^vo oo'cJvOvOvo "wwvd
OO M Q m t~> ON M ^- fr> 10 M «o • vo S. rn
»0 txvO vo «0 »ovo lOVO UVO 10 ; ti. lovo

00*00

°10<ON° °O00000000000

.

:::: : :

illl

40 (Beoarapbical iRotes on /iDejico.

The table on page 39 shows the results of the meteorological ob-
servations taken in the principal cities of Mexico during the year 1896.

Professor Mariano Barcena, director of our National Meteorological
Observatory or Weather Bureau, furnished me the following data about
the maximum and minimum of temperature and greatest oscillation
both in summer and winter of several cities in Mexico, located both at
the sea-level like Merida and Mazatlan, at different altitudes like Jalapa,
San Luis Potosi, Oaxaca, and at the highest level like the cities of
Mexico, Pachuca, and Zacatecas, showing the mildness of the Mexi-
can climate.

CITY OF MEXICO.

Maximum temperature in the shade in summer 84.9, May 5th.

Maximum temperature in winter 72.0, December.

Minimum temperature in winter 32.9, January and February.

Greatest oscillation in one day in winter 13.7

Greatest oscillation in one day in summer 32.9

PUEBLA (STATE OF PUEBLA).

Maximum temperature in the shade in summer 83.8, April.

Maximum temperature in winter 74. 7, February.

Minimum temperature in winter 32.9, January.

Greatest oscillation in one day in winter 36.3

Greatest oscillation in one day in summer 34.4

OAXACA (STATE OF OAXACA).

Maximum temperature in the shade in summer 93- 7> May.

Maximum temperature in winter 83.1, February.

Minimum temperature in winter 39-2, January and December,

Greatest oscillation in one day in winter 39. 1

Greatest oscillation in one day in summer 37.8

JALAPA (STATE OF VERACRUZ).

Maximum temperature in shade in summer 89.6, April.

Maximum temperature in winter 87.1, December.

Minimum temperature in winter 33. 8, February.

Greatest oscillation in one day in winter 35.3

Greatest oscillation in one day in summer 32.0

QUERETARO (STATE OF QUERETARO).

Maximum temperature in the shade in summer 90.1, April and June.

Maximum temperature in winter . . 80.4, December.

Minimum temperature in winter 32.9, January.

Greatest oscillation in one day in winter 39.4

Greatest oscillation in one day in summer 34.7

Climate. 4i

GUANAJUATO (STATE OF GUANAJUATO).

Maximum temperature in the shade in summer 91.9, April.

Maximum temperature in winter 82.0, February.

Minimum temperature in winter 36.0, January.

Greatest oscillation in one day in winter 36. 7

Greatest oscillation in one day in summer 36.7

LEON (STATE OF GUANAJUATO).

Maximum temperature in the shade in summer 91-6, May and June.

Maximum temperature in winter 77«o, February.

PACHUCA (STATE OF HIDALGO).

Maximum temperature in the shade in summer 80.2, May.

Maximum temperature in winter 77-O, December.

Minimum temperature in winter 32.4, December.

Greatest oscillation in one day in winter 33.3

Greatest oscillation in one day in summer 28.6

REAL DEL MONTE (STATE OF HIDALGO).

Maximum temperature in the shade in summer 80.2, March.

Maximum temperature in winter 74. i, January.

Minimum temperature in winter 31.6, January.

SALTILLO (STATE OF COAHUILA).

Maximum temperature in the shade in summer 89.6, April.

Maximum temperature in winter 75-7, January.

Minimum temperature in winter 12.2, February.

Greatest oscillation in one day in winter 32.8

Greatest oscillation in one day in summer 25.6

MERIDA (STATE OF YUCATAN).

Maximum temperature in the shade in summer 103.6, April and June.

Maximum temperature in winter 92.8, January.

Minimum temperature in winter 47.8, February.

Greatest oscillation in one day in winter 37.1

Greatest oscillation in one day in summer 38.7

MAZATLAN (STATE OF SINALOA).

Maximum temperature in the shade in summer 91.0, September.

Maximum temperature in winter 84.0, December.

Minimum temperature in winter 15.8, February.

Greatest oscillation in one day in winter 16.9

Greatest oscillation in one day in summer 17.5

MEXICO AS A SANITARIUM.

Although the City of Mexico, on account of its present unsatisfac-
tory sanitary conditions, of which I will treat in speaking of that city
and which I am sure will be remedied before long, cannot be consid-
ered now as the best place for invalids, there are many other localities
in the country presenting great advantages as sanitariums.

42 Oeoarapbical fRotes on fl&ejico,

The mild nature and evenness of most of our climate is very favor-
able to certain diseases — especially pulmonary ones — and when that
advantage becomes well known the central plateau of Mexico will be
the best sanitarium for lung diseases, and especially for tuberculosis.
Other lung diseases requiring a warmer climate could find desirable
places in certain valleys in the temperate zone like Cuantla, Cuerna-
vaca, Tasco, Iguala, and others. These very conditions, namely, the
even and mild climate both in summer and winter, will make it a coun-
try visited by thousands of pleasure or health seekers who wish to
escape both extremes of the northern climate. Even now we would
have a much larger travel from this country if we had convenient ac-
commodations for travellers, but our hotels are not yet as comfortable
as those in the United States.

FLORA.

The short and imperfect description of the climate of Mexico,
made above, will show that we can raise all the products of the
three different zones into which the earth is divided, and the most re-
markable thing is that we can raise them almost on the same ground.
By going only a few miles, for instance, travelling on horseback four
or five hours from a low to a higher locality, we change from the torrid
to the temperate zone, and therefore we can have the products of both
with comparatively little trouble ; and by going four or five hours
higher still, we change from the temperate to the frigid zone, and these
are advantages of our geographical position which can be appreciated
only by those who have experienced them.1

!Mr. Charles Dudley Warner, editor of Harpers Monthly Magazine, in a
brilliant article published in the July, 1897, number of that periodical, gives the follow-
ing description of the rapid descent from the cold to the temperate and hot regions of
Mexico, which may be considered as a specimen of the scenery in many other
localities of that country. In many other places, where there are no wagon-roads,
but only a footpath, the descent is a great deal more rapid, often 5000 feet in
four or five miles, and then the contrast is still greater. At Maltrata for instance, an
Indian town about 5000 feet above the level of the sea, the natives offer their tropical
fruits to the passengers of the Mexican Railway going from Veracruz to the City of
Mexico, and they leave with what they have left after the train starts to climb the
mountains to the Central Plateau to an altitude of about 9000 feet, and they reach
Esperanza, the first station on the Central Plateau far ahead of the train, which has to
•describe a long, zigzag course before getting there. I have selected the following ex-
tract from Mr. Warner's article because it relates to one of the historical places of
Mexico :

"Cuernavaca is distinguished as the actual meeting-place of the pine and the
palm. It lies only a little more than fifty miles south of the City of Mexico ; but in
•order to reach it there is a mountain to be crossed which is at an elevation of over ten
thousand feet. A railway climbs up this mountain, over the summit, to a wind-swept
plain, in the midst of pine forests, called Tres Marias — marked by the sightly peaks
of the Three Marys. By long loops and zigzags it is crawling down the mountain on

fflora, 43

The Mexican Southern Railway, from Puebla to Oaxaca, descends
in a few hours, by a series of fertile terraces, from an elevation of seven
thousand feet to one of about seventeen hundred and fifty feet, when
ths wonderful Canon de los Cues is reached, a region of cocoa-nuts and
bananas. But all the valleys and terraces in March are green or yellow
with wheat and corn and sugar-cane. It confuses one's ideas to pass a
field of wheat, the green blades just springing from the ground, and
then a field ripe for harvest, and then a threshing-floor where the grain
is being trodden out by mules. This means that you can plant and
reap every day in the year, if you can obtain water in the dry season,
and do not wait for the regular and copious summer rains.

The magnificent arboreal vegetation embraces one hundred and
fourteen different species of building timber and cabinet woods, includ-
ing oaks, pines, firs, cedars, mahogany, and rosewood ; twelve species
of dyewoods ; eight of gum trees : the cacao and india-rubber, copal,
liquid-ambar, camphor, turpentine, pine, mezquite yielding a substance

the other side to Cuernavaca. Mexico City has an elevation of seven thousand five
hundred feet, Tres Marias of about ten thousand, and Cuernavaca of five thousand.
The descent by the wagon-road is in length only twelve miles, but the drop in that
distance is five thousand feet, so that the traveller passes very quickly from temperate
to tropical conditions. . . .

" From the heights Cuernavaca seems to lie in a plain, but it is really on a pro-
montory between two barrancas, and the whole country beyond is broken, till the
terraces fall off into more tropical places, where the view is bordered by purple
mountains. Indeed, the little city in the midst of this tumultuous plain is surrounded
by lofty mountains. The country around, and especially below to the south, is irri-
gated, and presents a dozen contrasts of color in the evergreen foliage, the ripening
yellow crops of sugar-cane and grain, the clusters of big trees here and there about a
village or a hacienda, and the frequent church-towers. All this is loveliness, a mixture
of temperate and tropical grace, but there is grandeur besides. Looking to the east,
say from the Palace of Cortez, over the fields of purple and green and yellow and
brown, where the graceful palms place themselves just as an artist would have them
in the foreground of his picture, the view is certainly one of the finest in the world.
There is in the left the long mountain range with the peaks of Tres Marias, and along
the foot of it haciendas and towers, cones of extinct volcanoes and noble rocky
promontories. To form the middle-distance mountains come into the picture, sloping
together to lead the eye along from one " value" to another, violet, purple, dark or
shining as the sun strikes them, while on the left is a noble range of naked precipices
of red rock, always startling in color. It is some two thousand feet up the side of
one of these red cliffs that there is the remains of an ancient city of Cliff-dwellers —
almost inaccessible now, but once the home of a race that understood architecture and
knew how to carve. The lines of this natural picture, the fields, the intervening
ledges, the lofty mountains, all converge to the spot the artist would choose for the
eye to rest, and there, up in the heavens, are the snow-clad peaks of Popocatepetl
and Iztaccihuatl, about seventeen thousand five hundred feet above the sea, volcanic
creators of the region, and now undisputed lords of the landscape. In the evening these
peaks are rosy in the sun ; in the morning their white immobility is defined against
the rosy sunshine."

44 6eo0rapbical motes on flDejico,

similar to gum-arabic, dragon trees, and the almacigo or Callitris
quadvalvis, from which sandarac is extracted. Among the oil-bearing
trees and plants, of which there are seventeen varieties, are the olive,
cocoa palm, almond, sesame, flax, the tree yielding the balsam of Peru,
and others. There are fifty-nine classified species of medicinal plants,
and many more are mentioned by botanists as still unclassified by
science.

Of the many delicious fruits which grow in the tropical regions,
only a few — the pineapple, the banana, and the cocoa-nut — are known
in this country, the orange being rather a semi-tropical fruit. The
others require, as all fruits do, cultivated taste, and, therefore, if im-
ported here would not find a market. Even those which do come here
are of very inferior flavor, owing to the fact that they are cut green so
as to prevent their decay during transportation, and they, of course,
have a less agreeable taste than in the place where they grow. Of the
banana, for instance, we have about twenty varieties, some of which —
the richest in my opinion — grow to a size from twelve to fifteen inches
in length and from two to three inches in diameter.

We can raise in Mexico all the products of the world because we
have all climates, from the perpetual snow to the burning sun of the
equator ; but it would take a great deal more space than I can dispose
of in this paper, to mention all the agricultural products we can raise,
and I will, therefore, confine myself to only such as I think are now of
more importance.

Coffee. — Mexico has many localities well suited for the raising of
coffee, and the production of that berry can in the future be very
largely increased. In the proper locality, namely, zone, ground, and
climate, coffee can be raised on a large scale at comparatively small
cost, affording always a large profit, whatever may be in the future its
price in foreign markets.

I have had personal experience in coffee-raising, having made a
coffee plantation in the district of Soconusco, in the State of Chiapas ;
and I took especial interest in visiting other plantations, both in Mexico
and Guatemala, where coffee had attained a large development. My
experience has shown me that the best zone for coffee is located between
one and five thousand feet above the level of the sea, as coffee is not a
product of the hot but of the temperate zone. On the highlands, as a
rule, the quality of the coffee is better and the yield large, while the
lowlands give an earlier but smaller yield. There are coffee planta-
tions in Mexico, almost down to the level of the sea, which are yielding
coffee, and from that to the elevation of six thousand feet, producing
also a very good quality of coffee. For further information on this
subject, I refer the reader to a treatise on coffee-raising on the south-
ern coast of the State of Chiapas, which T published in the City of

ffiora. 45

Mexico in 1874, and which contains detailed information on the sev-
eral factors affecting that industry.

It is interesting to know the production of coffee in Mexico, taken
from some statistics for 1896 :

Cordoba produces 10,000,000 Ibs.

Huatusco and Coatepec 10,000,000 "

Oaxaca 6,000,000 "

Tabasco 5,000,000 "

Chiapas 3,000,000 "

Other districts 26,000,000 "

60,000,000 Ibs.

Sugar-Cane. — Mexico has many localities where sugar-cane can be
raised at a very small cost, and where that industry can be made very
lucrative, although we hardly produce enough sugar for our home con-
sumption. From the sea-level to the frost line, which ranges, in differ-
ent localities, from three to five thousand feet above the sea-level,
sugar-cane can be raised in Mexico to great advantage. I have seen
the cane in some places, especially in Soconusco, attain a height of
twelve feet and a diameter of about five inches ; and in some localities
it lasts from ten to eighteen years without need of replanting, and can
be cut for grinding twice a year. When it is considered that in some
places, like Louisiana, sugar has to be planted, as I believe, every two
years, and that it is liable to be destroyed by frosts, the advantages of
Mexico for that industry are apparent.

The favorable conditions of Mexico for raising sugar-cane are so
great that I have seen the natives in the Indian town of Loxicha, in
the State of Oaxaca, plant a small plot of sugar-cane, grind it with
primitive wooden mills moved by hand power, using very primitive
earthen pans, to evaporate the juice and make brown sugar — losing of
course a great part of the saccharine matter in the cane, — transport the
sugar, sometimes a distance of thirty miles on mule-back, and sell it at
one cent per pound, and still make a profit.

For sugar-cane the lowlands are the best, and the plant is essen-
tially a tropical one. It will grow, however, at very considerable alti-
tudes, but when planted in the mountains it takes a longer time to
ripen, and soon ceases to give remunerative crops. There was in
southern Veracruz a sugar-cane only six months old which had a
circumference of 7} inches. Where that cane grew the yield of cane
per acre was about 80 tons when twelve months old. The elevation
was something like 1000 feet. It is true, however, that the bulk of
the cane grown in Mexico is to be found above 2000 feet, but I am
convinced that a lower altitude would produce even better results.

Tobacco. — Among the tropical products of superior quality that we

46 Geograpbical notes on

raise in the hot zone, I should mention tobacco, the Mexican tobacco
being, in General Grant's estimation, superior to the Havana article.
The natural conditions of soil and temperature are the same in Cuba
and Mexico, but we had not the superior experience of the Cubans in
curing the leaf until the late insurrection broke out in Cuba, in i868r
when a great many Cubans went to Mexico to plant tobacco. As the
land has been planted in Cuba with tobacco for nearly four hundred
years, and as tobacco is a very exhausting crop, it has become indis-
pensable to manure the land with guano, while in Mexico we have
virgin land, and tobacco being a comparatively new industry, no guano-
needs to be used. General Grant, whom I consider a competent
judge, detected the taste of guano in the Havana cigars, of which ours
is free, and he, therefore, preferred to smoke the Mexican cigars.

In Cuba the exhausted soil cannot produce all the leaves that are
required for the world's supply of Havana cigars, and the want caa
only be filled through the use of Mexico leaf tobacco, the weed
produced in other countries having similar conditions. The Marquis
de Cabanas sent to Sumatra a quantity of seed when it became obvi-
ous that the soil of the tobacco region of Cuba was fast being worn out.
He sent seed also to Java and to the United States, but it was found
that it was impossible to raise tobacco of the quality of that raised in
Havana anywhere but in Mexico. That raised in Java from Havana
seed was very coarse and rank, replete with nicotine and meconic
acid, and devoid of those delicate essential oils that give the Havana
and Mexican tobacco their fine aroma.

The tobacco plant is a native of the tropics, and thrives best in the
hot lands. It is a hardy plant, however, and will grow well in northern
latitudes in the summer time. It often happens that the land in the
tropics is actually too rich for the successful cultivation of tobacco.

India- Rubber. — The lowlands of Mexico, especially those adjoining;
the Pacific Ocean and which have a very warm and moist climate, are
very well adapted for the india-rubber tree, which attains a large size
and yields a considerable amount of india-rubber. We used to have
whole forests of them, which fact shows that they were in their proper
conditions of soil and climate, as they could outgrow the rank vegeta-
tion of the tropics, and prevent the growth of most of the other large
trees in the forests ; but india-rubber gatherers have destroyed most of
them, and I imagine that there is a comparatively small number left.

I have always thought that the production of india-rubber would
before long cease to be sufficient to supply the demand, and that,
therefore, the value of that article would increase with the lapse of
time. Now it is to be expected that the enormous expansion during
the last few years of the cycle-tire, electrical motor-car, cab, and
kindred industries will lead to the bestowal of increased attention on

Jflora, 47

the world's rubber supply, which is so intimately associated with the
existence of these industries.

Thinking that a plantation of india-rubber trees would be very re-
munerative, I devoted considerable attention to that subject, and in
1872 started one of 100,000 trees in a place admirably located for the
purpose, bordering on the Pacific Ocean and between two large rivers,
in the same district of Soconusco. In an article published in 1872,
under the title " India- Rubber Culture in Mexico," I compiled all the
information on the subject that I could obtain, supplementing it with
the experience that I had acquired. Unfortunately, for reasons of a
political nature, I had to abandon that plantation, and when the trees-
that I had planted grew large enough to yield rubber, they were tapped
by the natives and entirely destroyed, but my work gave me an experi-
ence which I considered of great value. For further information on
this subject I refer the reader to the above mentioned article.

The india-rubber trees that grow in Mexico are not the Haevca
guianensis that grows in Brazil, but the Castilloa elastica, and if we
have any of the Haevea guianensis I have not seen them.

Enough has been written lately on rubber cultivation to show that
the profits, in Mexico at least, would be very great ; indeed, 300 per
cent, on the capital invested is a possible return, after five years, from
cultivating Castilloa elastica in that Republic. This is a return which
provides plenty of margin for contingencies. Rubber-growing is no-
longer in the experimental stage, as witness the plantation of La Esme-
ralda, in Oaxaca, to which further reference is made below. Culti-
vated india-rubber plantations are few, for the reason that, in some
degree like the coffee plant, the india-rubber tree requires a long period
of continuous cultivation before making any return to the cultivator.
Mexico affords excellent opportunities for the development of this
admittedly profitable industry. On this point the authority of Sir
Henry Nevil Dering, the British Minister to Mexico, who, in a recent
report to the Foreign Office on the cultivation of india-rubber, says :
" The regions most favorable for the growth of this important, yet
rarely cultivated, india-rubber tree are the plains of Pochutla,
Oaxaca, and also along the banks of the Copalita River where the
tree is found in astonishing numbers. Few are the plantations of
india-rubber trees existing in the Republic of Mexico. The principal
one is La Esmeralda, in Juquila, Oaxaca, which has over 200,000
trees, eight years old." According to the same report the total ex-
pense for five years' cultivation of a " rubber plantation of 100,000
trees will not exceed $25,000 in silver and the yield of 100,000 trees
at the first year's harvest will bring the planter $120,000, besides the
product obtained from the corn, vanilla beans, cacao, and bananas
raised from side planting. The net profit on the investment, after de-

48 CteOQrapbical Botes on /IDejico.

ducting the entire cost of the land and all expenses up to the first year
of harvesting, will be $95,000, and each of the succeeding harvests,
for twenty-five or thirty years, will bring a steady income of over
$100,000." This is 400 per cent, per annum net profit on the invest-
ment. These calculations are based upon the production of a five-
year-old tree, but the report adds that " this product will be gradually
increased every year for the next four or five years."

Cotton. — We have many regions in Mexico very favorably located
for the cultivation of cotton. I am aware that the cotton-growers of
the United States hold that what they call their cotton belt has pecul-
iar conditions for the production of their staple, which, in their opinion,
do not exist in any other portion of the globe, and they believe, there-
fore, that nobody can compete with them in this regard. Without any
intention of depreciating the advantages of the cotton belt of this
country, I am of the opinion that there are in Mexico lands as well
adapted for the production of cotton as the best in this country, and
in some regions perhaps better ; yet, notwithstanding these advantages,
and although our wages are low, cotton is produced cheaper in the
United States, and is sold with profit by the planters for one-half the
price that it commands in Mexico. So great is the difference in the
price of this staple in the two countries that, notwithstanding an import
duty on cotton of eight cents per kilogram, or almost five cents per
pound, which is equivalent to fifty cents ad valorem, we import from
this country a very large portion of the cotton we manufacture. I do
not overlook the fact that cotton is raised here by negro labor, which
is considerably cheaper than white labor, but, even assuming that
wages in this case be the same in both countries, the difference in cost
is so great that some other factor besides labor must enter into the ex-
pense of production.

As our cotton manufactories are increasing, more especially be-
cause of the protection afforded to home products by the depreciation
of silver, we now produce only about one half of the cotton we manu-
facture, and have to import the other half from the United States ; but
I am sure that before long we shall not only produce enough for our
own consumption but also for export.

Agave. — The whole central plateau abounds in many species of
agave, which are used for several purposes. In the eastern portion of
the plateau, that is, from the City of Mexico towards Veracruz, in the
region called the Plains of Apam, the agave yields a large quantity of a
white juice, similar in appearance to milk, which when fermented is
used as a tonic, and is an intoxicating beverage. The amount of alco-
hol it contains is small — about 7 per cent., I believe — but imbibed in
large quantities it is quite intoxicating. The use of this beverage,
called pulque, has become very extensive in Mexico, and it must have

fflora. 49

very superior qualities both as a tonic and nutritive, when many live
on nothing but corn and pulque. In the mining districts, where a
great deal of nervous force is expended working in a high temperature
and under very unhealthy atmospheric conditions, this drink is almost
indispensable, and I imagine that when a way is discovered to keep it
for some time, and its medicinal qualities become better known, it will
be exported in considerable quantities and used by foreign countries.
From the agave of other districts a drink is made called mescal, which
has some remarkable therapeutic properties, the most celebrated being
made in a district of the State of Jalisco called Tequila, from which
it takes its name ; and in the very dry and stony regions of Yuca-
tan another species of agave grows, which seems to derive its food
wholly from the atmosphere, yielding a very good fibre, much like ma-
nilla, which we now export in large quantities, particularly to New
York. All the agave yields a first-class fibre as raw material, either for
paper or cordage — some of it being rather coarse, like the Yucatan
henequen, and some of it almost as fine and glossy as silk, like pita.

Henequen. — By far the most important of our fibre industries is the
cultivation and preparation of the fibre known as " Sisal hemp," so
called from the name of the port from which it used to be principally
exported, and in the United States as " henequen hemp." The plant
which produces it is a species of agave which flourishes to best ad-
vantage in stony and arid land at the level of the sea. The present
prosperity of the state of Yucatan, a large proportion of which is too
sterile to yield any other crop, is due almost entirely to the develop-
ment of this industry. The plant requires very little cultivation, and
the separation and cleaning of the fibre is effected very cheaply. The
yield of fibre is estimated at the rate of 1000 to 1200 pounds per acre.

Pulque. — The pulque plant is indigenous to Mexico, often growing
wild on the uplands, where for months and years at a time no rain
falls ; and it is also largely cultivated on the Plains of Apam, a large
tract of land lying in the States of Mexico, Puebla, and Hidalgo,
about sixty miles east of the City of Mexico. The plants are trans-
planted when two or three years old with much care, then cultivated
in fields especially prepared for the purpose, each acre containing from
360 to 680 plants.

Nature requires the plant to be milked, when the liquor is ready to
flow, for the use of man, else the superfluity of juices will cause the
growth of a thick stem from the centre of the plant, which shoots up
some ten or fifteen feet, putting out branches at the top, with clus-
ters of yellowish flowers. These branches are symmetrical, and the
effect is like a lofty, branched candlestick.

When the pulque is first extracted, before the process of fermenta-
tion sets in, it is sweet and scentless, and in this state is preferred by

VOL. 1—4

50 Geographical IRotes on

those unaccustomed to the drink. The fermentation takes place in
tubs constructed for the purpose, and to aid or expedite the process a
little " madre pulque," or pulque mother, is added, which hastens the
chemical change. At times fermentation is retarded by a cold spell at
the vats. When the laborer draws the sweet sap with his rude siphon,
made either of a gourd or a calabash and a hollow horn tip, he dis-
charges the contents into a pig- or goat-skin swinging at his back. The
" agua miel " in this stage is like a green water in appearance and taste.
Soon carbonic acid is formed, and it becomes milky, and resembles in
taste very good cider. The amount of carbonic acid contained is so
great, and the decomposition so incredibly rapid, that in a few hours
it would become vinegar if not closely watched. To prevent this the
pulque dulce, or sweet pulque, is poured into a tinacal — an oxhide
strapped to a square wooden frame, and capable of holding a consid-
erable amount of the liquid. These tinacals are of various sizes, to
meet the emergencies of the situation.

To the sweet pulque is added an equal proportion of milk, and
then a slight dose of infusion of rennet. This is not enough to coagu-
late it, but sufficient to induce a slight amount of putrescence, as in
cheese. The putrid odor and flavor of pulque as sold in the pulque
shops is due to the rennet alone, for the belief that this is caused by
the flavor of the pigskin, in which it is brought to market, is without
foundation.

From the tinacal it is poured into a hogshead by means of pigskins,
and it is transferred to the barrels of venders from the hogsheads of
the " haciendado " by means of the same skins.

The plants are wholly independent of rain and storm, and are of a
beautiful deep-green color. The pulque is carried every day to the
City of Mexico, by special trains, in " barricas," or large tierces, and
by " cueros de pulque," or pigskins filled with the liquid.

The plant does not arrive at maturity or yield its sap before its
eighth year. During the growth of the plant a central bulb is formed
for its coming juices. This is scooped out, leaving a cavity or hole
large enough to hold a few quarts. This cavity is made in the bottom
and middle of the plant. The juice exudes into this cavity and is
taken out daily by being sucked into a long-necked gourd on the
siphon principle, by the Indian laborers, and then poured into the tubs
taken to the fields and then removed to the vats.

The outlay on each plant up to maturity is calculated generally at
about $2, and the return is from $7 to $10, according to the size of the
plant. Its period of production is about five months, and each plant
supposed to yield from 125 to 160 gallons of liquid during that time.

The principal regions for the cultivation of the maguey are the arid
limestone chains of hills, and here, in many places, the hole for the

iflora. 51

reception of the young plant is made with a sort of crowbar with a
sharp point, used principally in the quarrying of tepatate, the chief
building material of the Mexican capital. It is usual to aid the young
plant by putting some good soil into the hole. These young plants are
suckers which the mature maguey throws out on all sides, and which
have to be removed before the heart is tapped for the sweet sap, which
is the " agua miel," or honey water, of the pulque.

The leaves of the pulque plant are long and pointed, with prickles
along the edges. Sometimes these leaves are very large, and the
bunches of them springing from the common stalk are enormous. The
bruised leaves are made into a kind of paper — a rather tough, stiff, and
hard paper — and they are also used in their natural state as a thatch
for the roofs of the common huts or houses occupied by the peons.
A kind of thread is also made from the fibrous texture of the leaves.
A rough needle and pin are made from the thorn, and from the root a
cheap and palatable food is made.

Cactus. — Mexico is often called " the land of the cactus," and the
multitudinous development of cactus forms in that country cannot be
appreciated by any one who has not seen them in their home in the
hot land. There is a species known as the giant or candelabra cactus,
which has a single stem, from which spring innumerable branches, the
whole plant resembling an immense candelabrum. I have seen in
Oaxaca, some candelabra cacti about twenty feet in height by thirty
in diameter. Some cacti shoot in single, column-like stems, others run
like leafless vines, and others resemble needle cushions stuck full of
needles.

Cocoa. — Cocoa is produced in several localities. That of So-
conusco, in the State of Chiapas, is of so excellent a quality that when
Mexico was a colony of Spain it was the only kind used by the
Spanish royal family. On account of the expense and difficulty of
transportation, and the cultivation of cheaper quality in other locali-
ties, the production has dwindled down to an insignificant amount,
and now hardly enough is grown to supply the demand in that dis-
trict ; but it is universally acknowledged that the Soconusco cocoa
is the best in the world.

The best elevation for cocoa is from 300 to 1000 feet, and the tree
seldom thrives well at an altitude exceeding 3000 feet. Warmth and
moisture are necessary for the successful cultivation of this plant.

The State of Tabasco produces a very good quality of cocoa,
although it cannot be compared with that of Soconusco. In other
places it grows very well also, but for various reasons the production,
instead of being developed, has dwindled down until it is not enough
for home consumption, and we have to import some, especially from
Venezuela and Ecuador. One disadvantage of the cocoa industry is

52 <3eo0rapbicai Botes on /IDejico,

that the tree requires several years to reach maturity and to bear fruit,
and few investors can afford to wait the necessary time.

Vanilla. — The vanilla bean grows very luxuriantly on the Gulf coast
of Mexico, and it has been for some time a very profitable production,
especially in the counties of Papamtla and Misantla, in the State of
Veracruz, on account of the excellent quality of the bean and the
high price which it brings. It grows in a region which is subject to
intermittent and remittent fevers, and sometimes yellow fever, and
where labor is very scarce ; for these reasons it has not attained a
greater development. I hardly think there is any locality where the
vanilla vine grows better than in Mexico.

Vanilla requires a hot, moist climate, and, therefore, the lowlands
are best suited for its culture. Very little of the vanilla produced in
Mexico is at present grown at an elevation exceeding 1000 feet. At
the same time it is claimed that in some places it thrives up to 3000
feet.

The vines will usually produce considerable vanilla in the third
year, and they will yield considerably more during the fourth, fifth,
sixth, and seventh years, and the production then begins to decrease.
But before this time new rootlets have been dropped from the old
plants, which form new vines that take the place of the old ones ; thus
the plantation is kept in a state of continued production. The central
portion of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec is one of the most suitable re-
gions for its cultivation, as much wild vanilla is found growing in the
forests there.

The Mexican vanilla dealers have established five grades, namely :
First, vanilla " fina," or legal, the beans and pods of six and a half
inches long, or upwards, short in the neck, sound and black, and the
beans which become split or open, provided they have the foregoing
qualities and the split does not extend more than a third of the pod.
This class is again divided into "terciada," which is composed of the
shortest pods ; " primera chica," " primera grande," " marca menor,"
and " marca mayor," the largest of all. Second, " vanilla chica,"
those pods which differ from the " terciada " only in being shorter, two
of them counting as one of the first class. Third, vanilla " zacate,"
the pods of all sizes, which are off color through being gathered before
becoming properly ripe, or being over-cured ; " pescozuda," " vana,"
" cueruda," and " aposcoyonada," names for pods in a more or less
damaged condition. Fourth, vanilla " cimarrona," the wild vanilla in
good or fair condition, three pods counting as one of the first class.
Fifth, the " rezacate," composed of the very short pods ; of those
split all the way up to the stalk, of the badly damaged, of the very
immature, and of the greatly over-cured ; of this, six pods count as
one of the first class.

flora* 53

After the sizing and classification are finished, the pods are tied up
in bunches of 100-150, so as to weigh one pound, and wrapped in
filtering paper and tin foil.

Silk Culture. — The mulberry-tree and silkworm industries have a
very great future in Mexico, and are destined to produce a veritable
revolution in the industries of the central plateau of that country.
The mulberry tree can be grown in Mexico almost to an unlimited ex-
tent, especially in the central plateau, and, as wages are low, the raw
silk can be manufactured at a great profit. Several experiments have
been made on a small scale, more particularly in the Valley of Mexico,
by Mr. Hipolito Chabon, a gentleman of French descent, and he has
obtained most satisfactory results. I have no doubt that the time is
not far distant when the silk industry will assume great proportions in
Mexico, and we will be able to stand among the foremost silk-producing
countries of the world.

Cochineal. — The cochineal is a bug which feeds on the cactus ; and
which, when fully developed, is brushed off the cactus leaves and
roasted to prevent decomposition, being then ready for market. It is
raised to great advantage in Mexico, and especially in the valleys of
the State of Oaxaca. When it was the only article used to dye red it
was very valuable, commanding sometimes between four and five dol-
lars per pound, and it made the wealth of that State. But recent dis-
coveries in chemistry have supplied other substances for dyeing which
are very cheap, especially aniline, and the price of cochineal has fallen
considerably, so that now it is hardly raised at all. When it had a
high price, it was raised in Guatemala, and it was the beginning of the
wealth of that State. It is now raised, I understand, in several other
countries.

Rice. — Rice grows very well in Mexico, and I have not seen any
district where it is necessary to inundate the fields to favor its produc-
tion, although I understand it is also raised in that way in some locali-
ties. It is generally planted just as wheat and barley are in the United
States, needing no irrigation and depending entirely on the rainfall.
I imagine that raising rice by inundation would be more expensive,
and also be dangerous, because it could not fail to affect the salubrity
of the country.

Chicle, or Chewing-Gum. — This article, like many others, grows wild
in Mexico, where the demand that has arisen for it in the United
States has begun to develop its production. For some time past the
shipments from Mexico have been on an increasing scale, owing, no
doubt, to the comparatively high prices which ruled early in 1896.

Every year a larger extent of forests is worked for chicle, result-
ing in a steady growth of the production since the gum first became
an important commercial article, about ten years ago. Prior to that

54 Geograpbtcal motes on

time 7 or 8 cents a pound was considered a good price, and in 1896
it was sold at 36 cents. The importation into the United States con-
stitutes almost the entire production, and the amounts and values are
thus officially reported by the Statistical Bureau of the United States
for the fiscal years ending June 30 :

1894. 1895-96.

Chicle 1,903,655 lib. 3,618,483 lib.

Value $490,438 $1,167,101

Average 2$| cents per lib. 32 cents per lib.

The following statement has been compiled from official data col-
lected by the Mexican Government, the value of the chewing-gum
being in silver :

Year. Pounds. Value.

1885-86 929,959 $ 156,402

1886-87 1,254,853 353,641

1887-88 1,542,794 371,673

1888-89 2,037,783 592,810

1889-90 1,827,131 714,242

1890-91 2,457,653 1,284,682

1891-92 2,494,177 703,572

1892-93 i,757,8i3 705,167

1893-94 2,645,722 803,019

1894-95 1,668,636 679,367

1895-96 3,297,371 1,527,838

Total 21,913,932 $7,892,413

Yuca. — Yuca, or starch-plant, called manioc in South America, is
a bush from four to six feet high, having tubers, like horse-radish, six
to ten to every plant, and weighing from one to twelve pounds each.
It is an important product of Chiapas and may be sown at any time,
but it is better to do so from the stems when the rains begin, say in the
month of May, by opening ditches five feet apart, and planting the
cuttings, eight inches long, in them consecutively, leaving one foot be-
tween. Vegetable and sandy soil is best adapted for it, although it
can be planted and will thrive in any kind of land. In arid and hard
soil it needs plowing. If the land has been thoroughly cleared before
planting it requires but little weeding during cultivation. A year after
being sown, if the soil is rich, it will begin to yield tubers which must
be dug up at the time the tree begins to flower. In replanting after
digging the tubers, a slip is left standing and this will bear in twelve
months. Besides extracting the starch from the tubers, the leaves are
used as fodder for stock.

Sir Henry Bering, the British Minister to Mexico, sent recently to
the Foreign Office some practical notes on the cultivation in Mexico of
the " Yuca" or cassava plant, pineapple, ginger, " chicle " or chewing-

Jflora. 55

gum, sarsaparilla, jalap, licorice, canaigre, and ramie, and I shall quote
here from his notes on some of those products.

The yuca is to the peon, in the tropical section of the Republic,
what potatoes are to the poor and working people of Ireland. Yuca is
a native of the country, and its rise dates back before the conquest of
Hernan Cortez, and it has always formed a portion of the food of the
ancient and present Mexicans, especially those living in Veracruz,
Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, and Yucatan. It has been estimated that
the returns of yuca cultivation are immense ; the yield of an acre
contains more nutritive matter than six times the same area of wheat.
Ginger. — Ginger is found growing wild in various parts of Mexico.
The returns from an acre of land vary considerably, but when culti-
vated under favorable conditions, the crops ought to be 4000 pounds
and upward. A ten-acre patch would yield annually from $5000 to
$7000.

Canaigre. — Though for years canaigre has been used in Mexico,
both for medicinal and tanning purposes, it has but recently attracted
the attention of the outside commercial world as a valuable source of
tannic acid. The result of investigations has been to create a great
demand for canaigre in the tanning business of European countries,
and more recently in the leather-making centres of the United States.
The only supply now to be obtained of this plant is from the wild
growth along the rivers and valleys of Western Texas, New Mexico,
and Mexico, and a fear has been felt for some time that with the con-
stantly increasing demand the present sources of supply must become
exhausted.

Peppermint. — Water mint (mentha vulgaris) thrives very well on
the central plateau of Mexico and in some sections of the warm zone,
especially along the rivulets and small lakes. There is no reason
why the peppermint (mentha piper ita), as well as spearmint and tansy,
should not grow in abundance in Mexico, as they belong to the same
family and require the same climatic conditions. As the oil of pep-
permint is very extensively employed in medicines and the arts, the
cultivation of this plant will be profitable to Mexico.

Cabinet and Dye Woods. — In the low, hot countries we have all the
cabinet woods growing wild and a great many dye woods, some of
which are indigenous to Mexico, like the Campechy wood, not being
found in other countries. It would take too long to enumerate the
different kinds of cabinet woods we have, and I will only say that it
happens with them as with our fruits, that only such of them as have
been introduced here, like mahogany, cedar, rosewood, ebony, and a
few others, are known in this country and in Europe, while hundreds
of other kinds as hard as those and of as fine, if not a finer grain, are
found in the wild woods of Mexico.

56 <3eo0rapbical motes on /IDejico,

Grasses. — In the lower regions of Mexico, especially at the sea-level,,
we have various grasses which can be grown at very little expense and
which make very good food for cattle, fattening them very much, and
in comparatively short time. While I lived in Soconusco, I used to
buy lean cattle, three years old, at $10 per head ; and letting them pas-
ture on the grass, the expense being little more than that of a few men
to take care of the cattle, without providing them with any shelter,
pens, or anything of that kind, only giving them about once a month
some salt, at the end of four or five months they became very fat and
could be sold on the spot at $25 a head. The fattening grasses can be
very easily cultivated, because they are of such rank growth that they
do not allow any other vegetation to spring up on the same spot, and
so save the expense of cleaning the ground of weeds ; which, in the
hot regions is very great, as vegetation is there very rank.

Alfalfa. — The alfalfa grows very luxuriantly in almost every place
in Mexico, and it is so abundant there, that it has very little com-
mercial value. It is nowhere dried and kept for fodder, but of course
such use can be made of it. Land good for alfalfa has a very low
price, and we are greatly surprised when we hear that in California the
alfalfa land is worth $100 an acre.

Cattle Raising. — Mexico has special advantages for the raising of
cattle, not only because of its mild climate, which renders unnecessary
the many expenses required in the northern section of this continent,
but also on account of the grasses that grow in several localities and
that constitute very good food for cattle, as I have just stated.

Mexico will be, before long, a very large producer of cattle and other
animals, and they will form a large share of her exports. Mexico has
sent within two years about 400,000 small undeveloped cattle to the
United States at about $15, Mexican silver, per head, and has also sent
nearly her entire output of cotton-seed meal to the United States and
Europe at about $16, silver, per ton. The meal sent to the United States
is fed to cattle. The Mexican cattle sent there take the place of the
better stock which is sent to Europe, causing virtually a five-thousand-
kilometre railway haul against the short haul in Mexico to reach the
coast. In addition we have to pay import duties in the United States.
This is a sufficient evidence that a large profit could be made by fat-
tening cattle with the cotton-seed meal in Mexico, and shipping the
fattened cattle direct to Europe, even using the best cattle of the
country. But rapid improvement should be made in the class of cattle
for beef purposes. Cotton-seed meal is the feed to be relied on chiefly.
The quantity of it produced already is sufficient to fatten a large num-
ber of stock. The cattle should also be fed with a small amount of
corn along with the meal during the last month of feeding to harden
and whiten the meat, as feeding only with cotton-seed meal makes the

flora* 57

meat dark, and militates against its selling value to some extent, and
the corn can be easily and profitably supplied. The total cost of fat-
tening a steer should not reach $15 silver. There is an unlimited de-
mand in Europe for choice meats at about i2c., gold, per pound, and no
import duties have to be paid. Poor classes of meat are a drug in all
markets of the world. With these great advantages placed within easy
reach, the producers in Mexico of grain and stock have a guarantee of
ready sale at good prices for all they can produce.

Inquiry was made in Liverpool about the possibilities of the Mexi-
can live-animal trade with England, and it was found that the initial
difficulty is the small size of the Mexican cattle, as cattle weighing
1200 pounds are considered small by the trade there, and from 900 to
1000 pounds is therefore extremely small. The smallest Texan cattle
ever imported in Liverpool averaged 1226 pounds.

The best Mexican steers can be made to weigh 1200 pounds if well
fattened. The difference in cost of transportation on account of
lighter weight is but small in proportion to the cheapness of Mexican
cattle. Cattle breeders in Mexico, on the whole, have not advanced
much in developing good breeds of cattle. They do not appreciate
their value, nor would they pay one-half their actual cost, though they
can be had from the United States at half of what they would cost
from Europe. Herefords are the best breed. I am sure that the rail-
roads will do all they can to encourage that industry by charging as
low rates as possible, as they would thus develop an industry which in
the course of time would become very profitable to them.

A great need of Mexico is a reliable supply of good and healthy
water through artificial means, well distributed over the stock ranges
to prevent the great loss by death through lack of water, as well
as the heavy shrinkage of meat and tallow, by so much unnecessary
travelling of stock to water. They cannot grow fairly, much less fat-
ten, and over one-half the annual increase die of exhaustion, while the
value of the stock lost in one year would supply permanent water at
convenient distances and prevent three-fourths of the loss and shrink-
age now sustained. It has been amply proved that stock water can be
secured under the most unfavorable conditions.

It would be to the advantage of the breeder to import some Eng-
lish short-horn bulls, with the object of breeding larger cattle, so as to
make profitable the export of cattle to England, as animals should
weigh from 1200 to 1300 pounds. This has been done in Texas and
in the Argentine with beneficial results, and the improvement in the
cattle from the latter place has been most marked during the last five
years. With the proper attention, the same good results could be
achieved in Mexico.

The English steamers that bring a large quantity of merchandise

58 <$eo$rapbical Betes on flDejico.

to Mexican ports have trouble in even securing ballast to get out of
those ports, and have to traverse the Gulf and United States coasts to
secure loads for the return trip. Their owners are willing and ready
to supply facilities for the exportation of live stock and frozen meats if
assured of a sufficient traffic to justify them in the expense, for they pre-
fer reloading direct for Europe to going elsewhere for freight. The
time required to return direct from Mexican ports is but little more
than from New York and Baltimore, and is sufficiently short to warrant
good service in transportation of live stock, and the cost would prac-
tically be the same as from United States ports. The United States is
beginning to export beef and stock from Galveston to Europe, which
is practically the same distance as from the Gulf ports of Mexico.

Mexico could export annually and easily after the next ten years
400,000 of fattened cattle, which would increase considerably the
amount of our exports, and this trade would greatly assist the develop-
ment of many other industries.

The desired result in question could be hastened by mixing good
foreign labor with the native labor. The latter would be better fed,
clothed, and educated, as well as encouraged, taught, and compelled
to do better work, and thus the country's physical and mental welfare
would be greatly promoted.

Sheep. — The same conditions apply to the sheep and wool industry.
It is a great mistake for the Mexican sheep-owners to raise a class of
sheep that yield each only from one to two and one-half pounds of
very coarse and inferior wool, annually, while they themselves wear
goods manufactured from foreign wools, and the domestic-cloth manu-
facturers are also under the necessity of importing largely of fine wools.
Mexico possesses natural resources for producing all the wools of every
grade that she needs, with a large quantity over for export, not to speak
of choice grain -fed mutton for domestic and foreign consumption.

The custom of killing so much poor stock is a terrible waste of re-
sources, as one well-fattened animal will render twice as much as a thin
or poor one.

Products of Cold and Temperate Regions. — I will not speak of the
products of the cold and temperate regions of Mexico, such as Indian
corn, wheat, oats, barley, and others, because their cultivation is well
understood in the United States, and I could say here nothing new to
the American reader, but will only state that they all grow very well in
the proper regions of Mexico.

FRUITS.

We produce in Mexico a great many tropical fruits that are not
sent to the United States because there is no market for them for
the reason that they are not known here. Some of them are delicious,

ffrufts. 59

and with the facilities of communication, I have no doubt that they
will become known and a taste will be developed for them in this
country. I will speak here only of such of our tropical fruits as come
to the United States.

The advantage of tropical fruits growing in their proper zone and
climate is immense, as the expense of planting and cultivating them
outside of their proper limits is very great and there is always danger
of their destruction.

Oranges. — Orange trees, like any other fruit trees, depend in Mexico
on the rain, and, except in a private garden or private grounds, are not
irrigated. While the orange tree is a hardy plant, it thrives best and
yields the most luscious fruit in the tropics. Elevation exceeding 2500
feet is not, as a rule, desirable for orange culture.

The advantages of irrigation in orange culture are great in the sub-
tropical regions of Mexico. The fruit of the irrigated orange tree is
of a very superior quality, while the tree itself has a longer lease of life
and is less subject to attacks from insects and diseases of a fungoid
nature. One of the conditions primarily requisite to the growing of a
marketable orange is that the trees be watered at judiciously regulated
intervals during and for a short time after the blossoming season. At-
tacks from insect and fungoidal pests, which are most disastrous, and
to which the trees are peculiarly subject during the blossoming period,
are rendered even more dangerous by the prevalence of a considerable
amount of humidity in the atmosphere which is always conducive to
the development of parasitic germs or fungoidal spores. An abund-
ance of moisture in the ground but a comparatively small amount in
the air is the condition most to be desired during and just after the
blossoming season. This is to be had by irrigation, but, generally
speaking, not without it. Under irrigation, the soil is also much less
subject to deterioration, owing to the superior fertilizing properties of
water taken from wells and streams. Rain water, aside from contain-
ing a small percentage of ammonia, which it receives from the air, only
.acts as a medium to transmit the nutriment from the soil to the tree,
while water taken from wells or streams holds in solution the renewing
materials which are directly communicated to the plant proper.

In the more elevated orange districts of Mexico, the trees should be
watered about once every twenty days during the dry season.

In some places our oranges are as sweet as if they had been preserved
in sugar, and this, notwithstanding the fact that no attention is paid
to their cultivation, that they grow almost wild, and without irrigation.

I think that the distillation of orange blossoms would prove very
profitable. The production of flowers per tree is given at from 22 to
55 pounds in the case of sweet oranges, and from 60 to 100 pounds
per tree from the bitter variety.

60 Geograpbical motes on

In flavor and productiveness the Mexican orange is unsurpassed.
In the majority of the districts but little care or attention is given to
the cultivation of the trees. Scientific orange culture in Mexico is
practically unknown. The introduction from other countries of dif-
ferent varieties of the plant for experimental purposes is just being
commenced.

The price of oranges in Mexico at the present time, in districts
reasonably near lines of transportation, is about $n per thousand,
Mexican money, on the tree. It is the practice of the producer to sell
the fruit on the trees, the buyer picking, packing, and shipping it at his
own expense.

About one hundred trees are usually set out to the acre, the average
yield being from 800 to 1000 oranges to the tree. I know of trees in
Mexico which have a record of having produced 10,000 oranges. This,,
however, is very exceptional.

A properly cultivated and prudently managed grove at the end of
five years' growth should prove as profitably as a coffee plantation of
the same size, at the end of five years.

The production of the orange trees begins in the third or fourth year
and increases up to the twelfth, and, in some cases, to the fifteenth or
sixteenth year. It is considered best to cut the fruit up to the fifth
year, not permitting it to mature.

A book prepared by Frederico Atristain, entitled Cultivo y explota-
>cion de Naranja, and published by the Department of Fomento of the
Mexican Government, contains a great deal of reliable information on
the subject of orange culture in Mexico.

After an orange tree has been yielding sweet oranges for many years,
it very likely exhausts the substances of the earth which give the sweet
taste to the fruit, and it begins to lose its sweetness, until finally, if the
land is not manured, as is almost always the case in Mexico, the oranges
become bitter.

A recent cyclone, which lowered considerably the temperature in
Florida, destroyed in one day, I understand, about 12,000,000 orange
trees, thus causing ruin or serious loss to thousands of men engaged
in that large industry, while the orange region in Mexico is entirely
free from frosts and consequently from such dangers.

Lemons. — In the hot and temperate regions of Mexico lemons grow
very well. There are some districts of the country, like Soconusco,
where the natives plant the lemon trees very close together, for the
purpose of making a hedge or fence, and, notwithstanding that the trees
have not the necessary conditions of sunlight and air for their proper
development, they grow very well. I do not know of any place in
Mexico where lemons have been cultivated for commercial purposes ;,
but I am sure they could be made a very lucrative industry.

Ifrufts. 61

Limes and Shaddocks. — Lime trees prosper very well in Mexico,
bearing large amounts of delicious fruit. I have not seen in the United
States any of our limes, at least such as are imported here are not like
ours, and I have no doubt that if known our limes would find a good
market in this country. The lime should not be planted at an altitude
exceeding 1000 feet. We grow also a very large kind of shaddock,
which we call " toronja," and which is not imported in this country,
but which if known here would find a good demand. It grows very
luxuriantly and attains at times a very large size, even eight inches in
diameter, having a very thick peel.

Bananas. — The banana thrives anywhere from the sea-level to an
elevation of 5000 feet, and is one of the many Mexican fruits which
yield to the planter an immense profit. The whole Mexican coast
produces the banana spontaneously and in very great abundance. On
the lands near the sea, at an elevation of 600 to 700 feet, large planta-
tions of bananas can be started at a cost of five cents per plant, in-
cluding all expenses. At the end of the first year, the plants begin to
bear, and 1000 plants, which have cost $50, will produce $ 1000 as a
minimum. The following year the yield is double that amount, and
almost without expense. At the end of one year, the plant produces
one bunch which is worth in the United States from 75 cents to $i
gold, the cost to the farmer being not more than 25 cents per bunch
in Mexican currency. After the first year, the sprouts from the old
plant grow up and give double the first year's yield.

There is perhaps no tropical plant easier of cultivation than the
banana. The suckers having been planted out at the commencement
of the rainy season, they will grow vigorously, and produce fruit in
about a year. The land must be kept free from weeds, and an oc-
casional turning up of the soil will prove beneficial. Before the plant
throws out its flowering stem, suckers will make their appearance above
the ground, and these will require careful attention. While the plant
is young, all the suckers except one should be cut away, the best plan
being to sever them with a sharp spade. Thus all the vigor of the
plant is thrown into the fruiting of the first stem, and the growth of
the one to supplant it, and, in this way, fine large bunches can be
reckoned on. The second stem usually produces a finer bunch of
fruit than the first, but, as the land becomes exhausted, the bunches of
course decrease in size, and this shows the necessity for manure in
some form or other.

Bananas are used extensively as shade for young coffee and cocoa
trees, and in places where an export banana trade has been established,
the formation of a cocoa plantation is a very inexpensive matter, as the
return in fruit from the bananas will pay for the cultivation of the
cocoa until the trees are able to give a small crop.

62 0eo0rapbical Motes on

The important feature, and the one upon which the success and
profit of the industry depend largely, is that of cheap and certain trans-
portation facilities. That requisite is easily obtainable ; for instance,
there are extensive and cheap lands for sale along the Tampico branch
of the Mexican Central Railroad, from which the fruit can be shipped
either all by rail, or by rail to Tampico, and thence by boat.

We have many kinds of bananas in Mexico, of different sizes,
colors, and flavors, ranging in length from two to eighteen inches, and
from one-half of an inch to three inches in diameter. The largest,
which in some places are thought unfit for food, are in others, like So-
conusco, considered the best ; very likely on account of their different
quality. When roasted the latter are very juicy, and taste exactly as if
they had been preserved in sugar. Some people on the coast live al-
most entirely on bananas, this fruit forming their principal food. The
banana is likewise a tropical plant, and thrives best on the lowlands.

Pineapple. — The Toltecs and Aztecs knew how to cultivate the pine-
apple, and when the Spaniards conquered Mexico, they found the
fruit in the markets of the towns on their way from Veracruz to the
great Tenochtitlan. "From time immemorial," Sir Henry Dering
says, " the pineapple has been cultivated in Amatlan, a town five miles
south of Cordoba, from where the ancient Mexicans used to get their
main supply." Now it is grown in tropical Hidalgo, Puebla, Veracruz,
Tabasco, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Morelos, Guerrero, Michoacan, Colima,
Jalisco, and Tepic. " Besides the fruit being very delicious and whole-
some," Sir Henry Dering says, " a fine wine and vinegar are made of
the juice. The leaf furnishes a fibre of extraordinary strength and
fineness, making it even more valuable than the fruit. The fibre is
made into ropes, cables, binding twine, thread, mats, bagging, ham-
mocks, and paper. A pineapple rope three and a half inches thick
can support nearly three tons. A textile fabric as fine and beautiful
as silk is made of this fibre too. It is believed that the fine cloth of
various colors used by the upper classes among the Aztecs was made
of the pineapple fibre. The modern Mexicans do not manufacture it
much now, except in the Isthmus, where the Zapotec Indians still
make a cloth from it and from wild silk. One cause for its disuse is
the slow and wasteful manner in which it is separated." Pineapples
will grow at elevations of from 2000 to 3000 feet above the level of the
sea, but the best and most delicate fruit is produced on the lowlands.

Cocoa-Nut — We have in our lowlands near the sea many kinds of
palms called corozo, bearing different kinds of fruit, growing in large
bunches and the fruit very abundant, being in the shape of a small egg,
very rich in oils, and making also a very good food, although it is
hardly used now for any purpose. The palm tree bearing the cocoa-nut
grows, of course, very luxuriantly, and does not require any care after

fflowers, 63

it is once planted. The cocoa-nut prefers the sea-coast and high tem-
perature. The saline breezes from the sea are very beneficial to it.
I have not seen in Mexico the species of palm bearing the date,
perhaps because it has not been planted there ; but I am sure that we
could raise it, as we have several sections with a climate similar to
that of Egypt and Asia Minor, where the date palm grows so well.

Mangos. — The mango is a very fine fruit, but requires a cultivated
taste, and is generally disliked the first time it is eaten. It has a very
large bone, although that is not the case in fine qualities, called Manilla
mango, which has a very thin one and a great deal of pulp. The
mango occasionally comes to the United States, but being a very frail
fruit, has to be taken from the tree when very green. It does not
ripen well, and, if taken when beginning to ripen, it reaches its desti-
nation in a decayed condition.

Alligator Pear. — The alligator pear is one of the most delicious
fruits that we raise in Mexico, and is properly called vegetable butter,
being a good substitute for butter. It is not eaten by itself ; the most
usual way to eat it is in salad. We have several kinds and sizes of this
fruit. The seed of the alligator pear is oval-shaped and quite large,
about 4 inches in length by ij in diameter, and of some oily substance,
which, I have no doubt, has some good medicinal properties.

Mamey. — The same is the case with the seed of the mamey, a fruit
unknown in the United States, having a red pulp, and a very large
seed covered with a thin shell. The Indian women extract an oil
from that seed and use it for their hair, and I think it must have many
more useful medicinal properties.

A great many other of our fruits have seeds containing substances
which I have no doubt will be found, when analyzed, to be very valua-
ble to therapeutics.

Zapote. — The zapote is one of our tropical fruits which does not
come to this country. I have just heard that the seeds of the zapote
have recently been found by a Mexican doctor to be a very good nar-
cotic, which does not produce the ill effects of the drugs now in use.

Papaya. — This fruit, which grows in our hot lands resembles the
melon in shape, pulp, and seeds, but its color is of a yellowish-red. It
was considered a very common fruit, but recently it was found to be a
powerful digestive, and it is already used in Europe as a medicine under
the name of Papaine.

Flowers.

Mexico is a favored country for flowers. They grow wild in
a great many places, and they can be raised at very little cost, as there
is no need of hot-houses or any other expensive appliance to cultivate
them. The Indians in the small towns around the City of Mexico

64 Geoatapbical Iftotes on /iDejico.

make a business of raising flowers, and they sell handsome bouquets,
as artistically made as any in this country, for a mere trifle. A
bouquet which, for instance, in New York would cost $5 in winter,
could be had in the City of Mexico all the year round for 25 cents ;
and I look forward to the time when flowers will be exported in large
quantities from Mexico to the United States if the protective policy of
the country does not interfere.

IRRIGATION.

At the time of the Spanish invasion of Mexico, the Indians in those
parts of the country where the population was greatest were dependent
upon irrigation for a large part of their cereals, and for cotton, which
played so important a part in their economy. As the same method had
been employed from time immemorial in Spain, it followed that on the
partition of the soil among the Spanish conquerors, irrigation became
an important factor in their agriculture ; but with expansion of popu-
lation large tracts of land have come to depend entirely upon the rain.

In recent years Mexican agriculture has depended almost altogether
on the rainfall, except in a few places well supplied with water, and
where irrigation is both cheap and easy ; but the inhabited portions
of the country have been depleted of their timber by the natives for the
purpose of using the wood for fuel or lumber. In more recent years,
the building of railroads has increased considerably the demand for
wood both for sleepers and for fuel for locomotives, and the consequence
is that a great change is taking place in the climatic conditions of the
country and that fuel is exceedingly high. In no other country is there
so much timber — a good deal of it not yet full grown — consumed an-
nually as in Mexico. The consumption of timber for railroad purposes
alone, not to mention that used in mines, smelters, and as fuel in cities
and towns, is incalculable.

Competent authority in Mexico, among whom is the Inspector of
Manufactories, created for the purpose of insuring the collection of the
internal-revenue tax, considers that only in the Federal District of
Mexico the consumption of wood exceeds 4000 English cords daily,
used as fuel in the factories, railroads, and other plants of that city.

The consumption of charcoal by private families in the old-style
open cooking grates is at least 500,000 pounds in the Federal District
of Mexico, which is equivalent to 2,500,000 pounds of wood taken from
the scanty forests of the central plateau, and that consumption would
be very much reduced if, instead of those old-fashioned grates, iron
cooking stoves should be used ; and to encourage their use, when I was
last in the Treasury Department of Mexico, I was instrumental in re-
ducing considerably the duties on the same.

Another cause of the destruction of the forest in Mexico consists

Irrigation. 65

in the primitive way in which the Indians raise their crops. They own
in common a large tract of land, and they begin to till near their towns,
commencing by destroying the forests and planting every year in a dif-
ferent locality, because, more especially in the lowlands, the vegetation
springs up so rank after the first year's crop that it is very difficult to
keep the ground clear of weeds. In this way they clear new land every
year, going farther and farther from their town, until sometimes their
crops are raised at a distance of as much as thirty or forty miles from
their homes. The natural result is the destruction of the forests around
the towns and at some considerable distance from the same, and con-
sequently the diminution of the rainfall. I was greatly struck, on my
last visit to Mexico, in 1896, by the scantiness of water at an Indian
town called San Bernardino, in the sierra district, about five miles
north of Teotitlan, the county seat of the district, which I had visited
in November, 1855, and found then exceedingly abundant in rainfall
and consequently in water, as well as all the mountains north of that
place, which extend for about eighty miles to the lowlands on the Gulf
of Mexico. On my recent visit, however, I found a great scarcity
of water : a small stream of probably not more than one-half an inch
in diameter, carried in very primitive wooden troughs, was all the water
the town had, and that only during the rainy season, the people being
obliged to go a considerable distance for water in the dry season ; this
being only one illustration of what the destruction of the woods is
doing in Mexico.

The city of Oaxaca, at the foot of the Sierra, used to be, in my
young days, very well supplied with water, using for that purpose several
streams coming from the mountains ; but during the last dry season
the scarcity of water has been such as to cause a real water famine.

The diminution of the rains, together with other atmospheric phe-
nomena, which takes place from time to time, produces in some years
drought that prevents the crops from being raised ; as the country pro-
duces at present only the corn necessary for its consumption, which
cannot be kept from year to year on account, of its being eaten by in-
sects. This diminution was very disastrous before the railroad era, caus-
ing serious famines. Since the railways were built, we import in such
years corn from the United States, spending several millions of dollars
in providing ourselves with that staple. All that will be changed, and
we shall be able to produce cereals enough not only for home consump-
tion, but even for export, when we begin to use irrigation. The con-
figuration of the country allows dams that will retain sufficient water
both for irrigation and manufacturing purposes, to be built at compara-
tively little expense.

Large tracts of land in Western Asia, Northern Africa, and South-
ern Europe — countries which, according to historians, were once densely

VOL. 1—5

66 Geoatapbtcai IRotes on

populated and gardens of the world — are now uninhabited and barren
wildernesses ; and this has been brought about by the wholesale de-
struction of the forests and the absence of any law to protect them
and provide for their replanting. In the United States it has been seen
that not only does the decrease of the forest area lessen the rainfall,
but also the fall of snow in the winter months, the consequence being;
a marked decrease in the supply of water for irrigation purposes from
the streams and rivers dependent for their supply on the snowy moun-
tain tops.

Along the Mississippi River it is a common observation of the river
pilots and old steamship hands that the summers are becoming more
and more dry and the streams smaller, and that the big river itself has
shown a marked decrease of " navigability " every year during the past
twenty years. All this is caused by the indiscriminate chopping down
of the forests at the head of the principal tributaries of the big river.
Statistics from Russia, Germany, Spain, Italy, Palestine, Australia, and
India all prove beyond a doubt that the protection of the forests is a
matter of vital importance.

Mexico is not only suffering from an annual decrease in rainfall,,
owing to the continual decrease in the timber-bearing area, the rainfall
being more and more unequal every year during the past twenty years
but the winters are becoming more and more severe, and the frosts are
reaching farther and farther south each year. This is undoubtedly due
to the wholesale destruction of timber now going on throughout that
Republic.

The Government can cope with this matter only by legislation, and
having before it the example of the rest of the world, the Mexican Gov-
ernment should act without delay and in a manner that would benefit, not
only the present, but also future generations ; and I understand it has
been studying the advisability of prohibiting the use of wood for the
locomotives and sleepers. Experience has shown that in tropical coun-
tries iron sleepers last much longer, and are, on the whole, cheaper
than wooden ones, and our supply of coal will soon be ample enough
to furnish all the fuel necessary for the railway and mining industries.

One of the most profitable investments for capital in the near future
will undoubtedly be the construction of reservoirs in the mountains,
dams in the rivers, artesian-well boring, the erection of pumping ma-
chinery on a large scale, together with the introduction of modern
devices and appliances that will facilitate the successful cultivation of
the soil and assure crops of all descriptions in all parts of the country
where it has been proved that irrigation must be resorted to. Not only
are these requirements essential for the conservation of water for irriga-
tion purposes, but many large cities throughout the Republic are with-
out any certain water supply ; and many that have a sufficient supply

Urriaatiom 67

show by their death-rates that that supply is bad, and during the
greater part of the year is the cause of wide-spread disease.

Again, much is to be gained by the use of these waters for the gen-
erating of power for the use of factories, mines, electric lighting, rail-
ways, and street cars, even should one hundred miles or more intervene
between the generating plant and the machinery it is proposed to apply
to it.

It seems marvellous that the Mexico of to-day — presenting, as it
does, more natural resources, a greater variety of climate, cheaper
labor, and better facilities for the construction of dams, reservoirs,
canals, etc., than almost any other country — should be so far behind
the times in a matter that has become an absolute necessity before the
greater portion of its area can be thoroughly populated. The great
increase in value of a piece of land after it is irrigated ought to be in-
ducement enough for capital to be invested in such works. Compe-
tent engineers contend that Mexico, owing to its topographical and
geological features, will be found to present most favorable conditions
for the construction of reservoirs, dams, gravitation canals, the erection
of pumping plants driven by wind, steam, gasoline, electricity, or even
water power, and also for the cutting off and bringing to the surface
of the underflowing waters, which are known to exist in greater abun-
dance there than elsewhere on the face of the globe, as nature has
been very prodigal to it in these respects.

Irrigation in arid countries is the corner-stone of civilization, and,
to make a country self-sustaining, agriculture should be the first aim
of its inhabitants. Agriculture must come first ; manufacturing and
mining cannot thrive until the food supply is forthcoming.

With the extension of railway lines and the notable impulse given
to agricultural enterprise within the last twenty years, Mexican land-
owners have improved more and more upon the earlier methods, and
have, to an increasing extent, applied the principles of engineering
science to the methodical cultivation of the large tracts into which
their holdings are usually divided.

The Nazas Irrigation. — Some notice of an irrigation enterprise in
Mexico will show how much we are now doing in this line.

The great plan of northern Mexico embraces nearly the whole of
the States of Chihuahua and Coahuila, being bounded east and west
by the sierras of the Pacific and Gulf coasts respectively. It consists
of two watersheds, — that of the Rio Grande to the north, and the
the so-called desert of the Bolson of Mapimi in the south. It is
about four hundred miles wide by six hundred long, and maintains
a general level of about four thousand feet above the sea, although
much broken by local mountain ranges. The Bolson of Mapimi
has much the same formation as the basin of the Great Salt Lake.

68 (Beograpbfcal IRotes on

It receives the drainage of all the eastern slopes of the Durango
sierras and the western slopes of the Coahuila ranges, but possesses no
outlet. As a consequence, throughout its whole area, the rivers run
into broad, shallow lakes, whence the waters are gradually lost by
evaporation during the dry season. Of these rivers, the largest is the
Nazas, which has a course of nearly three hundred miles from its
source to where it is dispersed over the shallows, called on modern
maps Lake Mayran. Sixty or seventy years ago the Nazas discharged
its waters into a series of extensive lagoons, occupying what is now
the fertile Laguna district of Durango and Coahuila.

At that time a phenomenal and long-continued rainfall so over-
charged the, then, bed of the Nazas as to cause it to open a new
course, and leave the Cayman lagoons thirty miles on one side. In
the course of years these lagoons were converted into a mesquite wil-
derness, almost dead level, and composed of a deposit of the finest
detritus, of unknown depth. The central depression of this lake-bed
filled a broad valley running north and south, and surrounded by a
parallelogram of mountains. The area thus comprised was about two
hundred and ten square miles of pure vegetable loam, locally known as the
Lake of Tlahualilo. This cuenca, or bowl, was the spot chosen about
six years ago for the establishment of the great irrigation enterprise.

The problems involved called for courage and high administrative
qualities, as well as technical engineering knowledge. It had early
developed that the lands left dry by the changed course of the river
were of extraordinary fertility, and half a century ago these tracts,
immediately adjacent to the river, had been taken up and brought
under irrigation after the rough methods then practised. The result
was that, by 1890, about 250,000 acres of this land were under ditch,
and the region was producing the greatest part of the cotton grown in
Mexico, as well as heavy crops of corn and wheat. The Tlahualilo
basin was known to be the richest portion of this district, but the
thirty miles of sun-baked desert separating it from the present course
of the river presented an obstacle to utilization which proved too
formidable for the cultivators of the Laguna country. In 1889 a
project was formulated for carrying a ditch across the intervening
desert to the head of the Tlahualilo cuenca, and converting the
whole of the latter area into a huge hacienda.

Preliminary survey showed that the lowest level of the basin to be
irrigated was about 100 feet below the point on the river Nazas
which it was proposed to dam ; that the main canal, on account of
topographical conditions, would require a development of 39 miles ;
and that the slope of the lands within the basin was such that about
175 square miles out of the 210 composing the basin could be advan-
tageously irrigated. A company was formed to undertake the work.

Urrigatfon, 69

A dam of piles and riprap was thrown across the river at a point where
it is about 1500 feet wide at flood. From this dam the line of the
main canal was traced to the entrance of the Tlahualilo, — a distance
of 39 miles. The canal terminated in a distributing tank at the en-
trance to the irrigable area, whence it bifurcated, one arm being car-
ried along the western side of the basin.

The rainfall in the Bolson of Mapimi is confined to a few days of
heavy showers about the beginning of June and the beginning of De-
cember. But up in the mountains of Durango, where the Nazas takes
its rise, the rainfall at the same season is very heavy and protracted,
resulting in high water in the river, which lasts for several weeks at a
time. It is during these freshets that the cultivated lands in the Nazas
district are irrigated. For the rest of the year they receive no water,
except from occasional brief showers. In the Tlahualilo basin, a week
or ten days of irrigation is all that is needed in the course of a year,
the water soaking easily and quickly through the almost impalpable
silt, and the hot sun forming a protecting crust which checks evapora-
tion, and retains the moisture in the subsoil for a surprisingly long
time. In fact, owing to their long roots, the cotton plants strictly re-
quire irrigation only once every other year, but corn and wheat, of
course, must receive it at each planting. The distribution of the
waters is regulated by government schedule, each property on the
river being allotted its proportion of water, according to priority of
settlement. Each canal on the river is permitted to take as many irri-
gations as it desires during the season of high waters, but in strict
rotation. That is, after a property has taken one quota, it cannot re-
peat the process until all the others have taken theirs, when its second
quota is available. Where another property, as often happens, does
not care to use all the water to which it is entitled, its further allot-
ments may be used by its neighbor. The waters, on leaving the river,
are heavily charged with sediment largely volcanic in its origin, and
this is deposited on the lands at each flooding in the shape of extremely
fine mud.

Six years of experience with this property demonstrates the fact
that irrigation, when applied to fertile land under a carefully planned
and thoroughly executed system, where the water supply is owned by
the user, puts agriculture among the least dubious of industries. The
system adopted by the Tlahualilo Company is especially worthy of atten-
tion, because of the notable unity of plan pursued from the inception
of the enterprise to its fullest development, and of its resultant econo-
mies. It was on this property that a disastrous experiment of colo-
nization from Alabama took place in the year 1896, when hundreds of
negroes were taken from Alabama and other points of the southern
portion of the United States under the supposition that they could

70 Geocjrapbical IRotes on

withstand the down-pour of the tropical sun of Mexico, and by their
knowledge of the cultivation of cotton succeed in carrying out the
purpose of the men who undertook the enterprise. Unused to food
conditions in Mexico, especially for want of bacon and corn bread,
they were infested with sickness, which caused great mortality among
them, and frightened and demoralized they fled from Tlahualilo, this
experiment showing very plainly that Mexican planters cannot rely for
labor on the colored people of the United States.

The production of cotton and corn in the vicinity of Torreon can
be increased eightfold by building reservoirs in the Nazas River and
its tributary canons, to hold the water back for the irrigation of the
vast area of fine cotton and corn lands that are yet unproductive,
simply through the non-retention of the great amount of water flowing
to the sea, unused, annually, and the same result could be obtained
by doing the same thing with many other rivers in Mexico. With one-
fourth of the water now needed to produce a good crop, the same
amount of grain can be produced by good cultivation. The reason is
that by the methods now in vogue in most parts of the country, so little
soil is loosened by the plow that nearly all the water runs off, where
rain is relied on, and only with a great amount of rain can a crop be
raised. When irrigation is used, the water required to keep the hard
ground moist is entirely in excess of the reservoir, rain, and river sup-
plies. This is the reason of the short grain supply and of the necessity
for importing during years of drought large quantities of corn. If the
ground were plowed deep and well, it would absorb most of the rainfall
and create sufficient surface moisture to meet the moisture from below,
which would counteract the dry action of the atmosphere on the soil
and roots of the grain, which, by its luxuriant growth, would soon shade
the ground, and thus contribute still further to the retention of moisture.

The fact is, taking Mexico as a whole, that there is not a year so
dry but that with good cultivation, sufficient grain can be raised to
supply domestic demands, while all the excess above that quantity in
favorable seasons should be used as feed for stock, which would supply
the large quantities of lard, tallow, hard-oil, etc., now being imported,
and would leave a large amount for export, together with a consider-
able quantity of meat for the same purpose, thus helping to cover the
balance of foreign trade and keeping our silver dollars in the hands
of the farmers and stockmen, to improve and increase their lands,
herds, and flocks.

FAUNA.

The present Mexican fauna belongs, like its flora, to the North
American zone, so far as regards the plateau regions, and to the An-
tilles in respect to the coast lands round the Gulf, while that of the

JFauna. 7i

Pacific seaboard is intermediate between the Californian and South
American. In the general aspect of its terrestrial animals, Mexico
is connected more with the United States, whereas in its marine forms
the reverse movement has taken place. Thus the prevailing species in
the Gulf of Mexico as far as Tamaulipas and Texas, and the Pacific
coast northwards to Sonora and Lower California, have migrated from
South America. The species in the two oceanic basins differ almost
completely ; and, despite the proximity of the Pacific and Atlantic
shores, their shells are quite distinct.

The fauna includes three species of large felidae, the puma or
American lion, jaguar, and ocelot ; among the smaller is the wildcat.
Wolves are common in the northern States, and also the coyote ; be-
sides which there are bears, wild boars, and bisons. A species of
sloth is found in the southern forests, with five varieties of monkeys.
Of the other wild animals the principal are hares, rabbits, squirrels,
two or three kinds of deer, beavers, moles, martens, and otters.

All the domestic animals introduced by the early Spanish settlers
have multiplied prodigiously. The horses, though small, retain the
spirit and graceful form of the Andalusian or Arabian stock, from
which they mainly sprang.

The waters of the estuaries and coast streams teem with fishes, all
the numerous varieties of which differ on the two oceanic slopes, but
still present a certain analogy in their general distribution. Turtles
are taken in considerable numbers on the coast, and the carey, or
turtle-shell, of Yucatan and Guerrero is the object of a trade valued at
$20,000 yearly.

The ophidians are represented by a few boas in the southern forests,
and several species of snakes, some extremely venomous, as the rattle
and coral snakes. The largest lizard is the iguana, whose flesh is by
some of the natives used as food. Noxious insects infest the hot
regions in myriads ; alacranes, or scorpions, in two different varieties,
are everywhere feared, and many children were every year killed by
their sting in the city of Durango before the proper antidote was
found and used. Scolopendras, gigantic spiders, tarantulas, and mos-
quitoes abound.

Bees are numerous and their wax is an article of export, and the
silkworm, though comparatively neglected, yields an annual profit of
some importance. The birds of prey are eagles, hawks, and zopilotes,
or turkey-buzzards, the scavengers of the coast towns, with three or
four species of owls. Domestic fowl are extremely abundant. The
parrots, humming-birds, trogons, and so forth, vie in richness of
plumage with those of Brazil, and the Mexican songsters, the prince
of which is the zenzontle, or mocking-bird, are unequalled by those of
any other country.

72 <3eo0rapbical motes on

Of all the Mexican fauna, two only have been domesticated : the
huahulotl (Meleagris Mexicand), which is a species of duck, and the
turkey, introduced into Europe by the Spaniards from the West Indies,
hence by the French called " coq d'Inde." The techichi, an edible
dumb dog, was soon exterminated when taxed by the Spanish authori-
ties. The other farmyard animals have all been introduced into Mex-
ico by the conquerors.

In the Gulf of California, and especially near La Paz, and the neigh-
boring archipelagoes, extensive beds of pearl oysters are fished. Some
other islands in the same gulf are frequented by myriads of various
species of aquatic birds, and have already yielded many hundred car-
goes of guano.

It is noteworthy that the Pacific islands, lying at some distance
from the coast, have all a fauna different from that of the mainland.
Thus the little Tres Marias group, about sixty miles off the coast of
Jalisco, has a special species of humming-bird. The Revillagigedo
Archipelago also forms a separate zoological zone, and the island of
Guadalupe, over one hundred and fifty miles distant from Lower Cali-
fornia, has eleven species of land birds, every one of which differs
from the corresponding species on the adjacent continent.

ETHNOLOGY.

Mexico is inhabited by native Indians found there during the Span-
ish conquest, by descendants of the conquerors of Mexico and other
European races, and by a mixture of the two. There are so few in-
habitants of African descent that it is hardly worth while speaking of
them. The proportion of this population is about as follows : Of Eu-
ropean descent, 19 per cent. ; native Indians, 43 per cent. ; mixed races,
38 per cent.

Mexican Indians. — The native Indians found by the Spaniards be-
long to several nations and tribes, having different features and entirely
distinct languages. The principal of these tribes are the following^
some of which are now extinct :

Otomi, Apache, Tarahumara,

Chichimec, Irritilas, Tepehuan,

Huaxtec, Tamaulioecs, Sabaibos,

Totonac, Zacotec, Acaxee,

Mixtec, Huastec, Xixime,

Zapotec, Zoque*, Concho,

Mahuas, Opata, Manosprietas,

Toltec, Guaicuri, Comanche,

Olmecs, Yaqui, Cuachichils,

Xicalancs, Mayo, Tarascos,

Tula, Seri, Mixe.

73

These tribes have been classified in the following families :

Mexican Family ; Totonaca Family ;

Sonorense Opata-Pima Family ; Mixteco-Zapoteca Family ;

Guaicura y Cochimi Laimon Fam- Matlalzinga 6 Pirinda Family ;

ily ; Maya-Quiche Family ;

Seri Family ; Chontal Family :

Tarasco Family ; Huave Family ;

Zoque-Mixe Family ; Apache Family ;

Otomi Family.

There is a great deal of similarity between the Mexican Indians
and the Malay Asiatic races — especially the Japanese branch — which
gives foundation to the idea that the aborigines of Mexico originally
came from Asia, or vice versa.1 Their intensely black hair and eyes,
their brown or yellow color, their small stature and the slight obliquity

1 The following extracts from the San Francisco, Cal., Bulletin of June 7, 1897,
confirm my views on the subject :

" Information is received from Australia concerning the reports of F. W. Christian
of the Polynesian Society, who has returned to Sydney after an extended tour of the
islands of the South Seas, the Caroline group especially, where he has been on a suc-
cessful search for ethnological specimens. These reports are of great importance to the
scientific world and are said to let much light on a vexed question which has puzzled the
most learned savants for years. Mr. Christian has discovered extensive traces of the
Chinese and Japanese in the islands of the Pacific, and claims to have discovered evi-
dence pointing to the existence of a civilization of nearly two thousand years ago, which
is linked with the ancient civilization in Central America, and will probably explain the
origin of the Aztec races.

" Under the auspices of the Polynesian Society, according to advices from Sydney,
via Honolulu, received per Coptic yesterday, Mr. Christian worked. The gentleman
spent nearly two years looking for traces of the Chinese in the islands, and was lucky
enough to find ancient records, specimens of handiwork and weapons which proved
that Asiatic races were extensive traders among the South Sea group thousands of years
ago. Evidence of a very decisive nature was secured which shows that a large trade
was carried on via the islands of the Caroline group, between China and Central Am-
erica, and that the ancient Chinese were more inclined to emigrate than their latter-day
brethren and colonized extensively.

" Extensive inquiries were made as to the traditions of the islanders, and many
discoveries were made concerning the early history of the Malays with regard to naviga-
tion, all proving that the Torres strait's route to the Pacific was not taken, but that
voyages were made to many of the Caroline islands.

' ' The coincidence is a strange one that a despatch from Hermosillo, Mexico, dated
June 6th, reports that a rock recently discovered in the mountains of Magdalena dis-
trict, State of Sonora, which is covered with Chinese inscriptions, has just been visited
by Sen Yup, a well-educated Chinese of Guaymas. He says the inscriptions are Chi-
nese, but are somewhat indistinct. He made a copy of them, and has translated enough
of the lines to show that the writing was probably inscribed on the rock at least two
thousand years ago. "

74 (Beoatapbtcal Wotes on

of their eyes, are features common to the Mexican Indians and the
Japanese. When I first came to Washington, at the end of 1859, not
having been out of Mexico before, I retained very vivid recollections
of the Mexican Indians, with whom I had been somewhat closely asso-
ciated ; and shortly afterwards the first Japanese Embassy came to this
country and was received in a very solemn manner by Mr. Buchanan,
then President of the United States. The Embassy consisted of about
forty persons altogether, comprising ministers, secretaries, interpret-
ers, servants, etc., and were dressed in their national gala costumes,
not having yet adopted the European one. The Diplomatic Corps
having been invited to the reception, I attended as a member of the
same, and was greatly struck by the remarkable similarity which I found
between the Japanese members of the Embassy and the Mexican In-
dians, whom I had just left. It seemed to me that had I collected at
random forty Mexican Indians and dressed them in the same gorgeous
costumes that the Japanese wore, nobody could have detected the
difference.

Some of the Indian languages seem to me to resemble strongly the
Oriental ones, though of course I cannot speak with authority, as I do
not know any of those languages and have heard only the Chinese,
Japanese, and Korean spoken ; but I am sure that if any educated and
intelligent Chinese should go to Mexico and spend some time among
the Indians, he would find traces in the language which would con-
tribute greatly to clear up this problem. Mr. Tateno, a former Japanese
Minister, who visited Mexico, found, during his short stay in that coun-
try, several words that are used in Japan and that have the same mean-
ing in both countries. I am aware that Senor Pimentel, a very learned
philologist, who made a special study of the languages of the Mexican
Indians, finds no similarity at all between them and the Chinese or
other Oriental languages ; and that even the Otomi language, which is
monosyllabic, he finds to have no similarity to the Chinese. But,
notwithstanding that great authority, I believe that the aborigines of
both continents, that is, Asiatic and American, were originally of the
same race, and that there must be some relationship between their
respective languages.

The Indians of the different tribes do not generally mix with one
another, but intermarry among themselves, and this fact contributes
largely to their physical decay, and makes very difficult, at least for
some time to come, the complete assimilation of all the Mexican popu-
lation.

The Mexican Indians are on the whole a hard-working, sober,
moral, and enduring race, and when educated they produce very dis-
tinguished men. Some of our most prominent public men in Mexico,
like Juarez as a statesman, and Morelos as a soldier, were pure-blooded

Etbnoiogs, 75

Indians,1 and fortunately there is no prejudice against their race in
Mexico, and so when they are educated they are accepted in marriage
among the highest families of pure Spanish blood.9

I have been a great deal among them, and my knowledge of their
characteristics only increases my sympathy and admiration for them.
In the State of Oaxaca, for instance, where I spent the early years of
my life, I have seen Indians from the mountain districts, who, when
they had to go to the capital, especially to carry money, would form
parties of eight or ten to make a ten days' round trip, carrying with
them their food, which consists of roasted ground corn, which they
take three times a day ; stopping at a brook to mix it with water, and

1 Sir William Kingston, President of the Surgery Section in the Second Pan-
American Medical Congress, held at the City of Mexico in October, 1896, in an in-
terview which was published by The Gazette of Montreal, Canada, of December 2,
1896, said, concerning his visit to Mexico, among other things :

" The pure-blooded Indian was seen on all sides. . . .

' ' The Spaniards would seem to have pursued the same course as was followed by
the original French settlers, they did not shove aside the native Indians as useless lum-
ber, to be gotten out of the way, as a distinguished Harvard professor puts it, but they
treated them as people in possession of the soil, with whom it was not only right but
proper to ally in marriage. I have always regarded our North American Indian as
the best type of the aborigines in stature. I still believe he is, but not so in intellect.
The broad, massive forehead of the native of Mexico, and his soft but prominent and
intelligent eye, are evidences of mental power. . . ."

* I take from a spicy article published by Mr. Charles Dudley Warner, in Har-
per's Magazine for June, 1896, the following description of the dress of the poorer
classes in Mexico :

" Herbert Spencer might extend here his comments on the relation of color to
sex. It is the theory that all the males of birds have gay plumage in order to make
them attractive to the other sex, while the females go in sober colors. This is also
supposed to hold true of barbarous nations. The men who dress at all, or use paint
as a substitute, wear bright colors and more ornaments than the women, while the gen-
tle sex is content to be inconspicuous. Needless to say that in what we call civiliza-
tion, this rule is reversed. The men affect plain raiment, while the women vie with
the tropical birds of the male gender. Tried by this test Mexico has not reached the
civilization of the United States. The women of the lower orders are uniformly sober
in apparel, and commonly wear drawn over the head a reboso in plain colors. The
scant dress is usually brown or pale blue. It is the men who are resplendent, even the
poorest and the beggars. The tall conical hats give to all of them an " operatic " dis-
tinction ; the lower integuments may be white (originally) as also the shirt and the
jacket ; or the man may have marvellous trousers, slit down the sides and flapping
about so as to show his drawers, or sometimes, in the better class, fastened down
with silver buttons ; but every man of them slings over his left shoulder or wraps
about him, drawing it about his mouth on the least chill in the air, a brilliantly col-
ored sarape, or blanket, frequently of bright red. Even if he appears in white cotton,
he is apt to wear a red scarf round his waist; and if he is of a higher grade, he has
the taste of a New York alderman for a cravat. This variety and intensity of color
in the dress of the men gives great animation and picturesqueness to any crowd in the
streets, and lights up all the dusty highways."

76 6eoatapbtcal Iftotes on

sleeping on the bare ground, preferring always the open air ; getting
up before daylight and starting on their journey at daybreak imme-
diately after their early meal, speaking no Spanish and travelling
about forty miles a day. When they reached the city of Oaxaca, they
would remain there one or two days, and go back to their homes with-
out taking part in any dissipation. They prefer to live in the high,
cool localities, and they have their patch of ground to raise corn and
a few vegetables in the hot lowlands, sometimes thirty miles away from
their homes, and carry their crops on their backs for all that distance.
They make very good soldiers, and military leaders have used them to
great advantage during our revolutions.

Professor Starr's theory that we are all on this Continent assuming
the type of the Indian, is, in a measure, true. It is nothing new, for it
was already indicated by an English physician travelling in the British
colonies before the United States were thought of.

The great task of the Mexican Government is to educate our
Indians and make them active citizens, consumers, and producers,
elevating their condition. Before we think of spending money to en-
courage European immigration to Mexico, we ought to promote the
education of our Indians, which I consider the principal public need
of the country.

Increase of Mexican Population. — In the beginning of the century
Baron Humboldt, who visited Mexico and studied very carefully the
conditions of the country, thought that the Indian race, which was
then very numerous, would continue to increase and would be the pre-
ponderant race of Mexico, as far as numbers were concerned, as it
showed a large proportion in a census made in 1810 by Don Fernando
Navarro y Noriega, and which appears in Baron Humboldt's Political
Essay of New Spain. According to that census the population of
Mexico was then divided as follows :

European and American Spaniards 1,097,928

Indians 3,676,281

Mixed races or castes i,338>7°6

Secular ecclesiastics 4,229

Regular ecclesiastics 3,*12

Nuns 2,098

Total 6,122,354

Including among the Europeans the ecclesiastics and nuns, the
population was, according to that census : —

Europeans 1,107,367 or 18 per cent.

Indians 3,676,281 " 60 " "

Mixed races 1,338,706 " 22

Total 6,122,354 " 100 " "

77

In the census of 1875 the following results appear : —

European race and descen-

dants of the Spaniards ...... 1,899,031 or 20 per cent.

Mixed race .................. 4,082,918 " 43 " "

Native Indian race ........... 3,5 13,208 " 37 " "

Total 9,495,157 "100

The increase of population in the 65 years which elapsed between
the two censuses mentioned, deducting from the census of 1810 the
inhabitants of Texas, New Mexico, and Upper California, who had
passed to the United States, numbering 58,338, was

Population of 1810 6,064,016

Census of 1875 9,495, J57

Increase of the population in the 65 years 3,431,141

From the preceding data it appears that the European race nearly
doubled its population in the space of 65 years, and at the rate of i.i
per cent, of increase per year ; that the mixed race trebled it at the
rate of 3.25 ; and that the native race diminished it at the rate of 0.058
per cent, per annum.

Families in Mexico are generally very large, often having ten or
fifteen children. I remember how much surprise it caused in Wash-
ington, my stating in the presence of Senor Don Jacobo Blanco, the
Mexican Commissioner in the late International Boundary Com-
mission, who was recently here for a year finishing his office work and
maps and preparing his report, that he was the twenty-fourth child in
his family, his father having been twice married.

Decrease of the Indian Population. — It further appears that the In-
dian population has been decreasing since the beginning of the present
century, notwithstanding the fact that the Indian race on the whole is
very prolific.

The causes of the decrease of the Indian population in Mexico are
various ; bad nourishment, insufficient shelter from the inclemency of
the weather, wretched attendance in sickness, and many others, some
of which I shall mention here, having contributed toward the degener-
ation and decline of the race.

The small-pox, owing to the carelessness or indolence of the par-
ents in regard to vaccination, or their repugnance to it, causes deplor-
able ravages in this race, more especially among the individuals that
live at any considerable distance from the cities.

Indian women, even when far advanced in pregnancy, do not ab-

78 Geoarapbfcal "Notes on flDejico.

stain from hard labor, and, without any care for their coming offspring,
continue grinding their corn until the moment of parturition. Then,
before the proper time for taking the child from the breast, it is fed
with food unsuitable for its age and difficult of digestion, which occa-
sions diarrhoea or other maladies that either cause its death or at least
contribute to its imperfect development.

Another circumstance which causes the degeneration of the Indians
is their premature marriages. In Mexico the marriageable age for wo-
men has been fixed by law at eighteen years, and in the tierra caliente,
or hot country, at fourteen ; but in some places Indian girls are married
at twelve. Every Indian father considers it his duty to marry his
children, whether boys or girls, as soon as they are of age, the parents
of course making the match to suit themselves.

This used to be the case not only with the Indians, but even with
persons of Spanish descent. I once heard General Degollado, a very
good and prominent man in Mexico, say, that the day he married he
took, immediately after the ceremony was over, his bean-shooter and
went to shoot birds, because he had no conception of what he had done,
his parents having arranged the match for him ; but he added that he
could not possibly have made a better choice of a wife.

The Indians are strong by nature ; and in this is to be found the fact
that so many of them reach an advanced age, in spite of their scant
and poor food, their unhealthy mode of living, and their damp and un-
wholesome habitations, consisting of miserable huts where whole
families are huddled together.

The Spaniards in Mexico. — The Spaniards are a money-making,
wonderfully frugal race, since they have been battling with hard con-
ditions at home for centuries. The Spaniard in Mexico is — as Richard
Ford who spent thirty years in the peninsula, and who was a close ob-
server, depicts him — a hardy, temperate man, well fitted, under favor-
able conditions, to become a dominant influence.

In Mexico, the energy of the Spaniard is remarkable. He is force-
ful of word and phrase, energetic in his movements, immensely vital,
tremendously persistent, and wonderfully enduring. After thirty years
behind a counter selling groceries, he retires, a man of fortune ; not
always large, but sufficient, and is still a man of force and ready for
undertakings demanding good brain power and courage. They come
over mere lads, from ten to fifteen, toil and moil, feed frugally, and
sleep hardly, and they become millionaires, bank directors, great mill
owners, farmers on a grand scale, hot-country planters and monopolists,
for the Spaniard is born with the " trust " idea ; while his sons are too-
often dudes and spendthrifts.

The thrifty Spaniard toils and saves, and his ambition is to marry a.
rich girl, frequently the daughter of a Mexican landowner, and so he

lays the foundation for permanent wealth ; for everywhere, the world
over, the man who gets the lands and holds on to them is the wealthy
man. Speculators and financiers come and go like bubbles on a river,
but the landed proprietor keeps a permanent clinch on humanity.

There is one check to the growth of Spanish influence in Mexico,
and that is the climate. All Europeans, no matter what their nation-
ality, become physically modified by residence in the new world ; and
nowhere is the effect of climate more noticeable than in the tropics.
The children of the Spanish residents are less energetic than the parents,
and the third generation are altogether Creoles. Just as the Mexican
of Spanish descent is, as a rule, less energetic, not so vascular, and less
vigorous than the Spaniard, so is the American less full-blooded and
leaner than the Englishman. The change that takes place in the hu-
man organization, transplanted from the old world to the new, is a pro-
found one.

English and Germans in Mexico. — The present century has seen
many changes in the commercial world of Mexico ; the great English
houses have almost all disappeared ; especially has this been marked in
the dry-goods, or draper's business. The Germans, with superior econ-
omy, if with no more of enterprise, drove the English out of that pro-
fitable business, and in time themselves succumbed to the still closer
methods of the Barcelonettes who gained a foothold in the business
which they have successfully maintained. The dry-goods business in
the Republic is largely in the hands of men who speak the French
language. From the great houses of the capital go forth bright young
men, trained to business habits who are established over branch con-
cerns in the interior and coast towns. Their employers become their
backers, and a close intimacy is maintained, to the mutual advantage of
older and younger merchants.

Very few of the foreigners who settle in Mexico, and especially
Spaniards, are educated, as most of them hardly know how to read
and write. They very seldom become naturalized Mexicans, and almost
always keep their allegiance to the country of their origin. That
seemed natural when Mexico was in constant turmoil, and many of the
foreigners going there expected to make large fortunes by means of
diplomatic claims ; but that reason can hardly hold good now, when
the country is at peace, and perfect security is extended to every in-
habitant. If the foreigners continue keeping their old nationality
when they become permanent settlers of Mexico, some changes may
be necessary in the legislation of the country affecting their condition.

Americans in Mexico. — It will be very difficult for the fun-loving,,
self-indulgent, Anglo-Saxon Englishman of America to compete with
these self-denying Spaniards, capable of living with the nose to the
grindstone twenty, twenty-five, or thirty years, eating always sparingly,

8o (Seograpbfcal iRotes on flDejico.

drinking wine, but in moderation, spending no money, dressing poorly,
and ever with a fortune accumulating. The American wants to cut a
dash and so does the Englishman, else the English would have main-
tained their commercial supremacy in Mexico. They lost it to the
more frugal and economical Germans.

The American is a speculator, a dreamer of golden dreams ; he lives
for the eyes of other people ; he is not capable of the patience that
keeps a man tied to a desk or shop for half a lifetime, making a savings
bank of himself.

Some Mexicans are afraid that a free influx of citizens from this
country may Americanize it. This is true as to the means of trans-
portation, the introduction of electric lights, improved hotel accomo-
dations, and where similar improvements are concerned. But there is
no doubt of the persistence of traditions and habits, and the influence
of climate. It is difficult to introduce the American push and restless-
ness in business, and to overcome the habits formed in many centuries
of letting the morrow take care of itself. There must be the mid-day
siesta, and the number of working days is reduced by several feast
days, saints' days, and holidays, besides the Sundays. There is no
doubt that the productiveness of nature is an inducement to very
leisurely labor, and the lack of any sharp division of seasons is a sort
of moral discipline, as well as a stimulus to extra exertion in summer
to prepare for winter. What must be the effect upon character when
this stimulus is wanting? It is possible, of course, that industry will
be stimulated by the inflow of settlers from the north, and that Mexico
will take on new enterprise and productive vigor ; but I think it is
easier for Americans in Mexico to fall into Mexican ways and Mexican
moral views than it is to convert the Mexicans to the American view
of life. I do not doubt that Mexico has a great industrial, agricultu-
ral, and manufacturing future, but I fancy that its power of absorp-
tion, like that of Egypt, is greater than its facility of adaptation.

Ruins. — We have in Mexico some of the most ancient and remark-
able ruins, and although there are different surmises about the time at
which they were built and the people who built them, nothing is known
positively about them.

The principal ones are in Uxmaland and Chichen Itza in Yucatan
Comalcalco in Tabasco, Teotihuacan and Cholula in Puebla and
Tlaxcala, and Mitla in Oaxaca.

UxmaL — Uxmal is not far from the city of Merida, the capital of
the State of Yucatan, supposed to have been built by the Mayas, and
different books have been written about them, especially one by Dr.
Augustus Le Plongeon, a French savant, who passed many years in
Yucatan, studying its magnificent ruins, and published in New York,
in 1896, a book entitled Queen Mod and the Egyptian Sphinx, in which

81

he contends that the empire of the Mayas, which had its seat at Yuca-
tan, was the cradle of civilization, and that from there it went to India,
Egypt, and finally to Greece and Western Europe.

Palenque. — Very likely the same Mayas built the large ruins which
still exist in the district of Palenque in the State of Chiapas, and in
some places in Guatemala.

Cholula. — The great pyramid of Cholula, made known to the scien-
tific world by Humboldt, which is eight miles from Puebla, has been
pictured and described. Its base is 1000 feet on each side, and it is
built in two great terraces, the first being 71 feet, and the second 66
feet, in height. The top is 203 by 144 feet. So far as investigations
have revealed, the great pyramid is artificial and is constructed of sun-
dried brick.

Teotihuacan. — Teotihuacan, an ancient city lying twenty-five miles
northeast of the City of Mexico, and occupying an area of about one
and a half or two miles, contains some of the most remarkable series
of ruins. To the north of the ruins is a truncated pyramid, rectangu-
lar in form, squared to the points of the compass, and known as the
Pyramid of the Moon. South of it, at a distance of about 1300 yards,
is another pyramid of similar form, known as the Pyramid of the Sun.
Its perpendicular height is 223 feet, and its base measures about 735
feet from east to west. Both pyramids are united by a straight street,
which starts from a circular plaza at the south side of the Pyramid of
the Moon, and loses itself in the barranca south of the Pyramid of the
Sun.

These colossal pyramids are regarded as among the most ancient
monuments of Mexico, far antedating the civilization found by the
Spaniards. They are wonderful illustrations of what perseverance and
time will accomplish. Now even the means which the builders used
for handling the immense blocks of volcanic stone with which they
constructed is unknown. Other ruins, in the character of little
mounds, are found scattered over the extensive plain in which the two
pyramids are situated. The street or avenue which united the latter
is called the " Road of the Dead." Along its entire length, parallel to
it on both sides, there is a terrace constructed of cement, clay, and
broken lava, faced with a coating of mortar or plaster, highly polished,
and painted red and white. Desire Charnay removed the rubbish
from one of the mounds on the side facing this road, and discovered
what he calls a " palace," with two large halls and various small rooms.
In 1886, Senor Don Leopoldo Batres made an excavation in one of
the mounds, and found two polychrome frescos painted on the wall
of the building which was laid bare. The question is naturally asked,
how these monuments came to be covered ? Was it by an earthquake,
or by the hands of the builders themselves ? Senor Batres inclines to

VOL. I — 6

82 Geoatapbical IRotes on /iDejico.

the latter view, as he found the roofs of the houses perfectly preserved,
while the interior of the rooms was in every case filled with stones
neatly fitted into the spaces, and joined with a clayish cement to form
a compact mass. His conclusion as to the pyramids is, that they are
two great temples erected to two old Mexican divinities. Each pyra-
mid consists of five terraces, which diminished in size until the height
of 223 feet was reached. Each has on one of its sides a stairway six
and one-half feet in width, which makes five zigzag turns, and leads to
the sanctuary or shrine on the summit. The outer surface of the
pyramids, and perhaps the interior as well, was plastered over with a
mortar of lime, hard and smooth, and decorated with frescoes, repre-
senting quasi-historical events and scenes.

The small mounds scattered over the area occupied by the ruins
were, according to Batres, dwellings and small shrines. Each con-
tained from six to twelve rooms, quadrangular and rectangular in form.
The cornices as well as the walls were beautifully ornamented in colors.
On some as many as twenty tints had been used. The doors were rec-
tangular, never trapezoidal in form, although the latter style has been
erroneously attributed to ancient American architecture. They meas-
ure eight feet in height by about three feet in width. The houses had
neither windows nor balconies. The city was crossed by subterranean
aqueducts constructed of stone, the walls of which were plastered with
firm and smooth mortar. Near the Pyramid of the Moon, among the
rubbish, there was a monolithic statue of colossal dimensions. It rep-
resents a woman with a characteristic head-dress, and wearing a neck-
lace of four strings of beads. Travellers in Teotihuacan can find
countless miniature heads modelled in clay anywhere on the freshly-
plowed stretches of level land that lies across the broad, straight
Micoatl, or " Path of the Dead." They vary in length from one to two
inches, and invariably have nothing more than a neck attached to
them. They may be distinguished by this peculiarity from those that
are applied as ornaments to terra cotta vases, and from fragments of
"idols." The features and peculiar head-dresses that adorn these
little heads of Teotihuacan vary greatly, and this diversity has given
rise to, and been quoted in proof of, the migration of tribes, of the mix-
tures of widely differing races, or of their succession to each other in
the occupation of the Valley of Mexico. Owing to the unfamiliar
aspect of some of these head-dresses, it has been asserted that they
could not be even " Toltec," but must be relics of still more remote
and unknown races of men. Various uses have been assigned to them,
the commonest supposition being that they were in some way associated
with ceremonies relating to the dead. There is probably no subject
connected with Mexican archaeology, except the calendar, that has given
rise to more discussion. Dr. E. B. Tylor regarded them as a puzzle,

83

and Professor F. W. Putnam has spoken of them as the " riddle of the
many heads." Desire Charnay saw in some of them Chinese and
Japanese masks, and even types of the white race, proving in his opin-
ion how many races must have been mingled or succeeded each other
on this old continent.

Mitla. — About twenty miles east of the city of Oaxaca is an Indian
town called Mitla, near which still remain the ruins of great edifices
and palaces. The temples were built, it is supposed, by the ancient
Zapotecas, and are the most interesting relics of the earlier civilizations
of Mexico. The first description of these ruins was given by the
Spanish priest, Burgoa, who accompanied the conquerors of Monte-
zuma. The interior of the principal hall or room of the main palace
is supposed to be the teocali of the high priest. The peculiar archi-
tecture and elaborate and grotesque decoration can easily be observed.
It is astonishing to see the enormous size of the stones used in the
walls of these temples. Professor Bickmore said that he had seen
nothing to equal them except at Baalbec, in Syria. At Mitla are found
some clay images, mostly miniature, doubtless of gods, but some of
them no doubt portraits, and some of these bore a striking resemblance
to the little heads found at the pyramids of the Sun and Moon in
the Valley of Mexico ; that is, some of them had the slant Oriental
eyes, and others Ethiopian features, very different from any races we
now know in these regions. The ruined temples of Mitla are covered
with stucco, which was painted Pompeiian red. There is a pyramid
also at Mitla, and there are some elaborately wrought sepulchral
chambers.

I borrow from Mr. Vivien Cory the following extracts of his de-
scription of the ruins of Mitla.

" There are four of these places ; the first is almost entirely destroyed, only some
huge monolithic slabs supported horizontally upon tottering piles of broken stones re-
maining ; while everywhere amongst the ruins have sprung up the grass huts of the
Mexican Indians, and of the fourth or one farthest from the hamlet nothing but indi-
cation of the site is left, upon which the Spaniards have reared a modern church. It
is in the two palaces that lie between, each slightly raised above the surrounding country
on a separate eminence, that the interest centres.

" One of these is in the form of a double Greek cross, its stem running north and
south, and its arms extended east and west. In the centre is the large court, surrounded
on all sides by rising ground and ruined mounds of stones : there are traces still remain-
ing of the foundations, that speak of four apartments built upon these mounds to face
the court, but of these those on the west and south sides have disappeared ; on the east
side, only two colossal pillars and a portion of the walls remain, while to the north side
the whole apartment forming the head of the cross has been spared and stands almost
unharmed in its original beauty and richness. The fa£ade of this apartment extends
the whole length of the court, one hundred and forty-one feet, and its height is a little
over fifteen feet : the material is freestone, the color a faint, dull, amber tint, soft as the
light seen in the sky at evening. In the centre are three square portals and above these

84 (Beoorapbical motes on

forming the head-piece to them all extends one long and narrow panel of carving, a
high relief of the natural stone on a crimson ground. The whole fagade is composed of
a series of these panels, from the straight line of the foundation-stone to the straight
line of the summit, nine panels being on each side of the entrance, arranged in three
tiers, divided by horizontal bands of the natural stone. In some of the panels, the
ground retains still a faint tint of its former rich vermillion, in others, all color has
subsided into the soft neutral shade of the freestone. The designs are wonderfully rich
and varied, thirteen different patterns being represented on this fagade alone ; all these
designs are remarkable for the straight lines in which they are executed and the absence
of all curves. Throughout all the ruins, upon the walls of which appear twenty-three
different models of carving, only two of these represent any curve in their design. In
one of these two there is visible the form of the Arabic letter ' L ' placed horizontally,
and in the other a double curve ' S,' possibly intended to represent or suggest the snake.
With these exceptions the designs are of the Greek key pattern, variations on this, or
parallelograms.

" Behind this fagade is a narrow court, roofless as all the courts are, and empty, save
for six colossal pillars standing at even distances down the centre, and giving to this
chamber the name of Hall of the Monoliths. Each pillar is one solid stone, eleven
feet high and eleven feet in circumference. A low stone passage leads from this
chamber northward to the smallest and richest court of all, entering it at the southeast
corner. There is comparatively little trace of the destructiveness of the elements or
the iconoclasm of man here. The court and all the four chambers opening from it are
perfect and singularly rich in carving. The court is perfectly square and the chambers
are entered from it, each through one square doorway, the roof of which is formed by
a huge monolith, thirteen feet long and with a richly carved face. Of these four lin-
tels each has a separate design. Each of the four walls has six panels, the uppermost
extending the whole length of the wall, two smaller panels being on either side of the
entrance, and one long narrow one above it. Between the panels stand out in high
relief the horizontal and vertical edges of the freestone, forming a symmetrical frame
to each panel.

" Within the four chambers the walls are designed differently, the carving running
simply and evenly round the entire room in three straight horizontal bands, each band
possessing a separate pattern and being about three feet in width. Beneath these
bands of carving was originally, evidently, a dado of vermillion stucco, of such fine
and delicate quality that the smooth and polished surface resembles marble. Portions
of this delicate stucco still adhere to the crumbling walls in places and are of various
colors, scarlet, black and white. In some instances this stucco seems to have been
plain, simply bearing a brilliant polish, in others, there remains distinctly traced in
white upon a crimson ground, a wierd, fantastic, yet handsome design, the head ; half
horse, half dragon, repeated in four inch squares. This latter ornamented stucco, how-
ever, does not appear except in the fourth palace, containing the Spanish church, where
it is visible on the walls of one of the courts, now used as a stable for the padre's horse.
Leaving the richest of the centre palaces, passing through a gap in the ruined wall on
the south side, descending the elevation on which it is placed and ascending the op-
posite eminence, the patio of the second palace is reached. This is almost wholly in
ruins ; three of the fagades that face the court remain indeed, but the great smooth
slabs with which the walls were faced have been torn away at the base, and most of the
beautiful panels of carving stripped from the front. Yet it is in this ruined palace that
one lingers longest and to which one's feet return, drawn by an irrisistible fascination ;
for this palace contains the tomb and the pillar of death.

" This subterranean vault is called by general consent a sepulchre, but there is no
line of history, no record, no tradition even, left to explain to us its origin and use. It

85

may have been a torture-chamber, sacrificial hall, or tomb. The excavation is but a little
below the surface of the court, now carried down so deeply that the light is wholly ex-
cluded. From the entrance there is enough to fill the interior with a sad, gray twilight.
The vault is in the form of a simple cross lying north and south ; its walls are massive
and heavily decorated with panels of carving let into their sides, while it is roofed by
enormous monolithic slabs that reach from wall to wall. In the centre of the cross,
just where by descending a few steps one enters the tomb, stands the pillar of death,
round which, the Indians say, should a man clasp his arms he must shortly afterwards
die. Does not this very tradition, handed down perhaps through the long file of count-
less years, seem to indicate that this pillar was some ancient stone of sacrifice to which
human victims were bound or chained, and from which death alone released them ?
As one gazes at the massive column, that one man's arms alone could not entirely en-
circle, the eye notices an indentation round the base where the column sinks into the
floor. The stone is corroded and worn away as by the long friction of ropes or chains.

" Most of the panels do not consist of actual carving, though they produce that
effect at a few yards' distance ; they are formed in reality by small slabs of the freestone
cut perfectly square and inserted edgeways into the wall, the remaining edges standing
out at various distances from it and thus forming the different designs. This, although
a work of infinite patience, does not necessarily presuppose a high stage of civilization,
no instrument sharper than hard stone being required to cut the slabs of soft freestone ;
and that only a stone instrument was employed by the workers seems indicated by the
fact that, in the large panels where the stone is actually carved, the edges are not sharp,
but rounded, as if made with a blunt tool. The effect of the panels of inserted squares
of stone, however simply produced, is that of the most finished and clear-cut carving
and the designs themselves are rich and elaborate. There is no crudity, no harshness
in them, no suggestion of the primitive savage's scratching on his native rock ; but
rather that of Greek work on some Athenian temple. The patterns have a complicated
elegance and distinction of line that can only be produced by a people of cultivated
mind and eye.

" Evidence, too, of what high grade of civilization in some ways at least they must
have arrived at, lies in the gigantic stones that they have placed as lintels over their
doorways and which in their immense weight and bulk have defied the greed or rage of
all the succeeding races to remove or destroy. The mystery here is the Egyptian
mystery of the Pyramids ; that these enormous blocks of stone are resting here in po-
sitions and elevations where it would require all the modern knowledge of mechanics,
engineering skill, and mechanical appliances to place them ; and, as in Egypt, so here
the mystery will never be solved, as the builders have passed hence and left no clue.
The solid stone rests there upon its supporting pillars before the eye as it has rested
for a thousand years, but how the perished hands lifted and placed it there remains its
own inviolable secret.

' ' Leaving the palace court by the south side and following the road to the dry and
stony bed of a wide river, if one turns aside here a little to the eastward he finds him-
self facing a Zapotecan mound, a solid base composed of earth and stones, in which are
visible at intervals large slabs of cement, portions of terraces and tiers that originally
formed its sides. Ascending this, from the summit one can overlook the whole valley."

LANGUAGES.

About one hundred and fifty different Indian languages are known
to have been spoken by the Mexican Indians. The Spanish monks
accompanying the conquerors and who went to the country soon after-

86

0eo$rapbical Iftotes on flDejico,

wards compiled grammars and even dictionaries of some of these
languages ; but the Indians falling into a semi-barbarous state after
the conquest, having lost their civilization and literature, their lan-
guages have either disappeared completely or become very primitive,
and it is ascertained that some of them have become entirely extinct.

The Spanish is, of course, the language of the country and most
of the Indians speak it, although very imperfectly and incorrectly ;
only a small portion of them speaking no language but their own.

The chief languages spoken in Mexico proper, excluding Chiapas
and Yucatan, are as follows :

Nahuatl or Mexican (Aztec) with Acaxee, Sabaibo, Xixime,
Cochimi, Concho and other members of the same family.

Seri, Upanguaima, and Guaima.

Papago, Opata, Yaqui, Mayo, Tarahumara, Tepehuan, Cora, etc.

Apache or Yavipai, Navajo, Mescalero, Llanero Lipan, etc.

Otomi or Hia-hiu, Fame, Mazahua, etc.

Huaxtec, Totonac.

Tarascan, Matlaltzincan.

Mixtec, Zopotec, Mixe, Zoque*, Chinantec.

Seftor Don Manuel Orosco y Berra wrote a treatise on the language
of the Indian tribes in Mexico entitled " Geography of Languages,"
which describes the languages of the races who inhabited Mexico, and
Sefior Don Francisco Pimentel enlarged upon that work, making
philological comparisons, and from the data collected by both authors
Senor Don Antonio Garcia Cubas a distinguished Mexican geographer
made the following synopsis of the Indian languages spoken in Mexico.

SYNOPSIS OF THE INDIAN LANGUAGES OF MEXICO, FORMED ACCORD-
ING TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF DON FRANCISCO PIMENTEL.
NOTE. — The sign * indicates that the classification is doubtful.

GROUPS.

FAMILIES.

LANGUAGES.

DIALECTS.

ist Order. — Languages polysyllabic,
polysynthetic of sub-flexion.

I.

i. Mexican, Nahuatl or Azteca

f Conchos, Si-
1 naloense, * Ma-

t

MEXICAN.

*2. Cuitlateco

Ise, Ahualulco,
Pipil, Niquiran.

2

3. Opata, Teguima or Teguima Sonorense

i

4. Eudebe, heve or hegue, dohme or dohema-

g

6. Pima, nevome ohotama or Otama

j Tecoripa.

«

7. Pepehuan ....

1 Sabaqui.
Various.

m

9 to 12. El Yuma comprising Cuchan, Coco-
maricopa or Opa, Mojave or Mahao, Die-
gueno, or Cuneil, Yavipai, Yampai, and
yampaio

15. Julime

GROUPS.

FAMILIES.

LANGUAGES.

DIALECTS.

MEXICAN-OPATA.

1st Order. — Languages polysyllabic,
polysynthetic of sub-flexion.

II.

SONORENSE OR
OPATA-PIMA.

{Varogio or Chi-
nipa, Guaza-
pare, Pachera,
and others.

{Yaqui, Mayo,
Tehueco or Zua-
que.

f Muutzicat,
-< Teacucitzin,
(Ateanaca.

Various.

19 Chora, Chota, Cora del Nayarit

20 Colotlan . . .

21 Tubar.

24. Acaxee or Topia, comprising Sabaibo, Tebaca,
and Xixime, the last of doubtful classi-
fication

III.

COMANCHE SO-
SHONE.

25. Comanche, Nauni, Paduca, Hietan or Getan.
26. Caigua or Kioway.
27. Shoshone or Chochone.
28. Wihinasht.
29. Utah, Yutah or Yuta.
30. Pah-Utah or Payuta.
31. Chemegue or Cheme-huevi.
32. Cahuillo or Cawio.
33. Kechi.
34. Netela.
35. Kizh or Kij.
36. Fernandeno.
37. Moqui and some others spoken in the United
States

Various.

IV.
TEXANA OR COA-
HUILTECA.

Various.

V.

*KEKES Zuffi.

{Kiwomi or Ki-
vome, Cochi-
teumi or Qui-
me, Acoma and
Acuco.
Various.

40 Tesuque or Tegua

43. Zuni or Cibola

VI.

MUTSUN.

44. Mutsun.
45. Rumsen.
46. Achastli.
47. Soledad.
48. Costeno or Costanos and other languages of
California

VII.

GUAICURA.

49. Guaicura, Vaicura or Monqui.
50. Aripa.
51. Uchita.
52. Cora.
53. Concho or Lauretano

VIII.

COCHIMI-LAIMON.

54 to 57. Cochimi, divided into four sister lan-
guages, viz. : Cadegomo and the languages
used in the missions of San Javier, San

58. Laimon or Layamon

IX.
SERI.

61 . Upanguaima

X.

TARASCA.

XI.

ZOQUE-MlXE.

64 Mixe

Various.

66 Tapijulapa

88

Oeograpbical Iftotes on /iDejtco.

GROUPS.

FAMILIES.

LANGUAGES.

DIALECTS.

XII.

Four

TOTONACA.

2d Order. Languages polysyllabic
polysynthetic of juxtaposition.

68. Mixteco

Eleven

Twelve

71 Popoloco

XIII.

Two.

fc

g

75. Amusgo

8

Two

5

irf

*78. Chinanteco

H

2

o

XIV.

PlRINDA OR MA-

Various

TLALZINCA.

a

M

Ng

3d Order. — Languages Polosyllabic
Synthetic.

(4

81 Punctunc

H

B*

fc,

84 Chanabal Comitcco Jocolobal

O

a

86 Chorti or Chorte

«

87 Cakchi Caichi Cachi or Cakgi

•<

88 Ixil Izil

V)

XV.

89 Coxoh

MAYA.

5

91 Zutuhil Zutugil, Atiteca Zacapula

W

a

M

93. Tzotzil, Zotzil, Tzinanteco, Cinanteco
94 Tzendal Zendal . .

2

H

O

i

08. Huaxtcco

Various

i

•<

*99. Haitianof Ouizqueja or Itis, with their af-
finities, Cubano, Borigua and Jamaica

h

XVI.

*ioo. Chontal doubtful in its morphologic char-

Q

CHOI^TAL.

1

XVII.

M

DERIVATIVES OF

g

NICARAGUA.

M
jjj

n
§

XVIII.

f North American-
Apache, Mexi-
can Apache,
I Mimbreno,

<
h

jo, Xicarilla or
Faraon, Lipan
[ Mescalero.

4th Order. — Languages cuasi-mo-
nosyllabic.

XIX.

4

Q

Various.

108. Jonaz or Meco. (Perhaps the rest of the
ancient Chichimeco)

population. 89

POPULATION.

We have until recently taken a regularly correct census of our
population. The first reliable census was made in 1795, under Revil-
lagigedo's viceroyalty, the second in 1810 by Don Fernando Navarro
y Noriega, the third one was estimated by Mr. Poinsett, United States
Minister in Mexico, in 1824, and the others have been taken by the
Mexican Government.

The following is a statement of the general results of our various
censuses :

Years. Inhabitants.

1795 5,200,000

1810 6,122,354

1824 6,500,000

1839 7,044,140

1854 7,853,395

1869 8,743,614

1878 9,384,193

1879 9,908,01 1

1886 10,791,685

1895 12,570,195

The population of Mexico appears to be, from our last census,
taken in 1895, 12,570,195, which would give 16.38 for each square
mile ; but from my personal knowledge of the country, I am quite
sure that it is not less than 15,000,000. It is very difficult to take a
correct census in Mexico, because there is not the proper machinery
in operation for that purpose, and especially because a great many
districts are inhabited by Indians, who are impressed with the fear
that if they inscribe themselves in the census they will be taxed or
drafted into the military service, and they try to avoid registration.

A great many of our people live in such remote districts that they
are practically cut off from communication with other portions of the
country, and in fact are almost isolated ; and this constitutes still
another difficulty in the way of taking a correct census. These people
generally raise everything they need for their living, as well as for
their clothing. They also raise their domestic animals, and wear either
cotton or woollen clothes, manufactured by the women. The configu-
ration of the country, which makes transportation very expensive, to-
gether with the very sparse population, has caused their isolation, and
this explains why some agricultural products which are very cheap in
other countries are very dear in certain districts of Mexico, as prices
can be easily controlled, there being no possibility of competition.
While sugar, for instance, costs 25 cents per pound in some districts,
it can be had in others for one cent. This fact shows also that a year
of good crops was often a real misfortune to these districts.

90 Geoarapbical IRotes on

The upper lands being the healthiest, most of the population in
Mexico is settled in the central plateau ; a relatively small portion
lives in the temperate zone, while the torrid zone is very thinly popu-
lated. I imagine, at a rough calculation, that about 75 per cent, of the
population make their abode in the cold zone, from 15 to 18 per cent,
in the temperate zone, and from 7 to 10 per cent, in the torrid zone.

From the synopsis of our censuses, inserted above, it appears that
the population in Mexico has duplicated during the last century, and
although that increase does not keep pace with the increase in the
United States, because this has been really wonderful, it compares
favorably with the increase in other countries. Mexico also, as a new
country and one full of possibilities, ought to have increased its popu-
lation more rapidly, but its slow progress can be accounted for in
several ways.

Under the head of Ethnology I enumerated the different races
inhabiting Mexico and stated the number of inhabitants belonging to
each, and I gave at length the reasons for the slow increase of the In-
dian population, which is the largest in Mexico. I will only add here
that while the Indians lead a very abstemious and simple life, marry
while very young and generally have a family of several children, they
are at the same time subject to epidemics. Notwithstanding that the
race on the whole is sturdy and little subject to disease, the mortality
is very large among the children for want of proper nutrition and care.
The losses caused by our civil wars could not at all explain the slow
increase of our population, and the only way in which I can account
for it is that they are not so well prepared as the people of the United
States and other more advanced countries, to bear the discomforts of
life and climate, and that, therefore, they cannot bring up all the
children born in the family, among whom there is annually a great
mortality.

Classification of Mexican States. Under the Spanish rule Mexico
was divided into several provinces, the Spaniards trying to divide the
provinces in accordance with the different nationalities of the aborig-
ines found there, and each province possessing a very large extent
of territory. After our independence and when we established a Fed-
eral government, each province was made a state, and since then some
of the largest states have been divided into two or even three smaller
ones. In the chapter on Political Organizations I shall give further
information on this subject.

The Mexican states are classified in several ways, and generally as
Northern, Southern, Central, Pacific, and Gulf States ; but it is difficult
to make a proper division of them, because there are several included
in two denominations. I will, therefore, divide them into Northern
States, calling so those bordering on the United States ; Southern States,

population.

those bordering on Gautemala and Belize ; Gulf, Caribbean Sea, and
Pacific States, those bordering on their respective waters ; and Central
States those which do not belong to any of the above denominations,
although I do not consider this a proper classification, because the
State of Tamaulias included among the Northern States, and the States
of Tabasco, Campeche, and Yucatan among the Southern States, are
all on the Gulf of Mexico, and are, therefore, Gulf States, the latter
being also washed on their southern side by the Caribbean Sea, and
the State of Sonora, classified as a Northern State, borders on the
Pacific ; the State of Chiapas, included among the Southern States, also
borders on the Pacific, and, therefore, is, like Sonora, also a Pacific
State.

Our last official census, taken in 1895, gives the following results
by States, which I compared with the census of 1879.

AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED MEXICAN STATES.

STATES.

AREA IN
SQUARE
MILES.

POPULATION

POPULA-
TION PER
SQUARE
MILE.

CAPITAL.

POPULA-
TION.

in 1879.

in 1895.

Southern
States bor- Northern
dering on States
Tern- At- Guate- bordering
lories. Central. Pacific. lantic. mala. on the U. S.

Tamaulipas

32,585
24,324
62,376
87,820
76,922

35,214
18,091
10,075
27,230

29,210

35,392
25,003

22,881
2,273
31,855
33,681

2,951
38,020

",374
8,920
2,774
9,250
12,207
3,558
i,595
25,323
24,764

140,137
203,284
130,026

225,541
"5,424

302,315

90,4*3
104,747
205,362

542,918

744,000
295,590
661,534
65,827
983,484
186,491

140,430
190,846
834,845
427.350
159,160
7^,579
784,466
203,250
138,988
516,486
422,506

204,206
309,607
235,638
266,831
191,281

297,507
90,458
134,794
313,678

855,975

882,529
417,621
889,795
55,677
1,107,863
256,414

103,645
294,366
1,047,238
548,039
159,800
838,737
979,723
227,233

570^814
452,720

144,308
42,287

484,608

6-3
13-1
3-7
3-0
2.4

8.4
5-o
13-3
"•5

29-3
24-9

IB*
24.5

34-8
7-6

35-i
7-7
92.1
61.6
57-6
90.7
80.2
63-9
104.6
22.5
18.2

12.8

0.7
1046.7

Ciudad Victoria. .
Monterey

14,575
56,855
19,654
18,521

8,376
36,720

16,631
27,036
7,882

18,173
32,641

6,204

32,287

I9i3°5
83,870
14,205

31,619
42,165
39,337
52,189
8,554
23,648
9I,9I7
32,790

6^676
40,026

16,266
4,737

i,259
339.935

Nuevo Leon
Coahuila

Saltillo
Chihuahua
Hermosillo

Merida . .

Chihuahua

Campeche
5. Juan Bautista..
Tuxtla Gutierrez .

Talapa . .

Tabasco

Veracruz

' Oaxaca

Dhilpancingo
Morelia

Jalisco

Guadalajara

Sinaloa

Aguascalientes... .

\guas Calientes. .
Durango
Guanajuato
Pachuca

Guanajuato
Hidalgo

3uernavaca
Toluca

Puebla

Puebla . .

Tlaxcala

Tlaxcala

San Luis Potosi...
Zacatecas

>an Luis Potosi . .
Zacatecas

Tepic

Tepic . .

Lower California. .
Federal District . .

58,345

463
J.47I

30,208
351,804

^a Paz and
Lnsenada de
Todos Santos . .
3ity of Mexico . . .

Totals

767,226

9,908,011

12,570,195

92 <$eograpbical "Rotes on flDejico.

RELIGION.

All Mexicans are born in the Catholic Church, that being the pre-
vailing religion of the country ; but there is no connection between
Church and State, and the Constitution guarantees the free exercise of
all religions.

While Mexico was a colony of Spain and for many years afterwards,
the catholic religion was the only one allowed in the country, and
anybody professing any other would expose himself to great hardships
if he avowed that he was a dissenter, especially while the Inquisition
was in existence.

The clergy became one of the principal pillars of the Spanish dom-
ination in Mexico. In the early part of the present century the Church
was flourishing, and it was the high-water mark of clerical pros-
perity. The humble Mexican priests did the hard laborious work,
while the Spanish-born ecclesiastics filled the great bishoprics and
other great posts and lived at their ease, and the great convents in
their most lucrative positions of control were practically in Spanish
hands.

Huge convents occupied a considerable part of the site of the
City of Mexico, Puebla, Morelia, Guadalajara, Quere'taro, and other
cities. The incomes of the convents were derived from endowments,
amounting to a large sum. To support the high ecclesiastics, great
sums were derived from tithes. The archbishop of Mexico had an
income of $130,000 a year; the bishops of Puebla, $110,000; of
Michoacan, $100,000 ; and of Guadalajara, $90,000. Meantime, the
parish priests, who bore the brunt of Christian work among the masses,
were living on very moderate sums. The Church erected in Mexico
buildings which are remarkable for their dimensions and taste.1

1 Mr. Charles Dudley Warner in the Editor's Study of Harper's Illustrated
Monthly Magazine for July, 1897, speaks in the following way of the church edifices
in Mexico :

" Somebody of authority, by the way, ought to explain why Mexico has so many
church edifices that go to the heart of the lover of beauty, and why the United States
has so few that are interesting. Aside from the great Gothic monuments in Spain,
Mexico surpasses Spain in interesting ecclesiastical architecture. It has more variety,
more quaint beauty, more originality in towers and fa9ades. The interiors are gener-
ally monotonous, and repetitions of each other. The Spaniards, in an age of faith,
built churches, convents, monasteries, all over the county, in remote and unimportant
Indian villages, and as far north as their patient ministers of religion wandered, even
to the bay of San Francisco. In these edifices the Spanish ingenuity and enthusiasm
prevailed, but they were largely executed by Indian builders and artists ; and if there
is Sarasenic feeling shown, there are also, especially in ornamentation, traces of that
aboriginal artistic spirit which, long before the Spanish conquest, executed both in stone
and in pottery singularly attractive work. Even within a hundred years of our own time
Indian genius has been distinguished. Those who think that this genius is only exhib-

•(Religion* 93

Not all the great dignitaries of the Church exhibited an unchristian
selfishness, for many often spent their income in pious and charitable
works, and in prosecuting missionary undertakings among the Indians
of the remote distances.

The wealth of the Church was loaned out at a moderate rate of in-
terest to landed proprietors, who formed the moral support of the
Church among the laity and whose influence was prodigiously strong.
The wealth of the Church was mostly in mortgages, while it held a
large amount of real estate. In the City of Mexico and other places,
the clergy owned a large portion of the real estate and held a great
many mortages, and, to its credit be it said, was not at all usurious, ex-
acting only a fair rate of interest and being hardly ever oppressive in
dealing with delinquent debtors.

After the Revolution which effected the independence of the
country, the ecclesiastical life began to cease having many of the
attractions it had before. While many men became friars from
genuine inclination and vocation, not a few went into the religious life
because it gave them support without hard labor, and because it was
one of the best careers opened to young men at the time.

The nunneries sheltered a great many pious women, who effected
some good as educators of the young, as almoners for the wealthy, and
as nurses of the sick. There were abuses, of course, but on the whole
the religious life afforded a refuge for many thousands of good women
who felt drawn to works of charity and usefulness. Rich young girls
were often over-persuaded to enter the convents, by avaricious and
scheming priests, but such abuses are common to all religions. The
Liberal party thought that the best way to destroy the Church influence
in Mexico was to suppress convents, both of friars and nuns, because they

ited in bizarre forms, and in such small details of design and color as the potter can
attain, should see at Queretaro the work of Tresguerras, architect, sculptor, and pain-
ter. Any modern architect, who is led away by straining after effect in a grotesque
combination of distinct Greek styles with mediaeval and early English, having no note
of originality anywhere, could study with profit the simple elegance — as simple as the
Old Louvre — of the Bishop's Palace in Queretaro, or the wood-carving in the church
of the sequestered Convent of Santa Rosa. In my remembrance there is not, on such
a great scale, any wood-carving in the world equal to it in freshness and largeness of
execution and in beauty of design. It could not have been all done by the hand of
Tresguerras, but it was all from his designs and under his superintendence. Of course,
as to civic and ecclesiastic architecture, climate and lack of popular taste for the beauti-
ful put limits upon our architectural work, but it is worth the while of the American
architect to consider whether he cannot learn more from our sister republic below the
Tropic of Cancer than he is likely to get from the well-studied structures of Europe.
In many petty and poverty-stricken Indian villages are charming towers and curious
fa£ades which would be a most valuable education in the principles of taste to any
American community."

94 Geograpbtcal Iftotes on

were considered a nest of superstition, and they thought that the best
interest of the country required to close them.

During our civil wars the clergy contributed large amounts to the
support of the conservative governments, which it often established.
It is thought that in 1853, General Santa Anna abandoned the Con-
servative Government, which he then presided over, because the Arch-
bishop of Mexico did not give him all the money he required to carry
on the war waged against him by the Liberal party.

The wealth accumulated by the Church of Mexico was used for the
purpose of supporting the conservative governments, whose policy was
to keep the statu quo, and was therefore opposed to progress of any
kind. The Church became a very prominent factor in politics, and
could upset and establish governments at its pleasure, fomenting
the many revolutions which were constantly breaking out. It was
thought necessary, therefore, to destroy the political power of the
Church before we could establish and maintain peace, and that work
was done by what we call our Laws of Reform, issued in 1859, which
established a complete independence between the Church and the
State, and were intended to completely end the domination of the
Catholic Church in civil affairs in Mexico : the Church property was
confiscated, so that even the houses of worship are now the property
of the government ; all convents of friars and nuns were closed, all
religious ceremonies — such as processions and wearing a distinctive
dress, — were ordered to be confined to the interior of the edifices ;
the cemeteries were secularized, and marriage made exclusively a civil
contract. No religious instruction or ceremony is allowed in the public
schools, and never is a prayer offered as a part of the program of a
national celebration. In an article, which I published in the North
American Review^ of January, 1895, entitled "The Philosophy of the
Mexican Revolutions," I dwelt especially on this subject, and to that
article I refer the reader who may desire more detailed information.

The Liberals were not the first to dispose of the Church property
and revenues, as the Spanish Government, under the rule of Godoy, in
1805 and 1806, to secure funds to form a redemption provision for the
royal vales or credit notes, pounced on the property of the Church in
Mexico, and that, later on, when the Mexicans rose in their war for
independence, the royal authorities took another part of the Church's
wealth to fight the patriots.

The bigoted Catholic element which used to be decidely opposed to
any liberal government and was always conspiring to overthrow it, has
since the downfall of Maximilian, become satisfied that the condi-
tion of things has changed having accordingly changed their course,
and now there are thousands of progressive catholics in Mexico
sincerely devoted to their Church, who see only danger and eventual

•Religion, 95

disastrous defeat in the adoption of a program of reaction. They go
with the times and support the administration of Gen. Diaz because,
on the whole, it suits them, and manifests no hostility to their con-
scientiously held convictions. The pope's influence seems to be
directed to assuaging ancient rancors, and to the calming of passionate
resentments, which is a great deal better for the Church.

Protestantism in Mexico. — The Liberal party proclaimed as an
inherent right of man, freedom of conscience and the free exercise
of one's religion ; but the question was really only a theoretical
one, since excepting a few foreigners, no one in Mexico had any
other religion than the Catholic. The clergy, the Church party,
and all strict Mexican catholics were greatly opposed to the intro-
duction of Protestantism, because protestants were looked upon as
heretics whose purpose was to divide the Mexican people into dif-
ferent sects, disturbing their religious unity, which they considered a
source of national strength, and ultimately aiding in what some
Mexicans fear is the aim of this country, that is : the final absorption of
Mexico. When the struggles between the Liberal and the Church
party terminated in favor of the former in 1867, with the withdrawl of
the French army from Mexico and the downfall of Maximilian, the
time came to put into practice the principles of the Liberal creed, and
protestant organizations in the United States sent missionaries to
Mexico for the purpose of establishing and propagating the protestant
religion there. The Mexican Government could not refuse to allow
the missionaries the free exercise of the Protestant or any other faith,
because that right was guaranteed to all men in our constitution, and
also because it has been a principle for which the Liberal party had
been contending during many years.

But we went, then, further than allowing the Protestants the free ex-
ercise and preaching of their religion, and as I am in a measure respon-
sible for that step, I think it proper to give my reasons for the same.
My opinion has never been favorable to missionary work, because al-
though I recognize that some religions have higher moral principles than
others, I think that on the whole they are all intended to accomplish the
same purpose, that all are good, when practised in good faith. It has
always seemed to me that Christian missionaries sent to heathen
countries would be looked upon in the same manner as would be
heathen missionaries sent to Christian countries. But even supposing
that it should be proper and desirable for the Christian religion, on
account of its high morals and principles, to send missionaries to
heathen countries for the purpose of converting them to Christianity,
that principle would scaracely hold good in Christian countries of
different denominations, and Catholicism is a Christian religion — what-
ever abuses it may have committed, — and I think the natural tendency

96 Oeoarapbical wotes on

of all religions when they are predominant is to absorb and misuse
power ; but that Protestants should send missionaries to a Catholic
country seems to me inconsistent. In principle, therefore, Mexico is
hardly the proper field for Protestant missionaries, notwithstanding
that there is a great deal of room for improvement there, in so far as
religious matters are concerned.

After having witnessed the terrible consequences of religious intol-
erance and political domination of the Catholic Church in Mexico,
I was of course greatly impressed with the condition of things existing
in the United States, where all religions are tolerated and none attempts
to control the political destinies of the country. I thought that one of
the best ways to diminish the evils of the political domination and
abuses of the clergy in Mexico was to favor the establishment of other
sects, which would come in some measure into competition with the
Catholic clergy and thus serve to cause it to refrain from excesses
of which it had been guilty before. When, after having lived for
ten years in the United States, from 1859 to 1868, I returned to
Mexico and took charge of the Treasury Department there, just at
the time when the religious question was being solved, I, therefore,
favored the establishment of a Protestant community as planned by
Mr. Henry C. Riley, since made a Bishop, a gentleman of English
parentage, born in Chili, who had been educated in London and New
York and was graduated with high honors at Columbia College, New
York, who spoke equally well English and Spanish, and eagerly desired
to establish a Mexican National Church in competition with the Roman
Catholic, in which undertaking, I understand, he used his own funds.
He proposed to buy one of the finest churches, the main church of the
Franciscan convent, which had been built by the Spaniards, located in
the best section of the City of Mexico, and which could not now be
duplicated but for a very large amount of money ; and with the hearty
support of President Juarez, who shared my views and who was perhaps
a great deal more radical than I was myself on such subjects, I sold
the building which had become national property after the confiscation
of the Church property, for a mere trifle, if I remember rightly about
$4000, most of that amount being paid in Government bonds which
were then at a nominal price.

The magnificent building sold to Dr. Riley's community was bought
recently by the Catholic Church to restore it as a Catholic temple, for
the sum of $100,000, as I understand. My assistance was rendered to
the Protestant cause for the reasons that I have stated, and not because
I had adopted the Protestant faith ; therefore the action of the Mexi-
can Government in the matter at the time I speak of, was all the more
praiseworthy. Dr. Butler bought about the same time another part of
the same convent of San Francisco, where he established a Methodist
Church in a very creditable building.

97

It is true that a great many Mexicans, namely the Indians, do not
know much about religion and keep to their old idolatry, having changed
only their idols, that is, replaced their old deities with the images of the
Saints of the Catholic Church, but it would be difficult for the Protest-
ant missionaries to reach them. The Spaniards labored zealously to
make the natives adopt the Catholic religion, and although they suc-
ceeded wonderfully, it was a task too difficult to fully accomplish in the
three centuries of the Spanish domination in Mexico.

I do not think that the American Protestant missionaries in Mexico
have made much progress, and I doubt very much whether Mexico is
a good field for them ; but they are satisfied with their work, and they
think that under the circumstances, they have made very good progress.

The number of Catholic churches and chapels in the country was,
in 1889, 10,112, while the number of Protestant places of worship was
119. On August 12, 1890, there were in the municipality of Mexico
320,143 Catholics and 2623 Protestants.

The American missionaries, and especially Dr. Riley, whom I con-
sider a very benevolent and unselfish man, have established Protestant
schools and asylums for children, spending considerable money in main-
taining such institutions. Of course poor parents were glad to send
their children to the Protestant schools and asylums when they could
not afford to keep them at home or send them to more desirable places,
and these Protestant institutions were of a very benevolent character
and worthy, therefore, to be encouraged. Parents in such cases de-
clared themselves to be partial to Protestantism, but only for the sake
of having their children accepted in the Protestant schools and asylums,
and this made the Protestants think they were making a great many
converts.

Now and then a Catholic priest would renounce Catholicism and
accept Protestantism, and such occurrences were always considered as
great triumphs for the Protestant cause, but although in some instances
such changes have been made in good faith, in others they were made
for selfish purposes, and they never had any great weight with the
community.

I have no prejudice against Protestantism ; on the contrary, I ad-
mire greatly many of its principles, and in speaking on this subject I
consider myself perfectly impartial and unbiassed.

In February, 1888, the Evangelical Assembly, representing the vari-
ous Protestant denominations and Evangelical Societies conducting
missionary operations in the Republic of Mexico, was held in the City
of Mexico. They claimed that, notwithstanding the difficulties of
language and climate and the other obstacles with which they had to
contend, they found that they had over 600 congregations, 192 foreign
and 585 native workers, over 7000 in the day schools, and about 10,000

7

98 (Beoarapbical motes on

in the Sunday-schools, 18,000 communicants and a Protestant commu-
nity of over 60,000 souls. Ten small publishing-houses are turning out
millions of pages each year, and their church property is valued at
nearly a million and a quarter dollars in silver.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION.

Mexico was the largest and richest American colony of Spain, and
for this reason it was called New Spain. The City of Mexico grew
during the Spanish rule to be larger than Madrid, the capital of the
Spanish Kingdom, the population of the country being estimated in
1810, just before the independence movement began, at 6,122,354-
while the public revenue of the whole colony amounted to the very
large sum of $20,000,000 yearly, the only exports of the country
being silver and gold, and commodities of great value in small volume
and weight, such as cochineal, vanilla, indigo, and a few others.

Mexico, accomplished her independence in 1821, and since then
has had two Federal Constitutions, both modelled after the Constitu-
tion of the United States ; two Central Constitutions, which organized
the country into a centralized republic, and two ephemeral empires,
one under Iturbide, lasting ten months, from 1822 to 1823, and the
other under Maximilian, established by French intervention, lasting
from 1864 to 1867.

Mexico is now organized, under the Constitution of the 5th of
February, 1857, with its several amendments, into a Federal Republic,
composed of twenty-seven states, two territories, and a federal district,
and the political organization is almost identical with that of this
country. The powers of the Federal Government are divided into
three branches — Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. The Legislative
is composed of a House of Representatives and a Senate ; the mem-
bers of the House are elected for two years and the senators for four,
the Senate being renewed by half every two years. Representatives
are elected by the suffrage of all male aduks, at the rate of one mem-
ber for every 40,000 inhabitants. The qualifications requisite are to
be at least twenty-five years of age and a resident of the State ; and for
senators thirty years.

The Executive is exercised by a President elected by the electors
popularly chosen, who holds his office for four years, without any
provision forbidding his re-election. He has a cabinet of seven mem-
bers, namely : Secretary of Foreign Affairs, of the Interior, of Justice
and Public Instruction, of Fomento, which means promotion of Pub-
lic Improvements, and includes public lands, patents, and coloniza-
tion ; of Communications and Public Works, of the Treasury, and
of War and Navy. No Vice-President IK elected, but by an amend-
ment to our Constitution, promulgated April 24, 1896, in the per-

Political ©roanisation. 99

manent or temporary disability of the President, not caused by
resignation or by leave, the Secretary of State, and after him the Secre-
tary of the Interior, shall exercise that office until Congress elects a
President pro tempore. In case of resignation, Congress, accepting it,
elects a President pro tempore, and in case of leave the President re-
commends to Congress the person to fill that office.

The Federal Judiciary is composed of a Supreme Court, consisting
of eleven Judges, four substitutes, one Attorney- General, and one Fis-
cal, chosen for six years; three Circuit and thirty- two District Courts.

The States are independent in their domestic affairs, and their
governments are similarly divided into three branches : the Governor,
the Legislature, and the State Judiciary.

As we adopted the federal system rather to follow the example of
the United States than to suit the conditions of Mexico, that system
did not work with us so easily or so satisfactorily as it works here ;
and the tendency is rather to centralization and to the increasing of
the powers given by the Constitution to the Federal Government. . In
the article above mentioned published in the North American Review,
for January, 1896, entitled, "The Philosophy of the Mexican Revo-
lutions," 1 I dwelt particularly on the results of our having copied al-
most literally the political institutions of the United States, and gave a
general idea of our political condition.

Political Division. — When the federal system was established in
Mexico, in 1824, each of the old provinces under the Spanish rule was
organized as a State, and our Constitution of October 4, 1824, enumer-
ated nineteen States. After the war with the United States we lost
Texas, New Mexico, and California ; but since then as I stated in
the chapter on population some of the larger States have been divided
into two, or even three States, as was the case with the old State of
Mexico, out of which were formed the three present States of Mexico,
Hidalgo, and Morelos. Our present Constitution, of February 5, 1857,
enumerates twenty-four States ; but we now have twenty-seven.

The tabular statement published above, under the head of " Popu-
lation," shows the number of States which form the Mexican Con-
federation, their area, population, and capital cities.

Army and Navy. — During our civil wars, and for some time later,
we had to keep a very large standing army, and our army acquired re-
cently a very high degree of discipline and efficiency. The Liberal party
always favored the reduction of the army, while the Church party
favored a large army, as our old regular army, on the whole, took sides
with the Church. Soon after the restoration of the Republic, in 1867,
the Mexican army consisted of : Infantry, 22,964 ; engineers, 766 ; ar-

1 This article will appear in this volume under the head of " Historical Notes on
Mexico."

ioo 6eo0rapbfcal IRotes on

tillery, 2304 ; cavalry, 8454 ; rural guards of police, 2365 ; gendarmerie,
250 ; total, 37,103 ; and was commanded by n Major-Generals, 73
Brigadier-Generals, 1041 Colonels, Lieutenant-Colonels, and Majors,
and 2335 Commissioned Officers. The total righting strength, including
reserves, is stated to be 132,000 infantry, 25,000 cavalry, and 8000
artillery. Every Mexican capable of carrying arms is liable for mili-
tary service from his twentieth to his fiftieth year.

Notwithstanding that General Diaz is himself a soldier, he has fol-
lowed the policy of the Liberal party of reducing the army as much as
possible, and in his report of November 30, 1896, in which he informs
his fellow citizens of his results of his sixteen years administration, he
gives the following figures, showing the reduction he has been able to
accomplish in the army since 1888 :

The army had, in 1888, according to President Diaz's report, the
following personnel :

Major-Generals 16

Brigadier-Generals 84

Commissioned Officers 1,205

Non-Commissioned Officers 2,566

Soldiers 29,367

Total 33,238

In 1896 the personnel had been reduced in the following numbers :

Generals 24

Commissioned Officers 166

Non-Commissioned Officers 299

Soldiers 8,170

Total 8,659

The Mexican navy is now in its inception, as it consists of a fleet of
two dispatch vessels, launched 1874, each of 425 tons and 425 horse-
power, and severally armed with a four-ton muzzle-loading gun, and
four small breech-loaders. A steel training ship, the Zaragoza, of
1 200 tons, was built at Havre, in 1891 ; four gun-boats are building,
and a battle-ship and cruiser are projected ; five first-class torpedo-
boats have been ordered in England. The fleet is manned by ninety
officers and five hundred men.

EDUCATION.

In 1521, the City of Mexico fell into the hands of the conquering
Spaniards, and exactly eight years after that event there was established
in the City of Mexico the College of San Juan de Letran, for giving
secondary education to intelligent Indians as well as to the sons of the

jEfcucation, 101

invading race. Thus, ninety years before the landing of the Pilgrims,
the City of Mexico had its " Harvard."

Universities Established by the Spanish Government. — The first vice-
roy of New Spain, as Mexico was called then, fourteen years after
the conquest, petitioned the King of Spain to permit him to found
a university in Mexico, and, anticipating from his knowledge of the
good-will of the Spanish-rulers that the desired permission would
be given, the viceroy took the responsibility of establishing certain
classes in the higher learning, a fact which does not support the
commonly held theory that Spain has always been the enemy of edu-
cation and of popular enlightenment. Owing to the slow means of
communication in those days, and the legal steps necessary to be
taken in the mother country, the university was not formally established
until 1553, or eighty-three years before Harvard College was opened.
The great event of setting on foot the university came under the
enlightened rule of the second viceroy, Don Luis de Velasco, who
did so many great things for Spain's new dependency.

Later on, in 1573, there were founded in Mexico the colleges of
San Gregorio and San Ildefonso, the latter still open, but modernized
into the national preparatory school, a really great institution in that
city of many schools. A few years later, long before the i;th century
had dawned, came the founding of two more colleges and a divinity
school, so that in the first sixty-five years of Spain's control in Mexico
no less than seven seats of the higher learning had been established on
secure foundations.

No wonder that Mexico's capital became known as the Athens of
the new world, producing men of great learning, such as Don Juan
Ruiz de Alarcon and such notably erudite women as Juana Inez de la
Cruz. The extensive library of " Americana," belonging to Don Jose de
Agreda, of that city, containing over 4000 books, many of them invalu-
able, attests the literary, antiquarian, scientific and artistic activity of
the Spaniards who planted there in a short space of time so much of
learning and such vast institutions dedicated to the instruction in all
the higher branches of knowledge.

At the outset the University of Mexico gave instruction only in
mathematics, Latin and the arts. Medicine and surgery were not
esteemed highly during the middle ages, and it was not until long after
the revival of learning in the Renaissance that the physician came to
be considered as a true man of science. So it is not to be marvelled
at that the University of Mexico waited until 1578 to establish a chair
of medicine — the first in the new world discovered by Columbus. The
first chair of medicine was a morning class, and a single professor
carried his students through a four years' course unaided. In 1599, a
second medical professorship was added ; in 1661, anatomy and surgery

102 Geocjrapbtcal iRotes on

were added, and, consequently dissection was authorized. At the
outset the viceroys appointed the professors, but after a time the
candidates for chairs had to win the coveted prizes through competitive
examinations.

The early students were not railroaded through. They had to study
four years to obtain the diploma of a bachelor of medicine ; then
went out into active life, and, on gaining practical knowledge, received,
passing a fresh examination, the diploma of licentiate of medicine, and,
later, that of doctor of medicine.

School of Medicine. — In 1768 a decree was issued for the establish-
ment in the City of Mexico of a royal college for surgeons, similar to
institutions in Cadiz and Barcelona. This college was a very com-
plete one, instruction being given in anatomy and dissection, in
physiology, operations, clinical surgery, and medical jurisprudence.
There were graduated also from the college all the dentists, bone-
setters, phlebotomists, and midwives. A knowledge of Latin was not
essential to receive a medical degree until 1803.

In 1821, Mexico having achieved her independence, the same care-
ful watch over education continued, and in 1833 a general revision of
educational institutions was ordered under the administration of Don
Valentin Gomez Farias a leader of the Liberal party and the univer-
sity was closed, because it was considered to have conservative tend-
encies, and a general board of education organized, which, among other
things established what was called the School of Medical Science, with
ten professors, giving a remarkably complete and modern course. On
account of a revolution which occurred in 1834 which overthrew the
Gomez Farias Government, the new school of medicine was closed,
and the old university reopened ; but, as the officials of the university,
on making a careful study of the conditons of the new school of
medicine rendered an impartial report, setting forth its manifold ad-
vantages it was decided to keep open the institution.

The incessant revolutions and consequent changes of government
brought many evil things to pass, and the medical professors at times
found themselves without salaries, and nobly devoted themselves to
their classes without remuneration. They at one time were deprived
of their building and literally thrown into the street. Better times
came, however, the successive governments began to give substantial
aid to the school, and in 1845 ^ to°k the name it still bears, the
National School of Medicine. After more vicissitudes, many movings
and trials which bore hard on the enthusiastic professors, the National
School of Medicine finally was located where it now remains, in a
part of the enormous edifice belonging formerly to the Inquisition.

In the chaos of succeeding revolutions the salaries of the professors
were often unpaid, but the devoted men of science struggled on,

lEfcucatfon* 103

assisted by wealthier students and contributing often out of their own
slender means to keep the school alive ; but, in 1857, a better era
commenced, and not since then, with rare exceptions, have there been
any interruptions in financial aid from the various governments. All
the other institutions of learning suffered the same fate and were ex-
posed to similar ups and downs.

School of Engineering. — Our mining college is the best in Spanish
America, and it was established when engineering was hardly taught,
and endowed by a portion of the taxes levied by the Spanish Govern-
ment on mines. Its edifice is one of the best built by the Spaniards
in their colonies, and still stands as a great monument, embellishing
the City of Mexico.

The above given facts will show how early did Mexico open
great schools for the higher education, and how solicitous was the
Spanish government to maintain them. But, three centuries of devo-
tion to learning, antedating the war for independence, planted there
firmly a love of knowledge which is now exhibited in the great
government schools, in a city full of students, in innumerable pri-
vate schools, in the well-filled public primary institutions, in night
schools for adults, and in the thirty-five bookstores of that city.

Mexican Technical Schools in the Present Time. — The edifice of
the first University in America, founded by the Spanish crown in
1551, is to-day occupied by the National Conservatory of Music.
The National Academy of Art, ancient Academy of San Carlos,
stands where Fray Pedro de Gante founded, in 1524, the first school
of the New World — a school for Indians. The Normal School for
males, with its six hundred pupils and its first-class German equip-
ment, occupies the old convent of Santa Teresa, (1678). The Normal
School for females has fourteen hundred pupils, an expensive building
of 1648. The fine old Jesuit College of San Ildefonso, erected in 1749
at a cost of $400,000 is now filled with a thousand pupils of the
National Preparatory School. The National College of Medicine is
housed in the old home of the Inquisition (1732), an edifice whose four
hanging arches at each corner of the lower corridor are famous. The
building was taken for its present purpose in this century, the Holy
Office dying in America with the Independence, but the medical col-
lege was established by royal decree of 1768. It has now several
hundred pupils. San Lorenzo (1598) is now the manual training-
school where poor boys are gratuitously taught lithography, engrav-
ing, printing, carpentry, and many other trades. The similar institution
for girls is of course modern, dating only from 1874. The National
Library, with its 200,000 volumes, dwells in the splendid sequestered
Church of San Agustin. The National Museum occupies part of the
million-dollar building erected in 1731 for the royal mint. And so on

io4 6eo0rapbical motes on flDejico.

through a list that would rival that of any other country. The School
of Mines and Engineering, however, stands as one of the first. Its
magnificent building of Chiluca, the nearest to granite the valley affords,
was built for it by Tolsa in 1793, and cost three millions. The institu-
tion named the Colegio de la Paz, better known as the Vizcainas is one
of the principal establishments for the education of young women,
founded in 1734, at a cost for construction alone of about $2,000,000,
subscribed by three Spanish merchants, who also provided funds for
its support. These funds, when insufficient to meet expenses, are sup-
plemented by the Federal Government. We have also a very high
grade Military School located at the historical grounds of Chapulte-
pec, which educates fine soldiers.

As late as 1824 Humboldt declared, " No city of the New Con-
tinent, not excepting those of the United States, presents scientific
establishments so great and solid as those of the capital of Mexico.'*
Except as to the buildings, of course, so much could not be said to-
day, as wealth and numbers have made other countries take more
rapid strides in higher education. Some of the universities of the
United States pay even $10,000 a year to professors and they there-
fore can secure the best talent.

From the time of the Spanish domination in Mexico to but a few
years ago, the Mexican Government considered itself bound to give to
the people free secondary education, and for this purpose colleges for
all literary and scientific professions were established in the City of
Mexico, and each State did the same in its respective capital, in so
far as its means allowed it, so that anybody who intended to follow a
scientific career could do so without any expense to himself.

The result of the free technical schools has been that most of the
young men of well-to-do families in Mexico follow a literary career
and that does not cost them anything, and we have more lawyers,
doctors, engineers than we really need for the country.

Reorganization of the Technical Colleges. — We had before 1868 sev-
eral higher colleges and in each of them the same careers were taught,
as law, medicine, engineering, etc., but in the reorganization of our
national colleges which took place in that year, it was thought proper
to establish a special college for each career, and a preparatory col-
lege for such elementary studies as would be required for all careers,
such as elementary mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc., etc., so that
we now have in the City of Mexico, supported by the Federal Govern-
ment a special school for engineering, one for law, one for medicine,
another for agriculture, etc., etc., but each State generally supports
one technical college where all literary careers are taught.

Primary Education. — Comparatively little attention was paid to the
primary education, and the public schools were so deficient that

105

parents of some means did not send their children to them, but to
private schools where they were better attended to. The fact that the
elevation of the people depends on their primary education has caused
common schools to be established in the country, and now the States
vie with each other for the purpose of establishing the best system of
common schools and increasing their number.

The Mexican Government has been too much disturbed since its
independence to earnestly promote the education of the Indians. I
consider that one of the first duties of Mexico is to educate the large
number of Indians which we have, and when that is accomplished the
whole condition of the country will change, as it will be able in a few
years to increase by several millions its productive and consuming
population.

In 1896 the Federal Congress of Mexico passed a law which was
promulgated on June 3d of that year, making primary education obliga-
tory on all the inhabitants of the Federal District and Territories, and
placing public education under the control of the Federal Government,
having been before under the respective municipalities.

In almost all the States education is free and compulsory, but the law
has not been strictly enforced. Primary instruction is mostly at the ex-
pense of the municipalities, but the Federal Government makes frequent
grants, and many schools are under the care of the beneficent societies.

School Statistics. — Statistical reports on public instruction for 1876
showed an aggregate of 8165 primary schools, with an attendance of
368,754 children of both sexes throughout the Republic. Reports for
1895 show a total number of public schools for both sexes through-
out the Republic amounting to 10,915, in which are instructed 722,435
scholars, at an aggregate cost of $5,455,549-6o. The proportion of
children of both sexes attending the school is, with respect to the
general population, nearly five per cent., and that of the children of
school age, actually attending school about 27 per cent, with an aver-
age yearly outlay per capita of $7.55. The entire number of private
schools for both sexes, including those supported by religious and civil
associations, is 2585, with a total attendance of 81,221. Adding these
to the preceding figures we have an aggregate of 13,500 schools with
an attendance of 803,656 scholars. The number of schools in the
country for professional technical education is 136, attended by 16,809
pupils of both sexes.

In the Federal District there are 454 public primary schools with
an attendance of 44,776 pupils, and 247 private schools with an attend-
ance of 19,334 pupils. In the matter of education Mexico now stands
upon a plane as high, if not higher, than any of the Spanish American
Republics, out-ranking even Chili and the Argentine Republic, both
of which greatly surpassed her in former years.

io6 Geoarapbical IRotes on /IDejico.

The statistical part of this paper will contain detailed information
about the number of schools established in each State, their cost, etc.,
during the year 1895, which complements the information embraced
in this chapter.

Libraries. — Many great and noteworthy public and private libraries
attest the ineradicable love of learning characteristic of the Mexican
people. In 1894 there were in the Republic the National Library, with
200,000 volumes, and 102 other public libraries. There were in that
year 22 museums for scientific and educational purposes, and 3 meteo-
rological observatories. Our National Library at the City of Mexico
collected all the books possessed by the libraries of the different con-
vents when they were suppressed by the National Government, and
has therefore a very large number of rare and valuable books.

Newspapers. — The number of newspapers published was 363, of
which 94 are published in the capital : 4 in English, 2 in French, and i
in German, showing that the Press has not attained there the great de-
velopment that it has in this country.

THE VALLEY OF MEXICO.

The Valley of Mexico is one of the finest spots in the world. Sur-
rounded by high mountains — almost at the foot of the two highest in
the country, Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl — with a very rare and clear
atmosphere and a beautiful blue sky, especially after a rain ; it is really
a centre of magnificent scenery. The rareness of the atmosphere
makes distant objects appear to be very near, and when looking from
the City of Mexico at the mountains which surround the Valley, one
imagines that they are at the end of the City, while some of them are
at a distance of forty miles. The view of the Valley from Chapultepec
Hill, which is about one hundred and fifty feet high and distant about
three miles from the City, towards its western extremity, where our
military school now is and where the President has made his summer
residence, is one of the most beautiful with which the earth is endowed.
I have seen the Bosphorus, Constantinople, the Bay of Naples and other
spots in the world which are considered to be most remarkable for their
natural beauty, but T think the view of the Valley of Mexico from
Chapultepec can be advantageously compared with any of them, if it
does not excel them all.

Six lakes are within the limits of the Valley, — Chalco, Zochimilco,
Texcoco, Xaltocan, San Cristobal, and Zupango, the two former being
of fresh water and the others of salt water — and, as they have no
natural outlet the City of Mexico has been deprived for some time of
a proper drainage and its health has been affected very materially
thereby. But the colossal undertaking of making an artificial outlet is

ttbe Cit^ of Aegfco. 107

now practically finished. In an article which I published in the
Engineering Magazine in January, 1895, I dwelt especially on the work
done during four centuries to accomplish that great end.1

The prevailing wind in the Valley of Mexico is northwest and
north-northwest, which blew 250 times during the year 1883 ; while
the southern winds, which are very dry, are rare, as they only blew 5 1
times in that year ; but at the same time they have greater velocity
than the others, and the greatest relative velocity of the winds is 3.0.
The west and northwest winds are very damp.

At the present stage of industrial development, speaking especially
of the Valley of Mexico, the question of a cheaper combustible is the
one of supreme importance. In the absence of water-power of im-
portance and permanence of volume, the only solution of the problem
so vital to the growth of manufactures there lies in procuring abundant
and cheap fuel.

THE CITY OF MEXICO.

The City of Mexico, located in the western end of the valley, on
the Anahuac plateau, at an altitude of 7350 feet above the sea level in
19° 26' north latitude and 99° 07' 53* .4 longitude west of Greenwich,
covering about twenty square miles, is one of the most ancient cities
of this continent, was the capital of the Aztec Empire, of the Spanish
Colony of New Spain and now of the Mexican Republic, and of the
Federal District of Mexico.

Mexico dates either from the year 1325 or 1327, when the Aztecs,
after long wanderings over the plateau were directed by the oracle to
settle at this spot. For here had been witnessed the auspicious omen
of an eagle perched on a nopal (cactus) and devouring a snake. Hence
the original name of the city, Tenochtitlan (cactus on a stone), changed
afterwards to Mexico in honor of the war god Mexitli. The eagle
holding a snake in her beak and standing on a cactus upon a stone, is
the coat-of-arms of the Mexican Republic. With the progress of the
Aztec culture the place rapidly improved, and about 1450 the old mud
and rush houses were replaced by solid stone structures, erected partly
on piles amid the islets of Lake Texcoco, and grouped around the cen-
tral enclosure of the great teocalli. The city had reached its highest
splendor on the arrival of the Spaniards in 1519, when it comprised
from 50,000 to 60,000 houses, with perhaps 500,000 inhabitants, and
seemed to Cortes, according to Prescott's, " like a thing of fairy crea-
tion rather than the work of mortal hands." It was at that time
about T2 miles in circumference, everywhere intersected by canals,
and connected with the mainland by six long and solidly constructed
causeways, as is clearly shown by the plan given in the edition of

1 That article is appended to this paper.

io8 <3eoarapbfcal motes on

Cortes's letters published at Nuremberg in 15 24.' After its almost
destruction in November, 1521, Cortes employed some 400,000 natives
in rebuilding it on the same site ; but since then the lake seems to
have considerably subsided, for although still 50 square miles in extent,
it is very shallow and has retired two and a half miles from the city.

During the Spanish rule the chief event was the revolt in 1692^
when the municipal buildings were destroyed. Since then Mexico has
been the scene of many revolutions, was captured by the United States
Army after the battle of Chapultepec, on September 13, 1847, and by
the French Army under Marshall Forey in 1863. But since the over-
throw of Maximilian, and the French Intervention in 1867, peace has
been established and it has become a great centre of civilizing in-
fluences for the surrounding peoples.

The City of Mexico is 263 miles by rail from Veracruz on the
Atlantic, 290 from Acapulco on the Pacific, 285 from Oaxaca, 863
from Matamoros on the frontier with the United States, and 1224 miles
from El Paso. Mexico is the largest and finest city in Spanish America,
and at one time larger than Madrid, the capital of Spain, forming a
square of nearly 3 miles both ways, and laid out with perfect regu-
larity, all its six hundred streets and lanes running at right angles
north to south and east to west, and covering within the walls an area
of about ten square miles, with a population now of 539,935.

The present City of Mexico is almost twice as large as the old one, it
having increased towards the northwest, and, strange to say, the new
portion is not laid out as regularly as the old one. All the main
thoroughfares converge on the central Plaza de Armas, or Main
Square, which covers 14 acres, and is tastefully laid out with shady
trees, garden plots, marble fountains, and seats. Here also are grouped
most of the public buildings, towering above which is the Cathedral,
the largest and most sumptuous church in America, which stands on
the north side of the plaza on the site of the great pyramidal teocalli
or temple of Huitzilopochtli, titular god of the Aztecs. This church,
which was founded in 1573 and finished in 1657, at a cost of $2,000,-
ooo, for the walls alone, forms a Greek cross, 426 feet long and 203 feet
wide, with two great naves and three aisles, twenty side chapels, and a
magnificent high altar supported by marble columns, and surrounded
by a tumbago balustrade with sixty-two statues of the same rich gold,
silver, and copper alloy serving as candelabra. The elaborately carved
choir was also enclosed by tumbago railings made in Macao, weighing
twenty-six tons, and valued at about $1,500,000. In the interior, the
Doric style prevails, and Renaissance in the exterior, which is adorned
by five domes and two open towers 218 feet high. At the foot of the

1 Reproduced in vol. iv. of H. H. Bancroft's History of the Pacific States, San-
Francisco, 1833, p. 280.

Ube Cft^ of jfl&esiox 109

left tower was placed the famous calendar stone, the most interesting
relic of Aztec culture, which is now at the National Museum.

The east side of the plaza, is occupied by the old vice-regal resi-
dence, now the National Palace, with 675 feet frontage, containing
most of the Government offices, ministerial, cabinet, treasury, military
headquarters, archives, meteorological department with observatory,
and the spacious halls of ambassadors, with some remarkable paintings
by Miranda and native artists. North of the National Palace, and
forming portions of it, are the post-office and the national museum of
natural history and antiquities, with a priceless collection of Mexican
relics.

Close to the cathedral stands the Monte de Piedad, or national
pawnshop, a useful institution, endowed in 1744 by Don Manuel
Romero de Terreros with $375,000, and now possessing nearly $10,-
000,000 of accumulated funds. Facing the cathedral is the Palacio
Municipal, or City Hall, 252 feet by 122, rebuilt in 1792 at a cost of
$150,000, and containing the city and district offices, and the mer-
chant's exchange.

Around the Plaza San Domingo were grouped the convent of that
name, which contained vast treasures buried within its walls, the old
inquisition, now the school of medicine, and for some time the Custom
House, which has now been removed to the city boundary. In the
same neighborhood are the Church of the Jesuits and the School of
Arts, which is, in the language of Brocklehurst, " an immense work-
shop, including iron and brass foundries, carriage and cart mending,
building and masonry, various branches of joinery and upholstery
work, and silk and cotton hand-weaving."

Other noteworthy buildings are the national picture gallery of San
Carlos, the finest in America, in which the Florentine and Flemish
schools are well represented, and which contains the famous Las Casas,
by Felix Parra ; the national library of St. Augustine, with over 200-
ooo volumes, numerous MSS., and many rare old Spanish books ; the
mint,1 which since 1690 has issued coinage, chiefly silver, to the amount
of nearly $3,000,000,000 ; the Iturbide Hotel, formerly the residence of
the Emperor Iturbide ; the Mineria, or schools of mines, with lecture-
rooms, laboratories, rich mineralogical and geological specimens, and
a fossil horse, three feet high, of the Pleistocene period.

1 The Spanish Government intended during last century to build a spacious,
costly, and magnificent mint in the City of Mexico, and its plans and specifications
were approved by the king, but by a mistake of the clerks in Madrid, they were
forwarded to Santiago, Chili, instead of being sent to the City of Mexico, and it was in
consequence built there. The building was so fine that, not having any mint at
Santiago, it was used as the Government House, and it is now the Executive Mansion
.and Departments, and it is called " La Moneda," an abbreviation of "La Casa de
Moneda," which is the Spanish name for mint.

no 6eo0rapbfcal IRotes on /iDejico,

Among the twenty scientific institutes, mention should be made of
the Geographical and Statistical Society, whose meteorological depart-
ment issues charts and maps of unsurpassed excellence.

Owing to the spongy nature of the soil, the Mineria and many
other structures have settled out of the perpendicular, thus often pre-
senting irregular lines and a rickety appearance.

Before 1860 half of the city consisted of churches, convents, and
other ecclesiastical structures, most of which have been sequestrated
and converted into libraries, stores, warehouses, hotels, and even
stables, or pulled down for civic improvements. Nevertheless there
still remain fourteen parish and thirty other churches, some of large
size, with towers and domes. San Francisco Street is the leading
thoroughfare, and is rivalled in splendor only by the new Cinco de
Mayo Street, running from the National Theatre to the cathedral.

It would take a great deal more space than it is convenient to give
in this paper, should I attempt to make a longer description of the City
of Mexico which, being one of the oldest on this continent and the
largest and principal one during the three centuries of the Spanish
rule, it has quite a number of remarkable buildings and monuments
and a very important history, a great deal of romance being connected
with it.

The City of Mexico is not only the capital of the country, but the
real head of the Republic ; and the aim of all other Mexican cities is
to follow in its footsteps and imitate as much as possible the City of
Mexico, which to them is a beau ideal and a real paradise.

The City of Mexico is now literally encircled with a belt of fac-
tories— cotton, paper, linen, etc., packing houses, brick works, cork
factories, soap works, etc., and cheaper fuel will add largely to their
number. They have been able to show profits under the load of a dear
combustible, and they will welcome the introduction of any fuel, which
will enable them to work even more successfully.

Climate. — From the official reports of Professor Mariano Barcena,
Director of the National Meteorological Observatory of the City of
Mexico, of the weather conditions in 1895, it appears that there were
121 cloudy days. But the rains were mostly at night or late in the
afternoon, of short duration, and immediately succeeded by sunshine
showers. Long periods of rainy weather are unknown there. The
total rainfall for the year, less than twenty inches, will convey a fair
idea of the dryness of the climate. The mean temperature in the shade
for 1895 was 60 degrees, the highest being 65, reached in April, and
the lowest 53, in January, a temperature rather which avoids both
extremities. The mean temperature for the summer months were :
June, 64 degrees ; July, 62 ; August, 62 ; September, 61.

The table on page 112, prepared by the Weather Bureau of the City

Ube City of /IDejico. m

of Mexico, contains the average annual climatological data of that city
from the years 1877 to 1895.

More detailed data about the climatological conditions of the City
of Mexico during the year 1896, prepared also by our Weather Bureau,
is appended on page 113.

Mortality in the City of Mexico. — During the year 1896 the total
mortality in the City of Mexico, under a recorded population of 330,698,
was 15,567, not including 1275 still-births, equivalent to 4.70 percent.
The principal diseases which caused that mortality were those affecting

1 A BRIEF HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE METEOROLOGY IN THE MEXICAN REPUBLIC.

Priest Jose Antonio Alzate stands in the first place among those who have culti-
vated the meteorological science in our country, being he who first devoted himself to
its study, and made regular observations during more than eight years, as he himself
says in his De scripdon topogrdfica de Mexico (1738 to 1799). Of these observations, he,
unfortunately, only published those belonging to the last nine months of the year 1769,
in his famous Gaceta de Literatura de Mexico, 1788 to 1795. He also published many
articles describing some phenomena and instruments, climates of towns, value and
usefulness of observations, as he had done in others of his publications : Diario Liter-
ario de Mexico, 1768 ; Asuntos varios sobre Ciencias y Artes, 1772 to 1773 ; and Ob-
servadones sobre la Fisica Historia Natural y Artes litiles^ 1787. He was the first in
determining the height of the City of Mexico.

After these labors of Father Alzate, we find in the journal El Sol regular series
of observations published, daily, from the I4th of June, 1824, to the I4th of January,
1828. Dr. John Burkart in 1826 ; Sr. Francisco Gerolt from 1833 to 1834, at the
School of Mines ; Sr. Jose Gomez de la Cortina, Conde de la Cortina, from 1841 to
1845 ; the members of the Geographical Section of the Army Staff from 1842 to 1843 »
the Astronomer Sr. Francisco Jimenez in 1858 ; the School of Mines in the years
1850, 1856, 1857, and 1858; Sr. Ignacio Cornejo, M.E., at the same school from
1865 to 1866 ; and Sr. Juan de Mier y Teran at the " Escuela Preparatoria " from
1868 to 1875, respectively, made some meteorological observations.

A series of observations from 1855 to 1875 were made at the Hacienda de San
Nicolas Buenavista, and another one at the city of Cordoba from 1859 to J863, by
Dr. Jose Apolinario Nieto ; Sr. Carlos Sartorius at the Hacienda del Mirador (State
of Veracruz) ; Sr. Miguel Velazquez de Leon, and his sons, Joaquin and Luis, engi-
neers, from 1869 up to the present, at the Hacienda del Pabellon ; Sr. Gregorio Bar-
reto from 1869 to 1880, at the city of Colima; General Mariano Reyes, Sr. Jose
Maria Romero, engineer, and Sr. Pascual Alcocer, from 1870 to the present date, at
the city of Queretaro ; Sr. Lazaro Perez from 1874 to 1885, at the city of Guadalajara ;
Sr. Isidore Epstein at the City of Monterrey, 1855 ; Sr. Vicente Reyes, a civil engi-
neer and architect, at the city of Cuernavaca, 1873, 1874, and 1876 ; Sr. Joaquin de
Mendizabal Tamborrel, an engineer, at the city of Puebla, 1872 to 1873 ; Sr. Augustin
Galindo at the same city, 1875 ; Professor Manuel M. Chazaro at San Juan Michapa
(State of Veracruz), 1872 to 1873 ; Priest Pedro Spina, S. J., at the city of Puebla,
1876, and perhaps many others from whom we have no notice, have devoted them-
selves to making meteorological observations.

The " Sociedad de Geografia y Estadistica " the most ancient scientific society in
Mexico, distributed, in 1862, some instruments and instructions to observers.

Finally, on the 6th of March, 1877, being President of the Republic, General

112

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1896.

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U4 Geogtapbical IRotes on /JDejico,

the digestive and respiratory organs, the former amounting to 4472 or
1.35 per cent, of the population and the latter to 3904 or 1.18 per cent,
of the population, and both causing 8376 deaths or 53.81 per cent, of
the total number of deaths. Deaths by typhus and typhoid fevers and
small-pox, which are supposed to make such great ravages in the City
of Mexico, were in reality insignificant, the deaths by the former
amounting in that year to 480 or 0.14 per cent, of the population, and
the deaths by small-pox were, in the Federal District, embracing the
City of Mexico and twenty-three suburban towns, 217 or 0.047 Per cent-
of the population of the District which is 473,820. Small-pox only
attacks the very poor people, and, strange to say, also foreigners, even
in case they have been vaccinated in their country, and to be free from
small-pox they must be vaccinated in Mexico.

The months of the greatest mortality during the same year were
from February to May, and of the smallest the month of August, show-
ing that the unhealthy months are the dry months, that is before the
rains set in.

The mortality in the City of Mexico is indeed very large, and it is
due principally to two causes, first, the want of proper drainage and
sewerage for the refuse of the city, a trouble which is now almost com-

Porfirio Diaz, and by the suggestion of General Vicente Riva Palacio, then Secretary
of Public Works, the Central Meteorological Observatory was established. From
that date up to the present, an uninterrupted hourly observation is regularly taken
during the day and the night in the Central Meteorological Observatory. Some mag-
netical observations have also been made, and the Observatory is now thought of be-
ing removed to a more suitable spot.

After the establishment of the Central Meteorological Observatory, some official
or private meteorological stations have also been established as follows : Aguascalien-
tes (Institute del Estado) ; Guadalajara (Escuela de Ingenieros), observer, Augustin
V. Pascal ; Guanajuato (Colegio del Estado), observer, Genaro Montes de Oca ; Leon
(Escuela Secundaria), observer, Mariano Leal ; Mazatlan (Observatorio Astronomico
y Meteorologico), observer, N. Gonzalez ; Oaxaca (Colegio del Estado), observer, Dr.
A. Dominguez ; Pachuca (Institute del Estado), observer, Dr. N. Andrade ; Puebla
(Colegio Catolico and Colegio del Estado), observers, Priest P. Spina and B. G. Gon-
zalez respectively ; Queretaro (Colegio Civil), observer, J. B. Alcocer ; San Luis Po-
tosi (Institute del Estado), observer, Dr. G. Barroeta ; Toluca (Institute del Estado),
observer, S. Enriquez ; Veracruz, observer, G. Baturoni ; Zacatecas (Institute), J. A.
Bonilla. Dr. Manuel Andrade, of Huejutla ; Dr. Matienzo, of Tampico; Father
Perez, of Morelia ; Father Arreola, of Colima ; Father Castellanos, of Zapotlan ; Sr.
Pascual Borbon, of Tacambaro, are enlightened observers to whom the Central Me-
teorological Observatory is indebted for their valuable co-operation, and also to the
telegraph operators of the " Telegraph system," who send, daily, some weather obser-
vations to this office.

The staff of the Central Meteorological Observatory is now as follows: Director,
Mariano Barcena ; Vice-Director, Jose Zendejas, C.E. ; Second Observer, Francisco
Toro ; Assistants, Rafael Aguilar, Francisco Quiroga, Angel Robelo, Jose Torres,
and J. I. Vazquez.

115

pletely remedied, and the second, the unhygienic way of living of the
poor classes, among whom takes place the largest mortality.

The very large number of still-births which occurred in the City of
Mexico in 1896, almost exclusively among the poor classes, shows the
little care that the poor women take of themselves, and is enough to ex-
plain the present large mortality.

RAILWAYS.

For many years the government earnestly endeavored to further
the construction of railroads in Mexico, but the broken surface of the
country made the building of these roads very expensive. Until 1873
the means of internal locomotion were mainly limited to a few wagon
roads, over which travelled twenty-four regular lines of diligences,
under one management ; and bridle-paths from the central plateau
over the sierras and terrace lands down to a few points on both coasts.

In 1854 the first railroad was finished, connecting the City of Mex-
ico with Guadalupe, about three miles in length, and another from
Veracruz to Tejeria towards the City of Mexico about twelve miles in
length ; these being the only railroads that were built, up to 1861.
During the French Intervention the French army extended the Tejeria
road to Paso del Macho, about thirty-five miles further, to the foot of
the mountain, so as to be able to transport their army, with the shortest
delay possible, out of the yellow-fever zone, toward the central plateau ;
and an English Company, which had a grant for a road from the City of
Mexico to Veracruz, which was supposed at the time to be the only one
that could be built in Mexico, extended the Guadalupe road to Api-
zaco in the direction of Veracruz and not far from Puebla.

No construction of consequence was done immediately after the
French Intervention, because the country was generally in a disturbed
condition, although several efforts were made in that direction by
President Juarez, under whose administration a new and very liberal
grant was given to the Veracruz railway company. The Veracruz
road was finished in 1873, during SeSor Lerdo de Tejada's Presidency,
and when General Diaz became President in 1876 he earnestly pro-
moted railroad building ; and we now have two trunk lines connecting
the City of Mexico with the United States — the Mexican Central to
El Paso, Texas, with a branch from San Luis Potosi to the port of
Tampico, and another from Irapuato to Guadalajara, which has re-
cently been extended to Ameca, towards the Pacific ; and the Mexican
National to Laredo, Texas, with several branches. Another trunk
line from Eagle Pass to Torreon and Durango, which it is intended
shall finally reach the Pacific, has also been built by Mr. C. P. Hunt-
ington and his associates. There is besides a line from Nogales to
Guaymas, built and owned by the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe

n6 0eo0rapbical IRotes on

Company ; and these four lines connect us with the main systems of
the United States, our lines being in fact extensions of the United
States railway system.

We have now two lines from the City of Mexico to Veracruz, the
old Veracruz road passing by Orizaba, and the Interoceanic, which
runs from Veracruz by Jalapa and the City of Mexico and is intended
to reach the Pacific. All of our roads, excepting the one built by Mr.
Huntington, have had large subsidies paid by the Mexican Govern-
ment, and in one case, that of the Veracruz railroad, the subsidy paid
was $560,000 per year, for twenty-eight years, or about $57,471 per
English mile, although the average subsidy per mile, according to
President Diaz's report, dated November 30, 1896, is $14,380.

The Tehuantepec railway, running from Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf
of Mexico to Salina Cruz on the Pacific, about one hundred and thirty
miles in length, has been built at great expense and at a great sacrifice
by the Mexican Government. I published in the Engineering Maga-
zine for March, 1894,' an article stating the different efforts made by
the Mexican Government to have that road built, and the advantages
that we expected from it as a highway of trade between the Atlantic
and the Pacific. The Mexican Government has recently made a con-
tract with Messrs. E. Weetman, Pearson & Son, of London, for the
building of good harbors at both ends of the road, and when that is
accomplished we expect that a great deal of eastern trade will pass
through Tehuantepec.

With the exception of the Tehuantepec road, we have not yet any
road running from the Atlantic to the Pacific, although several are in
process of construction. The descent of the mountains is on the Pa-
cific slope a great deal more difficult than on the Gulf coast, where the
large centres of population are located near the Gulf, and this explains
why none of the roads have so far been able to reach the Pacific Ocean.

Our railway system extends now, in the direction of Guatemala, as
far as the city of Oaxaca, where we are only about five hundred miles
away from our frontier with Guatemala. In other directions, our sys-
tem reaches the principal cities and commercial and mining centres of
the country.

The total mileage of railway in 1895 was 6989} English miles.
President Diaz, in his above mentioned report gives, the total mileage
of railways in Mexico as 11,469 kilometres or 7126 miles ; and in his
message to Congress on April i, 1897, he stated that the railway mile-
age had been increased by 238 kilometres 550 metres, finished and
received by the Government, and 248 kilometres built, but not yet re-
ceived officially^ making a total mileage of 11,955 kilometres 550
metres, or 7.429 miles.

1 This paper will appear in this volume.

117

President Diaz's Railway Policy. — President Diaz deserves a great
deal of credit for his efforts to promote in Mexico, material improve-
ments, and especially in railroad building. When he came into power,
in 1877, public opinion was very much divided as to the policy of
allowing citizens of the United States to develop the resources of the
country by building railroads, working mines, etc. Our experience of
what took place in consequence of the liberal grants given by Mexico
to Texan colonists made many fear that a repetition of that liberal
policy might endanger the future of the country by giving a foothold
in it to citizens of the United States who might afterward, if circum-
stances favored them, attempt to repeat the case of Texas. President
Lerdo de Tejada seemed to share such fears judging by his policy in
this regard. But President Diaz, as a broad-minded and patriotic
statesman, believed that the best interest of the country required its
material development, and that it would not be advisible to discrimi-
nate against citizens of the United States, as that country was more
interested than any other, on account of its contiguity to Mexico,
in developing the resources of our country by building an extensive
system of railways, and would, therefore, be more ready than any
other to assist in building them. He trusted, at the same time, that
when the resources of the country should be more fully developed, it
would become so strong as to be beyond reach of the temptation by
foreign states or individuals. The results of the work done in Mexico
so far show that General Diaz acted wisely, and proved himself equal
to the task before him.

Many in Mexico, and myself among the number, thought that, as
the railroads were such lucrative enterprises, especially in a country
endowed with so many natural elements of wealth as Mexico, it would
not be judicious to give their promoters any pecuniary assistance, in
the shape of subsidies or otherwise, the more so as the finances of the
country were then in a critical condition, and it would not be wise to
increase its burdens by large pecuniary subsidies in aid of private en-
terprises. My opinion in this case was based mainly on what I had
seen in the United States, namely : that long lines of railways are built
in this country without any pecuniary assistance from the Govern-
ment, and that when the Government subsidized any one line it be-
came a source of great dissatisfaction and very unpleasant questions,
which are yet unsettled. We feared also that such large subsidies as
were asked by the railway promoters would amount in the end to so
large a sum as to make it impossible for Mexico to pay it, discrediting
the country. But in this case General Diaz's view seems to have been
the right one, in so far as that it afforded a great inducement for the
immediate building of large trunk lines of railways, which, without
subsidy, might have been delayed for several years. He thought it

us 0eo$rapbical iRotes on

worth while to spend large sums of money for the purpose of having
railways built without delay, rather than trust to the fluctuations of
confidence and credit in the foreign exchanges, that would enable the
prospective companies to obtain the funds necessary to build their
roads, trusting, at the same time, that the material development of the
country promoted by the railroads would yield revenue enough to pay
all the subsidies granted. Fortunately all railroad subsidies contracted
by Mexico have been punctually paid, and their amount forms now a
large item of our national debt. To pay some of them the mistake
was made of negotiating a sterling loan on Europe, to pay a silver
debt ; but even in that way the transaction is not altogether a bad
one.

General Diaz's policy was to give a railway subsidy to anybody
asking for it without investigating the responsibility of the concern,
with the idea that if the road was built the country would get the
benefit of the same, and if it was not built nothing would be lost, as
there was in all grants, a clause to the effect that if no building was
done within a given time, the grant should by that mere fact be for-
feited, the forfeiture to be declared by the Administration.

The system of subsidizing railways has a great many drawbacks,
but at the same time commands some decided advantages, like giving
the government the strict supervision over the roads who have to sub-
mit to it for its approval, tariffs for freights and passengers, the free
carrying of the mails, the duty of the company to present to the
government a yearly statement of its traffic, receipts, etc., and other
similar advantages. In all grants to subsidized railroads there is a
stipulation that at the end of ninety-nine years the road-bed would
revert to the Mexican government.

President Diaz 's Statistics on Mexican Railways. — Before I close this
chapter I think it will not be out of place to quote some remarks of
President Diaz concerning our Mexican railroads, which occur in his
above-mentioned report.

" In 1875 we had 578 kilometres 285 metres of railway, in 1885 we had 5915
kilometres, in 1886, 6018 kilometres, in November, 1888, 7940 kilometres, in June,
1892, 10,233, an<l including the tramways and other local and private lines, the
amount was 11,067 kilometres ; in September, 1894, we had 11,100 kilometres ; in
April, 1896, 11,165 kilometres, and now we have 11,469 kilometres. . . .

1 ' We stand first in railroad building of all the Latin- American countries. Dur-
ing the years 1877 to 1892 Mexico built more railroads than any other Latin-American
State, being 11,165 kilometres ; the Argentine Republic takes the second place, with
8108 kilometres, and Brazil the third, with 6193 kilometres, built during the years
mentioned. The average number of kilometres built per annum in Mexico during this
period was 689, the maximum having been reached in

•Railways. 119

1881-82 1938 kilometres

1882-83 , 1727

1887-88 1217

1889 1263

The number of passengers carried in

1876 4,281,327

1890 19,531,395

1893 22,781,343

1895 24,269,895

The freight handled in

1876 132,915 tons

1890 2,734,430 "

1893 3,798,36o "

1895 4,117,511 "

The gross receipts in

1876 $2,564,870

1890 21,019,960

1893 26,121,624

1897 28,758,450

" The subsidies paid for railroads up to December, 1892, averaged $8935 per kilo-
metre of road built and in operation at that date. This average is much less than that
of the subsidies paid by other Latin-American countries, the Republic of Chili having
averaged $17,635 per kilometre, and the Argentine Republic $31,396.

" The railroad system of the Republic has given the capital direct and rapid con-
nection with our principal states. Throughout the length of the central plateau to the
frontier, Mexico City is connected with the capitals of the states of Queretaro, Guana-
juato, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas, Chihuahua, and San Luis Potosi by the
Mexican Central Railway, and with Durango by the Mexican International ; with
the states of Mexico, Guanajuato, Michoacan, San Luis Potosi, Coahuila and Nuevo
Leon by the Mexican National ; with the cities of Puebla, Orizaba, Cordoba, Vera-
cruz, and Jalapa by the Mexican Railway and by the Interoceanic, and with Tehuacan
and Oaxaca by the Mexican Southern from Puebla. Three lines connect the capital
with the northern frontier ; the Central, which terminates in Ciudad Juarez ; the
National, which runs to Nuevo Laredo ; and the International, which, from its junction
with the Central at Torreon, runs to Piedras Negras. And as to our various ports
Guaymas is connected with Nogale on the northern frontier ; Manzanillo with Colima ;
Matamoros with Reynosa and San Miguel ; Tampico with San Luis Potosi and Mon-
terrey ; Veracruz with Jalapa and Mexico ; and the first really Interoceanic railway of
the Republic across the Isthmus of the Tehuantepec, united the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans by connecting the port of Coatzacoalcos, on the gulf, with the port of Salina Cruz
on the Pacific coast. Southward from the capital of the Republic the Interoceanic
traverses the State of Morelos, and the Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific Railway has
its line located to the City of Cuernavaca and is pushing on through the state of Guer-
rero to the port of Acapulco. In the peninsula of Yucatan, the lines connecting
Campeche and Merida are nearly finished ; while the port of Progreso has rail com-
munication with Merida."

Financial Condition of Mexican Railways. — Our railroads are doing
remarkably well, and their traffic, especially domestic, is daily increas-

J2O

Oeoorapbicai Wotes on

ing and grows in much larger proportion than the foreign, or inter-
national traffic ; and they are paying the interest on their debt, which
is due and paid in gold, notwithstanding that they collect their
freights in silver, which has been for several years at a great discount,,
losing at the present rate of exchange about one hundred per cent, in
the operation ; but their business is such that they can afford to suffer
that loss.

In the statistical section of this paper will be found a list of our
railroads, their mileage, earnings, and several other data, showing that
they are in a prosperous condition, all of which will be of interest to
those who desire to have a more intimate acquaintance with the railway
system of Mexico. I will only insert here the following statement of
the annual building and earnings of the Mexican railways, sup-
plementing it with a comparative statement showing the tonnage
moved by the principal railway lines, for the ten years ending Decem-
ber 31, 1896, which shows a great increase in their business, and con-
sequently in their earnings.

ANNUAL BUILDINGS AND EARNINGS OF MEXICAN RAILWAYS.

YEAR.

MILES OF ROADS BUILT.

ANNUAL EARNINGS.

Each year.

Total.

187-5

5,393
47,o87
2,265

3,739
40,748
91,950
120,328
429,858
1,204,118
1,073,404
282,523

73,6i4
49,099
323,084
756,522
390,650
784,744
495,015
352,171
14,829
118,810

359,306
364,699
418,001
414,052
4I7.791
458,539
550,488
670,817
1,100,675
2,304,792
3,378,196
3,660,719
3,734,332
3,783,432
4,106,516
4,863,060
5,253,096
6,037,752
6,532,711
6,884,842
6,870,015
6,888,811

$2,097,104.55
2,665,496.18
2,799,696.13
2,563,241.00
3,213,434.17
3,400,799.89
3,828,718.65
4,504,135-39
5,679,193.37
Q,883,7I9.5I
12,102,583.34
11,089,136.39
10,656,551.42
11,373,667.63
13,310,218.79
16,121,267.79
18,788,142.29
20,919,287.14
23,762,172.87
25,363,922.29
25,359,244.06

l87^.. ,

^76 ....

1878. .

1870

!88o

1881

1882

1883

1884

l88s..

!886

1887

1888

1889

1800

1801 .

1802

180-3 .

1804..

121

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT, SHOWING APPROXIMATE TONNAGE MOVED

BY THE UNDERMENTIONED RAILWAYS FOR THE TEN YEARS

ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1 896.

{Compiled from published reports and information furnished by the re-
spective railway companies?)

YEAR.

CENTRAL
RAILWAY.

NATIONAL
RAILWAY.

INTKROCEANIC
RAILWAY.

MEXICAN
RAILWAY.

TOTAL.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

l887

346,898
477,530
Inc. 34.4

540,479
Inc. 13.1

609,382
Inc. 12.7
867,657
Inc. 42.3
1,091,785
Inc. 25.8
860,187
Dec. 21.2

898,484
Inc. 4.4

1,047,038
Inc. 16.5
1,231,025
Inc. 17.5

77,935
372,800

Inc. 378.3
428,314
Inc. 14.8

472,045
Inc. 10.2

502,856
Inc. 7.3
588,505
Inc. 17.

552,123
Dec. 6.5

558,382
Inc. i.i

636,193
Inc. 13.9

782,106
Inc. 22.9

141,090

197,231
Inc. 39.7

186,222
Dec. 5.5
281,769
Inc. 51.3
277,866
Dec. 1.3

365,191
Inc. 31.4

380,805
Inc. 4.3
444,191
Inc. 16.6
464,976
Inc. 4.4

479,744
Inc. 3.1

273,194
318,893
Inc. 16.7

354,321
Inc. ii. i

384,584
Inc. 8.2

409,185
Inc. .6
367,980
Dec. 10.

385,923
Inc. 4.8

433,637
Inc. 12.3

453,289
Inc. 4.5

756,330
Inc. 66.8

839,H7
1,366,454
Inc. 62.7

1,509,336
Inc. 10.4

1,747,780
Inc. 15.7

2,057,564
Inc. 17.7

2,413,461
Inc. 17.3
2,179,038
Dec. 9.7
2,334,694
Inc. 7.1
2,601,496
Inc. 11.4
3,249,205
Inc. 24.8

1888

1880. .

1800

iSoi

1892

180^. .

I8Q4. .

i8os

1896..

7,970,465

4,971,259

3,219,085

4,137,336

20,298,145

CITY OF MEXICO, May 19, 1897.

(S.)

A. BLAKE.

TELEGRAPHS.

We have quite a number of miles of telegraph lines in Mexico, and>
our service is now as good as that of any other country. The first tele-
graph line built and owned in Mexico by a private company, liberally
assisted by the government, extended from Veracruz to the City of
Mexico. On November 5, 1851, the first section was inaugurated from
the City of Mexico to Nopalucan, and on May 19, 1852, to Veracruz.

In 1853 another company established a line from the City of Mexico
towards the north to Leon in the State of Guanajuato, and in 1865 a
line was finished to San Luis Potosi.

In 1868 and 1869 a private company, called the " Jalisco Company "
established the line between the City of Mexico and Guadalajara, which
was soon afterwards extended to Manzanillo and San Bias. After the
restoration of the Republic in 1867, the Mexican government began to

<3eo0rapbical Botes on flDejico,

build lines to the principal centres of population of the country, and in
1890 it bought the Jalisco line, and in 1894 the Veracruz.

From 1869 to 1876 the States of Michoacan, Oaxaca, and Zacate-
cas established several lines in their respective jurisdictions. When
General Diaz became President in 1876, the National Telegraphic
Lines only had 7927 kilometres.

In 1885 the Federal Goverment transferred to the States, without
any cost, all the telegraphic lines which were considered of local inter-
est, keeping only such as could be called trunk lines.

In 1893 we had 37,880 English miles of telegraph lines, of which
24,840 belonged to the Federal Government, the remainder belonging
in about equal parts to the States, private companies and railways.

The following statement, which I take from the Anuario Estadistico
de la Republica Mexicano, 1895, shows the telegraphic lines belonging
to the Federal Government, to the States, to private companies and to
railroads :

Federal Lines 43,416 k 780 m

State Lines 5,544 °68 "

Private Company Lines 4,73° 980 "

Railroad Lines 9,?6i 61 r "

General Total 63,453 k 439 "

On November 30, 1896, the total mileage of our telegraph lines was,
according to the President's report of that date, 45,000 kilometres,
27,962 English miles, and that amount was increased, according to
the President's message of April i, 1897, to 45,259 kilometres, 28,123
miles.

In 1891 the operations of the various lines throughout the Republic
involved the transmission of 1,050,000 messages, of which about 800,-
ooo were private, and the remainder official. The receipts from this
branch of the public service amounted to $469,305 collected at 767
offices ; the expenditure included for repairs an average of $3 per
kilometre, and for salaries a total of $671,431.

The proceeds of the Federal telegraphic lines were, according to
President Diaz's report of November 30, 1896, as follows :

Fiscal Year, 1883-1884 $239,051

" " 1890-1891 462,076

" 1893-1894 : 524,634

1895-1896 537,308

In the statistical portion of this paper will be found a detail state-
ment of the earnings and expenses of the national telegraphic lines of

postal Service, 123

Mexico for the 27 fiscal years which elapsed from July i, 1869, to
June 30, 1896, and such data as it is possible to obtain for the ten
years which elapsed from July i, 1869,1.0 June 30, 1879.

Cables. — Up to 1887 there was no communication between Mexico
and foreign countries. In 1880 the Mexican Cable Co. built their
cables from Galveston to Tampico, Veracruz and Coatzacoalcos, on
the Gulf of Mexico, and a telegraphic line from Coatzacoalcos to Salina
Cruz, on the Pacific, which was extended to Central and South Amer-
ica. Cables had been laid between Jicalango and El Carmen and be-
tween the rivers Grijalva and Coatzacoalcos, and now through those
cables we are in direct communication with the United States and
Europe.

POSTAL SERVICE.

Our postal service has improved considerably of late. It was until
recently quite imperfect on account of the difficult and expensive ways
of communication. It used to be slow and so expensive that it was
almost prohibitory, and up to 1870 the single postage of a letter, weigh-
ing one quarter an ounce was 25 cents, and double for any distance ex-
ceeding sixty miles. After Mexico entered into the Universal Postal
Union, in 1870, the postage of letters for foreign countries was reduced
to 5 cents, and that reduction made it necessary to reduce the home
postage from 25 to 10 cents. Recently it has been reduced again from
10 to 5 cents.

There were in the whole country, in 1883, one head post-office at
the national capital, 53 first-class post-offices, 265 second class, for
the most part inefficient, and 518 postal agencies, little better than use-
less. The entire service as it was being rendered at 837 stations. The
evils resulting from the very high postage were further aggravated by
the insecurity of the mails. The revenue of the postal department in
that year amounted to $817,244.

The total number of post-offices and postal agencies in 1893 was
1448, and the mail pouches are now transported on railways over a total
distance of 10,000 kilometres, or more than 6000 miles. Over the re-
maining distances in the interior the mails are conveyed either by
stages or by foot or mounted carriers.

President Diaz gives in his report of November 30, 1896, the follow-
ing statistics about our postal services :

Post Offices. Postal Agencies.

1877 53 269

1888 356 719

1892 356 1430

1895 469 ,..1471

1896 471 1500

124 Oeograpbical IRotes on /IDejico.

President Diaz states in his same report that the total number of
pieces distributed by our mails in the year 1878 was 5,169,892, while
in the year 1896 the number increased to 24,000,000.

For the purpose of communicating with foreign countries, especially
before railroads were finished, the Mexican government granted large
subsidies to steamship companies, running especially between Mexican
and United States ports, and their amount increased considerably the
expenses of our post-office department.

In the statistical part of this paper I shall insert the statement of
the earnings and expenses of the postal service in Mexico, in the twenty-
seven years elapsed from July i, 1869, to June 30, 1896.

PUBLIC LANDS.

The Spanish government considered itself the owner of lands in
Mexico, and it granted them to private parties under certain very
liberal regulations. The Indians having been the original owners, and
needing the lands to raise their food, and textiles for their clothing, could
not be entirely deprived of them, and a large portion of the land was
left to each municipality to be held generally in common by the
inhabitants of the same. Large tracts of land remain, however, which
had not been granted either to the Indians nor to the Spanish settlers,
and these we called vacant lands — Terrenes Baldios. The Mexican
government succeeded Spain in the ownership of public lands, and
with a view to make them available for colonization an easy system to
dispose of them at a comparatively low price was established.

The greatest difficulty was to find the public lands, as they had never
before been surveyed, and a great many were occupied without title by
private parties. As such survey would be very expensive, the
Mexican government devised a plan of contracting that work with
private companies, paying them with one-third of the land measured,,
and in that way large portions of the public lands have been surveyed.

It appears from President Diaz's report to his fellow-citizens, dated
November 30, 1896, that up to 1888 private companies had surveyed
33,811,524, hectares of public lands, for which they received in pay-
ment for their work one-third or 11,036,407 hectares. In the four years
from 1889 to 1892, 16,820,141 hectares of public lands were surveyed
by private companies, of which 11,213,427 hectares belonged to the
government, and in that way in less than ten years it was possible to
survey 50,631,665 hectares. Out of this amount the government sold
to private parties and to colonization companies 1,607,493 hectares,
and to private companies who were in possession of public lands held
by them without any title, which we call demacias, 4,222,991 hectares.
At the same time the government has been trying to divide the lands
held in common by the Indian towns between the inhabitants of the

flmmigration.

125

same, and up to 1888 it had distributed in that manner 67,368 hectares
among 2936 titles, and from 1889 to 1892 180,169 hectares among
4560 titles. In accordance with the provisions of our public land
laws we sold to private parties, who pre-empted the lands for purchase,
which we call "denuncio," 3,635,388 hectares among 1504 titles, and
from 1889 to 1892 1,353,137 hectares among 1218 titles. From July i,
1891, to August 18, 1896, 9,677,689 hectares of land were surveyed, of
which 6,504,912 hectares belong to the government, and the balance,
3,I72j777 hectares, belong to private companies.

Every year the Department of Fomento publishes under authority
of law a price-list of public lands, which have different prices in each
state and are sometimes divided into three classes ; the first, second,
and third having each a different price. The following is the official
price of public lands fixed by the Department of Fomento for the
fiscal year 1895-1896 :

STATES

PRICE
PER HECTARE

STATES

PRICE
PER HECTARE

$2.25
1. 80
1. 00

2.25

2.00
1. 00
I.OO

3.35

1. 10

2.25
2.25

3.35

2.25

4.50

I.OO

$1.10
3-35
3-35
2.25
I.IO
I.OO

2.50

I.OO

2.25

2.75

1. 80

2.25

5.60

2.00
0.65

Campeche

Puebla . .

Oueretaro

San Luis Potosi

Chiapas

Sinaloa

Chihuahua

Sonora

Tabasco

Guanajuato

Tamaulipas

Tlaxcala .

Jalisco .......

Yucatan

Mexico

Zacatecas

Michoacan

District federal

Morelos

Territore de Tepic

New Leon

Territory of Lower Cal. . .

In the statistical part of this paper I shall insert some data about
the sales of public lands by the Mexican government from 1867 to 1895,
and a statement of the titles issued from the years 1877 to 1895.

IMMIGRATION.

It has always been the aim of the Mexican government from the
time of the independence of the country, to encourage the immigration
of foreigners, because Mexico being so large and the population so
scanty, it was considered a necessity to promote the development of
the country, to increase the population by inducing the settlement of
foreigners, and different laws have been issued for that purpose.

Since the restoration of the Republic new laws have been sanctioned
to encourage colonization, which allow colonists and the companies
bringing them free importation of their personal goods and such articles

126 Oeoarapbtcal Betes on

as they may need for their subsistence and welfare for a reasonable term
of years, exempting them at the same time from all kinds of taxes —
federal, state, and municipal, — excepting only the stamp tax, and also
exempting them from military and other personal service, and some-
times even going so far as to give a bounty for each colonist brought to
the country. Under such laws several contracts were made with differ-
ent companies, and 32 colonies have been planted in different sections
of Mexico, of which 13 have been established by the government and
19 by private parties. In 1892 there were only 1266 families with a
total number of 10,985 colonists. On the whole, the efforts made and
the expenses incurred by the Mexican government in the establish-
ment of those settlements of colonists, have had but unsatisfactory
results, but they have paved the way for future experiments on a larger
scale, especially if undertaken by private parties, and with only such
assistance from the government as can be rendered by liberal legisla-
tion.

The principle obstacle which has prevented us from having a large
immigration is our low wages. Those who immigrate are generally
poor wage earners, who want to better their condition, and they could
not go to a country where wages are a great deal lower than in the
United States, or even in Europe, as they could never compete with
the native labor of our Indians. We have now a surplus of labor and
a deficit of capital, and cannot have a large immigration until such
conditions are changed.

What Mexico needs is capital to develop her resources and give
employment to labor, and then immigration will flow in as naturally as
water seeks its level. Mexican credit will be established, so far as im-
migration is concerned, when her natural resources are developed, this
being the only safe and reliable basis of such credit, and this will never
be developed until those who have capital to invest are acquainted with
the unparalleled opportunities for safe and profitable investment in
Mexico. This will only be accomplished by plain, blunt, matter-of-
fact and well-informed press agents, who lay before people who have
money to invest the plain facts of the case.

Immigration from the United States. — I have often been asked for
my opinion of the chances of Americans going to settle in Mexico, and
have always answered that while Mexico is desirous of attracting good
settlers, and while that country undoubtedly offers great inducements
to foreign settlers, especially to those having some means, there are
serious drawbacks which ought to be pointed out to the prospective
immigrant from the United States, as a warning against a possible
failure and disappointment.

The comforts of life in the rural districts of Mexico, where a settler
from this country has the best chances, are scanty compared with simi-

Ummfaration, 127

lar districts in the United States. The difference of race, language,
religion, and education between a young man brought up in this country
and the small Mexican farmers, are enough to create difficulties at first
sight insuperable to any young man from the United States who settles
there. If he establishes himself in a district inhabited only by Indians
these difficulties are considerably increased. If the settler prefers the
hot lands, which are the most fertile and productive, the severity of
the climate is such as to challenge the courage of the bravest. The
mosquitoes of several varieties, the flies, and many other insects are
very annoying, besides the sickness inherent to such climate.

The question of labor is another great difficulty in the way, because,
while it is cheap and abundant in the cold regions, it is generally scarce
and unreliable in the hot lands.

The conditions of the two countries are so very different that the
change experienced by one brought up in this country who goes into
Mexico, is very apt to discourage the strongest and most sanguine, at
least in the beginning, as the lapse of time makes anybody adapt him-
self to existing conditions and to appreciate the advantages of his
new home.

The land question is also a serious objection. A large portion of
the public lands have already been disposed of, and comparatively
little of the public and private lands have been surveyed, and cannot
easily be had in small lots. The large land-holders are unwilling to
divide their estates, and the Indians holding large tracts of land are
very reluctant to part with them at any price.

Coffee raising is undoubtedly one of the most profitable undertak-
ings in Mexico, but at the same time it has serious drawbacks. It
takes from three to four years before the trees begin to yield, and the
planter must be provided with sufficient means to defray not only his
personal expenses, but also those of the plantation, like houses,
machinery, cultivation, etc., without receiving any proceeds until the
third or fourth year. Besides, if he makes any mistake in the selec-
tion of his land, his profits will be considerably reduced. The gen-
eral impression prevailing in Mexico is that coffee is the product of the
hot lands, where the coffee trees need shade ; but a plantation in such
lands would cost a great deal more money to make and to keep, and
would yield smaller profits than one located in the temperate zone,
that is, just below the frost line.1

1 The same views were expressed in Mexico to the State Department by the
United States Consuls, and even published in the Consular Reports for August, 1894,
vol. xlv., No. 167, pp. 628, 629.

" Consular advices received at the Department of State warn Americans about
emigrating to Mexico, with a view to permanent settlement, with insufficient means or
without informing themselves in a reliable way as to the prospects for earning liveli-

<3eograpbical Botes on

For the American common laborer who looks to his day's pay for
his living, Mexico is unquestionably not the proper place to go. He
cannot compete with the Mexican laborer, whose usual pay is from 38
to 50 cents a day in silver, and he boards himself. For the man who
has no means, unless he is especially qualified in some particular
branch, and knows something of the language, and will work harder
and longer hours, it is no place. There is room for the steady, sober,
industrious mechanic or miner or tradesman who will adapt himself
to new conditions and surroundings, leave all social, political, and
other ambitions behind him, and who will attend strictly to his own
business.

Those who are safest in going to Mexico are those who have a
little capital, say from $2000 in gold and upward, which will give them
about twice that amount there; who can look around and decide what
they propose to do, and where they want to settle. There is an excel-
lent field for the small general farmer of the New England or Middle
States type, who will raise a little of everything. Butter, potatoes,
hogs, poultry, corn, vegetables, and small grain find a ready sale at
good prices. I have seen the common article of corn, which is nearly
always a sure crop, sell at from $i to $1.25 per bushel, Mexican money.

It is always best for the mechanic or miner to first secure a job
before going to Mexico, and work for wages several months, and in
the meantime study the situation, get acquainted with the language,
the customs, and the people before going it alone.

The manner of living there and the customs of the people are
totally different from those of the United States. Those going there
will have to work harder and longer hours than in the United States,
but they can save money. Ten years ago Americans went to Mexico
to make money and return to the United States ; to-day they go to
find homes. I know several Americans who would not live in the
United States again.

The climate of Mexico permits a man to work every day in the
year. The cost of living and clothing is cheap, and a dollar in Mexi-
can money can be made to go as far there as a dollar in American
money in the United States, and a dollar there is easier to get.

In mining, Mexico offers inducements superior to any other coun-

hoods. While there are undoubtedly good opportunities in Mexico for enterprise,
frugality, and thrift, it is like other countries, a land of varying conditions, and it often
happens that disappointment is the result of emigration undertaken upon insufficient
or misleading information, or without resources, which are always necessary for success
in a new country. Many Americans have been induced by alluring statements as to
the cheapness of coffee raising, etc. , to emigrate to Mexico within the past year, and
some have lost their, all by so doing. For these reasons Consuls desire to caution
Americans against the representations of speculators, who are always on the watch for
the unwary."

public Debt 129

try ; and whether a man has a thousand dollars or a million he can go
there and make money if he exercises ordinary precaution and judg-
ment, and if he makes up his mind to stand the discomforts of the
country. It is a good country for the prospector, too, because there
are no seasons against him, and there are many new fields entirely un-
touched; but he needs money enough to get there with and enable him
to obtain the proper kind of outfit, and time to familiarize himself
with the requirements of the law and select some district in which he
wants to operate.

For the small capitalist, or for a small syndicate, there is no finer
field for the organizing of small legitimate companies for the purposes
of opening and working old abandoned mines, which are filled with
debris or water, and which it will pay to clean out and work, and
of which there are still many to be had. In times gone by they were
abandoned because of the refractory condition of the ores, or lack of
machinery, or want of transportation, all of which conditions have been
removed. There is also a fine opening for capital for the exploration
of the new gold-fields in the vicinity of Guadalupe y Calvo, in the
range between Sonora and Chihuahua, in the State of Guerrero, and
in many other localities.

There are in various parts of Mexico educated, experienced, and
thoroughly reliable Americans to be found, who have lived a long
while in the country, and know the language, the laws, and the people,
and would be willing to give reliable information to young Americans
wishing to go there.

PUBLIC DEBT.

The public debt of Mexico is represented by bonds drawing differ-
ent rates of interest, some payable in gold and others in silver. In
1825, very soon after our independence, we contracted two loans in
London, both for 10,000,000 pounds sterling, which we mainly used for
buying war-ships and war material. On account of the disturbed con-
dition of the country, the interest on that debt could not be paid punc-
tually, and the bonds naturally fell to a very low nominal price. In
1851, after the war with the United States, we refunded that debt in
new bonds, the interest of which was reduced from 5 to 3 per cent,
which we expected to pay punctually, but the disturbed condition of
the country made it impossible for us to do it. Finally, in 1888, the
debt was readjusted and gold bonds bearing 6 per cent, interest issued,
and as we have paid since punctually the interest, they have reached par.

We had issued bonds from 1849 to 1856 to pay claims of English,
French, and Spanish subjects under certain conventions signed with
those countries, and such bonds were exchanged at different rates for
the 6 per cent, gold bonds of our foreign debt.

VOL. I — Q

130 Geograpbical notes on

To build the Tehuantepec Railway we negotiated in London, in
1888, another gold loan for 3,000,000 pounds sterling at 5 per cent,
interest.

The subsidies granted to railway companies were payable in sil-
ver, with a percentage of our import duties, but as they amounted to
a considerable sum their payment reduced the revenue considerably,
and the Mexican Government contracted in London in 1890 a gold
loan at 6 per cent, interest, with which it paid the subsidies due up to
that date to most of the railway companies.

We had to issue besides in 1850 what we call domestic or interior
bonds, at 3 and 5 per cent, interest in silver, and we had other indebt-
edness of several kinds, caused by loans and other sources when the
revenue of the Government was not enough to pay its expenses. All
such debts have been consolidated into new bonds of 3 and 5 per
cent, interest, payable in silver. Such railway subsidies as were not
paid out of the proceeds of the loan of 1890 have been paid with bonds
drawing 5 per cent, interest, paying both capital and interest in silver.

It is very onerous for Mexico when it is on a silver basis to pay in
gold the interest of its foreign debt, because we have to buy gold at
current prices, and it costs us now more than double its current price.
When silver was about 50 cents on the dollar, as compared with gold,
6 per cent, interest of our foreign debt, cost us 12 per cent., and of
course the further silver is depreciated the greater will be the cost of
paying the interest of our gold debts.

President Diaz gives in his report of November 30, 1896, the follow-
ing data about the cost to the Mexican Treasury of buying exchange
to place in London the funds to pay us the gold interest on our foreign
debt :

Fiscal year 1888-1889 $ 729,178.17

" 1890-1891 2,314,477.77

1891-1892 3,225,246.77

1892-1893 5,101,223.57

In the second part of this paper I will give a detailed statement
showing the different kinds of bonds and obligations which constitute
the Mexican debt, and here will only give the figures of the total
amount, which are the following :

Sterling Mexican debt $114,675,895.49

Debt payable in silver 88,549,111.80

Total $203,225,007.29

It is not possible to fix the exact amount of the debt of Mexico,
either in silver or gold, because of the daily changes in the price of

131

silver ; but as silver is the currency of the country, when the Mexican
dollar is worth 24 pence in London, the amount of our debt in silver
would be equal to our sterling debt, that is : $114,675,895.40 added to
our debt will make a grand total in Mexican silver of $317,900,902.78.

BANKING.

Banking in Mexico is in its incipient state. The National Bank of
Mexico, established in the City of Mexico in 1882, with its branches
in the principal cities of the country, has a monopoly for the issuing of
notes in the capital which is only shared by such banks as were in ex-
istence before the National Bank of Mexico was chartered, like the
Bank of London, Mexico, and South America, established during the
French intervention in Mexico and recently remodelled under the
name of the Bank of London and Mexico. The Mortgage Bank of
Mexico enjoys that privilege also.

On June 3, 1896, a general banking law was issued by the Mexican
Congress, which establishes the conditions under which banking insti-
tutions can be organized ; but, of course, that does not affect the rights
of the National Bank and other banks in the City of Mexico which
had been chartered before the date of that law.

Formerly, owing to the expense and dangers of transportation, it
was difficult to transport money from one place to another, and there-
fore exchange between cities in Mexico was very high, sometimes even
ten per cent, from one city to another in the country. The rate has
been reduced considerably since the railroads were built, but it is still
quite high. To draw money from the City of Mexico to the City of
Oaxaca, for instance, and vice versa, costs now one per cent, each way ;
when money is required to be sent to smaller places the expenses are
much higher, as it is necessary to send a man to the nearest town
where the money can be placed by the banks, and pay to him a large
commission — the expenses sometimes reaching ten per cent. To keep
up this rate of exchange the National Bank makes its bills payable at
a certain place so that they cannot be paid at any other.

Banking is very profitable in Mexico. The following is a statement
of the earnings and dividends of the National Bank of Mexico, which
began with a capital of $3,000,000, increased since to $6,000,000, hav-
ing now a reserve fund of $5,500,000, and is owned almost exclusively
by Mexicans, being the fiscal agent of the Government :

NET PROFITS.

DIVIDENDS.

1801. .

$1,813,623

23 per cent.

1802 ...

1,839,418

23 "

180-;. .

2,355,464

29 " "

1804.

1,961,801

24 " "

* vt

1805. .

2,2OO,626

27 " "

132

Geograpbtcal Botes on

The following is a statement, from official sources, of the earnings
and dividends of the Bank of London and Mexico. Up to 1891 it
had a capital of $1,500,000, which was then increased to $3,000,000 :

NET PROFITS.

DIVIDENDS EARNED,
PER CENT.

DIVIDENDS DECLARED,
PER CENT.

1880..

$243,246

16

IO

1800. .

c6q im

16

2O

vw
1801. .

7O3 $22

46

2O

1802

780 067

26

16

i8cn .

618 6<n

2Oi

16

1804. .

603 178

2O

14.

180"?

ec7 710

184

Id.

Recently the capital stock of this bank was further increased to
$10,000,000, without any expense to the stockholders, as the reserve
fund, which amounted to about $2,000,000, was used to complete the
new capital, and was issued to the regular stockholders as a stock
dividend. The balance to complete the $5,000,000 of new stock was
offered to the public, the subscriptions amounting to $22,000,000, or
$17,000,000 more than was wanted.

From this statement it will be seen that the existing banks are
prosperous and in a flourishing condition, but the demand for in-
creased banking facilities is such that new banks are being formed,
and the operations of the old banks increased and extended in various
directions.

PATENTS AND TRADE-MARKS.

Patents. — On June 7, 1890, the present patent law of Mexico was
issued, and its provisions are very similar to the respective laws exist-
ing in this country.

Since the date of that law the following patents have been issued
by our Department of Fomento :

YEARS.

PATENTS.

INCREASE.

DIMINUTION.

1800. .

63

1801.

IC-2

QO

1802.

168

15

180'?

122

46

1804.

125

q

1 " VT-
iSos. .

1^4

20

785

Trade- Marks. — On November 28, 1889, our present law regulating
trade-marks was promulgated, and since then the following trade-
marks have been issued by the Department of Fomento :

Sbfppfna.

133

YEARS.

TRADE-MARKS.

INCREASE.

DIMINUTION.

Q7

112

15

....

161

49

....

108

53

79

....

29

91

12

648

SHIPPING.

The mercantile marine of Mexico in 1895 comprised 52 steamers
and 222 sailing vessels. The shipping included also many small ves-
sels engaged in the coasting trade.

In 1893-94, in the foreign trade, 1237 vessels of 1,314,625 tons
entered, and 1211 vessels of 1,296,834 tons cleared the ports of Mexico.
In the coasting trade 7721 of 1,623,371 tons entered and 7708 of
1,592,754 tons cleared. In 1894-95, in the foreign and coasting trade,
there entered 9575 vessels of 3,428,973 tons, and cleared 9557 of
3,359,684 tons.

In the statistical portion of this chapter I will give official informa-
tion about the number of vessels and their tonnage, which have entered
and cleared from Mexican ports in recent years, the nations from which
they came, and other valuable data.

MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.

The standard of value is silver. There is no paper currency except
ordinary bank notes.

The silver peso or dollar of 100 centavos is the unit of coin in
Mexico.

The silver peso weighs 27.073 grammes, .902 fine, and thus contains
24.419 grammes of fine silver.

The lo-pesos gold-piece weighs 27.0643 grammes, .875 fine, and
thus contains 23.6813 grammes of fine gold.

The weights and measures of the metric system were introduced in
1856 ; but the Indians and other ignorant people use the old Spanish
measures. The principal ones are these :

Weight.—

for Gold and Silver. —

Length. —

libra=o.46 kilogramme, 1.014 Ibs. avoirdupois.
arroba=25 libras, 25.357 Ibs. avoirdupois.
marco=:£ libra, 4,608 granos.
ochava=62 tomines.
tomin=i2 granos.
20 granos— I French gramme,
vara— 0.837 metre = 2 ft. 8-^ English inches,
legua comun (i common league) = 5,000 yards,
legua marina (i marine league) = 6,666f yards.

134 Geograpbical IRotes on

NON-OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

The following is a partial and rather incomplete list of (principally
English) books about Mexico :

ABBOTT, GORHAM D., Mexico and the United States. New York, 1869.

BANCROFT, H. H., A Popular History of the Mexican People., 8. London.
Resources and Development of Mexico. San Francisco, 1894.

BROCKLEHURST, T. U., Mexico To-day. London, 1883.

BURKE, U. R., Life of Benito Juarez. 8. London, 1894.

CASTRO, LORENZO, The Republic of Mexico in 1882. New York, 1882.

CHARNAY, D., Ancient Cities of the New World. Tr. 8. London.

CHEVALIER, MICHEL, Le Mexique ancien et moderns. 18. Paris, 1886.

CONKLING, HOWARD, Mexico and the Mexicans. New York, 1883.

CONKLING, A. R. Appleton's Guide to Mexico. New York, 1890.

CRAWFORD, CORA HAYWARD, The Land of the Montezumas. New York, 1889.

CuBAS, ANTONIO GARCIA, Mexico, its Trade, Industries, and Resources.
Mexico, 1893.

FLINT, H. M., Mexico under Maximilian. 12. Philadelphia, 1867.

GLONER, PROSPER, Les Finances des Etats Unis Mexicains. Bruxelles, 1895.

GOOCH, F. C., Face to Face with the Mexicans. London, 1890.

GRIFFIN, S. B., Mexico of To-day. New York, 1886.

HAMILTON, LEONIDAS, Border States of Mexico. Chicago, 1882.

HAMILTON, L. L. C., Hamilton's Mexican Handbook. London, 1884.

JANVIER, THOMAS A., The Mexican Guide. New York, 1886.

KOZHEVAR, E., Report on the Republic of Mexico. London, 1886.

LA BEDOLLIERE, EMILE G. DE, Histoire de la guerre du Mexique. 4. Paris, 1866.

LESTER, C. EDWARDS, The Mexican Republic. New York, 1878.

NOLL, ARTHUR HOWARD, A Short History of Mexico. Chicago, 1890.

OBER, F. A., Travels in Mexico. Boston, U. S., 1884.

PRESCOTT, W. H., History of the Conquest of Mexico. 8. London.

RATZEL, FRIED., A us Mexico, Reiseskizzen aus den Jahren 1874-73. Breslau,
1878.

RICE, JOHN N., Mexico, Our Neighbor. New York. (No date.)

ROUTIER, G., Le Mexique de nos Jours. Paris, 1895.

SCHROEDER, SEATON, The Fall of Maximilian's Empire as seen from a United
States Gunboat. New York, 1887.

SCOBEL, A., " Die Verkehrswege Mexicos und ihre wirtschaftliche Bedeutung."
In Deutsche Geographisc he Blatter. Band X, Heft I. Bremen, 1887.

Through the Land of the Aztecs ; or, Life and Travel in Mexico. By a
" Gringo." London, 1892.

WELLS, DAVID A., A Study of Mexico. New York, 1887.

PART II.

STATISTICS

135

II. STATISTICS.

I do not know of any publication in which the latest statistical in-
formation about Mexico is compiled in a concise and complete form.
One which perhaps is the fullest, published in Berlin by Messrs.
Puttkammer & Muhlbrecht, entitled Les Finances des Etats-Unis Mexi-
cains, written by Mr. Prosper Gloner, contains a great deal more
statistical information than others, and is of later date.

It has requii^fa great deal of work, energy, and time on my part
to collect the data contained in this paper, most of which is of an

rial character, and I am sure it is the most complete ever published,
I having tried to make it very concise, so as to take the smallest
space possible.

REVENUES AND EXPENSES.

The financial question was for many years the leading and the
most difficult one in Mexico, because the urgent needs of the Treasury,
especially on account of the disturbed condition of the country, made
public expenses considerably exceed the revenue, and this condition
did not allow of a thorough overhauling and settlement of the finances,
nor did it contribute to establish the credit of the Government ; but
peace having prevailed since 1877, a great improvement has taken place
in the financial condition of Mexico ; the revenue has increased con-
siderably, and it has finally reached an amount amply sufficient to pay
all our expenses. In fact, at the end of the fiscal year, ended June
30, 1896, we had for the first time in the history of Mexico since its
independence, a surplus which amounted to $6,000,000. The obnoxious
tax which we inherited from the Spanish, called alcabalas, or interstate
duties on domestic and foreign commerce, was a great drawback to
internal trade, was finally abolished on July i, 1896 ; and the country
being now in a condition when radical reforms can be introduced
without serious disturbances.

Our expenses as an independent nation are necessarily large, and
as a comparatively small portion of our population are really producers

137

138 Statistical Iftotes on

of wealth, upon them lies the whole burden of such expenses ; that is,
we are a nation of from twelve to fifteen millions of inhabitants, with
a very large territory and a large coast on both oceans, requiring army,
revenue, light-house, and police service, and other expensive institu-
tions proportionate to such extent and population, when the portion
which contribute to such expenses is only about one-fourth or one-third
of the same.

It is a very difficult task to give a complete and correct statement
of the revenues and expenses of the Mexican Government prior to the
year 1867. The disturbed condition of the country made it often
quite impossible to keep any account at all : such was the case especially
from 1858 to 1860, as during that period the City of Mexico and a
large part of the country was occupied by the Church party under
Miramon, and from 1863 to 1867 by the French Intervention. Be-
sides that cause it was a very difficult matter for us to keep a correct
account of public receipts and expenses, in some way for lack of a good
system of book-keeping. To make a statement of the revenues and
expenses of the Mexican Government since the independence of the
country from Spain, I had to rely upon the reports made by Secretaries
of the Treasury, which are, however, lacking for many years, and which
contain rather an estimate than an account of the revenues and ex-
penses, and I have made in that way the statement which I append
under No. i, which embraces the revenues and expenses from the year
1808, the last of the Spanish rule in Mexico, to the year 1867.

The forming of accounts was under the charge of the Federal
Treasury of Mexico, and the Treasury kept its accounts with a very
defective system of book-keeping, which prevented them from being
correct. To remedy that difficulty, after the restoration of the Repub-
lic in 1867, a bureau of accounts was established in the Treasury De-
partment, but its accounts were seldom correct, because it did not
have the necessary detailed data to make a complete account, and, as
could be expected, the results in the accounts of both bureaus differ
widely.

In 1880 the Federal Treasury was reorganized with a large number
of clerks with a view to keep a full and correct account of public
moneys, and from that year until 1888 their accounts began to be
better than before. In 1888 the system was still remodelled and im-
proved, and since then that office has been able to keep correct and
complete accounts of our public revenues and expenses.

I also append a statement No. 2 of the revenues and expenses
of the Mexican Treasury from July i, 1867, to June 30, 1888. The
first thirteen years in that statement are taken from the data furnished
by the Bureau of Accounts of our Treasury Department. The account
of the year 1879-1880 was taken from the account of the Federal

IRevenue an& Expenses*

139

Treasury, and the data for the year 1880-1881 from the accounts pub-
lished by the Liquidating Bureau established by the Mexican Govern-
ment to close the old accounts and open the new ones under the new
system. The accounts of the year 1888-1889, which appear in state-
ment No. 3, are all taken from the Federal Treasury of Mexico, and
are complete and correct.

I also append a statement of the appropriations approved by the
Federal Congress during the fiscal years from 1868 to 1895. The
actual expenses never exceeded the appropriations and the revenue
was generally below them.

NO. I. — REVENUE AND EXPENSES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF
MEXICO IN 1808 AND FROM 1822 TO JUNE 30, 1867.

REVENUE.

EXPENSES.

1808 Colonial period

$2O 075 362 25

1822 Independence period

9Q28 74O OO

$13 4SS 377 OO

l823. ,

c 240 8s8 06

3 O3O 878 SO

1824. ...

IS 2S4 6oi O3

15 165 876 OS

1825 to Sept. ist

7QO3 l6^ 4.2

13 IIO l87 24.

Sept. i, 1825, to June 30, 1826

14. 77O 733 3O

13,112 2OO 65

1826—27 . . .

17 017 016 59

1 6 364 218 36

1827-28

iq 644. Q74 60

12 982 092 86

1828-29

14 SQ3 3O7 60

14 Ol6 Q78 27

1820-30. .

14 IO^ 773 28

13,728 4QI 3Q

l8^O-3I . . .

1 8 3Q2 134 06

17 601 289 67

1831-32. -

17 ^82 O2Q IS

l6 Q37 384 6?

1832-33

2O 563 360 77

22.3Q2 6O7 QO

1833— 34.

21 124 216 81

IQ Q34 4QO 42

1834-35

l8 3S3 283 OO

12 724 686 62

183^-36

26 382 3O3 9O

17 766 262 81

1836-37 . .

17 327 7o6 IS

IQ l8l 138 OS

1837-38. .

25 018 121 77

26 s88 3os 03

1830

2Q 136 S36 64

27 3l8 72O 73

1840

21 227 263 43

21 23S OQ7 67

1841

23 one 766 S2

22 QQ7 22O l8

1842

3O.682 360 4O

3O 63Q 711 OO

1843 .

34 138 s8l 72

34 O3S 277 13

1844

31 873 OIQ 47

31 26o 22S 87

1845.

24 ISO OSO O4

19 584 812 91

1846

24 O26 Q38 36

27 §4S 487 28

1847

26 154 222 84

31 2SI 467 QI

1848 to June 30, 1849

25.726 737 23

10,742.876 48

1840— 50

l8 281 83S 38

17 2QI 233 2S

i8fio-<i

14 QSS 535 73

14 477 360 06

1851-52

II 022,291 17

10,475,686 10

1852-53

10,044,298 40

16,287,532 90

1853-54

IQ 028 Q75 OO

18 726 088 oo

1854-55. .

26 25Q.Q7O 45

23 306 O74 75

i855-s6

jc SSS SQ7 47

12 Q2O 2S7 6S

1856-0. .

1 6 035 609 8 1

12 Q77 26S QO

1857-58

I 5 520,887 47

15 927 IO2 OI

1858-50

14 737 763 76

16 oos S36 4S

1859-60

14 306 675 28

l6 S8Q O34 47

1860-61

12 863,500 OO

12 75O SOO OO

1861-62

15,500,000 oo

15,300 600 oo

1862-63

17 600 ooo oo

17 SOS 6oO OO

1863-64

7,000,000 oo

6 990 ooo oo

1864-65

5 QSO OOO OO

5Q4S OOO OO

1865-66

5 O57 SOO OO

S OS3 2SO OO

1866-67

8,092,000 oo

8 085,200 oo

140

Statistical IRotes on

00
CO
00

M N t N r^ coo m N M co r^ in oco
inM r> t N m M ottmmi-i

co tcococo o w OO ttmO M M or-^co moo
M N N co r^co m r>>O co i^- O OO O t t~» O O co M
M O O N t m r^ co 00 co NCOCOCO r->. o tec mo m

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co O M N r-»co OO N N t t-1 comot"-" tOtO
0 r-.cc mo ocONCoeoNmcotNMOt OO co m

M O coco r^ co r^ t t t m
i cb m to co co M coco t^ O co

coOtONt-*OOM\r> o co t N t

9* r-C i-T rC r^ r^ t-Tco" i-T mco" o" Q" 00" mo m N

PL* t t m N eooo t t N M oOmOcONoom

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cfcfcotttcOinOM in t co M o m O

6

in m coco co t b "F- >-> N w M co M N N M 1 1
co O w to O t^ w co comOco M tOOcO N t

u »rt r> o' "-Too" 00" t co o'co" M" N" m N* t r-C t N"O"

p, <o O co N mo co r->co N O co O Oco M Q o O m

co m m mo" r^co'oo"1 O r^ o" t O t^ N to

^

O M N oo t mco tmococoNco r^N mco co r^-co
M o M co r-^co Oco M cottcOMco tmi-tco mN

co to mco o O eooo CON CON r-^o m r^ o M i-»
eo m co N Ix» N eo O eo t OO O t™* O M O O t N in
m N r^ co r^o co or-mM CON cotw NO oow

O mco'co" eoi-Tr-^co to OtM~ Oco"o" t cf i~^ r^ o
coo o O oo t N t^co in m r^ r» r^co M m r^ eo r^ o
r*^ t co t^ O M N r^» O M t N ** co co m r**. in ci r^» t
rC o" o" oo" O o" IH" w" M" co O O N" in o" eo CO*" o" eo t-T o"
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too N M 1-1 r^ N
r^o t O mco r^

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O m r^« M o i-t N Oco M ocoO cotco OOO co

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ONOONMONCOOMi-iOOCONOOOt
, ..i Oco eo m O O t^O co N M o Oco O in m m N" co

O" O t^ coco co O OO O f^ M coco co N co r^ N O co

cjC MOONr-^omNt r^co OO M N tN or-«t

*"* t~t t coo" m m r^ r-^ i-^co" o r^ M" to" r-^co" co M" cf m

MHMMMMMMMMMNN M CO CO t^ CO

m co r^o I-OOCON OOr^eo>-«tmo to r^ eo

N to to tr^w N inr-^r^teoM intmom
totO r^eoO O mr^-inN OO O OO tec mo

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mw r^OO Noo M too o coco o m N o co NO

ef N" N" co t co t co t o M" M" o" N" r>^ o" co* N" o"

« COCOCOtONCOt

co o O M w eo t mo r-.co o O M N eo t mo rAcd
O O t^» r-. r^« r-* r-» r-. r^. i^« r*^ r^co co co oo co co co co co
cocococococococooococococococococooocococo

iiiiiiTTiiiiTiTiiT-TiT

r^co o O w N co t mo f^co o O M N co t mo r>.
OOO r^-r^r~>.t-»r^r^r^r-*i>i r»co co co co co co co co

COCOCOOOCOCOCOOOCOCOOOCOCOCOCOCOCOOSICOCOCO

•Revenue an& Expenses.

141

vS :
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142

Statistical IRotes on

S S^'S.tfS.S'S 2 £"2 a

oo"ocT d" pT N ro ^ ^ 10 ^ H^OO" ro to tC & 1000" ** \O~co \Ocooo H" ^ 10

~MP»<NP»PJN(NP»HNHP)P»NfONrOrOrOrOrOrOrO'«-'«-'«-

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VO « OO N 0«
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ro N 00 IO PI rOOO
•

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ON-^-roO <OVO OO CO

o oo M
; rov£ vO 1000 tx d vo tx, 10 c* 0 Tj-rotx-Tt-t-x-^-i-ivq^o^ >-^vo^ \q_vq_

ro •£ ~ " ~ " •

•* o •<»- M H N vo 1000 co t^ o r-\O 10 w M
of *o"co o" o' o" o" o" o'^'oo'co' (Scoaocooo

z.!

K

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i

8883-88888888 SS^

c^o M
0> 5> ^-l
w o ro
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ro •*•*•* «£ 10 in*o cT cT M"

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N vo •*• M rx 10 « M
^ ^ M ro>O &ioo vo
"

OOO COOO -*lOt^rOOOO
o" ro •* cT to ro >? pT M'OO'
-

ro cs c woo ^ p »o 10 M t\
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8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 && 8 S E £ S> 8> 8- S>

8 §

^!?^ 8 8

cc.orororororo, ^
oorowMHMMMHM 1000 oo oo oo co oo « wooo
« vo oo;oo oo oo « oo oo oo oo oo co « oo co co

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8 2vS fLSS 5-

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tx t^ t^oo oo oo oo o. q. ON q, o q. o< o^ o. q. q. q. q. q. q. q. q. q. q.

Q* O '-' W ro -*f 10*0 f>-co O O M N ro -^- ir>O t>-oO O\ O M N co ^j- ID .

\O t*N.t>-t-^r>»t^t^t^.tN.t-s. h-vOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO O^OCJ^OC^O* tf)

TOoococwooooooooobooooSSS^OT^c^^^^^^^^^^ 13

\O 'O t^t^.t-^t^fN.t-^.t^.tN.I^ t^OO OOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOO O^O^OO ^H

oooococ»oooocooooooo<xcocooooooooococooocooooooooooooo

TRevenue anfc Expenses. 143

Sources of Revenue. — The Federal revenue of Mexico consists mainly
of three sources : import duties, internal revenue, and direct taxes in
the Federal District. Under the head of import duties we collect du-
ties on imports, extra import duties which we call additional duties,
and duties on exports.

The sources of revenue of the Mexican Federal Treasury during
the fiscal year 1895-1896, were :

Imposts on foreign trade $23,658,692 61

Internal revenue 20,447,096 42

Direct taxes in the Federal District and

Territories 3,357>6n 81

Public services 1,81 1,045 3°

Nominal i,955>301 94

Total $5 1,229,748 08

Import Duties. — Our tariff is a highly protective one, as we have
always maintained a very high rate of import duties, almost prohibitory
for a large portion of our population, which under such a system are
practically excluded from the use of foreign commodities, to the ma-
terial detriment of the fiscal revenue, the public wealth at large, and
the advancement of the masses of our people. The causes which have
induced such a high tariff are twofold : first, that, in a great measure,
protective ideas have prevailed ; secondly, and especially, the need of
revenue, and the idea that the higher the rate of duties the larger would
be the revenue collected. A new source of protection has been cre-
ated by the depreciation of our currency, which acts as a powerful
protection to our home commodities, in favor of our manufacturers to
the disadvantage of the great body of consumers.

The protective policy in Mexico has been so deeply rooted that
notwithstanding that I lean to freer trade, and that I have been three
times at the head of the Treasury Department, and once for five years,
I never was able to modify substantially that policy, because the con-
dition of the Treasury was so precarious, that it would have been very
rash to attempt any radical change on the face of a great reduction of
an insufficient revenue which would have brought about disastrous re-
sults. For the same reason I was unable to do away with the obnox-
ious alcabala tax.

Our present tariff is divided into the following sections : ist, animal
industry ; 2d, agricultural products ; 3d, metals and its manufactures ;
4th, fabrics ; 5th, chemicals, oils, and paints ; 6th, wines, liquors, and
fermented drinks ; 7th, paper ; 8th, machinery ; 9th, carriages ; loth,
arms and explosives, and nth, sundries.

144

Statistical notes on

Additional Import Duties. — The additional duties collected by the
Custom-houses are ij per cent, of the amount of the import duties,
which is levied for the respective municipality ; 2 per cent, of the same
duties, for harbor improvements ; and 2 per cent, in revenue stamps,
making in all 5! per cent, of the import duties. The custom-houses
collect besides the import duties, tonnage and light-house duties, and
pilot fees.

Export Duty. — Our export duties are levied upon cabinet and dye-
woods, india rubber, cochineal, coffee, henequen, ixtle, indigo, fequila,
jalap, tamarind, tobacco, mother-of-pearl, orchilla, vanilla, zacaton,
and onyx.

The following statement shows the amount of export duties col-
lected in Mexico from the fiscal year 1881-1882 to 1894-1895, ex-
pressing the commodities in which they were collected :

STATEMENT OF THE RECEIPTS FROM EXPORT DUTIES IN MEXICO FROM
JULY I, l88l, TO JUNE 30, 1895.

FISCAL YEAR.

RECEIPTS.

COMMODITIES TAXED.

1881 1882

$122,462 24
144,597 93

179,439 97
161,811 47
107,484 80
106,859 63
114,869 04
81,849 25
98,386 12
86,859 86
96,560 48

91,475 54
1,045,105 44
1,227,719 24

Orel

Orel
Ore

za

tiilla, w

lilla, w
rilla, w
caton,

ood.

ood, henequen, coffee.
Dod, henequen, coffee, skins,
chewing gum, ixtle, vanilla.

1882 1883

1883 1884

1884— 188=,

1885-1886

1886—1887

1887—1888

1888-1889

1800—1801 . • . •

1891 1892

1802 1893 • •

180^—1804. .

Amount of Import Duties. — It is very difficult to give a correct state-
ment of the receipts of the Mexican custom-houses before the year
1875. I append, however, one made from the reports of the Secre-
taries of the Treasury of Mexico, especially those of July 25, 1839,
and September 16, 1870, and completed from the years 1839-1851,
with data obtained from the Comercio exterior de Mexico^ D. Miguel
Lerdo de Tejada. From the fiscal year 1875-1876, the Statistical
Bureau of our Treasury Department began to publish detailed and
correct statements of the custom receipts, and I append one embracing
the fiscal years from 1875 to 1896 which shows how largely our im-
port duties have increased. In the ten years elapsed from 1878 to
1888 the increase was over 67 per cent, as compared with the corre-

TRevenue anfc Expenses. 145

spending period from 1869-1879, and the increase in the last seven
years, 1889-1896, was 16 per cent, as compared with the previous ten
years, both periods making an increase of nearly 100 per cent, over the
first ten years of said statement :

CUSTOMS RECEIPTS FROM 1823 TO THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING
JUNE 20, 1875.

1823. From April ist to September 30 the receipts were
$971,345 77, which for a year of 12 months

would be $1,942,691 54

1825. From the ist of January to the ist of August,

1825, the receipts were $4,472,069 37, which for

a year of 12 months would be 7,666,404 63

1825-1826 From the ist of September, 1825, to June,

1826, $6,414,383 26, which for a year of 12

months would be 9,621,574 89

1826-1827 7,828,20844

1827-1828 5,692,026 70

1828-1829 6,497,288 93

1829-1830 4,815,418 25

1830-1831 8,287,082 92

1831-1832 7,335,637 76

1832-1833 7,538,525 47

i833-J834 8,786,396 94

1834-1835 8,920,408 28

1835-1836 5,835,o68 51

1836-1837 4,377,579 52

From July i, 1837, to December 31, 1838, $4,258,411 10.

Corresponding to one year of 12 months 2,83^,940 73

1839 5,577,890 67

1840 8,309,918 65

1841 6,597,912 32

1842 6,034,342 29

1843 8,507,478 79

1844 8,254,141 96

1845 5,814,048 69

1846 6,747,932 35

1847 1,394,609 52

From January i, 1848, to June 30, 1849, J8 months. . . 6,660,037 96

From July, 1849, to June, 1850 6,338,437 50

1850-1851 5,337,o68 62

From July i, 1851, to June 30, 1852 6,108,835 2^

1852-1853, according to the calculations of M. Haro y

Tamariz average from the preceding five years. 4,906,533 17

146 Statistical Wotes on dDesfco.

1853-1854, according to the report of M. Olazagarre

(l855) 8,399,208 93

1854-1855, according to the report of M. Lerdo de

Tejada (1857) 8,096,208 85

1855-1856, according to the report makes the receipts
for the first six months amount to $3,379,761 35,

which for the year is 6,759,522 7°

1856-1857, average for the six years previous 6,854,061 78

1857-1858 " " " " 6,854,061 78

1858-1859 6,854,061 78

1859-1860 6,854,061 78

1860-1861 " " " " 6,854,061 78

1861-1862 " " " " 6,854,061 78

1862-1863 " " " " 6,854,061 78

1863-1864 " " " " 6,854,061 78

1864-1865 " " " " 6,854,061 78

1865-1866 " " " " 6,851,06178

1866-1867 " " 6,851,061 78

1867-1868, according to the amount of the receipts. . . . 9,566,360 99

1868-1869 " " " .... 9,606,491 73

1869-1870 7,824,525 57

1870-1871 10,014,277 60

1871-1872 8,430,211 oo

1872-1873 11,833,117 52

1873-1874 13,981,795 42

1874-1875 11,821,533 49

Total $367,725,836 01

Average in one year $7,07!, 650 69

Internal Revenue. — The Federal Treasury of Mexico depended
up to 1867 mainly upon import duties, and as it was not safe to have
only that source of revenue, when I occupied for the first time the
Treasury Department, I introduced a system of internal revenue
through the use of stamps, which met with a great deal of opposition
at the time, but which has finally been developed very largely, yielding
now almost as much as the import duties. The receipts during the
six months from January ist to June 3oth, ^75, amounted to $1,097,-
668 28, which in a whole year would make, duplicating it, $2,195,
336 56, while in the fiscal year ended June 30, 1896, the receipts
amounted to $18,078,952 54, or nearly eight times as much.

We have had since 1861 a comparative large source of revenue
called Federal Tax, which up to 1892 was 25 per cent, of all the reve-
nues collected by the States and Municipalities in Mexico. That rate

IRevenue ant) Expenses*

147

\O M HOO ro O 10 ro tx M vnoo 1000 lx tx N ro w oo O ro "-d- 04 -*-oo w
tx « CO vo txoo OOOOHVSrOTfO'OtxOHOOroO'OOOOOOO'

•* \r> o -<t-vo vo oo N rx o> -*• txoo O< « ro •*• -*-vo o> M H o> OM» <o<O
oo«ooioiooNro 1000 vo vo oo >^vo ro o Ooo tx tx ^ 10 o>vo 10 tx

H tx O M ON M rOVO rOVO W> •**• 0s 1O tx 0) 1O rO "3- ON fO N M ON rO tx rO

J.

ll

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I

OS O O OO g< ON O>OO -^- O>VO tx rO 1OOO rON 1-1 ONONtxM IO
txc< W O*O O SOtxO txvo tx H txVO vOCNlOOONWOONO'

O H « CT» O ^" tx txoO lOIO^O^OONt^OVO COfO tOVO O IOOO CO ro

o» in ^ Ovoo ^.Nwc«NiOM\OM5i-.wONON moo M o covo tx

vooo o OMVOOO H moo <«-io« o N oovcoo txoo o< tx tx « moo
•^•c* ON^o^mio^ 0*00 voio-^w tx^o ** w mvo ro M o* H ^- tx
ro <^vo_ q. >o q. •*; o^ ^oo^ 10 q. -*\o^ ^. M^ 5^ ro H^ H_ M^ •* c«_ cr c> « M^

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txiotxH ONfOH M •^•C^^wvO O •^•ONW O^H txo*O*W H M
•*• 10 10 rx\5 vooooooo ofo 10<0° < ° C°.°°

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Statistical IRotes on /IDejico.

was increased in 1893 from 25 to 33 J per cent, on account of the
deficit caused to the Federal Treasury by the depreciation of silver,
and that tax which is paid in Federal stamps, constitutes a very large
portion of our internal revenue receipts.

I append a statement of our internal revenue taxes with full details.

INTERNAL REVENUE RECEIPTS FROM JANUARY I, 1875, TO JUNE 30,

1896.

FISCAL YEARS.

GROSS
RECEIPTS.

GROSS RE-
CEIPTS OF THE
FEDERAL TAX.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

COLLECTION

EXPENSES.

NET
RECEIPTS.

From January i to
June 30, 1875...

$328,631 26

$769,037 02

$1,097,668 28

Per-
centage.

1871; 1876...

$668,930 14

728,192 71
920,001 29

763,879 23

1,311,463 95

$1,145,624 37
1,905,806 66
2,154,249 51
2,239,267 37
2,336,431 73

$1,814,554 51

2,633,999 37
3,075,150 80
3,003,146 60
3,647,895 68

$167,937 42

120,334 94
302,612 65

300,490 02
484,215 36

9-255
4-567
9.840
10.006
13-274

$2,247,617 09

2,513,664 43

2,772,538 15
2,702,656 58
3,164,180 32

1878 1870 .

1879-1880

Average per an-
num in five years

$878,673 46

$1,956,275 93

$2,834,949 39

$275,118 08

9.705

$2,680,131 31

1880-1881
1881 1882

$I,°37,73° 93
1,429,655 61
1,591,189 33
1,919,461 99
3,231,872 75

$2,371,369 31
2,775,M9 84
3,099,179 93
2,912,967 08
3,127,481 85

$3,4°9,100 24
4,204,805 45
4,690,369 26
4,832,429 07
6,359,354 60

$351,980 oi

376,095 30
420,132 04

441,080 10

489,043 89

10.325

8-943
9.000
9.126
7.690

$3,057,120 23
3,828,710 15

4,270,237 22
4,391,348 87
5,870,310 71

1882-1883
i88->— 1884

1884-1885

Average per an-
num in five years

$1,841,982 12

$2,857,229 60

$4,699,211 72

$415,666 27

8.845

$4,283,545 44

1885 1886

$2,761,886 56

3,930,429 16
4,654,190 93
5,108,911 59
5,575,o67 62

$3>II5,759 85
3,587,339 96
3,324,937 53
3,679,493 52
3,791,695 27

$5,877,646 41
7,517,769 12
7,979,128 46
8,788,405 ii
9,366,762 89

$428,390 78

638,011 29

728,431 31

771,601 95
799,721 78

7.288
8.486
9.000
8.777
8.538

$5,449,255 63
6,879,757 83
7,250,697 15
8,016,803 16
9,567,041 ii

1886-1887 .

1887-1888

1888-1889

Average per an-
num in five years

$4,406,097 17

$3,499,845 23

$7,905,942 40

$673,237 42

8.516

$7,432,710 98

$5,624,340 94
5,402,495 76
6,625,265 53
9,164,063 10
10,098,795 63
12,519,676 93

$3,865,650 49
3,969,987 88
4,431,022 65
5,216,547 31
5,47I,I73 92
5,559,255 61

$9,489,991 43
9,372,483 64
11,056,288 1 8
14,380,610 41

15,569,969 55
18,078,932 54

$853,834 28
868,161 60
945,076 71
1,120,760 85
1,146,419 41
1,196,053 14

8.955
9-263
8.548
7.190

6.616

$8,636,157 15
8,504,322 04
10,111,211 47
i3,259,849 56
14,423,550 14
16,882,879 40

1891—1892

1807-1804. . .

1895-1896

Average in six

$8,239,106 31

$4,752,272 98

$12,991,379 29

$1,021,717 67

7.865

$11,969,661 63

Total in 21 J years.

$85,397,032 94

$70,849,428 66

$156,246,461 60

$12,950,384 83

8.288

$143,799,908 39

Direct Taxes. — The third source of revenue of the Mexican Govern-
ment are direct taxes collected in the Federal District, which includes
the City of Mexico. They are levied on real-estate, scientific profes-
sions, commercial and industrial establishments, and work-shops. The
real-estate for the purpose of this tax is divided into rural and urban,
the former paying a tax of 12 per cent, on its rent when occupied, and
3 per cent, when not occupied, and the latter paying 8 per thousand of
its registered value.

Taxes on professions vary from 50 cents to $20.00 a month. The
tax on commercial and industrial establishments is regulated by law.
The commercial establishments, which pay license taxes are commis-

IRevenue ant> Bjpenses.

149

sion agencies of all kinds : banking firms ; dry goods, groceries, wines,
furniture, and jewelry stores ; insurance companies ; restaurants, hotels,
and boarding-houses. Among the industrial establishments are em-
braced especially railway, telegraph and telephone companies ; cotton,
woollen, and silk mills ; factories of all kinds ; iron smelters ; printing,
engraving, and photographic establishments ; coffee, corn, and flour
mills, etc., etc.

When the alcabalas were abolished a direct tax was established upon
some of the articles which paid the largest sums, namely : pulque,
wheat flour, and domestic brandy distilled from molasses.

I annex a statement showing the proceeds of Direct Taxes in the
Federal District during the last twenty-seven fiscal years.

RECEIPTS FROM DIRECT TAXES IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT DURING
THE TWENTY-SEVEN FISCAL YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1896.

FISCAL YEARS.

GROSS RECEIPTS.

COLLECTION
EXPENSES.

PER-
CENTAGE
EXPENSES.

NET RECEIPTS.

$485,451 73
502,146 64

471,228 78

477,654 75
524,494 76
531,149 09

Ii35°,7°5 56
516,510 80
538,300 09
559,217 21
592,688 44
634,498 92
674,973 66
753,579 80
830,010 26
1,092,656 37
1,023,349 52
1,040,143 1 6
1,074,489 54
1,125,202 97
1,213,458 49
1,306,746 37
1,369,225 30
1,436,875 70
1,445,270 81
I,497,25I 9°
1,620,480 35

$55,48l 65
53,924 28

50,034 37
5J,939 °5
57,205 69
56,663 64
69,957 24
47,685 23
37,970 oo
51,160 08

52,126 21
52,26o 50

53,i6i 23
98,264 24
I0°,937 9°
89,892 38
91,464 07
84,861 27

121,011 50
97,635 14
IOO,I34 87
103,740 02

104,320 34
115,817 86
110,290 73
108,255 57
110,347 13

11.42
10.74
10.62
9.90
10.90
10.67
5.18
9-23
7-05
9-15

8.79
8.23
7.87
13.08
12.16
8.23
8.97
8.16
11.26
8.68
8.25

8.06

?.3O
.81

$429,970 08
448,22*2 36
421,194 41
425,715 70
467,289 07
474,485 45
1,280,748 32
468,825 57
500,330 09
508,057 13
540,562 23
582,238 42
621,812 43
655,315 56
729,072 36
1,002,763 99
931,885 45
955,281 89
953,478 04
,027,567 83
,113,323 62
,203,006 35
,264,904 96
,321,057 84

!388',996 33
,510,133 22

1070 1079

1881 1882

1884 1885

1886 1887

1887 1888

1888 1880

1889 1890

1802 i8cn

1894-1895

$24,687,760 97

$2,126,542 19
78,760 82

$22,561,218 78
835,600 69

8.65

Totals and Annual averages of the
first five years

$2,460,976 66
4Q2,I95 33

$268,585 04
53,717 01

.

$2,192,391 62
438,478 32

11.14

Total of the second five years
Annual average

$3,495,882 75
699,176 55

$263,436 19
52,687 24

$3,232,446 56
646,489 31

7-54

$3,485,751 °8
684,550 38

$356,750 08

71,350 02

$3,129,001 oo

625,800 20

Annual average

10.42

Total of the fourth five years

$5,355,841 56
1,071,168 31

$484,864 36
96,972 87

$4,870,977 20

974,195 44

9-05

Total of the fifth period of five years
Annual average

$6,771,576 67
I,354,3I5 33

$534,303 82
106,860 76

$6,237,272 85
1,247,454 57

7.89

Total of the sixth period of two years
Annual average

$3,117,732 25
1,558,866 13

$218,602 70

109,301 35

$2,899,129 55
1,449,564 78

7.01

150

Statistical IRotes on /iDejico,

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H vo vooo^vo^ ri. in O^vo^ CO q. M_
i-r6>tCd-io»CincrtCfT«n o-vcf
r^^MMt--i-iromooovooN^-
mmmwco cowvo N^

t M

inco

38

9,
3,

Tf

oo

oo

N ON ON •*• « «
roQ% *M H

tf*z

M G1 O O^H ^-M COCOO*IOOOO W It*>t1x

<s ^10-^101000 M\O ^- 1000 ro o co

II1"

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8" ?

851,
210,

699

ON CO CO

•"• \A

^S&SS

\O •*• «0 ON M VO

e^vo o -vo o ^OCOIO^ONOC>^-COC>W covo w vo

C-N CO O vo vo 0s t^VO OHiotN.iOOKxMQ'^'*-tO>» *O O*

O O>W\O wvo COM (S O^O^ t^vo cj^ ON t^vt^ O^ O; co co tx

^^^^^r-*-^ ,>

$9,443,36
2,580,07

10 O M
r^v5 10
co M M

1 Sl^ co^O M

.« 5 S MVO

894,79
239,28

to O O O vo

^" O N O^ O\
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38,093

oo~ cf M cf '. tC tCvd" in

H 8

<5 « .n

iO O* O I

t^ • M oo o>

^
O K o>

M" tC ef

tx CO 00

t^oo^-^woNin
o> ONOO t^ • m o M co
vo Inoovo . vovg M c)

2 v|

i-T tC

t^coino'

o cor^M

covo o

^coino'
f-oom
MIO

OOt^»»»H<s IOOO

Nco-^-coOin
t^in-o-^-q\^t-
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$4,913,354
1,332,451

:A

O.3 S Q,S s E »9o " O »S M o4S-

Statistical IFtotes on

STATE AND MUNICIPAL FINANCES.

The best way in which I can give the state and municipal revenues
and expenses in Mexico, is by inserting the detail amounts of the last
twelve years of the revenues and expenses of each of the Mexican
States, and a similar statement of the revenues and expenses of the
municipalities of each State. That statement gives also the revenues
and expenses of the City of Mexico, which have increased very con-
siderably of late. In the year 1867, after the restoration of the Re-
public, they only amounted to about $800,000, while in the year 1895,
they had increased to $3,395,638. (These statements are on pp. 150-153.)

FOREIGN TRADE.

The foreign trade of Mexico was necessarily very small before the
railway era, because transportation was exceedingly high on account
of the broken condition of the country, and only articles of great
value and comparatively small weight could be profitably exported,
while the price of foreign commodities became very high, both on ac-
count of transportation charges and high import duties. Therefore,
only rich people could afford to consume foreign commodities, and
the exports of Mexico were practically reduced to silver and gold,
and to a few commodities having small bulk and great value.

The normal cost of transportation on merchandise from the City of
Mexico to Veracruz, a distance of one hundred Mexican leagues or
263f English miles, used to be, before the railroad connecting both
places was built, $68.75 Per ton °f 220° pounds, or more than 26 cents
per mile and ton ; and in extraordinary circumstances, as during the
French Intervention in Mexico from 1861 to 1867, the freight was as
high as $330 per ton, or over $1.25 per mile and ton. Therefore, no
article could be transported unless it was very much needed and it
commanded a very high price. The result was that not only the for-
eign but also the domestic trade was reduced to its smallest proportions,
and that the people raised just enough to provide for the wants of
themselves and their immediate neighbors. A fact that may seem in-
credible is, that for the same reasons, among the farmers, a good crop
was considered a great misfortune.

Since the railways have revolutionized transportation, our products,
especially agricultural commodities, have begun to be sent to foreign
markets, and their exportation is increasing considerably. As yet the
precious metals, especially silver, are the main exports from Mexico,
representing during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1896, 61 per cent.
of our total annual exports ; but other commodities are now exported,
and they are in a fair way to exceed, before long, the value of our silver
exports. I have no doubt that with the opening of our railroads,
if our exports continue to increase in the same proportion as they have

Urafce.

'55

recently done, Mexico will be able to supply the United States with
most of the tropical products now consumed and not yet produced
here, and even with others, that would find a market if they could be
cheaply transported.

The same difficulties which prevented us from having correct ac-
counts of our public revenues and expenses, and which I have stated
in speaking on that subject, made it very difficult for many years to
have correct statistics of our imports and exports.

Imports. — I could not give even a tentative statement, which I
could vouchsafe, of our total imports and exports from 1821 to 1867,
but the statement of the receipts of our custom-houses from 1823 to
1875, which appears on page 145 gives an approximate idea of our
imports, considering that the receipts amount to about from 50 to 60
per cent, of the value of the imports.

I append a detailed statement of the imports and exports in Mexico
during the years 1826, 1827, and 1828, and the total imports and exports
during the year 1825.

From the fiscal year 1872-1873 our Statistical Bureau began to
make its reports, and I have concised them in the three annexed state-
ments comprising most of those years, up to the fiscal year ended June
30, 1896. The commodities are divided in their respective classes in
accordance with the different schedules of the tariffs then in force.

MEXICAN IMPORTS AND EXPORTS FROM 1826 TO 1828.

MERCHANDISE.

1826.

1827.

1828.

Imports.

$2,384,715
934,295
1,432,578
5,017,700
122,968
2,888,066
728,236
90,779
1,430,039
264,424
91,910

63,499
912

444

$2,180,191
493,760
844,732
6,913,126
107,108
2,867,320
489,402
55,ioo
495,743
3",074
103,047

22,816
4,517
i, 080

$1,711,051
245,901
398,003
3,417,766
38,654
3,244,498
306,614
20,260
130,638
332,819
57,i87

44,123
3i8

Wool . . .

Silk

Cotton

Mixed

Wines liquors groceries

Haberdashery

Medicines drugs and perfumeries •

Books blank and printed paper

China, fine and ordinary, crystal and glass.
Furniture, of wood and metal

Machines and instruments for mining,
science and the arts

Furs

Gold and silver . . .

Total imports . -

$15,450,565
Total impo

$5,847,795
1,356,730
76,440
367,164

$14,889,016
rts in 1825 : $

$9,669,428
912,049
1,076,528
513,769

$9,947,832
19,093,716.

$12,387,288
1,483,746
448,747
169,005

Exports.

Cochineal. . ....

Indigo, vanilla, jalap, and sarsaparilla . . .
Other articles of indigenous products

$7,648,129
Total expo

$12,171,774
rts in 1825 : \

$14,488,786
5,085,235.

156

Statistical "Rotes on flDejico.

10

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158

Statistical notes on flDejico.

<

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•^ ts.vq_ cj q.
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Urafce,

159

I append a statement which shows the imports and exports of
Mexico during the two fiscal years 1894-1895 and 1895-1896, both by
countries and by custom-houses, and the imports and duties by coun-
tries in the fiscal years 1888-1889 and 1889-1890.

Exports. — It would be difficult to make a correct statement of our'
exports previous to the fiscal year 1867-1868. Their amount was very
small for reasons already given, and as they principally consisted in
silver, and almost all the silver coined was exported the coinage of
which we have exact records, can be taken as the amount of exports,
with the addition of from 30 to 40 per cent., representing the silver
both in coin and bullion smuggled. I give a correct statement of our
exports of agricultural commodities from the fiscal year 1877-1878 to
1895-1896, and also a statement of our exports of other commodities
from the fiscal year 1886-1887 to r 895-1 896, which shows the rapid
pace at which they are increasing.

The exports from Mexico are embraced in the following articles :

FRUITS.

MINERALS.

Chapopote.

Coal.

Copper in bars.

Gold and silver coin.

Gold and silver bullion

Lead in pigs.

Onyx.

Opals.

ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

Bones.
Cattle.

Chihuahua terriers.
Donkeys.
Goats.
Hair, horse.
Hair, rabbit.
Heron feathers.

Ores of silver, copper, and Hides. ra^ and tanned.

lead.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.
Beans.

Hoofs.
Horns.
Horses.

Mules.

Bitter almonds and various Ox grease.

fruits, kernels.
Chick-peas.
Cocoa.
Coffee.
Honey.
India-rubber.
Molasses.

Piloncillo (brown sugar).
Sugar, all grades.

FIBRES.
Henequen.
Ixtle.

Mallows fibre.
Pita.
Ramie.
Sotol.
Wool.

Sheep.

Skins of sheep and goat,

dressed and undressed.

MANUFACTURES.

Cotton, linen, worsted and
silk domestic shawls (re-
bozos).

Guadalajara earthenware.

Maguey, brandy (Tequila
and mescal.

Preserved sweet meats.

Rag puppets and dolls.

Rags (all sorts).

Bananas.

Cocoanuts.

Lemons.

Limes.

Oranges.

Pine apples.

Walnuts, Nuevo Leon.

Tamarind pulp.

FORESTRY.

Cabinet woods, mahogany,
moral, lind-aloe, tepe-
guaje, cedar, sandal, eb-
ony, and rosewood.

Dye woods, brasil, camphor,
moral, and other varieties
of logwood.

Orchilla.

SUNDRIES.

Copal, chick, and sundry
resinous substances.

Jalap, and other medicinal
herbs.

Mother of pearl shells.

Pearls.

Wax, artificial flowers and Tortoise shell from the Gulf

figures. of Cortez.

Woollen and worsted Mexi- Vanilla.

can plaids or blankets Zacaton brush and broom

(Zarapes). grasses.

160

Statistical IRotes on /IDejico*

3 co^

M ON

Ojttt'O

i. ^ *• - V V ». ^ •• ~ - - •- pi i. i- »
M VO VO 1O M OO tx « •**-,> ONOO OO O CO ^* tx
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^*" O* tx

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•4- CO M M VO ^-VO -*00

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foreign Ura&e. 16 1

The following is a list of the value of metals and commodities
exported from Mexico during the fiscal year 1895-1896, which shows
that they are all either mineral or agricultural products, these being
only raw materials : The commodities are placed in the order of their
relative importance in value.

METALS.

Gold ore $160,555

Gold coin 169,794

Gold bullion 20,377,663

Silver ore 10,885,479

Silver coin 5,246,418

Silver bullion 26,345,160

Sulphate of silver 1,030,156

Foreign gold and silver and silver in other combina-
tions 623,371

Total $64,838,596

COMMODITIES.

Coffee $8,103,302

Henequen 6,763,821

Cabinet and dye woods 4,206,880

Copper 3,909,485

Lead 2,531 ,624

Live animals 3,546,770

Hides and skins 2,331,999

Chewing gum 1,527,838

Tobacco i ,461,090

Vanilla 1,428,675

Ixtle 690,862

Zacaton — broom root 616,492

Chick-peas 352,737

Coal 270, 176

Marble 258,668

Fruits 246,150

Sugar 169,662

Horse hair, beans, and jalap 247,768

All others.. 1, 5*4,307

Total 40, 178,306

$105,016,902

VOL. I — II

162

Statistical Hotes on

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164

Statistical IFlotes on

ON

00

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CO

W

I

g

00

{ih

H<?S&

Weight in
Kilograms.

Mex

cy.

Valu
Cu

*?

Value in
Mexican
Currency

Weight in
Kilograms.

0

1 ^

ro «vo •* co

tx Tt-vo vo tx
vo to 10 O ^*

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165

N

ON
00

TO JUNE 30

%

EXICO FROM JULY
US AND OTHER META

RTS FROM
PRE

PO

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1

170 Statistical Botes on fl&ejico.

TRADE BETWEEN MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES.

It is quite difficult to make a correct statement of the trade between
Mexico and the United States, because the official data of both govern-
ments never used to agree, especially on account of the different cur-
rencies prevailing in the two countries. As we have the silver standard,
all our public accounts are kept in silver, and that makes our exports
appear twice as large in value as they really are, when stated in the
money of the United States, while we give our imports in the value of the
country from whence they come, that is their gold value. That fact,
which has often been overlooked, has caused the prevailing idea that
there is a very large balance of trade in favor of Mexico, because
the exports of United States commodities in Mexico amount to a given
figure a year, the imports to this country of Mexican commodities
amount to over double that figure ; but it must be borne in mind that
the former is in silver while the latter is in gold. For instance, accord-
ing to the Mexican Bureau of Statistics the imports into Mexico of
merchandise from the United States in the fiscal year ended June 30,
1896, amounted to $20,145,763, while the exports of metals and com-
modities from Mexico to the United States during the same year
amounted to $79,651,695, the proportion being almost four to one ; but
if the imports are doubled as they ought to be, because the Mexican
currency is silver, they amount to $40,291,526, and if the exports of
Mexico into the United States, calculated also in silver, are reduced to
gold, they will amount to one half or $39,825,847.50.

In corroboration of this statement I will mention the fact that ac-
cording to the data of the Statistical Bureau of the United States
Treasury Department, the exports to Mexico of commodities and pre-
cious metals from the United States during the last fiscal year, end-
ing June 30, 1897, amounted to $23,535,213 while the imports into the
United States of commodities and precious metals amounted to $30,-
714,366. Since March 1893, however, the Statistical Bureau of the
United States Treasury Department, has reduced to gold the silver
value of the Mexican metals and commodities imported in this coun-
try, and its data come now nearer to the mark, as in the year 1896 it
gives the total exports of merchandise from this country into Mexico
as $19,450,256, while the total imports of merchandise from Mexico
into this country are $17,456,177.

The figures of our exports appear very large in the Mexican re-
turns, because our merchandise is sold in gold markets, and their gold
price is reduced to silver, and increased in the same proportion in
which silver depreciates. It is not therefore the amount of merchan-
dise which has increased so much, as that the price has been swollen in
reducing it from gold to silver. In that regard the returns from the
United States Statistical Bureau are more in conformity with the facts.

witb tbe mnitefc States, 171

Another cause of the discrepancy between the statistics of both
countries is that the Statistical Bureau of the United States Treasury
Department had not, prior to March 3, 1893, any data of commodities
exported to Mexico by way of the frontier, as there was no law
which provided for the collection of such data, and a very large
portion of the trade between the two countries is carried on by the
frontier, especially since the railroads connecting both countries were
finished.1 That deficiency was only in relation to the exports, as the
imports were duly declared for the payment of duties, and therefore
the statistics of the United States necessarily were deficient and incom-
plete about the exports to Mexico of United States commodities, and
that accounts in a great measure for the discrepancy between the
official data published by both governments, and for the great dis-
crepancy between exports and imports which appear in the statistics of
the United States for those years.

From the preceding remarks it will be understood why there is
such a great discrepancy between the data of the respective Bureaus.

It is very difficult to make a correct statement of the trade between
the two countries previous to the organization of the Bureau of Statistics
of the United States ; but I found in a book published in Washington
in 1860 by Mr. Carlos Butterfield, entitled " The United States and
Mexican Mail Steamship Line and Statistics of Mexico," a statement
of the imports and exports between Mexico and the United States from
1826 to 1858, taken as he states from official data of the United States
Treasury Reports, which I will use.

That statement is complemented by two tables furnished to me by
Hon. Worthington C. Ford, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics of the
Treasury Department. The first contains a statement of the trade be-
tween the United States and Mexico, during the forty-six years from
1851 to 1897, and the second is a full statement of that trade, includ-
ing gold and silver during the same period. (Pages 174 and 175.)

I have prepared besides from the official publications of the Bureau
of Statistics of the United States Treasury Department, a detailed
statement of the commodities imported into the United States from
Mexico, and exported from the United States to Mexico during the

1 For these reasons the statements of the Statistical Bureau of the United States,
previous to the fiscal year ended June 30, 1892, contained the following foot-note :

" In the absence of law providing for the collection of statistics of exports to ad-
jacent foreign territory over railways, the values of exports to Mexico, from 1883 to
1893 inclusive, have been considerably under-stated. Since March, 1893, there has
been a law in force for the collection of exports by railways. According to official in-
formation from Mexican sources, the value of imports into that country from the
United States during the year ending June 30, 1888, was $19,264,673, including pre-
cious metals valued at $38,362. Prior to 1866 the figures include gold and silver im-
ported and exported. For 1866 and subsequent years, merchandise only."

172

Statistical motes on

years 1858 to 1897, which is complete so far as the records of this
government go, and contains very valuable information.

I will give first a partial statement prepared by the Bureau of Sta-
tistics of the Mexican Government of the total imports to Mexico and
the imports from the United States of America from the fiscal year
1872-1873 to 1895-1896, and then another detailed statement prepared
by the same Bureau of the total exports from Mexico and the exports
to the United States of America from the fiscal year 1877-1878 to
1895-1896.

From said data it will be seen that the trade of Mexico with the
United States is increasing very rapidly, notwithstanding the difficulty
thrown in the way by high protective tariffs. Only a few years ago, as
will be seen by the appended statement, our largest trade was with Great
Britain, the United States occupying the second place, while now the
United States occupies the first place, both in amount of our exports
and imports.1

Value of exports during the fiscal year 1872-1873 with their desti-
nation.

Great Britain $12,479,547-75

United States 11,366,530.76

France 4,604,417.38

Panama (New Grenada). . . 1,579,015.12

Germany 802,643.83

Spain and the Island of Cuba 752,891.91

Guatemala and Honduras. 80,999.52

Italy 17,389.00

Belgium 4,784.00

Ecuador 2,931.75

Total $31,691,151.02

TOTAL IMPORTS TO MEXICO AND IMPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES
FOR THE FISCAL YEARS, 1872-1873 TO 1895-1896.

IMPORTS FROM THE
UNITED STATES.

TOTAL IMPORTS.

Value.

Value.

1872—1873 . .

$5 231, 255

$20,166,013

1873— 1874

5,946,614

23,282,299

l874-l87<i. .

5,028,636

18,793,494

1884 1885 First 6 months

5 O45 531

11,893,342

1885 1886 First 6 months

5,145,736

10,585,898

1888—1889

22,669,421

40,024,894

29,080,276

52,018,659

1802 1893 . .

26,235,963

43,413,131

180^—1804

14,351,785

30,287,489

15,130,367

34,000,440

1895-1896

20,145,763

42,253,938

MEXICO, November, 1896.

1 This statement is corroborated by the following extract from an official report
addressed to Lord Salisbury by Mr. Lionel Garden, British Consul-General at the City
of Mexico, on the trade of Mexico during the year 1896 :

" The great increase in the imports of American goods this year must be regarded
by British merchants and manufacturers as another warning that unless they soon make
a serious effort, they will have to give up all hope of profiting by the increase in the
Mexican import trade, and may even lose part of the very limited share of it they at
present enjoy."

Urafce witb tbe TUnitefc States*

173

TABLE SHOWING THE TOTAL EXPORTS FROM MEXICO AND THE EXPORTS
TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA FROM THE FISCAL YEAR 1877-
1878 TO THE YEAR 1895-1896.

EXPORTS TO THE UNITED STATES.

TOTAL EXPORTS FROM MEXICO.

Precious
Metals.

Commodities.

Total.

Precious
Metals.

Commodities.

Total.

1877-1878.

$ 8,664,052

$ 3,676,937

$ 12,340,989

$ 22,663,438

$ 6,622,223

$ 29,285,661

1878-1879-

7,439,815

4,741,724

12,181,539

21,528,938

8,362,540

29,891,478

1879-1880.

6,848,231

6,568,375

13,416,606

22,086,418

10,577,^36

32,663,554

1880-1881.

7,601,767

6,556,424

14,158,191

J9, 354, 7°4

io,573,994

29,928,698

1881-1882.

5,451,731

8,309,131

13,760,862

1 7,063, 767

12,019,526

29,083,293

1882-1883.

9,036,773

7,702,325

16,739,098

29,628,658

12,178,937

41,807,595

1883-1884.

12,822,241

9,002,160

21,824,401

33,473,283

13,252,213

46,725,496

1884-1885.

16,404,776

9,448,285

25,853,061

33,774,051

12,896,794

46,670,845

1885-1886.

15,496,336

9,933,259

25,429,595

29,906,401

43,647,717

1886-1887.

16,576,120

11,152,595

27,728,715

33,560,503

15,631,427

49,191,930

1887-1888.

17,915,116

31,059,627

31,006,188

17,879,720

48,885,908

1888-1889.

23,647,920

17,205,443

40,853,363

38,785,275

21,373,148

60,158,423

1889-1890.
1890-1891.

24,098,147
23,400,833

18,924,294
21,582,253

43,022,441
44,983,086

38,621,290
36,256,372

23,878,099
27,020,023

62,499,389
63,276,395

1891-1892.

30,447,566

19,485,099

49,932,665

49,137,304

26,330,411

1892-1893.

40,113,882

63,837,643

56,504,305

31,004,916

87,509,221

1893-1894.
1894-1895.
1895-1896.

36,681,273
38,852,843
51,071,661

23,978,97°
28,470,143
28,580,034

60,660,243
67,322,986
79,651,695

46,484,360
52,535,854
64,838,596

32,858,927
38,319,099
40,178,306

79,343,287
90,854,953
105,016,902

Total....

$392,571,083

$272,185,723

$664,756,806

$677,209,705

$374,698,755

$1,051,908,460

STATEMENT TAKEN FROM THE UNITED STATES TREASURY REPORTS
OF THE COMMERCIAL TRANSACTIONS BETWEEN MEXICO AND THE
UNITED STATES FROM 1826 TO 1850.

YEARS.

EXPORTS FROM
MEXICO INTO
THE
UNITED STATES.

EXPORTS FROM
THE UNITED
STATES INTO
MEXICO.

TOTAL TRADE
BETWEEN
THE
TWO COUNTRIES.

1826 . . .

$ 3 916 ooo

$ 6 281 ooo

$ 10 197 ooo

l827. . .

e 2^2 OOO

4 l6"3 OOO

Q -30^ ooo

1828

4 814,000

2 886 ooo

7,700 ooo

I82Q...

5,O26,76l

2,331,151

7,357,912

l8^O.. .

e 2-3^ 241

4 S"37 4^8

10 072 600

18-31.. ,

5,l67,OOO

6,178,000

11,345,000

18-32

4,293,954

3,467,541

7,761,495

18-3-3

5 4^0 8l8

5 4O8 OQI

10,867 QOQ

18-34.. ,

8,666,668

5,265,053

13,931,721

iS-jq

0 4QO /i/i6

Q O2Q 221

18 *IQ 667

1836

5 6ie; 810

6,040,6-35

11,6*6,4^4

l8^7.. .

5,654,002

3,880,323

9,534,325

1838

3,127,153

2,787,362

5,914,515

I8-3Q .

5 500 707

2,l64,O97

7,664,804

1840...

4,175,000

2,515,341

6,690,341

1841

3,484,957

2,O36,62O

5,521,577

1842 . ,

1,096,694

,5 -34,49-3

•3,5-31,187

1847.. . .

2,782,406

,471,937

4,254,343

1844

2,387,000

,794,833

4,181,833

184^..

1,702,9-36

,152, -3 -31

2,855,267

1846

1,836,621

,531,180

3,367,801

1847

746,818

692,428

1,439,246

1848

1,581,247

4>°5s>44fi

5,639,69-3

1840.. .

2,216,719

2,090,869

4,307,588

1850

2,135,336

2,012,827

4,148,163

Total

$102,245,303

$85,610,237

$187,855,540

Average

$4,080,812

$-3 424 400

$7,514,222

174

Statistical IRotes on

STATEMENT SHOWING THE COMMERCE IN MERCHANDISE BETWEEN THE
UNITED STATES AND MEXICO, BY YEARS AND DECADES, FROM 1851
TO 1897.

YEAR
ENDING
JUNE 30.

EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES.

IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES.

EXCESS OF
EXPORTS ( — }
OR
IMPORTS (+).

Domestic.

Foreign.

Total.

Free.

Dutiable.

Total.

i8w

$ 1,014,690
1,406,372
2,529,770
2,091,870
2.2537368
2,464,692
3,017,640
2,782,852
2,252,162
3,309,379

& 567,093
878,557
1,029,054
1,043,616
668,236
I,237,°97
597,566
529,973
667,580
2,015,334

$ 1,581,783
2,284,929
3,558,824
3,135,486
2,921,604
3,701,789
3,615,206
3,312,825
2,919,742
5,324,713

$ 27,666
20,564
4,148
111,405
17,508
79,966
62,307
246,894
234,112
586,016

$ 693,120
534,700
751,952
826,451
887,242
773,792
964,566
861,607
1,009,972
1,317,415

$ 720,786
555,264
756,100
937,856
904,750
853,758
1,026,873
1,108,501
1,244,084
I,9°3,43i

$ -860,997
-1,729,665

ig-3

l8^4 ....

-2,197,630
— 2,016,854
2 848 031

j8t:6

- 2,588,333
-2,204,324
- 1,675,658
-3,421,282

1858

Jsfo

Total
10 years . .

X86i

$ 23,122,795

$ 1,559,062
1,840,720
7,441,579
7,765,133
13,819,972
3,701,599
4,823,614
5,048,420
3,835,699
4,544,745

F 9,234,106

1 651,364

340,454
1,579,045
1,505,464
2,530,867
871,619
572,182
1,392,919
1,047,408

I,3I4,955

$ 32,356,901

$ 2,210,426
2,181,174
9,020,624

9,270,597
16,350,839
4,573,2i8
5,395,796
6,44i,339
4,883,107
5,859,700

$ 1,390,586

$ 253,703
289,011
446,070
385,037
369,915
402,568
402,779
482,228
5II,3I9
522,907

$ 8,620,817

$ 632,409

441,977
2,597,812
5,743,408
5,850,959
1,323,524
669,157
,108,439
,824,845
,192,758

$ 10,011,403

$ 886,112
730,988
3,043,882
6,128,445
6,220,874
1,726,092
1,071,936
1,590,667
2,336,164
2,715,665

$-22,345,498

$ -1,324,314
-1,450,186
-5,976,742
-3,142,152
-10,129,965
-2,847,126
-4,323,860

1862

j863

1864

!86s

!866

1867

!868

1869

-2,546,943
-3,144,035

1870

Total
10 years..

$ 54,38o,543

$ 5,044,033
3,420,658
3,941,019
4,016,148
3,872,004
4,700,978
4,503,802
5,811,429
5,400,380
6,065,974

£11.806.277

$ 2,568,080
2,122,931
2,323,882
1,930,691
1,865,278
1,499,594
1,389,692
1,649,275
1,351,864
1,800,519

$ 66,186,820

$ 7,612,113
5,543,589
6,264,901
5,946,839
5,737,282
6,200,572
5,893,494
7,460,704
6,752,244
7,866,493

$ 4,o65,537

976,117
1,156,257
3,065,140
3,026,661
3,863,302
3,920,633
3,756,191
3,723,281
3,981,402
4,852,659

$ 2 ,385,288

$ ,233,571
,846,663
,211,025

,319,703
,311,292
,229,939
,448,073
,528,221
,511,819
2,356,934

$ 26,450,825

$ 3,209,688
4,002,920
4,276,165
4,346,364
5,174,594
5,150,572
5,204,264
5,251,502
5,493,221
7,209,593

$-39,735,995

$ -4,402,425
-1,540,669
i 988 736

1872

-1,600,475
-562,688
- 1,050,000
-689,230

i875
1876
1877

1878

1879
!88o

- 1,259,023

Total
10 years..

j88i

$ 46,776,425

$ 9,198,077
13,324,505
I4,370,992
11,089,603

7,370,599
6,856,077
7,267,129
9,242,188
10,886,288
12,666,108

518.501,806

5 1,973,161
2,158,077
2,216,628
1,614,689
970,185
881,546
692,428
655,584
600,608
619,179

$ 65,278,231

$ 11,171,238
15,482,582
16,587,620
12,704,292
8,340,784
7,737,623
7,959,557
9,897,772
11,486,896
13,285,287

$ 32,321,643

$ 5,643,! 76
5,310,796
4,211,328
5,334,689
5,i73,44i
6,808,757
9,928,122
11,042,772
13,825,242
15,536,100

$ 16,997,240

$ 2,674,626
3,151,103
3,965,795
3,681,797
4,093,580
3,879,215
4,791,718
6,287,117
7,428,359
7,154,815

$ 49,318,883

$ 8,317,802
8,461,899
8,177,123
9,016,486
9,267,021
10,687,972
14,719,840
17,329,889
21,253,601
22,600,915

$-15,959,348

$ -2,853,436
-7,020,683
- 8,410,497
-3,687,806
+926,237
+2,950,349
+6,760,283
+7,432,117
+9,766,705
+9,405,628

x882

1883

!884

1885 ....

1886

j887

1888
1880 . .

1890
Total
10 years . .

1801 ..

$102,271,566

$ 14,199,080
13,696,531
18,891,714
12,441,805
14,582,484
18,686,797
22,726,596

512,382.085

5 770,540
597,468
676,920
400,344
423,422
763,459
694,468

$114,653,651

$ 14,969,620
14,293,999
19,568,634
12,842,149
15,005,906
19,450,256
23,421,064

$ 82,814,423

$ 23,364,519
23,702,496
27,145,469
21,560,011
12,903,789
13,819,698
13,990,017

$ 47,108,125

$ 3,931,473
4,405,029
6,409,630
7,166,995
2,731,999
3,636,479
4,521,555

$129,922,548

$ 27,295,992
28,107,525
33,555,099
28,727,006
15,635,788
17,456,177
18,511,572

$+15,268,897

$+12,326,372
+13,813,526
+13,986,465
+15,884,857
+629,882
- 1,994,079
-4,909,492

1892

1893,

iSoc . ,

1806

1897

TWi1

7 years..

$115,225,007

5 4,326,621

$119,551,628

$136,485,999

$ 32,803,160

$169,289,159

$+49,737,531

Treasury Department, Bureau of Statistics,
September 4, 1897*

WORTHINGTON C. FORD,

Chief of Bureau.

ZTrafce witb tbe Iftnitefc States.

175

STATEMENT SHOWING THE TOTAL COMMERCE BETWEEN THE UNITED
STATES AND MEXICO, BY YEARS AND DECADES FROM 1851 TO
1897.

YEAR
ENDING
JUNE 30.

EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES.

IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES.

EXCESS OF
EXPORTS (-)
OR
IMPORTS (-f).

Mer-
chandise.

Gold and
Silver.

Total.

Mer-
chandise.

Gold and
Silver.

Total.

I85I
1852

$ 1,581,783
2,284,929
3,558,824
3,135,486
2,921,604
3,701,789
3,615,206
3,312,825
2,919,742
5, 324, 71 3

$ 2,652
3,255
i,734
528

1,200
450

$ 1,584,435
2,288,184
3,560,558
3,136,014
2,922,804
3,702,239
3,615,206
3,315,825
2,992,546
5,354,073

$ 720,786
555,264
756,100
937,856
904,75°
853,758
1,026,873
1,108,501
1,244,084
1,903,431

$ 1,083,993
1,093,942
1,411,885
2,525,334
1,978,080
2,7I4,923
4,958,984
4,368,964
4,095,890
5,032,441

$ 1,804,779
1,649,206
2,167,985
3,463,190
2,882,830
3,568,68i
5,985,857
5,477,465
5,339,974
6,935,872

$

+220,344
-638,978
-1,392,573
+327,176
-39,974

jgeo

i8<u

8c6

I8e7

»JOOO«

+2,370,651

-+-2,161,640
+2,347,428
4-1,581,709

j858

3,000

72,804
29,360

1860'

Total
10 years . .

!86i

$32,356,901

$ 2,210,426
2,181,174
9,020,624
9,270,597
16,350,839
4,573,2i8
5,395,796
6,441,339
4,883,107
5,859,700

$114,983

$ 5,464

$32,471,884

$ 2,215,890
2,181,174
9,072,212
12,681,554
17,015,080
4,588,218
5,452,248
6,454,263
4,885,107
5,875,396

$10,011,403

$ 886,112
730,988
3,040,882
6,128,445
6,220,874
,726,092
,071,936
,590,667
,336,164
,715,665

$29,264,436

$ 2,803,101
1,953,864
1,485,702
1,755,946
1,133,299
2,429,511
2,849,038
4,525,255
4,895,842
10,383,366

$39,275,839

$ 3,689,213
2,684,852
4,526,584
7,884,391
7,354,173
4,155,603
3,920,974
6,115,922
7,232,006
13,099,031

$+6,803,955

$+1,473,323
+503,678
-4,545,628
-4,797,163
-9,660,907
-432,615
-1,531,274
-338,341
+2,346,899
+7,223,635

!862

T86-3

51,588

3,410,957
664,241
15,000
56,452
12,924

2,000

15,696

!864

1865 . .

1866

1867
1868

1869

1870

Total
10 years. .

$66,186,820

$ 7,612,113
5,543,589
6,264,901
5,946,839
5,737,282
6,200,572
5,893,494
7,460,704
6,752,244
7,866,493

$4,234,322
$ 38,500

35,000
165,262
57,53i
33,5oi
7,600
5,239
32,180
9,040
3,371

$70,421,142

$ 7,650,613
5,578,589
6,430,163
6,004,370

5,770,783
6,208,172

5,898,733
7,492,884
6,761,284
7,869,864

$26,447,825

$ 3,209,688
4,002,920
4,276,165
4,346,364
5,174,594
5,150,572
5,204,264
5,251,502
5,493,221
7,209,593

$34,214,924

$14,301,475
4,504,204
12,154,060
8,893,541
6,460,389
7,355,i8i
10,240,319
8,394,146
8,554,598
9,115,824

$60,662,749

$ 17,511,163
8,507,124
16,430,225
13,239,905
11,634,983
12,505,753
15,444,583
13,645,648
14,047,819
16,325,417

$
$-
-f

-9,758,393

f9, 860, 550
f2,928,535
-10,000,062
-7,235,535
-5,864,200
-6,297,581
-9,545,850
-6,152,764
-7,286,535
f 8,455, 553

1872

1873 . ,

1874

1875

1876

!878

1870

mo

Total
10 years. .

$65,278,231

$387,224

$ 1,500

18,446

96,964
335,635
79,406
"0,035
279,812
319,408

176,616

240,912

$65,665,455

$ 11,172,738
15,501,028
16,684,584
13,039,927
8,420,190
7,847,658
8,239,369
10,217,180
11,663,512
13,526,199

$49,318,883

$ 8,317,802
8,461,899
8,i77,I23
9,016,486
9,267,021
10,687,972
14,719,840
17,329,889
21,253,601
22,690,915

$89,973,737

$ 9,136,324
6,631,938
9,782,986
13,015,901
14,919,611
16,935,396
14,855,765
14,032,637
17,557,248
18,155,809

$139,292,620

$ 17,454,126

15,093,837
17,960,109
22,032,387
24,186,632
27,623,368
29,575,605
31,362,526
38,810,849
40,846,724

$4

$ -

•73,627,165

f6, 281, 388
-407,191
hi,275,525
1-8,992,460
15,766,442
I9,775,7Io
21,336,236
21,145,346
27,147,337
27,320,525

1882 . .

15,482,582
16,587,620
12,704,292
8,340,784
7,737,623
7,959,557
9,897,772
11,486,896
13,285,287

1883

!884

1885

1886

1887
1888

1889
1890 . .

Total
10 years. .

$114,653,651

$ 14,969,620
14,293,999
19,568,634
12,842,149
15,005,906
19,450,256
23,421,064

$1,658,734
$ 227,734

168,584

473,942
708,932

551,064

926,560
114,149

$116,312,385

$ I5,I97,354
14,462,583
20,042,576
iSiSS^oSi
15,556,970
20,376,816
23,535,213

$129,922,548

$ 27,295,992
28,107,525
33,555,099
28,727,006
15,635,788
17,456,177
18,511,572

$135,023,615

$ 14,297,431
19,174,034
22,951,604
12,790,199
9,644,160
29,166,241
12,202,794

$264,946,163

$ 4^593,423
47,28r,559
56,506,703
41,517,205
25,279,948
46,622,418
30,714,366

$+148,633,778

$ +26,396,069

+32,818,976
+36,464,127
+27,966,124
+9,722,978
+26,245,602
+7,179,153

1892

l8oq

1804

1895

1896
1897
Total
7 years . .

$119,551,628

$3,* 7°, 965

$122,722,593

$169,289,159

$120,226,463

$289,515,622

$+166,793,029

176

Statistical IRotes on flDejico.

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ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

ctured cotton.
ured cotton.

value of unm
alue of unma

128,875 was t
7,197 was th

Of this amount
Of this amount

1 1

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Statistical IRotes on /»ejico.

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181

E
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te and other
sses unmanu-
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S S RR *

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-

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and other un-
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182

Statistical fRotes on

1 1

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a!
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Total
imports of
merchandise.

Other
merchandise.

Wood, un-
manu-
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We
nul

and
ses.

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183

af

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ther mer-
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i.84 Statistical IRotes on

Increase of trade during the year 1896-97. — The data given in the
chapter on Foreign Trade contain detailed statements of the amount
of commodities and precious metals exported from Mexico into the
United States during the last ten years, and I refer, therefore, to the
same, those desiring more detailed information on that subject.

I give, however, a statement of the leading merchandise imported
from Mexico into the United States, during the last fiscal year, com-
pared with the fiscal year ended June 30, 1896, embracing only such
imports as are not specifically stated in the data taken from the
official reports of the United States Statistical Bureau, and which
appear on pages 176 and 177. The following data, also taken from the
last official report of the same Bureau, shows a comparative increase of
trade.

LEADING MERCHANDISE IMPORTS FROM MEXICO.

FISCAL YEAR FISCAL YEAR

1896-1897. 1895-1896.

Henequen, tons 62,839 51,167

Value $3,809,415 $3,339,180

Ixtle fibre, tons 6,313 12,207

Value $335,841 $717,585

Oranges, value $258,340 $212,913

Tobacco, Ibs... 749,560 93,197

Value $297,262 $28,025

Mahogany, feet 8,791 10,654

Value $321,800 $414,817

Coal, tons 99,760 72,056

Value... $218,456 $146,813

I also append a similar statement of some of the articles exported
from the United States into Mexico during the last fiscal year, com-
pared with the previous one, ended June 30, 1896, embracing only
such exports as are not specifically stated in the data taken from
the official reports of the United States Statistical Bureau, appearing
on pages 178 to 183, and which I also take from the last official re-
port of the same Bureau. When it is taken into consideration that the
Mexican imports from the United States during the last fiscal year were
made on a falling silver market, the annexed statement shows a con-
siderable financial strength.

EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES TO MEXICO.

( Fiscal year 1896-97 and preceding year.)

1896-97. 1895-96.

Cattle, no 690 1,112

Value.; $29,186 $39,509

Hogs, no 22,164 i7,54o

Value $263,083 $206,807

witb tbe Unites States, 185

1896-97. 1895-96.

Agricultural implements $130,825 $119,838

Books, maps, etc $161,143 $107,384

Carriages and cars .'... $615,468 $687,425

Coal and coke, tons 219,111 121,269

Value $643,715 $377,469

Bicycles $73,117 $24,278

Fruits and nuts $72,654 $78,497

Hops $55,6io $8,289

Hardware $2,874,283 $2,455,400

Leather $16,456 $24,014

Crude petroleum, gals 7,090,853 6,779,059

Value $349,021 $392,510

Refined petroleum, gals 836,628 631,147

Value $174,107 $142,761

(Includes lubricating oil.)

Cotton-seed oil, gals 1,616,407 1,588,504

Value $320,496 $337,892

Paraffin, Ibs 2,888,475 2,975,476

Value $144,805 $163,644

Tallow, Ibs 997,216 1,783,788

Value $36,561 $77,050

Hams $28,976 $29,487

Butter $40,089 $33, 169

Wool, Ibs 1,698,952 2,605,150

Value $140,609 $238,316

Tropical Products Supplied by Mexico to the United States. — It will be
interesting to state in what proportion Mexican imports of tropical pro-
ducts figure in the total imports of said commodities into this country.

From 1892 to 1896 the annual average of importation of vanilla
beans into the United States was 205,197 pounds, of which Mexico fur-
nished 142,727 pounds, or 6pJ per cent. Mexico receives for her
vanilla crop, annually, $640,000 gold.

Mexico's average annual exportation of coffee to the United States
for the past five years was 28,927,410 pounds, or 4.8 per cent, of the
total American purchase of coffee, Brazil furnishing 70 per cent.,
Central America 7.6 per cent, Venezuela 6.4 per cent., and the
British West Indies i.i per cent There is plenty of room for the
Mexican coffee-growing industry to expand. Mexico's fine flavored,
mild coffees are steadily gaining in favor in the United States.

In henequen, or sisal grass, Mexico takes the leading place in the im-
port trade of the United States, selling, of the total received there, 98.1
per cent. The average annual importation for the past five years was
50,129 tons, of which Mexico furnished 49,195, Cuba 277, British Aus-
tralia 386, and all other countries 271. Mexico received a yearly aver-
age, during the five years, for her henequen, of $4,218,267, gold. AIL
of which went to the State of Yucatan.

1 86 Statistical Motes on

In sugar, Mexico holds but an insignificant place in the American
importation, which showed an annual average, during the past five
years, of 3,827,799,481 pounds, Cuba furnishing 46.5 per cent, and
Hawaii 7.9 per cent.

We could expand very largely our sugar production and supply this
country with almost all of that product, but as sugar is produced in
Louisiana and as Hawaii is likely to belong to the United States
the protective policy of this country will not allow us to supply the
United States with that commodity on a large scale.

Mexico is sending on an average every year, 1,400,000 pounds of
wool to the United States. In 1892 she exported but 190 pounds.

The United States takes, annually, an average of 50,493,000 pounds
of goat skins, of which Mexico furnishes 3,007,000, or 5.9 per cent.
Of other hides and skins the United States imports 167, 993,000 pounds,
Mexico's share being 4.3 per cent.

The cattle trade of Mexico with the United States increased consid-
erably under the liberal provisions of the Wilson Bill, which taxed cattle
with 20 per cent, ad valorem. The following statement shows how
large the increase of that trade was under that bill :

CATTLE EXPORTED TO THE UNITED STATES.

Years. Number. Gold Value.

1892 1,438 $ 7,740

1893 2,597 16,376

1894 1,469 n,857

1895 148,431 720,864

1896.. 216,913 1,481,954

(Fiscal years ended June 3oth.)

Mexico has been for at least two years the most important source
of supply to the United States for cattle purchased abroad, Canada
furnishing, in 1896, cattle to the value of but $18,902, and the United
Kingdom $6,684. The cattle trade is one in which American, as well as
Mexican capital is embarked, but it will be considerably diminished
if not completely destroyed under the highly protective tariff.

COINAGE.

In the chapter on Mining I gave a concise statement of the silver and
gold coined in Mexico from the time of its discovery by the Spaniards
to the fiscal year ended June 30, 1896, and it appears from the same
that the total coinage of silver amounted to $3,398,664,400.

According to the report of the Director of the Mint (page 347)
on the " Production of Precious Metals in the United States during

Coinage.

187

the Calendar Year 1895," the last one out as this paper goes to press,
the total production of silver of the world from 1493 to 1895 is $10,-
345,688,700, the Mexican coinage being over one-third of the whole.

It must be borne in mind that that statement embraces, so far as
Mexico is concerned, only the silver coined, and it does not take into
consideration the silver used in the arts, which used to be a considerable
.amount, as almost every well-to-do Mexican had forks, spoons, plates
and other table ware and household articles of solid silver. It does not
embrace either such silver as was smuggled in bullion, which, consider-
ing the large extent of the Mexican sea coast, its scanty population and
the general demoralization during our civil wars represents a very large
amount. It can, therefore, be safely stated that the production of silver
in Mexico, not coined, represents at least from one-fourth to one-third
-of the amount coined. Therefore, the production of silver by Mexico
may be safely estimated at from $5,000,000,000, to $6,000,000,000, which
is about one-half of the total product of the world.

The following statement shows the am6unt of silver coined by the
several mints of Mexico from their establishment to June 30, 1895,
stating the years in which the coinage was made :

COINAGE BY THE MEXICAN MINTS FROM THEIR ESTABLISHMENT IN
1535 TO JUNE 30, 1895.

PERIOD OF COINAGE.

MINTS.

COINAGE.

1868-1895

Alamos

$ 22,828,869

1863-1866

1,321,545

1811-1895

62,465,756

1846—1895

Culiacan

46 4^8 160

1811—1895

Durango ..

67 128 q66

l8l2-l8o<;

64,127,846

l8d4.— 184.0. .

4,375,062

1812—1895

307,364,150

1852—1895 • . •

19,659,506

1 5^^—180^

2,453,110,110

l8^7 180^

Oaxaca .. •

«;,76i,o45

1827 1893

San Luis Potosi. ... ... .

1 13. 143. 3^8

l8lo—l8l2

1,551,248

1827—1830

Tlalpam

I,l62,66o

1810-1895 . . .

350,341,499

Total

$3,520,779,189

I give a statement of the production of gold and silver in Mexico
in the fiscal years 1879-1880, 1889-1890 and 1894-1895, which shows

1 88

Statistical IRotes on

a considerable increase in each of those years, and this statement only
represents such amounts of the precious metals as were either exported
in bullion or taken to the mints, and not the production that is other-
wise disposed of.

PRODUCTION OF GOLD AND SILVER IN MEXICO IN THE FISCAL YEARS
1879-1880, 1889-1890 AND 1894-1895.

1879-1880.

1880-1890.

1894-1895.

Kilo-
grams.

1

Value.

Kilo-
grams.

Grams.

Value.

Kilo-
grams.

I

3,
O

Value.

Gold coined . . .

772

622

598
032

$ 521,826
420,131

e

219
524

$ 243,298
457,6n

807
6,217

260
35i

I 545,237
4,199,305

Gold exported
Total

1.394

630

94i,957

1,037

743

700,909

7,024

611

4,744,54*

Silver coined,
Silver exported

Total

587,034
74,302

804
310

24,018,529
3,040,079

594,606
362,418

£

24,328,326
14,828,361

675,277
747,283

55i
490

27,628,981
30,575,104

661,337

114

27,058,608

957,025

223

39,156,687

1,422,561

041

58,204,085

Total of gold and
silver

$28,000,565

$39,857,596

$62,948,627-

The following statement gives the exports of the precious metals
from Mexico during the same years embraced in the preceding table.

EXPORT OF PRECIOUS METALS AND MINERALS FROM MEXICO IN THE
FISCAL YEARS 1879-1880, 1889-1890 AND 1894-1895.

VALUE IN MEXICAN DOLLARS.

1879-1880.

1889-1890.

1894-1895.

59,66o
10,935,353
34,887
164,113

4,139,645

6,394,662
13,204
96,592
457,611

220,567
760,683
420,132

Mexican gold coined

Foreign silver coined

314,537
16,783,317

141,033

23,084,489

1,810
7,259^959

485,326
17,077,119
50,866
18,803,876

Mexican silver coined

3,040,079
581

Manufactured silver

368,872
803,058

785,009

Argentiferous zinc.

21,539,896

38,621,290

52,535,854

Coinage*

189

It may be interesting to state the amount of silver exported and
coined in Mexican mints from 1874 to 1896, which is the following :

EXPORTED.

COINED.

1874.— 7 C

$16 038 21^

$10 386 0^8

IQ 454 O54

1876—77

21 415 128

1877-78. .

2O 8^ O74

22 084 2O3

1878-79

IQ.-I-JQ JCI

22 l62 988

1870—80. .

20 307 ^6^

24 Ol8 52O

1880-81

17 774. QIO

24 6l7 3Q5

1881-82

in 700,704

25 146 260

1882—83

28 441 212

24 083 922

i88q-84. .

•22,242 77O

2K 377 37Q

1884-8";

•32 77O QOO

2C 84O 728

1885-86

20 160 8"?«;

26 991 805

1886-87

<?2 642 785

26 844 O3i

1887-88...

3O,286 247

25 862 Q77

1888-89

^7 082 Q48

26 031 223

1880-00. .

07 Qi2 848

24 328 326

1800-01. .

35, 2^0 131

24 237 44Q

1801— 02. . .

46 272 3QI

2C 5*>7 Ol8

44 3O3 <Q3

27 160 876

1803-04

36 OI2.05O

•2Q l8*t 6l2

1804—0^

a6 716 87O

27 628 981

46 722 82"?

22 6^4 788

$616,741,920

$541,029,630

The preceding statement gives correct data of the exports of silver
from the fiscal year 1874-1875 to the fiscal year 1895-1896, excepting
the years 1875-1876 and 1876-1877, which are not included for want
of data. The difference between the two amounts for these years is
$75,7 12,290, showing the large proportion of silver which was not coined,
and was exported in bullion.

The following statement shows that the export of Mexican
silver reached almost its minimum in the year 1887-1888, and its maxi-
mum in the year 1892-1893, with the exception of the last one. The
minimum coincided with the first sterling loan negotiated by Mexico ;
the second sterling loan negotiated in 1890 caused a decrease in the
export of Mexican silver coin of 26 per cent., as compared with the
previous fiscal year of 1889-1890.'

The export of silver bullion has steadily increased since 1872-1873,
until it was in 1895-1896 seventeen times as large as in the first named
year. During the first fiscal year of those embraced in the above table,
the export of silver bullion was 1.4 to 22.6 as compared with silver coin,
and in the year 1895-1896 the proportion was 15.3 to 20.5. In the
year 1872-1873 the export of silver bullion represented 6 per cent, of

1 9o

Statistical IRotes on

the total export of silver, while in the fiscal year 1895-1896 it repre-
sented 20 per cent.

The export of silver ore only began in the fiscal year 1886-1887.

EXPORTS OF SILVER FROM JULY 1ST, 1872, TO JUNE 3OTH, 1896.

FISCAL YEARS.

COINS.

BULLION.

ORES.

OTHER
FORMS.

TOTAL

VALUE.

$ 8 716

ft . a

1872—1874.

18,481 386

1874 l8?S

ft ^A

ft *rt

$> ggc

ft A

ft /r R

* 87

$ 6

1878 1870. . .

'^OI'r&

1879-1880

21 5°l4°°

•§1

19,020,089

1880-1881

376

1881 1882

ii 607 888

Average in five years

$1 787

$l8 374 086

ft Q

ft

£

ft a

1883-1884

67'8i5

1884 1885

1885 1886

i 800 873

ft *rt

ft - a

1887-1888

ft

ft «

ft

$17 188 76^;

1888-1889

22 686 337

804 860

8 874 4^7

1,282 151

Average in five years

$7 583 644

180-3— 1804

$ie_28Q 38l

Total in the twenty-two years

$85 808 033

$688 471 479

Average for the twenty-two years. . .

$ 19,502,140

$ 6,519,027

$ 3,904,496

$ 1,368,279

$31,294,158

MEXICAN GOLD EXPORTS.

Our production of gold used to be very small for reasons already
given, but the present high price of that metal is increasing consider-
ably our output of the same.

The exports of gold from Mexico in the fiscal year ended June 30,
1896, amounted to $5,800,000, as declared by the Mexican Bureau of
Statistics, but even this statement is not correct, as it needs the follow-
ing additions, shown by experience and reliable authorities : about
15 per cent, for gold exports made without any return, 2 per cent, for
undervaluation, 0.5 per cent, used in the arts in Mexico, i per cent.,
possibly more now, with the increasing prosperity of the country, re-
tained in the banks, 2 per cent, in circulation, making a total of 20.5
per cent, to be added to the official return, which brings up the produc-

/IDejican (Bolfc ]££portefc.

191

tion of gold in Mexico to $6,989,000 for the year 1896 and even this
figure is considered very low.

Mexican Gold Exported to the United States. — The United States is
our principal market for the gold we produce.

The following statement furnished to me on February 6, 1897, by
the Director of the Mint of the Treasury Department of the United
States, contains the imports of gold bullion, ore and coin into the
United States, as reported by the Collector of Customs, from 1891 to
1895, and from the fiscal years ending June 30, 1892, to June 30, 1896.

" IMPORTS OF GOLD BULLION, ORE AND COIN FROM MEXICO INTO THE
UNITED STATES AS REPORTED BY COLLECTORS OF CUSTOMS.

YEARS.

ORE.

BULLION.

COIN.

TOTAL.

1801 .

$ 222 088

$1 IQ2 183

$067 OI5

$ I 781 286

1892 ....

711 6?2

T 714 /i/in

•ago 711

2 806 823

1803

507,647

I 566 728

265 315

2 33Q 6QO

1804. .

673,^8'?

I,o64,72I

qg 376

I 776 68O

l8o5

QQ7 221

2 4.7* 206

34 217

q 4.66 7^d.

Total

$•2 112 211

$7 Q7"3 ^68

$1 O85 634

$12 171 217

" For additional information see Report on Production of Precious Metals, 1894,
page 248, and the same report for 1895, page 289.

"Yours, R. D. Preston,

*' Mint Bureau, February 6, 1897."

" IMPORTS OF GOLD ORE, BULLION AND COIN FROM MEXICO INTO THE
UNITED STATES AS REPORTED BY COLLECTORS OF CUSTOMS.

FISCAL YEARS ENDING
JUNE 30.

ORE.

BULLION.

COIN.

TOTAL.

l8Q2

& 246 840

«ll 336 5Q3

$ 542 4QQ

$2 125 Q4I

l8Q3

886 284

I,Q23,565

3OO OI2

3 IOQ 86l

1804

502,023

I,2IO,757

116,823

1,820 6O3

l8q5

810,066

1,635,852

36,835

2,482,753

l8q6.

i 108 830

2,826,327

72 482

4 OO7 648

Total

$3 554 O6l

$8, 033,004

ii 068 651

gl-j ece 806

44 Treasury Department, Mint Bureau, February 6, 1897."

Mr. Preston completed the above information with other data ob-
tained from private parties in the following manner : communicated to
me in a letter dated, February 6, 1897, enclosing the two preceding
statements.

" I would add, for your information, that from returns received by this Bureau,
from private refineries, and the deposits of foreign bullion at the Mints and Assay

Statistical IRotes on

Offices of the United States during the calendar years 1894 and 1895 the amount of
gold credited to Mexico was reported to be as follows : ,

1894.
Reported by private refineries as extracted from Mexican ores and

bullion ....................................................... $2,360,765

Gold bullion deposited at the United States Assay Office at New York. . . 735,787
Deposited at the Mint at San Francisco ............................... 290,713

Total ....... ....................... ..................... $3,387,265

1895.
Gold extracted from Mexican ores and bullion by private refineries ....... $3,843,783

Gold deposited at the United States Assay Office at New York .......... 560,775

Mexican gold bullion deposited at the United States Mint at San Francisco 504,745

Total

The preceding official data from the United States Treasury Depart-
ment was not complete, as will appear from the following table pre-
pared by the Bureau of Statistics of the Mexican Republic :

GOLD EXPORTED FROM MEXICO TO THE UNITED STATES.
CALENDAR YEARS.

1891.

1892.

1893.

1894.

1895.

1896.

Gold ore

$ 16,700
53*769
497,400

$ 100,595
45.390
279,699
126,184

$ "3,548
9i,936
99,415
257,761

$ 5,767
177,089
1,606,152
144,515

$ 87,695
109,421
4,368,898

$ 324,305
477,505
6,851,564
528,460
31,231
3,026

Coined

Bullion *. . . . •

Mixed1

31,231
3,026

Sulphite

According to information
from Mexico

$ 567,869
$1,781,286

$ 551,768
2,806,823

$ 562,660
2,339,6oo

$1,933,523
1,776,680

$4,600,271
3,466,734

$8,216,091
12,171,213

According to information
from the United States

Differences

+ $1,213,417

+ $2,255,055

+ $1,777,030

- $ 156,843

+ $3,955,122

$I,I33,537

Gold ore.,,....

FISCAL YEARS.

1891-1892.

1892-1893.

1893-1894.

1894-1895.

1895-1896.

TOTAL.

$ 31,289
4i,259
474, J 56

$ 145,785
74,798
115,642
271,913

$ 55,799
121,915
116,994
256,547

$ 8,889
150,544
3,687,872

$ 160,555
147,981
4,608,959

$ 402,317
536,497
9,003,623
528,460
80,947
31,332

•Coined

Bullion1

80,947
3!,332

Sulphite

According to information
from Mexico
According to information
from the United States

$ 546,704
2,125,941

$ 608,138
3,109,861

$ 551,255
1,829,603

$3>847,3°5
2,482,753

$5,°29,774
4,007,648

$10,583,176
13,555,806

Differences

+ $1,579,237

+ $2,501,723

+ $1,278,348

- $1,364,552

— $1,022,126

+ $2,972,630

1 From the ist of July, 1894, the " Bullion " includes the value of the gold contained in the mixed ore.

This instance shows how difficult it is for the commercial statistics
of both countries to agree, even when the merchandise is entered with
the same value in both as in the present case.

193

RAILWAYS.

The following table contains a list of all the railways, exclusive of
the tramways, built in Mexico up to October 31, 1896, prepared by the
Department of Communications of the United Mexican States :

OFFICIAL STATEMENT MADE BY THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATIONS

OF THE MEXICAN GOVERNMENT OF THE RAILROAD MILEAGE

IN OPERATION ON OCTOBER 31, 1896.

(i) The initials at the beginning of each line of this table stand for the guage of the railroads ; S. for
standard, N. for narrow, and B. for both.

NAME.

DATE OF
CONCESSION.

LENGTH.

FROM AND TO.

<i) S. Mexican.

Nov. 27, 1867

292.50

Mexico to Veracruz and Apizaco

to Puebla.

S. Merida to Progreso.

Jan. 17, 1874

22.65

Merida to Progreso.

N. Hidalgo.

Feb. 2, 1878

92-43

Tepa to Sototlan, Tepa to Pa-

chuca and San Augustin to

Tepa.

B. Veracruz to Alvarado.

Mar. 26, 1878

43-75

Veracruz to Medellin and Me-

dellin to Alvarado.

N. Merida to Peto.

Mar. 27, 1878

68.97

Merida to Ingenio de Sta. Maria.

N. Interoceanic from

Apr. 16, 1878

489.74

Mexico to Veracruz, Mexico to

Acapulco to Vera-

Puente Ixtla by Morelos and

cruz.

branches of Virreyes to Libres

and San Nicolas.

N. Puebla to Izucar de

May 6, 1878

52.39

Los Arcos to Cholula, Cholula

Matamoros.

to Atlixco and Atlixco to

Matamoros.

S. Mexican Western.

Aug. 16, 1880

38.48

Culiacan to Altata.

S. Mexican Central.

Sept. 8, 1880

1,877.15

Mexico to Paso del Norte, Silao

to Guanajuato, Irapuato to

Guadalajara, Aguascalientes

to Tampico, San Bias to Hua-

ristemba and Guadalajara to

Ameca.

N. Mexican National.

Sept. 13, 1880

1,056.16

Mexico to Laredo, Acambaro

to Psatzcuaro, Matamoros to

S. Miguel, Mexico to Salto,

belt tramways from suburbs

of Mexico called La Colonia

extension to Salto.

N. Mexican National

Sept. 13, 1880

88.30

Manzanillo to Colima and Za-

Construction Com-

catecas to Ojo Caliente.

pany.

S. Sonora.
N. Merida to Valladolid.

Sept. 14, 1880
Dec. 15, 1880

262.40
67.53

Guaymas to Nogales.
Merida to Valladolid and Pro-

greso to Conkal.

N. Tlalmanalco.

Feb. 3, 1881

16.56

Tlalmanalco to Chalco and

Amecameca.

N. Merida to Campeche.

Feb. 23, 1881

97.80

Merida to Campeche, Campeche
to Calkini and connecting line

with the railroad from Merida

to Progreso.

I94

Statistical IRotes on

NAME.

DATE OF
CONCESSION.

LENGTH.

FROM AND TO.

N. Campeche to Lerma.

Feb. 23, 1881

3.73

Campeche to Lerma.

S. Mexican Interna-

June 7, 1881

658.28

Porfirio Diaz City to Torreon

tional.

and Durango, Sabinas to-

Hondo, Matamoros to Zara-

goza, Hornos to San Pedro,

branch from Velardena and

Monclova to Cuatro Cienegas.

N. Nautla to San Mar-

June 25, 1881

47.22

San Marcos toward Nautla and

cos.

branch to Libres.

N. San Juan Bautista to

Sept. 17, 1881

3.57

S. Juan Bautista to Tamulte.

Paso del Carrizal.

S. Chalchicomula.

Sept. 20, 1 88 1

6.43

San Andres Chalchicomula.

S. Orizaba to Ingenio.

Sept. 22, 1881

4.69

Orizaba to Ingenio.

S. Santa Ana to Tlax-

Dec. u, 1882

5.28

Santa Ana to Tlaxcala.

cala.

N. Cardenas to the River

May 12, 1883

4.66

Cardenas to the River Grijalva.

Grijalva.

N. Toluca to San Juan

May 25, 1883

9-77

Toluca to San Juan de las

de las Huertas.

Huertas.

N. Vanegas, Cedral,

June n, 1883

40.39

Vanegas to Cedral and branch

Matehuala and Rio

to Potrero.

Verde.

S. Tehuacan to Esper-

Nov. 28, 1883

31.07

Esperanza to Tehuacan.

anza.

S. Merida to Izamal.

May 15, 1884

40.91

Merida to Izamal.

S. Chihuahua and Hi-

Nov. 13, 1884

6.83

Chihuahua to the Sierra Madre

dalgo to the Sierra

and Jimenez to Balleza.

Madre.

N. Southern Mexican.

Apr. 21, 1886

228.00

Puebla to Oaxaca.

S. Tonala to Textla and

Dec. 16, 1886

31-07

Tonala to Kilomete.

Frontera.

S. Lower California.

May 25, 1887

16.78

San Quintin to the Colorado"

River.

S. Monterey to the Gulf.

Nov. 10, 1887

388.12

Monterey to Trevino and Mon-

terey to Tampico.

N. Tecolutla to Espinal.

Dec. 10, 1887

13.04

Tecolutla to Espinal.

S. Cordova to Tuxtepec.
S. Pachuca to Tampico.

May 19, 1888
June 5, 1888

31.69

6.21

Cordova to Motzorongo.
Isolated Branch.

N. Maravatio to Cuer-

Aug. 16, 1888

40.84

Maravatio towards Cuernavaca

navaca.

and branches to Agangueo to

Trojes.

N. Mexican Northeast-

Aug. 28, 1888

31.12

Mexico to Tizayuca.

ern.

N. Salamanca to Jaral.

Aug. 30, 1888

21.75

Salamanca to Jaral.

N. Monte Alto.

Aug. 30, 1888

6.21

Tlalnepantla to Pedregal.

N. Veracruz to Boca del

Aug. 31, 1888

13-67

Veracruz to Boca del Rio.

Rio.

S. National Tehuante-

Government

192.38

Coatzacoalcas to Salina Cruz.

pec.

Road.

S. Ometusco to Pachuca.

May 25, 1889

28.40

Ometusco to Pachuca.

S. Puebla Industrial.

July 21, 1889

22.21

Puebla to Constancia, Cholula

and Huejotzingo.

S. Tula to Pachuca.

Dec. 20, 1889

43-49

Tula to Pachuca.

S. Minero.

Mar. 20, 1890

80.94

Escalon to Sierra Mojada and

branches.

S. Mexico to Cuernavaca

May 30, 1890

58.65

Mexico to Tres Marias and

and the Pacific.

Puente de Ixtla to Mexcala.

N. Mixcalco to Santa

June 13, 1890

2.77

Mixcalco to Santa Cruz.

Cruz.

195

NAME.

DATE OF
CONCESSION.

LENGTH.

FROM AND TO.

N. Izucar of Matamoros

Nov. 21, 1890

24.85

Matamoros towards Acapulco.

to Acapulco.

N. Toluca to Tenango.

Nov. 24, 1891

4.35

Toluca to Tenango.

N. Hacienda of Xava-

Mar. 24, 1892

2.49

Hacienda of Xavaleta to San

leta to the San

Rafael Paper Mill.

Rafael Paper Fac-

tory.

S. Esperanza to Xuchil.
N. Guanajuato to Do-

Nov. 29, 1892
May 24, 1893

15.84

6.21

Esperanza to Xuchil Station.
Rincon on the National Rail-

lores, Hidalgo and

road to San Luis de la Paz.

San Luis de la Paz.

S. Villa Lerdo to San

June 3, 1893

15.84

Villa Lerdo to Sacramento.

Pedro de la Colo-

nia.

N. Celaya to the farms

June 2, 1893

9.07

Celaya to the farms of Roque

of Roque and Plan-

and Plancarte.

carte.

N. From La Compania
to the Zoquiapan

June 13, 1893

5-17

La Compania to the Zoquiapan
farm.

farm.

S. Cazadero to Solis.

May 24, 1893

18.64

Cazadero to point between

the stations of Solis and

Tepetongo.

S. Industrial Railroads.

Dec. 18, 1895

1.86

Mexico to Xochimilco.

d)

Total

6 7OI ^O

ui / \fL • Ju

(x) This amount does not include the tramways.

RESUME OF RAILWAYS IN MEXICO IN 1895.

KILOMETERS.

Railroads under Federal Grants io,723,k 113

Tramways 427, 583

Surburban Railways connecting towns 410, 164

Railroads belonging to private parties 87, ooo

Portable Railroad, Decauville System 242, 252

MILES.
6,663,022
265,687
254,863
54,059
150,527

Total n,890,kii2 7,388,158

As I have already stated most of the roads built in Mexico have
obtained large subsidies from the government, and that fact has con-
tributed very materially to their present prosperous financial condition,
as they have used the proceeds of the subsidy, not only to build the
roads, but in some cases to pay the interest on their bonds. On the
whole Mexican roads are very prosperous, and the following statements
taken from the official reports of the principal roads shows their trade
and earnings are increasing considerably.

The Mexican roads like the Mexican Government have been very
much crippled by their obligation to pay in gold the interest on their
bonds and dividends on their shares, and as they collect their freights

i96

Statistical IRotes on Aexico.

in silver, they have to buy gold at current prices to pay their gold
obligations, and the depreciation of silver causes them a very great
loss, but notwithstanding that serious drawback, the increase in their
business and earnings has been such as to place them in a position to
meet their gold obligations.

I give below a statement of the traffic and receipts of the three
principal railways in Mexico, namely : the Mexican Central, Mexican
National, and Mexican International, which I have obtained directly
from the respective companies. I also give similar statements from
the other roads, which I have taken from statements published by the
Anuario Estadistico de la Republica Mexicana of 1895.

Mexican Central. — The Mexican Central is the largest road so far
built in Mexico. The whole of the main line was opened for traffic
in 1884, and all figures for traffic previous to July i, 1884, were
thrown into Construction Accounts. The annexed statement of freights
and earnings of this road begins therefore in 1885, and shows a decided
increase every year. I also append a statement of the traffic and
earnings of this road and its branch from Tula to Pachuca, from 1881
to 1895, taken from the Anuario Estadistico de la Republica Mexicana of
1895, which has been compiled from data furnished by the company
to the Mexican Government. (See first table on page 197.)

EARNINGS OF THE MEXICAN CENTRAL RAILWAY FROM 1885 TO 1896.

MEXICAN CURRENCY.

CALEN-

MILEAGE

METRIC

FREIGHT

NUMBER

PASSENGER

ALL OTHER

TOTAL GROSS

DAR

OPER-

TONS

EARNINGS.

OF PAS-

EARNINGS.

EARNINGS.

EARNINGS.

YEAR.

ATED.

FREIGHT.

SENGERS.

I88S.

1,235.90

226,138

$ 2,287,410 14

512,272

$ 1,100,268 62

$ 171,882 oo

$ 3,559,560 76

1886.
l887.

1,235.90
1,235.90

245,398
346,898

2,511,028 78
3,458,006 46

573.896
601,393

1,168,750 24
1,235,284 05

177,926 83

193,288 16

3,857,705 85
4,886,578 67

1888.

1,316.40

S0?,^1

4,244,648 52

581,967

1,321,511 96

208,170 83

5,774,331 31

1889.

1,461.85

540,546

4,683,290 74

675, H4

I>420»375 76

233,558 88

6,337,225 38

1890.

1,527.20

609,382

4,702,142 48

723,928

i,436,3i7 68

287,233 92

6,425,694 08

1891.

1892.

1,665.11
1,824.83

867,657
1,091,785

5,625,668 51
6,183,149 29

742,993
73I,425

!,470,940 51
I,439,57I 60

277,929 oo
340,532 80

7,374,538 02
7>963,253 69

l893.
1894.

1,846.64
1,859.83

860,187
898,484

6,130,347 06
6,440,713 23

792,025
945,434

1,443,793 73
1,576,801 33

407,627 52
408,510 72

7,981,768 3I
8,426,025 28

I895.

1,859.83

1,047,038

7,145,041 44

1,030,911

1,828,072 61

522,751 63

9,495,865 68

1896. .

!,869.6o

1,231,025

7,646,257 99

1,259,623

1,934,612 78

627,149 62

10,208,020 39

Total..

18,938.99

8,472,169

$61,057,704 64

9,171,011

$I7i376,300 87

$31856,561 Qi

$82,290,567 42

Mexican National. — The Mexican National obtained its first con-
cession from the Mexican Government in 1877, but it was amended
from time to time thereafter, until all the amended grants were grouped
in the concession approved July 5, 1886, under which the road is now
operated. The old companies did not print any reports, and there is
no data running back further than the time when the bondholders took
possession of the property at the foreclosure sale, which occurred in
the City of Mexico on May 23, 1887. I give a statement of the traffic

197

and earnings of the road from 1873 to 1895, taken from the Anuario
Estadistico de la Republica Mexicana in 1895, which was compiled with
data furnished to the Mexican Government by the company.

CENTRAL RAILWAY AND BRANCH FROM TULA TO PACHUCA.

M

FREIGHT.

Pi

^

PASSEN-

PASSENGER

MISCELLANEOUS

TOTAL

w

GERS.

RECEIPTS.

RECEIPTS.

RECEIPTS.

>

Tons.

Kilos.

1881.

303,543

$ 62,27O 2O

7,012

436

$ 33,413 44

$ 95,683 64

1882.

49^985

442,726 54

202,304

993

1,289,387 24

I,732,H3 78

1883.

653,669

726,830 09

167,356

565

2,876,906 29

3,603,736 38

1884.

761,687

,111,906 96

190,423

972

2,662,684 86

3,774,591 82

1885.

694,894

,111,062 54

331,700

260

2,484,325 68

3,595,388 22

1886.

769,655

,185,662 53

255,027

in

2,754,613 02

3,940,275 55

1887.

797,693

,251,743 98

356,448

976

3,721,358 13

4,973,102 ii

1888.

756,560

,337,734 10

519,261

394

4,554,830 53

5,892,564 63

1889.

683,147

,436,301 06

576,324

408

5,081,628 68

6,517,929 74

1890.

736,730

,487,086 60

694,966

914

5,212,261 40

6,699,348 oo

1891.

753,276

,512,415 42

1,005,447

237

6,167,092 56

7,679,507 98

1892.

735,363

,442,310 99

1,100,364

029

6,534,507 42

7,976,818 41

1893.

792,025

,443,793 73

860,186

545

6,537,974 58

7,981,768 31

1894.

945,434

,576,801 35

898,484

071

6,849,223 95

8,426,025 30

1895.

1,030,911

,828,072 61

1,047,037

836

7,767,793 03

9,595,865 64

Total

10,906,572

$17,956,718 70

8,212,346

747

$64,528,000 81

$82,484,719 51

MEXICAN NATIONAL RAILROAD.

M

ptf

PAS-

PASSENGER

FREIGHT.

MISCEL-

TOTAL

3

LANEOUS

W
P

SEJNGERS.

RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

RECEIPTS.

RECEIPTS.

1873.

247,547

$ 17,425 65

$17 425 6*

1874.

584,075

40,446 oi

298

860

$ 298 86

•*• / »T°^O ^0

40,744 87

1875.

486,788

43,027 18

221

140

221 14

43,248 32

1876.

486,000

43,437 24

698

245

709 41

44,146 65

1877.

565,572

52,759 84

346

499

275 75

53,035 59

1878.

529,333

71,193 68

3,209

097

3,845 61

75,039 29

1879.

535,806

74,277 07

8,102

920

15,329 07

89,606 14

I880.

466,897

9!,505 23

18,191

400

41,983 90

133,489 13

1881.

903,049

124,452 13

26,234

150

47,320 oo

171,772 13

1882.

900,855

225,267 21

105,549

146

229,586 51

454,853 72

1883.

1,071,835

341,614 87

140,185

779

366,320 26

707,935 13

1884.

878,878

517,316 80

254,804

ooo

743,423 74

1,260,740 54

1885.

839,573

492,822 92

177,179

000

803,291 20

1,296,114 12

1886.

891,711

538,359 97

132,661

000

I,0l8,0l8 51

1,556,378 48

1887.

884,541

537,520 17

307,435

ooo

1,120,950 34

1,658,470 51

1888.

907,113

691,915 03

370,300

527

1,880,684 24

2,572,599 27

1889.

929,685

864,309 90

430,166

055

2,640,418 14

3,504,728 04

1890.

937,527

887,437 19

487,598

563

2,684,550 59

3,561,987 78

1891.

998,617

994,951 69

515,164

143

3,057,891 oo

4,052,842 69

1892.

1,012,786

973,768 72

605,545

610

3,643,784 47

4,6i7,553 19

1893.

935,167

972,488 57

571,524

780

3,191,146 37

4,163,634 94

1894.

576,574

865,698 53

527,440

000

3,246,375 07

4,112,073 60

1895-

926,516

1,005,515 55

642,535

071

3,426,841 93

4,432,357 48

Total

17,496,445

$10,467,511 15

5,325,390

985

$28,152,266 ii

$38,609,777 26

198

Statistical IRotes on

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199

I also append a statement of the freights, passengers, express, tele-
graphs, and miscellaneous receipts, as well as the expenses and earn-
ings of the road from the year 1889 to 1896, taken from the last
official report of the companies. It will be noticed that the traffic and
receipts of this road, like the Central, have been steadily increasing
from the time at which it began to be operated. (See table on page 198.)

MEXICAN INTERNATIONAL RAILROAD COMPANY,
GROSS EARNINGS IN MEXICAN MONEY.

YEAR.

NO. OF

PASS'G'RS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

FREIGHT.

FREIGHT

RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

From Dec.
3d, 1883-
1884
1885

h 15,942

9,853
10,411
9,796
41,170
53,194
59.327
64,641
60,967
74,577
77,456
102,858
111,480

$ 32,408 45

25,881 44
29,242 61
32,516 71
125,848 48
140,676 05
149,258 43
170,304 oo
181,378 14
219,624 38
208,551 86
276,514 04
313,904 13

15,129

50,896

55,877
86,889
Il6,56l
180,544
222,856
216,465
390,802

335,200

376,734
469,641

525,951

723

181

079
772

273
270

211

739
838

769
430

859
874

$ 37,575 oo

118,177 80
144,311 09
189,184 86
459,906 57
691,477 04
894,944 35
956,546 91
1,836,958 51
1,743,140 42

1,873,974 91
2,197,463 36
2,453,223 54

$ 69,983 45

144,059 24
173,553 70

221,701 57
585,755 05
832,153 09
1,044,202 78
1,126,850 91
2,018,336 65
1,962,764 80
2,082,526 77
2,473,977 40
2,767,127 67

1886

1887..

1888

1880 .

iuwy . .

1800

1891

1802 . .

1803. .

1804

180"?

1806..

Total..

691,672

$1,906,108 72

3,043,552

018

$13,596,884 36

$15,502,993 08

MEXICAN INTERNATIONAL RAILWAY.
(STATEMENT FURNISHED BY THE COMPANY.)

YEAR.

AVERAGE
KILOMETRES
OPERATED.

GROSS EARNINGS.

AVERAGE
EARNINGS
PER
KILOMETRE.

AVERAGE
EARNINGS
PER MILE.

l88d

24.5 . 2O

$103,307 98

$ 42 I 49

$ 6l2 37

1885.

273.58

153,916 18

562 59

9O5 39

1886

273 ^8

185 I^O 25

676 76

1,098 II

1887

273.58

237,394 13

867 73

1,396 43

1888

57-1.07

656,781 41

1,144 28

1,841 47

1889

636 34.

011.608 51

1,412 73

2 3O5 64

1890

637.38

1,126,366 41

1,745 64

2,839 77

1801

658.30

1,197,856 55

1,819 69

2,924 O2

1802 . . . . .

746.37

2,095,726 14

2,807 89

4,518 67

1893

922.19

2,050,934 01

2,226 15

3,579 04

1804

Q22.IQ

2,169,121 47

2,352 14

3,785 29

"vt
1805. .

947.23

2,664,126 08

2,812 54

4,526 28

1806

I Oil .02

2,900,925 33

2,869 30

4,617 69

Total

8.I2O.Q3

$16,453,304 45

$21,738 93

$34,95° I7

Mexican International. The Mexican International, which has been
built without any subsidy from the Mexican Government, was opened
for traffic in 1883, and its traffic and receipts, like the other two roads,
have steadily increased. I append two statements of this road; the

200

Statistical Motes on /IDe£ic<x

first, furnished me by the company, embraces its traffic and earnings
from 1883 to 1896 ; and the second is another statement furnished me
also by the company, showing the average kilometres operated, gross
earnings, average earnings per kilometre, and average earnings per mile
from the years 1884 to 1896. (See the two tables on page 199.)

Mexican Southern Railway. — I give below a statement of the number
of passengers, amount of freight and earnings of the Mexican Southern
Railway, furnished to me by the Company, embracing nine months of
the year 1893 and the whole of 1894, as before the ist of April, 1893,
the road was run by the Contractors, and the Company has no data in
their possession. I also append a statement taken from the Anuario
Estadistico de la Republica Mexicana of 1895, embracing the traffic and

MEXICAN SOUTHERN RAILWAY.

MONTHS.

PASSEN-
GERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

FREIGHT.

FREIGHT
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

1893.

February ....

March

April

12,099

9,943

8,154
11,865

io,375
10,405
10,897
11,893
14,452

$ 14,647 21
11,683 15
7,119 78
8,740 20

9,577 9i
9,751 47
10,317 54
12,661 99
17,096 43

2,554
2,262

1,344
i,355
2,568
2,019
2,145
3,296
2,943

8 10
790
950
420
330

000

150

070
420

$ 2O,243 OI
15,421 87

9,541 oo

5,707 05
23,762 64
17,322 40
16,941 41
16,276 89
15,702 01

$ 38,172 41
29,506 27
18,209 89

16,671 95
35,959 30
30,947 32
29,945 7i
31,839 26
38,308 76

May

June

July

August
September . . .
October
November . . .
December . . .

Total . .

100,083

$101,595 68

20,489

940

$140,918 28

$269,560 87

Number of Passengers according to official Tables. ....... 142,919.

Tons " " " 27,917,510 k.

MONTHS.

PASSEN-
GERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

FREIGHT.

FREIGHT
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

1894.

January .

15,255
14,900

29,545
16,527
18,229

20,543
I9,47i
18,218
18,653
17,814
16,300
20,994

$ 16,146 67
14,925 48
21,348 92
17,195 89

14,864 75

15,173 98
14,023 23

14,602 85
15,354 80
14,954 13
14,257 08
18,776 23

3,187

3,060

3,744
4,010
4,322
3,942
3,828
3,515
3,189
2,973
2,453
2,682

880
140
290
380
880
590
no
420
740
5io
800
690

$ 20,083 75
22,616 16

25,224 36

25,184 73
21,406 14
23,279 97
20,637 28
17,531 15
16,285 34
19,374 02
17,145 58
17,900 02

$ 39,725 34
40,935 29
50,001 ii
45,742 46
39,720 i 8
42,037 56
38,168 24
35,709 56
35,156 99
38,068 95
34,691 02
40,519 83

ICtU'tMJ . . .

February ....
March

April

May

July .

August

September. . .
October
November . . .
December . . .

Total

226,449

$191,624 01

40,911

430

$246,668 50

$480,476 53

201

earnings of the Company during the years from 1890 to 1895, taken
from data furnished by the Company to the Department of Communi-
cations of Mexico.

MEXICAN SOUTHERN.

YEARS.

PASSEN-
GERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

MERCHANDISE.

OTHER
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

1890

1801.. .

76,788
104,296
143,037
225,447
218,213

$74,259 78
109,011 90

153,233 oi
191,624 oi
196,462 34

11,506

26,977
27,921
40,911
36,5H

820
490
5io
430

210

$ 59,427 26
152,859 II

246,862 75
246,668 50
287,426 59

$ 133,687 04

261,871 oi

400,095 76
438,292 51

483,888 93

1802

l8oq

l8Q4 ..

ISO*?...

Total

767,781

$724,591 04

143,828

460

$993,244 21

$1,717,835 25

Other Railroads. The following statement shows the traffic and
earnings of the Mexican, Interoceanic, Sonora, and minor railroads in
Mexico, taken from the Anuario Estadistico de la Republica Mexicana
of 1895, compiled from data furnished by the respective companies to
the Department of Communications of the Mexican Government.

MEXICAN RAILROAD.

VI? A T? C

PASSEN-

PASSENGER

MERCHANDISE.

OTHER

TOTAL

I ijAiva.

GERS.

RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

RECEIPTS.

RECEIPTS.

1873-

476,287

$ 482,565 39

150,473

812

$ 1,348,344 49

$ 1,830,909 88

1874.

459,601

467,816 73

121,935

229

1,887,028 76

2,354,845 49

1875-

267,776

476,546 91

136,632

65

1,970,008 55

2,446,555 46

1876.

245,675

380,018 73

132,216

831

1,841,717 53

2,221,736 26

1877.

300,591

533,520 58

158,537

56

2,255,466 03

2,788,986 61

1878.

279,893

518,318 74

169,287

672

2,440,513 39

2,958,832 13

1879.

293,179

517,711 92

190,908

638

2,823,013 02

3,340,724 94

1880.

323,088

548,941 72

219,930

162

3,242,343 ii

3,791,284 83

1881.

331,749

587,135 85

278,942

924

4,433,648 24

5,020,784 09

1882.

385,621

696,235 87

333,979

556

5,396,090 55

6,092,326 42

1883.

409,098

710,636 88

373,389

634

5,115,639 84

5,826,276 72

1884.

389,421

655,458 83

236,030

480

3,191,916 10

3,847,374 93

1885.

377,512

603,886 ii

246,169

949

2,812,764 22

3,416,650 33

1886.

367,260

604,278 41

266,432

333

2,714,082 96

3,318,361 37

1887.

380,153

655,312 23

301,185

300

3,141,903 40

3,797,215 63

1888.

393,679

694,138 08

351,070

36

3,352,439 37

4,046,577 45

1889.

444, 149

765,118 71

391,627

274

3,512,566 64

4,277,685 35

1890.

502,139

701,916 oo

443,794

979

3,565,083 50

4,266,999 50

1891.

620,988

832,185 94

464,123

453

3,239,764 53

4,071,950 47

1892.

628,591

797,878 35

408,709

417

2,286,389 71

3,084,268 06

1893.

629,892

768,616 68

387,400

277

2,140,061 75

2,908,678 43

1894.

717,076

857,525 26

433,637

485

2,063,486 26

2,921,011 52

1895.

772,139

993,016 63

453,294

579

2,087,844 19

3,080,860 82

Total.

9,995,557

$14,848,780 55

6,649,709

141

$66,862,116 14

$81,710,896 69

2O2

Statistical IRotes on

INTEROCEANIC RAILWAY.

YEARS.

PASSEN-
GERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

MERCHANDISE.

OTHER
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

l88o . . .

228,053
367,116
411,090
4O6,Ol6
634,306
606,510
569,421
621,295
673,169
596,812
657,616
795,625

799,487
879,005
88l,8lO
906,550

$65,277 9I
105,083 31
111,029 25
223,049 58
247,528 50
240,233 70
224,815 ig
239,812 48

254,809 77
271,562 69
383,107 10
456,685 80
466,799 31
486,075 54

491,914 20
491,388 67

n,43i
49,942
53,382
56,822

131,385
167,970
148,001

174,194
200,386
190,902
288,836
282,311
367,762

383,503
440,648

464,975

145

548
385

222

319
265
913
156
400
92O
358
491
660
000
000

ooo

0 36,515 46

159,535 64
258,221 05
356,906 46
407,593 64

436,345 10

482,003 l8
570,033 20
658,063 22
710,848 78

,153,999 13
,176,562 22

,376,488 38

,705,859 74
,912,192 58
,771,268 92

$ 101,793 37
264,618 95
369,250 30
579,956 04
655,122 14
676,578 80
706,818 37
809,845 68
912,872 99
982,411 47
i,537,io6 23
1,633,248 02
1,843,287 69
2,191,935 28
2,404,106 78
2,262,657 59

1881

1882

1883
1884
1885

x886

1887
1888
1880

1890
1801

1802

1803. .

AWV/J- •

i Sod

*°y^

i8o5

Total . .

10,033,881

4,759,173 oo

3,412,455

782

13,172,436 70

17,931,609 70

SONORA RAILWAY.

1881

$ II,3O3 29

$ 17,254 95

$ 28,558 24

1882

68 410 83

157,604 60

226 IO5 43

188-? .

^,464

00,461 3^

24.202

7QI

119,347 56

2l8,8o8 89

1884

36,428

87,793 47

21,115

382

108,531 43

196,324 90

1885

47 271

101 918 90

2Q Q27

682

103 180 80

2Q5 IO8 7Q

1886 . . .

4^,208

08.613 06

33 635

621

191,981 24

200,504 30

1887...

38,180

87,098 20

34,66O

670

193,981 40

281,079 60

1888

38 335

84. 14.3 57

•37 621

60

204 146 63

288 290 20

1880

4/r fini

1 04 367 85

43,321

710

230,607 67

344 065 52

iu"V

1800...

48,196

97,662 48

46,147

870

259,360 01

357,022 49

IQQI...

56,565

112,919 18

53,047

663

332,938 65

445,857 83

1892

54 O2I

IIQ 784 37

58 86?

aCQ

363,128 QI

482 QI3 28

iSo-l

52,678

126,6^7 56

63,687

05^

393,319 17

510,076 73

J.VVJJ.. . .

1805 ..

62,715

141,744 OQ

60,982

389

469,950 09

611,694 18

Total. . .

558,451

1,341,878 18

5I7,H7

252

3,244,522 20

4,586,400 38

HIDALGO AND NORTHEASTERN RAILWAY.

1881
1882 ....

39,759
30,940

37,198
35,209
51,823
44,666
53,958
55,055
90,241
"3,605
127,972
148,540
168,422

214,837
206,194

$ 9,897 17

12,270 02

25,715 04

32,648 22
32,295 08
36,692 27

43,582 66
45,805 05
90,194 56
106,397 87
120,128 18
141,360 09
161,908 45
178,477 10
181,043 96

2,264
7,624
17,852
34,958
40,960
5i,76o

65,524
77,203

100,110

137,467
176,432

186,041

178,174

200,685
164,176

ooo

000

283

222

794
395
057
173
733
20 1
664
471
047
687
ooo

$ 1,659 36

10,442 30
33,220 80
54,955 16
76,710 43
117,603 55

145,702 22

161,773 18
262,081 27
328,124 49
404,735 74
422,052 91
468,566 69
643,700 93
616,641 61

$ n,556 53
22,712 32

58,933 84
87,603 38
109,005 51
154,295 82
189,284 88
207,578 23
352,275 83
434,522 36
524,863 92
563,413 oo
630,475 14
822,178 03
797,685 57

1883

1884...

1885

1886.,

1887
1888

1889
1890
1801

1802.

1893
1804

1805..

Total...

1,418,419

$1,218,415 72

1,441,234

727

$3,747,970 64

$4,966,384 36

203

ME*RIDA AND PROGRESO RAILWAY.

YEARS.

PASSEN-
GERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

MERCHANDISE.

OTHER
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

1881
1882

56,085
84,016
83,231
87,159
64,173
77,139
85,044
109,997

158,534
162,701
129,989
IO8,IJ9
91,291
79,653

$ 28,639 50
37,642 38
36,239 83

37,940 54

29,078 41

33,353 16
22,844 42
29,812 76
56,763 81
55,566 97
46,155 85
36,528 45
39,276 08
33,387 18
38,228 81

$ 53,236 oo
75,242 88

108,248 80

139,299 59
120,389 13
78,168 66
52,995 68
64,291 88

97,017 37
89,139 81
67,460 18

83,593 75
96,230 47
68,513 05
97,850 38

$ 81,875 50
112,885 26
144,488 63
177,240 13

149,467 54
111,521 82
75,840 10

94,104 64

153,781 18

144,706 78

113,616 03

120,132 20

135,506 55
101,900 23
136,079 19

41,934
59,859
95,962

79,611

58,239
46,055
30,872
44,619

53,949
34,486
28,656
34,406
38,659

297

715
902

737
254
7H
512

200

818

000

499
476
401

1883
1884

1885

1886

1887

1888

1889

1800

1891

1802...

1803

1804...

i8o«?

Total...

1,377,131

$561,458 15

647,313

525

$1,291,677 63

$1,853,135 78

TEHUACAN AND ESPERANZA RAILWAY.

1884

18 ^4^

$11 427 64

6 O43

813

$OO Q2I 87

$44 34Q ^1

1885
1886
188?

15,049
12,942

14 848

10,077 20

9,111 04
10 080 15

5,857

6,603

7 660

257
705

7 -SO

31,905 66
38,271 80

47 437 77

41,982 86

47,382 84

C7 cj7 02

1888
1889

17,116

IQ 38^

15.376 57
20 673 oo

8,764
QgeS

045
lf)O

54,500 93
6 1 564 09

69,877 50
82 237 OO

1800.

20 462

l8 4<Q 06

16 625

87O

ne 'JAA "17

Q4 2O4 33

1891
1892

17,426

15 IO2

II,O87 O6
8 7Q2 1%

I4,38l
4I7O

340

e jo

68,684 08
44 6O2 OQ

79,771 14
ea an/I A A

1803

1 6 006

9 411 *il

* 663

C-7O

•17 QQ7 AC.

47 4O8 06

i8oc

IQ QO5

IO Q4I 8 I

4 062

coo

l8 724 QO

29 666 80

Total...

186,674

$135,438 29

89,709

660

$512,355 10

$647,793 39

MERIDA AND PETO RAILWAY.

1881

22,8*52

$3.QI3 60

$4^O 6O

$4,344 2Q

1882

••) v j^

81,102

-?,V J V
12 2O3 <?8

f j^f v^

2 6^7 41

*T,«?4T4T *V

14 Q3O OQ

1883

88,920

**t*VJ 3°

14,422 31

5,654

"5

~1*SJ/ T"1-

4,833 23

-t-f»yjv' VV

I9,255 54

1884

81,566

I7,8l8 29

11,063

915

11,588 49

29,406 78

1885

64,118

16,795 70

16,919

464

20,222 10

37,017 80

1886

62,983

16,728 82

17,368

079

21,710 91

38,439 73

1887

62,763

15,943 55

15,827

969

26,619 71

42,563 26

1888

92,773

22,146 61

20,231

7M

37,013 76

59,160 37

1889

99,761

25,351 70

25,397

822

52,553 95

77,905 65

1890

126,978

24,514 70

30,024

477

69,390 02

93,904 72

1891

134,438

55,007 97

27,106

666

85,602 24

140,610 21

1892

129,163

59,742 62

28,266

475

118,214 20

177,956 82

1893

163,852

71,970 64

36,202

439

128,115 61

200,086 25

1894

157,311

70,898 03

32,260

765

121,547 79

192,445 82

1895

140,193

67,134 69

37,853

723

118,179 ii

185,313 80

Total...

1,508,773

$494,682 90

304,177

623

$818,659 13

$1,313,342 03

204

Statistical IRotes on /IDejico.

SINALOA AND DURANGO (ALTATA TO CULIACAN) RAILWAY.

YEARS.

PASSEN-
GERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

FREIGHT.

MISCELLA-
NEOUS
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

1882
l88l.

2,727
12,251
21,776
I5,8l6
23,171
25,487
27,904
21,850
42,987
54,678
39,494
56,503
38,451
37,627

$ 3,712 04

7,816 94

8,584 57
8,786 88
10,68 1 46
10,705 56
",459 15
9,318 46

14,871 77
19,170 23

14,837 39
14,152 07
14,040 41
15,768 25

1,864

3,913
5,962

4,953
4,3i6
5,962
6,736
6,535
4,722
7,442
io,37i
12,893
12,093
8,538

589
457
325
364
116

325
532
236

749
886
701
822
568
024

$ 5,155 65

18,717 39
25,019 62
19,719 92
20,880 39
16,661 71
23,650 34

25,537 79
18,911 41

25,38i 35
28,131 17

35,205 12
38,393 29

29,39° 59

$ 8,867 69

26,534 33

33,604 19
28,506 80
3I,56l 85
27,367 27

35,109 49
34,856 25
33,783 18
44,551 58
42,968 56
49,357 19
52,433 70
45,158 84

1884
1885

1886 ....

1887.....
1888
l88o .

1890
1891
1892
I8Q1

1804 . .

1805

Total. . .

420,722

$163,905 18

96,306

694

$330,755 74

$494,660 92

MtfRIDA AND CAMPECHE RAILWAY.

1883 . .

22 ,Q44

$3 586 10

4.62

169

SI.I2O 32

$ 4 706 42

1884

Q7 2Q5

13 l6l 5Q

3Q52

565

e 2O3 67

18 365 26

188*

76 135

12 535 04

7 7Q4.

C7O

Q 3O6 ^I

21 84.2 25

1886
1887

1888 ....

65,274
68,883
86 32Q

10,779 44
",793 63

22 172 II

6,265

8,106

II 514.

722
813

018

9,579 90
13,263 22
21 106 70

20,359 34
25,056 85

4.3 278 8l

1889

1890
1891
1802 .

ww,j«y

58,383
75,496
96,994

87 054.

17,017 46
28,939 04
35,303 04
33 508 II

12,534
6,779
17,328

17 363

035

458
478

5IO

28,300 44
19,057 69
36,035 70
3Q 33O 26

45,317 90

47,996 73
71,338 74
72.Q28 37

1893

1804. . .

124,983

56,034 03

2i,775

IOI

53,390 97

109,425 oo

l8o5 .

IOQ -340

66 174. 14.

24. 6QQ

277

72 Q23 31

1 30 OQ7 45

Total...

I,OOO,OI9

$311,094 63

138,575

7l6

$308,618 49

$ 619,713 12

ME*RIDA AND VALLADOLID RAILWAY.

1883..

18,123

$2 57O 17

$ 609 18

$3,179 35

1884

1885
1886
1887 ..

75,541
100,015
132,210

176 5OI

12,595 63
18,548 61
25,798 73

32 2Q8 87

4,248
6,040
25,l8l
4.1 4.Q6

788

957
498

4.7Q

5,287 96
8,487 63
33,276 45
58 006 41

17,883 59
27,036 24
59,075 18
no 3Q5 28

1888 .. .

183 073

37 Q57 4.5

35 Q75

2O7

65,864 26

IO3,82I 71

1889

280 348

58 69! 7O

54 2O6

189

lie Q32 74

173 724. 4.4.

1800 .

2Q5 O34.

63 4.85 18

5O 78l

662

06 611 23

160 096 41

;;"

loQI ....

264. 78l

60 366 76

4.7 064

535

08,212 31

158,579 07

1892
1893
l8o4. . .

254,344
244,040

6i,573 70
79,223 48

46,124
50,633

159

534

134,209 85

139,384 68

195,783 55
218,608 16

UV*
1895

199,670

72,828 22

62,342

134

165,983 26

238,811 48

Total. . .

2,224,580

$525,938 50

424,095

142

$921,055 96

$1,446,994 46

205

TLALMANALCO RAILWAY.

YEARS.

PASSEN-
GERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

FREIGHT.

MISCELLA-
NEOUS
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

l88l

39,688
40,211
41,226

4i,905
47,808
46,150
49,866

55,345
61,236
62,618
60,835

$ 4,022 44

4,596 80

4,577 43
4,621 28
5,098 09
5,076 97
5,536 16

6,654 20

6,765 86
7,225 65
6,492 30

I0,8l3
9,641
7,466

6,845
8,083
10,722
13,710
24,988
15,469
12,303
18,572

000
000

713

349
538

122
170

131
050
O2O
715

$ 5,564 91

7,276 95

6,830 06
6,360 51
6,788 75
9,164 56
",566 53
12,019 62
12,684 68
9,853 83
15,430 59

$ 9,587 35
",873 75
11,407 49
10,981 79
11,886 84

14,241 53
17,102 69
18,673 82
19,450 54
17,079 48
21,922 89

1884.

iS8n

1886 ....

1887
1888

1880 .

1890
1801

1802 .

1893

1805 . .

71,777

7,358 10

13,824

250

12,284 66

19,642 76

Total. . .

618,665

$68,025 28

152,439

058

$115,825 65

$183,850 93

SAN JUAN BAUTISTA AND CARRIZAL PASSENGER RAILWAY.

1888

QQ, 5O4

$ 5,123 13

$c 123 ia

1880

56 88O

4 406 10

4 406 10

1890
1891
1892
1893

110,731
105,251
152,606
150,243

6,733 92
7,923 34
9,462 23
9,965 56

1,022
922
1,803
2,052

000
000
000
000

$1,022 00

922 79
1,442 28
1,842 70

7,756 52
8,846 13
10,904 51
1 1, 808 26

1895

167,994

I2,OO3 21

3,455

454

3,131 oo

15,134 21

Total...

843,209

$55,6i7 49

9,254

454

$8,361 37

$63,978 86

SAN ANDRE'S AND CHALCHICOMULA RAILWAY.

1882
1883
1884
1885

1886.

6,851

15,053
14,218
10,928

Q QQ4

$ i,9°5 53
4,002 51
3,683 23
2,834 42

2 ZQG. C8

1,658
4,802
4,485
4,723

4.O7Q

614
280
960

310

2Q4

$ 2,847 76
9,548 51
11,681 15
4,805 87
4,980 84

1 4,753 29

13,551 02

15,364 38
7,640 29
7, «?76 42

1887
1888
1889. ...
1890

1891

1892
1893
1894

Tgoe

9,794
10,173
12,727
13,010
12,711
12,223
12,239
13,998

TO AS.A

2,428 25
2,489 80
3,137 07
3,163 15

3,079 10

6,327 21

3,061 75
3,398 65
3 <ij.ii 3^

5,835
8,324
5,832
4,385
6,258
7,980
10,011

7,781

696

735
417
480

307
430
250
980

6,850 94
9,592 88
7,100 57
6,225 35
8,140 76
9,376 67
n,474 05
9,266 42
10 383 oo

9,279 19
12,082 68
10,237 64
9,388 50
11,219 86
15,703 88
14,535 80
12,665 °7
13 827 3<?

Total..

167,373

$45,550 60

76,159

753

$112,274 77

$157,825 37

2O6

Statistical IRotes on

ORIZABA AND INGENIO RAILWAY.

YEARS.

PASSEN-
GERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

FREIGHT.

MISCELLA-
NEOUS
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons,

Kilos.

1882

38,636
91,949
94,323
34,921

86,047

40,364

41,945
46,640
106,773

103,011

99,553
104,030
104,019
132,650

$ 4,473 30
10,645 94
10,920 74

4,365 12

9,962 57
4,673 38
4,800 oo
5,400 oo

12,362 20

12,532 10

13,303 20
13,900 50

13,990 77
17,438 04

$

$ 4,473 3<>
10,843 58

11,221 56
4,728 22

10,312 75
4,774 50
4,952 oo

5,540 00
12,782 20

13,042 10

14,031 56
14,300 50

I4,5i8 77
17,999 04

1883..

237

360
435
384

121
182

168
504
612
750

168
972
720
813
344
400
ooo

000
000

ooo

197 64
300 82

363 10
350 18

IOI 12

152 oo
140 oo
420 oo
510 oo
728 36
400 oo
528 oo
561 oo

l88d

188*..

1886
1887

1888

1880. .

1800

1801 . .

i<jy*
1802. .

ISO'S. .

1804.

704
748

000

ooo

l8Qe

Total..

1,124,861

$138,767 86

5,208

417

$4,752 22

$143,520 o&

SANTA ANA AND TLAXCALA RAILWAY.

188-;

58 068

$ 2 860 2O

& 4Q4 -J8

<$ 0 -2 £4. C8

1884.

117,5 60

8.<8o 60

I 4Q4. 14

IO.O74 74

1885

174,204

12,714 08

1,483 oo

I4.IQ7 08

1886

ie6 676

6 7ii 14.

I 482 17

8 21^ m

1887

117 518

8 4.63 8*

I 171 21?

9817 10

1888

120,910

Q.I7Q 28

1, 6*51 O2

10,830 30

1880. .

110,574

8,204 08

1,475 20

9,770 18

1890

14^ 26^

8 108 oo

i 4.60 82

9 867 82

1801 .

66 716

Q OO8 3O

1.760 28

10,867 58-

*<ȴ* .
1892

1893
l8Q4.

55,768
59,127

7,011 74
7,326 40

750
3,829

000

003

1,280 03
2,434 13

8,291 77
9,76o 53

1895

71,843

8,670 35

2,038

440

2,344 38

11,014 73.

Total..

1,254,227

$ 97,331 82

6,617

443

$18,751 oo

$116,082 82

CARDENAS AND RIO GRIJALVA RAILWAY.

1886.. .

$ 263 01

$ 526 oo

$ 789 01

1887

4OI J.3

722 57

1,124 oo

1888

qOO O7

781 n

1,090 20

1880

216 72

8?q 60

1,056 41

1800. .

380 oo

839 69

1,219 69

1801

480 oo

Q3Q 60

1,419 69

1802

*"y*

1884

i8on

Total .

2 O^O 23

$4,648 77

$6,699 oo

207

TOLUCA AND SAN JUAN DE LAS HUERTAS RAILWAY

YEARS.

PASSEN-
GERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

FREIGHT.

MISCELLA-
NEOUS
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

1885
1886 . . .

75,052

97,535
94,874
93,512
134,193
178,072

156,917
107,122
176,241
121,949
204,591

$ 7,016 39
9,078 95
8,788 61
8,475 83
12,677 97
16,264 75
15,293 69
13,777 47
16,340 90
15,328 76
18,210 13

$ 1,138 19

5,20i 59
6,755 49
4,729 99
8,087 03
12,156 67
11,082 76
11,702 56
11,690 24
11,536 10
10,136 78

$ 8,154 58

14,280 54
15,544 10
13,205 82
20,765 oo
28,421 42
26,376 45
25,480 03
28,031 14
26,864 86
28,346 91

6,133
9,361
7,251

13,483
18,595
13,998

13,924

14,128

13,778
13,860

ooo

000

750
088

861
r85
530
510
920
796

1887
1888
l88o

1890

189!

l8Q2

1801. .

1804

1805 .

Total. .

1,440,058

$141,253 45

124,515

640

$94,217 40

$235,470 85

VANEGAS, CEDRAL, MATEHUALA, AND RIO VERDE RAILWAY.

1889

$4.40 6O

28

1:4.0

$•5-56 24

$784. Q1

1800 .

10,848

5,761 16

i 840

66 1

15 4Q2 27

21 255 4*}

1891

q6 74.2

12 78^ (X

5Q1Q

568

6l 511 41

74 2Q6 48

1892

1893
1894

l8Q5

44,502
46,083
35,213

16,083 ii
16,030 02

13,798 53

94,112
83,H5
"3,384

500

000

ooo

124,565 69

114,505 49
185,649 51

140,648 8O

130,535 51
199,448 04

Total..

173,388

$64,907 56

298,420

269

$502,061 63

$566,969 19

MERIDA AND IZAMAL RAILWAY.

1887
1888
1889

1890

42,812
78,102
106 089
106 883

$ 7,280 38
18,981 70
38,330 34

C4 4.62 IO

2,729

7,87i
n,633
10 146

000

541

376

^74

$ 3,954 64
17,656 81
28,069 91

2Q QQ5 11

$ 11,235 02
36,638 51
66,400 25
84 457 41

1801

80 042

41 8qi 51

I-j 771;

771

44 708 41

86 680 04

juy*
1892

1893
1804

94,634
96,458

49,729 03
45,684 12
C2 £.64. 78

18,094
21,476

768
676

65,565 47
65,714 14
61 115 45

115,294 50
111,398 26
III QOO 21

1805. .

49,735 I2

6l,2q5 40

113,030 61

Total . .

605,020

$358,659 08

85,727

5o6

$380,385 67

$739,044 75

SAN MARCOS AND NAUTLA RAILWAY.

1891

4,582

$ 3,181 70

5,307

750

$ 5,968 12

$ 9,149 82

1892

10,894

5,968 34

12,000

570

17,835 93

23,804 27

1893

14,136

7,339 14

19,576

ooo

27,008 47

34,347 61

1804 . .

15 481

7 Ql8 6l

2Q 5IQ Q7

17 4l8 60

1895

17,309

8,195 77

24,452

440

27,603 55

35,799 32

Total. . .

62,402

$32,603 58

61,336

760

$107,936 04

$140,539 62

208

Statistical Botes on /iDejico,

MONTEREY AND GULF RAILWAY.

YEARS.

PASSEN-
GERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

FREIGHT.

MISCELLA-
NEOUS
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

l88o...

16,714
57,096
94,052
99,802
107,378

$ 17,144 65
70,185 08
II2,9IO 64

119,390 74
141,093 86

4,197
168,204
174,829

193,437
238,442

432
600
706
800

000

$ 13,440 52

791,398 47
876,563 75
664,072 42
820,433 06

$ 30,585 17
861,583 55
989,474 39
783,463 16
961,526 92

l8oo

iuy"
1801

1802

1893
1804...

l8o5

127,900

150,005 75

329,059

008

1,162,009 39

1,312,015 14

Total. .

502,942

$610,730 72

1,108,170

546

$4,327,917 61

$4,938,648 33

CORDOVA AND TUXTEPEC RAILWAY.

1889

26 537

$A 8l< 27

$1 285 13

$ 6,100 40

1800 .

4Q 142

8 QI7 O6

2.37Q Q7

11,297 03

x " V"

1891

21, 542

I4.OOQ 84

5,097 98

19,107 82

1892

no 885

12 767 *I

2 23^

C7i

5,111 IQ

17,878 70

1803 .

46 086

17 433 62

3,7^O

424

0,828 04

27,262 56

1804

1805

Total..

185,192

$57,943 30

5,965

995

$23,703 21

$81,646 51

MARAVATfO AND CUERNAVACA RAILWAY.

1890

a 466

& q «j8o 66

$•5 -372 IO

$ 6,761 76

1801 .

6 IQO

6 283 Q4

l6,74I 42

23,025 36

1802 .

"'J-Vvy

Q 081

8,O47 76

3O,l6o 42

38,208 18

1803...

12.867

0.418 26

28,201 99

37,620 25

180.1

1C ia8

ii 235 58

32. 2^8 33

43,473 91

180"? . .

I "3 064

II ^64 72

39,714 80

51,079 52

Total. .

60 706

iS>4Q 7^0 Q2

$1 50,429 06

$200,168 98

SALAMANCA AND SANTIAGO VALLEY RAILWAY.

1889

4,709

$ 1,486 51

132

270

$ 304 26

$ 1,790 77

1890

18,836

5,946 04

529

080

1,217 04

7,163 08

1891

25,432

8,554 ii

3,324

430

7,237 67

15,79! 78

1802...

21 Q23

8 020 50

2.815

94O

5,325 03

13,345 62

1803

22 674.

77 I Q 44

3 38O

060

8,910 74

16,630 18

1804...

27 406

8 74O QO

4 142

690

9,584 17

18,325 07

1805

3O.OQ4

10,376 66

7,799

050

13,969 73

24,346 39

Total..

151,164

$50,844 25

22,123

520

$46,548 64

$97,392 89

•(Railways,

209

MONTE ALTO RAILWAY.

YEARS.

1892
180-7

PASSEN-
GERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

FREIGHT

MISCELLA-
NEOUS
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

3I,O8O
30,888
31,913
39,041

$ 2,652 89
3,260 28
3,318 14
4,005 14

4,006

6,135

6,221
5,430

000

ooo

000
000

$1,330 13
1,965 72

2,002 79

1,410 85

$ 3,983 02

5,226 oo
5,320 93
5,415 99

l8Q4

l8qs...

Total. .

132,922

$13,236 45

21,792

000

$6,709 49

$19,945 94

VALLEY OF MEXICO RAILWAY.

l8qi...

1,423,652

$ 99,615 09

9,108

ooo

$ 5,912 38

$105,527 41

1802

i 63q 873

Iiq,37q 76

21,154

ooo

I2.3IO 35

131 6QO 17

180-?...

1,6^7*135

IIO,l6o 6O

24,361

ooo

21,497 48

131,658 08

1804

l8q«5 . .

Total..

4,700,660

$329,155 45

54,623

000

$39,720 21

$368,875 66

PUEBLA INDUSTRIAL RAILWAY.

1801.. .

15 i 380

$23 234 66

$ i 308 oo

$24. 632 66

1802

125,766

20,052 34

I 23Q OO

21 2QI 34.

1803

155 112

24. O§2 55

i 380 oo

25 462 55

1894...

I9O 480

31 62O 62

3 I4.Q 37

34 760 QO

1805

226 275

36 264 oo

14 25O

OOO

II 122 ^5

47 ^86 "35

Total..

849,013

$135,254 17

14,250

000

$18,288 72

$153,542 89

MEXICAN NORTHERN RAILWAY.

i8qi...

4,870

$14,802 61

94 726

ooo

$ 740,122 98

$ 754,92s SO

1802 .

4 3OQ

14 802 61

m?8i

825

I 337 8*3 47

I 352 656 08

1803 ..

4 088

13 087 oo

176 801

QI3

1*334 ^24 47

I -147 6l2 37

1894

1895

4,274

13,420 18

151,744

929

1,149,069 15

1,162,489 33

Total..

17,601

$56,113 30

601,054

667

$4,561,570 07

$4,617,683 37

MEXICO CUERNAVACA AND PACfFICO RAILWAY.

1805. .

17 209

&IO 214 84

84 4^4

OOO

$130 662 86

iftl4O 877 7O

210

Statistical IRotes on

FEDERAL DISTRICT TRAMWAYS.

YEARS.

PASSENGERS.

PASSENGER
RECEIPTS.

FREIGHT.

MISCELLA-
NEOUS
RECEIPTS.

TOTAL
RECEIPTS.

Tons.

Kilos.

1873.
1874.

1875.
1876.

1877.
1878.

1879-
I880.

1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.

Total.

3,760,653

3,088,808
3,597,197
3,545,589

4,455,595
4,605,223
5,084,669
6,165,461
7,675,829
9,851,614
10,101,302
9,926,621

9,407,751
10,841,928

11,121,575
12,185,031

13,533,217
14,457,203

15,585,919
16,164,644
15,622,879

15,844,425
18,281,729

$ 232,347 92
240,277 12
286,248 25

278,068 94
357,262 43

360,175 98
390,298 10
458,547 60

586,167 20
703,422 06

775,550 34
717,264 90
690,457 87
746,107 46
810,974 85
881,646 36
981,922 98
1,028,871 57
1,002,224 50
1,023,617 85
990,265 03
1,028,430 01
1,194,335 17

$ 16,421 10

29,628 70

23,644 10

19,289 15
14,179 54

6,752 49
8,089 47
19,020 46
52,547 54
87,584 95
90,644 72
114,307 69
63,423 48
134,133 77

155,972 22

171,418 II
203,011 13
247,868 09
206,601 54
194,358 01
217,905 64

230,935 43
229,571 08

$ 248,769 02
269,905 82

309,892 35
297,358 09
371,441 97
366,928 47
398,387 57
477,568 06
638,714 74
791,007 01
866,195 06
831,572 59
753,881 35
880,241 23
966,947 07
,053,064 47
,184,934 ii
,276,739 66
,208,826 04
,217,975 86
,208,170 67
,259,365 44
,423,906 25

....

....

224,904,862

$15,764,484 49

$2,537,308 41

$18,301,792 90

VERACRUZ AND ALVARADO RAILWAY.

1885

«JQ O?8

$18 4^1 or

$ .

$ 18 451 01

1886

07 772

18 67^ 04

882

500

4,042 OO

23,615 04

1887. .

2Q.Q7I

16,677 46

14,316 16

30,903 62

1888

58,127

33,174 25

26,549 26

59,723 51

1889

63,328

36,779 93

8,500

412

31,779 57

68,559 5°

1890
1891
1892

1893
1894

1805

72,292
74,317
73,249
73,705
32,964
87,291

42,128 89
39,304 87

47,831 14
47,298 50
44,294 74
53,050 84

11,500
16,845
14,498
22,976
20,197
22,764

892
178

000
000
000

103

34,829 14
44,831 36
51,025 73

49,955 98
56,927 90
69,450 61

76,958 03
84,136 23

98,856 87

97,254 48
101,222 64
122,501 45

Total..

642,094

$397,664 67

118,164

085

$384,607 71

$782,272 38

Total Traffic and Receipts of Mexican Railways. — Before concluding
this chapter, I append a statement of the total traffic and receipts of
the Mexican Railways from 1873 to I^95> taken from theAnuarw Esta-
distico de la Republica Mexicana of 1895, compiled in the Department
of Communication of the Mexican Government from data furnished
the same by the respective companies, in compliance with the provis-
ions of their grants.

211

RAILWAY SUBSIDIES PAID BY THE MEXICAN GOVERNMENT.

I append a statement of the railway subsidies paid by the Mexican
Government from the beginning of railway construction to June 30,
1896, which is entirely correct, as it has been obtained from the ac-
counts of the Federal Treasury of Mexico. I insert after that state-
ment a detailed account of each of the railways to whom subsidies have

•^•MHMOOHTt-mOfO'* O\O >OP) •<t't>.txM O t*.
M -* M tx « tN.00 VO \0 M M ts, •*- OVO 00 O fO fs N 0 tx

& a is

.ei 1000
cf op* en co. -^ COM"

I fO •*
M\0

'. cnoo" tC tf «" i-T »x 10

2 q.

^2

•*• »o o O ^.roOiN ^-Tt-M cooo
M O er> Qv ^VO^ JO j* fp j*

S?5SSI&5EEI

£sg

?S

i«

: S • : * :•« :
:Js : :i :1 :

i-

aii

B« C

rt o *

111

mfl

ll

Bw

«T3

.5 J g

rt M «^v?* .u-'raro v^i^j^^fri1^ B B«N r^^^T3 Jt B«*i G rt

212

Statistical IRotes on dDejico,

00

• v§

:tf : : : : :
oVS^SS^S-S^ iS^g^S^^S wS,8§

Mt^NO^o^Mfoo • rovo o> a* in M « o t^N 8^5

" "8?His

ro fn

tOO io « I tx 0> lO

_vo votn^.MioM
T >o •* • cT

^%8 a^SS 8 o $g.8 8 8$ 5-

M o o ^ o wo ooo^-*-»nioo ovo_io

<*ao r?i i "" '" "

!S

W 2

2§

\o H H

r*H

L&»1

:«3»^

:-H K i ri s

:§,g :§2^
: gi : s^^

;^i«-§a

C rt 1)

fil^lJiJ :'S^

^aulrtg" :^-cg

^lIlllHIS

'^ 'rt'Scja-CpioC,

incite

SSJfil5«

o gog^ S«2^ B c

rt«bOtirtortcrtrtrt

iBBHlin

213

been paid, stating the number of kilometres built, the amount of sub-
sidy due for the same, and the manner in which the subsidy was
paid, that statement being the most complete that has so far been
published :

R£SUM£. — Amount paid in Cash $ 46,896,901 95

" " Certificates of Construction (convertible

in five per cent, bonds) 21,711,513 92

" " Bonds 31,127,00000

" of Balance due (payable either in cash or Bonds), 8,008,24438

Total amount of Subsidies, as per corresponding concessions, $107,743,660 25

The Tehuantepec Railway cost of construction is herein included, in order to
give a complete statement of the Government's pecuniary outlay for the construction
of railways in the country. As the $13,500,000 amount of the five per cent. Bonds
paid on account of the construction of this line to the contractors, McMurdo & Co.,
represent a gold indebtedness, if reduced at the rate of 24 pence per dollar, the
above total cost of railway construction should be increased by an equal amount, say
$13,500,000 Mexican currency— or a grand total of $121,243,660.25.

DETAILED STATEMENT OF THE SUBSIDIES PAID BY THE MEXICAN
GOVERNMENT TO THE RAILWAY COMPANIES.

1. MEXICAN RAILWAY. — (From Mexico City to Veracruz.)
Subsidy as per original concession, $560,000 per annum, during

25 years, equal to $14,000,000 oo

Paid previous to October 21, 1890 10,187,315 79

Balance in favor of the company, on October

21, 1890, as per special agreement of the

same date $3,497,878 80

<)% deduction, for cash payment, according to

the second clause of said agreement 314,805 41

Total payment 14,000,000 oo

2. HIDALGO RAILWAY. — (From Mexico City to Pachuca, Hid.)

Subsidy, $8000, per kilometre, as per concession $1,232,088 oo

Paid on account thereof in cash $931,296 37

In 3$ and $% Bonds 300,791 63

Total payment 1,232,088 oo

3. VERACRUZ & ALVARADO RAILWAY. — (Coast Line between

the said ports.)

Subsidy due the Company, $6000 per kilometre, as per con-
cession $440,000 oo

Paid on account thereof, in cash $394,000 oo

In 3# Bonds 46,000 oo 440,000 oo

4. MERIDA & PETO RAILWAY. — (Between the two named towns,

State of Yucatan.)

Subsidy, due the Company, $6000 per kilometre, as per con-
cession $648,000 oo

Paid in cash $577,445 85

In 3$ Bonds 70,554 15

Total payment 648,000 oo

214 Statistical IRotes on

5. INTEROCEANIC RAILWAY. — (Narrow gauge, from Veracruz to

Acapulco, Pacific Coast.)

Subsidy due the Company $5,57O,5H 12

483'?& Kilometres at $8000 $3,866,469 12

gi.ium « <« 6500 526,50000

140. *&&• " " 6000 840,000 oo

38.115. « ' unsubsidized

Construction bounty earned, as per concession

on the Mexico & Cuautla division 137,542 OO

Construction bounty earned, as per concession

on the Jalapa & Veracruz division 200,000 oo 5,570,511 12

Paid in cash $2,896,938 oo

In certificates already paid for,
out of the 3$ of the Cus-
toms Receipts 2,673,573 12

Total payment 5,57O,5ll 12

6. OCCIDENTAL RAILWAY. — (Between points in the States of Sina-

loa and Durango.)

Length of the road, according to the concession
1373 kilometres, subsidy at the rate of
$8000, per kilometre, as follows :

From Altata, (Port on the Paci-
fic Coast, Gulf of Califor-
nia), to Culiacan, capital of
the State of Sinaloa 6i.il! kilometres constructed

From Culiacan to Durango and

Fresnillo cities 600

A Branch to Guaymas 536

" " Mazatlan 237

i,373
Subsidy due for the first 6i.iH kilometres

already built $495,416 oo

Construction bounty according to concession

$1000 per kilometre 61,927 oo

Total amount due and paid for to the Company $557,343 oo

7. MEXICAN CENTRAL, and sundry branches. — (Trunk-line, from

Mexico City to El Paso del Norte, on the Rio Grande
River.)

Subsidy due in accordance with the corresponding charter was $26,609,003 50

As follows : for 1970. !°-°- kilo-
metres of the trunk-line, of
which 107 kilometres were
subsidized at $1500 per kilo-
metre $ 160,500 oo

And 1,863..!°° kilometres at

$9500 per kilometre 17,704,200 oo $17,864,700 OO

For 258.M2 kilometres of the

215

Gaudalajara branch, which
reduced as per special contract
of Feb. 25, 1887, to 2I8.M2
kilometres at $9500 per kilo-
metre $2,076,510 oo

For 653.M2 kilometres of the
Aguascalientes & T a m p i c o
Branch, at $9500 per kilo-
metre 6,208,250 oo

For 25 kilometres of the San
Bias & Guaristemba at $9500

per kilometre 237,500 oo 8,522,260 oo

For 23.111 kilometres of Silao &
Guanajuato Branch at $9500

per kilometre 222,043 5°

Total payment $26,609,003 50

This total amount, was settled and paid for in
accordance with special agreement entered
into by and between the Department of Pub-
lic Works and the Company, on August 23,
1890, as follows :

Lands, art-works, drafts and plans, etc., due by
the Company as per settlement effected

December 22, 1881 $ 34,204 39

Rebate off the subsidy corresponding to 6600
kilometres of parallel lines, between Zaca-
tecas & Guadalajara, as per agreement

therefor 52,800 oo

Rebate off the subsidy on 50 kilometres of the
line, between Tantoyuquita & Tampico, as

per agreement 75,ooo oo

Cash received by the Government of the State
of San Luis Potosi, on account of the old

branch line to Tampico 48,000 oo

Certificates of construction paid at various Cus-
tom Houses out of the 8$ of the receipts of
the same, during the fiscal years 1881-1890 7,108,070 80
Paid with bills of exchange on London out of
the proceeds of the loan negotiated in

1890 14,335,732 06

25$ discount on $19,820,793 01, amount of the
balance acknowledged in favor of the Com-
pany, according to the above mentioned

agreement, (August 23, 1890) 4,955,196 25

Total payment $26,609,003 50

8. MEXICAN NATIONAL, and branches. — (Trunk-line from
Mexico City to Laredo, Tamaulipas.)

The Company constructed 173 7. Mi kilometres
for which the Government owed the fol-
lowing subsidies : —

216 Statistical IRotes on /IDejico.

On 1444. MA kilometres of the trunk line, at the

rate of $7000 per kilometre $10,108,315 oo

On 273. M& kilometres of the trunk line, at the

rate of $6500 per kilometre 1,774,500 oo

On 20 kilometres of the Salto Branch at the rate

of $8000 per kilometre 160,000 oo

Total amount of subsidy due $12,042,815 oa

The above amount was paid in certificates of construction for. .$11,929,870 oo
of which the sum of $8,746,722 60 was paid at several Custom-Houses
during the fiscal years 1882-1895, and the balance of $3,183,147 40, was
converted, by special agreement between the Treasury Department and
Messrs. Lionel Carden and H. P. Webb, as representatives of the Company
in 5$ Bonds. The balance of $112,945 which in the preceding statement,
appears as pending of payment, was accepted by the Company, as the
value of the Government's shares in the Salto Branch.

9. " SONORA RAILWAY." — (From Guaymas, on the Gulf of Califor-

nia, to Nogales, on the boundary line.)

Subsidy on 422 $11 kilometres at the rate of $7000 per kilometre, $ 2,956,184 oa

Paid to the Company, cash $ 2,071,310 60

Fine against the forfeiture of the concession. . . 100,000 oo
3# Bonds in accordance with the provisions of

the law of September 6th, 1894 784,873 40

Total payment $ 2,956, 184 oa

10. "MERIDA & VALLADOLID RAILWAY," with a branch. — (Be-

tween these two towns in the State of Yucatan.)

Subsidy due on io8.1M kilometres at $6000 per kilometre $642,008 oa

Paid for as follows, cash $ 597,608 oo

In 3$ Bonds (law of September 6th, 1894). . . . 44,400 oo

Total payment $642,008 oa

11. "MERIDA & CAMPECHE RAILWAY," via. Kalkini. — (Between

the capitals of the States of Yucatan and Campeche.)

Subsidy due on 135. 1B28 kilometres at $6000 per kilometre, $810,915 oo

Paid to the Company in cash $766,91 5 oo

In 3$ Bonds 44,000 oo

Total payment $810,915 oo

12. "SAN MARCOS & NAUTLA RAILWAY." — Between San Marcos

station on the Mexican Ry. and Nautla bar on the Gulf
of Mexico.)

Subsidy due on 75 kilometres at $6000 per kilometre $450,000 oo

Paid to the Company as follows : Cash $ 70,500 oo

In special 5$ subsidy Bonds 349,000 OO

In 3$ Bonds according to the provisions of the

law of September 6th, 1894 500 oo

Rebatement of subsidy on 5 kilometres running

parallel with the " Interoceanic Ry 30,000 oo

Total payment $450,000 oo

•Railways, 217

13. " TOLUCA & SAN JUAN de las HUERTAS RAILWAY." — (Between

the capital of the State of Mexico and the San Juan
estate.)

Subsidy due on 15.^!^ kilometres at $3500 per kilometre $55,023 50

Paid to the Company, cash $46,250 oo

In 2% Bonds (law of September 6th, 1894) 8,773 5°

Total payment $55,023 50

14. " VANEGAS, CEDRAL, MATEHUALA & Rio VERDE RAILWAY." —

(All townships within the State of San Luis Potosi.)

Subsidy due on 65. M£ kilometres at $5500 per kilometre $357,5OO oo

Paid to the Company, cash $341,000 oo

In $% Bonds (September 6th, 1894) 16,500 oo

Total payment $357,500 oo

15. "JIMENEZ and SIERRA MADRE RAILWAY." — (Through the

Hidalgo District, State of Chihuahua.)

Subsidy due on 5.M£ kilometres at $8000 per kilometre $40,000 oo

The whole paid to the Company in 3$ Bonds (Law of Septem-
ber 6th, 1894.

16. "MEXICAN SOUTHERN RAILWAY." — (367 kilometres from the

City of Puebla to Oaxaca.)

Subsidy due under agreement of May 4th, 1892 $11,248,805 10

First annuity of interest paid to the Company
in conformity with the original concession
of April 2ist, 1886 $880,800 oo

Conversion of the remaining 14 annuities, as
per the above named agreement, in special
Bonds denominated of the ' ' Oaxaca Trunk
Line" 8,558,888 55

Bounty paid to the Company, as per original

concession, in Bonds (special) 1,809,116 55

Total payment $11,248,805 10

Of the total amount of special Bonds issued, $10,368,000 oo

Cashed 1, 108,000 oo

Outstanding 9,260,000 oo

17. "TONALA" (State of Chiapas, Pacific Coast) and " FRON-

TERA RAILWAY." — (State of Tabasco, on the Gulf of
Mexico.)

Subsidy on 50 kilometres at $8000 per kilometre $400,000 oo

Paid to the Company with 6$ Bonds, valued at

90$ of their nominal $444,444 oo

The balance shown in the preceding statement

in favor of the Company for $44,444.00

proceeds from the want of a Bond of less

value than $1000 of the corresponding issue.

Statistical IRotes on /IDejico,

1 8. "MONTEREY" (Capital of the State of Nuevo Leon) and

" MEXICAN GULF RAILWAY."— (Port of Tampico.)

Subsidy on 624.*!°. kilometres at $8000 per kilometre $5,534-572 24'

Wholly paid for in $% Bonds, issued under the law of Sep-
tember 6th, 1894, with the exception of a balance of
$572.24, which, on account of the want of bonds of less
value than $1000, is still pending of settlement. Of the
original issue of special Bonds given to the Company in
payment of the subsidy, $235,000 is still pending of con-
version.

19. " TECOLUTLA " (a bar on the Mexican Gulf) and " ESPINAL

RAILWAY." — (Both in the State of Veracruz.)

According to the original concession, the subsidy granted to this

Company was on 19 kilometres at the rate of $4500 in

cash per kilometre ; but under a new agreement, dated

January, 2Oth, 1892, it was settled as follows :

9 kilometres at the rate of $4500 each in cash, $40,500 oo

10 kilometres in Bonds at $6000 each 60,000 oo

Total payment $100,500 oo

20. "PACHUCA" (Capital of the State of Hidalgo) and "TAMP-

ICO RAILWAY." — (On the Mexican Gulf.)

Subsidy on io.M° kilometres at $8000 $80,000 oo

Totally paid in Bonds, in accordance with the law of Septem-
ber 6th, 1894.

21. " MARAVATIO " & " IGUALA RAILWAY." — (Towns in the States

of Michoacan and Guerrero, respectively.)

Subsidy on 50 kilometres at $3000 in cash and
$3000 in special Bonds, under 10% discount
off their nominal value, and paid for, cash, $112,000 oo

Bonds 166,000 oo

Total payment $316,666 so1

22. " MEXICAN NORTHEASTERN RAILWAY." — (An extension of the

" Hidalgo " Ry. to Tizayuca, in the State of that name.)

Subsidy on 50.^1° kilometres at $6000 $300,540 oo

Paid for, in cash $294,000 oo

In 3$ Bonds 6,540 oo

Total payment $300,540 oo

1 Some of the total payments in this table do not correspond to the amount of sub-
sidy due, because in some of those cases other payments have been made, like
bounty, of which no account appears in the respective statement. In some cases a
bounty was offered provided the road was finished before the time fixed in the respec-
tive grant.

IRailwags. 219

23. " VERACRUZ & BOCA del Rio RAILWAY."

Subsidy acknowledged on n.Mi kilometres at $8000 per kilo-
metre $92,032 oo

Paid for, cash $83,000 oo

In 3% Bonds 9,032 oo

Total payment $92,032 oo

24. " TULA, ZACUALTIPAN " (State of Hidalgo), and TAMPICO

RAILWAY.

Subsidy on 70. ° ° ° kilometres at $8,000 per kilometre $560,000 oo

The whole amount paid for in $% Bonds, of which $285,000
were outstanding on the 3Oth of June, 1896.

25. " MATAMOROS IZUCAR " (State of Puebla) and " ACAPULCO

RAILWAY." — (On the Pacific coast.)

Subsidy under contract of March 22d, 1895, on 40 kilometres. . $988,776 49

Paid as follows : cash, for the amount of 2% in-
terest annuities paid to the Company in
conformity with the original concession ... $111,370 62
In 5$ Bonds, according to the above con-
tract 877,405 87

Total payment $988,776 49

26. "LOWER CALIFORNIA RAILWAY." — (From the town of San

Quintin to a point on the " Mexican Central," Chihuahua.)

Subsidy on 20 kilometres, payable in 6$ Bonds at the rate of
$8000 per kilometre, the said Bonds, afterwards converted
in conformity with the corresponding law of conversion,
were taken by the Company under 10% discount off their
nominal value $177,777 77

27. " MONTE ALTO RAILWAY." — (Starts from the town of Tlalne-

pantla, on the Salto branch of the " Mexican National,"
towards Alizapan and Villa del Carbon.)

Subsidy on 10 kilometres at $6000 per kilometre, payable in
6# Bonds taken by the Company at the rate of 90$ of their
face value $66,666 66

28. TEHUANTEPEC R. R. — (Between Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf of

Mexico, and Salina Cruz, on the Pacific coast.)

COSTS OF CONSTRUCTION TO THE MEXICAN GOVERNMENT.

I. CONTRACTORS, EDWARD LEARNED & Co.— (Contract of June 2d, 1879.)

35 kilometres, of which only 25 were paid

for, at $7500 $187,500 oo

The Learned contract was rescinded by
the Mexican Government on August
i6th, 1882 ; but by agreement ad-
justed with J, Tyng, as representative
of the contractors, who received the
following payments :

220 Statistical motes on

December 2ist, 1882, $125,000 oo
July Qth, 1883 ....... 403,618 44

July igth, 1883 ...... 101,068 48

July 1 2th, 1888 ...... 1,075,726 go 1,705,413 82

Total amount paid to Learned & Co .................... $1,892,913 82

Of which amount the sum of $230,413.82 represents
interest accrued at the rate or 6% per annum ; so that
the 35 kilometers built by these contractors actually
cost $14,083.25 per kilometre.

3. CONTRACTOR, MR. DELPIN SANCHEZ.— (Agreement of Oc-
tober sth, 1882.)

This contractor received from the Govern-

ment the sum of ................... $1,079,135 40

For the purchase of material, which he only

accounted for the amount of $908,-

910.50 the balance of ...... . ....... $170,224 90

Having been donated to the contractor ac-

cording to special agreement of April

25th, 1888.
The same contractor received in 150

weekly installments of $1900 each

during the fiscal years 1885, 1888 ____ $285,000 oo
Mr. Sanchez delivered as constructed 74 kilo-

meters which were paid to him at the

rate of $25,000 each ................ $1,850,00000 $2,305,22490

3. MAC-MuRDO CONTRACT. — (Agreement approved by Decree
of October isth, 1888.)

For the completion of the construction and the furnishing
of all the rolling material, etc., and for which the Con-
tractors received inpayment in $% Bonds, special issue,
principal and interests payable in sterling currency,
£2,700,000 .................................. ... $13,500,000 oo

This contract was rescinded on the I3th of January, 1892,
when the contractors, in settlement of accounts, sur-
rendered to the Government the sum of about $2,000,-
ooo as surplus proceeding from the sale of the said
bonds, and delivered, more or less, 250 kilometres of
the lines as built or repaired within the stipulations of
the said contract.

STANHOPE, HAMPSON & CORTHEL CONTRACT. — (Made
under Decree of December 6th, 1893.)

For the construction of 59 kilometres and the completion
of all the necessary works for the preservation and
working of the whole line, for the fixed sum of, ...... $1,483,035 oo

Total cost of the line $19,181,173 72

public Debt.

221

PUBLIC DEBT.

In the first part of this paper I gave a brief statement of the differ-
ent loans and liabilities which constitute the Mexican debt, and that
statement will make it easy to understand the different issues and
denominations of our bonds. Here I append a detailed statement
of the National Debt of Mexico, up to June 30, 1896, submitted to
Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury on the i4th of December,
1896, and a further statement containing the same data in a more
concise form.

STATEMENT OF THE NATIONAL DEBT OF MEXICO TO JUNE 30, 1896.

Bonded Debt, Principal and Interest payable in Ster-
ling currency.

Six per cent, interest bearing Bonds for the Loan of 1888,

with . . % sinking fund, Capital and Interest $51,908,786 50

Six per cent, interest bearing Bonds for the Loan of 1890,

with . . % sinking fund, Capital and Interest 30,068,710 25

Six per cent, interest bearing Bonds for the Loan of 1893,

with . . % sinking fund, Capital and Interest 15,325,561 50

Five per cent, interest bearing Bonds for the Construc-
tion of the Tehuantepec Railway, 1889, Capital.... 13,500,000 oo

Six per cent, (non converted balance) Bonds of the Loan,

contracted in London, 1851, Capital 134,153 12

Total amount of outstanding Bonds, payable

in Sterling currency $110,937,911 37

Bonded Debt, Principal and Interest payable in Mexi-
can Silver currency.

Three per cent, interest bearing Bonds of the Interior

Consolidated Debt, Capital and Interest $52,464,927 60

Five per cent, interest bearing Bonds of the Interior Re-
deemable Debt, first series, Capital and Interest. . . . 19,995,689 48

Five per cent, interest bearing Bonds of the Interior Re-
deemable Debt, second series, Capital and Interest. 987,127 15

Subsidy Bonds, non converted balances, for sundry

works and railways, Capital 9,792,865 75

Total 83,240,609 98

Railway Construction Certificates, pending of conver-
sion, Capital 219 17

Balance-certificates corresponding to the fiscal years
comprehended between 1882 and 1894, Capital pend-
ing of conversion 329,221 91

Total amount of bonded debt, payable in Mexi-
can Silver currency 83,570,051 06

Grand Total of Bonded Liabilities $194,507,362 43

Liabilities from various sources, and in forms, other

than Bonds, payable in Mexican Silver currency.
To Railway, Harbor Works and Drainage of the Valley

of Mexico, Contractors $ 501,741 02

To Unpaid for Appropriations in the Budgets for the

fiscal years between 1891 and 1896 612,337 82

To other credits pending of settlement : on account of

the same Budgets 600,894 63

To Balances in Account-current due various Contractors

with some of the Executive Departments 315,818 95

To sundry, cash or otherwise executed, Deposits, as

guarantee for pending contracts 2,681,662 95

To provisional certificates issued on account of the 1888,

1890 and 1893, Sterling Loans 3*7381684 12

To cash or other values pending of classification in the

corresponding accounts • 74i434 57

To cash Receipts on account of credits, other than fiscal

and pending of payment to the corresponding offices. 32*829 68

To Balance due to Mint-Lessees 48,214 89

To outstanding Bins Payable 111,186 28

Total Amount of Liabilities from various

sources and in forms other than Bonds. . . . 8,717,804 91

Grand Total of the Mexican National Debt $203,225,067 34

222

Statistical motes on /l&ejico.

00

5 E o *3"a gj

J!!Il?if :J|J:f|g|!l
•fl^1? ^o'e :*S :."H §* « 8 2 g o'g 8

w

i?a i

II §• H

•?•

u a
S j-S o 8-«

SS^i

|§^2

u'o'o'S'o g

^00000

Mi4i4i2i30<

' c yJ.*J I'c J"c'| 0fS'S J I
o ftrtuts ^s^aC rtrt«3
U W0QCJPQ t3cflPQw(X, UOPQO

post*®fflce anD Ueleatapb Service* 225

POST-OFFICE AND TELEGRAPH SERVICE.

I append a statement containing the number of post-offices, and
postal agencies in each of the Mexican states in 1895, and the num-
ber of postal pieces transported by Mexican mails from the years
1878-1879 to 1894-1895. (See page 225.)

I have prepared a statement of the earnings and expenditures of
the post-office and telegraph services in Mexico during the twenty-
seven fiscal years elapsed from July i, 1869, to June 30, 1896. It was
not possible to obtain full data of the earnings of the telegraph lines
during the first ten years of that period, on account of the defective
way in which the books were kept by the Federal Treasury of Mexico.
With that exception the data embraced in the following statement is
correct, as it has been taken from the official accounts. (See p. 224.)

POST-OFFICES IN MEXICO IN 1895 BY STATES.
STATES. OFFICE POSTAL AGENCIES. TOTAL,

Aguascalientes ... 5 5 .. 10

Campeche 8 3 .. n

Chiapas 7 24 .. 31

Chihuahua 24 58 . . 82.

Coahuila 25 26 i 52-

Colima 2 9 .. n

Durango 19 42 .. 61

Federal District i 8 10 19

Guanajuato 27 38 .. 65

Guerrero 13 31 . . 44

Hidalgo 19 43 . . 62

Jalisco 35 83 . . 1 1&

Lower California 7 17 .. 24

Mexico 14 21 . . 35

Michoacan 22 59 .. 81

Morelos 9 9 . . 18

New Leon 18 33 .. 51

Oaxaca 22 39 .. 61

Puebla 27 77 i 105

Queretaro 7 10 .. 17

San Luis Potosi 18 34 .. 52^

Sinaloa 16 28 .. 44

Sonora 14 75 .. 89

Tabasco 5 1 6 . . 21

Tamaulipas 17 36 . . 53,

Tepic 7 13 .. 20

Tlaxcala 9 7 .. 16

Veracruz 36 82 .. 118

Yucatan 16 40 .. 56

Zacatecas 20 23 i 44

Total 469 989 13 1471

224

Statistical IRotes on

EARNINGS AND EXPENDITURES OF THE POST-OFFICE AND TELEGRAPH
SERVICES DURING THE LAST TWENTY-SEVEN FISCAL YEARS, FROM
JULY I, 1869, TO JUNE 30, 1896.

FISCAL
YEARS.

POST-OFFICE.

TELEGRAPH.

BOTH SERVICES. — TOTAL.

Dr.

Expenditure.

Cr.

Earnings.

Dr.

Expenditure.

Cr.

Earnings.1

Dr.

Expenditure.

Cr.

Earnings.1

1869-1870. . .
1870-1871...
1871-1872...
1872-1873...
1873-1874...

Total in
five years. .
Average
per annum.

1874-1875...
1875-1876...
1876-1877...
1877-1878...
1878-1879...
Total in
five years..
Average
per annum.

1879-1880. . .
1880-1881...
1881-1882...
1882-1883...
1883-1884. . .
Total in
five years..
Average
per annum.

1884-1885...
1885-1886. . .
1886-1887...
1887-1888...
1888-1889...
Total in
five years. .
Average
per annum.

1889-1890...
1800-1891 . . .
1891-1892...
1892-1893...
1893-1894...
Total in
five years. .
Average
per annum

1894-1895...
1895-1896. . .
Total in
two years. .
Average
per annum
Total in the
27 years . . .
Average
per annum

$ 132,399 06

I54i574 9°
340,324 63

457»I53 J9
491,199 48

£ 120,120 24
167,348 85
265,440 22
474,819 ii
523,583 09

$ 29,212 73
84,150 oo
48,379 7?

72,418 96
174,504 32

$ 1,809 53

$ 161,611 79
238,724 90
388,704 40
529,572 15
665,703 80

$ i,57S,65i 26

$ i,55i,3" Si

$ 408,665 78

$ 1,984,317 04

$ 315,130 25

$ 310,262 30

$ 81,733 16

$ 396,86341

$ 641,836 35
480,299 37
530,032 95
682,076 21
867,789 75

$ 549,820 14
455,473 12
441,329 10
590,384 36
679,392 06

$ 190,366 06
161,795 66

134,830 02

241,200 oo
259,095 86

$ 832,202 41
642,095 03
664,862 97

$ 1,789 is

1,126,885 61

$ 3,202,034 63

$ 2,716,398 78

$ 987,287 60

$ 4,189,322 23

$ 640,406 93

$ 543,279 76

$ !97,457 52

$ 837,864 45

$ 892,856 73
983,606 17
873,201 78
840,354 70
878,519 75

$ 702,080 39
833,830 87
704,766 47
795,122 86
698,019 36

$ 348,290 24
196,542 94
570,155 25
916,657 53
677,729 50

$ 101,064 69

135,144 02
174,301 24
219,384 91

239,051 45

$ 1,241,146 97
1,180,149 IJ
1,443,357 03
1,757,012 23
1,556,249 25

$ 803,145 08
968,974 89
879,067 71
1,014,507 77
937,070 81

$ 4,468,539 13

$ 3,733,8i9 95

$ 2,709,375 46

$ 868,946 31

$ 7,i77,9H 59

$ 4,602,766 26

$ 893,707 83

$ 746,763 99

$ 54^875 09

$ 173,789 26

$ 1,435,582 92

$ 920,553 25

$ 1,411,183 03
751,227 37
943,33* 74
956,701 47
1,049,880 10

$ 642,660 19
672,329 80
739,732 65
793,873 74
880,530 93

$ 618,829 54
622,858 67
718,821 70
799,074 24
820,072 05

$ 180,820 77
155,442 82
197,478 87
275,856 95
329,493 13

$ 2,030,012 57
1,374,086 04
1,662,154 44
1,755,775 7i
1,869,952 15

$ 823,480 06
827,772 62
937,2" 5*
1,069,730 69
1,210,024 °6

$ 5,™2,324 71

$ 3,729,127 31

$ 3,579,656 20

$ 1,139,092 54

$ 8,691,980 91

$ 4,868,219 85

$ 1,022,464 94

$ 745,825 46

$ 7I5,93I 24

$ 227,818 51

$ 1,738,396 18

$ 973,643 97

$ 1,126,436 69
1,196,329 63
1,342,437 «

1,278,587 20

1,250,855 82

$ 994,"2 87
1,084,153 40
1,127,563 18
1,153,401 20
1,213,309 46

$ 872,316 89
972,164 06
1,045,726 44
1,073,105 81
954,864 48

$ 388,926 07
462,076 59
501,802 33
528,881 96
524,634 33

$ 1,998,753 58
2,168,493 69
2,388,163 55

2,35I,693 OI
2,205,720 30

$ 1,383,038 94
1,546,229 9Q
1,629,365 51
1,682,283 *6
1,737,943 79

$ 6,194,646 45

$ 5,572,540 "

$ 4,918,177 68

$ 2,406,321 28

$11,112,824 13

$ 7,978,861 39

$ 1,238,929 29

$ 1,114,508 02

$ 983,635 54

$ 481,264 26

$ 2,222,564 83

$ i, 595,772 28

$ 633,201 36
1,228,784 30

$ 1,337,691 40

1,062,415 99

$ 531,949 48
1,025,347 29

$ 547,308 67
622,340 69

$ 1,165,150 84
2,254,131 59

$ 1,885,000 07
1,684,756 68

$ 1,861,985 66

$ 2,400,107 39

$ 1,557,296 77

$ 1,169,649 36

$ 3,419,282 43

$ 3,569,756 75

$ 930,992 83

$ 1,200,053 7°

$ 778,648 38

$ 584,824 68

$ 1,709,641 21

$ 1,784,878 38

$22,415,181 84

$19,703*305 05

$14,160,459 49

$ 5,584,009 49 $36,575,641 33

$21,019,604 25

$ 830,191 92

$ 729,752 04

$ 524,461 46

$ 328,471 14

$ 1,354,653 38

$ 1,236,447 30

1 The totals and averages per annum in the colums marked u Earnings" and " Total Earnings"
only embrace seventeen years, as the returns for the first ten years being very incomplete are not
computed.

225

NUMBER OF PIECES TRANSPORTED BY MEXICAN MAILS FROM 1878-1879

TO 1894-1895.

FISCAL YEARS.

NUMBER OF PIECES.

1878-1879 5,992,611

1879-1880 5,786,790

l88o-l88l 6,141,790

l88l-l882 6,732,504

1882-1883 10,640,5 16

1883-1884 10,488,5 18

1884-1885 1 1,905,209

1885-1886 13,289,591

1886-1887 16,504,034

1887-1888 27,429,018

1888-1889 43,052,800

1889-1890 95>852»939

1890-1891 111,406,893

1891-1892 . 116,778,853

1892-1893 122,821,359

1893-1894 35,818,148

1894-1895 24,773,636

Total 665,415,209

Printed matter, samples, and parcel post articles in the year 1894-
1895, weighed in grammes, 1,107,755,679.

The notable reduction which appears in the last two years is due to
the fact that in the preceding years all correspondence was counted,
namely : such pieces as were received and sent, and such as came in
transit, while in the last two years only are accounted such as were sent.

BANKS.

The following statement contains a list of all the banks existing in
Mexico up to December 31, 1895, and their respective condition :

LIST OF MEXICAN BANKS.

STATE.

LOCATION.

NAME OF BANK.

DATE OF
CHARTER.

Federal District.

Chihuahua. .

Mexico City

Chihuahua City.,

Yucatan.

Merida

Durango . .
Zacatecas. .
New Leon.

Durango City . .
Zacatecas City.
Monterey

National Bank of Mexico

International and Hypothecary

Bank of Mexico

Bank of London and Mexico. .
Mexican Chihuahua Bank ....

Chihuahua Mining Bank

Chihuahua Bank

Chihuahua Commercial Bank. .

Yucateco Bank

Yucatan Mercantile Bank

Durango Bank

Zacatecas Bank

New Leon Bank. .

February, 1882.

May, 1883.
October, 1886.
September, 1888.
September, 1888.
December, 1889.
December, 1890.
February, 1890.
March, 1890.
June i, 1891.
December, 1891.
February 18, 1892

226

Statistical Iftotes on /iDejico.

SITUATION OF THE MEXICAN BANKS ON DECEMBER 31, 1894.

NATIONAL
BANK OF
MEXICO.

BANK OF
LONDON AND
MEXICO.

INTERNA-
TIONAL AND
HVPOTHECARY
BANK OF
MEXICO.

CHIHUAHUA
MINING
BANK.

MEXICAN
CHIHUAHUA
BANK.

CHIHUAHUA
COM-
MERCIAL
BANK, ON
FEBRUARY
15, 1895.

Social capital.. ..
Unpaid capital.

$20,000,000 00

$3,000,000 oo

$5,000,000 oo

$ 600,000 oo

$610,000 oo

$600,000 oo

Accumulated

Reserve funds..
Emergency

1,796,100 51

1,100,000 00

34,500 oo

105,000 oo

108,600 oo

5,000 oo

Real estate

Cash

2O 630 086 8Q

fi f

Cash in hand . . .
Guarantee ad-

11,962,994 35

8,892,749 25

1,581,974 I9

1,167,942 29

281,713 84

229,199 13

Advances on
mortgages
Debtors' cur-
rent accounts.
Bills in circula-
tion

12,605,302 02

5,318,895 69

2,788,527 85
1,854,417 78

264,538 80

94,124 oi

786,198 62

222,115 58

Mortgage bonds
in circulation.

Deposits and
creditors' cur-
rent accounts .

21,768,776 96

8,811,024 66

1,642,378 91

458,877 30

465,519 05

75,559 32

CHIHUAHUA
BANK,
ON JANUARY
15, 1895.

YUCATECO
BANK.

YUCATAN
MERCANTILE
BANK.

DURANGO
BANK.

ZACATECAS
BANK.

NEW LEON
BANK.

Social capital... .

$500,000 oo

$1,000,000 oo

$ 750,000 oo

$500,000 oo

$600,000 oo

$600,000 oo

Reserve funds. .
Real estate, fur-

5,666 25

22,654 71

I7,7l6 89

3,396 88

6,500 oo

8,278 82

Cash

,

Cash in hand...
Guarantee ad-

109,113 ii

1,346,715 63

1,001,457 81

603,039 90

565,032 52

08 106 17

600,323 71

Debtor's current
accounts
Bills in circula-

285,441 59

172,391 75

426,601 32

322,927 09

339,306 74

118,521 26

Deposits and
creditors' cur-
rent accounts.

30,277 86

313,246 10

510,835 92

445,667 79

701,065 74

191,928 26

PUBLIC LANDS.

I append four statements of the titles of public lands issued by the
Mexican Government. The first one embraces a resume' of the titles
issued without cost, and under the act of December 14, 1874, of the
Indian town lands held in common, called in Spanish " Ejidos " to the
respective inhabitants of the said towns, from 1877 to 1895 : the second
embraces a resume of the titles issued in 1894 and 1895 for public
lands held by private parties as portions of public land bought from
the government but which were in excess of the respective titles, which
we call in Spanish " Demacias " : the third one embraces a resume of
the titles of public lands issued to private parties in the years 1894

public Xanfcs,

227

and 1895 : and the fourth contains a resume" of the titles issued by the
Mexican Government to surveying companies for one-third of the land
respectively surveyed by them in 1894 and 1895, according to law and
the respective contracts.

FREE TITLES ISSUED UNDER THE ACT OF DECEMBER 14, 1874, OF

THE INDIAN TOWN LANDS TO THE RESPECTIVE

INHABITANTS FROM 1877 TO 1895.

YEARS.

TITLES.

AREA.

Hectares.

Ares.

Cts.

1877

I

195

72
2
195
259
1,932
383

774
254
1,524
2,237
1,130
499
i,449
452
791
273

85
3,572
128,144
5,ooo
5,629
14,616
6i,497
13,068
20,662
2,999
20,547
100,627
68,086
6,516
15,807
17,709
6,262
6,160

06
7i
94

00

29
14
56
18
93
85
73
65
3i
74
30
59
7i
03

oo

41

56

oo

69

13

94

08

12
98

16
32
86

22

95
08

49
65

1878

l87Q

i860

1882

1883

1884

1885

1886

1887

1888

l88q .

l8qo .

1801

AUVA

1802

1893

1894

1805. .

Total

12,422

496,994

79

64

TITLES ISSUED FOR UNWARRANTED POSSESSION BY PRIVATE PARTIES
OF PUBLIC LANDS IN 1894 AND 1895.

YEARS.

Number
of Titles.

AREA.

VALUE.

Hectares.

Ares.

Cts.

iSO-l

17

10

34,78i
69,557

98
33

04

21

$21,554 91

20,254 12

180=;. .

27

104,339

31

25

$41,809 03

TITLES OF PUBLIC LANDS ISSUED TO PRIVATE PARTIES IN
1894 AND 1895.

YEARS.

Number
of Titles.

AREA.

VALUE.

Hectares.

Ares.

Cts.

1804 .

21

19

86,385
59,265

63
24

26
84

$140,067 72

81,883 95

iSoc

40

145,650

88

10

$221,951 67

228

Statistical IRotes on flDejico.

TITLES ISSUED IN 1894 AND 1895 TO SURVEYING COMPANIES FOR
ONE-THIRD OF THE LAND SURVEYED BY THEM.

YEARS.

Number
of Titles.

AREA.

Hectares.

Ares.

Cts.

32
29

484,257
243,576

30
ii

70
81

I So*. .

61

727,833

42

51

EDUCATION.

The following official data received by the Census Bureau of the
Mexican Government contains the number of schools in the different
States of Mexico, supported by the Federal, State, and municipal ad-
ministrations, and the number of students attending the same. That
statement does not include the States of Mexico and Veracruz, which
are among those having the largest number of schools and attendance.

I also append a statement of the number of schools supported by
private parties, with the number of pupils attending the same and
their cost ; and finally a detailed statement of the public libraries ex-
isting in Mexico, and newspapers published in the country, taken from
the publication of the Census Bureau in 1895.

NEWSPAPERS PUBLISHED IN MEXICO IN 1895.

Aguascalientes 10

Campeche 4

Chiapas 4

Chihuahua 19

Coahuila 6

Colima 13

Durango 7

Federal District, City of Mexico 115

Guanajuato 14

Guerrero 6

Hidalgo 3

Jalisco 43

Lower California (Territory) 5

Mexico ii

Michoacan 30

Morelos 5

New Leon 8

Oaxaca 5

Puebla 17

Queretaro i

San Luis Potosi 6

Sinaloa 14

Sonora 12

Tabasco 14

Tamaulipas 20

Territory of Tepic 6

Tlaxcala 2

Veracruz 24

Yucatan 18

Zacatecas 12

Total 454

These are published in several languages, namely :

English 12 German I

French 2 Spanish 439

Total.

Dailies 44

Semi-weekly 33

Tri-weekly 5

Weekly 185

Semi-monthly 79

Monthly 87

454

Bi-monthly 3

Quarterly 5

early 3

Unknown 10

Total 454

229

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Bavrtgatton. 237

MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS IN MEXICO IN 1893.

I take from Les Finances des Etats- Unis Mexicains of Mr. Prosper
Gloner the following table, which purports to give the number of some
of the manufacturing establishments in Mexico during the year 1893.
Mr. Gloner acknowledges that his table is very deficient, as he says in
a note that appears at the foot of it that he failed to receive the data
from 117 districts in different states of Mexico, and that besides the
manufacturing establishments mentioned in his table there are in the
City of Mexico the following : (See page 236.)

Carriages and wagons 1 1

Wax works 28

Agricultural implements 9

Wall paper i

Coloring substances 2

Mineral and soda-waters 4

Carriage varnishes 2

Jewelry boxes, etc 9

Mucilage and paste 1 1

Card-board 6

Scientific instruments I

Playing cards i

Pianos, organs, and harmonicas 4

Passementeries 6

Type foundries i

Gold and silver ribbons 2

Perfumeries 6

Hats 49

Musical instruments , 6

Total 159

NAVIGATION.

The total number of vessels, both steamers and sailing vessels,
which arrived at and departed from Mexican ports during the year
1895, appears in the following statement.

I also append a statement showing the number of passengers who
arrived in and departed from Mexico by sea and rail during the year
1895, mentioning both their nationality and the port of their arrival.
The number appears exceedingly small when compared with the very
large number coming from Europe to the United States ; but I feel sure
that before long we will have a large immigration.

238

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243

VESSELS ARRIVED AT AND DEPARTED FROM MEXICAN PORTS DURING
THE FISCAL YEARS 1894-95 TO 1895-96.

ARRIVED.

DEPARTED.

Steamers.

Sailing vessels.

Steamers.

Sailing vessels.

Ves-
sels.

Ton-
nage.

Ves-
sels.

Ton-
nage.

Ves-
sels.

Ton-
nage.

Ves-
sels.

Ton-
nage.

Total navigation in the fiscal

4,078
4,47i

3,083,050
3,300,444

5,497
5,723

345,923
395,041

3,399
4,378

3,026,964
3,242,711

5,566
5,856

332,720
390,765

Total navigation in the fiscal
year 1895-1896

393

217,394

226

49,118

979

215,747

290

58,045

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.

I take from the Anuario Estadistico de la Republica Mexicana of 1895
the following table, which gives the total production of some of our
agricultural staples, although I feel perfectly satisfied that they are
very much under-rated in said table, because of the difficulty in obtain-
ing complete data about our agricultural productions, both for want of
a proper machinery to collect it, and because manufacturers conceal
the extent of these products for the purpose of avoiding taxation. I
think if the figures in said table are duplicated they will be nearer
the true production.

RESUME" OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS IN MEXICO.

ARTICLES.

BUSHELS.

POUNDS AND
OTHER MEASURES.

VALUE.

Cereals :
Rice

27,174,320 59

$ 1,400,299 40

Barley

A 702 2^Q

•i c87 682 65

Indian corn

71 QOO 5o8

7e 605 383 21

Wheat

IO O34. "328

I"?, 273.7QO 5O

Leguminous :
Chickling vetch (Arvejon)

2CT ''qo

•aaft 771 40

Beans

4. 3IQ 8*34.

7,260,123 25

Chick-peas

774 ^51

932 608 60

Lima beans

c6l I5Q

624. 53O 22

Lentils

34. 12^

64,44.1 25

Root plants :
Sweet potatoes

2 om 8^4.

8 Co 461 5O

Huacamote . .

2^ Q3Q

108,348 82

Potatoes

29,472,894 45

879,430 15

Solanaceous :
Dried pepper

9,724,44*? 08

1. 73I»857 67

Green pepper

I OO7 O4Q

7^8 TOO QO

Cane products :

5,924,612,232 56

25,692,281 25

Sugar

316,531,239 02

10,283,994 38

Brown sugar

152 3OO QO3 <X

7 942,787 60

Molasses

12,748,079 24

3,304,787 82

244

Statistical IRotes on flDejico.

ARTICLES.

BUSHELS.

POUNDS AND
OTHER MEASURES.

VALUE.

Oleaginous :

214 460

$144 773 OO

Peanuts

qe7 e6o

325 4I1} OO

60 388

I3O Q55 OO

(310 Q^I.OOO cocoa-

Linseed.. . .

•3Q3 42 5

nuts)

3,522,789 oo

373 115 OO

Palma Christ!

CQ 46O

83 434 OO

20,708

34,806 oo

Lime-leaf sago

Q 068

20 i 68 oo

Alcohol and Fermented Drinks:

12,768 716 gals.

5,056,474 82

Pulque whiskey

270,876 gals.

199,935 oo

6 on 602 gals

3.O78 372 OO

54, 624,8'?'? gals.

3,562,435 O5

Tlachique or unfermented

24 013 QOI gals

I 294 575 OO

Textiles :
Henequen

93,427 740 04

4,104,096 oo

Ixtle

9,608,026 79

325,250 95

78.511 486 26

10,176,050 50

Grape Products :

•7 114. CJQ Q5

l6l 372 25

Wine

162 816 16 gals

146,028 70

91,656 60 gals.

83,724 80

Dyeing Plants :

2QQ 761 56

285,530 oo

Brazil

632,135 85

64,795 oo

Campeachy

171,604,086 41

2,IIO,O98 50

Moral

19 826 253 38

195,300 oo

Tanning Plants :
Cascalote

4,798,994 96

242,070 25

Tanning bark

33 036 812 04

457,167 26

Tropical Plants :

5,346,7l8 17

1,123,180 oo

Coffee

42,019,015 76

11,565,519 28

Tobacco...

124 852 5Q7 60

6.464,733 50

119,273 60

14,055 oo

Vanilla

(10,714,000 vanilla

Gums :
Chewing gum

beans)

3 Q96 630 32

667,145 50

549,865 50

India rubber

1,354,851 48

410,290 oo

I^Q 806 Q7

7 292 75

Copal gum

21 48=1 47

IO,3I3 55

Medicinal Plants :
Jalap

*O OQQ OO

6,945 oo

Sarsaparilla

1,514,331 90

100,730 oo

CONCLUSION.

It has taken me a great deal of time and required a great deal of
effort to obtain and prepare the data contained in this paper. I am
sorry I have not been able to make it more complete than it is ; but I
hope my article, by giving a general and superficial idea of Mexico,
may promote the desire to read other papers and books treating on
that subject in a fuller and more complete manner.

ADDENDA.

Since this paper has been printed the Federal Treasury of Mexico
finished the accounts of the fiscal year ended June 30, 1897, and I give
below the general results, showing the total amount of the Federal
revenues and expenses during that year. I also give a statement, taken
from the Statistical Bureau of the Treasury Department of Mexico,
published since this paper has gone to press, of the imports and ex-
ports in the same year, both by countries and custom houses, these two
statements completing the data contained in this paper, and finally
some data of the trade of both countries during the first nine months
of the present calendar year.

FEDERAL REVENUE AND EXPENSES OF MEXICO IN THE FISCAL YEAR

1896-1897.

RECEIPTS.

Duties on imports and exports $23,639,580.91

Internal revenue 24,323,798.46

Public services 2,057,409.92

Extraordinary and incidental 2,084,496.30

$52,105,285.59
Extraordinary revenues proceeding from contracts

and other sources 2,819. *7

$52,108,104.76
EXPENSES.

1. Legislative power $ 989,758.38

2. Executive power 62,100.26

3. Judicial power 428,687.46

4. Department of Foreign Affairs 470,122.37

5. Department of Interior 3,354,888.95

6. Department of Justice and Public Education. 2,184,556.52

7. Department of Fomento, Colonization, and

Industry 611,863.83

8. Department of Communications and Public

Works 5,494,593-34

9. Department of the Treasury and Public

Credit 24,218,207.75

10. Department of War and the Navy 10,550,955.18

Total $48.365,734.04

Surplus $3,742,370.72

245

246

Statistical Botes on

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF MEXICO BY COUNTRIES AND CUSTOM
HOUSES IN THE FISCAL YEAR 1896-97.

COUNTRIES.

IMPORTS.

EXPORTS.

CUSTOM
HOUSES.

IMPORTS.

EXPORTS.

Algiers
Arabia .

$ 802
282

1,897
24,833
128,367
479»?50
214
240
3,356
6,203
51,357
64,317

Acapulco
Altata

$ 206,275
IOI,I59
6,897
175,027
2,910,359

4,710,415
105,148
246,918

451,959
6,863
89,894

24,943
62,937
4,693,818
18,794

77,395
185,370
1,572,568

8,157
944,312

1,463,515
15,150
11,676
152,643
547,726
231,078
8,773,275
14,297
140,268
106,494
76,926
14,036,136
35,703

$ 123,481
813,899

8,735
747,710
17,929,521

2,888,535
285,195
418,352
40,307
15,754
1,693,767
498,765
430,144
3,701,086
420,011
221,551
312,987
5,808,037
78,609
5,776,575
8,443,130
525,075
68,114
638,398
3,279,390
1,608,446
29,952,441
116,238
199,367
255,582

1,154,313
22,484,633
408,346

Argentine
Republic. .
Australia. . . .
Austria

Camargo

Campeche. . . .
City of Juarez.
City of Porfirio
Diaz

Belgium

$ 1,134,325

Bolivia • . .

Coatzacoalcos .
Krontera. ...

Brazil
Canada

17
20

5,396
17,675
31,658
53,503

Guaymas

Chili

Guerrero
Isle of Carmen
La Morita. . . .
La Paz

China

Colombia. . . .
Costa Rica. .

Cuba

363
3,614
53,249
10,271
6,881,701
4,989,082
4,003,263
1, 660
46,323

Laredo .

Denmark... .
Ecuador ....

EffVDt

Las Palomas . .
Manzanillo . . .
Matamoros . . .
Mazatlan
Mier

England ....
France

14,280,527
1,873,522
4,416,744

Germany. . . .
Greece

Progreso . .

Guatemala . .

1,197,247
1,200
57,906

Puerto Angel.
Salina Cruz. . .
San Bias

Holland

132,728

3
210,845
184,186
23,673

Honduras... .

Sta. Rosalia. .
Soconusco ....
Tampico

Italy

10,765
1, 660
2,110

Taoan

Tijuana

i?y

Todos Santos.
Tonala

Norway

41,670

784
108
22,653
3i,387
452
1,071
902
1,983,794
29,078
163,293
3,267
22,593,860

33

27,608
i,456

Persia

Tuxpam

Peru

19,690

Veracruz

Portugal ....
Russia

Zapaluta

294,165
I2,l85

Total

Salvador ....
San Domingo
Senegambia .
Spain

1,192,328
1 80
720

Sweden
Switzerland..
Turkey
United States
Uruguay ....
Venezuela . . .
Zanzibar ....

Total....

86,742,951

$42,204,095

$111,346,494

$42,204,095

$111,346,494

A comparison between the foreign trade in the fiscal year 1896-97
with the year before, 1895-96, gives the following results: During
the year 1896-97 Mexico's exports increased $6,329,592, but the value
of the exports sent to the United States increased $7,091,256. The

H&fcenfca. 247

total of Mexico's imports for the year 1896-97 shows a falling-off of
$49,843, but, notwithstanding this fact, Mexico's imports from the
United States increased $2,448,097. During the year England's ex-
ports to Mexico decreased $1,023,315, and her imports from Mexico
show a loss of $2,186,622, a combined loss of over 12 per cent, in her
commercial relations with the Republic. Imports to Mexico from
France fell off $1,110,101, a loss of one-sixth of all France's exports
to Mexico. In 1895-96 the United States imported 75.8 per cent,
of the total exports from Mexico ; in 1896-97 American exporters fur-
nished 53-J per cent, of all that Mexico bought abroad, and, more
than this, the United States took 47.67 per cent, of all that was ex-
ported from Mexico. These figures sustain the prediction made, that
any unsettlement or diminution of Mexico's importations either be-
cause of fluctuating silver or the increased production of home manu-
factories would affect American exporters less than those of any other
country. The statistics given above show that these causes have affected
them less than those of all the other countries combined ; in fact, their
loss has been the gain of the United States.

TRADE BETWEEN MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES DURING THE
FIRST NINE MONTHS OF THE CALENDAR YEAR 1897.

The following data, taken from the publications of the Statistical
Bureau of the United States Treasury Department, shows the results
of the trade with Mexico in the nine months ended September 30,
1897, as compared with the similar period ended September 30, 1896.

Mexican Exports to the United States. — In the following items the
first group of figures represents the amounts and values exported in
the first nine months of this year, and the second those of the similar
period in 1896 :

Coffee, 30,016,967 pounds, worth $4,574,252 gold, against 19,715,264
pounds, worth $3,333,385. The much lower price of coffee this year
accounts for the disproportionate valuation.

The people of the United States, besides being Mexico's chief cus-
tomers for coffee, are buying more and more of our tobacco, which
they now know and appreciate on its merits. The amount exported to
the United States was 600,987 pounds, worth in gold $294,536, against
IQ^SOS, worth $78,769.

Mexico exported, in the period under consideration, to the United
States, hides and skins to the value of $1,534,306 gold, against $1,055,-
299. The quantities, respectively, were 11,764,000 pounds, and 7,102,-
465 pounds. No diminution of activity there.

It is worth noting that oranges were shipped out to the value of
$22,444 gold against $19,359.

248 Statistical IRotes on

Mexico's great argentiferous lead business did not fall behind, the
nine months' exportation being 108,776,560 pounds, worth in gold
$1,226,525, against 97,818,833 pounds, worth $949,926. The bulk of
the American purchase of lead is from Mexico.

Yucatan is Mexico's henequen-growing region, and the exportation
has been heavy, standing at 48,410 tons, worth in gold $2,889,003,
against 35,746 tons, worth $2,323,585, a noteworthy increase. The
henequen or sisal-grass trade into the United States is overwhelmingly
Mexican, " other countries " furnishing but 399 tons in the first nine
months of this year !

Mexico both exports and imports coal, and shipped into the United
States 85,890 tons, worth in gold $182,416, against 52,674 tons, worth
$115,015.

Logwood exports were $44,028, against $15,250.

Mahogany fell off, being $290,044 gold, against $306,715, but this
trade is always variable.

Mexican Imports from the United States. — It is worthy of note that,
in spite of the extraordinarily heavy gold premium, Mexico should be
increasing her buying abroad of electrical apparatus, the purchase from
the United States alone, in the first nine months of this year, amount-
ing to $228,000 gold, as against $200,000 in the same period last year.
Sewing machines went in to the value of $164,000 gold in the nine-
month period, against $154,000 last year. Builders' hardware fell off
from $556,600 gold value, in the first nine months of last year, to
$424,000 this year, but lumber for builders ran up to $1,079,000 gold,
against only $544,000 last year, all coming from the United States.
Furniture increased slightly, $141,000 gold, against $126,000.

Carriages, cars, and other vehicles, in the nine-months' period,
came from the United States to the value of $664,000 gold, as com-
pared with $463,000 last year. Bicycles amounted to $56,000 gold, as
against $37,7oo.

Other importations were as follows :

9 MOS., 1897. 9 MOS., 1896.

Cotton :

Bales 9,936 23,127

Value * $411, 973 * $1,020,000

Crude petroleum imports :

Gallons 6,260,164 5,486,667

Value * $277,300 * $299,422

Refined petroleum :

Gallons 734,466 588,242

Value $136,180 $122,447

Cotton seed oil :

Gallons 1,010,580 9*2,905

Value * $199,000 * $195,000

*Gold.

249

APPENDIX.

In the preceding paper I stated that I would give as an appendix
some data concerning several subjects treated in the same, and I now
append the documents mentioned ; the first one being a paper pub-
lished in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society of New
York for March 31, 1894, under the title of " Mexico a Central
American State," the second, some itineraries of the principal roads
in Mexico, which show the broken surface of that country, and the
third and last, a paper on the " Drainage of the Valley of Mexico,"
published by the Engineering Magazine of New York, Vol. viii., No. 4,
for January, 1895.

MEXICO A CENTRAL AMERICAN STATE.

In the chapter of this paper entitled " Location, Boundaries, and
Area," I referred, (page 9) to an article under the above heading, which
I published in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society of New
York of March 31, 1894, and offered to give it in the appendix. That
paper is the following :

MEXICO A CENTRAL AMERICAN STATE.1

There is in this city a social gathering of ladies and gentlemen
called " The Travellers' Club," meeting weekly during the winter of
each year, for the purpose of studying a foreign country, on the sup-
position that its members are then travelling in that particular country,
and with that view papers are read referring to the same, and they are
illustrated with an exhibition of views and objects manufactured in the
country under study, and of everything else that may contribute to
impart more or less complete information regarding the place supposed
to be visited.

During the winter of 1887-88 Mexico was chosen as the country un-
der study by the club, and for that reason I received at the beginning
of the year 1888 an invitation to attend some of its sessions, and to say
something about the Republic. I accepted the invitation to attend
some session, but stated to the invitation committee that, not having
time to prepare a paper, I would only give some general notions on

1 This article was published in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society
of New York of March 31, 1894, and it is inserted here without any changes. Al-
though the data contained in this article was published in the years 1887 and 1893, as
it refers to the area which has not changed, I have not thought it necessary to revise
the same. So far as the Mexican States are concerned, I have later and more accu-
rate data ; but the differences are insignificant, and it is not worth while to notice
them. As regards the population, the increase has been proportionate ; in respect to
all the countries mentioned in this article there is no marked change in the general
proportions.

250 Statistical IRotes on

Mexico, in a conversational form, and would be glad to answer any
question that might be put to me by those attending the meeting who
felt the desire to have further information and more details.

Accordingly, the evening of the i6th of January, 1888, I attended the
meeting of the club and spoke for about an hour on the geographical
position of Mexico, its physical conditions, its natural resources, and
other matters connected with the situation of the country, but carefully
avoiding to touch any political question, especially of an international
character.

With a view to leave a record of what I intended to say, I had with
me a stenographer to take down what I would say, and although his
notes were not complete, by using them, and those taken by reporters,
some extracts of my conversation were prepared and published the
next morning.

Speaking of the geographical position of Mexico, I naturally stated,
what is a fact, although not generally realized, that while the main
portion of the territory of Mexico is located in North America it
occupies a considerable portion of Central America, although politically
it is considered as wholly situated in North America. On this subject
I made the following remarks, taken from the newspapers, but which
were correct:

" The isthmus of Panama divides the New World into two continents, one sit-
uated on the northern and the other on the southern hemisphere, but as the position
of that isthmus does not correspond with the line of the equator, and lies considerably
north of that line, a large portion of South America proper lies in the boreal hemi-
sphere. North America proper is divided by the isthmus of Tehauntepec in two sub-
divisions— Central America from Panama to Tehauntepec, and North America from
Tehauntepec to the North Pole.

"Central America in its present political organization includes the following
States : Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, but from a geo-
graphical standpoint it has a much larger area, since it begins at the isthmus of Panama
and ends at the isthmus of Tehuantepec. Taking this view, Mexico exercises sov-
ereignty over a large portion of Central America, larger still than any single State of
the five which are generally considered as the only components of the same, and
representing a third of the total territorial area of Central America.

" The Mexican State of Chiapas and a part of Oaxaca, on the Pacific ; of Yuca-
tan, Campeche, and Tabasco, and a portion of the State of Vera Cruz on the Gulf of
Mexico, are situated in geographical Central America.

" The following resume" of the territorial area and population of the several sec-
tions of Central America, taken from the Statesman's Year Book, London, 1887, shows
that Mexico is a Central American as well as a North American power :

FIVE STATES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.

Area in sq. miles. Population.

Guatemala 46,800 1,224,602

Salvador 7,225 634,120

Honduras 46,400 458,000

Nicaragua 49, 500 275,815

Costa Rica 23,200 213,785

Total.. 173,125 2,806,322

flftejfco anfc Central Hmerfca.

25*

MEXICO.

State. Area in sq. miles.

Chiapas 16,048

Oaxaca (one-fifth) 6,718

Yucatan 29,567

Campeche 25,832

Tabasco 11,815

Vera Cruz (one-fourth) 6,558

Total 96, 538

Population.
242,029
152,255
302,319
90,413
140,747
145,610

1,073,373

This shows that 36 per cent, of the total area of Central America belongs to
Mexico.

In the foregoing list I omitted to take into account that, besides the States
referred to, there are in Central America proper the British Colony of Belize or British
Honduras, and that part of the State of Panama, in Colombia, which lies north of the
isthmus of Panama.

Taking the area and population of those places from the statistical and geographical
data published by the Almanack de Gotha for 1893, and from some official information
in possession of Sefior Doctor Don Manuel M. de Peralta, Costa Rican Minister to
Washington, a gentleman very well versed in Central American affairs, the following
results are obtained :

A

rea in square
miles.

16,048
6,718
29,567

25,832
11,815
6,558

Oaxaca (one-fifth)

Yucatan

Campeche

Tabasco

Veracruz (one-fourth) . . .
Guatemala

96,538

48,300
46,262
8,135
47,857
24,000
19,278
8,300

Honduras

Salvador

Costa Rica

Panama (two-thirds)
British Honduras

202,132

Area in square
kilometers.

41,565
17,400

76,579
66,905
30,600
16,986

250,035

523,415

Population.
270,000
158,800
330,000

94,000

140,747
181,000

1,174,547

1,520,000
400,000
800,000
320,000
270,000

200,000

31.500

3,541,500

GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENSION OF CENTRAL AMERICA.

Mexican Central America

Five Republics of Central America... .

British Honduras

Panama (two-thirds)

Square miles. Square kilometers.

96,538

174,554

8,300

19,278

298,670

773,450

The foregoing table shows that a little more than 32 per cent, of the whole of
Central America, geographically speaking, belongs to Mexico.

252 Statistical Hotes on /IDejico.

When those statements were translated into Spanish and published
by Las Novedades, of New York, in its issue of the i8th of January, 1888,
they were read by Seiior Don Manuel Montufar, Secretary of the
Guatemalan Legation in Washington, who, in the absence of the
Minister, Seiior Don Francisco Lainfiesta, was acting as Charg6
d' Affaires, and he considered my statements in this connection as a
geographical heresy, and as an evidence of the design of Mexico
against the several States of Central America. His alarm was so great
that he called the attention of the other representatives of the Central
American States in Washington to this incident, in order to point out to
them the serious dangers which he foresaw for their respective
countries on account of my views, which he considered as more than
extraordinary.

Fortunately, one of them, the representative of Costa Rica, Senor
Doctor Don Manuel M. de Peralta, had attended the meeting of the
Travellers' Club at which I spoke, and, I think, Doctor Don Horacio
Guzman, the Nicaraguan Minister, was also present, although I am
not sure of this, and both failed to see anything in what I stated in this
connection that was not a geographical fact, and that, consequently, it
could not be disputed ; and therefore this incident, that threatened to
assume certain proportions, died in its very cradle.

Seiior Montufar showed himself over-sensitive at my remarks when
there was not the slightest ground for such feeling. If I had made a
geographical mistake in averring that a portion of the territory of
Mexico was in Central America, geographically speaking, I would be
the only sufferer by my mistake, because I would have been the laugh-
ing-stock of everybody, including the school-boy studying geography;
and, on the contrary, if I had stated a fact, nobody had reason to
complain, and much less to be alarmed.

My object in now mentioning this incident is to show the extreme
sensitiveness of some Guatemalan gentlemen in regard to Mexico,
which goes so far that they cannot listen sometimes to indisputable
facts without umbrage, and without ascribing it to purposes and designs
against their country. Fortunately this incident happened when the
long-pending boundary dispute between Mexico and Guatemala had
already been settled for several years, as, had it taken place before,
when that question was opened, the situation would have been still
more embarrassing and unpleasant.

M. ROMERO.

WASHINGTON, December 29, 1893.

Itineraries*

253

MEXICAN PROFILES.

In the chapter on Orography of this paper (page 31) I stated that I
would give some profiles of the Mexican surface, which would show in
an exact manner the different altitudes from the sea-level to the high
plateaus of the country. I have selected for that purpose the principal
measurements by railroads built in Mexico, as they naturally followed
the easiest ascent and descent, both from the coast to the interior and
back to the coast. I will also supplement those measurements with
others made for wagon roads to and from important places.

FROM VERACRUZ TO MEXICO BY ORIZABA,
BY THE MEXICAN RAILWAY.

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metres.

Feet.

Veracruz

15.500
15.250
11.250
21.250
12.750
10.000
19.750
26.250
20.250
2O.25O
6.500
24.250
20.500
18.000
17.250
25.500
27.000
19.500
15.500
22.OOO
11.500
11.250
32.500

9-63
9.48
6.99
13.21
7.92
6.22
12.27
16.52
12.58

12.59
4.04

15-07
12.74
11.19

10.72
15-84
16.79

12.12

9.63
13.67

7.15
6.99
2O.2O

0.000

15.500
30.750

42.000

63.250

76.000
86.000
105.750
132.000
152.250
172.500
179.000
203.250
223,750
241.750
259.000
284.500
311.500
331.000
346.500
368.500
380.000
380.000
423.750

0.00

9.63

19.11
26.10

39.31
47.23
53.45
65.72

82.04

94.62

107.21

111.25
126.32

139.06
150.25
160.97

176.81

193.60
205.72
215.35

229.02

236.17
236.17
263.36

1.89
32.34
44-77
93,08
340.76
475-55
400.77
827.88
1227.63
1601.79
2415.36
245L79
2430.42
2357.32
2373-21
2488.06

24H.5I
2507.62
2486.92
2452.58
2349.41
2281.57
2244.99
2239.83

6.20

106.10
146.89

305.39

1116.47

1560.25
1314.91

2713.61
4027.80

5255.40
7924.66

8044.20

7974.08
7734.24
7786.37
8164.97
7912.03
8227.37

8159-45
8046.78
7708.28

7485.71
7365.69
7348.76

Tejeria

Pur£?a

Soledad

Oamaron

Maltrata .

Boca del Monte

San Andres »..

Soltepec

FROM APIZACO TO PUEBLA, A BRANCH OF
THE SAME ROAD.

139.250

86.54

0.000

0.00

2239.83

7348.76

Apizaco

16.750

10.41

139.250

86.54

2411.51

79I2.O3

18.250

11.29

156.000

96.95

2288.31

75O7.82

Panzacola . .

12 OOO

7.52

174.250

108.24

2192.01

7101.86

Puebla

186.250

115.76

2I<4 63

7060.22

254

Statistical Betes on

FROM VERACRUZ TO MEXICO BY JALAP A, BY THE INTEROCEANIC RAILWAY.

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metres.

Feet.

20.234
15.200
9.820
21.644
16.312
9-78i
15-603
14-675
8.558
10.510
14.227
14.870
16.569
20.827
29.476
17.041
17.064

11.303
14.014

10.357
H-344
19.391
7.919
15-586
15-231
12.721
24.259
23.275
9.302
9.648
15.617

4-724
31.209
H-452
9-353
17.495

12.58
9-46
6.09
13-45
IO.I4
6.07
9.70
9.12
5-32
6.53
8.84

9-25
10.29

12.95
18.31
10.59
10.61
7.02
8.71
6-44
7-05
12.05
4.92
9-69
9-47
7.91
15-05
14.49
5.78

5-99
9.71
2.94
19.39
7.92
5.19
11.50

o.ooo
20.234

35.434
45.254
66.898

83.210

92.991
108.594
123.269

131.827
142.337
156.564
171.434

188.003
208.830

238.297

255.338

272.402

283.705
297.719

308.076

319.420
338.811
346.730
362.316

377.547

390.268

414-527
437.802
447.104
456.752
472.369

477.093

508.302

519.754
529.107

546.602

0.00

12.58
22.04
28.13
41.58
51.72

57.79
67.49
76.61
81.93
88.46
97.30
106.55

116.84

129.79

148.10

158.69
169.30
176.32
185.03
191.47
198.52
210.57

215.49
225.18
234.65
242.56
257.61

272.10

277.88
283.87
293.58
296.52

315,91

323.03

328.22
339.72

2.OO
28.60
5.50
24-44
254.00
520.70
690.08
941.24

1170.44
I336.[8
I49O.OO
1780.22

2073 09
2421.10
2390.30
2321.50
2346.40

2348.33
2412.60

2559.05
2469.25
2312.04
2155.60
2130.96
2197.50
2258.61
2472.10
2740.16
2576.10
2484.22
2447.25
2409.05
2361.30
2249.10
2235.20
2240. 10
2240.00

6.56
93.84
18.04
80. 1 8
833.36
1708.39
2264.12
3088.16
3840.15

4383.94
4888.62
5840.82
6801.70
7943-50
7842.44.
7615.23
7698.41
7704.74
7915.61
8396.10
8101.48
7585.67
7072.39
6991.56
7209.88
7410.38
8110.83
8990.31
8990-31
8150.60
8029.30
7903.96
7747.29
7379-13
7333.52
7349.60
7349.27

Santa Fe

La Antigua

Rinconada « . .

Colorado

El Palmar

Chavarrillo

Pacho

Talapa • . .

San Miguel ...»

Las Vigas

Perote

La Venta

Acajete .. .

Puebla

Analco

San Martin Texmelucan. . .

Nanacamilpa .... .

Calpulalpam

Irolo . . .

Soapayuca

Texcoco

San Vicente . .

Mexico ,

FROM THE CITY OF MEXICO TO MORELOS, A BRANCH OF THE SAME ROAD.

I7.4Q5

II. 50

O.OOO

O OO

224O.OO

734Q.27

Los Reyes .

7 OO5

o 7*2

17 4.Q5

II 5O

2240 10

734Q 6O

Ayotla

9-2QO

c 77

24 5OO

IS. 2T,

224^ 3O

7-160 oo

La Compania

12 9OO

8. 02

33.8OO

21 OO

2244.5O

7364 O3

Tenango

10 800

6 71

46 7OO

29 O2

2^24 2O

76^5 53

Amecameca

12 2OO

7 5Q

S.-7 TOO

qc 70

24.66 5O

8OQ2 42

22.9OO

14.23

69 7OO

4-2.32

2^24.45

7626.33

Nepantla . . .

26 8OO

16 66

92 6OO

e-7 c e

1968 65

645Q O4

Yecapixtla

1 6 500

IO 25

IIQ 4OO

74 21

I57O 2O

5151 75

Cuautla de Morelos

8.2OO

5.IO

135 QOO

84 46

I2I6.48

3QQI 2O

Calderon ... .

14 ooo

8 7O

14,4. IOO

80 56

1258 15

4127 O2

1 8 ooo

II. IQ

158 ioo

08 26

1154, 72

•3788 5Q

Ticuman .

8 200

5OQ

176 ioo

TOO AS.

968 22

•2J75 60

Tlaltizapan

8 7OO

e 4.1

184 300

114 54

Q34 IO

•7064. 73

2 IOO

I 4.1

IQ3 OOO

IIQ 05

9OO 2O

2Q53.5I

Tojutla

12 IOO

7C2

TQ5 -2.OO

121 38

890 64

2Q22 15

San Jose

7 600

4. T\

2O7 4OO

128 go

QQ2 35

•2255 84

Puente de Ixtla

215 ooo

133 63

806 QQ

2Q42.QO

itineraries.

FROM PUEBLA TO IZUCAR DE MATAMOROS, A BRANCH OF THE SAME

ROAD.

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metres.

Feet.

Puebla

7.919

5.000
8.QOO
iS.IOO
5.850
19.150
8.850

10.543

4.92

3-ii

5-53
11.25

3-64
11.90

5-49
6.56

0.000

7.919
12.919
21.819
39.919
45.769
64.919

73.769
84.412

0.00

4.92
8.03
13.56

24.81

28.45
40.35

45- »4
52.40

2155.60
2130.96
2145.00
2120.10
2030.20
1196.60
1685.18
1584.94
1441.80

7072.36
6991.52
7037.58
6955.89
6660.94

3925.99
5528.99
5200.10
4717.03

Los Arcos

Cholula

San Augustin

Atlixco i ...

San Jose Teruel

Tatetla

Matamoros. . .

FROM MEXICO TO EL PASO DEL NORTE OR CIUDAD JUAREZ, BY THE
CENTRAL MEXICAN RAILROAD.

1 1 . 700

7.27

o.ooo

o.oo

224O.OO

7349.32

Tlalnepantla ...

c QOO

3 67

I I . 700

7.27

225O.IO

71Q2 46

3.300

2.05

17.600

IO.Q4

2298.50

7541.26

6.800

4.23

20.900

12. QQ

2253.2O

7392.63

Cuautitlan . ....

8 100

e. jc

27.700

17.22

2252.^0

71QO. 11

Teoloyucan

10 500

6 *2

36 ooo

22 17

22m 20

71Q2 6l

Huehuetoca .

6 ooo

q 74

4.6 WO

28 80

2258 80

741 1 OO

Q QOO

6.15

52.500

12 63

2248.00

7175.57

El Salto

^•y
17.600

10.06

62.400

38.78

2162.60

7OQ5.37

Tula

1-2 COO

8 IQ

80 ooo

4Q 72

2030 oo

6660 32

24.300

15 10

03.500

58 ii

2187.00

7175 41

Lena

3.800

2.37

117.800

73.21

2471 80

8109.84

Marquez . ...»

8 300

c is.

121 6OO

7e eg

24.26 50

7061.22

8. ooo

5 O4

I2Q.QOO

80. 71

2341.40

7682.00

14.000

8.63

I37.9OO

85.77

2387.70

7833.92

Polotitlan

o 200

5.72

151. QOO

04.40

22Q2 1O

7^2O QI

Cazadero

10.900

6.77

l6l.IOO

IOO.I2

224Q.5O

7380. 4Q

18.600

11.57

I72.OOO

106.89

2I62.OO

7093.40

San Juan del Rio

jo ,qoO

8.26

190.600

118.46

IQO5.5O

6251.84

Chintepec

12 2OO

7.CQ

2O3. QOO

126.72

I8Q4.QO

62I7.O7

24.4OO

15.16

216.100

134.31

1907.70

6259.07

Hercules

5 OOO

3. II

240.500

I4Q.47

l841. QO

6O4Q.74

Oueretaro

I8.5OO

11.50

245.500

152.58

I8I3.2O

5Q4Q.O2

I4.5OO

9.01

264.000

164.08

1788.20

5867.00

Apaseo . .

13 ooo

8.08

278.500

173 OQ

1767.40

57Q8.75

18.200

11.31

291.500

l8l.I7

I757.4O

5765.94

Guaie

22 8OO

14 17

•3QQ 7OO

IQ2 48

1740 oo

57O8 85

Salamanca

II IOO

6.QO

132.5OO

206.65

1721.50

5648 15

Chico

Q 2OO

5.72

343.6OO

213.55

1720.80

5645.85

Irapuato . .

1 6 6OO

IO.1I

152 8OO

2IQ 27

1721.70

e655.^7

Villalobos

13 2OO

8. 20

369.400

22Q.=;8

1746.10

5728 87

Silao

ig.OOO

11.82

382.600

237.78

1776.50

5828.61

Trinidad

14 2OO

8.82

401.600

249 60

1818 oo

5Q&4.77

Leon

1 6 400

10.19

415.800

258.42

1785.80

5859.12

15.400

9.58

432.2OO

286.61

1765.00

5790.88

Pedrito

I q 700

8.51

447.600

278.19

I7Q5 OO

^889.30

Loma

13.600

8.55

461.300

286.70

1890.40

6202.31

Lasros

10 600

6 5Q

474 QOO

2Q5 15

1871 oo

6138.66

256

Statistical IRotes on

FROM MEXICO TO EL PASO DEL NORTE OR CUIDAD JUAREZ, BY THE
CENTRAL MEXICAN RAILROAD. — Continued.

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metres.

Feet.

Serrano (Altamira)

10.300

24.700

16.700
26.400
21.500
30.100
8.500
20.500
5.800
9.900
13.500

16.100
28.000

15.500

15.000

22.100
I3.500
20.700
25.800
ig.OOO
19.700
21.400
2I.9OO
23.200
24.000
21. OOO
23.900
15.500
14.400
14.300
25.200
16.400
5-200
17.700
20.000
24.000
22.2OO
22.700
18.900
18.500
I4.6OO
18.000
21.400
19.400
14.700
ig.IOO
18.800
19.200
15.700
l6.OOO
20.400
15.600
I6.IOO
7.300
24.300

6.77
15.35
10.38
16.41
13.36
18.71
5.28
12.74
32.20
6.15
8.39

10.00

17.41
9.63
9.32
13.74

8.39
12.86
16.04
ii. 81
12.24
13-30
13.61
14.42
14.92
13-05
14.85
9.64

8-95
8.88

15-67

10.01

3.16
11.25

12.43
14.92

13.79
14.11
".75
".55
9-07
10.57

12.06
9.13
11.87
11.69

n.93
9.76

9-94
12.68
9.70

10.00

4-54
15.08

485.500
495.800

520.500
537-200
563.600
585.100
615.200
623.700
644.200
696.000
705.900
719.400
735-500
763-500
779.000
794.000
816.100
829.600
850.300
876.100
895.100
914.800
936.200
958.100
981.300
1005.300
1026.300
1050.200
1065.700
1080.100
1094.400
1119.600
1136.000
1141.200
1158.900
1178.900
1202.900
1225.100
1247.800
1266.700
1285.200
1299.800
1317.800
1339.200
1358.600
1373.300
1392.400
1411.200
1430.400
1446. loo
1462.100
1482.500
1498.100
1514.200
1521.500

301-74
308.14

323.49
333.87
350.28

363-64
382.35
387.63
400.37
432-57
438.72
447.11
457.ii
474-52
484.15
493-47
507.21
515-60
528.46
544.50
556.31
568.55
581.85
595.46
609.88
624.80

637-85
652.70
662.34
671.29
680.17
695-84
705.85
709.01
720.26
732.69
747.61
761.40

775-51
787.26
798.76
805.83
819.02
832.32
844.38
853.51
865.38
877.07
889.00
898.76
908.70
921.38
931.08
941.08
945.62

2015.80
2035.00
1844.50
I85I.OO
1878.60
1884.00
1908.50
1296.60
1979.00
2330.20
2442.00
2306.50
2152.60
2091.50
2103.20
2087.10
2006.60
1962.40
1957.20
1889.00

1810.60
1757.30
1664.60
1582.30
1568.90
i557.6o
1525.00
I353-IO
1267.20
1232.10
1205.10
"45-30
1140.30
H35.50
1116.90
1125.70
1114.20
1146.50
1158.70
1188.50
1201.60
1263.20
1330.00
1442.70
1379.90
1381.20
i347.6o
1298.90
1257.70
1226.00
1216.60
1219.90

1210.20
1170.30
1157.10

6613.68
6676.68
6051.71
6073.04
6163.60
6181.31
6261.69
6321.08
6493.00
7645.22
8012.03
7567.46
7062.52
6862.06
6900.44
6847.63
6583.51
6438.53
6421.48
6197.72
5940.49
5765.60
5461.47
5191.44
5147.48
5H0.4I
5003.44
4439-45
4157.63
4042.46
3953.87
3757-66

374LI3
3725.51
3664.49
3693-36
3657-63
3761.61
3801.64
3899.41

3942.39
4144.50
4363.66
4733-43
4527.38
4531.65
4421.41
4261.63
4126.46
4022.45

4002.43
3970.61
3839-69
3796.39

Los Salas

Santa Maria

Encarnacion . .

Penuelas .

Pabellon ....

Rincon de Romos. . .

Soledad

Zacatecas

Pimienta

Calera

Canitas

Cedro

La Colorada

San Isidro . . . .

Symon

Calvo . . ...

Peralta

Jalisco

Matamoros

Noe

Gonejos

Yermo

Cevallos

Zavalza . .

Rellano

Corralitos . .

Dolores

Diaz

Santa Rosalia

La Cruz

Concho. .... . .

Saucillo .

Las Delicias

Ortiz

•(Itineraries*

257

FROM MEXICO TO EL PASO DEL NORTE OR CIUDAD JUAREZ, BY THE
CENTRAL MEXICAN RAILROAD. — Continued.

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metres.

Feet.

Bachinibn.

17.400
22.400
22.900
23.100
15.100
II.6OO
19.900

I3.900
13.400
20.400
20.200
29.OOO
15.400
13.100
13-500
II.3OO
22.800
24.100
28.700
18.200
I6.IOO
14.400
17.600

10.76

13.91
14.24
14.36
9.38

7.21
12.37
8.64

8.33
12.67
12.56
18.02

9-57
8.14

8-33
7.09
14.17
14.97
17.84
11.32

IO.OO

8.95
10.94

1545.800
1563.200
1585.600
1608.500
1631.600
1646.700
1658.300
1678.200
1692.100
1705.500
1725.900
I746.TOO
1775-100
1790.500
1803.600
I8I7.IOO
1828.400
I85I.2OO
1875.300
1904.000
I922.2OO
1938.300
1952.700
1970.300

960.70
97L54
985.45
999.69
1014.05
1023.43
1030.64
1043.01
1051.65
1059.98
1072.65
1085.21
1103.23
1112.80
II2O.94
1129.27
1136.36

H50.53
1165.50
"83.34
1194.66
1204.66
I2I3.6I
1224.55

1264.10
1366.50
I5I4.40
1412.30
1519.90

isg^so

1564.40

1533.60
1527.50
1535.70
1618.90
1622.00
1480.50
1382.80

1318.10

1233.30
1216.00
1194.60
1281.80
1298.30

1274.50

1263.50
1207.10

1133.10

4147.45
4483.42
4968.66
4633.68
4986.71
5221.63

5132.71
5031.66
5011.65
5038.55
53H.53
5321.71
4857.45
4536.89
4324.62
4046.39
3989.64
3919.42
4205.52
4259.66
4181.57
4145.48
3960.40
37I7.64

Horcasitas

Mapula . . .

Chihuahua

Sacramento

Ferragas

Sauz

Encinillas

Agua Nueva

Puerto

Gallego

Mocte/uma . . .

Las Minas

Ojo Caliente

Carmen .

San Jose

Rancheria

Los Medanos

Samalayuca

Tierra Blanca

Mesa . . . .

Ciudad Juarez

FROM AGUASCALIENTES TO TAMPICO, A BRANCH OF THE SAME ROAD.

Aguascalientes

14 3OO

8 QO

O OOO

o oo

1884 oo

6181 31

Chicalote

6 200

a. 84

14 300

8 QO

iSgi.OO

6204.28

Canada

10.500

6.52

20.500

12.74

IQ2I.5O

6304.34

Gallardo ....

A 600

2.86

31.000

10.26

iqee 71;

64.16 71

El Tule

15.200

Q 4"?

3 5 . 600

22.12

1962.75

6430.68

San Gil

8. 200

5.IO

50.800

31.57

2OII.5O

6500.62

II.OOO

6.84

59.000

36.67

2031.25

6664.42

Garcia

12 8OO

7.Q5

70 ooo

43 71

2II7.4O

6947.07

La Honda

1 1 OOO

6 84

82 800

cj 4.6

21^8 «?O

7016 30

Penon Blanco

16 200

10 07

Q3 8OO

=18.30

2IOO.75

68Q2.44

Salinas

13 600

8.44

IIO.OOO

68.37

2075.63

6810.91

Zotol

13.500

8.39

123.600

76.81

2I2O.5O

6957.24

Espiritu Santo

2C 400

ie 70

137.100

85.20

2O38.25

6687.3Q

Solana

62.200

38.65

162.500

IOO.9Q

2234.80

7332.25

San Louis Potosi

17.300

10.96

224.700

139.64

1877.00

6158.35

Laguna Seca .... .

27 100

16.84

242.000

I5O.4O

1827.00

5QQ4.3O

Corcovada

15.100

9-37

269.100

167.24

I7OO.OO

5577.62

Peotillos

7.500

4.69

284.200

176.61

I74O.OO

5708.86

Silos

6 4^0

4.00

291.700

181.30

I5OQ.OO

4Q5O.Q5

Puerto de San Jose

15 650

0.72

298.150

185.30

I566.OO

5137.97

San Isidro

I a 4.00

8 w

313.800

IQ5 O2

12^7 OO

4124.16

Cerritos

II.2OO

6.Q7

327.200

203.35

1136.00

3727.16

Santa Toribia (El Gato).. . .
San Bartolo . . .

17.300

4-3 OQO

10.76
26.00

338.400

355 700

210.32

221 08

IIOO.OO

1030 oo

3609.04
337Q.38

Tanque de la Tinajilla

I4.2OO
I4.7OO

8.82
0.14

399.ooo
413.200

247.98
256.80

1190.00
1 200.00

3904.33
3937.14

La Labor

8.2OO

5.10

427.900

265.04

1 200.00

3937.14

258

Statistical IRotes on /IDejico.

FROM AGUASCALIENTES TO TAMPICO, A BRANCH OF THE SAME ROAD. — -

Continued.

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metres.

Feet.

7.900
18.800
16.800
15.100
9.500
10.700
13.800
11.900
2.300
4.000
8.000
68,700
13-700
17.900
13.100

4.91
11.68
10.44

9.38

5-91
6.65

8.58
7-39
1.43
2-49
4.98
42.68
8.52

11.13
8.14

436.100
444.000
462.800
479-600
494.700
504.200

514.90°
528.700
540.600
542.900
546,900
554.900
623.600
637.300
655.200
668.300

271.04

275.95
287.63
298.07
307.45
313.36
320.01
328.59
335.98
337.41
339-9°
344-88
387.56
396.08
407.21
415.35

990.00
825.00
350.00
295.00
275.00
218.00
175.00
75.00
160.00
165.00
125.00
50.00
65.00
5.00

20.00
O.OO

3248.14
2706.78

H48.33
967.88
902.26
715.25
574-16
246.07
524.95
541-35
4IO.II
164.05
213.25
16.40
6.56
0.00

Los Llanos (Zacate)

Tatnazopo (La Garita). . . .

Rascon . . . . .

Las Crucitas

El Salto (Micos)

Valles

San Felipe

El Abra

Xaninul

Chijol

Salinas (Chila.)

Tamos

FROM IRAPUATO TO GUADALAJARA, A BRANCH OF THE SAME ROAD.

5.100

3.17

o.ooo

O.OO

I724.OO

5656.36

San Miguel . . .

ii 300

7 O2

5.IOO

3.17

1 72 1 OO

^646 ^2

Rivera

7.600

4.73

16.400

IO. IQ

I7I2.OO

5616. QQ

Cuitzeo

8. ooo

4.96

24.OOO

14.92

I7OO.OO

5577.62

Abasolo (Rio Turbio)
San Rafael

6.200

ii 600

3.85
7.22

32.OOO
38 2OO

19.88
23.73

1695.00
1690.00

5561.21

5544 8 1

Penjamo

14.300

8.89

49.8OO

30.05

I7OO.OO

5577.62

Villasenor

7.100

4.41

64.IOO

39.84

1690.00

5544.81

Palo Verde

13 500

8. 40

7I.2OO

44 2^

1685 oo

5528.4O

Cortez

6.600

4.10

84.700

|?2.6';

1675.00

54Q5.5Q

La Piedad

20. 100

12.49

9I.3OO

56.75

1675.00

54Q5 50

Patti

14.100

8 8q

III 4OO

60 24

1665.00

5472 78

Yurecuaro

2 1. OOO

13.05

125. 7OO

wy«*f
78 11

1540.00

5O52.56

6.4OO

3.97

146.700

QI.lS

1 5 3 1 . OO

5O23. 13

La Barca

A 7OO

2.Q3

ie -3 JOG

QC 1C

1507 oo

5O42 82

Feliciano

8.100

5.15

I57.8OO

08.08

I54O OO

co 5 2 66

13.200

8.21

I66.IOO

103.23

I541.OO

5O62.5O

Ocotlan

17.500

10.88

I79.3OO

111.44

1525.00

5OO3.44

Poncitlan

2 I . 6OO

13.41

196 8OO

122 32

1522 oo

4QQ1.6O

8.3OO

5.17

2I8.4OO

135.73

1512 oo

4Q6o 7Q

La Capilla

v.j~
7 6OO

A 70

226 7OO

1 4O QO

1515 OO

4Q7O 6l

El Castillo . .

24. 8OO

1^.40

214 1OO

I4C 6l

1525 OO

5OO1.44

Guadalajara

259.100

161.03

1543.00

5062.50

FROM MEXICO TO LAREDO TAMAULIPAS, BY THE MEXICAN NATIONAL

RAILWAY.

Mexico ,

4 600

2.86

O.OOO

O.OO

2240 oo

714Q 12

Tacuba ... . .

4 800

2 08

4 6OO

2 86

2250 oo

7l82 11

1 QOO

2 42

Q.4OO

5.84

2280 oo

748o 56

Rio Hondo

8.700

5.41

I1.1OO

8.26

2300 oo

7546 17

San Bartolito

5 5OO

1 42

22 OOO

ii 67

2460 oo

8071 ii

Dos Rios

5 5OO

1 4T

27.500

I7.OQ

2680 oo

87Q2 Q4

Laurel

5. QOO

3.68

11.OOO

2O 5O

2820 oo

Q252 27

Cumbre ....

2 5OO

I 55

l8 QOO

24 1 8

3050 oo

IOOO6 89*

•(Itineraries,

259

FROM MEXICO TO LAREDO TAMAULIPAS.— Continued.

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metres.

Feet.

Salazar . .

3.200
3.400
2.500
5.600
3.000
13-900
7.400
16.700
14.700
12.300
9.800
20.200
4.000
5.800
1 1. 200
10.900
7.100
7.800
4.800
3.400
14.100

12.000
8.700
12.000
8.400
8.500
12.900
12.500
17.500
15.500
S.gOO
14.200
5.200
7.400
3.800
7.2OO
8.900
13.000
9.1OO
11.600
11.300
I2.8OO
7.200
11.300
9.IOO
9.000
18.700
I4.40O
13.200
16.700
IO.OOO

14.800
15.000

13.400

15.100
12.500
13.600

15.200
18.900

1.99
2. II
1.56
3.48

1.86
8.64
4.60
10.38
9.14
7.64
6.09
12.56
2.48
3.6o
6.97
6.77
4.41
4.85
2.99

2.10
8.76

7-47
5.40
7-47
5-22

5.28

8.02

7.76

10.88
9-63
5-53
8.84
3.22
4.60
2.37
4-47
5-57
8.08

5.65
7.21

7.03
7.95
4.48

7.02

5.65
5.59

11.63

8.95

8.20

10.38

6.22

9.19

9-33
8.33
9-37
7-78
8-45
9-45
H.75

41.400
44.600
48.000
50.500
56.100

59-100
73.000
80.400
97.100
111.800
124.100
133.900
154.100
158.100
163.900
175.100
186.000
193.100
200.900
225.700
209.100
223.200
235.200
243.900
255-900
264.300
272.800
285.700
298.200
315.700
331.200
340.100
354.300
359.500
366.900
370.700
377.900
386.800
399-800
408.900
420.500
431.800
444.600
451.800
463.100
472.200
481.200
499-900
514.300
527.500

5-44-200
554-200
569.000
584.000
597.400
612.500
625.000
638.600
653.800

25.73
27.72
29.83
3L39
34.87
36.73
45-37
49-97
60.35
69.49

77.13
83.22
95.78
98.26
101.86
108.83
115.60

120.01

124.86
127.85
129.95
138.71
146.18
I5L58
159.05
164.27

169-55
177.57
185.33
196.21
205.84
211.37

220.21

223-43
228.03
230.40
234.87
240.40
248.48

254.13
261.34
268.37
276.32
280.80
287.82

293-47
299.06
310.69
319.64

327.84
338.22

344-44
353.63
362.96
371-29
380.66
388.44
396.89
406.34

3000.00
2900.OO
28OO.OO
2720.00
2600.00
2540.00
2640.00
2630.00
2580.00
2540.00
2520.00
2520.00
2580.00
2560.00
2540.00
2430.00
2320.00
224O.OO
2IOO.OO
2100.00
2O4O.OO
2OIO.OO
2080.00
2OIO.OO
I92O.OO
I860.00
ISSO.OO
I86O.OO
1840.00
1760.00
I76O.OO
1770.00
1740.00
1760.00
1780.00
1785.00
I79O.OO

1810.00
1825.00
1870.00
1860.00
1870.00
1890.00
1900.00
1930.00
1950.00
1990.00
2050.00
1860.00
1840.00
1830.00
1810.00
1900.00
1860.00
1840.00
1820.00
1700.00
1680.00
1660.00

9842.84

9514.74
9186.75
8924.18
8530.46
8333.60
8661.70
8628.89
8464.84
8333.60
8267.98
8267.98
8464.84
8399.22
8333.60
7972.70
7611.79
7349-32
7086.84
6889.98
6693.13
6594.70
6824.37
6594.70
6299.42
6102.57
6168.19
6102.57
6036.95
5774.48
5774.48
5807.29
5708.86
5774.48
5840.10
5856.50
5872.91
5938.52
5Q87.73

6135.38
6102.57
6I35.38
6201.00
6233.88
6332.23

6397.85
6529.09

6725.94
6102.57
6036.95
6004.14
5938.52
6233.88
6102.57
6036.95

597L33
5577-62
5512.00
5446.38

Carretera de Toluca . ...

Fresno

laialpa. .

Lerrna. ...

Toluca

Palmillas

Del Rio . . .

Ixtlahuaca

Tepetitlan

Klor de Maria

Venta del Aire

Tultenango . . .

Solis

Tepetongo .

Agua Buena (Buena Vista).
Mayor

Pateo

Pomoca

San Antonio

Zirizicuaro

San Jose ... .

Providencia

Acambaro

San Cristobal

Salvatierra

Cascalote . .

Ojo Seno.

Celaya

Santa Rita

San Juan

Chamacuero . . .

Rinconcillo

Begona

San Miguel deAllende

Atotonilco

Dolores Hidalgo .

Rincon

Pena Prieta

Trancas

Obregon

Ciudad Gonzalez (SanFelipe)
Chirimoya . .

Jaral

Villa de Reyes

Jesus Maria ...

La Pila

San Luis Potosi
Penasco

Pinto

Bocas

Enramada

Moctezuma ... . ,

260

Statistical 1Rote0 on Mexico,

FROM MEXICO TO LAREDO TAMAULIPAS. — Continued.

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metres.

Feet.

El Venado

17.000
16.300
11.600
15.400
I6.OOO
8.600
6.800
15.200
16.400
15.800
15.700
15.700
2O.2OO
2O.OOO
20.900
13.200
17.300
9.600
13.200
6.300
9.700
1.500
3-500
7-300
9.700
7.000
2.300
10.400
7.700
5-500
10.200
21.100
2.800
4.700
2.900
2.500
7.6OO

6.100
20.900
8.100
16.300
8.700
13.200
12.600

2.100

3.400

9.800
1.400

12. OOO
I2.IOO
8.900
23.300
2I.2OO
12.400
11.500
16.500
13.100
I6.IOO

10.56
IO.I3

7.20

9-58

9-94
5-35
4.23
9-44

IO.2O
9.8l
9.76

9-75
12.56
12.43
13.00

8.20

10.77

5-94

8.21

3-92
6.03

7.15
2.17

4-55

6.02

4-35
1.40
6.46
4-78
3-42
6-34
13-11
1.74
2.87
1.79
1.56
4-73
3-79
12.99

5-03
10.13
5-40

8.20

7.84
1-31

2. II
6.09
7.08
7.46
7-52

5-53
14-48
13.18
7.71
7-15
10.25
8.14

IO.OI

672.600
689.700
706.000
717.600
733.000
749.000
757-600
764.400
779-600
796.000
811.800
827.500
843.200
863.400
883.400
904.300
917.500
934-800
944.400
957-600
963-900
973-600
985.100
988.600
995.900
1005.600
1012.600
1014.900
1025.300
1033.000
1038.500
1048 . 700
1069.800
1072.600
1077.300
1080.200
1082 . 700
1090 . 300
1096.400
1117.300
1125.400
1141.700
1150.400
1163.600
1176.200
1178.300
1181.700
1191.500
1202.900
1214 900

418.09
428.65
438.78
445.98
455.56
465.50
470.85
475.08
484.52
494.72
504.53
514.29
524.04
536.60

549-03
562.03
570.23
580.99
586.93
595-14
599-06
605.09
612.24
614.41
618.96
624.98
629.33
630.77
637.23
642.01
645.43
65L77
664.88
666.62
669.55
67L34
672.90

677.63
681.42
694.41

899.44
709.57
714.97
723.17
731.01
732.32
734-43
740.52
747.60
755-06
762.58
768.11
782.59

795-77
803.48
810.63
820.88
829.02
839-03

1740.00
1880.00
2020.00
1990.00
I880.00
1840.00
1820.00
I78O.OO
I72O.OO
1720.00
I7OO.OO
I72O.OO
I72O.OO
1720.00
I76O.OO
I94O.OO
1980.00
2O8O.OO
I92O.OO
1840.00
1750.00
1600.00
1430.00
I4OO.OO
1320.00
1220.00
I I6O.OO
1 1 2O.OO
1000.00
930.00
82O.OO
740.00
640.00
6OO.OO
590.00
580.00
56O.OO
510.00
480.00
43O.OO
46O.OO
580.00
56O.OO
490.00
420.00
42O.OO
440.00
470.00
4IO.OO
380.00
340.00
300.09
240.00
200.00
2OO.OO
210.00
2OO.OO
l6o.OO
130.00

5708.86
6168.19
6627.51
6529.09
6168.19
6036.95

5971-33
5840.10

5643.24
5643.24
5577-62
5643.24
5643.24
5643.24
5774.48
6365.04
6496.28
6824.37
6299.42
6036.95
5741.67
5249.52
4691.76

4593-33
4330.85
4002.76
3805.90
3674-66
3280.95
3051.28
2693.38
2427.91
2099.81
1968.57
1935.76
1902.95
1837.33
1673.28
1574-86
1410.81
1509.24
1902.95

1837-33
1607.67
1378.00
1378.00
I443.62
1542.05

1345.19
1246.76

IU5.52

984.28

787.43
656.19
656.19
689.00
656.19

524.95
426.52

Los Charcos .

La Maroma

Wadley

Poblazon

Vanegas .

La Trueba (La Parida) ....

San Vicente

El Salado

Lulu

Santa Elena

Gomes Farias

El Oro

Carneros ..... . .

Agua Nueva.

Encantada

Saltillo

Los Bosoues

Santa Maria . . .

Ojo Caliente

Rinconada

Soledad

Garcia ...

Santa Catarina

Leona

Gonzalitos

Monterey

Topo

Morales

Stevenson (Palmito)

Palo Blanco

Villa Aldama .

Guadalupe

Huizache

Golondrinas

Salome Botello .

Brasil

1227.000
1235.900
1259.200
1280.400
1292.800
1304.300
1320.800
1333.900
1350.000

Rodriguez

Huizachito . • .

Jarita

Sanchez

Laredo de Xamaulipas .

fltineraries.

261

FROM ACAMBARO TO PATZCUARO, A BRANCH OF THE SAME ROAD.

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metres.

Feet.

Acambaro .

13.250
17.610
6.170
12.360

4.000
10.000
7.610
5.920
3.150

11.200
IQ.gOO
9.6IO
6.800
10.380
2.910
12.530

8.23
10.96

3.83
7.68
2.49

6.22

4.73
3.67
1-95
6.96
12.37
5.98
4.22
6.46
i. 80
7-79

0.000
13.250
30.860
37.030
49.390
53.390

63.390
71.000
76.920
80.070
91.270
III.I70
120.780
127.580
137.960
140.870
153.400

0.00

8.23

19.19
23.02
30.70
33.19
39.41
44.14
47.81
49.76
56.72
69.09
75.07
79.29
85.75
87.55
95.34

1840.00
1960.00
1840.00
1840.00
1840.00
1840.00
1860.00
1870.00
1870.00
1880.00
iSgo.OO
2OOO.OO
2O6O.OO
2100.00
2I2O.OO
2IOO.OO
2040.00

6036.95
6430.66
6036.95
6036.95
6036.95
6036.95
6102.57
6135.38
6135.38
6168.19
62OI.OO
6561.89

6758.75
6889.98
6955.60
6889.98
6693.13

Andocutin

Ouere'ndaro • • . • •

Zinzimeo. .

La Goleta

Coapa

Ponce

Chapultepec

FROM PIEDRAS NEGRAS OR CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ TO DURANGO, BY
THE MEXICAN INTERNATIONAL RAILWAY.

Ciudad Porfirio Diaz

6. 540

4.O6

o.ooo

o.oo

220.00

721 81

Fuente

7 060

4qn

6 54.0

4. 06

232 oo

?6l 17

Rosa

26.200

16 20

13 600

8 45

278.00

912 II

Nava

i i . 960

7 44

30.800

24.74

324.00

1063 O2

Allende

14.040

9 28

51.760

32.18

375.00

1230.35

Leona

ic 64.0

Q 71

66 700

4.1 46

455.00

I4Q2 8^

Peyotes

21. 4^0

iq. -12

82.340

51.17

486.00

1594.55

I2.8<;o

7.99

103.770

64.49

387.00

1269.73

Sabinas . . • ....

1C, 85O

Q 85

116.620

72.48

340.00

1115.52

Soledad

10 650

6.61

132 470

82.33

371.00

I2TX23

Baroteran

14.120

8.78

143.120

88.94

425.00

I394.4O

15.090

9-39

157.240

97.72

453.oo

1486.27

Obayos

1C aoQ

9.52

172.330

IO7.II

396.00

1299.26

10.690

6.65

187.660

116.63

373.00

1223.79

2I.23O

13.18

198.350

123.28

396.00

1299.26

Adjuntas

17. 57O

8 44

219.580

136.46

465.00

1525.64

Estancia

4.770

2.97

233.150

T/M'9°

547.00

1794.68

18.560

11.54

237.920

147.87

587.00

1925.92

Castano

I4.92O

9.29

256.480

I59.4I

748.00

2454.16

Gloria

IQ. 5QO

12. 16

271.400

168.70

823.00

27OO.22

I2.42O

7.71

290.990

180.86

843.00

2765.84

Tova

2O 4IO

12.68

303.410

188.57

829.00

2719.91

Espinazo

I2.O8O

7.52

323.820

201.25

817.00

2680.54

Reata

22.86O

14.21

335.900

208.77

900.00

2952.85

Trevino (Venadito)

26.O4O

16.16

358.760

222.98

890.00

2920.05

Sauceda

24. 760

15.40

384.800

239.14

997.00

3271.11

Taral . .

23.O2O

14.31

409. 560

254.54

1 144.00

3753.40

Pastora

21.610

13.44

432.580

268.85

1157.00

3796.06

Carmen .

2"? Q7O

14.89

454.190

282.29

1182.00

3878.08

Paila

19.670

12.23

478.160

297.18

1188.00

3897.77

16.540

10.28

497.830

309.41

1132.00

3714.03

Rafael .

I2.97O

8.05

514.370

319.69

1102.00

3615.60

Pozo

11.290

7.02

527.340

327.74

1105.00

3625.44

262

Statistical IRotes on

FROM PIEDRAS NEGRAS OR CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ TO DURANGO, BY
THE MEXICAN INTERNATIONAL RAILWAY. — Continued.

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metres.

Feet.

Bola

13.480
10.870
13.410
17.620
22.540
8.050
15.740
19.280
20.870
15.200
25.640
24.540
21.580
12.760
12.150
22.040
16.930
26.420
11.760

8.38

6.75
8.35
10.95
14.00
5-oo
9.18
11.98
12.98
9-45
15.93
15.25
I3.4I
7-93
7.56
13.70
10.52
16.42
7-30

538.630
552.HO
562.980
576.390
594.010
616.550
624.600
640.340
659.620
680.490
695.690
721.330
745.870
767.450
780.210
792.360
814.400
83L330
857.750
869.510

334.76
343-14
349.89
358.24
369.19

383.19
388.19

397-97
409.95
422.93
432.38
448.31
463,56
476.97
484.90
492.46
506.16
516.68
533-10
540.40

1089.00
1094.00
1096.00
IIO5.OO
1112.00
1134.00

II37-7I
II8I.52

1377.25
1325.37
1318.85
1605.28

1908.73
1895.00
1969.47
1982.72
1955-20
1868.10
1864.38
1880.13

3572.96
3589.36
3595-93
3625.44
3648.41
3720.59

3732-77
3876.51
4518.69

4348.45
4327.07
5266.84
6262.53
6217.40
6461.73
6505.21

9414.91
6129.15
6116.93
6168.62

Hornos

Matamoros . .

Xorreon

San Carlos

Loma .

Chocolate ....

Huarichic

Pedricena

Pasaje . ...

Yerbanis

Catalina . ...

Tapona

Gabriel •

Labor

FROM SABINAS TO HONDO, A BRANCH OF THE SAME ROAD.

Sabinas

17. 53O

10 83

o ooo

O OO

04.0 OO

T I j C C2

San Felipe

2.380

1.48

17 43O

10 83

-jjo OO

1026 93

ig.SlO

12.31

qiO OO

1046 62

FROM THE CITY OF MEXICO TO CUERNAVACA AND ACAPULCO.
LINE FINISHED.

28.060

17 44

O OOO

o oo

2240 oo

734Q 27

Contreras

17 883

II II

28 060

17 44

2480 oo

8ooi 7^

IC.IQI

Q 44

4.e 043

28 *(*,

2840 oo

Q272 80

La Cima

12 966

8 O7

6l I 34

07 QQ

OQ/IO OO

Xacapexco (Tres Marias). . .

18.400

11.43

74. ioo

•J/-VV

46.06

2800.00

9186.75

LINE IN CONSTRUCTION.

San Tuanico

oj 25O

IQ.42

Q2.5OO

57. 40

229O.OO

7=1-1 -27

Cuernavaca

7 25O

4.CI

123. 7«iO

76.91

1520 oo

4Q87.O4

6.75O

4.2O

I3I.OOO

82.42

I3OO.OO

4265.23

San Vicente .

21 OOO

i -i o6;

1-37.71:0

85.62

I26O.OO

4134 OO

Xoxocotla

14 O5O

8.73

158.750

08.67

IO3O.OO

337Q.38

Puente de Ixtla

8.050

5.56

I72.8OO

107.40

9OO.OO

2952.85

Rio Arnacusac . .

2-1 2^0

14 45

181 750

112 96

890.00

2Q2O O5

21 OOO

I3.O5

205.000

127.41

1 2OO.OO

3Q37 14

leruala . .

II OOO

6.84

226.000

140.46

72O.OO

2362.29

34.750

21.13

237.000

I47.3O

SOO.OO

2624.76

Xalitla

12 O5O

7 QI

271.750

168.47

620 oo

2O34 IQ

28 7OO

17.84

283.800

176.38

480.00

1574.86

Venta del Zopilote

II.5OO

7.15

312.500

194.22

760.00

2493.53

Zumpango

13 ooo

8 08

324.000

2OI.37

IOOO.OO

328O.Q5

Itineraries.

263

FROM THE CITY OF MEXICO TO CUERNAVACA AND ACAPULCO.
LINE IN CONSTRUCTION. (Continued.}

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kiloin's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metre

Feet.

Tierras Prietas .

4.800
I5.2OO
8.250
11.750

6.000

12.000
12.000
Q.OOO
4.000
32.000
24.500
16.500

2.98
9-45
5-12
7-31

3-72
7.46
7.46
5.6o
2.48
19.89

15-23
10.25

337-000
341.800
357-000
365-250
377.ooo
383.000
395.000
407.000
416.000
420.000
452.000
476.500
493-000

209.45

212.43
221.88

227.00

234.31
238.03

245.49
252.95
258.55

261.03
280.92
296.15
306.40

1320.00
1 2OO.OO
I3OO.OO
I06o.00
IOOO.OO
67O.OO
600.00
300.00
iSo.OO
140.00
60.00
2O.OO
0.00

4330.85

3937.14
4265.23
3477-81
3280.95
2198.24
1968.57
984.28
590.57
459-33
196.86
65.62
o.oo

Chilpancingo. ...

Cima de Valadez

La Imagen . .

Los Cajones

El Rincon

L)os Caminos

Tierra Colorada

Peregrine . . ... ....

Cacahuatepec

Marquez

Acapulco . . . .

FROM PUEBLA TO OAXACA, BY THE MEXICAN SOUTHERN RAILWAY.

Puebla

1 8 400

II. 4. a

O OOO

O OO

2157 oo

7O77 OO

Amozoc

7 600

470

1 8 400

1 1 A.1>

231 2 OO

7cgc CA

ii 200

6 Qf,

26 ooo

16 16

2295 oo

7C2Q 77

Tepeaca

17 4.OO

10 82

07 200

2<i T T

Rosendo Marquez

10 500

6 «

54 600

•ja QO

2055 oo

/JU4-41

Tecamachalco

12 6OO

7 8^

65 100

4O 4.6

2014 10

6608 I^

Las Animas . .

94OO

c 8/1

77 7OO

J.8 2O

ArAy Qn

Tlacotepec

QI -7QO

IQ d.6

87 100

e/1 T -s

1088 25

Carnero

8 QOO

c ea

118 400

7 a en

I7C2 ^7

UD^JOD

1:7,10 A'I

Tehuacan

14 7OO

91 ^

127 T.OO

7O 12

La Huerta .... ...

6 ^oo

•3 Q2

142 ooo

88 25

1UU^O/

34D4-01

4768 18

Santa Cruz

jo 900

6 76

Tj.8 ^oo

Pantzingo

14 600

Q OQ

159 2OO

y^. i i

1J/U-J1

4495.91
Ao88 n7

Nopala

6 4.OO

-7 07

173 800

v°-yj
1 08 02

1060 56

Venta Salada

1 5 . 200

0.46

1 80 2OO

III QQ

Q72 O7

j4/y.u^

Ojgo -2T

San Antonio

8 7OO

54.O

IQC 4.OO

121 AC.

787 O2

Mexia

20 300

12.62

204 100

126 85

60 c oo

^DC^.IJ
228O 26

10 900

6.78

224.400

I-JQ 4.7

CCQ 7j

1836 38

Ouiotepec

17 ooo

10 56

2 •? C 7QO

146 2C

540 oo

Cuicatlan

4 8OO

2 08

2S2 ^OO

156 81

CQ2 OO

1 / !*•• I*-

IOJ.0 72

Tomellin

IQ 2OO

II. Ql

257.IOO

ICQ 7Q

672 oo

AV4^-J^
22O4 8O

Almoloyas .

16 500

10 26

276 ^oo

171 72

1055 oo

Santa Catarina.

1 6 2OO

10 06

292 8OO

181 98

I "3^2 OO

-1-17O 22

El Parian

13.700

8.52

^OQ.OOO

IQ2 O4

I4.QH OO

d-QOH O2

12.800

7.96

322.7OO

200.56

IQ27 OO

6^22 7Q

San Pablo Huitzo
Villa de Etla

13.100

1 8 ooo

8.13

II. IQ

335-500
•348 6OO

208.52

216 65

1695.00

1642 oo

556I.2I
£^87 -J2

Oaxaca

366 6OO

227 84.

jc /i e OO

5060 06

FROM COATZACOALCOS TO SALINA CRUZ, BY THE NATIONAL
TEHUANTEPEC RAILWAY.

Coatzacoalcos

21 74Q

iq ci

O OOO

O OO

2 OO

6 56

Los Llmones

ic 140

Q 42

21.740

n ^i

16 oo

c2 CO

Chinameca

c 4.07

•3 -ac

•36 880

22.0^?

6 oo

IQ 6Q

Jaltipan . .

2O ^4.7

12 77

4.2 2o6

26 28

40 oo

TOJ 24.

Ojapa

12 568

7 8-3

62 843

•5Q QC

02 OO

I O4 QQ

Almagres

11,589

7.19

75-411

46.88

48.00

157-49

264

Statistical Iftotes on

STATIONS.

Distance between
each station.

Distances.

Altitudes.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Kilom's.

Miles.

Metres.

Feet.

Juile .

9.284
9.672

21.044
7.000

IO.OOO

14.801

7.199
20.570
15.176
13.254
17.764

10.236
17.186
28.218

3.596
17.617

5-77
6.01
13-08
4.36

6.21

9.20

4.47

12.78
9-43
8.25
11.04

6.35
10.68

17.54
2.24
10.94

87.000
96.284
105.956
127.000
I34.OOO
144.000
158.801
166.000
186.570
201.746
2I5.OOO
232.764
243.000
260.186
288.404
2Q2.OOO
309.617

54-07
59-84
65.85
78.93
83.29
89.50
98.70
103.17
115-95
125.38
133.63
144.67
151.02
161.70

179.24
181.48
192.42

4O.OO
32.00
44.00
30.00

35-00
25.00
52.00
88.00
92.00
176.00
260.00
244.00
115.00
56.00
36.00
36.00

2.00

131.24
104.99
144.36
98.43
H4.83
82.02
I7O.6I
288.73
301.85
577.45
853.05
800.55
377.30
183.74
108.12

108.12

6.56

Meclias Aguas

Santa. Lucrecia

Los Muertos

Ubero

Tolosa

Palornares

Mogone . . .

Rincon Antonio

Chivela

Rio Verde

San Geronimo

Tehuan tepee

Santa Cruz

Salina Cruz

FROM THE CITY OF MEXICO TO PACHUCA, BY THE HIDALGO AN1>

NORTHEASTERN MEXICAN RAILWAY.

LINE FINISHED.

NORTHEASTERN RAILWAY FROM MEXICO TO TIZAYUCA.

19.000

11.80

O.OOO

O OO

2264.76

743O, 56

Canal

II 400

7 10

19 ooo

II 8O

2266 01

7 4.74. 66

Ojo de Agua

5 200

q.23

3O.4GO

18 QO

2272.Q6

7457 46

Santa Ana

14.800

9 .20

3 5 . 6OO

22.13

2271.36

7452.21

Tizayuca .

CQ 4OO

qi qq

2204. O5

71:28 62

HIDALGO RAILWAY TO TUXPAN.

Tizayuca

16 loo

IO.OO

10.800

6.52

66.5OO

41. qq

2qd4 87

76oq 38

San Augustin

6 ooo

q Q2

77 ^OO

47 85

2390 oo

784.1 4.6

Tepa

8 400

5 2q

87 ^OO

ei 77

2438 08

7QQQ 21

Tecajete

ii 900

7.38

01.700

57 OO

2538.00

8^27 O4

Somo Riel

10.600

6.60

103.600

64.38

2638.50

8656.78

Las Lajas . .

7 OOO

4 S4.

114 2OO

7O 08

25O4 8O

8218 10

Los Romeros

II 700

7.28

121 2OO

75.32

2302 80

7850.64

5.700

3.54

132.900

82.60

2221.72

7280. qq

Tulancingo .

7 2OO

4 48

138 6OO

86 14

2l8T.2Q

7176 1Q

Sototlan

I45.8OO

00.62

2171.46

7124.44

FROM TEPA TO PACHUCA, A BRANCH OF THE HIDALGO RAILROAD.

Tepa ... . .

8 700

e 4.1

O OOO

O OO

24q8 08

7QQQ 21

Xochihuacan

17 ^OO

IO 75

8 7OO

5 4.1

2380 06

78o8.85

Pachuca

26.000

16.16

2420.99

7493.15

FROM SAN AUGUSTIN TO IROLO, A BRANCH OF THE HIDALGO RAILWAY.

San Agustin . ... ' .

14 600

9 08

O OOO

O OO

2390 oo

7841 46

Tlanalapa

iq 700

8 51

14 600

9 08

24.q7 qo

7QQ6 Q5

Irolo

28.300

17-59

2452.58

8046.78

Itineraries.

265

FROM DURANGO TO MAZATLAN BY BRIDLE-PATH.

PLACES.

Altitudes.

PLACES.

Altitudes.

Metres.

Feet.

Metres.

Feet.

Durango. . . .

1880.13
1925.00
igOO.OO
1890.00
1890.00
1980.00
2I2O.OO
2180.00
2260.00
2O2O.OO
2220.00
2260.00
2l8o.OO
2330.00
2340.0O
2350.00
2260.00
2160.00
223O.OO
2270.00
2280.00
239O.OO
244O.OO
2390.00
2IOO.OO
1710.00
2I6O.OO
2O5O.OO
2035.00

6168.62
6315.82
6233.80
62O1.OO
6201.00
6496.28
6955.60
7152.46
7414.94
6627.51
7283.70

7414.94
7152.46
7644.60
7674.41
7710.22

7414.94
7086.84
7316.51

7447-75
7480. 56
7841.46
8005.51
7841.46
6889.98
5610.43
7086.84
6725.94
6676.72

La Ramona

I22O.OO
95O.OO
630.00
770.00
1550.00
1825.00
l86o.OO
I97O.OO
1930.00
1250.00
1 1 2O.OO
1010.00

940.00

2IO.OO
130.00
IIO.OO
85.00

55-00
65.00
50.00
45-00
62.00
68.00
30.00
22.30
15.50
1-54
o.oo

4002. 76
3116.90
2067.00
2526.34
5085.47
5987.73
6102.57
6463.47
6332.23
4101.19
3674.66
3313.76
3084.09
689.00
426.52
360.90
278.88
180.45
213.26
164.05
147.64
203.42
223.11

98.43
73.16
50.85

5.05
O.OO

Salitre

El Chapote

El Salto

Rio del Baluarte

Arroyo Seco

La Ventanita

Camino del Taral

Sotolito

El Escalon

El Carrizo de Adentro.
El Carrizo de Afuera. .
Las Loberas

Las Indias

Calzon Roto

El Pino

El Venteadero . .

Rio Chico

Puerta de los Pilares . .
Arroyo del Leon

La Palmita
Los Cerritos

Palotillo .

Los Mimbres
Bucna Vista

Platanito

Santa Catarina
El Limon

Los Charcos

Los Navios

El Tecomate

Navajas

Tagarete

Llano Grande

Rio del Presidio

Cruz de Piedra

Porras

Coyotes

Sigueros. .

El Salto

La Cofradia

Piloncillos

Confite

La Florida

La Escondida

Junta de los Caminos. .
El Tecomate

Las Higueras

Las Conchas

Chavarria .

Carboneras

La Cienega .

Palos Prietos

Las Botijas

Mazatlan

La Escondida. . .

FROM MANZANILLO TO GUADALAJARA BY WAGON ROAD.

Manzanillo

o oo

o oo

Ciudad Guzman (Zapot-

Cerro del Vigia

125 oo

410.11

lan)

1412 oo

46*32 7O

Cola de Iguana

CQ OO

164. 05

Santa Catarina

141 2 OO

El Ciruelo

71; OO

246 07

La Cuesta

1450 oo

75.00

346.07

San Nicolas

1300 oo

4265 2^

Las Trojes . .

IOO OO

028 OQ

Amatitlan

I ^25 OO

Valenzuela

125 oo

410.11

Sayula

1350 oo

4J4/«Z:>

4429 28

175 oo

574 16

Ojo de Agua

1360 oo

4/l62 OQ

312.00

1023.65

Cofradia

J375 oo

45 1 1 *?O

La Presa

362.00

1 187 70

Techolula

I"37C OO

45 1 1 1O

Colima

560.00

1837.33

Cuevitas

1360 oo

4462 oo

La Puerta

650 oo

2132 62

El Cuemasate

1-225 OO

San Toaquin

650.00

2132 62

El Crucero

1325 oo

-4-7,17 25

850.00

2788 81

Cebollas

I -3 CO OO

442Q 28

San Geronirno . .

900 oo

2Q52 85

Los Pozos

I'3.25 OO

,1-7/17 2C

Los Alcaracos . ...

i ioo oo

^6OQ O4 !

Chimaltitan

1325 oo

4^47 2?

La Queseria

1162 oo

3812.46 1

Ocotan

I-J-IO OO

4^6^ 66

1175.00

3854.61

Santa Ana Acatlan. . . .

I35O.OO

4-120 28

Barranca Cachepehuate

Q7C OO

3108.02

Puerta

1 500 oo

4Q2I 42

San M arcos

085.00

3231.73

Cofradia

1512 oo

4o6o 7O

Barranca de Beltran

850 oo

2788 81

Santa Cruz

1475 OO

4o8? O5

Playa

1025 oo

^362 Q7

Arenal

1600 oo

542Q 52

Barranca Platanar. . . .

050 oo

3Il6 QO

San Agustin

1575 OO

5l67 4O

Loma .

i 225 oo

4OIQ 1 6

La Calera .

1575 OO

5l67 4O

Barranca de Atenquique
Ocote Gacho

1025.00
1250 oo

3362.97

4IOI.IQ

Puente de Santa Maria.

1550.00

1500 oo

5085.47
4Q2I 42

Pedregal

I o 7 c oo

4m i w

266

Statistical IRotcs on

FROM TEHUACAN TO OAXACA AND PUERTO ANGEL BY WAGON ROAD.

PLACES.

Altitudes.

PLACES.

Altitudes.

Metres.

Feet.

Metres.

Feet.

Tehuacan . •

I66O.OO
1480.00
1320.00
1 1 2O.OO
1060.00
960.00
9OO.OO
860.00
QOO.OO
620.00
600.00
730.00
7OO.OO
680.00
600.00
580.00
560.00
700.00
62O.OO
620.00
620.00

620.00
540.00
54O.OO
680.00
660.00
66O.OO
750.00
720.00
7IO.OO
I24O.OO
1360.00
1500.00
1400.00
1600.00
1840.00
igOO.OO
2O2O.OO
2220.00
2O8O.OO
2l6o.OO
2100.00

5446.38
4855.81
4330.85
3674.66
3477.81
3149.71
2952.85
2821.62
2952.85
2034.19

1968.57
2395.10
2296.67
2231.05
1968.57
1902.95
1837.33
2296.67

2034.19
2034.19
2034.19

2034.19
I77L7I
I77L7I
2231.05
2165.43
2165.43
2460. 72
2362.29
2329.48
4068.38
4462.09
4921.42
3412.19
5249-52
6036.95
6233.70
6627.51
7283.70
6824.37
7086.84
6889.98

Tierra Blanca

2000.00
1660.00
I7OO.OO
l68o.OO
l66o.OO
1640.00
1540.00
1540.00
1530.00
1600.00
1900.00
1830.00
1720.00
1700.00
1700.00
1590.00
1540.00
l6oo.OO
1840.00
iSlO.OO
1930.00
1840.00
1780.00
ISOO.OO
2230.00
2400.00
2600.00
2800.00
3l6o.OO
3000.00
2780.00
2340.00
2720.00
25OO.OO
800.00

900.00
830.00
750.00
530.00
340.00
l6o.OO
0.00

6561.89
5446.38
5577.62
5512.00
5446.38
5380.76
5052.66
5052.66
5019.85
5249.52
6233.70
6004. 14
5643.24
5577-62
5577.62
5216.71
5052.66
5249-52
6036.95
5938.52
6332.23
6036.95
5840.33
5905.71
7316.51
7874.27
8530.46
9186.65
10367.79
9842.84
9121.04
7677.41
8858.56
8202.36
2624.76

2952.85
2723.19
2460.72
1738.90
1115-52
524-95
o.oo

La Huerta

Arroyo de Buena Vista.
San Sebastian . . .

San Pablo Huitzo . . .

Santiago Huitzo

Camino de Calipan. . . .

Villa de Etla

Dolores . .

San Antonio ...

Panzacola

Hacienda de Ayotla. . .
Rio de Reyes

Oaxaca

San Agustin Juntas. . .
Coyotepec

Tecomavaca

Rio Salado

Cuspide

Campanario

Santo Tomas Jaliera. .
Ocotlan

Organo .

Pajarito .

Magdalena

"Gavilan

San Martin

Paraie Blanco

Rio Coapa

Rio Seco

E jutla

Chonoslar

Arrogante

Rancho de Urrutia
Rancho de Cuagulotal.
Rancho de los Obos. . .
Hacienda de Guendu-
lain . .

Cliichovo .

Zopilote

Cuspide

Tlacuache

Xepehuaje

Rio Apoala

Miahuatlan
Chapaneco

Rio Tomellin

Balconcillo .

Agua del Sol
San Jose del Pacifico. .
Garganta del Encino. .
Tres Cruces . . .

Rancho del Chilar. . . .
Infiemillo

Don Dominguillo

Arroyo Dominguillo . .
Arroyo de Nopala ....
El Pochote

Rancho de Canoas. . . .
San Miguel Xuchistepec
Rio de San Jose

Canton de Buena Vista.
Cuspide

Cerro de Santa Ana. . .
Cerro de San Pedro . . .
El Porvenir

Puentedela Joya
Venta Vieja

Garganta del Cerro de

Paredones ...

Llano del Timbre
Cieneguilla

La Providencia .

La Soledad

Portezuelo . .

San Jose Totoltepec. . .

Las Trancas

Carbonera

Pochutla . ...

Ojo de Agua

Puerto Angel

THE VALLEY OF MEXICO'S DRAINAGE.1

Mexico is finishing a great work, the drainage of the valley where
the capital city is located, which has required for its completion nearly
three hundred years and many millions of dollars, and has cost the
lives of hundreds of thousands of men. The necessity, importance,

1 This article was published in the Engineering Magazine of New York for
January, 1895 (vol. viii., No 4), but has since been revised and considerably enlarged.

Iflaileg of /IDesico's Drainage, 267

and magnitude of this work, which will be classed among the grandest
achievements of men, and the nearness of its completion, induce me
to write this paper, which I hope will give some idea of its scope and
purpose. I do not pretend to originality, as my work to some extent
has been one of compilation from different monographs, which have
appeared from time to time, and from some official publications of the
Mexican Government.

Topographical Conditions of the Valley of Mexico. — The Valley of
Mexico is an immense basin, of approximately circular shape with one
extreme diameter of about sixty miles, completely bounded by high
mountains, and having only two or three quite high passes out of it.
No water drains out of the basin. The surface of this valley has a mean
altitude above the sea of 7413 feet and an area of about 2220 square
miles.

Mountain ranges rise on every side, making a great corral of rock
containing dozens of villages and hamlets, with the ancient capital in
the centre. In times past the fires of volcanoes licked up the earth,
and such fires still live in the mammoth Popocatapetl, from whose
great crater sulphur fumes and smoke with jets of flame have poured
through the centuries.

The valley thus hemmed in with solid walls of rock had been an
inland sea for many cycles, and during the early existence of man here
the salt waters spread over a large extent of the depression. The
waters have been gradually lessening by seepage and evaporation, and
the Aztec pilgrims coming from the north in the fourteenth century,
having received a sign that they were to build their queen-of-the-world
city on a small island of the sea, set about building dikes and combat-
ing the overflow of the waters.

Evaporation is so excessive at certain periods of the year that
malaria, consequent on drought, was far more dreaded by the inhabit-
ants than the periodical floods, and thousands perished annually, so
that proper drainage was an absolute necessity for the preservation of
health.

Work done by the Indians. — Nearly fifty years before the discov-
ery of America, which took place in 1492, Netzahualcoyotl, saw the
necessity for a drainage canal, and commenced the work in 1450.
He constructed an immense dike to divide the fresh from the salt-
water lakes of the valley. The City of Mexico was at this time the
centre of the Aztec nation, and was built on floating structures, like
rafts, on the water in the numerous islets on the margins of the lakes,
so that in the event of the water rising or the city being subjected to a
state of siege, the whole city would float. Mexico City now occupies
the site of the old Aztec capital.

The waters of these lakes were liable to disturbances of all kinds;

268 Statistical Betes on

thus it is recorded by Prescott in his History of the Conquest of Mexico :
"In 1510 the great lake of Texcoco, without the occurrence of a
tempest or earthquake, or any other visible cause, became violently
agitated, overflowed its banks, and, pouring into the streets of Mexico,
swept off many of the buildings by the fury of its water."

When Cortez arrived in Mexico from Spain in 1519 to take posses-
sion of the country in the name of the King of Spain, he found, to his
great surprise, the defense of the city admirably arranged, and an
almost enchanting view of flowering islets forming the floating capital.
Little towns and villages lay half-concealed by the foliage, and from
the distance these looked like companies of wild swans riding quietly
on the waves.

A scene so new and wonderful filled the rude heart of the Spaniard
with amazement. So astonished was he at the extent of the water of
Lake Texcoco that he describes it as " a sea that embraces the whole
valley," but upon hearing that it was a lake, with a mean depth of a
few yards, he gave orders to cut a way through the dike and destroy
the aqueduct of Chapultepec. The central dike dividing the fresh
from the salt water lake was of such dimensions as to serve Cortez as a
roadway for his army.

Prescott, in the work before alluded to, page 297, says: " Leaving
the mainland, the Spaniards came on the great dike or causeway, which
stretches some four or five miles in length, and divides Lake Chalco
from Xochimilco on the west. It was a lance in breadth in the
narrowest part, and in some places wide enough for eight horses to ride
abreast. It was a solid structure of stone and lime, running directly
through the lake, and struck the Spaniards as one of the most remark-
able works they had seen in the country. ' '

Having cut the dikes and drained the lake, the " floating city " was
at once besieged, and where originally stood the great temple of the
Aztecs a Christian temple was afterward raised. The Spaniards,
finding themselves in complete possession, proceeded to erect the new
City of Mexico, and building on the plan adopted by them at home,
they cut down the points of the floating islands and by gradual exten-
sion soon placed the town below the mean average level of the lake.
Hence arose the great difficulties of the drainage of the Valley of
Mexico.

One of the immense dikes built by King Netzahualcoyotl was ten
miles long. It divided Lake Texcoco into two parts. Of the two lakes
thus formed one was allowed to remain salt, but the other was fresh-
ened by letting only fresh water enter by the streams flowing in,
the water for the use of the city being taken from this latter. Little by
little the waters have subsided since that period, and have been fought
back, until now they are confined to six great lakes — Chalco, Xochi-

of /IDejico's Bratnaoe, 269

milco, Texcoco, Xaltocan, San Cristobal, and Zumpango. Each of
these lakes is fed by streams which have little volume during the dry
season, but which in the rainy season swell to considerable size, and
at times overflow the valleys. The lake of Zumpango was the most
dangerous of these, for it received the waters of the Cuautitlan River,
— a river draining a large area of country, and having during the rainy
season a great volume of water. This river has been turned into the
cut of Nochistongo, and has ceased to threaten Mexico and its environs
with its overflow.

From these topographical conditions frequent floodings of the old
Aztec city and of the Spanish capital, situated almost at the lowest
point of the valley, were sure to come in times of unusually heavy
rains. In early days, when the Aztecs lived in the middle of Lake
Mexico, when their temples and wigwams were built on piles and the
streets were often only canals, the periodical overflows from the upper
lakes were a matter of small concern, though even then the Nahua
engineers were called upon to protect the city by dikes. But when by
evaporation, by filling in at the site of the city, by lessened waters, due
to the fissures caused by earthquakes, Lake Mexico had disappeared,
and the city had come to be built on the spongy soil, above all, when
the short-sighted choice of Cortez had been confirmed and the capital
of New Spain had come to stand on the ruins of the Aztec town,
increasing rapidly in population and wealth, — it became a serious
matter that on an average of once in twenty-five years the streets
should be from two to six feet under water for an indefinite time.

Work done by the Spaniards. — From 1519 to 1553 the Spaniards
were busily engaged in building Mexico, and another grand dike,
similar to that built by Netzahualcoyotl in 1450, was formed around
the city; this protection proved insufficient, for in 1580 another inun-
dation took place. The Viceroy of the day, Senor Don Martin
Enriquez de Almanza, assisted by engineers, engaged to find an outlet
for the waters north of the valley. During the time they were thus
engaged, important facts were gleaned respecting the River Cuautitlan,
and its curious behavior at the foot of Nochistongo, whence it doubled
its course at a certain altitude and ran toward Lake Texcoco, instead
of into its own lake of Xaltocan. The scheme formed by Enriquez
de Almanza to remedy this evil was kept in abeyance, as his services
were required in Peru.

In the year 1604 a serious inundation attacked Mexico City. The
Marquis de Montes Claros did all in his power to carry out the plan of
Senor Don Martin Enriquez to relieve the rivers of the north and of
the valley of the excess of water from the central and south lakes,
which are of higher altitudes. The pros and cons of this plan were
beset with many great difficulties, and respecting one of the methods

270 Statistical motes on

tried, mention must be made of a dike of great strength, constructed
to prevent any excess or overflow of water from destroying the town
of Zumpango and washing away its crops. This dike, which was to
check the strong current of the river Pachuca, would also direct the
river Cuautitlan to Mexico, direct the rivers north into Zumpango, and
would inundate that verdant district, and probably submerge the town ;
whereas, to divert them into Lake Texcoco would submerge Mexico.
To prevent this evil it was decided to make a tunnel ; but here, as in
all countries and in all ages, engineers, when engaged in any work of
magnitude, and of a different character from that commonly known,
always find theorists to offer objections, and thus stop the way to
actual progress. This was the case in Mexico City.

In 1607 another inundation, spreading over the whole valley, oc-
curred, and, as all the dikes and other defences were swept away,
caused a panic of terror among the inhabitants. The Marquis de
Salinas was then Viceroy at Mexico City, and determined to carry
out the plan of Sefior Don Martin Enriquez, being assisted by an
engineer of great repute named Enrico Martinez, and also solicited
and obtained the co-operation of Father Sanchez, of the Society of
Jesus. These three men, after many consultations, formulated the
plan of embracing the whole of the lakes of the plain into one main
channel of detention, and an outlet as required to keep the same under
such control as to have at all times an abundance of water for use.
The plan, broadly speaking, was to draw off the water from the south
lakes which are at higher levels to those of the north, and to make
them serve, by the scour the velocity of the water would cause, to
deepen the passage for their exit, and, at the same time, assist the
making of the grand canal

Great opposition to this plan was offered on the score of economy,
and many insisted that the inundations were solely due to the waters
of Cuautitlan and the freshets of Pachuca, and if these were directed
north no more was needed, while the people of Zumpango tried to
show that no more was needed to inundate their town and submerge
the district. The Viceroy then requested Enrico Martinez to induce
Father Sanchez to submit some modifications of his former scheme.

The plan was modified, and on November 28, 1607, Enrico Martinez
started operations on the modified plan, and in about eleven months
6600 metres (4 ^ miles) of canal, with a transverse section of 3.50
metres (n-J feet) wide, and a depth of 4.20 metres (13} feet), was
completed. At the same time other important drainage works were
being made; the passage was opened from Boca de San Gregorio to
Salto de Tula; this was 8600 metres (5! miles) long, as well as two
canals as aqueducts 6-J miles long, one for Lake Zumpango and the
other for the river Cuautitlan from Teoloyucan to Huehuetoca.

ZTbe Dalles of flDejico's Dratnaae, 271

In December, 1608, in the presence of the Viceroy Don Luis de
Velasco and the Archbishop of Mexico, Enrico Martinez inaugurated
the outlet of the waters, the whole of the work just described being;
executed in one year. Humboldt tells us that fifteen thousand native
Indians were employed on these works.

In spite of the great good these works brought to the people, there
was an outcry for economy, but it is certain that other motives
prompted the disturbance and the attempt to harass and hamper the
Viceroy. The object was to prevent a grant of money from being
made to pay for the lining of the canal with cement. This was found
to be necessary, as the greater part of the work was excavated in marl,
and the liberated waters ran with such velocity that the symmetry of
the tunnel was soon destroyed, and its passage and usefulness lessened
by the debris that obstructed the fairway. This state of things was
brought so forcibly home to the objectors that a small sum of money
was reluctantly granted, sufficient to patch up the tunnel in places
where the rush of waters had made the most havoc, hydraulic cement
or mortar being used, but the sum granted proved to be totally
inadequate, and for want of more money the tunnel was rendered per-
fectly useless by falling obstructions. This occurred in the year 1609.
Gossips and theorists then united to run down the scheme, although it
was conceded that the work had averted a terrible inundation or sub-
mergence of Mexico City.

A few years elapsed before the question of continuing the works for
the tunnel again caused excitement; but a general feeling grew up that
the work of the tunnel should be continued. The opposition was strong
enough to obtain the hearing of an appeal in Madrid, with the result'
that the Spanish Government in 1614 procured the services of a Dutch
engineer, named Adrian van Boot, to proceed to Mexico City to
examine and report on the canal works, and to submit a plan ta
remedy the evils. As the result of his labors he condemned the plan
of Father Sanchez, and recommended that the old means of defence
used by the Indians should again be adopted, and that dams and dikes
should be thrown up at once. This report had the effect of annoying
almost everybody, and was the means of much fruitless discussion. In
this dilemma the Spanish Government, when appealed to, confessed
they were unable to advise the Viceroy of Mexico what to do, but
sent the Marquis of Gelves to Mexico to see into matters, and he,
having unbounded faith in the ability of the Dutch engineer, Adrian
van Boot, and hoping to keep money in the treasury, ordered Enrico
Martinez to close up the tunnel completely, and to return the rivers to
their natural courses; but before these orders were half executed the
enormous rush of waters grew so alarming that he had to accept
again Enrico Martinez's plan over that of Adrian van Boot. The

272 Statistical IRotes on

marquis was soon after deposed, his place being taken by the Marquis
de Cerralvo, whose first act was to set Martinez free at the request of
the city council who provided him with means of continuing his work
on the canal and tunnel. The Viceroy revoked his predecessor's
order and issued another to open up the tunnel, and that with all speed,
on his personal responsibility. Although Cerralvo gave these orders,
he forgot to give Martinez the money to carry them out, and, as a con-
sequence, the works remained in a deplorable condition.

The tunnel was blocked up by this cause, and Martinez was cruelly
scored for not having done his work aright by the very ones who had
refused to give him the necessary material for it. He bravely essayed
to repair the damage, but the water-soaked condition of the ground
gave no resistance for the building of the needed walls, while death
mowed down the enslaved workers. They were crushed to death by
the frequent cavings in of the loose soil, or were sent to the grave by
the deadly damps. Finally, the charge being made that the builder
was blocking up the tunnel in revenge, he was thrown into prison,
where he languished for many months. As there was no one else
available who could carry on the great work, he was afterwards released
and again put in charge. It was then decided that, the tunnel being
completely useless, the next thing to be done would be to make a great
cut down to the tunnel and thus open it out. This entailed the making
of an excavation fourteen miles in length with an average depth of one
hundred and eighty feet and width of four hundred feet.

On June 20, 1629, the ever troublesome river Cuautitlan over flowed
and inundated the north of the plain, and swept with it other streams
into Lake Texcoco. In the September following the increase of the
water was greater than ever had been known. The city was so sud-
denly and completely submerged that thirty thousand persons perished,
the bodies floating about the streets for some time after. The destruc-
tion of property and life, consequent on the inundation, was so great
generally, and affected the tunnel to such an extent, that during a
period of five years there was scarcely any reduction in the height of
the water, and the water in the city remained during all this time as
high as the second story of the houses; the slight difference in the
heighth of the water being caused by evaporation.

The Spanish Government at Madrid gave orders to change the
capital to a better and more secure site. To this suggestion the citizens
demurred, saying, in effect, that to insure complete security an outlay
of only $3,000,000 was necessary, this being the estimated cost of com-
pleting the tunnel, whereas to build a new city would involve an outlay
of $50,000,000, with a loss of another $50,000,000 in leaving the old
one.

Several plans were now submitted in opposition to that of Enrico

IDalleg of /IDesico's Drainage. 273

Martinez, and one by Simon Mendez was accepted, his plan being to
direct all the waters of the valley by one canal into the neck of the
Tula, the spot selected by Martinez for his outlet. It was soon dis-
covered that the plan of Simon Mendez was far too costly, and as the
money that could be spared was practically melting away without per-
ceptible progress being made, Enrico Martinez was again requested to
carry out the work as arranged with Father Sanchez.

The next Viceroy, the Marquis of Cadereita, was most desirous
to see the work of the tunnel pushed on ; but however enthusiastic he
may have been, lack of funds prevented him from giving effect to his
desires. The work continued very slowly, Martinez being unable to
do any work at the tunnel, and he contented himself with improving the
canal by lining it in bad places with cement. Martinez struggled on
for thirty-seven years with this work, and died unnoticed and un-
cared for. All trace of his place of final rest was lost.

In 1637 an earthquake made sad havoc with the tunnel works, and
for lack of funds no repairs could take place ; but when funds were
obtainable workmen could not be procured, the earthquakes and inun-
dations having carried off many thousands of these poor fellows. The
survivors lacked heart to return to such an unfortunate and, as they
thought, accursed work.

In the year 1640 the work was being pressed on by men from the
prisons, under the direction of the Franciscan monks, and carried on,
with varying results, in this way for thirty-five years, until Senor Don
Martin Solis was made head of the municipal council. He being an
avowed enemy to the Franciscans, sent them away, and undertook the
superintendence of the work himself; but his method of treating the
prisoners was so harsh and cruel that they broke out into open revolt,
and the works were threatened. Therefore, to save the works and his
own life, he consented to the return of the Franciscans. It is estimated
that up to this time some two hundred thousand men lost their lives on
this work. The Franciscans steadily, but slowly, worked on, always
with a very limited exchequer, until 1767, when there remained some
1935 metres (i-J- miles) still to be completed. A contract was entered
into to finish this work in five years for $800,000; but instead of five
years it took twenty-two years, and, instead of 8 metres (25 feet wide),
as contracted for, it was only 3 metres (9 feet 10 inches) wide.

The Spaniards continued the work in other hands for one hundred
and fifty years before the task of opening the cut was completed.
Spasmodic work for a century and a half led at last to the accomplish-
ment of this project in 1789. The old tunnel of Martinez is now a
gigantic trench from 30 to 160 feet in depth and some 300 feet broad
in some places, and is known as the Tajo de Nochistongo. The im-
mediate vicinity of the workings was depopulated of its native inhabit-

274 Statistical IRotes on

ants by the insatiable demands of the killing labor, and recruits were
then drawn from Puebla and other thickly populated Indian centres.
Great prison barracks were built on the bare hills, and here all the
criminals were sent to enter the work. The ones in charge were in-
different with regard to the lives entrusted to their care, and the
slaughter, of which scant record remains in the parish burial books,
and which resulted from a combination of defects in appliances for
both the safety and the comfort of the workmen, was terrific. As the
burial trenches were filled with new dead, the depths of the cut were
tenanted by new laborers.

The victims of three years of bondage numbered fully two hundred
thousand ere the work was done. Yet the results were but slight, only
the excess of water from the highest lakes and streams being carried
off. However, the danger from inundations of the city has been very
materially decreased by the Nochistongo opening, and no more deluges
have occurred since its completion.

Still the fact that the bottom of the cut was thirty feet higher than
the surface of Texcoco, the lowest lying of the lakes, left the city in
danger of inundation, as Lake Texcoco is constantly filling up at the
rate of one and one-half inches a year and is now but a few feet below
the level of the main plaza of the city.

The drainage works had long been a heavy burden upon the Mexi-
can treasury. Up to 1637 Bancroft estimates that $3,000,000 had been
expended. Up to the year 1800 the outlay had reached $6,247,670.
Up to 1830 the total expenditure was $8,000,000.

Work done by the Mexican Government. — The problem which the
Mexican Government had to face was very different from that which
confronted Martinez in 1607. The question of preventing submergence
is practically solved. The work of Martinez, unsatisfactory as it was,
did a great deal to solve it. Since his day the area of the lakes has
been gradually diminishing. The rapid evaporation in the rarefied air
and under the direct sun of the valley partly accounts for this. Twice
the water in Lake Texcoco has almost entirely disappeared, leaving
only a sea of mud and a small pool. The great problem which the
Mexican Government has now solved is not how to prevent an inflow
of water, but how to provide an outlet for sewage. The danger to
be averted was not that of drowning, but that of dying from the plague.

Lake Texcoco more than any other now menaces the security of the
capital. The unwise cutting down of forests since the Spanish con-
quest permits the waters pouring down into the valley to bring with
them annually great quantities of alluvial matter, which have so much'
raised the lake bottom and the water level that inundations have been
of frequent occurrence. The general level of the City of Mexico is
only 6.56 feet above the surface of the lake. The rainy season lasts

MAP OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO, SHOWING THE CANAL AND TUNNEL.

Ube Dalles of flDegico's Drainage. 275

from June to October inclusive. During this season five times as
much water falls as during the rest of the year, evaporation can no
longer compensate for rainfall, and the valley is more or less flooded.

Originally built in the midst of a lake, the city has been left on dry
ground by the receding waters. Lake Texcoco, — some three miles
distant, — Chalco, and Xochimilco have altitudes nearly four feet
greater than the pavement of the capital. Still more imperiously do
the lakes to the north dominate the city. San Cristobal and Xaltocan
are about five feet, while Zumpango is over thirteen feet, above it.

The project now almost completed is a modification of the scheme
projected by Simon Mendez in the time of the Spanish Government,
and which in 1849 was adopted by Captain Smith of the corps of
American engineers which accompanied General Scott's army. The
tunnel was ultimately located under the saddle and through the ravine
of Acatlan, its mouth being near the village of Tequixquiac. The
works have been begun several times, and then suspended without
effecting anything of importance. In 1866 the works now nearing
completion were commenced. A project proposed by Senor Don
Francisco de Garay, a well-known engineer of the City of Mexico,
was pronounced the most feasible. But the revolutionary struggle
succeeded, and for many years the work was relegated to the back-
ground.

In 1879 engineer Don Luis Espinosa, the present director of the
works, took charge of the undertaking. In the first period mentioned
the cutting of Tequixquiac was excavated, and the greater part of the
shafts were begun ; but at that point the work was stopped by political
agitations.

The present gigantic work cannot have been considered to have
been seriously undertaken, with a view of completion at any cost, until
the year 1885, when the City Council of Mexico submitted a project to
the Government to which they offered to contribute largely in the
event of its being adopted.

A special commission, with ample authority to deal with the funds
set aside for the work, was appointed by President Porfirio Diaz.
The City Council set aside the sum of $400,000 per annum for the
canal works, which sum was materially increased by the Federal Gov-
ernment.

In 1887 the City Council raised a loan in London of £2,400,000 to
meet the cost of the work and guarantee its successful termination.
The entire responsibility of the work was now assumed by the City
Council, and the Government gave authority for the Council to make
and collect new taxes. Still, there was not sufficient money forthcom-
ing, so another loan was raised in London for .£3,000,000, a portion
of which was held for the work.

276 Statistical Motes on

The drainage works, when carried out, will receive the surplus
waters and sewage of the City of Mexico and carry them outside of the
valley, and will also control the entire waters of the valley, affording an
outlet, whenever found necessary, to those which might otherwise over-
flow fields and towns, rendering the soil stagnant and marshy. The
work consists of three parts — ist, the tunnel; 2d, a canal starting
from the gates of San Lazaro, and having a length of 67^ kilometres, or
43 miles, its line following on the eastern side of the Guadalupe range
of hills and between that range and Lake Texcoco, changing its direc-
tion after arriving at the 20th kilometre to a northeasterly one, so as to
diagonally cross Lake San Cristobal, a part of Lake Xaltocan, and a
part of Lake Zumpango, and arriving finally at the mouth of the
tunnel near the town of Zumpango; and 3d, the sewage of the City of
Mexico.

The tunnel. — The contract for completing the tunnel was let to
Messrs. Read & Campbell, of Mexico, but for some reason they were
unable to finish the work. It was therefore continued and satisfactorily
completed by the City Council for a sum considerably less than the
price contracted with Messrs. Read & Campbell under their superin-
tendence as hereafter stated.

The tunnel has a length of 10,021.79 metres, or 32,869 feet (6£
miles), with a curved section formed by four curves respectively of the
following dimensions: The upper part has a span of 4.185 metres, or
13 feet 9 inches, and a rise of 1.570 metres, or 5 feet i-J inches; the
two lateral arches have a chord each of 2.36 metres, or 7 feet 9 inches,
a radius with a chord of 2.429 metres, or 8 feet, and a rise of 0.521
metre, or i foot 8£ inches; the elevation is 4.286 metres, or 14 feet,
and the greatest width is the span of the upper arch. The accom-
panying drawings show this section. The tunnel is lined with brick,
having a thickness in the upper part of 0.45 metre, or i foot 6 inches,
and in the lower part over which the water runs, of 0.04 metre, or i
foot 4 inches in the side arches, and of 0.30 metre, or i foot in the
radius, this latter lining being of artificial stone made of sand and
Portland cement. The elevation of the invert at the beginning of
the tunnel is 9.20 metres, or 30 feet i£ inches below datum; at the
end of the tunnel, 17.53 metres, or 57 feet 6 inches below datum.
The gradient is 0.00069 f°r tne ^TS^- 2170.74 metres, or i in 1449 for
7120 feet; 0.00072 for the following 5831 metres, or i in 1389 for
19,125 feet 6 inches; o.ooi for 5100 metres, or i in 1389 for 16,728
feet; and 0.00135, i in 740, for the rest of the tunnel; these changes
being in accordance with changes of details made from those of the
original project, in some cases modifying the section and in other cases
the lining. Twenty-five shafts, each 2 by 3 metres, or 16 feet 6f inches
by 9 feet 10 inches, were opened at a distance of 400 metres, or 1312

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ZTbe Dalles of flDesfco's Drainage. 277

feet from each other. These served to ventilate the tunnel and to
facilitate the work. The deepest of these shafts, situated on the saddle
of Acatlan, has a depth of 92 metres, or 301 feet 9 inches; the shallow-
est is 21 metres, or 68 feet 10 inches.

To give an idea of the labor involved beyond the mere tunneling,
it is as well to mention that the quantity of materials required per lineal
yard of tunnel was 1800 bricks, 94 cement blocks, 3 cubic yards of
mortar, and 70 cubic feet of volcanic stone.

Maximum discharge through the tunnel = 18 cubic metres, 635!
cubic feet.

When the drainage board took charge of the work, it was executed
by day labor both in the canal and in the tunnel, the latter having the
larger amounts expended on it. But, shortly afterwards, the contract
for the tunnel was let to Messrs. Read & Campbell, of London, who,
after having invested a considerable sum in the work, found themselves
under the necessity of cancelling their contract at the beginning of the
year 1892. These gentlemen continued to handle the work, but as
managers, and under the direction of the board.

The canal. — In December, 1889, the Department of Public Works
contracted with the Bucyrus Company of the United States, of which
Colonel Ellis was the president, for the construction of the canal.

This company started with two spoon dredgers capable of raising
a maximum of 1000 cubic metres, 1308 cubic yards, a day. They
commenced operations at the twenty-second kilometre. In the opin-
ion of the board of commissioners, the Bucyrus Company was not pro-
ceeding with the work at a suitable rate of speed, for at 1000 cubic
metres, 1308 cubic yards, per day, the work of dredging alone, as there
were some 16,000,000 of cubic metres, 20,928,000 cubic yards, of ex-
cavation to do, would take about forty-three years ; their contract was
therefore cancelled.

In May, 1894, the Department of Public Works of Mexico con-
tracted with Messrs. S. Pearson & Son of London for the completion
of the canal, modifying former contracts of December 25, 1889, March
30, 1891, and April 18, 1893, under the following bases: the un-
finished excavation in the first nine kilometres, and that between kilo-
metre 47 and the entrance of the tunnel of Tequixquiac, are to be
continued by the Board of Drainage Directors, who must have the latter
portion completed to 10 metres below the surface of the soil by Decem-
ber 31, 1894, and to the required depth of the canal by May 31, 1895,
in order that the water in the canal may settle to that level and permit
the contractors to slope the walls as required by the contract. The
contractors are to complete the canal between kilometres 9 and 47 for
the sum of $3,506,000. For making the monthly estimates the canal
will be divided into two sections — kilometres 9 to 22 and kilometres

278 Statistical Iftotes on Aegico*

22 to 47. In the first section the provisional estimate will be 40 cents
per cubic metre; in the second a sum equal to the quotient obtained
by dividing the remainder of the money by the number of cubic metres
to be removed. The contractors may suspend the work of the dredgers
when they fall below 40 cubic metres per hour, and can proceed with
the excavation in any way they wish. The excavation had to be com-
pleted by May i, 1896, except in the parts where the dredgers cannot
work. Then for each day's delay the contractors must pay $500 fine,
and after five months the contract will be rescinded.

These contractors carried out the work of the canal in two different
ways — by hand work with centrifugal pumps to draw off the water
which filtered into the work, and by means of enormously powerful
Couloir dredgers which have a capacity for 3000 cubic metres of ex-
cavation per day, and which throw the excavated earth to a distance
of more than 200 metres from the centre of the canal. They had five
of these dredgers at work, and by means of them excavated to a depth
of 20 metres or 65 feet, raising the earth to an elevation of more than
1 6 metres, 52^ feet, so as to empty it into the shoots, along which it was
carried by a stream of water that delivered it at a considerable dis-
tance from the dredger. The dredgers have now done their work, and
they have been taken to pieces, packed and transferred to the harbor
works at Veracruz. The portion of the canal contracted for was
completed to the satisfaction of all concerned in six years.

The level of the bottom of the canal above the datum line adopted
is 2.25 metres, or 7 feet 4 inches, and the mouth of the tunnel is 9.20
metres, or 30 feet J inch below the same datum, supposed to pass 10
metres, or 33.80 feet below the bottom of the Aztec calendar stone, since
transferred to the National Museum. The level of the ground at the
beginning of the canal is 8.94 metres, or 29 feet 4 inches, and at the
end 15.86 metres, or 52 feet above datum. The uniform slope of the
canal is at the rate of 0.187 Per kilometre.

The canal has a depth, at its commencement, of 5.50 metres, or 18
feet, which in the last few kilometres is increased to 20.50 metres, or 67
feet 3 inches. The side slopes were projected with a batter of 45 de-
grees, and the width of the bottom is 5.50 metres, or 18 feet for the first
20 kilometres, or I2-J miles, and 6.50 metres or 21 feet 2 inches in the rest
of the canal. The first 20 kilometres, or 12% miles, may be considered
as a prolongation of the net of sewers in the city, and will receive only
the water that passes through them. The flow is calculated for an
average of 5 cubic metres, or 176^ cubic feet, although, when heavy
rains require it, they can receive a greater volume; the rest of the
canal communicates with Lake Texcoco, and will be utilized in con-
trolling its waters, — the lowest in the valley, — which can be made to
flow into the canal from all parts. Hence the canal has been built to

(Drainage of the Valley of Mexico.)
VERTICAL SECTION OF THE TUNNEL.

ZTbe IDalles of /iDejico's Brainaae. 279

carry the largest flow that can pass through the tunnel, or 18 cubic
metres, 635^ cubic feet, per second. The cutting is through a strictly
clay formation, comprising occasional thin strata of sand and sandstone.

For accommodation of railroads, wagon roads, and water-courses,
it was necessary to construct five aqueducts — four of masonry and one
of iron — to carry rivers, four iron bridges for the passage of railroads,
and fourteen bridges for vehicular traffic.

The sewage. — The sewers of the City of Mexico form a network
of covered channels, located sometimes in the middle and sometimes
on the sides of the streets, these being almost always gorges, com-
municating with a system of secondary sewers that empty into a collect-
ing sewer discharging into the canal of San Lazaro, which transports
the sewage to Lake Texcoco. If the water is high in the lake, water
backs up into the sewers and saturates the soil under the houses and
streets. As this has been the condition for several centuries, the state
of the subsoil under the city can be better imagined than described.
The death-rate touches 40 per 1000 — the highest in the civilized world.
Mexico's elevation of over 7000 feet is all that saves it from a pesti-
lence. Malarial and gastric fevers are almost continually epidemic.

For a century the problem has been settling into one of pure sanita-
tion. The plans which the Government has been working since about
1883, though called plans for draining the valley, really seek to get a fall
sufficient to dispose of the sewage. In fact, in the original plan, from
considerations of economy, care was to be taken to keep out of the
projected canal all water both from the surface of the valley and from
the rivers. The Consulado and the Guadalupe rivers were to be car-
ried over the new canal in iron aqueducts. The drainage system was
thus to be simply a part of the sewage system of the city.

The excavated materials have been tipped on each side of the canal
at their natural slopes, and a towpath near the canal level provided.
Sluice gates will direct the city drainage either to the canal or to Lake
Texcoco. A sluice gate at the junction of the smaller with the larger
part of the canal will control the flow of Lake Texcoco, and another
sluice gate will be placed at the entrance of the tunnel.

Completion of the work. — As this paper goes to press, the drainage
works of the Valley of Mexico are practically finished, as the waters of
the valley have been for several years passing through the canal and
the tunnel to their outlet in the river which takes them to the Gulf of
Mexico, and the company with whom the canal was contracted is now
giving the finishing touches to the sides and bottom of the canal and
will deliver it to the Government Board of the Drainage Directors in
January, 1898. It was agreed with the contractors that the portion of
the canal between the City of Mexico and the 20th kilometre, which is
comparatively easy, because the canal is not deep there, and the ex-

280 Statistical Iftotes on

cavations do not exceed 200,000 cubic metres, will be made directly by
the Board as soon as the other portion of the canal has been finished;
this last section of the work is expected to be finished in June, 1898,
when the waters of the City of Mexico will leave the valley by the
drainage works here mentioned.

The canal and six-mile tunnel through the mountain range have
a total length approaching fifty miles. The present works will take
rank with the great achievements of modern times, just as the immense
" cut " of Nochistongo, their unsuccessful predecessor, was the leader
among ancient earthworks in all the world. The completed system will
have cost $20,000,000.

I have dwelt on these works at some length, because their import-
ance to the City of Mexico can hardly be overestimated. Instead of
being one of the healthiest cities in the world, as it should be with its
magnificent climate and situation, Mexico, unfortunately, has a terribly
heavy death-rate, due principally to want of drainage and generally
bad sanitary condition. When the existing danger of floods is removed,
and the sanitary evils are remedied by a proper system of drainage,
the increased security that will be enjoyed by life and property will
certainly have its effect on the prosperity of the city. Property will
rise in value, the population will grow with rapidity, not to mention
the tide of tourists that will set in from the United States, and this will
mean larger revenues for the municipality.

I could not well finish this paper without paying General Diaz,
President of Mexico, a just tribute for the great interest he has taken
in having this gigantic work brought to a close during his administra-
tion. To his exertions in this regard, and to his commanding position
in Mexico, more than to anything else, this happy result, now in
sight, is due. So after a weary search of centuries for relief, the
beautiful Valley of Mexico will gain its deliverance not only from the
engulfing floods, but from the sanitary evils which have long resulted
from defective drainage.

COFFEE CULTURE ON THE
SOUTHERN COAST OF CHIAPAS,

281

COFFEE CULTURE ON THE SOUTHERN
COAST OF CHIAPAS.

i.

INTRODUCTION.

The desire of contributing, in however slight a degree, to the de-
velopment of the cultivation of coffee in the State of Chiapas, which,
when undertaken on a large scale, will become the chief source of
wealth of a considerable part of its territory, induces me now to take
up my pen for the purpose of setting down the results of my own ob-
servations and of those of several experienced planters of Guatemala,
giving them the form of practical instructions, which may also be of
use to the people of the other States of the Mexican Confederation
who may be favorably situated for this industry and who may desire
to avail themselves of the advantages which it offers. I will note down,
then, what I consider to be the fundamental principles of coffee cul-
ture; and I think I may say with certainty that the rules here given
will produce good results in a soil and climate similar to those of
Chiapas, if they be faithfully and judiciously followed. To give these
rules is the purpose of the present work.

It is also my purpose to show how easy the cultivation of coffee is,
and how large are the profits it yields, in order to encourage my
countrymen to devote themselves to so profitable an industry. Those
whose pecuniary resources will not allow them to undertake it on a
large scale may do so on a small one, certain of good results, and of
being able, with the profits which a small plantation will yield to form
a larger one in the course of a few years, which will assure their future.

In order to appreciate the advantages to be derived by the Chiapas
coast from coffee cultivation, it will be sufficient to compare the Guate-
mala of twenty years ago with the Guatemala of to-day. Lands entirely
uninhabited have suddenly become transformed into well-cultivated
fields ; towns and cities that had fallen into decay have sprung into pros-

283

284 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbiapas*

parity as if by magic, and are steadily increasing in wealth ; new roads to
facilitate transportation are being constantly constructed ; commercial
transactions have greatly multiplied ; the revenues are increasing;
public credit is being re-established; and what, not long ago was a de-
cadent, impoverished, and almost ruined country has become, thanks
to the beneficent results of the cultivation of coffee, a rich and pros-
perous State. I see no reason why Chiapas, if it follows the same
course, should not attain the same results.

The great agricultural progress made by Guatemala will be better
understood if we consider how valuable land has become there. While
the best land situated in the Valley of Mexico, in the vicinity of the
capital, is estimated at an average value of $100,000 the square league,
land situated in the vicinity of the city of Guatemala, for the reason
that it is suitable for coffee, sells at $500 per lot of 10,000 square varas,
at which rate the Mexican square league would be worth the fabulous
sum of $1,250,000.

On the various occasions on which I have visited Guatemala I have
made a special study of coffee culture, which is assuming such large
proportions in the neighboring Republic. The greater number of the
rules set down in this work, therefore, are based upon experience ac-
quired in Guatemala, for, unfortunately, the cultivation of coffee in
Soconusco has not yet attained the necessary proportions to base on it
a body of rules. This will explain the frequent references which I
shall make to Guatemala in the course of this work.

The best coffee-growing districts of Guatemala are those called
there " Costa Grande " and " Costa Cuca," which are the prolongation
of the chain of mountains which crosses the southern part of the State
of Chiapas, and runs here, as in the neighboring Republic, very near
the Pacific, and almost parallel with it. The land on that coast, there-
fore, is not inferior to the best in Guatemala ; if there is any difference
between them, it is that the Soconusco land is better watered.

I shall not give here the botanic classification of the coffee tree, a
description of the plant, the chemical analysis of its fruit, nor an ac-
count of its discovery and use, for although all this is of undoubted
interest, it would draw me aside from my main object, which is to lay
down practical rules for the cultivation of coffee. I think it necessary,
however, to say that science has done little hitherto, at least so far as
I know, in favor of this industry. I have not been able to find any
information regarding the chemical analysis of the soils suitable for the
cultivation of coffee^ nor of other scientific operations whose results
would afford a sure basis for methods for its better cultivation. It is
plain that if the component substances of the soil which nourishes the
coffee tree and those which form its fruit were known with certainty, it
might be determined with accuracy what kind of soil and what fertil-

ffuture ot Coffee Culture in flDesico. 285

izers are best adapted to it; and by using these not only might the
plant be made to live longer but also to yield larger crops. Chemistry
and geology have done much for certain plants ; the cultivation of the
cereals has attained to almost mathematical precision in Europe.
Thanks to the advancement made in these sciences, the substances
which each crop draws from the soil may now be determined with ex-
actness, and, as a consequence, the substances which should be used
as fertilizers, in order to supply the losses caused by the crops. When
such data respecting coffee can be obtained, great advancement will
have been made in its cultivation, which will not until then cease to be
empirical.

II.
FUTURE OF COFFEE CULTURE IN MEXICO.

The use of coffee is becoming general everywhere. Whether it is
that certain beverages at certain periods become fashionable, and that
coffee is at the present time one of these, or that it really has properties
which make it beneficial to the human constitution, certain it is that
the sphere of its consumption is widening notably. Mexico is not
exempt from this tendency; a few years ago coffee was hardly used
in the Republic, while now it begins to compete with cocoa, and even
with the national drink made of Indian corn.

Hardly five years ago coffee was sold in Soconusco at five dollars
per quintal ; low as this price was it yielded a profit, but did not make
it worth while to extend its cultivation. Many still fear that the prices
of the last two years were exceptional, that they will before long sink
to their former level, and that coffee on the plantation will not sell for
more than eight dollars per quintal. The crop of 1872 sold at from
ten to twelve dollars per quintal on the plantation; and that of 1873 at
eighteen dollars per quintal. Although it is true that this is an excep-
tional price, I think it probable that coffee will not fall lower than ten
dollars on the plantation, which will still leave a good profit, as will be
shown farther on.

Mexico is, besides, destined, from its proximity to the United
States, to become the chief source of supply for that country, which is
the country that consumes the largest quantity of coffee in proportion
to the number of its inhabitants. Transportation will be easier when
we are connected by rail with the United States, for the Central States
of the Union would find it more to their advantage to import coffee
from Mexico overland than by way of New York or San Francisco.
That market would of itself suffice to consume all the crops that the
country could raise for several years to come.

286 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

These considerations, which I touch upon briefly, lead me to believe
that far from being attended by any risk, coffee-growing is, and will
continue to be for some time to come, one of the most lucrative
branches of agriculture to which the Mexican farmer could apply his
labor and intelligence.

III.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOCONUSCO FOR
COFFEE-GROWING.

Soconusco offers special advantages for the cultivation of coffee.
It also has some disadvantages, which, although they may be regarded
as transitory and easily remedied, it will be proper to mention here.

Each of these points, therefore, will now be considered separately.

I. THE ADVANTAGES WHICH SOCONUSCO OFFERS FOR THE CULTIVATION

OF COFFEE.

Soconusco unites many conditions that render it suitable for the
cultivation of coffee. The principal of these are the following:

A. — Advantages of the soil and climate of Soconusco.

B. — Cheapness of labor.

C. — Proximity of good coffee land to the sea.

D. — Facility with which the expenses of growing coffee may be de-
frayed by raising other crops at the same time on the same ground.

Each of these advantages will be considered separately.

A. — Advantages of the Soil and Climate of Soconusco. — The soil of
Soconusco seems especially adapted for coffee-growing. In speaking
further on of the conditions which make a locality suitable for coffee it
will be seen that all of them are favorably combined in Soconusco.
The character of the soil, the nature of the climate, a moist atmos-
phere, abundant rains, numerous streams and waterfalls, shelter from
the prevailing winds, and all the other conditions which experience has
shown to be favorable to coffee, are united in Soconusco.

The configuration of the land renders it very favorable to coffee.
In an area of about fourteen leagues the required altitude (from one
to five thousand feet above the level of the sea), with the correspond-
ing temperature, is to be found. In the course of this paper the
peculiar advantages which result from the favorable situation of the
land will be pointed out.

Comparing the system of cultivating coffee in Soconusco with that
followed in other parts of the Republic where highly esteemed coffee is
produced, it will be seen that Soconusco has many advantages over these.
While in Colima and Jalisco the coffee tree requires irrigation in order
to grow and thrive, here it grows and flourishes without it. The rains,
which continue in Soconusco for six months in the year, constitute

of Soconusco for Goffee*<3rowing, 287

a natural irrigation, and the soil retains during the dry season sufficient
moisture to keep the plant from withering; the numerous rivers,
streams, and waterfalls of the Cordillera contribute also to keep the
ground moist, as do also the heavy dews, caused probably by the
proximity of the sea. Shade trees, indispensable in the former locali-
ties, and which draw so much of its nutritive elements from the earth,
to the detriment of the coffee-tree, are not necessary here. In other
localities the soil must be manured, while in Soconusco manure is un-
necessary. It is true that fertilizers contribute to make the crop more
abundant and to prolong the life of the tree; but here no manure is
used, nor is the necessity for it felt; and without its use the coffee plan-
tations last a longer time and yield better crops than in other localities
where manure is used.

The best proof of the advantages offered by Soconusco for the cul-
tivation of coffee, is the cheapness with which it is raised. While in
Colima coffee cannot be sold with profit to the planter at less than
from thirty to thirty-five dollars per quintal, in Soconusco it will yield
a profit at even eight dollars. This fact in itself is the plainest proof
that could be adduced of the superior advantages of this locality, as
compared with Colima, for the cultivation of coffee. In Colima,
coffee is cultivated on a small scale only; the coffee crop up to the
year 1871, notwithstanding the high price it brought, did not exceed
two hundred quintals.

Farther on it will be seen wherein the excellence of the Colima
coffee consists, and how coffee of approximately the same quality
might be raised in Soconusco.

B. Cheapness of Labor in Soconusco. — Almost everywhere on the
-coast where there is a scarcity of hands — and this is the case along
almost the whole of our coast line, where the population is so sparse —
labor is much dearer than in the interior. Along the Southern coast
of the State of Veracruz, for instance, the laborer is paid not less than
fifty cents a day, and in many other localities he is paid even more.
Soconusco may be considered, however, as an exception to this rule, for
wages are here as low as in the interior of the Republic.

The price of labor in Soconusco is now regulated by the price paid in
Guatemala. On coffee plantations it ranges from a real and a half to
two reals and a half per day ; the average wages being two reals a day,
a sum which seems very moderate. In Costa Rica wages are now as
high as a dollar a day.

The scarcity of labor in Soconusco is, however, the principal diffi-
culty with which every agricultural enterprise has to contend, as will
be seen farther on.

C. Proximity of good Coffee Land to the Sea. — The proximity to the
sea, in Soconusco, of the land suitable for coffee cultivation is a very

288 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

advantageous circumstance, not only because of the exposure of the
land to the sea air, which contributes greatly to the excellence of the
coffee and the abundance of the crop, but also because this proximity
to the sea cheapens considerably the freight by land.

It may be considered that of the coffee plantations at present in
this District, those farthest from the port are at a distance from it of
twenty leagues, by the roads now in use, a distance which might be
considerably shortened by building new roads.

D. Facility with which the Expenses of Coffee-Growing may be De-
frayed by Raising other Crops at the same Time on the same Land. — One of
the principal drawbacks to coffee-raising is that a plantation does not
begin to yield until from three to five years after planting, according as
it has been planted from seeds or from the nursery, and few persons can
afford to make the outlay required during that time without obtaining
meanwhile any return from the money invested.

Soconusco offers in this respect, also, advantages which are hardly
to be met with elsewhere. The soil best adapted for coffee is also that
which is best adapted for sugar-cane. In the cold, high lands adjacent
to this District, which do not produce sugar-cane, there is a con-
siderable population of Guatemalan Indians who are obliged to buy
there the sugar they require, whether for food or to make brandy, which
is largely consumed in that Republic. For this reason, there is gener-
ally a great demand in Soconusco for sugar, which consequently brings
a good price. The buyers come down for the sugar to the ranches in
which it is made, so that it is not even necessary to carry it to market.

As the sugar-cane requires much less time to come to maturity than
the coffee plant, and its cultivation, by reason of the high price which
sugar brings here now, and is likely to continue to bring, yields good
profit, it is not only possible, but easy to derive from it the funds nec-
essary to start a coffee plantation.

Those who may not have the necessary means to begin with coffee
might begin by planting sugar-cane. This arrives at maturity at from
eight to eighteen months, according to the altitude and the temperature
of the locality in which it is planted. The cost of cultivation is very
little, for it may be estimated that if the seed is near the plantation
the cuerda (twenty-five yards square) will not cost more than $2.50, or
$3.50 if the seed is at a distance. A plantation of fifty cuerdas, for
instance, might be formed with from $125 to $175, including all ex-
penses until the cane is ready to cut. A small iron sugar-mill, moved
by oxen, with a boiler or evaporator, may be bought for $500 or $600.
At a cost, therefore, of from $700 to $800, fifty cuerdas of sugar-cane
may be planted and ground, the net profits of which may be estimated,
at a minimum, at the present prices of sugar, at $20 a cuerda, which gives-
a gross profit of $1000. The total cost was estimated at $750;

H>isafc\>anta0es ot Goffee-IRaisina in Soconusco, 289

there will remain, consequently, a net surplus of $250 the first year,
which may be employed in starting the coffee plantation. After the
first year the yearly profit will be $1000, or even more, if the price of
sugar should rise, or if the cane-field is enlarged. If, instead of buying
an iron mill with an evaporator, the planter begins with a wooden mill
and an iron boiler, the expenses of the first year will not exceed $400.

With the sum of $1000 a year to employ in the cultivation of coffee
it would be an easy matter to have, within a few years, a good coffee
plantation which would yield the profits to be shown later.

2. DISADVANTAGES OF COFFEE-RAISING IN SOCONUSCO.

Now that we have pointed out the natural and accidental advantages
which Soconusco offers for the cultivation of coffee, it will be necessary
to point out also the obstacles which are here encountered in every agri-
cultural enterprise, and especially in the cultivation of coffee. The prin-
cipal of these obstacles is scarcity of hands, as will now be considered.

In the State of Chiapas, and more particularly in Soconusco,
there is a system of labor which has serious disadvantages and which
occasions heavy expenses and considerable losses.

All the laborers owe their employers various sums, which seldom
fall below $20, and which frequently exceed $100. To obtain laborers,
therefore, it is necessary first to pay these debts, which may be esti-
mated at an average of $50 for each laborer. This expenditure is a
dead loss, because the money employed in it brings no interest, and
because the laborer, instead of applying part of his wages to the paying
off of his debt, increases this by fresh loans, which he asks daily, and
which represent a larger amount than he earns, so that the original
debt, instead of diminishing, continues increasing daily.

If at any time the laborer is refused the money he asks because his
debt is already very large, he considers this as sufficient cause for run-
ning away. If he is given what he asks, his debt soon amounts to a
large sum, and the laborer, thinking that it will now be difficult for
him to pay it off, settles it by running away. Without either of these
reasons and on any frivolous pretext, he will escape, also, favored by the
proximity of the frontier of Guatemala, where he cannot be pursued,
and where, on the contrary, he is received with open arms, because
the scarcity of hands is even greater there than in Soconusco. Even
without leaving Mexican territory the laborer can find employment
where it will not be easy to discover him. It may be said that there is
hardly a workman who lets a year pass without running away. This
custom also gives rise to many abuses on the part of the employers
toward the laborers.

With this labor system and depending only on the people of the
place, it would not be possible to undertake planting on any consider-

290 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbetn Coast of Cbiapas.

able scale without having inexhaustible resources with which to pay the
•debts of laborers, who would shortly afterward run away; then to pay
the debts of new hands, who before very long would do the same ; and
so on indefinitely. Fortunately, the Indians of the cold region of
Guatemala, contiguous to this District, where poor people are nu-
merous, have no reluctance to coming down to the temperate lands,
which are the most suitable for coffee, and with them alone it would be
possible to plant coffee plantations of considerable extent in Socon-
usco. Later on it will perhaps be easy to bring laborers from other
parts of the Republic ; but this will probably not be the case until some
plantations have been already established; and meanwhile it will be
necessary to depend on the laborers of Guatemala.

Nor is the work done by laborers from the cold lands of Guatemala
exempt from expense and loss. To induce the laborers to leave their
villages it is necessary to advance them for expenses a sum of money,
generally five dollars a head, which sum is not always repaid. The
demoralization has already extended to the cold lands of Guatemala,
and the Indians of that region run away also ; but, as the sums they
owe are comparatively small, the losses suffered from this cause are in-
-considerable. The evils of this system of labor make themselves felt
in the large plantations of Guatemala, which have only a limited num-
ber of hands to depend upon for the most necessary labors, whose
owners have large sums invested in advances to laborers, and who re-
quire to keep several clerks to visit the villages to engage new hands
and to search for the runaways.

As the Indians of the cold region of Guatemala leave behind them
their families, their occupations and their sheep, they cannot remain
away from their villages very long at a time. As a general thing, they
remain barely a month or two in the plantations, and return to their
homes to take care of their cornfields. For this reason they cannot be
•considered permanent laborers, which is another serious drawback.

The only remedy for these evils would, in my opinion, be to bring
laborers from other parts of the Republic, where the poor drag out a mis-
erable existence, to these fertile districts. Coffee culture gives employ-
ment to the wives and children of the laborers, and the plantations are
situated in temperate, healthy, and even agreeable climates. The diffi-
culty lies in the first attempts. If, as is to be expected, these give good
results, I think it certain that, notwithstanding the distance, many peo-
ple would come from the interior of the Republic to settle in Soconusco,
or at least to work for the season. If many laborers go, during the
cotton harvest, from the valleys of Oaxaca, travelling considerable
distances over rough roads, to the unhealthy coast of Veracruz I
see no reason why they should not come to these mild and salubrious
climates.

Con&ftfons of Xanfc Suitable for Coffee. 291

IV.
CONDITIONS OF LAND SUITABLE FOR COFFEE.

For the successful cultivation of coffee, various conditions must
concur in the land selected to plant it, which will be briefly mentioned
here, and the principal of which are the following:

1. Nature of the land and its configuration.

2. Temperature.

3. Altitude above the level of the sea.

4. Exposure to the sun.

5. Protection against prevailing winds.

6. Humidity.

7. Streams.

8. Sites for building purposes.

Each of these conditions will be briefly considered.

I. NATURE OF THE LAND AND ITS CONFIGURATION.

The following points concerning the nature of the land and its
configuration will now be touched upon :

A. — Land suitable for coffee.

B. — Layer of vegetable soil.

C. — Depth of the layer of vegetable soil.

D. — Land of volcanic formation.

E. — Virgin forest soil and cultivated soil.

F. — Configuration of the land.

It will be necessary to consider separately each of these points also.

A. Land Suitable for Coffee. — As I do not know of any chemical
analysis having been made of the soil most suitable for coffee, for the
purpose of determining with exactness its component elements, I can
give, on this subject, only very superficial ideas, entirely empirical, and
many of them possibly erroneous, notwithstanding that they are based
on experience.

It has been observed that land which has a clayey sub-soil is better
adapted for coffee than that which has a sandy sub -soil. Among the
clayey lands of Soconusco some, and these are the most abundant, are
of a reddish hue, more or less vivid, and others of a yellowish color.
These last are to be preferred for the cultivation of coffee. To this
class belong those of " Union Juarez," in this District, and those of
the " Cuca Coast " of Guatemala.

The soil of Cordova, a district which is also suitable for coffee, is
in general of red clay.

Some consider pebbly ground favorable for coffee, as the pebbles
give the soil greater consistency. Vertical thin strata of rock are also
considered advantageous. The ground of the plantations in Guatemala

292 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbiapas.

called the plantations of St. Augustine, situated on the southern slope
of the volcano of Atitlan, is somewhat stony, and this stony soil is
considered very good for coffee.

Mr. William Sabonadiere, in his Coffee Planter in Ceylon, published
in London in 1870, says that the best ground for coffee in that favored
island — whose coffee is of so excellent a quality that it is always quoted
in the European markets higher than that of Central America — is of a
dark chocolate color, pebbly, and with a substratum of rock. He
considers a clayey soil unfavorable.

B. Layer of Vegetable Soil. — The land of Soconusco has generally,
unless it has been washed away by the rains, a layer, more or less
thick, of vegetable soil, formed principally of decayed vegetable matter
which has accumulated in the course of time. This layer is of a black
color when moist, and ashen when dry. The thicker this layer the
better the ground containing it for the cultivation of coffee, provided
always there be under it a layer of clayey soil of the depth specified
below.

C. Depth of the Layer of Vegetable Soil. — As the top root of the
coffee plant grows vertically and to a considerable depth, it requires a
soil which it can penetrate without bending. If the root meets with
any obstruction, whether stone or other substance, which it cannot
penetrate, the plant sickens, turns yellow, ceases to produce fruit, and
finally dies. It is therefore indispensable that there should be a layer
of earth, of from three to six feet in thickness, which the root of the
plant can penetrate without bending. It would be therefore well, be-
fore finally selecting a plot of ground to form a plantation, to make
excavations in it at various points, for the purpose of ascertaining
whether or not it possesses this requisite.

If a piece of land could be found which, to the conditions already
mentioned, should unite that of being traversed by vertical strata of
rock, it would be very suitable, as the soil would be, so to say, framed
in between these strata, would not wash away with the rains, and
would have greater consistency ; but I have not seen in Soconusco any
land that has these conditions.

D. Land of Volcanic Formation. — As observation shows that the
soil in which coffee grows best is that on the slopes of volcanoes or in
their immediate vicinity, it may be inferred that the best land for coffee
is that of volcanic formation. It would be well, therefore, whenever pos-
sible, to select land situated on the slopes of volcanoes or in their im-
mediate vicinity, if it should also have the other conditions enumerated.

E. Virgin Forest Soil and Cultivated Soil. — There is a notable
difference, in fertile districts like Soconusco, between the soil of the
virgin forest, which has never been cultivated or cleared by the hand
of man, or which, if it was ever cultivated, has relapsed into a state

Con&ftions of OLatifc Suitable for Coffee. 293

of nature, and land recently cultivated or cleared. For the sake of
clearness, it will be expedient to consider separately these three kinds
of land. We will therefore now consider:

a. — Virgin forest land.

b. — Land recently cleared.

c. — Land best adapted for the cultivation of coffee.

Each of these kinds of soil will be considered with as much brevity
as is consistent with clearness.

a. Virgin Forest Land. — On virgin forest land there are secular
trees that cover with their shade the whole surface of the ground, for
which reason only few plants, and those such as do not require
for their growth the direct rays of the sun, can grow on it.

In the virgin forest, therefore, are seen colossal, medium and small
sized trees, bushes, parasites, vines, and other productions of the vege-
table kingdom ; but the surface of the ground is not entirely covered
with vegetation. If the seed of a thistle or other noxious plant should
chance to fall on virgin forest land, it would either not germinate, or, if
it germinated, it would not grow for want of sunlight.

b. Land Recently Cleared. — The aspect of land which has at any
time been cleared is very different from that just described. The fer-
tility of the soil which had been, so to say, dormant for years, awakens
with extraordinary vigor as soon as it is once exposed to the vitalizing
action of the sun's rays.

A year or two after it has been cleared the ground is so completely
covered with vegetation — principally weeds and other plants whose use
is not known, and which are therefore considered noxious — that not a
single point of ground is visible, and it is not possible to advance a
single step without previously opening a path. This prodigious fertil-
ity of the soil makes the chief expense of cultivation in those places.
Weeds grow with such abundance and rapidity that it is necessary to
keep cutting them down continually, and this operation, which is
called " clearing the ground," must be repeated in some places as
many as eight times a year, to keep the weeds from choking the young
plants, and injuring them very seriously.

In the cleared lands of Soconusco, and especially in those situated
at an altitude below two thousand feet above the level of the sea,
a species of grass grows which attains a height of twenty-four inches,
which, if not cut down in time, will choke the coffee plant completely,
but which can hardly ever be entirely extirpated. Its seeds are prob-
ably carried by the wind, so that it grows everywhere. This grass is
the chief foe of the coffee-tree. In order that it may not kill the plants
the ground must be cleared as many as eight times a year, which con-
stitutes, as has been already said, a heavy expense, and requires, be-
sides, a great many hands in plantations of any extent.

294 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbiapas,

c. Land Best Adapted for Coffee. — Experience shows that the coffee
plant grows and thrives better in virgin soil than in soil that has been
already cultivated. The reason of this is obvious. Virgin soil is
richer, has its fertilizing elements almost intact, and produces fewer
weeds. Because of this last advantage, virgin soil requires, during the
years immediately following the planting of the coffee-trees, fewer
clearings than that which has been already cultivated.

The only advantage of planting coffee in ground that has been
already cultivated is that in that case the trifling expense of the felling
is avoided ; but, on the other hand, cultivated ground has, compared
with virgin forest soil, the following disadvantages:

1. The soil is inferior.

2. It is more exposed to the sun and to the wind.

3. It is more easily washed away by the rains.

4. It produces a great many more weeds.

For these reasons, therefore, virgin soil is always, when possible, to
be preferred.

In Ceylon also the superiority of virgin soil over that of ground that
has been already cultivated, for planting coffee, is recognized.

F. Configuration of the Land. — It is a debatable question whether
level or broken ground is preferable for the cultivation of coffee.

Regarding this point, we will consider here the following:

a. — Advantages of level ground.

b. — Advantages of hilly ground.

c. — Configuration of the ground best suited for coffee.

Each of these kinds of land and its advantages will be considered
separately.

a. Advantages of Level Ground. — The advantages of level over
broken ground are the following:

1. Greater facility for using implements and machinery which save
time and labor, and consequently greater facility and cheapness of
cultivation.

2. Greater duration of the layer of black or vegetable earth, which
is not so readily washed away by the rains as in hilly ground, where
the soil becomes loosened by the cultivation bestowed upon it.

Notwithstanding these advantages, the advantages presented by
hilly ground are so great that, as a general rule, this is to be preferred
to level ground for the cultivation of coffee, as will be shown farther on.

b. Advantages of Hilly Ground. — The advantages of hilly ground,
as compared with level ground, are the following:

i. Impossibility of the ground, even when moist, becoming miry,
as its inclination prevents the water from standing; while in level
ground, without drainage and with a layer of impermeable clay near the
surface, there is this danger, which is a serious one for the coffee-tree.

^Temperature* 295

2. Greater facility for shielding the plant from the sun for a part
of the day ; as, when the hills run from north to south, which is their
general direction in this Cordillera, the side facing the east receives-
the sun until mid-day, and that facing the west after mid-day.

3. Greater facility for obtaining water, whether for irrigating the
plantation or moving the machinery.

4. Facility for obtaining laborers ; for, the hilly land in the Cordil-
lera being situated at a considerable altitude above the level of the
sea, the Indians of Guatemala, who would not go to the plains, which
are here low and hot, are willing to go there.

c. Configuration of the Ground best Suited for Coffee. — The advant-
ages of hilly over level ground, especially the two last mentioned, are
so notable in Soconusco that many think, and I share their opinion,
that hilly ground, with the hills running from north to south, is that best
adapted for the cultivation of coffee.

The coffee planters of Ceylon, pursuaded of the superior advant-
ages of hilly over level ground, also prefer it for their plantations.

The prevailing opinion regarding the climate most suitable for cof-
fee is a very erroneous one. It is generally believed that the coffee-
tree is a native of the tropics, and that, consequently, the hotter the
temperature of a place the more suitable it will be for coffee, provided
that the other conditions favorable to its cultivation exist there.

Experience has shown that the zone most suitable for the cultivation
of coffee is bounded by isothermal1 lines, the mean temperature of which-
is from 17° 50' to 20° centigrade; that is, a temperate climate, but
where it never freezes, as frosts would ruin the plant.

The mean temperature of the localities in Soconusco which are con-
sidered best for coffee is, according to the observations of the able
engineer, Don Miguel M. Ponce de Leon, as follows: Cacahuatan,
21° 15' and Union Juarez, 17° 57'.

3. ALTITUDE ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE SEA.

The temperature of a place has a direct relation to its altitude above
the level of the sea, for, as a general rule, the greater the altitude the
lower will be the temperature.

The following points relating to this subject will now be considered i

A. — Productiveness of the coffee-tree in relation to altitude.

B. — Advantages of high lands.

C. — Altitude most suitable for coffee-raising.

D. — Altitude of various places in Soconusco.

1 1 will insert in the Appendix to this paper, a brief statement of the causes affect-
ing the climate of a locality, written since this book came out in Spanish.

296 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbetn Coast ot Cbfapas,

Each of these points will be considered separately.

A. Productiveness of the Coffee- Tree in Relation to Altitude. — It has
been observed that coffee planted in ground situated 500 feet above
the level of the sea yields not more than half a pound of coffee per
tree; from 500 to 1000 feet, one pound per tree; from 1000 to 2000
feet, two pounds per tree; from 2000 to 3000 feet, three pounds per tree;
and from 3000 to 4000, it will yield as much as four pounds per tree.

But this yield is only obtained in the best soil and under the most
thorough cultivation.

B. Advantages of High Lands. — The principal advantages offered
for the cultivation of coffee by high lands, whose altitude does not
exceed 4000 feet, may be summed up as follows:

1. Larger yield of fruit per tree.

2. Better quality of the coffee.

3. More time in which to gather the crop, as it ripens gradually
and not all at once, as in the low lands.

4. The plant is not exposed to the heat of the sun during the
whole of the day, as will be explained farther on.

5. The higher the land, the fewer weeds it will produce, and con-
sequently fewer weedings in the year will be necessary.

6. The high lands enjoy a temperate, pleasant, and in general
healthy climate, for which reason it is easier to obtain laborers for those
lands than for the low lands, which are hot, less healthy, and always
infested by mosquitoes. In Soconusco, especially, this advantage is
very great, as the Indians of the cold regions of Guatemala will go
down to the temperate lands to work, while they are not willing to go
to the low lands.

C. Altitude most Suitable for Coffee-Growing. — Until very recently
the low lands were preferred for coffee-raising. Experience has, how-
ever, demonstrated that the best lands for this purpose are those situ-
ated at from three to four thousand feet above the level of the sea.

The experience of other places proves the correctness of this state-
ment. Mocha coffee grows in the mountainous regions of Arabia
Felix. The best quality of Colima coffee is that which grows on the
summit of the Platanarillo ; and the districts of Cordova and Orizava,
whose coffee is also highly esteemed, are situated, the former at an
altitude of 2713, and the latter of 4028 feet above the level of the sea.
The best coffee land in Ceylon is in Mr. William Sabonadiere's opinion
located on an average of 3000 feet above the level of the sea, although
in some localities of that island the coffee tree grows well at an altitude
of 5000 feet.

Anyone, not familiar with plantations, might be easily deceived by
the appearance presented by the trees in the low lands ; for sometimes,
and especially when the plantations are new, their leaves are of a

Exposure to tbe Sun, 297

healthy green, and they have a thriving appearance ; but very soon this
appearance changes, the branches lose their leaves, and the quantity
of fruit they produce is relatively small.

Nothing is more deceptive than to measure altitudes by the naked
eye. To be able to calculate altitude with some degree of correctnses
one should provide oneself with an aneroid barometer, properly regu-
lated, the price of which is within the reach of the most modest fortune ;
while from its small bulk — for it is about the size of a watch — it may be
carried with perfect ease.

D. Altitude of Various Places in Soconusco. — Various observations
which I have made with an aneroid barometer of localities in this
District give approximately the following results : altitude of Cacahua-
tan, 1400 feet above the level of the sea; Paso del Rio Ixtal, 1000 feet;
plantation of Mixcum, 1850 feet; plantation of Santo Domingo, 2300
feet; and Union Juarez, 3400 feet.

The approximate altitudes of some points in Guatemala where coffee
grows well are as follows: El Rodeo, about 1500 feet; Las Mercedes,
about 2500 feet; Las Nubes, from 3500 to 4000 feet; Guatemala City,
a little more than 4000 feet.

4. EXPOSURE TO THE SUN.

Experience has shown that the coffee-tree thrives best and yields
most fruit when the sun does not shine on it during the whole of the
day. Four or five hours' exposure to the sun are sufficient to enable it
to attain its best condition. The early morning sun is the least bene-
iicial to it, for which reason it should, if possible, be shielded from it,
either by planting shade trees to the east of the plantation, or by select-
ing ground on which the sun does not shine until one or two hours after
it has risen.

The principal advantage of hilly ground when the hills run
from north to south, is, as has been already stated, that the sun
shines on them for only a part of the day — in the morning on the
slopes which face the -east, and in the afternoon on those which face
the west.

The high lands of Soconusco have also the advantage that the sun
does not shine on the trees during the whole of the day. On the
slope of the Cordillera, that is, from 2500 feet above the level of the
sea up, clouds prevail during the summer season — which is precisely
when the sun is hottest — and frequently also, during the other seasons,
from ten o'clock onward, which keep the trees from being exposed to
the heat of the sun during the whole of the day. Perhaps it is to this
circumstance that the superior excellence of the coffee grown at an
altitude of 3000 or 4000 feet above the level of the sea is due.

Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

5. PROTECTION AGAINST THE WINDS.

It is of the first importance that the plantation should be sheltered
against the prevailing winds. If the plants were exposed to the north
winds, which blow in Soconusco from the land and are very dry, they
would wither, and if they were exposed to the southeasterly winds,
which are here the prevailing sea winds, they would lose their blos-
soms and yield scanty crops, or none. But it is also necessary for the
growth and good yield of the plant that it should be situated in a locality
where the air circulates freely.

It is probable that the sea breezes, are highly beneficial to the
coffee plant, for which reason it is expedient that the plantation should
be made on land which faces the sea, although it should be sheltered
from the prevailing winds. The principal plantations of Soconusco
and Guatemala face the Pacific.

The violence of the north winds which blow from Tehuantepec to
Tonala, and which deprive the atmosphere of moisture, and wither
vegetation, will be an obstacle to the planting of coffee on that part of
the coast, except in such localities as may be sheltered from the north
winds and have a moist atmosphere.

It has been observed in Ceylon that an eastern exposure is the most
favorable. In Soconusco and Guatemala a southern exposure is the
most favorable.

6. HUMIDITY.

The coffee plant requires moist but not miry ground. Water re-
tained around its roots injures it greatly.

Even when the surface of the ground becomes dry, in the dry
season, the land will still be suitable for coffee if, on digging down a
little, the earth be found moist, but not wet.

A moist atmosphere should also be sought, as not only the roots of
the coffee plant, but also its leaves require moisture. This is another
of the reasons that render the vicinity of the sea desirable for a coffee
plantation.

Shade trees also keep the ground moist, for which reason they may
be required in certain localities.

7. STREAMS.

Although neither in Soconusco nor in Guatemala is it necessary to
water the coffee plants — as the rains suffice to make them grow and
thrive — it is always desirable to locate the coffee plantation near some
river, brook, or spring, not only because water is an indispensable ele-
ment of life for the laborers and the animals employed on the planta-
tion, but also in order that the water may be used as motive power for
the machinery that is to prepare the berry for the market. Plantations

Coffee Cultivation* 299

of any extent indispensably require considerable motive power, and
water power is always to be preferred, as it is the cheapest.

In soil which is not as moist as that of Soconusco, it will probably
be necessary to employ irrigation, in which case it would be still more
necessary to locate the coffee plantation near some stream.

8. SITES FOR BUILDING PURPOSES.

It is desirable that the piece of ground selected for a coffee plan-
tation should have a site suitable for the erection of the buildings
required. If the ground be level there will be no difficulty in this re-
spect. In hilly ground a level place should be selected for the drying-
yard, in order to avoid the expense of levelling the ground to make a
yard.

In a plantation situated on level ground the buildings should always
be erected in the centre of the plantation, in order that no part of it
may be far distant from the place where the coffee is to be prepared
for the market. In sloping ground the buildings should be erected on
the lowest part of it, in order that the carts or animals employed in the
transportation of the fruit from the field to the place of preparation
may go down laden and go up unladen, which will facilitate the labor,
to the economizing of time and money.

The situation of the buildings will depend on the special conditions
of each locality ; but, as a general rule, it should be determined by the
situation of the water, unless there be some means of conducting this
to some other place which is more suitable.

V.

COFFEE CULTIVATION.

It is my purpose here to set forth with as much clearness and con-
ciseness as may be possible the fundamental principles of modern
coffee-culture, to the end that even those who have never seen a coffee-
tree, may be able to undertake the raising of coffee with a good prob-
ability of success.

I will consider at greater length — because of the important bearing
which they have on the success of the undertaking — the questions
whether or not coffee-trees should be planted in the shade, and what
distance apart they ought to be planted ; discussing afterwards the other
points directly connected with the cultivation of coffee and its prepara-
tion for the market.

I will make occasional references to the methods followed in the
cultivation of coffee in Ceylon ; for I have observed that there is a
great similarity between them and the methods that have given the best
results here. The excellence of Ceylon coffee is well known. In the

300 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbiapas.

year 1868, 913 plantations produced 1,007,214 English quintals of coif-
fee. Trees planted in the last century still yield good crops. These
facts show how far advanced coffee culture is there, and therefore the
references that may be made to the system followed in Ceylon cannot
but be useful to the Mexican planters.

The following points, then, will now be considered:

1. Shade.

2. Distance between the trees.

3. Nursery.

4. Perparation of the ground for planting.

5. Transplanting.

6. Cultivation of coffee.

7. Fertilizers.

8. Gathering the crops.

9. Preparation of the fruit for the market.

Each of these subjects will be considered separately.

I. SHADE.

The following points concerning the important question of shade
will be now considered:

A. — General considerations regarding shade.

B. — Advantages of shade.

C. — Disadvantages of shade.

D. — Rules regarding shade.

E. — Trees to be preferred for shade.

Each of these various aspects of the question of shade will be con-
sidered separately.

A. General Considerations Regarding Shade. — The opinion has long
prevailed that the coffee plant requires shade to attain its fullest de-
velopment, and that a plantation which has no shade must necessarily
give bad results. Up to a certain point this opinion may be considered
to be well-founded, so far as regards plantations situated in the low
lands. For the rest, it is evident that the heat and light of the sun
being indispensable to vegetation, it cannot be absolutely affirmed that
there are plants which thrive better in the shade than in the sun.

Shade may be made, however, a means of reducing the temperature,
and thus acclimating in certain hotter zones plants which would not
thrive in the sun in those localities. As the coffee-tree requires for its
best development a temperature, for instance, of 18° centigrade, it is
plain that if it be planted in a locality the temperature of which is from
23° to 24°, it will be out of its zone, and that if it then be given shade
it will thrive better than when exposed to the sun ; not because it ab-
solutely requires shade, but because this reduces the temperature, and
the coffee plant that is in the shade will enjoy a lower temperature,

Sbafce. 301

and consequently one that will agree better with it than a plant in the
same locality that is exposed to the sun.

B. Advantages of Shade. — The advantages of shade are the follow-
ing:

1. It reduces the temperature, which is, however, an advantage only
when the coffee is planted out of its native zone, that is, in low lands.

2. It keeps the soil moist, sheltering it from the direct rays of the
sun.

3. It tends to lessen the growth of weeds, which grow more vigor-
ously and in greater abundance in ground exposed to the sun.

4. It affords some protection to the coffee-trees against the violence
of the prevailing winds.

C. Disadvantages of Shade. — The disadvantages of shade are the
following:

1. It lowers the temperature, which is a serious disadvantage when
coffee is planted in its native zone, that is, from 3000 to 4000 feet
above the level of the sea.

2. It keeps from the plant the light and heat of the sun, which
causes it to thrive less and to yield smaller crops than if it enjoyed
those advantages.

3. It interferes with the free circulation of the air, to the serious
injury of the coffee plant.

4. It takes from the soil, through the roots of the trees which
afford it, nutritious elements which should be reserved exclusively for
the coffee-tree.

D. Rules regarding Shade. — From the preceding considerations the
following conclusions may be drawn, which constitute the best rules
that can be given regarding shade:

i. If the coffee be planted in its own zone, that is, at an altitude of
from 3000 to 4000 feet above the level of the sea, in a temperature of
17° 50', to 1 8° 50' centigrade, it ought not to be given any shade.

2. Planted in lower lands, with a higher temperature, it would be
advisable to give it shade, which should increase in density according
as the altitude decreases and the temperature increases.

There are some localities, however, which, although at an altitude
of from 3000 to 4000 feet above the level of the sea, and enjoying a
temperature of from 17° to 1 8° centigrade, have yet so dry a soil that
it becomes necessary to give the plant a little shade, at least for the
first year after planting; taking away the shade the second year, when
the plants have taken firm root. This is a peculiarity of the land of
Union Juarez, which is undoubtedly among the best coffee-growing
regions in Soconusco.

Perhaps this phenomenon is due to the fact that shade, in addition
to its other advantages, has that of keeping the soil moist, as it pro-

302 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

tects it from the direct rays of the sun, which, in hot climates, produce
a rapid evaporation. In localities where the soil is rather dry, shade
may be avdantageous even when the temperature is temperate, as it
preserves the moisture, which is so important for coffee, although in
this case it is preferable to have recourse to irrigation.

These considerations show that it is necessary to proceed with
caution in every instance, consulting the experience of men who are
acquainted with the locality and making previously, in unfamiliar re-
gions, investigations which will show what are the peculiarities of each
locality.

The simplest rule which can be given regarding shade is not to
plant coffee where shade is required.

In Ceylon, coffee-trees are never shaded, but, on the other hand,
care is taken to plant them in their own zone.

JS. Trees to be preferred for Shade. — In each locality some parti-
cular tree is preferred for shade, the plantain being used in many. Its
shade is dense, and it has the advantage of generally keeping the ground
moist; but, on the other hand, it has the disadvantage of absorbing
many of the nutritious elements of the soil, some of which the coffee-
tree probably requires for its better nutrition and greater fructification.

Should shade be absolutely required — a necessity to be regarded,
however, as a serious evil — the best means of providing it is to leave
standing the tallest and least umbrageous trees of the forest to give the
shade which is indispensable, so as to obtain the best possible circula-
tion of air in the plantation. The castor-oil plant may be used for
shade in those nurseries and coffee plantations in high altitudes, in
which shade should not be given for more than a year.

2. DISTANCE BETWEEN THE PLANTS.

To proceed with greater method in the discussion of this important
subject, the following points will now be considered:

A. — General considerations regarding distance.

B. — Number of plants in each cuerda according to the distance be-
tween them.

C. — Yield of each cuerda.

D. — Space required by each plant.

E.- — Advantages of long distances.

F. — Advantages of short distances.

G. — Rules regarding distance.

Each of these points will be considered separately.

A. General Considerations regarding Distance. — There is a great
difference of opinion among planters with regard to the distance apart
at which the trees should be planted, some preferring long and others
short distances between them. The practice most generally followed

Distance Between tbe plants* 303

is to plant them three varas apart, from tree to tree and from furrow to
furrow. Some time ago this distance began to be regarded as too
short, and plantations were laid out with the trees three and a half,
four, and even four and a half varas apart. Afterwards a reaction set
in, and there is now a tendency to shorten these distances.

I think that the distance apart at which trees should be planted de-
pends on the zone, altitude, temperature, and kind of land selected for
the plantation. In a climate and soil favorable to their fullest develop-
ment, the trees should be planted farther apart than when they are
planted where the conditions are less propitious.

The question of distance is also intimately connected with that of
the pruning of the trees, as by means of this operation the trees may
be considerably reduced in bulk, and may therefore be planted even a
shorter distance apart than in localities more favorable for coffee, as
will be seen farther on. This question, however, will be better under-
stood and a correct decision more probably reached after a considera-
tion of the data to be given farther on.

B. Number of Plants in each Cuerda. — A cuerda of land, which is the
unit of agrarian measurement in Soconusco, and which contains twenty-
five yards square, or six hundred and twenty-five square * varas, will
contain, in round numbers, thirty-nine trees, planted four varas apart
on all sides; planted three varas apart, from plant to plant, and four
yards from furrow to furrow, the cord will contain fifty-two trees;
planted three and a half varas apart on one side and three varas on the
other, the cuerda will contain fifty-nine trees ; planted three yards apart
on each side, it will contain sixty-nine trees; and one hundred and
four if planted two varas apart from plant to plant and three from fur-
row to furrow. Planted in this way there will be a square, or a rec-
tangular parallelogram, between each four plants.

In some plantations the system is followed, when the trees are
planted farther apart than three varas on each side, of planting an ad-
ditional tree in the centre of each of the squares or parallelograms
formed by the plants.

The results of that manner of planting are the following: When the
trees are planted four yards apart on each side, each cuerda will contain,
planting a tree in the centre of each square, twenty-seven additional
trees ; that is to say, a total of sixty-six trees instead of thirty-nine. If
the same thing is done when the trees are planted four yards apart on
one side and three on the other, the cuerda will contain thirty-eight ad-
ditional trees, or a total of ninety, instead of fifty-two. If the trees
are planted three yards and a half from furrow to furrow and three
yards from plant to plant, the cuerda will contain forty-six additional
trees, which gives a total of one hundred and five trees. In squares
1 Yard is used here for a Mexican vara.

304 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas,

of three yards on each side, fifty- three additional trees may be planted,
making a total, with the sixty-nine already counted, of one hundred
and twenty-two ; and when the trees are planted three yards apart on
one side and two on the other, a cuerda will contain eighty-three addi-
tional trees, which, added to the original one hundred and five, give
a total of one hundred and eighty-eight.

C. Yield of each Cuerda. — Considering the average crop per year of
each plant to be two pounds of coffee, each cuerda, when the plants are
four yards apart on each side, will yield seventy-eight pounds a year;
one hundred and four pounds if the plants are three yards apart on
one side and four on the other; one hundred and thirty-eight, if they
are three yards apart on each side ; and two hundred and eight pounds
if they are two yards on one side and three on the other.

.When the additional tree is planted in the middle of each square,
or parallelogram, the yield of each cuerda will be one hundred and
thirty-two pounds, if the trees are planted four yards apart on each side ;
one hundred and eighty pounds if they are planted four yards apart on
one side and three on the other; two hundred and ten pounds, when
they are three and a half yards apart on one side and three on the other ;
two hundred and forty-four pounds, when they are planted three yards
apart on each side ; and three hundred and seventy-six pounds when they
are planted two yards apart on one side and three on the other.

It must be observed, however, that the yield of each tree depends
also on the nature of the soil, on the climate, on the degree of moisture,
and the other circumstances which have been already enumerated, in-
cluding the distance apart at which the trees are planted, for if they
are planted too close together, so that their roots interlace, the yield
will be less.

D. Area Required by each Tree. — If the trees are planted two yards
apart, from plant to plant, and three yards from furrow to furrow,
each tree will have an area of six yards square ; if planted three yards
apart, from plant to plant and from furrow to furrow, each plant will
have an area of nine yards square ; if planted three and a half yards
apart on each side, of twelve and a quarter yards; and of sixteen
yards square, if planted four yards apart on each side.

When an additional tree is planted in the middle of each square, or
parallelogram, each plant will have an area of ground nearly eight
yards square ; if the trees are planted four yards apart on each side, of
a little more than six ; when planted three yards apart on one side and
four on the other, of nearly five yards square; when planted three and
a half yards apart on one side and three on the other; of four and a
quarter yards square, when planted three yards apart on each side ; and
of nearly one and three quarter yards when planted three yards apart
on one side and two on the other.

TRules 1Re0arfcin0 distances. 305

E. Advantages of Long Distances. — The advantages of long dis-
tances are the following:

1. Unimpaired growth of the plant. This advantage is nullified
when pruning is performed, as will be seen when this subject is spoken
of.

2. Freer circulation of air and light.

3. Greater yield of fruit of each tree.

4. Greater facility for cultivating the soil and gathering the fruit
without injuring the branches of the neighboring trees.

When the trees are planted far apart and by this I mean at a
greater distance than three and a half yards, their branches will not
interlace, and free circulation of air, light and heat among the
branches and trunks of the plants will be secured. When there is a
free circulation of air, and the branches of the trees are exposed to the
light and heat of the sun, it is evident that the yield of each tree will
be greater than if it did not enjoy these advantages. Besides which,
there will be more space between the trees for the laborers to perform
their several tasks and the gatherers of the fruit to perform theirs,
without injury to the branches of the neighboring trees.

F. Advantages of Short Distances. — The advantages of short dis-
tances are the following:

1. A greater number of trees will be contained in the same space
of ground.

2. Consequent economy of hands and money in the labors of the
plantation.

3. Greater yield of fruit in a given extent of ground.

4. Greater facility for gathering the crop; for, the trees being
nearer together, it will be easier to strip them of their fruit.

5. Fewer weeds will grow, as a smaller area of ground will be ex-
posed to the direct rays of the sun.

These advantages are so important as to make short distances pref-
erable, as will be shown farther on.

G. Rules regarding Distance. — The preceding data regarding the
number of trees contained in each cuerda and their product, demon-
strate the expediency of planting the trees as near together as possible,
in order not to waste space, provided that this proximity does not in-
jure the productiveness of the plants.

It is to be observed that in recommending, as of great advantage,
the planting of the trees short distances apart, the question is not
simply one of economizing ground on account of its cost, which would
be a very trifling advantage, indeed, where ground costs as little as it
does in Chiapas — but of economizing labor, time, and money, things
worth considering everywhere, and more especially in Soconusco, where
there is a great scarcity of hands.

3o6 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbfapas.

Now, then, as the chief expense of a plantation is in keeping it
clean of weeds, and as this is done by task work, the weeding of a cuerda
being a day's task for a man, and costing on an average two reals, it
is evident that the cost of keeping a cuerda free from weeds is the same
whether it contains thirty-nine trees or one hundred and four trees,
and whether each cuerda yields seventy-eight pounds or two hundred
and eight pounds of coffee. Each weeding, for instance, of a plantation
of 10,000 trees, covering an area of two hundred and fifty-six cuerdas,
will cost $64, if the trees are four yards apart on each side ; while, if
they are two yards on one side and three on the other, the same number
of trees would occupy an area of ninety-six cuerdas, and cost $24.

Besides which, where there is a scarcity of hands, it would be easy
to keep a plantation of some extent free from weeds if there were one
hundred and four trees in every cuerda; but, to keep the same number
of trees free from weeds, if there were thirty-nine in each cuerda, almost
three times the number of hands would be required.

The system of pruning which has been tried with so much success
in various plantations of Guatemala, and which, it may be said, has
been carried to perfection in Ceylon, has the advantage of diminishing
the foliage and increasing the fruit, and of preventing the branches of
the coffee-trees from interlacing. This system consequently allows of
closer planting, without the objections above indicated.

Taking all these considerations into account, I am of opinion that,
other circumstances permitting, the best system is to plant the trees at
a distance apart not exceeding three yards between the furrows and
two between the trees. An area of six yards square ought to be
sufficient for each plant.

Planting an additional tree in the centre of every four trees, form-
ing a quincunx, has the objection that the advantage of the straight
furrows is thereby lost, and that the intermediate trees present an ob-
stacle to the free circulation of the air. I think that this system should
only be adopted in the case when, a plantation being already laid out
at long distances, it is desired to shorten these.

The distance apart at which trees are usually planted in Ceylon is
six English feet, or a little more than two yards on each side. Con-
sidering the size to which trees are allowed to grow there — which will
be indicated when speaking of pruning — this distance does not seem
unduly short. Mr. Sabonadiere is of opinion, however, that it would
be better to plant them at a distance of seven feet from furrow to fur-
row and six from tree to tree.

3. NURSERY.

The nursery is the bed where, for greater convenience in attending
to them, owing to the limited space which they occupy, the young

307

plants are grown, until they are of sufficient size to transplant to the
plantation.

The nursery may be formed of seeds, young plants, or slips, as will
be seen farther on.

The following points in relation to the nursery will now be con-
sidered :

A. — Advantages of a nursery.

B. — Land suitable for a nursery, and its location.

C.— Seed-plot.

D. — Nursery formed from seeds.

E. — Nursery formed from young plants.

F. — Nursery formed from slips.

G. — Nursery of plants that are for sale.

H. — Nursery in Ceylon.

Each of these points relating to the nursery will be considered
separately.

A. Advantages of a Nursery. — It is advisable that the plants with
which it is intended to stock the plantation should be grown in a
nursery. The seed might, it is true, be at once sown in the plantation ;
but its cultivation would in this case be much more costly, and a con-
siderable number of plants could not be so well cared for as when they
are planted close together in a small space of ground.

A nursery of a cuerda will conveniently contain 4000 plants, set at a
distance apart to be indicated below, and the weeding of the cuerda
would cost fifty cents, supposing a man to employ two days in the
work ; or, at the most, a dollar, if four days be spent on it ; while 4000
plants in a plantation, at a distance of three yards from furrow to fur-
row and two from plant to plant, would occupy at least thirty-eight
cuerdas ; and, fixing the weeding of each cuerda at twenty-five cents, the
weeding of the 4000 plants would cost $9.50. As the weeding must
be frequently repeated, especially while the plant is very young, the
economy of the nursery system will be easily understood.

A nursery is, besides, indispensable to a plantation, not only to
form it but also to maintain it, as plants which wither or die have con-
stantly to be replaced, and a good supply of healthy plants must be
kept on hand for this purpose.

B. Land Suitable for a Nursery and its Location. — To form the
nursery, virgin soil should be selected. If there is level ground, this
should be preferred. If undulating, ground should be chosen sloping
from north to south, with lofty trees to the east, to shade the nursery
from the heat of the sun in the early morning hours.

The ground is prepared beginning with what is here called stub-
bing; this consists in cutting down the young trees, bushes, and other
vegetation which can be cut with the machete ; the large trees are then

Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

felled. To dispose of the leaves, branches, and trunks which remain-
after these operations, it is customary to allow them to dry and then
burn them.

In land intended for coffee it is not advisable to burn this waste
matter; especially should burning be avoided on land intended for the
nursery.

All the branches, twigs, and leaves left by the operation of stubbing
and hewing should be gathered in heaps and placed above and below
the nursery, at distances of from twenty-five to thirty yards apart.
Trunks of trees which are very large are to be left where they have
fallen, as it would take much time and labor to remove them. All the
trunks and shoots that might sprout are to be destroyed by the machete
and the axe, without using the spade. These operations being per-
formed, the ground is ready for the sowing of the nursery.

Some planters dig up the ground for the nursery, with the object of
making it more fertile, and, as will be seen farther on, this is done in
Ceylon ; but it seems to me that, while this system may be a good one
in poor soil, it is not so good in the soil of this coast, as the nursery
will thrive here without this requisite; and as, besides, if the ground
were dug up, weeds would grow more luxuriantly, and the rains would
soon wash away the richest part of the soil.

Nurseries are to be formed at various points on the land where the
plantation is to be laid out, for convenience in transplanting the young
trees. The seed-plot is to be placed beside the nursery.

C. Seed-Plot. — The seed-plot is a sort of nursery for the nursery.
To form the seed-plot, the berries or seeds of the coffee, are planted,
six inches apart, in holes half an inch deep, and lightly covered with
earth. All the rules for choosing the land and for sowing the seed
nursery, to be indicated farther on, are also to be observed in the care
of the seed-plot.

When the seeds have germinated, and the young plants are suffi-
ciently grown to bear transplanting, they are to be transferred to the
nursery, where they are to be planted farther apart, and where they
are to be kept until they have attained sufficient growth to be trans-
planted to the plantation.

For my own part, I consider the system of combining the seed-
plot and the nursery preferable, as labor, time, and money are thus
saved, and a transplantation, from which the young plant always
suffers, is, besides, avoided. This is the system followed in Ceylon,
as will be seen farther on, and this seems to me another proof of its
superiority.

D. Nursery from Seeds. — It is preferable to form the nursery from
seed. In regard to this subject the general rules for forming nurseries
from young plants or slips will be given.

Seefcs. 309

To take up the points in their order, the following will now be con-
sidered here :

a. — Preparation of the ground for the nursery.

b. — Time for planting.

c.— Seed.

d. — Planting.

e. — Replanting.

f. — Cultivation.

g. — Pruning.

h. — Time for transplanting.

Each of these points will be considered separately.

a. Preparation of the Ground for the Nursery. — The nursery must
be laid out in ridges. Each ridge should be a yard and a quarter wide
and as long as the ground will permit, if this is hilly, or as may be de-
sired, if level. The ridges, in hilly ground and on slopes which run
from north to south, should run from east to west. Between the
ridges a space of a third of a yard must be left to serve as a path, and
at the same time as a trench for draining the ridges.

The paths should be six inches deep ; the earth, dug from the paths
to give them this depth, is to be thrown on to the ridge lying to the
north. All the paths are to be drained by means of a deep trench
made on the east or the west of the land, according as this will allow,
and which is to run from north to south, so that the rains may never
flood the ridges. Care must be taken to keep the paths, as well as the
ditches, open.

b. Time for Planting. — The rains must determine the time for
planting the nursery. If planted from seed, the operation may take
place a month before the rainy season begins, as the seed takes about
six weeks to germinate, and when it appears above the ground the
rainy season will have already set in The rainy season generally
begins in April, in Soconusco ; consequently the planting of the nursery
may be done in March.

The seed should be sown on a cloudy day, and it will be better
still to sow it when it is raining.

c. Seeds. — The seed of the coffee-tree proceeds from the fruit,
which somewhat resembles a berry, each fruit containing two seeds of
a semi-elliptical form.

It is generally supposed that the seeds of the coffee-tree will not
germinate if they are dry when planted. If they are carefully dried,
however, that is, if the mucilaginous part which covers the seed be not
allowed to ferment, they will almost all germinate. It is better, how-
ever, to be on the safe side, and whenever it is possible to use fresh
fruit. Of these the ripest and largest should be preferred.

It is better to separate the two seeds, which each berry generally

Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbfapas,

contains, for, almost all of them will germinate without separation,
germination will be more certain and the roots will grow straighter if
they are separated.

Before sowing, the seeds should be put in water, and those that
float should be rejected.

In an interesting article on coffee published in the Mexican Agri-
cultural Dictionary and Rural Economy, various rules are given for im-
proving the quality of the coffee-seed. Certain plants, called mother
plants, are kept exclusively for seed; the best and largest fruits are
selected ; these are dried in the shade and otherwise carefully treated,
so as to obtain seed of superior excellence. There is no doubt that
the best seed will produce the best fruit, and that on this point, as on
many others, coffee cultivation is susceptible of great improvement.
All these rules may be found in the article referred to.

d. Solving the Seed. — The ground being prepared in the manner
already described, the seeds are to be sown, two by two, at intervals
of a quarter of a yard. In each ridge four furrows are to be made, a
quarter of a yard apart, and the plants in each furrow are to be set the
same distance apart. The holes for sowing the seed may be made
with the finger, half an inch deep; the seed being then covered lightly
with earth. The whole ridge is then to be covered with grass or leaves,
such as those of the wild plantain, or any other kind that may be suit-
able to prevent the seeds being washed away by the rains; but this
should be done in such a way as not to exclude the moisture of the
rain or the light and heat of the sun.

If any of this covering should still remain when the coffee begins to
sprout, it is to be carefully removed ; and if it should decay before the
coffee appears above the ground, it is to be replaced by another covering.

e. Replanting. — Replanting is generally necessary, particularly when
the nursery is formed from seeds, as some of the seeds do not ger-
minate, and the young plants often wither shortly after appearing above
ground. It will be necessary, therefore, to have near-by a seed-plot,
from which the plants required to replace these may be taken without
loss of time.

/. Cultivation. — When two plants spring up together in the nursery,
the most robust is to be left and the other is to be transplanted to a
place previously prepared for the purpose.

When the plants have appeared above the ground, the only care
they require is that the nursery be kept free from weeds. Any other
vegetation that appears must be pulled up by the hand, without em-
ploying a knife, machete, spade, or other instrument, as any of these
might seriously injure the stalks and roots of the young plants.

It is not necessary to water the nursery in Soconusco, as the rains
are sufficient for the purpose.

flursers trout Slips, 311

g. Pruning. — As soon as the young plant begins to send forth
shoots, that is, about six months after planting, all shoots are to be
cut off with the exception of one, care being taken that this be the most
robust. In no case should the young plants be pruned in any other
manner.

h. Time for Transplanting. — In Soconusco the nursery is long in
attaining the growth necessary for transplanting — from eighteen months
to two years. In Ceylon transplanting takes place a year after plant-
ing. Perhaps this difference is because the young trees are transplanted
there much younger than here.

In Soconusco and Guatemala, transplantation does not take place
until the plants are of from three to four crosses, as they say here, that
is, until they have six or eight branches, which, growing in opposite
directions, take the form of a cross.

E. Nursery Formed from Young Plants. — In forming this nursery
the same rules are to be observed as those given for the nursery formed
from seeds, with the modifications to be indicated farther on.

Planting is done in Soconusco in the early part of May, that is,
when the rainy season has well set in, the planter being always guided
by the rains in this operation.

The holes for the plants are to be made a quarter of a yard apart,
with a pointed stick, half an inch in thickness. Four inches from the
point of this stick, a second and thinner stick, half a yard in length, is
to be fastened crosswise. This rude implement has two objects: i.
That the holes may not be made too deep, for the tender roots of the
plant would perish if they remained in a vacuum. 2. That, the point
of the first being in the centre of the second stick, the two ends of the
latter may mark off the distance of one quarter yard on either side of
the first, a hole being thus made and the places marked for two other
holes by the same operation.

To form the nursery from young plants the seed-plot is absolutely
necessary, unless there should happen to be some neglected plantation
in the neighborhood which might furnish those required. When the
fruits are not all picked from the trees those that fall to the ground
sprout, and, if the plantation is not weeded, become in due time trees
which may be transplanted to the nursery. It is better, however, to
make a seed-plot, as the plants grow better and with greater luxuriance
in it than in the shade of the trees.

F. Nursery Formed from Slips. — In some localities that I have
visited, the nurseries instead of being formed from seeds of very young
plants, are formed from trees a year old or more, which generally have
a slender trunk and little foliage; the trunk is cut off to about eight
inches above the root; the main root and the lateral roots are also
pruned ; at the end of a year this plant will have put forth shoots, will

312 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbiapas.

have a thriving appearance, and will be in good condition for trans-
planting.

I think the system of forming the plantation from plants grown
from seed the best, however.

G. Nursery of Plants for Selling. — When there is no nursery at
hand, in the locality where a plantation is to be formed, it is necessary
to make one; this will require in some localities as long as two years.
To avoid this delay it will be better to buy the plants already old
enough to be transplanted.

When these are scarce, as is generally the case here, a very high
price must sometimes be paid for them. Thus it is that nurseries are
sometimes formed for the purpose of raising plants for sale; and this
is sometimes a very lucrative business. In Guatemala coffee plants in
good condition for planting have brought as much as $40 per thou-
sand. In Soconusco, plants in good condition have been sold as high
as $15 per thousand. Plants that have grown up wild have been sold
here at prices ranging from fifty cents to $5 per thousand.

As the total cost per thousand of raising plants from seed does not
exceed $2.50, it will at once be seen that the business of keeping nur-
series for the sale of young plants is a profitable one, and at the same
time one by which coffee cultivation is favored and facilitated.

H. Nurseries in Ceylon. — In Ceylon a piece of virgin land of the
best kind, level if possible, and near the water for convenience in
irrigation, is chosen for the nursery. This is cleared; the trunks of
all but the largest trees are removed. The ground is dug up to a
depth of nine or ten inches, and then laid out in ridges, with narrow
paths between them.

Coffee in the hull, generally taken from the tanks after it has been
pulled, is used for seed ; it is planted in furrows about six inches apart.

In planting the furrows a cord, stretched from end to end of the
piece of ground intended for the nursery, is used for measurement.
An opening an inch or two in depth is made the whole length of the
furrow, and the seeds are deposited in it an inch apart, and covered
lightly with earth of the best quality. This done, the cord is taken to
the next furrow, where the same operation is repeated.

The necessary drains to prevent the rains from injuring the plants
are then made.

The young plant soon appears above the ground, and at the end
of a year it is ready to transplant.

When the plants spring up very close together, some of them are
taken up and planted in the next ridge. In this operation care must
be taken that the tap root of the young plant be not bent ; to avoid
this a stick is used to make the hole which is to receive the plant.
Care must also be taken that no hollow space remain about the root,

preparation of tbe 6rount> for planting Coffee* 313

for if this should be the case, the water would settle in it and rot the
root. To avoid these dangers, and when the main root is very long,
that part of it which seems most flexible is cut off obliquely with a
sharp knife.

A bushel of coffee in the hull will produce 30,000 plants.

4. PREPARATION OF THE GROUND FOR PLANTING COFFEE.

The preparation of the ground for planting coffee includes the fol-
lowing operations :

A. — Felling the trees.

B. — Simultaneous sowing.

C. — Forming of a plan for the plantation.

D.— Staking.

E. — Digging holes.

Each of these operations will receive due consideration.

A. Felling the Trees. — Virgin soil being preferable, as has been
already said, for making the plantation, the first thing to be done is to
clear it, an operation which is performed about the beginning of De-
cember, when the dry season begins in Soconusco. The trunks of
the trees as well as their layer branches must be chopped in pieces as
soon as they are felled. The cutting should begin as soon as the trees
are felled, for, as has been already observed, they are much easier to
put up when green than when dry. The clearing of the ground should
be finished by the end of February, the three operations here called
" stubbing," " hewing," and " chopping " having been performed in
the manner already pointed out in speaking of the nature of the ground
suitable for the nursery.

When the trees are planted in broken ground, the process of clear-
ing the ground should be performed from below up, for otherwise the
trees felled would present great obstacles to the work of clearing.

Dead trees should not be left standing, for if blown down by
the wind they would seriously injure the plants on which they might
fall.

The trunks and branches of trees that decay slowly should be piled
between the furrows, in order that they may not interfere with the
work of planting.

In many places the custom prevails of clearing the ground by felling
and chopping the trees in the dry season and burning the fragments
when they are dry, so that they may not be an impediment to the
work of planting.

The advantages of this system are the following:

1. The staking and the other operations of planting are greatly
facilitated, as the ground is left clear and free from obstacles.

2. The burned ground produces fewer weeds, as the outer crust

314 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Chiapas.

of the ground is calcined, and the cost of keeping it free from weeds is
thereby lessened.

On the other hand, the objections to burning the ground are as
follows :

1. The richest and best part of the soil, which is that of the sur-
face, is burned out and is therefore lost, at least for some time.

2. The quantity of ashes that remains is injurious to the coffee,
while, on the other hand, if the fragments of trees and bushes are left
to decay they will in process of time be converted into a fertilizer^
which will enrich the soil and prove highly beneficial to the coffee.

For this reason, therefore, it seems preferable not to burn the
ground.

B. Simultaneous Sowing. — The custom prevails in Soconusco of
sowing corn at the beginning of the rainy season, as soon as the
ground is cleared and the waste matter burned, and shortly afterward
laying out the plantation. It is true that in this way the slight advan-
tage is gained of utilizing ground already prepared for the cultivation
of the corn ; but, in exchange, the corn draws from the earth some of
the elements required by the coffee for its development, for which
reason it is better not to plant corn in land intended for coffee, but to
leave for the exclusive benefit of this all the elements which the ground
contains.

C. Forming of a Plan for a Plantation. — The work of gathering
the fruit will be greatly facilitated if the plantation be divided into
squares of from twenty-five to thirty cuerdas each, making them, when-
ever possible, accessible on every side.

In some estates the plantation is divided into squares of smaller
dimensions; but the size mentioned satisfies every requirement. Be-
tween the squares a path, five yards wide, available for carts, should,,
if possible, be left.

In level ground this operation is very simple, but even there it
would be well to lay out a plan showing the situation of the various
parts of the plantation, the roads, etc., but this will be of even greater
utility when the ground is hilly.

Without such a plan there would be the danger of planting trees in
places where the paths would have to pass, which would cause the use-
less expense of planting trees that would afterwards have to be
uprooted, besides the loss of the time occupied in their growth.

D. Staking. — The following points relating to the staking of the
ground will be now considered:

a. — Object, advantages, and time of staking.

b. — Staking in Soconusco.

c. — Staking in Ceylon.

Each of these points will be considered separately.

Stafeina. 315

a. Object, Advantages, and Time of Staking. — The object of stak-
ing is to secure the planting of the trees in straight lines, each stake
marking the place where a tree is to be planted.

It might at first sight appear an easy matter to mark straight fur-
rows; but when this operation is performed in hilly ground and on a
surface covered with obstructions, such as trunks and branches of trees,
barrancas, rocks, etc., it is much more difficult than it seems.

It is of the greatest importance, however, that the furrows of the
plantation should be straight, not only so that the air may circulate
more freely among the plants but also in order to facilitate the future
labors of the plantation. For this reason, therefore, no labor or ex-
pense should be spared to make the furrow straight. To obtain this re-
sult various methods are employed, which will be here briefly mentioned.

The staking of the ground should begin as soon as the burning has
been done, or as soon as the branches and trunks of the trees that
have been cut down, and other waste vegetation have been collected
in heaps, if they have not been burned.

b. Staking in Soconusco. — To stake a piece of ground, two straight
poles of a length equal to the distance apart at which the coffee-trees
are to be planted, are cut of some strong wood, and given to two
men Two lines, which are to serve as a basis for the others, are then
drawn at right angles, and marked on the ground by means of two
cords. When these two lines are marked, stakes are placed at regular
intervals along the lines. Then one of the men will fix the end of his
pole in the place marked by the second stake of one of the two lines
which serve as base lines, and which have already been staked, and the
second man will fix one end of his pole in the second stake of the
other line which has been staked, so that the other ends of the two
poles will meet, thus forming a rectangle. A third man will bring
together these two ends of the two poles and will plant a stake at their
point of intersection, taking care that the stake shall remain in a per-
pendicular position.

In this way the operation is to be continued, the end of one of the
poles being placed at the third stake of the line, and the end of the
other pole at the stake which has just been fixed on the ground, in order
that the other stake may be placed in the vertex of the new angle thus
formed, and so on successively.

When many hands are to be employed in staking, they are to be
divided into parties of three, and the operation is to be conducted as
described, two of each party being intrusted with the carrying of the
poles and the third with the joining of the poles and the placing of the
stakes.

Two of the men staking are also to see that the stakes are placed
upright, and whenever they observe that a stake has been misplaced

316 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

and requires to be replaced, they are to call the third man to do it.
Without these precautions it would be difficult to trace straight lines.

The task for each of the stakers should be 750 stakes per day.

c. Staking in Ceylon. — Believing that rules for facilitating the opera-
tion of staking would be useful for planters, I give herewith a resume*
of the systems followed in Ceylon. These are two, one recommended
by Laborie and the other by Sabonadiere.

Laborie System. — On a cord of the same length as the plantation,
strips of cloth are fastened at regular intervals — as in the tail of a boy's
kite — representing the places at which the coffee-trees are to be planted.
Two men take the ends of the cord and stretch it tightly along the
ground. If there should be any obstacles in the way, such as trunks
of trees, the cord is not placed on one side of them but over them.

Other men plant stakes of from eighteen to twenty-four inches in
length in the places marked by the pieces of cloth, taking care to fix
them always on the same side of the cord. If the cord should be
raised above the ground by any obstruction, the stake is let fall per-
pendicularly from the place marked by the piece of cloth, and driven
in the spot where it falls. When this is done the cord is moved for-
ward to mark another furrow, the distance between the furrows being
marked at either end by poles of the required length ; and so on with
all the furrows.

Sabonadiere System. — Eight or ten thick cords, of the length re-
quired, all being of the same length, are procured. Then a straight
line, which is to serve as a base for the others, is traced, following, as
far as possible, the direction of the slope or the undulations of the
ground, so that the stones which become loosened may fall between
the furrows and not injure the trees. The base line being marked,
another line which shall intersect it is drawn at right angles to it, a
carpenter's square being used for the purpose.

Then the distances at which the trees are to be planted are marked
off with a pole on the lines which serve as base lines, and wherever a
tree is to be planted a stake is set. To each of the transverse stakes
the end of one of the cords is fastened, and the other end is carried
over to the other side of the plantation. Three or four men, provided
with poles of the same length as the distance apart at which the trees
should be placed, which is the same distance as that at which the cords
should be placed, are stationed there, for the purpose of seeing that the
cords run parallel to one another, an operation which, as has been
said, is difficult in broken ground where there are tree trunks, rocks,
and ravines. In this case it will be necessary to fasten the cords to
the ground at intervals with stakes.

After the cords have been fastened, bundles of stakes are placed at
convenient points to be ready to be set in their respective positions.

fcoles for planting 317

Another thick cord is then taken by two men who stretch it across
the ten parallel cords so that it will form right angles with them, at the
distance apart at which the furrows are to be made, and which is to be
measured off by poles. These two men place two stakes at the points
at which the two extremities of the cord, stretched taut, are to be
fastened. The stakers place the stakes at the points where the thick
cord crosses the ten parallel cords.

In order to be certain that the cords cross at equal distances, it will
be well to measure the distances before setting the stakes.

When all the stakes of one row are placed the cord is taken to the
next furrow, and the operation is continued in the manner described,
until the whole of the ground is staked.

When a row of stakes has been placed, it will be necessary to
measure the distances with the poles only on the side on which there
are no stakes, since the superadded cord is fastened to those already
planted. Care should also be taken to use the carpenter's square every
time the cords are placed anew, as only in this way can the furrows for
the trees be made quite straight, and the trees form perfect squares.

When they cross at some distance above the surface of the ground,
a stone is dropped from the point of their intersection to mark the
place where the stake is to be set. When there is a rock, tree trunk,
or other obstacle in the place where the stake should be set, this is not
placed on one side of it, as the symmetry of the furrows would be thus
destroyed, but the place is left vacant.

Ten boys and an overseer plant in Ceylon as many as 2400 stakes a
day by this system.

Respective Advantages of the Two Systems. — The system of Laborie
would be perfect, on account of its simplicity, in level land recently
cleared, where the cord would rest upon the ground, but in hilly land
with virgin soil, where there are insuperable obstacles to the regular
placing of the stakes, the furrows could not be made straight, following
this system; and for this kind of land the system described by Mr.
Sabonadiere is therefore preferable.

JS. Digging the Holes. — In regard to this operation, which follows
the staking of the ground, the following points are to be considered.

a. — Time for digging the holes.

b. — Manner of digging the holes.

c. — Size of the holes.

d. — Planting without holes.

Each of these points will be considered separately.

a. Time for Digging the Holes. — After planting all the stakes, a
hole is made in the place marked by each stake, which operation is
performed in Soconusco in April, at the beginning of the rainy season.
The earlier it is done the better.

318 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbtapas.

b. Manner of Digging the Holes. — In order that the holes may be
made in the exact spot marked for them by the stake a circle should
be traced around this before it is removed, care being taken that the
hole be made in the centre of the circle, for if there should be the
slightest deviation the furrows would not be straight.

The holes are generally dug with the machete. There is an Ameri-
can borer which works well and quickly in ground that has no stones.

The clay which is dug out is to be heaped up on the lower side of
the hole, so that the rains may not wash it in again.

Exposing the earth dug out of the holes to the air, sun, light, and
rain greatly improves its quality.

The task for small holes is 250 per day.

c. Size of the Holes. — The size of the holes depends upon the nature
of the ground in which they are made; the more compact and the
poorer this is the larger should be the hole, and vice versa^ the richer
and looser the soil, the smaller should be the hole. Its size also should
be regulated by the size of the trees to be planted.

If the nursery be still small, or, as they say in Soconusco, of two or
three crosses — that is, if each plant has only four or six branches, which,
growing in opposite directions, take the form of a cross, as has been
already explained, when speaking of the nursery — the holes should not
be larger than a quarter of a yard in depth and a quarter of a yard in
diameter.

When the soil of the nursery is black or when the young plants are
of more than three crosses, the holes should be larger; for as black
earth is very crumbly, the lump of earth attached to the roots of the
plants will be larger than when the soil is clayey.

The general size of the holes in Ceylon is eighteen inches in diame-
ter and eighteen inches in depth.

d. Planting without Holes. — In lands where the soil is loose, the
young trees may be planted, introducing a long, thick stick in the hole
left by the one which served as a mark, and moving it in every direc-
tion, to make a larger hole for the plant. The hole is filled up with
earth, which must be pressed down with the foot to make it firm.

This mode of planting has the advantage of saving labor and
money; but it has also some disadvantages, which will be mentioned
when speaking of planting in slips.

5. TRANSPLANTING.

Transplanting coffee, or setting the trees in their places, which is
the operation that follows the opening of the holes, is done in one of
three ways, to be indicated further on.

A. — Time for transplanting.

B. — Transplanting with the earth adhering to the roots.

^Transplanting 319

C. — Transplanting with the roots free from earth.

D. — Transplanting in slips.

E. — Transplanting in Ceylon.

Each of the methods of transplanting mentioned, and the time for
performing it, will be considered separately.

A. Time for Transplanting. — Transplanting is to be begun as soon
as the rainy season has set in. The trees which are transplanted at
the beginning of the rainy season will have the advantage of the rains
during the whole of the season, and will take firmer root and thrive
better than those that are transplanted in the middle, or at the end of
the season.

JS. Transplanting with the Earth adhering to the Roots, — Taking up
in their order the different points relating to this manner of transplant-
ing, the following will now be considered:

a. — Advantages of transplanting with the earth adhering to the
roots.

b. — Method of transplanting with the earth adhering to the roots.

c. — Quantity of earth adhering to the roots.

d. — Size of the plants at the time of transplanting.

e. — Pruning the root of the plant in transplanting.

Each of these points will be considered separately.

a. Advantages of Transplanting with the Earth adhering to the Roots.
— Planting should be done in this manner whenever it is possible, as
the plant then scarcely suffers any disturbance consequent to trans-
planting. It has been observed that when trees already bearing fruit
have been transplanted with the earth adhering to the roots, the tree
has suffered so little that it has not lost even its fruit.

To plant coffee with the earth adhering to the roots it will be nec-
essary to have the nursery very near the plantation, as otherwise the
transportation of the plants would be a slow and costly operation, and
the earth would fall away in transporting the plants to a distance,
leaving the roots bare. The safest way, therefore, is first to lay out
the nursery, and when the plants are of a suitable size to transplant,
which, in Soconusco, is generally at the end of a year and a half, or two
years, to transplant them with the earth adhering to the roots. If this
be done it is certain that a year after transplanting the plant will yield
its first crop.

Transplanting with the earth adhering to the roots is more expen-
sive, and requires more hands than when done with the roots bare.
For these reasons, in Ceylon, coffee is transplanted in the former and
not in the latter manner.

b. Manner of Transplanting with the Earth adhering to the Roots. —
When the ground is hilly, transplanting should be begun in the lower
part of the plantation, and from thence continued upward.

320 coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbiapas,

In transplanting in this manner, the root of the plant is placed in
the hole made for it beforehand, the plant being held upright in one
hand while the hole is filled in with earth with the other. When filling
the hole, the earth is to be pressed with the hand around the root of
the plant, care being taken not to detach the soil from it. After the
hole has been filled in, the earth is to be pressed down with the foot.

Should the earth around the root be crumbly it should be enveloped
with large leaves, which should be tied around it to prevent its falling
apart.

Sometimes the leaves are removed before planting the tree, but, in
my opinion, it is better not to remove them, as they will serve as a
good vegetable manure.

The trees should be transported from the nursery to the plantation
by hand, or on the shoulders of men, placing the trees in a species of
barrow made of their branches, each barrow containing from ten to
thirty plants, according to the quantity of earth adhering to the roots.

To fill in the hole, earth from the surface of the ground is to be
preferred to that which was dug out of the hole, as the former is always
better. Special care should be taken to observe this rule when the soil
is poor.

The men who perform the transplanting must be closely watched,
to make sure that the work is well done, for if badly transplanted the
plants would wither, or at least would be a year later in bearing. In
no case should transplanting be done by the job.

c. Quantity of Earth adhering to the Roots. — The quantity of earth
adhering to the root, will depend on the size of the plant that is to be
transplanted, and on the nature of the ground where the nursery is
made.

When the plants that are to be transplanted are small — and farther
on it will be shown that it is advisable to transplant them while small —
about four inches of earth on either side may be left on the root.

When the plants are large, or when the soil of the nursery is very
loose, sufficient earth should be left on the roots to avoid the danger
of its falling away and leaving them bare. Seven inches on each side
would be a suitable size.

d. Size of the Plants at the Time of Transplanting. — The plants at
the time of transplanting should be small ; that is, they should be of
two or three crosses, as they then take root more readily, and grow
better and quicker.

The plants should be transplanted very young, however, only when
the plantation can be kept free from weeds and when the soil of the
nursery is black, in which case it has little consistency. When these
conditions do not occur, the plants should be transplanted when they
are of four or five crosses.

different flDanners of ^Transplanting. 321

e. Pruning the Root of the Plant in Transplanting. — The plants
should not be pruned at the time of transplanting them.

The principal root of the plant, however, should be cut off level
with the earth adhering to it, and in case this should fall away, leaving
the roots bare, the main root should be shortened until it is of sufficient
thickness not to bend; for, as has been already said, if this happens
the tree will die, or will not produce fruit.

Some believe that when the tap root is pruned the plant will stop
growing vertically, but will send out small roots on either side. I can-
not speak with certainty on this point; but if such be the case it
would be better not to prune the root, for the deeper this strikes into
the ground the better able the plant will be to bear the dry season
without requiring irrigation.

C. Transplanting with the Root free from Earth. — Trees are said in
Soconusco to be set or transplanted with the roots bare when they are
taken from the nursery or the place where they have grown up without
any of the soil adhering to the roots, or when, on taking them out of
the ground, the earth has fallen off, leaving the roots bare.

The following points with reference to this manner of planting
will now be considered :

a. — Manner of planting coffee-trees with the roots bare.

b. — Disadvantage of transplanting coffee-trees with the roots bare.

c. — Case in which planting should be done with the roots bare.

Each of these points will be considered separately.

a. Manner of Planting Coffee- Trees with the Roots Bare. — In trans-
planting with the roots bare the same rules are to be observed as in
transplanting with the earth adhering to the roots, it being observed
that in the former case the earth must be pressed much more compactly
around the root than in the latter, and if so the plant cannot be pulled
up without great effort; this shows that it is well planted.

Care should be taken not to expose the young plants that are to be
transplanted to the heat of the sun, which would wither them; they
should be placed in the shade and their roots kept moist.

The operation of planting with the roots bare is sometimes simplified
by omitting the digging of the holes. A long-pointed stick is driven
into the ground in the place where the plant is to be set, this is placed
in the hole thus made, the hole is filled with earth, and another hole is
then made close beside the first with the same stick, so that the earth
in the first hole shall be firmly compressed. In order to ascertain
whether the plant has been successfully transplanted or not a slight
effort should be made to pull it up, and if it offers some resistance it
may be considered well planted. A man can plant in this manner
from 80 to 150 plants a day. With this system several operations are
shortened and the cost of planting is less. It has the disadvantage,

322 (Toffee Culture on tbe Soutbern (Toast of Gbiapas,

however, that a vacant space almost always remains around the root,
where the water gathers, sometimes causing the roots to decay. The
roots are also more likely to deteriorate with this system than with the
other.

b. Disadvantages of Transplanting with the Roots Bare. — When the
planting is done with the roots bare, the plant suffers greatly from the
disturbance caused by transplanting, and a year generally elapses be-
fore it returns to the condition in which it was when transplanted.

It is evident, therefore, that if the plant is put back a year by
transplanting, this year might have been better spent in the nursery
than in the plantation, for the reason that it would cost less to keep
the ground free from weeds in the former case than in the latter, and
that at the end of the year transplanting might be done with the earth
attached to the roots.

Many planters, with the object of saving the year and a half or two
years which the young plant would spend in the nursery, form their
plantations with wild plants or plants taken from a nursery already
formed, the planting being done with the roots bare, the distance of the
place from which they are taken admitting of no other manner. This
is a false economy of time, for in order to save a few months of care
of the nursery, the whole year which the plants thus transplanted are
put back is lost, and the heavy expense is incurred of from four to six
weedings of the whole plantation.

c. Case in which Transplanting should be done with the Roots Bare. —
The only case in which trees should be planted with the roots bare is
when, from the distance between the place where they have been grown
and the plantation, it would be difficult if not impossible to transport
them to it with the earth attached to the roots.

D. Transplanting in Slips. — When the young plants for the planta-
tion are taken neither from the nursery nor from an abandoned plan-
tation, but from trees already grown, it is said that the plantation is
formed from slips. The trunk is generally cut off eight or ten inches
above the root, in order that it may grow more vigorously. This kind
of planting is always done with the roots bare.

Transplanting in slips is the least advisable way of all, and should
never be adopted except when there is no other way of forming the
plantation. In some cases, however, it has given good results.

E. Transplanting in Ceylon. — Transplanting coffee plants in Ceylon
is performed, according to Mr. Sabonadiere, in the following manner:
The young plants grown in the nursery are pulled up with the hand;
those that have crooked roots are thrown away as useless ; with a sharp
knife the flexible part of the tap root is cut off; and the lateral roots
are also shortened, as they are generally very long, and this trimming
prevents them from becoming tangled in the transplanting, which

Cultivation of Coffee. 323

would cause them to decay. The hole is then filled in with the earth
that has been removed from it, care being taken to put no stones in
with it and to keep the tap root from bending and the lateral roots
from tangling. The plant should be set no deeper in the ground than
it was in the nursery. When the hole is filled the earth must be
pressed down with the hands and afterwards with the foot. To be
sure that the plant has been firmly planted it is smartly pulled, and if
it offers resistance it may be considered well planted. Care should
be taken to leave no hollow spaces around the roots, as the water would
settle in them and would rot the roots. Beside each plant a stake is
to be set to support it and to prevent its being pulled up when the
ground is being weeded ; if the plant should die the stake will mark
the place where the plant that is to replace it is to be set.

Stakes are indispensable in Ceylon, for without them the young
plants would be unable to resist the violence of the winds. The stakes
are four or five feet in length and last two years. They should be
driven at least eighteen inches into the ground. The plant is fastened
to the stake with a cord in such a manner as that the bark shall not be
injured by the friction of the cord against it.

6. CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.

The various operations which coffee culture requires in Soconusco
will be first considered, a description of the manner in which the same
operation is performed in Ceylon being appended in each case. Then
the operations that are not considered necessary here but are customary
in Ceylon will be described. The following points, then, will now be
considered :

A. — Clearing the ground.

B. — Replanting.

C. — Pruning.

D. — Cultivation of coffee in Ceylon.

Each of these operations will be considered separately.

A. Clearing the Ground. — Clearing the ground, or weeding, consists
in destroying the weeds and other vegetation that may spring up in the
plantation, in order that the coffee-trees may absorb all the nutritive
elements of the soil.

The following points regarding weeding will now be considered :

a. — Necessity and advantages of weeding.

b. — Manner of weeding.

c. — Number of weedings to be made during the year.

d. — Weeding in Ceylon.

Each of these subjects will be separately considered.

a. Necessity and Advantages of Weeding. — The transplanting having
been done in May and June, which are the best months in Soconusco

324 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbetn Coast of Cbiapas.

for this operation, the trees will have the advantage of the whole of the
rainy season, and will yield their first crop in September of the follow-
ing year, unless the plants were very young at the time of transplanting
and weeding was neglected. The time occupied in the cultivation of
the coffee-trees, then, in the sense in which the word is used here, will
be from sixteen to seventeen months, during which the chief work will
be the weeding.

The chief labor in the cultivation of coffee will be the frequent
weeding of the ground for the purpose of destroying all the vegetation
that may spring up in it. The secret of success in coffee culture con-
sists in allowing no other vegetation to remain in the ground where
coffee is planted.

If the plantation is not weeded, the weeds will choke the coffee
plants; and if the weedings are not performed with the required fre-
quency, the crops will be very scanty.

b. Manner of Weeding. — Thus far no machine or implement to
facilitate weeding has been used that has not injured the plant. In
some of the plantations of Guatemala clutivators or ploughs are used
for weeding, but aside from the fact that these implements can be used
only on level ground, many are of opinion that they injure the tender
roots which the coffee plant sends out near the surface of the ground,
for which reason these implements are very little used. Besides which,
three or four years after transplanting, the branches of the trees will
have spread so much that it would be impossible for the mules or oxen
drawing the plough to pass under them without injuring them greatly.

For the reasons above mentioned the hoe is little used in weeding,
for, in addition to cutting the young roots of the coffee-tree, it loosens
the soil, thus exposing it to be washed away by the rains — a very serious
objection in hilly ground. For these reasons, as a general rule, only
the machete is used in weeding. In Ceylon a means has been dis-
covered of preventing the rains from washing the earth away in hilly
ground, as will be seen farther on.

c. Number of Weedings to be Made during the Year. — In the first
year after transplanting the ground must be frequently weeded, for, as
from their diminutive size, the plants cast scarcely any shade, the
ground is almost completely exposed to the sun, and this causes it to
produce abundantly all sorts of weeds. As the plant grows it casts
more and more shade, and the greater the shade the smaller the area
of ground exposed to the fecundating action of the sun, and conse-
quently, the fewer will be the weeds.

The number of weedings which the plantation is to receive during
the first year and subsequent years will depend upon various circum-
stances, such as the altitude of the ground, its temperature, the nature
of the soil, whether it has been virgin soil or soil that had been already

, IReplanttna an& pruning. 325

cultivated, etc., and in each case will be determined according to the
particular circumstances of the place. Generally, four weedings a year
are made, although in some localities six, and even more, are given.
It will be seen at once that this is the most costly operation on the
plantation.

d. Weeding in Ceylon. — In Ceylon, as in Soconusco, weeding the
ground constitutes the principal expense of coffee cultivation. Mr. Sab-
onadiere advises weeding the plantations once a month, and this
advice seems to me very judicious, as in this way the weeds are not
given time to grow or produce seed. The cost of twelve weedings a
year would thus be about the same as that of six, because, in the
former case there being fewer weeds and the work of uprooting them
being less, two cords might be given to each laborer as a task, while
in the latter case only one cord could be given him.

There is the objection, however, that frequent weeding stirs up the
soil and exposes it to being washed away by the rains. This difficulty
might to a certain extent be obviated if, in new plantations, where there
are as yet few weeds, the weeds were uprooted with a sharp stick and
thrown into a bag which the laborer carried with him, gathered in a
heap, and burned when dry. But in old plantations this system can-
not be followed ; the hoe is there used, and the earth is of necessity
turned up.

Sometimes the weeding is done from the trunk of the tree out, and
a sort of bank or ridge is thus formed between the furrows, causing the
rain-water to run near the trunks of the trees and carry away the earth
from their roots. To avoid this inconvenience, the weeding ought to
be done from the middle of the furrows towards the trees, care being
taken that their roots remain well covered with earth.

Weeding is generally done in Ceylon by contract, the weeding of
each acre of ground, or a little more than nine cords, costing on an
average thirty-six shillings, or nine dollars, or about a dollar per cord
yearly. Women and children perform the weeding.

B. Replanting. — It frequently happens that some of the trees, from
having been badly transplanted, or for some other reason, either die or
become sickly. If many plants should suffer in this way, the cause
should be ascertained in order to remedy it. The best means of doing
this is to dig around the root of a tree to see if the tap root has become
bent, if it has come in contact with a stone, or if some insect be not
injuring it.

The necessity of constantly replacing the trees which die, or decline,
makes it indispensable to have always on the estate nurseries from
whence plants may be taken to replace those that have died or de-
teriorated.

C. Pruning. — Pruning having an important bearing on the success

326 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas,

of a plantation, the following points connected with this subject will
now be considered:

a. — General considerations on pruning.

b. — Principles of pruning.

c. — Advantages of pruning.

d. — Topping.

e. — Pruning.

f. — Rules for pruning.

g. — Manner of pruning.

h. — Time of pruning.

Each of these points will be considered separately.

a. General Considerations on Pruning. — At first sight it might seem
that pruning would be prejudicial to the trees, since it maybe said that
this operation is contrary to nature, which has given the trees their
branches and their appointed size, which should neither be reduced
nor diminished by artificial means. Experience has demonstrated,
however, that it is better to prune the trees, for if these are planted in
their native zone, the force of their sap is so great that if it be not
suitably directed, they become in a short time a tangle of branches
which the sun cannot penetrate, and thus lose their fructifying power.

From the time of Laborie, that is, for about eighty years past,
pruning has been employed, and with very good success, to increase
the productiveness of trees. According to this writer, pruning consists
in cutting from plants whatever in them deviates from natural symmetry,
and preserving what is in accordance with it, directing in this way the
vegetative principle to purposes of order, profit, and regeneration.

It is a well-known fact that fruit-trees are greatly improved by
pruning, and there is no reason why the system applied to them should
not produce equally satisfactory results as applied to coffee plants.

The rule to be followed with regard to pruning will depend on each
particular locality, upon the nature of the soil, the temperature, altitude
above the level of the sea, exposure, etc., but the principle is the
same; that is, to remedy the deviations of the tree from natural laws
caused by conditions of soil, climate, situation, etc., and to make it
return to those laws ; art in this way aiding nature. Regarded in this
way, pruning is as necessary as weeding.

b. Principles of Pruning. — For a better understanding of the ad-
vantages to be obtained by pruning, it will be well to define some facts
and to lay down some rules concerning it.

The branches growing from the trunk of the tree are called primaries;
those that grow from the primaries are called secondaries ; those that
grow from the secondaries, tertiaries, and so on successively.

Each branch of the tree bears fruit only once, sending out in the
following year other branches which in their turn bear fruit.

Hfcx>anta0es of pruning 327

Nature has so placed the primary branches that they receive an
equal amount of light. Each pair of branches grows in a direction,
with regard to the branch next to them, which deviates a few degrees
from a right angle, so that if there are twenty pairs of branches no two
of them will be found to be in the same vertical plane. This arrange-
ment gives each primary branch a sufficiently large space for its de-
velopment and sufficient amount of light. But when the vertical
growth of the plant is checked by pruning this space becomes reduced
to a circle of not more than three feet deep and about six feet in
diameter.

As each branch gives but one crop, there would soon be no room
for new branches to grow, if the old ones were not removed, for the
secondary branches, after yielding their crop, would produce tertiary
branches, these quaternary branches, and so on, successively, until the
tree would be converted into a thicket of branches and unproductive
foliage. The production of branches which give fruit takes place only
when there is room for them to grow and light to make them grow.

In pruning there are two distinct operations, tapping and pruning,
properly so called. The former consists in removing from the plant
the upper part of its main stem or leader; and the second in cutting off
some of its branches.

The upper shoots being cut off, the power of the sap before long
causes two or three supplementary shoots to grow beneath the highest
branches, and renews them as often as they are removed. These
shoots being prevented from growing, as care must be taken to cut
them off whenever they appear, the sap flows to the primary branches
and makes them grow about three feet from the trunk. When the sap
ceases to nourish the primary branches, it goes to nourish the second-
ary branches, and in the management of these consists the art of
pruning and the success of the plantation.

The only permanent parts of the tree are the trunk and the primary
branches. The trunk should grow straight and thick, and the primary
branches should be strong and straight, and should grow at right
angles with the trunk. If a primary branch should die or grow sickly
it cannot be replaced.

c. Advantages of Pruning. — The advantages of pruning, to sum up,
are the following:

1. It gives the tree an artificial form which makes it suffer less in
situations in which it is exposed to the winds.

2. It makes the gathering of the crop easier and cheaper.

3. It increases the yield of the tree.

4. It regularizes the crop.

The branches which are exposed to the sun and air are those which
bear the best fruit. Consequently, the more closely the tree is pruned,

328 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbiapas.

the larger the crops it will yield. This is seen better in the new trees,
which bear more fruit in their second and third crops, because they
then have fewer branches.

Generally, the trees give a bad and a good crop alternately. This
evil may be remedied by pruning, as will be seen farther on.

Pruning is most required in high localities which are exposed to the
cold winds.

d. Topping. — Topping consists in cutting off the top of the trunk or
the leader of the plant.

This is the only kind of pruning practicable in Soconusco, and it is
done arbitrarily and without following any rule. Farther on it will be
seen that once the coffee plant has been thus cut, it will be indispen-
sable to prune it.

When the trees have attained their ordinary height, that is, when
they are about six feet high, their leader, or central branch, which is
of little importance, is pruned, and also all the shoots that spring up
near the roots. This stops the vertical growth of the plant, causing
the branches to spread horizontally, sending out new branches which
bear fruit, or strengthening the branches which it has already sent out.

Trees not thus pruned will grow as high as ten or eleven feet, and
I have sometimes seen them as much as twelve feet high; but cutting
stops the vertical growth of the tree, which then grows horizontally and
through its branches.

The principal reasons in favor of cutting the leader are, according
to Laborie, the following:

1. The fruit is brought by it within easy reach of the hand; it
facilitates the gathering of the crops and prevents the branches from
breaking when picking the fruit.

2. The tree acquires greater vigor as well under the ground as
above it, and the trunk grows thicker.

3. The tree presents a smaller volume of resistance to the winds.

4. The tree loses none of its primary branches, but, on the con-
trary, these being nearer the source of vegetation, are better nourished
and consequently more productive.

If the plant be pruned very near the highest primary branches, there
is danger of the trunk splitting when the branches grow thick. This
danger will disappear if the plant be pruned a little above the highest
primary branches and these be removed.

The height at which the trees are to be left will depend in each
case upon the distance apart at which they are planted, the nature of
the ground, its altitude above the level of the sea, exposure, etc.

In Guatemala and Soconusco they are pruned to a height of six or
eight feet.

In Ceylon plants are pruned to a height of two, three, three and a

IRules for pruning. 329

half, or at most four feet. Trees of more than four feet would not
there be able to bear the violence of the wind. If the trunk is not
topped they grow, in situations sheltered from the wind, to a height of
ten or twelve feet.

e. Pruning. — The only kind of pruning that I have seen done in
Soconusco is to cut all the shoots or branches which grow from the
root of the tree, three months after transplanting, which operation is
constantly repeated.

Cutting off the top of the tree causes the sap to produce numerous
shoots which spring up in every direction. If these are allowed to
grow, the tree will soon become a mass of tangled branches which the
sun cannot penetrate, and will consequently have little capability of
yielding fruit. The sap would produce numerous branches instead of
being converted into fruit. Pruning is advantageous in every case,
but it is still more so after the top of the tree has been cut off.

So many improvements have been made in pruning that there is
now a complete system of pruning coffee-trees, which is, however, un-
fortunately unknown here. The best way of explaining this system is
to give the rules which constitute it.

The difficulty of pruning lies in performing it so that the fruit will
increase without exhausting the tree. It is the custom here to cure
with clay the wounds caused by pruning.

/. Rules for Pruning. — The practical part of pruning is comprised
in the rules which serve as a general guide for this operation. With
the object of setting down all that I have found of value on this sub-
ject, I insert here, even at the risk of falling into repetitions, a resume
of the rules given by Laborie, Sabonadiere, and a practical planter of
Ceylon, and those published in the Observer of Colombo, the principal
port of that island.

System of Laborie. — Laborie gives the following rules for pruning
trees planted in good soil, in a hot climate, and which have been
pruned before:

1. Every branch that looks sickly, that is broken, that has suffered
any lesion, or that seems exhausted through over-production, is to be
cut off.

2. Every branch that is decayed, withered, dry, or split, must also
be cut off, following the principle of regeneration.

3. All vertical branches, branches that cross each other, or that
do not grow in their natural direction, and all supernumerary branches
which absorb the sap of the plant without producing fruit, are to be
taken off, or, if very thick, sawed off.

4. The top and the middle part of the tree are to be pruned so
as to give free access to the air and sun.

5. If, in spite of this, the tree should still be full of branches,

330 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbiapas,

some of the secondary branches are to be cut off, choosing those that
grow out of the natural direction, care being taken not to touch the
primary branches.

This last rule should be followed, according to Laborie, only with
trees in high lands and exposed to cold winds, these being generally
full of branches and leaves. The twigs at the top, which run in every
direction, are first to be taken off, then such of the larger branches as
are crooked are cut off; and, finally, if the top or leader should be
decayed, this decayed part is to be cut off.

All the primary branches that have kept their natural direction are
to be left, for the reason mentioned above, that, once cut, they do not
grow again. If they should be split or injured in any way, however,
it would be better to cut them off. The same thing is to be done
when they have taken a wrong direction, only the part being then cut
that deviates from the natural direction.

In very cold localities, or when the trees produce very little fruit,
because of their having too many branches, all the secondary branches
are to be cut off, with the object of making new ones grow which shall
bear fruit, and of giving a right direction to the sap.

When the primary branches have grown so long that they become
interlaced with those of the neighboring trees, enough of them is to be
cut off to prevent the branches from meeting.

After the tree has been pruned, any moss or parasites growing on
its trunk are to be removed, using a wooden knife for the purpose.

System of Sabonadttre. — The vertical shoots that first spring from
the trunk of the tree should be taken off as they appear, without in-
juring the bark of the tree. Afterwards other shoots, as many as four
in each bud, grow on the primary branches, in different directions. It
will be advisable to remove these also, excepting one only in each
branch, preferring that which is most vigorous and has the best direc-
tion. This operation is to be repeated every year, and will render
pruning, properly speaking, or the removal of thick branches already
formed which have some defects, unnecessary.

No secondary branch is to be left within six inches of the trunk, so
that a vacant space, in the shape of a circle a foot in diameter, may be left
around the trunk of the tree, in order that air and sunlight may circulate
around it freely and prevent the growth on it of moss and parasites.

If the plantations are small the best system of pruning is to allow
alternate secondary branches to fructify each year; that is, to cut
those that have borne fruit one year, and leave those that have not
borne fruit: but in large plantations it is difficult to follow this system,
and in them the following rules should be observed:

i. To pull up all the shoots that are within a distance of six.
inches of the trunk of the tree.

Different Systems of pruning* 331

2. To remove all the branches and shoots that grow toward the
tree, or toward the other branches.

3. To reduce the number of shoots, leaving only one to each
bud.

When the coffee-tree has not been pruned for some time, Mr.
Sabonadiere recommends that the primary branches nearest the ground
be cut off, supporting his advice with these reasons:

1. They cause much humidity and shade, and prevent the free
circulation of the air.

2. They rarely bear fruit, because of their superabundant leafage,
and draw the nutritive sap from the tree unprofitably.

3. They interefere with the labors of cultivation, owing to their
nearness to the ground, and they are injured by the laborers.

4. They cover the weeds and young coffee plants and serve as a
hotbed for them.

No branch should be allowed to bear more than two, or at most
three crops ; when it has given these it should be removed, so that a
new one may replace it which will bear fruit.

System of a Practical Cultivator of Ceylon. — This writer recommends
that all the branches that are less than six inches from the trunk be
cut off; that a vacant space of a foot in circumference be left around
the trunk of the plant to permit a free circulation of light and air; and
that one of every two secondary branches growing together be pruned,
one on each side alternately of the primaries being left.

All the secondary branches that grow very near the trunk tend to
debilitate the primaries, and the same is the case when they are allowed
to grow in pairs.

Some set the rule that a primary branch should never be pruned ;
but this rule has its exceptions, as, for instance, when the branch splits
or dies, or when it grows to such a length as to become intertwined
with those of the neighboring trees. In this last case a part only of the
branch should be pruned.

Some think also that when the primaries near the ground have
grown to a great length and have become tangled they should be cut
off up to the first good secondary branch, in order that this may re-
ceive all the sap that would otherwise go to nourish the branches that
have been pruned.

System of the "Observer" of Colombo. — The natural consequences
of the rules set forth, when speaking of the principles of pruning, which
are in accordance with a notable article published in the Observer of
Colombo, for June 17, 1861, are the following:

Being two different systems, they have some points in common.

All the secondary branches which are at a distance of less than
nine or, ten inches from the trunk of the tree, are to be removed. This

332 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbfapas.

will give the light access to the plant and will give the branches more
room to grow.

Double or triple shoots shall be reduced to one, choosing that which
grows at a right angle with the primary branch, and which lies in the
same horizontal plane ; the number of secondary branches on each side
of the primaries will then be equalized, and, finally, the same number
of secondaries will be left on each primary.

In deciding upon the number of secondary branches to be left on
the tree, it must be borne in mind that if they be many the plant will
become exhausted, and in the following year will produce fewer
branches and less fruit. A number must be fixed upon, then, which,
without exhausting the plant will cause it to yield good crops, and in
this way the crops will be uniform, not as in plantations that are not
pruned, which yield a fair crop one season and a bad one the next.

When the crop is gathered, all the secondary branches which have
fructified to the extent of producing tertiary branches are to be cut off.
Some advise that when there are enough branches to allow of it, all the
secondaries that have produced fruit be cut off.

After the trees have been thus pruned, they send forth new shoots,
which must also be pruned, as has been already indicated, as soon as
they show the direction in which they are growing. If this pruning be
deferred, it will be more difficult to perform, and the tree will be
greatly injured by it, as it will then be deprived of its leaves when it
most needs them.

The secondary branches must be cut off at their root, so that no
part may be left that might send forth shoots in a direction other than
the natural one, or cause the plant to sicken.

The number of branches to be left will depend upon the soil,
climate, situation, etc.

When this system has been once established, it will be very easy to
follow it, for the same thing that is done one year is repeated the suc-
ceeding years.

g. Manner of Pruning. — Laborie gives the following rules for the
practical part of pruning:

1. To cut the trunk of a tree or any of its thick branches, a very
sharp saw is to be used which can be managed with one hand, the
trunk being firmly held with the other, to keep the tree from moving
and to facilitate the work of sawing. The trunk must be cut obliquely
from above downward, and the cut surface should face the north ; the sun
thus falls on it with less force and the rain will run off more easily, for,
if the water should penetrate the wood, it would injure the tree greatly.

2. The large branches which cannot be easily pruned with a knife
are to be sawed off in the manner above indicated. But the saw is to
be used in no case in which a knife can be employed.

ZTime for pruning 333

3. As the saw injures the bark around the cut surface, both the
bark and the trunk of the tree should be trimmed off with the knife.
When this is done, the wound heals more quickly and the bark grows
better.

4. When the branches are pruned with the knife, the branch is to
be held firmly with one hand, and with the other a sharp, quick blow
is to be given it with the knife, from above downward. If the branch
should not be severed at the first blow, this is to be repeated, bending
the branch a little, but not so as to split it. If it should split, all the
split part must be cut off.

5. The branch should always be cut close to its root.

6. When a secondary branch is pruned, this must be done very
near its root, especially when it grows under another that has been
already cut off.

7. To prevent many young shoots from growing in the place where
a branch has been cut off, a piece of the bark is to be cut out at the
top of the incision.

h. Time of Pruning. — Some planters prune the coffee-tree when it
is two years old, or before it has borne fruit. It seems preferable,
however, to prune it after it has reached maturity, that is, after it has
given its first crop, for in this way it is not forced to produce a large
crop, which would exhaust it.

Tapping should be done after the season of blossoming is over; for
if it were done while the plant is in blossom the sap would go to pro-
duce blossoms and fruit, instead of strengthening and increasing the
branches.

Pruning should begin immediately after the gathering of the crop
and should be finished before the plant has begun to blossom.

Pruning is so essential to the success of a plantation that it should
be suspended only for the four or five days during which the plant is
flowering. It should then be performed with great care, so as not to
destroy the flower, which contains the germ of the fruit; but it should
not be altogether stopped.

After the flowering is over, the branches that have many blossoms
should be left, and those that are exhausted and have few should be
cut off.

The months of March, April, and May are the best months for
pruning in Soconusco.

D. Cultivation of Coffee in Ceylon. — Coffee culture in Ceylon is much
more complicated and costly than it is in Soconusco, as, in addition to
the operations already described, with the modifications indicated when
speaking of each of them, it is necessary to perform others also which
are not customary in Soconusco, and the necessity for which has not
yet beon felt. These labors are the following:

334 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbfapas.

a. — Making roads.

b. — Drainage.

c. — Making trenches.

d. — Loosening the earth.

e. — Making ridges.

f. — Irrigating.

g. — Destroying the insects which are enemies of the coffee-tree.

h. — Manuring the ground.

Each of these labors will be considered separately, that of manur-
ing, which from its importance is deserving of special attention, being
considered in a chapter by itself.

a. Making Roads. — It is desirable that the estate be traversed by
cart roads, which shall place its different quarters in communication
with the house in which the work of preparing the coffee for the market
is performed. The transportation of the fruit, and of the fertilizers,
when these are used, will be thus facilitated and rendered cheaper.
The roads should not have a grade of more than ten per cent. The
roads should be opened before the plantation is made, for, if they
should be opened afterwards, many of the trees already planted and
bearing fruit would have to be destroyed, and many of the neighboring
plants would be injured by the work consequent on the opening of the
road.

It is highly important that there should be easy means of communi-
cation between the various parts of the estate, so that the laborers may
be able to get to their work without difficulty, and also that the super-
intendent or overseer may be able to go readily to the place where the
workmen are employed, for if these know that they are not watched
they will not be likely to work diligently.

It is an established fact that the trees near the roads are more
vigorous and produce more fruit than those at some distance from
them. The cause of this may be that the soil near the roads is looser
than that of the rest of the plantation, and is renewed by means of the
rains for which the roads form channels. This is another reason,
therefore, which renders it advisable that there should be roads and
paths in a plantation.

Mr. Sabonadiere recommends that a road be made around the plan-
tation with the object, among others, of separating it from the con-
tiguous woods.

Although it may seem paradoxical to say so, it is really a saving to
go to the expense of opening roads, for they lessen considerably the
labor of cultivation.

The roads and paths should also be made to serve as channels to
carry off the rains.

The ground in which coffee is planted in Ceylon is so hilly that fre-

Coffee Culture in Ceslon, 335

quently the roads can be made only in terraces. Mr. Sabonadiere
estimates the cost of making a path five feet wide, with a channel a
foot wide, at ^25 sterling, or $125 per mile, and that of a cart road,
ten feet wide, with a channel eighteen inches wide, at $500 per mile.

b. Drainage. — It is advisable, in order to prevent the rains from
^washing away the richest soil of the plantation, to construct drains
when making the roads, although this will require more capital and
labor. The drains should be made before the plantation is laid out,
for the reasons mentioned when speaking of roads.

Before enriching the soil with fertilizers means should be taken to
preserve it — that is, to prevent the rains from washing away the richest
part of it, and this is done by means of drains.

In Ceylon, and other places where coffee cultivation is most ad-
vanced, care is always taken to construct drains. Mr. Sabonadiere
recommends that these be fifteen inches in width and the same in
depth; that they be distant from each other the space occupied by
twenty trees, or about one hundred and twenty- feet ; that their grade
be not more than one per cent., or even less, and that they run in the
direction of the nearest ravine. Care should be taken to keep the
drains always free from obstructions.

Mr. Sabonadiere mentions an estate in Ceylon called Matelle, in
which all the drains empty into a pit excavated in the lowest part of
the ground, in which the soil washed away by the rains is deposited
and afterwards carried to the plantation and scattered around the
trunks of the trees.

c. Making Trenches. — In the estates of Ceylon where coffee culture
is most advanced, a system is adopted which is entirely unknown in
Soconusco, and which is at present considered unnecessary, but which
I think it advisable to mention, as it might be adopted in some parts
of Mexico with advantage.

It has for its object: ist. To prevent the rains from washing away
the soil. 2d. To prevent the water from standing around the roots of
the trees. 3d. To augment the vegetable soil, which would be bene-
ficial to the trees. The plan in question consists in making an excava-
tion about three feet in length, a foot or a foot and a half in width,
and the same in depth, between every four trees. The earth which is
taken from these excavations is spread over the roots of the nearest trees.

These excavations serve not only to retain the rain-water and the
soil which it carries with it, but also to receive the weeds cut down in
weeding, the branches, twigs, and leaves that remain after pruning,
and anything else at hand that will serve for manure. These excava-
tions, therefore, will soon be filled; they should be cleaned twice a
year, and the substances taken from them spread over the roots of the
trees, making an excellent manure.

336 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas,

These excavations must be dug at right angles with the slope, so
that they do not run down the slope but cross it horizontally. Mr.
Sabonadiere estimates the cost of these excavations, in ground that is
not stony, at about $5.62^ per acre, or 61 cents per cord.

There is another system of making these trenches which is more
costly. It consists in digging a trench two feet wide and two feet deep,
the whole length of the furrows, the bottom of the trench being made as
level as possible. This trench is filled with grass, dry leaves, branches
of trees, or any other vegetable substance that may be at hand ; it is
then filled in with earth which is pressed down compactly. The result
is that the roots of the trees spread out to the trench and penetrate the
vegetable matter in it which is becoming converted into soil.

d. Loosening the Earth. — In places where the earth is very compact,
and fertilizers are used, the ground is dug up in order that the roots of
the trees may be able to reach out more easily in search of the manure.
It has been observed in some places that manuring does not produce
results as favorable to the coffee-tree as digging up the ground. This
latter should be done, however, only in ground that has been manured
and that is provided with drains, for otherwise the loosened soil would
be easily washed away by the rains.

The cost of loosening the earth, according to this system, is in
Ceylon $5 per acre, or a little more than 54 cents per cord.

There is another method of loosening the earth, which consists in
moving it about gently in every direction with a species of iron pitch-
fork. In this case care must be taken not to turn up the soil, other-
wise the rains would wash it away.

Loosening the earth contributes also to prevent the soil from being
washed away, for, being loose, it readily absorbs the rain.

e. Making Ridges. — With the object also of preventing the rains
from carrying away the richest part of the soil, ridges are formed in
some of the estates in Ceylon, with the earth dug out of the trenches,
which, directing the course of the rain-water, cause it to carry the earth
which it washes out into the trenches.

This system has been used with success on several estates.

/. Irrigating. — In localities where the rains are not abundant, or
where the ground does not retain sufficient moisture for the nutrition
of the coffee-tree during the dry season, it is indispensable to establish
a system of irrigation which, applied opportunely and with moderation,
will make the tree thrive and will keep it in better condition than when
it depends entirely on the rains.

g. Enemies of the Coffee- Tree. — The coffee-tree has in Ceylon many
enemies which frequently destroy it, and which it is necessary to make
war upon at a considerable expense of time and money. The chief of
these are the following:

^fertilisers, 337

Grubs. When the tree is young it is attacked by a large grub which
eats away the bark near the root, and thus kills the plant. This insect
abounds in low ground. To protect the plant from its ravages it is rec-
ommended to apply turpentine to the stem.

Rats. When the trees are young they are attacked also, at certain
seasons, by rats, which devour the primary branches of the young plants.

Coffee-bug. This insect, of which there are two varieties, the one
white, the other black, is the most destructive of all the enemies of the
coffee-tree. The white variety appears immediately after the flowering
of the plant, during the heats of February, March, and April. It at-
taches itself to the branch, beside the fruit, and spreads around it a
white glutinous substance which rots the stalk of the fruit and causes
it to drop from the tree. The black bug attacks the leaves, fruit, and
branches of the tree, and is covered with a sort of small thin shell, like
a limpet in shape. This insect covers the leaves with a species of
black filmy substance, and has the effect of diminishing very consider-
ably the productiveness of the tree. The black bug attacks rather the
plantations situated in the high lands than those which are in low
ground. The time during which this insect infests the trees varies,
but it generally remains for three years.

The most efficacious remedy for this plague is to manure the ground
well, in order that the trees may be able to resist its ravages. Turpen-
tine is also used, although not with as good results. The turpentine is
sprinkled on the ground around the trunk of the tree, and the soil is
then turned up, so that the turpentine may penetrate to the roots.

Ants. In low and dry localities, ants make their nests in the
coffee-tree and greatly annoy the laborers, as their sting is very painful.
The red ants are the worst.

In Soconusco and in Guatemala there is an ant, called with us
zompopo, which loosens the soil greatly, and which is considered
extremely injurious to the plantation in which it establishes itself. To
exterminate these ants it is necessary to dig down until their nests are
reached and then pour boiling water over them.

Fortunately, thus far none of the other plagues of Ceylon are known
in Soconusco.

7. FERTILIZERS.

As fertilizers are hardly ever used in Soconusco, I shall have to make
use of the terms and the rules employed in Ceylon, and used by Mr.
Sabonadiere in his Coffee Planter, when treating of them.

The following points, then, regarding fertilizers, will now be con-
sidered:

A. — Necessity for and advantages of fertilizers.

B. — Fertilizers used in Soconusco.

C. — Fertilizers used in Ceylon.

338 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbiapas.

Each of these points will be considered separately.

A. Necessity for and Advantages of Fertilizers. — As I have already
stated, fertilizers are not used either in Guatemala or in Soconusco,
with the exceptions that I will presently state, nor has the necessity for
using them yet been felt. But, as it is plain that, no matter how rich
may be the soil, its nutritive properties will at last be exhausted if they
are constantly drawn from it by the trees without being replaced in
any way, it will be well to give some attention to this important branch
of coffee culture. Besides, in other localities which are not so fertile
as Soconusco, there may be greater need for fertilizers, and there they
should be used from the time the plantation is laid out.

Without fertilizers a plantation might continue productive for ten
years, let us say. With fertilizers, it may be made to last fifty or a
hundred years in good condition, and the cost of fertilizers would in
any case be much less than that of forming a new plantation.

The result of manuring, according to Mr. Sabonadiere, is an in-
crease in the production of each acre of from three to five English
quintals in every crop, or, which is the same thing, of from 36 to 60
pounds per cord.

When fertilizers are used it is indispensable that the ground should
have a complete system of draining.

B. Fertilizers Used in Soconusco. — The only way in which I have
seen fertilizers used in Guatemala and Soconusco is to spread the waste
matter of the sugar-cane around the trunk of the coffee-trees. The
cane soon rots and forms a good fertilizer. It also contributes to pre-
vent the rains from washing away the earth. As sugar-cane is generally
cultivated in estates where coffee is grown, this fertilizer is cheap and
easy of application.

The same use might be made of the pulp and the skins of the fruit
of the coffee-tree, of which there is so great a quantity, instead of
allowing it to go to waste as it now does in every plantation in Guate-
mala and Soconusco. Only common sense is needed, without any
knowledge of chemistry, to know that in order to keep the ground from
becoming impoverished it is necessary to restore to the soil the elements
that have been taken from it. But I am sorry to say that I have never
seen this fertilizer, which is at once excellent and cheap, used on any
estate.

C. Fertilizers Used in Ceylon. — With regard to the system of manur-
ing adopted in Ceylon the following points will now be considered:

a. — Substances which are used as manures.

b. — Manner of applying fertilizers to the soil.

c. — Period at which fertilizers should be used.

d. — Cost of fertilizers.

Each of these subjects will be considered separately.

different Substances TUsefc as jfertilisers. 339

a. Substances which are Used as Manure. — Various substances are
used in Ceylon as manure. I will mention here only those that are
generally known and easy to obtain, omitting such as are little known
and difficult to procure, like poonac and sombreorum.

The fertilizers are these:

Cattle-dung, bones, super-phosphates, coffee-pulp, prunings, grass,
salts, wood-ashes, burnt clay, lime, guano, and mixtures of these sub-
stances.

Cattle-dung. Cattle-dung is the best manure known for the coffee-
tree. It may be used alone, or mixed with other fertilizers, as will be
shown farther on.

Bones. It is well known that bones contain a large amount of phos-
phate of lime, and for this reason they make a good fertilizer for the
coffee-tree, inferior only to cattle-dung. The principal effect of this
fertilizer is to increase the productiveness of the tree. The bones can
be used conveniently only in the form of powder, as in any other form
they would dissolve very slowly and their effect would be proportion-
ately slow. In Ceylon they are always used in the form of powder,
this being imported from Australia.

Super-phosphates. Super-phosphates are now being largely used as
fertilizers, and with good results, especially super-phosphate of lime.
Half a pound is sufficient for each tree.

Pulp of the Fruit. As might be supposed, this excellent fertilizer,
which goes to waste in Soconusco, is used extensively in Ceylon, and
with very good results. Two medium-sized basketfuls are sufficient
for each tree. This manure produces very good results mixed in equal
parts with cow-dung. A basketful of the mixture should be applied to
each plant, and it is to be used in the same way as unmixed dung.
The pulp may be mixed with advantage with the other fertilizers, such
as lime, bone-dust, etc.

Prunings. These make a very good vegetable manure. They are
buried while green in pits, carefully covered over and pressed down;
but they are now little used, owing to the great expense of making the
excavations.

Mand Grass. This manure is used in the same manner as the
former, and gives very good results. As this grass does not grow in
Soconusco, I think it unnecessary to speak of it more in detail. I be-
lieve, however, that the grass of the country would give results similar
to this fertilizer, more especially Guinea grass, and, in general, all
vegetable substances that could be buried in the ground. Mand grass
revives and rejuvenates plantations that have become exhausted.

In burying the grass care must be taken not to bury with it seeds
or shoots that might grow, for should this be done the coffee plantation
would be converted into a grass-field.

340 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

Mr. William King makes mention of a plantation in Ceylon in
which the vegetation growing in swampy places is cut down every year
before the gathering of the crop, piled in heaps and left to rot, and,
when the coffee crop is gathered, spread as a fertilizer around the
trunks of the coffee-trees.

Salts of Ammonia. These salts make an excellent manure; but
owing to their great solubility and their affinity with water they are apt
to be absorbed by the soil before they can reach the roots of the coffee-
trees, or washed away by the rains, so failing in either case to benefit
the plant.

Wood-ashes. This fertilizer has the advantage of being very cheap
and very easy to obtain. It is also a good substitute for lime in local-
ities where this is not found. The ashes must be buried in the earth,
as, if left on the surface, the wind would blow it away.

Burnt Clay. This has been used in Ceylon with very good results.
It has for us the additional advantage of being very cheap and very
easily procured in Soconusco.

Lime. This is to be used, spreading it over the ground, once every
five years. A good mixture would be half a pound of lime to an
almud * of pulp for every tree.

Guano. This manure was at first used in Ceylon unmixed with
any other substance ; but, being very active, it should never be used
alone. Guano acts quickly and produces a very good crop, but its
good effects pass quickly, and trees manured with guano soon lose
their productiveness, which can be restored only by manuring them
with cow-dung. This effect of guano is more noticeable in light
soils; in compact soil and applied in small quantities its effects are
permanent. It is more prudent, however, never to use guano alone,
but mixed in small quantities with other fertilizers. Guano has
almost entirely ceased to be used in Ceylon, and has been replaced
by bone-dust.

Mixtures of these Substances. — Mixtures of the various substances
mentioned have been used as fertilizers. A good mixture is a layer of
cow-dung, another of mana" grass, and another of the pulp of the fruit of
the coffee-tree, and so on alternatively, leaving them to be assimi-
lated. To render this mixture more active, each layer may be sprinkled
with sal ammonia, lime, and bone-dust.

At present, however, such fertilizers as are considered most suitable
to the soil, without any mixture, are preferred in Ceylon.

b. Manner of Applying Fertilizers to the Soil. — The best way of

using fertilizers is to dig a hole in the earth at least eighteen inches

from the plant and place the fertilizer in it. Care must be taken, in

digging the hole, not to injure the tap roots of the tree; the small

1 Almud, dry measure :— 0.86 of a peck.

/IDanner of TUsing ffertiliaers* 341

lateral roots may be cut without injury to the plant, this operation
serving rather to benefit it, as it is a species of pruning which causes
the roots to grow with renewed vigor. The size of the holes will vary
according to the fertilizer used. If the fertilizer be cattle-dung or
coffee-pulp the hole is made three feet long, eighteen inches wide, and
one foot deep. As concentrated fertilizers are stronger they do not
require holes as large.

When the ground is level and the trees are planted at short distances
apart and in straight furrows, a quadrangular excavation may be made
for the fertilizer between every four trees. In hilly ground it is prefer-
able to dig the hole above each tree, so that the fertilizer, washed
down by the rains, may be retained by the roots of the trees. This
manner of making the holes has, besides, the advantage that the fertil-
izer remains in the shade and under shelter of the foliage of the tree,
with the result that it evaporates less quickly and does not cause weeds
to grow which would absorb all the fertilizing matter before it could
benefit the coffee plant, as might easily happen if the fertilizer were
put in a place exposed to the sun.

When mixed manures are used a hole is made on the ground above
each tree, at the distance already mentioned ; it should be semi-circular
in shape, and nine inches wide and six inches deep.

All the holes made for fertilizers are to be filled with the prunings,
and any other vegetable substance which may be at hand, and covered
with loose earth taken from the surface of the ground. The earth
taken from the hole is to be spread wherever there are any uncovered
roots, and should be well pressed down, to prevent the rains from
washing it away.

Fertilizers should be mixed with dry earth before using them.

c. Period at which the Fertilizers should be Used. — The best time to
manure the ground is during the wet season. The only fertilizer that
should be used in the dry season is cow-dung, which may be used at
any time.

The beneficial effects of manure lasts for three years, and conse-
quently it will be necessary to use the manure only once in three years.

It is advisable to manure the plantation before it begins to decline,
not only because this increases its productiveness, but also because the
cost will then be less than when, the vitality of the ground being
almost exhausted, it will be necessary to restore it almost entirely.

d. Cost of Fertilizers. — Mr. Sabonadiere calculates the cost per
year of manuring an acre of ground at from $15 to $50, according to
the price of the substance used as manure and the quantity employed,
which gives an average of $32.50 per acre, or $3.52} per cord.

The cost of fertilizers in Soconusco would probably be much
greater.

342 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

8. GATHERING OF THE CROP.

Under this head the following will be considered :

A. — Gathering the crop in Soconusco.

B. — Gathering the crop in Ceylon.

Each of these points will be considered separately.

A. Gathering the Crop in Soconusco. — In regard to the gathering of
the crop in Soconusco and Guatemala the following points will be con-
sidered :

a. — Time at which the coffee-tree begins to bear fruit.

b. — Time during which the coffee-tree continues bearing fruit.

c. — Blossoming and fructification of the coffee-tree.

d. — Gathering the crop.

Each of these subjects will be considered separately.

a. Time at which the Coffee- Tree Begins to Bear Fruit. — The second
year after its removal to the plantation the plant, providing it was of
three or four crosses at the time of transplanting, will bear its first
crop, called in Soconusco its trial crop, or first trial. In ground best
suited to it and with careful cultivation, each tree will yield on an
average four ounces. The following year, after transplanting, it gives
its second crop, which as it is still small, as compared to those which it
yields afterwards, is called in Soconusco its second trial. It may be
considered that on an average, and under the conditions already men-
tioned, the yield of each tree will be one pound in its second trial. In
the fourth year after transplantation it gives its best crop, which aver-
ages double that of the second crop, and in the succeeding years it
will continue yielding good crops.

b. Time during which the Co fee- Tree Continues Bearing Fruit. — As
the coffee plantations of Soconusco and Guatemala are of comparatively
recent planting, the duration of the life of the coffee plant cannot yet
be determined with exactness. Trees planted twenty-five or thirty
years ago still preserve much of their vigor and luxuriance and yield
good crops, although they have never been manured and hardly ever
pruned. It has also been observed that trees planted in the high lands
last much longer than those planted in the low lands.

Some planters are of opinion that the duration of the life of the
coffee-tree depends on the shade which is given to it, and that when
it is exposed to the sun it will live a shorter time than when protected
by shade. In this regard what I have already pointed out is the case ;
that is, that a coffee plantation in low land, with shade, gives about the
same yield as a plantation without shade on higher land or on land
which has a lower temperature; and it is natural that it should last
longer than a plantation planted in low land and also exposed to the
sun.

Oatbering of tbe Crop, 343

c. Blossoming and Fructification of the Coffee- Tree. — In the month
of January, in the low, and in March in the high lands, green buds
appear on the branches of the coffee-tree which afterwards become
white flowers, and later on fruit. At first the fruit is small and of a
dark green color; as time passes it grows larger, and when it begins to
ripen its color changes to a light green which, later, becomes whitish,
then yellowish, and then red, of a light shade at first, and afterwards
of a very deep shade. When the fruit is of this last color it is entirely
ripe. If not picked at this stage the fruit drops from the tree like any
other ripe fruit.

The time of the ripening of the fruit differs in the high and in the
low lands, as has just been stated, as the power of the sun shortens
considerably, in the latter, the operations of vegetation. While in
plantations situated in low localities the fruit begins to ripen in Sep-
tember, and is all ripe in October, in lands situated three thousand or
four thousand feet above the level of the sea, the fruit begins to ripen
in November and continues to ripen gradually. In December not a
single ripe fruit is to be found in plantations situated in the low lands,
while in those situated in the high lands ripe fruit is still to be found
in February and even in March.

It sometimes happens that in plantations situated as high as four
thousand feet above the level of the sea ripe fruit is to be found on
the trees all the year round.

This is another advantage of plantations situated in high lands,
for when all the fruit ripens in the course of two or three weeks, as
happens in the low lands, there is danger of losing a considerable part
of the crop for want of hands — which are sometimes very difficult to
procure, a danger which is greatly lessened or which does not exist at
all when the picking of the fruit may be done during three months,
instead of three weeks.

d. Gathering the Crop. — When the fruit is ripe it is to be picked by
hand, and with the greatest care, in order not to pick the fruit near by
which may not be quite ripe, or injure the branch on which it hangs.

When the trees are very tall, from not having been topped, it will
be necessary to use ladders in picking the fruit.

In very large plantations it is necessary to construct cart roads to
facilitate the transportation of the fruit to the place where it is to be
prepared for market.

Women and children perform the labor of picking the fruit better
than men.

The price paid for each measure of fruit picked varies in different
localities, being higher, of course, where labor is scarce.

When the coffee-tree is not pruned it grows very tall. I have seen
trees seventeen or eighteen feet high, with a radius, at the widest

344 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbtapas.

part of the top, of as many as twelve feet, the trunks of some of the
largest being as much as five inches in diameter. In such cases the
picking of the fruit is more difficult and costly.

The trees are at times so heavily laden with fruit that the branches
break down under its weight. To prevent this it is necessary to sup-
port them with props.

B. Gathering the Crop in Ceylon. — To each laborer two sacks are
given, a small one, which he fastens round his waist, and a large one,
which he hangs somewhere near at hand. The first is to hold the
fruit as it is picked from the tree, and the second to receive the con-
tents of the first, every time it has been filled.

The trees are divided into rows and one or two rows are assigned
to each laborer; so that he does not pick all the fruit of each tree,
but only the fruit that is on his side of the tree.

In very hilly ground it is expedient to begin picking the fruit at the
most elevated part of the plantation. The reason for this is that the
fruit which falls can be more easily picked up, and that it is easier for
the pickers to descend with their loads than to ascend with them.

An overseer is set over the pickers so that they may neither leave
fruit that is ripe on the trees nor pick unripe fruit.

Care must be taken not to pluck the branch with the fruit from the
tree.

A metal check is given to the pickers for each basket which they
deliver, and on pay day they are paid according to the number of these
checks which they return. This is done in Guatemala also.

The scarcity of hands and the importance of not losing the crop
have suggested to the planters of Ceylon an easy manner of conveying
the coffee from the trees to the place where it is to be prepared for the
market. This consists in placing a galvanized-iron pipe where a
stream of water may pass through it to the pulper, carrying the coffee
with it. Mr. Sabonadiere estimates the cost of such a pipe at from
$1250 to $1500 per mile.

The fruit is received in a box of a certain measure, which is so
placed that when it is full it can be easily emptied into the tank from
which it is conveyed to the pulper. In this way the quantity of fruit
received is known.

9. PREPARATION OF THE COFFEE FOR THE MARKET.

Under this head the following subjects will be considered:
A. — Preparation of coffee in Soconusco.
B. — Improvement in the preparation of coffee in Soconusco.
C. — Preparation of coffee in Ceylon.

Each of these points will be considered separately and as briefly as
possible.

preparing tbe Coffee for flDarfeet, 345

A. Preparation of Coffee in Soconusco. — Of all the operations re-
lating to coffee the one which in my judgment is least advanced in
Guatemala is its preparation for the market. There are not more than
four or five estates where the preparation of the fruit is systematically
performed and with an adequate saving of time, labor, and money.

I have not seen any estate in which all the operations of preparing
the coffee are performed by machinery, that is, in which the ripe fruit
is thrown into a general receptacle, from which it passes to others until
it comes out sorted and graded, without the intervention of the hand
of man, as is the case with wheat and flour, in the flour mills. There
are estates, however, in which the operations of preparing the coffee
are greatly simplified, the same water-power being used for all of them.

All the operations described below are employed in Guatemala ; for
in Soconusco not even the most necessary machines are used. So far
the estate of El Malacate only has an iron pulper, a wooden retrilla,
and a fan. The coffee is generally pulped on grinding stones and
bruised in wooden mortars.

The preparation of coffee for the market includes the following
operations :

a. — Pulping.

b. — Washing.

c. — Separating the good coffee from the bad.

d. — Exposure to the sun.

e. — Shelling.

f. — Dyeing.

g. — Winnowing.

h. — Sorting the coffee.

Each of these different operations will be treated of separately.

a. Pulping. — The coffee, when it arrives at the place where it is to
be prepared for the market, is deposited in a tank full of water, which
has a pipe leading to the pulper, into which the water, passing through
the pipe, gradually carries it. As a general rule these machines are
made of cast iron, and are almost everywhere hand motors, although
they might easily be moved by the water used on the plantation.

The pulping machine removes the outer skin from the coffee and
separates the two beans which each fruit as a general rule contains, with
the exception of the kind called the pea berry, which has a single bean
of an elliptical shape. The hull, or pulp, as it was called when treating
of fertilizers, is thrown away, when it might be employed with advan-
tage in manuring the ground.

Pulping machines have been in use since the time of Laborie, that
is, some eighty years, although they were then constructed of wood ;
those now in use have not changed essentially in principle.

Mr. Sabonadiere mentions the pulping machines which have exclu-

346 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

sive privilege in England ; these are the Butler, Wall, Walker, and Gor-
don machines. The last is the only one I have seen used in Guatemala.
Mr. Sabonadiere prefers the first.

b. Washing. — The coffee beans, now skinned and separated, when
they leave the pulping machine fall into another tank full of water, in
which they remain twenty-four hours, in order that they may be freed
from a sweet mucilaginous substance of a light color which is found be-
tween the skin and the shell of the beans. With this object they are
stirred about with a wooden shovel just before being removed from the
tank.

c. Separating the Good Coffee from the Bad. — The perfect beans
possess a higher specific gravity than water and sink in it ; those which
float are of poor quality and constitute what is called waste coffee, or
coffee of the lowest grade.

In order to facilitate the separation of the perfect from the imper-
fect beans, a part of the principal tank is divided off, forming a second
tank, smaller and lower than the first, so that the imperfect beans may
be carried easily into it by the water or by the hand. It is better to
construct the dividing wall of the two tanks of the same height as the
others, and provide it with a small sluice, which, when opened, will
establish a current that will carry the imperfect beans from the larger
into the smaller tank. When the beans are thus separated, the process
of preparing them for the market is conducted separately.

d. Exposure to the Sun. — When the beans have been pulped and
washed they must be thoroughly dried, and this is effected by the
action of the sun, which makes this process an exceedingly slow and
costly one. A sort of threshing-floor is constructed which is paved
with stone and mortar, and on this the coffee is exposed to the sun.
The coffee must be taken in every day at sunset, or before, if the sky
looks threatening, so that it may not be exposed to the rain or dew.
In some estates the coffee is merely heaped up in a corner of the yard
and covered with leaves or mats; but in such case it runs the risk of
being stolen ; and, besides, when the coffee is piled up there is danger
of its fermenting, which would injure its quality. The coffee must
also be constantly moved about while it is in the yard, in order that the
sun may have access to every part of it and not to that only which is
on top.

These operations, which are very tedious when the quantity of
coffee to be dried is considerable, have to be continued for at least
fifteen days, if the weather is fine, to dry the coffee thoroughly. If it
is stored before it is perfectly dry, it may rot or at least become dis-
colored, and lose greatly both in quality and price.

When the weather is cloudy or rainy, which often happens in
mountainous lands situated at three thousand or four thousand feet

preparing tbe Coffee for flDarfeer. 347

above the level of the sea, where the sun is visible only for six or eight
hours daily, the operation of drying the coffee is a much slower, and
consequently a much more expensive one.

There is no operation in the preparation of coffee which may be so
easily simplified as that of drying, performing it by means of artificial
heat. Stoves for this purpose have been already invented in Guate-
mala, but thus far they have not given entirely satisfactory results. I
believe, however, that the day is not far distant when some speedy,
cheap, and efficacious means of drying coffee, other than the primitive
one of exposing it to the sun's rays, will be discovered.

e. Shelling. — After the coffee has been pulped, washed, and dried,
there is still another strong covering to be removed from it before it is
ready for the market.

The alternate moisture and heat to which this covering is exposed
during the operation of washing and drying the bean, causes it to con-
tract and expand greatly, with the result that it becomes loosened from
the bean and in many cases breaks, this greatly facilitating its removal.

Various instruments have been employed to facilitate this operation,
but the one which has thus far given the best results is the " retrilla."
This consists of one or two solid wheels of heavy wood, of from one
and a half to two yards in diameter, and from eight to nine inches
thick, set vertically, which are made to revolve over a species of circu-
lar box lined with wood, and are generally moved by oxen. In some
plantations I have seen iron " retrillas, " made in England, on the same
model as the wooden ones, and moved by water.

The coffee in the husk is put into the box, and the wheel by its
weight and its movement removes the coriaceous covering from the
bean without breaking it, and loosens another thinner inner covering
which resembles the filmy-like skin of an onion. Combined with the
wheel is a sort of shovel which serves to move the coffee about.

f. Dyeing. — A bluish color in coffee, being highly esteemed in for-
eign markets, is given to it artificially on some estates by covering the
surface of the wheels which hull the coffee with sheets of lead, which
give it the desired color. If the demands of commerce render this
color indispensable, some other substance might be employed to give
it, which is free from the hygienic objections of lead.

g. Winnowing. — The coffee beans leave the machine mixed with the
two coverings above mentioned. To separate them from these the
fanner is used, and performs the operation quickly and efficaciously.
Some fanners have the additional advantage of sorting the coffee, an
operation which will now be described.

h. Sorting the Coffee. — The coffee being now perfectly clean must
next be sorted, as the beans differ in size, shape, and color, and some
are broken and others whole. As the different kinds of coffee differ

348 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

greatly in price, it must be sent to market already classified, to obtain
the highest price. Hence the necessity of sorting it.

This operation is performed almost everywhere by hand ; but I have
seen on some estates separating machines, which consist of various
cylinders having holes of different sizes, through which the different
kinds of coffee run out, similar, in principle, to the separators of flour
in flour mills. Even when separating machines are employed, how-
ever, it will still be necessary to separate by hand the coffee beans of
different colors, but there will now be very few of these.

American fanners are also employed, as has been said, in sorting
the coffee.

In those estates in which this operation is performed with most
care, the coffee is separated into five classes, as follows :

i st. Pea berry, which is considered the best.

2d. First-class, which includes the largest beans, all being of the
same size and color.

$d. Second-class, including medium-sized beans.

4th. Third-class, including the smallest beans.

5th. Waste coffee, including beans of a bad color, broken beans,
those that floated on the water and all those that cannot be included in
any of the preceding classes.

When the operations mentioned have been all performed the coffee
may be said to be ready for the market.

B. Improvement in the Preparation of Coffee in Soconusco. — In my
opinion, the superior excellence of the Co lima coffee, as compared
with that grown in Soconusco, consists chiefly in the manner of its
preparation.

In Colima the coffee is not first washed, as in Soconusco, thus re-
moving the mucilaginous part of which mention has been made, but is
allowed to dry with this substance on it. Thus the coffee absorbs a
considerable part of the substance contained in the mucilage, which
improves its aroma and its quality, while the advantages of said sub-
stance are entirely lost when the beans are first washed and thus
deprived of it.

I believe, therefore, that the quality of Soconusco coffee would be
greatly improved by following in its preparation the system followed in
Colima, and probably in other places ; that is, to allow the coffee beans
to absorb, when drying, the saccharine substance which is found be-
tween them and their inner covering or shell.

C. Preparation of Coffee in Ceylon. — In the estates of Ceylon coffee
is prepared for market in the same manner as in Soconusco, until it
remains in the hull ; it is then sent to the port of Colombo, where it
receives the final preparation.

This is performed in the following manner: When the coffee is

preparation of tbe Coffee in Geslon, 349

ripe, the sooner it is pulped the better, as, if this operation is delayed,
the coffee becomes heated, which injures the color of the shell. In
very dry weather it is sometimes necessary to sprinkle the coffee lightly
with water a few hours before pulping it, as, if it were pulped dry the
beans would break and the coffee lose in quality.

The pulping machines are moved in Ceylon by steam.

When the coffee leaves the pulping machine, it passes into large
tanks paved and walled with stone, where it is kept until the mucilage
remaining on it has fermented sufficiently. The time which it should
remain in the tanks depends on the elevation of the plantation above
the level of the sea, and the state of the temperature. At an altitude
of three thousand feet, the coffee should be kept in the tanks for two
days.

The receiving tanks have an opening at the bottom to allow the
water to run out, in addition to the sluice through which the coffee
passes from the receiving tank into the tank in which it is to be washed.
When it is ready to be washed, the water is allowed to run into the re-
ceiving tank; the coffee is moved about with long-handled wooden
shovels, two feet in length and nine inches in width, until there is
sufficient water in the contiguous tank. When the coffee has passed
into this tank the water is to be changed several times until the muci-
laginous part is entirely removed and the parchment-like hull is of a
yellowish-white color.

The tank in which the coffee is washed should be slightly inclined,
so that the lighter beans and the husks may be carried to the lower end,
where they are collected by means of sieves or baskets. The beans
that float are allowed to pass into another lower tank, where all the
coffee of inferior quality is collected.

After it has been washed, the coffee in the hull is heaped up on an
inclined platform, to allow the water to run off, remaining there until
the following morning, or longer, if the weather is wet. If the weather
continues wet, the coffee is carried to the storehouse and spread on
mats, spreading it out as much as the space will permit, so that the air
may dry it. When the wet weather continues long and the storehouses
are full, the coffee is allowed to remain on mats, fires being made to
dry the air. The coffee is to be moved about continually, in order that
it may not become heated; and it should even be sprinkled with water
daily. When the wet weather continues very long, there is danger of
the coffee being spoiled by becoming heated and germinating.

When the weather is dry and the sun hot, two days will be sufficient
to prepare the coffee for sending it to the port of Colombo. When the
coffee has been well washed and thoroughly dried immediately after
being washed, it is of a light color and very lustrous.

Coffee of inferior quality and waste coffee are dried apart.

350 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbtapas.

When the coffee is perfectly clean the bean assumes a bluish color
which afterwards changes to a grayish green.

The final operations of preparing the coffee for market are per-
formed in Colombo, and consist in drying the bean until it becomes
very hard, removing from it the parchment-like hull and the pellicle
underneath, cleansing it by means of a fanner, sorting the beans
according to size and shape, and removing by hand black or broken
beans.

The grades of Ceylon coffee are No. i, No. 2, pea-berry and waste
coffee.

Ceylon coffee is sent to market in casks or barrels. The coffee of
Soconusco and Guatemala is sent to market in bags.

VI.

PROFITS OF COFFEE CULTURE.

The best manner of showing the profits of coffee culture is to make
an approximate estimate of the cost and of the product of a plantation
of a given size. Such an estimate, however carefully made, cannot be
altogether exact, and at most can only be considered as approximate.
It frequently happens, that in the same place and with the same sys-
tem of cultivation, one planter, because of his greater diligence and
aptitude, will raise a crop with much less cost than another. This
will be the case with still greater reason when different localities are
in question. It frequently happens, also, that unforeseen circum-
stances will render necessary fresh expenses, which were not calculated
upon at first. It is to be observed, too, that even in Soconusco it is re-
marked that year after year there is an increase in the price of pro-
visions and of the necessaries of life, which will of necessity increase
the cost of labor, as well as the other expenses of the plantation. An
estimate which, made now, might be approximate, within a year or two
would be too low.

The cost, productiveness, and profit of a coffee plantation, in
different localities, in order to form a more correct estimate, will now
be considered.

1. Cost, productiveness, and net profits of a plantation in
Soconusco.

2. Cost, productiveness, and profits of coffee in Barcenas plantation.

3. Cost and productiveness of a coffee plantation in Ceylon.
Each of these subjects will be separately considered.

I. COST, PRODUCTIVENESS, AND NET PROFITS OF COFFEE IN SOCONUSCO.

To proceed in regular order the following subjects will now be
considered :

(Lost of Coffee IRateing in Soconusco. 351

A. — Cost of a plantation in Soconusco.

B. — Productiveness of a plantation in Soconusco.

C. — Profits of coffee in Soconusco.

Each of these points will be considered separately.

A. Cost of a Plantation in Soconusco. — The probable cost of a coffee
plantation in Soconusco of, say, one thousand cuerdas, using the utmost
diligence and economy, would be as follows, calculated year by year
in order to make the calculation with greater facility and exactness:

a. — Value of the ground.

b. — Expenses of the first year.

c. — Expenses of the second year.

d. — Expenses of the third year.

e. — Expenses of the fourth year.

f. — Resume* of expenses.

The expenses of each year will be separately considered.
a. Value of the Ground. — In speaking of the value of the unculti-
vated lands of Soconusco, it was mentioned that the price of those of
Chiapas, according to the tariff of the present biennial,1 is 25 cents per
hectare, or $10.69 Per caballeria, and that if two or three caballerias
were purchased, the cost would not be more than double that sum.
To form a coffee plantation of 1000 cuerdas, two caballerias would be
required, to allow ground for the fodder of the animals and other
uses ; roads, buildings, patiss, etc. To make an estimate which is
rather above than below the cost, the caballerias may be put at a maxi-
mum of $50 ; the two caballerias consequently costing $100.

b. Expenses of the First Year. — In the first year the following will
be expended in forming the nursery :

Preparation of the Ground. — Three day's labor, one in stubbing, another
in hewing, and the third in chopping, for each cuerda, at 25 cents per
day's labor, make 75 cents per cuerda. To plant 1000 cuerdas of coffee
a nursery of 30 cuerdas will be required, which will cost $ 22 50

Seed. — By planting the nursery with seeds much of the cost of buying and
transporting coffee plants would be saved, but supposing that the
nursery be formed of plants, 175,000 plants, at $2 per thousand, will
cost 350 oo

Transportation, Planting, and Weeding. — Transporting the plants to the
place where the nursery is made, planting them, and eight weedings
per year, at $5 per cuerda, will cost for 30 cuerdas 150 oo

Other Expenses. — Cost of the houses for the laborers, salary of the super-
intendent, purchase of implements, payment of taxes, expenses of
roads, losses in money advanced to laborers, and other incidental ex-
penses, in the first year 500 oo

Total expenses in the first year $1,022 50

1 The Fomento Department of Mexico publishes every two years a schedule of
prices at which public lands are sold, varying in each State.

352 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbfapas*

c. Expenses of the Second Year. — In the second year the young
trees are permanently planted, and the following expenses will be in-
curred :

Preparing the Ground. — Clearing of 1200 cuerdas, as in order to plant 1000
cuerdas, it will be necessary to prepare 1200, to allow for what is
lost in roads, houses, and other uses, at 50 cents per cuerda for stubbing

and hewing $ 600 oo

Staking. — Planting 104,000 stakes, to plant the same number of coffee

trees in 1000 cuerdas of ground, at the rate of 750 stakes for 25 cents. 34 67

Drilling Holes. — Drilling 104,000 holes, at 250 holes for 25 cents 104 oo

Transplanting. — Planting 104,000 trees, at 50 trees for 25 cents 520 oo

Weeding. — Two weedings, the second year, of 1000 cuerdas, at 25 cents

per cuerda. Each weeding will cost $250 oo

and the two weedings will cost 500 oo

Other Expenses. — Repairing and construction of houses, superintendent's
salary, purchase of implements, nursery, payment of taxes, roads,
laborer's debts, lost debts of runaway laborers, etc 650 oo

Total expenses for the second year $2,408 67

d. Expenses for the Third Year. — In the third year the expenses of
the plantation will be the following :

Weedings. — Four weedings of 1000 cuerdas, at $250 each weeding, will

amount in the year to $1,000 oo

Threshing fioors. — Construction of 500 square yards of drying floor, at

$1.25 the square yard 625 oo

Pulper. — A pulping machine, cost of transportation and of a building in

which to set it up 400 oo

Retrilla. — Construction of a retrilla and building for it 250 oo

Fanner. — Purchase of a fanner 80 oo

Oxen. — Two yoke of oxen to work the retrilla, at $50 each 100 oo

Picking the Fruit. — Picking the fruit of the first, or trial crop 300 oo

Other Expenses. — Construction and repairing of houses, superintendent's
salary, purchase of implements, nurseries, taxes, roads, debts of labor-
ers in service, bad debts of runaway laborers, etc., etc 650 oo

Total expenses for the third year $3,405 oo

e. Expenses for the Fourth Year. — The expenses for the fourth year
will be :

Weedings. — Four weedings, at $250 each $1,000 oo

Threshing fioors. — 1500 square yards of drying floor, at $1.25 per yard. .. 1,875 °°

Machinery. — Fixing the machinery and construction of other buildings. . . 300 oo

Picking the Fruit. — Expenses of gathering the fruit of the second crop. . . 800 oo
Other Expenses. — Expenses for employes, roads, implements, nursery,

taxes, debts of laborers in service, bad debts of runaway laborers, etc. 750 oo

Total expenses for the fourth year $4,725 oo

/. Resume1 of Expenses. — The total amount of the expenses incurred
in a plantation of 1000 cuerdas in four years is, then, the following :

profits of Coffee "Raising In Soconusco. 353

Value of the ground $ 100 oo

Expenses for the first year 1,022 50

" " second " 2,40867

" ' " third " 3,40500

" " fourth" 4,72500

Total expenses for four years $i 1,661 17

The total outlay on each cuerda planted with coffee, including
buildings, machinery, etc., will therefore be $11.66, and that of each
tree, a little more than 1 1 cents.

B. Productiveness of a Plantation in Soconusco. — The following is
an approximate estimate of the yield of a plantation of 1000 cuerdas
in Soconusco :

In the third year each plant will yield four ounces of coffee, 104,000 plants
will yield 26,000 Ibs., which, at a minimum price of 10 cents per lb.,
will be $2,600 oo

In the fourth year the yield will be i lb. per tree, or 104,000 Ibs., which,

at 10 cents per lb., are 10,400 oo

Total yield in the first two years of bearing $13,000 oo

That is, $13 per cuerda, or 12^ cents per tree.
C. Profits of Coffee in Soconusco. —

As we have just seen, the yield of a plantation of 1000 cuerdas in the third

and fourth years after planting is $13,000 oo

The total outlay during the four years has been 11,661 17

There remains, then, after the fourth year a net profit of $!,338 83

This profit is more or less the equivalent of the interest of the capi-
tal invested until the plantation begins to produce fruit ; that is to say,
that in four years the capital and its interest are repaid.

The fifth year after the coffee has been planted, or the third year after
it has commenced to produce, and in the succeeding years, the yield
will be 2 Ibs. per tree, or 208,000 Ibs., which, at 10 cents per lb., will
give $20,800 oo

Deducting the expenses of cultivation, preparing the coffee for the market
and improvements during the year, estimated at a maximum of $5 per
cuerda, on 1000 cuerdas we have 5,ooo oo

Net profit of the fifth year and of each year thereafter $15,800 oo

There is, then, in the fifth year, and in every year thereafter, a
profit of 135.49 per cent, on the capital invested during the four first
years, which, with its interest, has been already repaid.

Each cuerda will give $15.80 per year, and each tree a little more
than 15 cents.

In addition to which, the planter has in his favor the advantage of
a possible rise in prices — the price being last year as much as $10 per
quintal for coffee on the plantation.

354 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbiapas,

2. COST, PRODUCTIVENESS, AND PROFITS OF COFFEE IN BARCENAS

PLANTATION.

Persons who have had experience in coffee culture consider that
the foregoing calculations are not exaggerated. Nevertheless, in order
to rectify them by presenting, not calculations which may give more
or less probable results, but data taken from one of the best managed
coffee plantations, situated between the cities of Antigua and Guate-
mala, belonging to Mr. Jose Maria Samayoa, I give below the separate
items furnished me by its very able manager. The items refer to cul-
ture by manzana, which is a lot of land having a square area of 100
varas per side, or an area of 10,000 square varas, that is, 16 cuerdas.

I will divide this subject as follows :

A. Cost of coffee culture in Barcenas.

B. Productiveness of coffee in Barcenas.

C. Profit of coffee in Barcenas.

The three points shall be especially considered.
A. Cost of Coffee in Barcenas. — Each manzana of coffee costs at
Barcenas, every four years, as follows :

Nursery and Seeds. — A manzana can contain 1666 trees planted at 2 varas
distance from each other, there being three between furrows ; the cost

will be $12 per thousand plants, and the 1666 trees will cost $20 oo

Stakes and Holes. — 1666 stakes, and the same number of holes at the rate

of $3 per thousand 5 oo

Preparation of the Ground. — Per each manzana 10 oo

Transplanting. — 1666 trees at $2.50 per thousand 4*7

Weedings. — Three with plow, the first year, after planting, at $i per

manzana 3 oo

Three during the second year, and three during the third year with

spade, at $2 each weeding 12 oo

Four weedings in the fourth year with spade, at $3 each weeding. ... 12 oo

Other Expenses. — Fencing, etc., in two years, at $i per year 2 oo

Total cost $68 17

B. Productiveness of Coffee in Barcenas. — A manzana of coffee in
Barcenas yields as follows :
The third year after planting the coffee tree, a crop is obtained yielding 3

ounces per tree, or say 312$ pounds, which, at 10 cents per pound,

gives $31 23

In the fourth year after planting, the crop amounts to one pound per tree,

or 1666 pounds, which, at 10 cents per pound, gives 166 60

Total proceeds $197 83

C. Profits of Coffee Culture in Barcenas. —

The proceeds from a manzana of coffee at Barcenas is $197 83

The cost of each manzana is 68 17

There remains a net yearly profit per manzana of $129 66

Cost anfc profit of Coffee IRalstng in Cepiotu 355

According to the above data, a cuerda of coffee costs $4.26, and
«ach tree yields a little more than 4 cents, and the proceeds per cuerda
are $12.36, and per tree a little less than 12 cents.

One must consider the fact that in the above data no notice has
been taken of the cost of buildings, machinery, clerks, preparing the
coffee for the market, taking up of the crop, debts of the laborers while
on the plantation, and of the runaways and other items comprised in
the calculations made above regarding the cost of coffee in Soconusco.

3. COST AND PROFIT OF COFFEE IN CEYLON.

The preceding estimates, made before seeing Mr. Sabonadiere's
book, are, I think, fully corroborated by the estimate which that writer
gives of the cost and profit of 200 acres of ground planted with coffee
in Ceylon.

I insert below Mr. Sarbonadiere's estimate, taken from his Coffee
Planter of Ceylon (2d edition, London, 1870), and without further al-
teration than that of the reduction to dollars and cents of the sums
which he puts in pounds sterling, making this reduction on the basis of
five dollars to the pound.

Estimated expenditure to plant 200 acres of land with coffee and
bring it into bearing :

FIRST YEAR— SEPTEMBER, 1865.

Purchase of 300 acres (2,766 cuerdas) of land at $5 per acre. $1,500 oo

Survey fees 205 oo $1,705 oo

Nursery or purchase of plants 250 oo

JANUARY, 1866.

Salary of European Superintendent for one year $600 oo

Allowances 200 oo

Native Overseer 250 oo 1,050 oo

MARCH TO DECEMBER 31, 1866.

Felling, lopping, and clearing up of 100 acres (922 cuerdas),

at $12.50 per acre 1*250 oo

Drilling holes in 100 acres, at $6.25 per acre $625 oo

Staking 100 acres at $1.75 per acre 175 oo

Planting 100 acres, at $2.25 per acre 225 oo

Filling in holes at $2.25 per acre 225 oo 1,250 oo

One mile of cart roads $250 oo

Two miles path, at $75 per mile 150 oo 400 oo

Carried forward $5,QO5 oo

356 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbtapas,

Brought forward $5,905 oo

Draining 100 acres, at $3.75 per acre 375 oo

Weeding to December, ten months, at $4.42^ per acre per year 369 oo

Permanent Buildings. — Superintendent's House $1,500 oo

Overseer's House 300 oo

Stone pillar and shingle houses, 60 by 20, for the laborers. .. 500 oo

Rice and tool store 125 oo 2,425 oo

General expenses of transportation 180 oo

Tools and portable machinery 250 oo

Contingent expenses 250 oo

Losses in rice 250 oo

Medicines and medical attendance 75 oo

$10,079 °°

Loss by exchange on $10,000 at 6 per cent 600 oo

Expenses of the first year $10,679 °°

SECOND YEAR— JANUARY TO DECEMBER, 1867.

European Superintendent $750 oo

Native Superintendent 250 oo

Allowances 180 oo $1,180 oo

Felling, lopping, burning, and clearing up of 100 acres at

$12.50 per acre $1,250 oo

Holing, staking, and planting of 100 acres, at $12.50 per acre 1,250 oo 2,500 oo

One mile of road ... $250 oo

Two miles of path 150 oo 400 oo

Draining 100 acres at $3.75 per acre, per year 375 oo

Weeding of the same for the same time $600 oo

Weeding of 100 acres at 41 cents per month per acre, for

nine months 369 oo 969 oo

Permanent Buildings. — Houses for the laborers, 16 by 20 feet 500 oo

General transportation $250 oo

Tools and portable machinery 150 oo

General contingencies 250 oo

Loss by rice 250 oo

Medicines and medical attendance 75 oo 975 oo

$6,899 °°
Loss by exchange on $6,500 at 6 per cent 390 oo

Expenses of the second year $7,289 oo

THIRD YEAR— JANUARY TO DECEMBER, 1868.

European Superintendent $1,000 oo

Native Superintendent 300 oo

Allowances 180 oo $i ,480 oo

Topping and pruning $125 oo

Supplying failures 125 oo 250 oo

Carried forward $1,730 oo

Cost an& profit ot Coffee ttafsfng in Ceylon. 357

Brought forward $*>73O OO

One mile of cart road $250 oo

One mile of path 75 oo

Repairing of roads and drains 20000 52500

Weeding 200 acres for twelve months at 50 cents per month

per acre 1,200 OO

Permanent Buildings.— Store, 120 by 30 feet, three floors,

iron roof and stone pillars $5,ooo oo

Pulping house, water wheel, and machinery 2,500 oo

Iron pipes for conveying the coffee to the pulper 1,250 oo

House for laborers, 60 by 20 feet 50000 9,25000

Crop Expenses.— Picking, pulping, and curing 400 cwt. at $i . 50

per cwt 600 oo

Transportation of 1900 bushels parchment to Colombo at

yi\ cents 593 75

Cost in Colombo of curing 400 cwt. at $1.12$ per cwt. . . 450 oo

Export duty on 400 cwt., at 25 cts. per cwt 100 oo

1,743 75

General transportation 375 oo

Purchase of tools. 150 oo

General contingencies 375 oo

Loss by rice 375 °°

Medicines and medical attendance 100 oo 1,375 oo

$15,823 75
Loss by exchange on $15,000, at 6 per cent 930 oo

Expenses of the third year $16,753 75

RECAPITULATION.

First year's expenditure $10,679 °o

Second year's expenditure 7,289 oo

Third year's expenditure 16,753 75

Total expenditure $34,721 75

Less value of 400 cwt. of coffee in the London market,
at $16.75 net per cwt 6,700 oo

Estate Dr. Jan. i, 1869 $28,021 75

Comparing the expenses and the yield of coffee in Ceylon, accord-
ing to the data supplied by the preceding estimate, with the expenses
and the yield of coffee in Soconusco, the total expenses are found to
be greater in Ceylon than in Soconusco, notwithstanding the fact that
some of the processes of cultivating and preparing the coffee for
market cost less there than in Soconusco ; while the yield is much smaller
in Ceylon than in Soconusco.

Two hundred acres are equivalent to 1,844 cuerdas. Calculating
that in each acre there are planted 1200 trees, at a distance of six feet
apart, the usual distance in Ceylon, we shall have 240,000 trees, which
will give 130^- trees to each cuerda.

According to Mr. Sabonadiere's esitmate, each acre of ground

Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

planted with coffee costs, up to the time of bearing, $173.61, which is
equivalent to $18.83 Per cuerda, or 14^ cents per tree, while in Soconusca
each acre costs $107.50, each cuerda $11.66, and each tree n cents.

The causes of the greater cost of coffee cultivation in Ceylon than
in Soconusco and Guatemala, are chiefly the following:

1. Higher price of the land, which is estimated in Ceylon at $5 per
acre, or $528.77 per caballeria, without the cost of survey, while I have
estimated it in Soconusco at $50 a caballeria.

2. The greater cost of the buildings, which in Ceylon are con-
structed of stone and mortar, with a roof of galvanized iron, and with-
out regard to economy, as their value alone represents almost a third
of the total cost of the estate, while in Soconusco they are made of
pillars of unhewed logs, with a roof of straw, and at a very moderate
cost. The cost of the buildings in Ceylon, according to the preceding
estimate, is $10,925, while in Soconusco it does not reach $1,000.

3. The greater number of operations required on a coffee planta-
tion in Ceylon, such as draining, and topping, and pruning the trees.

4. The cost of roads, the cost of the pipes to carry the coffee from
the plantation to the pulping house, the loss on exchange in London
and the loss by rice, expenses which are either not incurred in Soco-
nusco or are very slight. The cost of roads in Ceylon is $1,325, that
of iron pipes $1,250, that of exchange on London $1,920, and the loss
by rice $875, making a total of $5,660.

The items which cost less in Ceylon than in Soconusco are the
following :

Machinery and implements, for reasons which will be readily under-
stood, cost more in Soconusco than in Ceylon. The same is the case
with weeding; the reason of this is, perhaps, that the soil in Soconusco,
being more fertile than that of Ceylon, produces more weeds, and
vegetation is more luxuriant in the former than in the latter.

A day's wages in Ceylon is seventeen cents (8 pence), but, taking
into account the losses by rice, which is sometimes bought at a high
price and sold at a low price to the laborers, wages may be estimated
at twenty cents per day. The task given to each laborer as a day's
work in Ceylon is not mentioned, however, and perhaps this makes up
for the difference in wages.

The following table will give an idea of the difference, in the cost
of cultivating coffee, between Soconusco and Ceylon.

IN SOCONUSCO. IN CEYLON.

Land, two caballerias $100 oo $1,057 54

Manager and overseer for three years 1,080 oo 3,7IQ °°

Nursery 52250 25000

Clearing the ground, one cuerda 50 I 35i

Staking " " 04 19

Conclusion. 359

IN SOCONUSCO. IN CEYLON.

Holing the ground, one cuerda 12 6yf

Transplanting one cuerda $ 52 $ 49

Weedings, per year i oo 54

Gathering the crop and preparing it for market per cwt.. . 2 25 4 "

Medicine and medical attendance for three years 250 oo

Freight 150 oo 805 oo-

Implements and machinery, two years 950 oo 400 oo

General contingencies 35° °° 875 OO

Drainage, per cuerda, two years 6100

Mr. Sabonadiere estimates the yield of 200 acres of land at 800 cwt.y
or 88,270 Mexican Ibs., which gives a yield of 441.35 Ibs. per acre, or
about 48 Ibs. per cuerda, or .358 of a pound, which is 5T\ oz. per tree,

The yield of a coffee plantation in Soconusco is 1,917} Ibs. per
acre, 208 Ibs. per cuerda, and 2 Ibs. per tree, as has been already stated.
Notwithstanding that there are in Soconusco a smaller number of
trees in each cuerda, the yield is more than four times greater per
cuerda, for while each tree yields in Soconusco 2 Ibs. of coffee in the
year, in Ceylon it yields only 5T\ oz.

But notwithstanding the greater expense of coffee cultivation in
Ceylon, as compared with Soconusco, it is still a profitable industry
there, for the estimate made by Mr. Sabonadiere shows that a planta-
tion of 300 acres of land, of which 200 are planted with coffee, and
the total cost of which has been $34,728.75, will at the end of seven
years have paid off this sum by its produce, the estate being left free
and representing a capital of from $60,000 to $70,000.

VII.
CONCLUSION.

I have endeavored to carry out, to the best of my ability, the object
I had in view, in writing this work, that is, to facilitate and extend
coffee cultivation in Mexico.

The facts which I have set down will, I believe, show that there are
few enterprises that could be undertaken in our country with so much,
profit as the cultivation of coffee.

The coffee crop of Soconusco, last year (1873), did not reach, it is
estimated, 1,500 quintals. The greater number of the plantations
already formed, are situated in the low lands, which, as I have already
said, are the least suitable for this crop. There seems to be a growing
disposition, however, to plant coffee, and new plantations are being
formed in the high lands. Persons have even come from other parts
to plant coffee in Soconusco. Its production will consequently in-
crease considerably within a very short time.

I have no data on which to base an estimate of the quantity of

360 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast ot Cbiapas,

coffee produced in the other parts of the republic, where this crop is
raised; but I imagine that the annual production, in the entire
country, is about 100,000 quintals — which is little enough — the greater
part of this being raised on the coast of Veracruz. Guatemala alone
produces more than 200,000 quintals; and Costa Rica, whose popula-
tion does not reach 200,000, very nearly 300,000 quintals.

Mexico possesses extensive lands suitable for coffee, which are now
uncultivated, and which will make the fortunes of those who shall
cultivate them, contributing at the same time to augment the national
wealth. The day in which the cultivation of coffee assumes important
proportions in Mexico there will be opened up for the country a new
source of wealth, of agricultural industry, which will greatly increase
its exports, and, as a consequence, its imports, its commercial activity,
and even the national revenues, while enriching the planters.

I earnestly hope that this little work may contribute, in some degree,
to the realization of these results.

M. ROMERO.
TAPACHULA, July iS, 1874

APPENDIX.

In my book on the State of Oaxaca, I published some facts about
the causes which affect the climate of that place which I intended to
use when I could make a revised edition of my paper on Coffee. But
as that is not possible, I think it would be prudent to insert here that
memorandum which I think will be of some value to anyone attempt-
ing to go into coffee-planting.

The India- Rubber World, of New York, of August 15, 1893, pub-
lished a letter of Mr. F. O. Harriman, Civil Engineer, dated at Jaltipan,
in the State of Veracruz, recommending the lands of the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec as very well suited for coffee and india-rubber culture.
As I was afraid that Mr. Harriman's views were not well grounded, I
wrote on September 25, 1893, a private letter to Mr. Hawthorne Hill,
the editor of that paper, pointing out what I considered serious mis-
takes in Mr. Harriman's paper, so that he could correct them editorially
if he thought proper to do so. Mr. Hill answered me that the best
way to accomplish that end was to publish my letter, and requested my
permission to do so, and thinking it might do good to discuss through
the press the subject to which my letter referred, I consented to its
publication, and it did appear in the issue of The India-Rubber World
for October 15, 1893. Both Mr. Harriman, from Jaltipan, and his
brother, Mr. J. P. Harriman, from Woonsocket, Rhode Island, answered
my letter, and I had to write a rejoinder, which put an end to the con-
troversy. In compliance with the intimation I made in the foot-note
which appears on page 295 of the foregoing paper, I append the letters
published on the subject.

CAUSES WHICH DETERMINE THE CLIMATE OF A LOCALITY.

The climate of any locality consists in the combination of its tem-
perature with the humidity that prevails there. The sun is the source
which sends forth heat to the surface of the earth ; when the sun is
over the horizon of any locality, that locality receives heat, and when
it is below the horizon, that same locality is losing heat through irra-
diation.

361

362 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

The division of the terrestial globe into five zones, the torrid, the
two temperate, and the two frigid, merely gives a general idea of the
average temperature of those portions of the earth, because the force
of the sun's rays is modified by other diverse causes, which bring
about the result that in the same latitude various kinds of temperature
may exist.

In order to determine the climate of a locality, various circumstances
must be taken into account, the principal ones being the following :

1. Latitude. — Generally, latitude determines the temperature of the
locality, because the nearer it is to the equator the greater will be the
amount of heat that it will receive, and such amount will diminish in
proportion as the locality may be far away from the equatorial line.
For that reason the line of perpetual snow is low as one approaches the
poles ; at the equator it is about three miles, and at the poles it is at
the level of the sea : at 20° of latitude it is about 14,000 English feet
above the sea : within the tropics its altitude is from 15,000 to 20,000
feet above the sea ; at 30°, about 12,000 ; at 40°, about 10,000 : at 60°,
about 4000 ; at 70°, about 2000 : and at 8°, is at sea level.

It is also to be noticed that the line of perpetual snow is higher
between the 10° and 20° from the equator than at the equator itself ;
this may probably be due to the fact that at the equator the sun only
remains 12 hours above the horizon, while near the tropics the
longest day is about 13^ hours, and as during that time the sun's rays
fall vertically, or nearly so, the heat in summer is greater than on the
equator.

2. Altitude. — Temperature becomes colder in proportion to the
altitude of a place, and the influence of altitude is felt quicker than
that of latitude. If we travel from the equator towards the poles along
the sea-level, we have to go many kilometers before a change of tem-
perature is noticeable, whilst as soon as we begin to ascend from the
level of the sea, a very decided change of temperature is experienced.
The ascent of 180 English feet merely, brings about the same change
of temperature as travelling one whole degree of latitude, or say, 169^
English miles, from the equator towards the poles. At an elevation of
15,000 English feet above the level of the sea, we reach perpetual
snow in the equator, that being a climate which corresponds along the
sea-level to 70° of latitude. For the first 1000 feet of elevation above
the level of the sea the temperature descends more than 7°, and higher
up about i° for every 500 feet on an average, and it continues to de-
scend less rapidly in proportion as the elevations become greater.

3. Location of Mountain Chains. — If the mountain chains are situ-
ated in the northern hemisphere, from east to west, the side that looks
to the north is exposed to cold winds, and that looking to the south is
sheltered from them, but has the southern winds ; the former, there-

Causes wbicb Betermfne tbe Climate. 363

fore, has to be colder than the latter. That is the reason why Russian
Poland, that has no mountains between its territory and the pole, has
during winter a temperature as cold as that of Sweden, whilst Hungary,
which is protected on the north by the Carpathian Mountains, enjoys
a pleasant climate similar to that of Germany.

4. Proximity or Distance from the Sea. — The waters of the ocean
have a more uniform temperature than the earth, and preserve, for that
reason, a proportionate uniformity whenever their influence can be felt,
moderating the cold as well as the heat. A cold wind passing over
the surface of the ocean becomes somewhat heated, and in turn a hot
wind becomes cooler. That is why the climate of islands and of
countries bordering on the ocean, is more uniform than that of coun-
tries situated at a great distance from the sea, and such countries also
enjoy more moderate winters, and their summers are cooler.

We may state, for example, that the average temperature of Eng-
land, which is an island, is about 65° in summer and about 37° in
winter, which merely gives a difference of 26°, whilst the average tem-
perature of Pekin, removed from the sea, is 79° in summer and 23° in
winter, which gives a difference of 56°.

5. The Inclination which the Country Bears to the Course of the Sun. —
The angle at which the sun's rays fall on a locality, and consequently
its heating power, varies according to the position of the soil of such
locality. When the sun is 45° above the horizon, its rays must fall
perpendicularly on the side of a hill looking towards the south, and
forming likewise an angle of 45° : whilst the plain below the hill will
receive the sun's rays at an angle of 45°.

6. The Geological Character of the Soil. — The kind of soil of a locality
has a great influence on the climate, principally on account of its
greater or less adaptability to irradiate the heat. Sandy soil is heated
easily and quickly, and when the sun's rays do not fall on it it irra-
diates easily and thereby communicates a portion of its heat to the
atmosphere. Earthy soil, on the contrary, absorbs less easily the heat,
and irradiates it more slowly, and so it communicates less heat to the
atmosphere. Marshy lands and forests cool the air.

7. The Degree of Cultivation of the Soil. — Cutting or grading and the
reclaiming of marshy lands renders warmer the temperature of a local-
ity. The complete destruction of forests may be fatal to a region
because thereby it may be deprived of a protection against certain
winds, or diminish humidity in a greater scale, be it through the de-
crease in the rainfall in places having no vegetation, or because the
evaporation of the leaves of vegetable matter ceases.

8. Prevailing Winds. — The winds prevailing in a locality have great
influence on its temperature. The winds may be cold or warm, ac-
cording to the place whence they come and the kind of surface over

364 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas,

which they may pass. In the northern hemisphere, as a general rule,
the winds coming from the north are cold, and those coming from the
south hot.

9. The Quantity of Annual Rainfall. — Rains have great influence
over the temperature of a locality, as they render it more or less humid
or damp. As a general rule a greater amount of rain falls on islands and
on the coast than in districts far removed from the sea, in the moun-
tains than in the valleys, within the tropics than outside of them.

The amount of rainfall in a locality does not depend merely on its
latitude, but on other circumstances, as, for instance, the vicinity of
high mountains abounding in trees, because elevations as well as vege-
tation attract clouds impregnated with water, and produce rain. The
rainfall also depends on prevailing winds ; when the latter pass over
the sea they retain a large quantity of water in the form of vapor,
which dampens the atmosphere or converts it into rain.

CONTROVERSY ABOUT THE TEHUANTEPEC LANDS FOR COFFEE.

The India- Rubber World, New York, October 15, 1893 :
To the Editor of the "India-Rubber World ":

I read with a great deal of interest in a recent number of your journal, Mr. F. O.
Harriman's articles on " Rubber- Planting on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec," and I am
glad to see that he is so much pleased with his location at Jaltipan. While I think
that Jaltipan is a very good location for rubber-planting, and with but one exception
agree with everything he says in this regard, I am afraid that he is mistaken in con-
sidering that coffee and rubber can grow well on the same ground, or rather, that low
hot lands are the best for coffee. In my opinion there is no land hot enough for India-
rubber, or, rather, the hotter the temperature the better it is, provided, of course, that
it is moist or damp. But not so with coffee, which, in my opinion, requires a temper-
ate climate, where it will not freeze. The mere fact that coffee-trees cannot grow
at Jaltipan without shade, shows in my judgment that that zone is not the proper one
for coffee-growing, since it requires an artificial reduction of temperature. You can
grow pine-apples in St. Petersburg, Russia, but only in a hot-house, — that is, by in-
creasing artificially the temperature, — the only difference being that in one case you
increase and in the other reduce the temperature. For commercial purposes, it will
not do to change the conditions of nature, as the cost of production will be very much
increased when you have to use artificial means to alter the climatic conditions of a
place. I have had a great deal of personal experience in coffee-planting, and I am
sure that I am right in this view of it, and if necessary, could demonstrate it very
clearly.

If Mr. Harriman's estimate about the yield per coffee-tree in Jaltipan is correct,
the place must be exceptionally good for coffee-raising. The yield per tree depends
mainly on the zone the trees are planted in. When they are planted in the hot zone,
the medium yield is from 4 to 8 ounces per tree, and when in the temperate zone about
one pound per tree. Isolated trees planted near houses where they have better care
and manure, may be found yielding in the hot zone even 8 pounds, but they are
exceptional cases, and could not be taken as a basis for the yield of a large plantation.
One pound per tree is a very good yield, as an average. The expenses of keeping the
plantation and gathering the crop are also smaller in the temperate than in the hot

ffitness of tbe Uebuantepec SLanDs for Coffee* 365

I do not agree with Mr. Harriman in his assertion that the India-rubber trees re-
quire shade while young. If he takes from the woods small plants which have grown
in the shade, and transplants them on cleared ground, it is likely that they will not
stand the heat, especially as they suffer a great deal from transplanting, even when
that operation is done under the best circumstances. But if he sows the seeds in a
nursery without shade and they spring up without shade, he will find that they come
stronger and stouter, and if he then transplants them to their final location, he will see
that they do not need any shade at all, and that the young plants grow more rapidly
and stronger without shade. Very truly yours,

M. ROMERO.
WASHINGTON, D. C.,
September 25 ', 1893.

The India- Rubber World, New York, December (Friday) 15, 1893 :

RUBBER SHADE FOR COFFEE PLANTATIONS.

By F. 0. Harriman, C.E.

To the Editor of the " India-Rubber World" :

The communication from Senor Romero in the issue of your journal for October
I5th, on the subject of planting rubber and coffee in conjunction, contains ideas so det-
rimental to the coffee interests of the isthmus district that I feel bound, though not
wishing to take issue publicly with Senor Romero, to say something further in the
same connection. The eyes of the world are fixed upon the Isthmus of Tehuantepec
as a connecting link in the highway of commerce between the Atlantic and the Pacific,
and its consequent advantage of soon being within easy reach of the entire world ; and
coffee-growing is daily becoming more and more important in the development of this
section. As T have tried to point out in your pages heretofore, India-rubber may be
made a factor in profitably extending this industry. Hence my continued attention to
the subject.

Coffee, wherever planted on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and also on the foot-
hills and Atlantic plains of the States of Vera Cruz and Tabasco, requires shade ; even
the old plantations of the Cordoba and Jalapa districts were shaded to a greater or less
extent, and at present, even in these altitudes, much rubber will be found for this
purpose. From the Mexican Trader Handbook No. I, Coffee-Growing in Mexico,
by J. P. Taylor, I quote as follows (page 26) :

44 Shade. — According to Mr. Hugo Finck, the coffee-tree requires shade up to the
altitude of from 3000 to 3500 feet above the level of the sea. From 3500 to 5000 feet
shade is not absolutely necessary, although the coffee-trees which have it live longer,
but their product is less. At Cordoba, Jalapa, and other districts in the State of Vera-
cruz, the banana-tree is the favorite one for shade, but, as Mr. Finck says, it is a tree
which so rapidly exhausts the soil that coffee-trees beneath it do not bear more than
eight or ten years. Mr. Julio Rossignon gives it as his opinion that the method which
some planters employ of shading their coffee-trees with bananas is a bad one. The
banana, while it maintains humidity in the soil, takes too much of the richness out of
the earth. On the other hand, in the return rendered the government by the city
council of Jalapa, the banana is recommended as the best tree for shade, on the ground
that it has the property of attracting to itself such moisture as may be in the atmos-
phere, thus bestowing freshness and luxuriance upon the coffee-plant which it covers.
There can be no doubt, however, that the banana is selected as a shade-tree chiefly
because it bears valuable fruit, which, on the Mexican or inter-oceanic railways, readily
realizes from $r to $1.25 per arroba (25 pounds). Beside the banana, the orange, the

366 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas,

lime-tree, aguacate, walnut, mamey-tree, castor-oil plant, the fig, and the rubber-tree,
as well as a host of others, are found in the State of Veracruz as shade for the coffee-
tree. All the trees specifically mentioned yield more or less valuable fruit, and they
are thus desirable on their own account, apart from their shading services."

In the valley of the Coatzacoalcos River, the proper northern part of the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec, coffee-growing is no new experiment, having been carried on since the
time of the French colonists settling there in 1829-32, and even at present there exist
remains of some of these old plantations in the towns of Jaltipan, Soconusco (Santa
Ana), Acayucan, Hidalgotitlan, and many places on the banks of the Coatzacoalcos
and Uspanapa rivers ; but invariably they all are shaded, and of the new plantations,
many bearing and shaded by rubber-trees, exactly as good results are given in yield of
coffee as when shaded by jonote, coscalite, cocuite, and other shade-trees. In this dis-
trict the good result is proved by actual experience and existing examples ; it is no
theory waiting for development. In a plantation thus formed with rubber shade, when
the conditions will allow, the cost of production of coffee is not increased, as Seiior
Romero states, for the rubber forms a greater producing factor than the coffee itself,
and the same extension of ground planted in coffee with and without rubber shade-
trees, will give more than a double revenue in the former case ; or, the capitalized
value of the plantation in the former case is more than double what it is in the latter,
with hardly an imperceptible difference in cost of forming plantations.

It is not on account of an excessive heat on the isthmus that the shading of coffee
is necessary. From the pass of Chi vela in the Sierra Madre to the gulf coast the ex-
treme temperature is between 99° and 57° F. In a letter on this subject from Coatza-
coalcos, dated August 17, 1880, Mr. Martin Van Brocklin, late chief engineer of the
Metropolitan Elevated Railroad Company of New York, and at the time chief engineer
of the Tehuantepec Railroad, says : " The thermometer hanging in my office has not
been above 85° F. since July 10, when it reached 88°, nor has it been much more than
10° below these figures," and this was during a portion of the hottest season of the
year, and Coatzacoalcos is the hottest portion of the northern division of the isthmus.

The shading of coffee is necessary on account of the continued dry southern winds,
prevailing during March and April, which, in addition to the sun's rays, will com-
pletely bake the ground and exhaust the moisture, and small plants, if not protected,
succumb to the combined influence of these elements. The isthmus, on account of the
great depression of the Sierra Madre, — only some 900 feet at this point, but rising
very abruptly on both sides, — feels the effect of the south winds as no other part of
Mexico on the Atlantic slope. Through the effect of the same topographical condi-
tions, by causing a continuous circulation of air currents from ocean to ocean, there is
given to this region a cooler and more salubrious climate than is encountered in any
other part of Mexico or Central America included within the tropics at the same
altitude.

Rubber should be planted from the seed, which falls in April and May, or from
young plants from a nursery, at the beginning of the rainy season, in order to be well
rooted to resist the effects of the dry season. At the time of planting the prevailing
rains are generally severe showers of short duration, with afterwards an almost instan-
taneous hot sun. Hence, if the young plants are not protected by some light shade, a
considerable proportion of the rubber-plants is sure to be scalded. It is true that the
rubber afterwards thickens in the trunk quicker in the open, but the coffee must have
shade in the dry season, and unless rubber be planted three years before, some other
shade is necessary, and low trees like bananas, planted properly, retard the growth of
rubber very little.

JALTIPAN, VERA CRUZ, MEXICO
October 30, 1893.

jfitness ot tbe Uebuantepec Xante for Coffee* 367

ANOTHER RESPONSE TO SEftOR ROMERO.

To the Editor of the " India-Rubber World" :

I notice with surprise the criticisms of Senor Romero, in relation to F. O. Hani-
man's experience in coffee and rubber cultivation on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, as
detailed in his article in your edition of August i$th. My brother has had an almost
continuous experience in the locality mentioned for over ten years past, and has given
the subject an exhaustive study, in connection with the opportunities afforded him
through the pursuits of his profession as civil engineer engaged in locating and build-
ing the railroad across the isthmus.

That the lands and climate of this locality are unusually well suited to the culti-
vation of coffee, a number of plantations in the neighborhood, such as Pena Blanca,
Villa Alta, and the Boca de Chuniagoa, can testify.

These plantations yield per tree enormously more than those of Cordova and the
coffee-producing districts of Oaxaca. On account of the great fertility of the soil, the
trees open out so much that they have to be planted three and four yards apart, else in
four years they would completely interlace. The trees commence to bear in three
years after first setting out, and when in full bearing, in five years, will yield large
amounts. At the Pena Blanca plantation, the average crop is 3^ pounds per tree ; it
is of a very superior quality, with a little less caricolilla than Cordova or Oaxaca, per-
haps, but the yield per tree is very much greater than in those districts, where only
from £ to i£ pounds per tree is obtained, and naturally it will be a great deal more ad-
vantageous to cultivate plantations in this district.

I fail to grasp the pertinence of Senor Romero's suggestion that " the fact that
coffee-trees cannot grow in this locality without shade, shows it is not the proper zone
for coffee-growing." This fact is no more conclusive than the fact that a few years
ago, when the railroad construction company sent 3000 wheelbarrows to this locality,
the native Indians employed there would not use them until they had taken out the
wheel and placed a man at each end of the barrow, is conclusive that nineteenth-cen-
tury ideas are not applicable to labor in this district.

The simple fact that it has been the custom until recently to cultivate coffee only
at a higher elevation above the sea-level than this valley, seems to me to offer no valid
reason for not accepting the much greater yield of the product attained from richness
of soil, etc. , here with shade, especially when the product of the shade-trees, in seven
years from planting, yields a larger profit than the coffee-trees even, and divides the
expense of maintenance.

For commercial purposes, it -will do "to change the conditions of nature," as
illustrated by the reclaiming of large tracts of the " great American desert," by arti-
ficial irrigation, and the deepening of the outlets of numerous rivers by jetties recently
constructed. I see no reason for declining to adopt modern ideas for the cultivation
of coffee and rubber in conjunction when the outlook is so promising.

J. P. HARRIMAN.

WOONSOCKET, R. I., November 9, 1883.

The India-Rubber World, February 15, 1894 :

AN ANSWER FROM SESOR ROMERO.

To the Editor of the " India-Rubber World" :

I have seen in your issue of December isth, a communication from Mr. F. O.
Harriman, C.E., dated at Jaltipan, Veracruz, Mexico, on October 3oth last, com-
menting on my letter published in your October number, in which I criticised his
former article about his Tehuantepec India-rubber and coffee plantations.

368 Coffee Culture on tbe Soutbern Coast of Cbiapas.

You know very well that my letter was not written for publication, and that I
only consented to its insertion in your paper after your solicitation, and because I
supposed that the discussion of this important subject would do some good to the
public at large, and especially to the coffee and India-rubber industries in Mexico.
Far from having any intention detrimental to any of those industries, my well-known
interest in both of them made me write my letter, as I think I am the originator and
promoter of India-rubber planting in Mexico, and I have given a great deal of my
time— at least two consecutive years— to coffee-culture, having started myself a coffee
and an India-rubber plantation in the State of Chiapas, in southeastern Mexico.

Perhaps I was too sweeping in my remarks about coffee-planting in the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec, due to the fact that my official duties at this capital leave me very
little time to consider carefully and maturely other subjects, and that my letter to you
was for that reason written in great haste. What I meant to say, — because I am con-
vinced of it by experience and study, — is that hot lands are not the best for coffee, and
that as a general rule low lands are hot, and in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec lands are
low. As Mr. Harriman says the highest elevation is only 900 feet above the level ot
the sea, I concluded that they could not be the best lands for coffee.

But Mr. Harriman states in his last letter that the lands on the isthmus are not
hot, and as he knows them well and I have only passed through some of them, — never
having been at Jaltipan, — his lands may be very good and perhaps the best for coffee,
and I sincerely hope they are so, as I have the best wishes for his success, as well as
for the success of anybody else who would contribute to the development of the coffee
industry in Mexico, which I think is one of the greatest sources of wealth in that
country.

As is well known, the temperature of a place depends on several factors, the
principal one being its elevation above the level of the sea ; but this factor may be
affected or even changed by others, like the currents of air, dampness, etc. The at-
mospheric conditions of Jaltipan, as described by Mr. Harriman, doubtless may give
that place, located 900 feet above the sea-level, a temperature corresponding in other
localities to a much higher elevation (say from 5000 to 5 500 feet), which I think is the
best location for coffee-culture. I am sure, too, that the great currents of air passing
through the isthmus of Tehuantepec, which Mr. Harriman describes so well, and
which I have experienced while passing through that isthmus, will dry the land, and
may make it necessary to use shade for the coffee-trees when they are young and when
most of the surface of the land would be exposed to the winds ; but even in that case
I should think that when the coffee-trees are grown, and they shade the ground with
their own leaves, the yield of the plantation per tree would be increased by pulling
down the shade-trees.

I am still firmly of the opinion that as a general rule, recognizing of course that
there may be exceptions to the rule itself, but not to its principle, coffee is the product
of temperate and not of hot climates, — and that it is better therefore to plant it high
rather than low. Mr. Taylor's quotation of Mr. Hugo Finck's opinion, quoted by
Mr. F. O. Harriman, to the effect that coffee-trees need shade when planted below
from 3000 to 3500 feet, and do not need it when planted higher, I rather think con-
firms my theory.

I have also read Mr. J. P. Harriman's letter, dated at Woonsocket, R. I., No-
vember gth, published in the same issue of your journal, commenting on my previous
communication on this subject. My remarks already made to the other letter will
answer his, and I will only add that if coffee-trees yield in Jaltipan or around there
3^ pounds per tree, as he says they average at the Pena Blanca plantations, I would
not hesitate in saying that the isthmus lands are the best in the world for coffee-
raising, as what I consider the best lands in Mexico for that industry do not average

jf itness of tbe Uebuantepec %anfcs for Coffee. 369

in a large plantation more than one pound per tree per crop, although individual trees
may yield considerably more. Nobody will be happier than myself if such is the fact,
as I feel such a great interest in the development of that industry in Mexico.

To Mr. F. O. Harriman and his associates, should he have any, I would venture
to say, — should they allow me to volunteer my advice, — go on with your plantation
and increase it as much as you can, being sure that if the yield is such as expected, you
have the best coffee-lands in Mexico, and possibly the best in the world. But should
you for any reason be mistaken in that regard, I would advise you still to go on, as a
plantation already begun, when the land has been secured and there is sufficient labor,
is far better, even in case it has not the best conditions as compared with others which
would be only imaginary ones. Coffee production is such a lucrative business that it
will yield very large profits, even in case it is not undertaken under the best con-
ditions.

Mr. J. P. Harriman asserts that coffee has heretofore been planted in high lands,
and considers that planting it in low lands, which are generally more fertile, shows a
great improvement, and mentions in support of his theory an experiment to introduce
wheelbarrows in Tehuantepec, the reclaiming of large tracts of the " great American
desert " by artificial irrigation, and of deepening shallow rivers by constructing jetties.
To my knowledge coffee has been planted so far almost exclusively in the low lands,
and it is only recently and in a few places where its culture is more advanced, and
experience has shown the advantages of high lands, that these are preferred.

Nobody could deny that men can through industry and labor assist nature very
materially in the discharge of its functions, as it is the case in manuring worn-out
land, in irrigating arid tracts, which otherwise would be unproductive, etc., but I per-
ceive a great difference between assisting the forces of nature and trying to change
them. When a crop is cultivated out of its own natural zone, I think the effort is in
the second direction. Even in case of man's industry assisting the forces of nature, I
imagine it is better to use land which requires no such assistance. I would make a
farm of virgin land, rather than of worn-out land which needs to be manured, and of
a moist land needing no irrigation, than of arid land which cannot be productive
without irrigation, all other circumstances being equal.

I do not understand the hint to wheelbarrows in Tehuantepec, unless it is to com-
pare me with the native Indians who would not use them until they had taken out the
wheels and placed a man at each end of the barrow. I am as firm a believer in prog-
ress as Mr. Harriman can be, and I do not think my views on coffee culture are
inconsistent with progress, but should I be mistaken I will be glad to acknowledge my
error when I am satisfied that I have made any, as I am always open to conviction and
I think it is honorable for anybody to recognize his own mistakes.

M. ROMERO.

WASHINGTON, D. C., December 16, 1893.

After my paper on coffee culture was writtten, I received a very
interesting publication on coffee culture in Brazil entitled Monographia
do Caft Historia, Cultura e Producfdo, by Paulo Porlo-Alegre, pub-
lished in Lisbon, in 1879, which contains valuable information on the
coffee culture in that country. I am sorry that I have not the time
to compare the culture of coffee in Brazil with the way in which it is
cultivated in Mexico and Guatemala.

INDIA-RUBBER CULTURE IN MEXICO,

371

INTRODUCTION.

All that I said in the introduction of this book, referring to coffee
culture in Mexico, applies to India-rubber culture. When in 1872, I
made a long trip of inspection to several of the Mexican States for
the purpose of studying the agricultural resources of the country and
selecting some branch of it which would be pleasant and profitable to ap-
ply myself to, together with a desirable location, and visited Soconusco,
I was very much struck with the great future of the India-rubber
culture, and I became satisfied that it was the most lucrative branch
of agriculture that could then possibly be undertaken.

On that occasion I remained about four months in Soconusco and
studied almost exclusively the India-rubber tree, and it seemed to me
so promising that I fully made up my mind to undertake a plantation
of such trees, and on my return to the City of Mexico, in December,
1872, for the purpose of closing my affairs there and moving my resi-
dence to Tapachula, the county-seat of Soconusco, I decided to give
to my countrymen the benefit of my studies and experience, or rather
surmises about India-rubber culture, and I consequently published a
paper entitled, ' ' Importance of India- Rubber Culture in the Future of
Mexico, ' ' in which I tried to present what I had gathered, and to give
a clear idea of the profits of that culture in Mexico, and of the advan-
tages of Soconusco for the same.

My paper on this subject differs from the one on coffee, especially
from the fact that when I wrote the latter, coffee raising was an in-
dustry already established, and of which one could speak from ex-
perience, while India-rubber planting was not in existence anywhere in
the world that I knew of, and therefore nobody could lay down with
certainty the true principles of the same, and any surmises, however
plausible and reasonable, could not be supported by experience.

On returning to Soconusco in 1873 to make there my permanent
abode, I purchased a very desirable piece of land, of about 25,000
acres, bounded by the Pacific on the south, and by two large rivers,
the Zuchiate on the east, and the Caohuacan on the west, at a distance
of about ten miles apart, where a great many India-rubber trees had

373

374 1Tn&ia*1Rubber Culture in flDejfco,

previously been grown wild and the large ones had been destroyed by
the rubber gatherers, a fact showing, in my opinion, that it was the
best place for that culture. I planted about 100,000 trees, having to
contend with the scarcity of hands, and with the great difficulty of
bringing laborers there, because it was somewhat removed from any
settlement, the climate warm and productive of intermittent fevers, and
there being, besides, a great number of mosquitoes.

In 1875 my trees were prospering and in a very satisfactory con-
dition; but as I had to abandon the place at that time, when the trees
developed, the natives tapped them, destroying them as they do with
the large wild trees, and I could not therefore have the advantage of
the experience drawn from my plantation.

I have not heard of any plantation on a larger scale being made in
Mexico, except one on the southern coast of Oaxaca, called ' ' Esmer-
alda," which I have not seen, and of which I have not reliable
information.

Extracts from my paper on the India-rubber culture in Mexico
were published in English by the India-Rubber World, of New York,
in its issue of April 15, 1893.

The demand for India-rubber has increased considerably since my
paper was written, while the supply is necessarily diminishing. Every
day new applications are being made of that material, as, for instance,
tires for bicycles, carriages, and wagons, all of which result in a
much larger consumption of that article. In the Para regions, the
main source of the supply, the wild India-rubber trees near the rivers
have been destroyed, although new ones are growing up, and it will be
more difficult and expensive to go to the interior to tap the trees, so
that the wild India-rubber trees are being put to contribution in other
regions like Asia and Africa, for the purpose of supplying the demand.
The price has consequently increased and a good quality of rubber,
such as is produced in Mexico, is now sold at $i per pound.

The United States Consuls in America, Asia, and Africa sent re-
ports to the Department of State, during the years 1890 and 1891,
in answer to a circular addressed by the same, asking for information
on India-rubber culture in the tropical regions of the world, and they
all were published in a volume of 250 pages (Special Consular Report
on India-Rubber, 1892), which contains very interesting information on
the rubber culture in Brazil, India, and Africa. Unfortunately this
information came after my paper had been written and published, for
which I am sorry, for had I had such data, I could have enriched my
article very materially with important matter ; but I was very much
pleased to see that the cardinal points which I laid down about India-
rubber culture are the same as those considered the safest in their
case.

fntrofcuction. 375

I saw in the India- Rubber World of New York, of March 15, 1894,
that a valuable book on india-rubber had been published in Colombo,
Ceylon, by A. M. & J. Ferguson, in 1887, entitled India-Rubber and
Gutta-Percha: Being a Compilation of all the Available Information Re-
specting the Trees Yielding these Articles of Commerce and their Cultiva-
tion" and that is the first intimation I had of any book on that subject.
I am sorry that I have not the time to compare the information con-
tained in that book with my surmises about India-rubber culture.

I am also sorry that my present duties should preclude my revising
this paper, which I publish now exactly as it came out over a quarter of a
century ago. All I could at present add is that the estimate of the
cost of a plantation, while perfectly reliable in 1872, would be subject
to serious changes, for the reasons stated in the introduction to Coffee
Culture in Mexico. In so far as the profits are concerned, I would be
still more conservative, and reduce them very materially.

As I am the only one who has written on India-rubber culture in
Mexico, and have studied the subject as far as it was possible under
the circumstances, I have received frequent calls for my paper on the
subject, especially from citizens of the United States, and to satisfy
their demands, I have decided to give to the public the following article
on the subject, without revising it in any way.

WASHINGTON, D. C., February 24, 1898.

THE INDIA-RUBBER CULTURE IN MEXICO.

i.

INTRODUCTION.

It is with a feeling of extreme diffidence that I undertake to write
upon a subject on which I can only speak as a layman, inasmuch as
neither my few studies nor my habitual occupations have initiated me
theoretically or practically in agriculture, botany, chemistry, or any
other of the sciences a knowledge of which is necessary to be able to
speak intelligently of a branch of agricultural industry that I consider
as being destined to attain a great development in Mexico, and to ex-
ercise a vast influence upon its future.

My desire in calling the attention of my fellow-citizens to the ex-
ploitation of a source of wealth which, I do not doubt, will, in a few
years, assure their future, is the sole motive that induces me to write
these lines, even at the risk of sometimes falling into an error of more
or less importance. I trust that this explanation will serve as an ex-
cuse for the inaccuracies which may be found in this paper, and I
shall consider my object in writing it attained, if competent and prac-
tical persons will kindly point out the gaps or defects that must be in
it, so that the subject may be the more clearly explained.

As another excuse for the insufficiency of this paper, however, I
think it proper to mention the scarcity of books upon the subject.
From the time that my attention was first called to the importance of
the culture of the rubber-tree in Mexico, I endeavored to provide my-
self with such books on this subject as might have been published in
Europe and in the United States. I applied to persons in New York,
and to the principal European book-stores, but their answers were that
they had met with no book treating of the rubber-plant. In some
encyclopedias, such as the Encyclopedia Britannica, the New American
Encyclopedia, and other books of reference, I found articles concerning
the manufacture of rubber rather than the tree that produces it.

During my recent travels in the Eastern States of Mexico, I en-

377

378 Un&ia*1Rubl)er Culture in

deavored to obtain all the data possible on the subject, so as to supply
by the experience of others and my own limited observation what I
could find nowhere else. The result of my investigations was not as
complete as I could wish, owing to the fact that the rubber-tree not
having been cultivated in those localities, no experiments as to its de-
velopment had been made; and, consequently, there are only con-
jectures, more or less well founded, concerning it. The summing up
of some probable conjectures on this subject is what I shall endeavor
to record in this paper.

II.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RUBBER-TREE—BOTANICAL NAME— CHEMI-
CAL ANALYSIS— SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF RUBBER— WHEN RUBBER
WAS FIRST USED— VULCANIZED RUBBER.

The tree that produces rubber belongs to the family of Euphorbiacea
trees, shrubs, and grass that gives a milky juice. This family is com-
posed of more than fifteen hundred species, which grow principally in
intertropical regions.

Its botanical name is Jatropha elastica,1 according to Linnaeus;
Siphonia elastica, according to Persoon; Siphonia cahuchu, according
to Screber and Wildenow; Haevea guianensis, according to Aublet; and
Echites corymbosa, according to Jacquieu. The trees called Cecropia,
Peltada, Ficus religiosa, and Indica produce a substance similar to rub-
ber, but inferior to it. The Asiatic rubber-tree called Ficus and Urceola
elastica^ grows to a greater size than the American, but its product is
inferior in quality to that of the latter.

M. de la Condamine, describing the rubber-trees on the banks of
the Amazon River, says that they grow rapidly, are perfectly straight,
have branches only near the top, and cover a surface of not more
than ten feet.

They have three seeds contained in a pod with three cells, in each
of which there is a kernel which, boiled in water, produces an oil that
is used like butter.

1 1 find in the Treasury of Botany, edited by John Lindley, and published in
London in 1870, that there are four species of India-rubber: first, Ficus elastica;
second, Siphonia elastica, which is the one prevailing in Brazil ; third, Castilloa elas-
tica, which is the one raised in Soconusco ; and fourth, Unceola elastica. The Cas-
tilloa elastica is described as a Mexican tree pertaining to the Artocarpacea, which has
masculine and feminine flowers on the same branch. The masculine flowers have
several stems inserted in a semi-spherical perianth, the feminine flowerS consisting in
several ovaries contained in a cup.

All the India-rubber trees that I have seen in the United States are entirely differ-
ent from those which grow in Mexico, and I think that they belong to the Siphonia
elastica family.

S>escrfptfon, Bnal£sfs, Specific Gravity of IRubber, &c* 379

Father Clavijero says that rubber, in Mexican, is called Olliu, or
Olli, a word derived from Olquahuitl ; that it is a tree of medium size
with a smooth trunk of a yellowish color, having long leaves, white
flowers, and a yellow fruit, angular in shape, containing kernels of the
size of a nut, white and with a yellowish skin. The kernel has a bitter
taste and the fruit always grows close to the bark. He also says that
it is a very common tree in Guatemala.

I have seen a great many rubber-trees in Soconusco and in the
western part of Guatemala contiguous to Mexico and near the sea; but
they were nearly all small; the large ones had been cut down for
reasons which will be mentioned later. There is a great difference
between the size and shape of the leaves of the two varieties; both
have them silky and of a deep green; the small trees are very straight,
without leaves, except in the upper part, these being large, hanging
down from a bough like a stem, and the bark is of a light color.

On the San Carlos farm of Mr. Jeronimo Manchinelli, in the juris-
diction of Tuxtla Chico, in the Soconusco district, I saw three trees
that the owner had found growing on the place when he took posses-
sion of it, thirty-one years ago, and which he thinks cannot be less
than thirty-five years old. They are of an enormous size; I measured
the trunk of one of them; it was two metres in diameter, and the
space shaded by its foliage had a diameter of at least twenty or twenty-
five metres ; its branches were also very large, the leaves smaller than
those of the smaller trees and their form entirely different from them.
Mr. Manchinelli having never extracted any rubber from them, did
not know the quantity that each tree could give, but experts calculated
that it could not produce less than about fifty pounds a year.

The trunk of the rubber-tree of Soconusco is of a spongy white
wood, with large pores plainly visible to the eye.

Very little is known regarding the discovery of the rubber- tree.
The French astronomers sent to Peru, in 1735, were the first who
called attention to it. It was found afterward at Cayenne by Frisman,
in 1751. Dr. Priestly refers to it in the preface of his work entitled
Prospective, printed in 1770. Various experiments made for utilizing
rubber are mentioned in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences of
France for the year 1768.

Rubber is extracted by making an incision in the bark of the tree
from which flows a liquid very much like sap in color and thickness.
Exposed to the sun or the fire, the watery part evaporates and the
rubber remains. Exposed to the air, it loses its white color and be-
comes dark.

This liquid is of a light yellow color with a specific gravity of
1012. The rubber separated from the sap rises to the surface like
coagulated albumen, and when heated with water, its specific gravity

380 UnMa-'IRubber Culture fn /iDejtco.

is 0.925, but when pressed out like cream it contains 32 per cent, of the
liquid.

From the analysis made by Prof. Faraday, rubber, as it flows from
the trees, is composed as follows:

Water with a little free acid 56.37

Rubber or caoutchouc 3J-7°

Albumen 1.90

Wax

A body of nitrogen soluble in water 7.13

A substance insoluble in water 2.90

100. OO

According to the same scientist, rubber already dry contains none
of the oxygen which is found in most vegetable products, but is an
hydrocarburet consisting of eight parts of carbon and seven of hydro-
gen, which would require a proportion of 82.27 °f carbon to 12.73 °f
hydrogen for every 100 parts. The quantities found by him were
87.02 of carbon to 12.08 of hydrogen. The same result was obtained
in the analysis made by Dr. Ure.

In his Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, Dr. Ure ob-
serves that rubber, in its liquid state, that is, " cachusina," which is
formed by the distillation of the rubber, has less specific gravity than
sulphuric ether; while in its fluid condition, it is heavier than the
heaviest of all gases.

He remarks also, that the greater part of the rubber imported to
Europe came formerly from Para, in Brazil, but that in recent years
great quantities have been received from Java, Penang, Singapore,
and Assam,

According to M. de la Condamine, rubber is extracted chiefly
during the rainy season, because at that time the trees yield more
abundantly than in the dry season.

Mr. Lee Norris, of New York, discovered the means of keeping
rubber in its milky form, as it flows from the tree, in hermetically
sealed vases; the liquid is first filtered, then well mixed with the
eighteenth part of its weight of strong ammonia. When poured on a
plane surface and exposed to a temperature between 70 and 100 de-
grees Fahrenheit, the ammonia that protected it from the action of the
oxygen in the atmosphere evaporates and leaves the rubber, which re-
mains white, and in the shape of its container.

Vulcanized rubber, a combination of rubber and sulphur, was first
made by Mr. Charles Goodyear, of New York, to whom letters-patent
for his invention was granted in February, 1839. Mr. Goodyear made
further experiments later on with sulphur, lead, and rubber, but these
did not give as satisfactory results as the first ones.

IRubber as a TCaw /iDatertal, 381

Experiments are at present being made in manufacturing rubber
cloth to take the place of water-proof articles which, until now, were
composed of glazed linen with a layer of rubber.

III.

IMPORTANCE OF RUBBER AS A RAW MATERIAL.

It is well known that rubber is used as a raw material, in the manu-
facture not only of water-proof goods, but also of many others which
could not be produced as advantageously with any other substance.

Every year it is employed in the manufacture of a great many
articles that were not made of that material the year before. It may,
perhaps, not be an exaggeration to say, that in course of time it will
partially supersede iron. These considerations are sufficient to estab-
lish the fact that the demand for rubber, in the markets of the world,
far from diminishing, will, in the future, increase considerably.

Thus far, rubber is not the product of a cultivated tree. In every
part of the American continent from which it has thus far come, it has
been extracted from trees growing wild, and that had not been origi-
nally planted by the hand of man. In every locality, also, it is ex-
tracted at the cost of the tree itself; either because this is cut down,
owing to the belief that the sap is thus more abundant, or because of
the frequency with which extractions are made, or of the bad system
in use of making them, which injures the trunk and thus kills the tree.
Notwithstanding that certain measures to protect it have been adopted
in different countries, such as Honduras where a fine of fifty dollars
is imposed for every rubber-tree destroyed on government lands, they
have proved ineffectual.

The inevitable consequence of this must be that the production will
diminish, unless a large number of plantations are soon established, and
perhaps even in that case; and as it is not probable that extensive
plantations will be made, if only because it would be a new enterprise
and for that reason a somewhat risky one, the certain result will be,
that the supply in the present rubber districts will decline in proportion
as the demand increases.

Now then, it is an incontrovertible principle that the value of an
article depends upon the demand which there is for it, on the one
hand, and its production, on the other. When the former increases,
and the latter diminishes, its value rises in proportion. To-day, the
average price of rubber is sixty cents a pound. It is almost certain
that within five years it will reach seventy-five cents, and, perhaps, as
much as one dollar a pound, owing to the facts above mentioned.
The value of rubber has been quadrupled in Soconusco in less than

382 flnfcia*1Rul>ber Culture in /IDejtco,

ten years; for from eight cents, the price at which it was sold to ex-
porters in 1863, it rose this year (1872) to thirty-five cents a pound;
the cost of transportation to the port of shipment, etc., being at the
expense of the exporter.

Rubber is an article which, even assuming that instead of rising in
price it were certain to retain its present value, or were even to decline
as low as fifty cents a pound, would still yield enormous profits, as will
be seen in the following chapter.

IV.
PROFITS OF THE CULTURE OF THE RUBBER-TREE.

The large profits yielded by the culture of rubber are obvious.
Supposing, for instance, a plantation of ordinary size, containing
about one hundred thousand trees, will give, at the end of a few years
making a low estimate, six pounds of sap a year for every tree ;
that sap, reduced to rubber, would lose about one-half by evapora-
tion, then each tree would yield three pounds net of rubber.

From the analysis made by Prof. Faraday, the sap contains only
forty-four per cent, of rubber, the balance being composed of differ-
ent substances; therefore, supposing that these evaporate, it will re-
sult that from one hundred pounds of sap forty-four pounds of rubber
will remain. This conclusion agrees with the opinion of Dr. Ure, who,
in his Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, says that in re-
ducing the sap to rubber there remains forty-five per cent, of the latter,
the balance of fifty-five per cent, being lost.

The number of pounds of sap furnished yearly by each tree being
reduced to rubber on that basis, two pounds and a half of rubber
would be obtained from each tree, or a revenue of two dollars and a
half per tree, if the price was one 'dollar a pound; or of one dollar
and twenty-five cents per tree, if the price was fifty cents a pound. In
the first case, the plantation would give a return of two hundred and
forty thousand dollars a year; and in the second of one hundred and
twenty thousand. Admitting that this estimate of six pounds per tree
is too high, let it be one-half, one-quarter, or even one-fourth of it,
which would be the minimum yield, as will be seen further on, the re-
turns of the plantation will be one hundred and twenty thousand
dollars, eighty-six thousand dollars, and seventy thousand dollars, re-
spectively, in the first case, that is to say, if the price of rubber was
one dollar per pound ; and sixty thousand, forty thousand, and thirty
thousand, in the second case, if the price was fifty cents a pound.

It is to be observed, that sixty cents a pound is to-day the average
price of rubber in foreign markets, and that, taking into account the

Conditions tor a IRubber plantation* 383

expenses of transportation, commission, freight, insurance, and others,
including also the profits of the exporter, which may be calculated at
thirty per cent, of the price above mentioned, this would be reduced
to forty-two cents per pound on the place of production.

As the cost of a plantation of one hundred thousand trees in the
State of Chiapas, the best locality for this product, would not prob-
ably be more than ten thousand dollars, it results that the profits
would really be fabulous.

It must be observed, moreover, that as the yield of every tree will
increase annually, there is every reason to believe that a tree twenty
years old will give from fifteen to twenty-five pounds of sap.

For the purpose of showing upon what basis the preceding calcula-
tions rest, and of giving general data that may be useful to those who
would like to go into that business, we will consider in the following
chapter, what are the requisite conditions to form such a plantation.

V.

PROPER CONDITIONS TO FORM A PLANTATION OF RUBBER-
TREES.

When about to form a plantation of rubber-trees, it is indispensable
to ascertain beforehand what are the best conditions for the develop-
ment of that tree, so that at the least possible expense and in the
shortest time, for " time is money," the largest returns may be ob-
tained. The following points, therefore, should be carefully ex-
amined :

1 . What are the climate and soil most favorable to the development
of the rubber-tree ?

2. What is the best way to form a plantation, by sowing seeds,
transplanting from the nursery, or with cuttings ?

3. Should the plantation be exposed to the sun or should it have
shade ?

4. At what distance must the trees be from each other, so that they
shall not interfere with one another's growth, and yet that no land shall
be wasted ?

5. What operations will the tree require before bearing ?

6. How long after planting the seed will the tree begin to bear ?

7. What quantity of rubber can each tree produce in a year ?

8. What is the best way to extract the rubber from the tree without
destroying it ?

Unfortunately, it is not possible to answer positively and conclu-
sively every one of the preceding questions. In regard to some of
them certain fixed principles, proved by experience, may be laid down ;

384 IFnbta^lRixbber Culture in /I&ejico.

and, concerning others, one must accept deductions which, in my
opinion, are well worthy of consideration.

Before discussing the above questions in detail, I deem it opportune
to state, that the principal difficulty to be encountered in dealing with
the subject, is the fact that, so far, rubber is in no part of the world,
that I know of, the product of cultivated trees, but of wild ones. The
largest part of the rubber consumed in the world coming from the
Province of Para, in Brazil, and this rubber being of the best quality,
and always obtaining the highest price in the market, it seemed to me
that it could be cultivated advantageously.

Happening to be in the city of Tapachula on the 24th of September
of the present year (1872), I wrote a letter to the United States Consul
at Para, requesting him to furnish me with detailed information upon
almost the very same points enumerated at the beginning of this
chapter. The answer, to which I shall refer later, reached me in the
City of Mexico. For the present, it suffices for my purpose to quote
here a paragraph from a communication upon the subject, addressed
to the State Department by Mr. James B. Bond, United States Consul
at Para, dated November 5, 1870, which is on page 60 of the Annual
Report on Commercial Relations between the United States and Foreign
Nations, for the year ending September 30, 1870, transmitted February
3, 1871, to the House of Representatives at Washington by the Secre-
tary of State. This paragraph is as follows:

Rubber is not the product of a cultivated tree : it is extracted from trees in the
forests, and the government, in no way whatever, claims anything from those who
take them out of national lands. It has been asserted that the trees from which the
rubber is obtained are being exhausted in the forests in the immediate proximity to
the markets, either because they die or because they give but little sap owing to their
being too frequently tapped. But the area of the production is so vast, and the means
of reaching the most distant localities increase so rapidly, that no immediate diminu-
tion is anticipated. On the contrary, it is possible that it will increase for several
years.1

From the investigations which I have made, it results that not until
a very short time ago did the rubber-tree begin to be cultivated ; that
the attempts at planting of which I have any knowledge have been on
a very small scale and so very few and recently made that they can-
not serve for the purpose of this paper.

The principal plantations of which I have any knowledge, are the
Zanj6n Seco, in the Department of Soconusco, made by D. Jos£ Maria
Chac6n ; that on the farm of San Isidro, the property af Mr. William
Nelson, situated in the jurisdiction of Mazatenango, in the District of
Suchitepequez, in the Republic of Guatemala, where the rubber-trees

1 This is a retranslation from the Spanish translation of the English original.

Best Climate for "Rubber Culture* 385

are used to shade the coffee- and cocoa-plants; and that of Hatillo,
owned by an agricultural society in the State of Veracruz.

I have been told, also, that in Nicaragua and Honduras, some
plantations have been formed as experiments, the principal one be-
longing to Dr. Gauffrau, on the bay of Realejo, near the port of Corinto,
in the former republic.

These explanations being made, I shall now proceed to discuss, in
regular order, each of the points specified at the beginning of this
chapter.

I. CLIMATE AND LAND BEST ADAPTED TO THE CULTURE OF THE

RUBBER-TREE.

The fact that thus far rubber is not the product of a cultivated
tree, does not preclude the possibility of one answering the ques-
tion : What climate and land are best suited to its development ?

The best climate is the hottest, and the best land the dampest and
the nearest to the seashore or to the low banks of rivers. Wherever
rubber-trees are found these conditions are present.

Those of Para are found on the banks of the Amazon. The rub-
ber land that I have personally examined is in the Department of
Soconusco, in the State of Chiapas. Soconusco forms a plain from
six to twelve leagues wide, which terminates at the Pacific and ascends
gradually and almost imperceptibly to the base of the Cordilleras,
where the ascent is steeper, although still gradual. This plain is
crossed by numerous rivers which come down from the Cordilleras
and empty into the sea. The climate is hotter in the low than in the
high lands above the sea-level. One notes the great number of rubber-
trees, — all small ones, the large ones having been cut down to extract
their sap, — that are in the forests on the plain, and the number in-
creases notably as one approaches the sea, and diminishes in the same
proportion as one goes from the shore toward the Cordilleras; even at
the base of these mountains, at an elevation of twenty -five hundred
feet above the sea-level, and in lands suitable for the culture of coffee,
some rubber-trees are found, but they are exceedingly rare.

To establish a plantation it is necessary, before everything else, to
select the ground; this should be in the climate best adapted to the
development of the tree, as the expenses would be almost the same
everywhere; while the trees will grow in much less time under favor-
able than under unfavorable conditions, and give greater returns when
they begin to bear, in the former than in the latter case. In the Dis-
trict of Soconusco alone, there is sufficient land to plant several
millions of rubber-trees; and I believe that a great many localities
could be found on both sides of the coasts of Mexico, that are equally

386 Unbia*1Rubber Culture in jflDejico.

advantageous for that culture; provided, always, that the plantations
are established in the low lands, in a damp climate, and, whenever
possible, near the seashore or the banks of rivers. The temperature
of the localities in Soconusco where the rubber-tree most abounds is
from twenty-eight to thirty degrees Centigrade, or from eighty-three to
eighty-seven degrees Fahrenheit. In all cases it would be well to form
the plantation in places where the wild trees grow most abundantly, as
their presence is the best evidence that the land and climate are favor-
able to their development.

Dr. Ure states that the Asiatic rubber, or Ficus elastica, is found at
a very high altitude above the level of the sea.

This tree has, besides, the great advantage of requiring but little
labor for its cultivation, which makes its exploitation possible, even on
a large scale, in Mexican coasts, which are generally not populous.

2. HOW TO FORM A PLANTATION OF RUBBER-TREES.

In regard to the best method of forming a plantation it must be
observed that the rubber-tree not being very delicate, economy of
time and money are the first things to be considered. If the land
selected be forest land, the first thing to be done is to clear it, should
it be thought preferable to have the plantation exposed to the sun ;
but should the shade be deemed best, the trees already standing will
furnish the best and cheapest protection. The soil having been pre-
pared, the planting can begin by sowing the seeds in convenient places,
or by transplanting young plants from the nursery or from the forest
itself. Sowing the seeds would undoubtedly be the best plan, but it
would also be the most expensive and the slowest; the most expen-
sive because it would involve the cost of a double planting, the first in
laying out the nursery, and the second in transplanting the young
plants from the nursery to the plantation; the slowest, because the
time that might be saved by planting saplings would thus be lost.

The method to be adopted will, therefore, depend upon circum-
stances. Where there are trees already somewhat grown it is prefer-
able to transplant these, because it saves time ; where there are large
trees, cuttings may be used, and where there are none of either and
only seeds can be obtained, the last must be used. It is not necessary
that they should be sown in the nursery, as the plant is not delicate
and requires no special care, like coffee and some others regarding
which experience shows that it is an economy to plant them in the
nursery.

On the i6th of September of the present year (1872), being at Tapa-
chula, I made an experiment with Don Sebastian Escobar, a well-known
practical agriculturist, thoroughly acquainted with the nature of these
lands and enthusiastic in the matter of agricultural progress. We

t)ow to plant IRubber^Erees* 387

selected a part of the public domain occupied by Senor Escobar, to see
whether transplanting could be done by pulling up the small trees, as
in that case the roots would come up without any earth around them;
or if it would be necessary to remove the soil that covered them ; for
in the first case, the operation would be quicker and cheaper than in
the second. On the land referred to, we saw about sixty small rubber-
trees, from eight decimetres to one metre and a half high. We pulled
up a few without, and others with the earth covering their roots, and
transplanted them at a distance of two metres from each other. We
first performed the operation planting some of the trees in the shade,
and then planting others in the sun. A short time afterward we
noticed that the leaves of the transplanted trees had begun to fade ; in
the evening of that day, they appeared to be dead. On the day fol-
lowing, they were dry ; shortly after they fell off, the branches that re-
mained presenting a not very encouraging appearance. In a week,
the trees all began to sprout again ; a little later they were covered with
luxuriant foliage and not a single one was lost. This is a proof of the
endurance of the rubber-tree. The land in Tapachula, where the ex-
periment was made, is not the best kind for the rubber-tree, being some-
what higher than that nearer the shore.

The easiest and most economical way of making such a plantation
would be, in the beginning, to combine it with the culture of some
product adaptable to the soil, and of a more rapid growth. The land
being cleared, it could be prepared for sowing cotton, which generally
grows well in the soil suitable for the rubber-tree; and, in sowing
cotton, rubber could also be sown at proper distances, or saplings
transplanted. The cotton crop being harvested, the rubber would
remain without any cost, since the expenses incurred would be only
those required for the cotton. This operation could be repeated the
year following; and, in this way, the plantation would be gradually
enlarged and without additional cost.

There is also another very economical way of planting rubber, and
that is, to plant the trees as shade in the coffee and cocoa plantations.
I have heard that this operation has been successfully tried in some
places. The expenses of a plantation of rubber-trees would not then
exceed, in any case, those required for one of coffee or cocoa; but the
rubber-trees could not then be planted in the places best adapted for
their rapid development and greatest yield, inasmuch as the climate and
soil most advantageous for coffee and cocoa are not the best for rubber.

Senor Don Jose" M. Chacon assured me that to have cuttings grow
well, the end which is to go into the ground must be pointed, and the
slip driven in, probably in order that the soil may adhere the better,
and the cutting remain firmly planted.

It is to be observed that in the lands of Soconusco near the shores

388 *|[n&ia*1Rubber Culture in

of the Pacific, seeds and trees somewhat grown are to be found in
sufficient quantities to form extensive plantations.

3. THE RUBBER-TREE MUST BE PLANTED IN THE SUN.

As the rubber-tree, so far, grows wild, and is found in the forests of
the most fertile lands, where vegetation is very luxuriant, and always
in the shade of larger trees, the general opinion of agriculturists in
those localities is that, like coffee, it needs shade to grow well. Ob-
servation shows, however, that this opinion is inexact. The most
superficial observer cannot fail to notice the great difference which
there is between rubber-trees growing in the sun and those that are in
the shade. The latter have but few leaves, are stunted, and appear
withered; while the former have thick foliage, a brighter color, and
look much more vigorous. The most careful cultivators in Soconusco,
and the very ones who were before of opinion that the rubber-tree re-
quired shade for its development, acknowledged before my return
from that district that they grew better in the sun.

In this opinion I was soon afterwards confirmed. I deem it proper
to state here, however, what Senor Don Jos£ M. Chacon told me. Senor
Chacon is a very experienced agriculturist, the same who made the
plantation of Zanjon Seco. His opinion is that the tree planted in
the sun develops more rapidly than it would in the shade, and yields a
larger quantity of sap ; but this is very soon exhausted, owing to the
ardent rays of the sun, which prevent the soil from retaining the neces-
sary moisture. He believes that a tree planted in the sun would yield
sap only for two or three years, and would then die for want of suffi-
cient humidity.

With much hesitation, I express the opinion that the reason why
some plants require shade to grow better, is that the shade serves to
temper the rays of the sun, for I have observed that the lower the
temperature of the place where coffee is planted, the less shade it re-
quires, and that it grows better without any shade at all where the
temperature is moderate. The rubber-tree being of a kind requiring
a very high temperature, it seems to me that the more heat it receives
the better will be its development. The humidity of the soil would
remain when the trees attained a certain size, for their branches would
then meet and give sufficient shade to prevent the rapid evaporation of
the ground.

The short time I stayed at Tapachula did not permit me to observe
any difference between the growth and luxuriance of the saplings
planted in the sun and those that were in the shade. The mere fact
that none of the trees planted in the sun had perished, was, in my
opinion, a sufficient proof that the rubber-tree requires a sunny ex-
posure, and should be planted without shade.

Distance between tbe IRubber^Urees, 389

4. DISTANCE NEEDED IN PLANTING RUBBER-TREES.

The distance apart at which rubber-trees should be planted, is a
question which, although apparently secondary, is really an important
one. If from a false economy they be planted closer than is proper,
the trees will interfere with each other, and will consequently become
stunted; while if planted a greater distance apart than is absolutely
necessary, there will be a waste of ground and a great increase in the
cost of cultivation, besides the cost of fencing, watching, and such
other outlays as may be needed, when the plantation is in a state of full
development and production. The importance of space is practically
illustrated in coffee and sugar-cane plantations: it is seen that on the
same land the returns of coffee-trees planted at a distance of three
metres apart are double the returns of those growing at a metre and
a half or two metres apart from each other. From this it will be per-
ceived how great a difference in the yield of the rubber-tree the distance
at which they are planted makes.

The prevailing opinion among the agriculturists of Soconusco, is
that a space of two or two and a half metres from tree to tree, on every
side, is all that is required. It seems to me that it ought to be much
more. If coffee, which is a shrub seldom attaining a height of more
than three or four metres, and whose foliage is, at most, three metres
in diameter, requires in order to give an abundant crop to be planted
at a distance of three yards from tree to tree, is it reasonable to sup-
pose that the rubber-tree, which grows to a very large size, should be
planted at the same distance or less ?

In my opinion, planting ought not to be done at a distance of less
than five metres, and even this would be too small for trees over thirty
years old. The trunks of those on the farm of Mr. Manchinelli, which
were of that age, measure, as I have already stated, two metres in
diameter, and the circle formed by their foliage is between twenty and
twenty-five feet in diameter.

The only objection there can be to leaving a greater space between
the trees, and one which may, in some cases, be of sufficient weight
to reduce it to less than five metres indicated as the best, is the neces-
sity of economy, inasmuch as the cost of the grove would increase in
proportion to the distance apart at which the trees are planted, as
will be demonstrated in the following chapter.

5. CARE REQUIRED FOR THE CULTURE OF THE RUBBER-TREE.

The hardiness of the rubber-tree greatly simplifies its culture, and
causes this to be proportionately cheap. In the low, hot, and damp
lands favorable to its growth, fertility is so great that the labor con-
sists, more than in anything else, in struggling against the luxuriance

390 UnMa*1Rubber Culture in /IDejico,

of the vegetation ; and the principal expense is that of the frequent
weedings which are necessary to prevent the underbrush and vines
from destroying the grove, or causing the trees to grow slowly and to
become stunted.

In the lands that are much higher than those favorable to the rub-
ber-tree, but less fertile, being less hot and damp, like those that are
suited to the coffee-plant, it is necessary to make as many as six weed-
ings every year; one every sixty days, in order that the saplings may
not be injured or destroyed by the undergrowth and parasites.

The rubber-tree has the great advantage of possessing a vitality
superior to that of the weeds or of any other kind of vegetation, and
for that reason it does not require the heavy expense of frequent weed-
ings. The tree which, without any help from man, can grow in woods
full of vines, briers, and other wild plants, can certainly outlive the
weeds, for they will not grow more rapidly than it does.

There is no doubt that a grove of rubber-trees requiring to be
weeded out only once after having been planted, will grow without
that indispensable requirement in the low and fertile lands of the coast;
but in that case, the growth of the tree will be slower, because the
weeds will share with it the nourishment drawn from the soil ; it would
therefore be cheaper to weed the grove twice a year, according to the
rapidity of the growth of the brush and the means of the owner.

In proportion as the tree grows larger weedings will become less
necessary, because its foliage will cover a larger area of ground; and
the larger the surface not exposed to the sun the less luxuriant will be
the undergrowth. Viewed in this light, a rubber plantation with shade
will be more profitable since it will require fewer weedings.

6. TIME REQUIRED FOR THE TREE TO PRODUCE RUBBER.

It is not possible to fix, with any degree of certainty, the time re-
quired by the tree before it will yield rubber, which is an important
question, for supposing it to be fifteen or twenty years, the enterprise
will not offer the same inducement as if it were but five or six years.
Six years is a comparatively short period in a man's lifetime, and this
is the time required by the coffee- and cocoa-plants to bear fruit. It is
safe to say that were it perfectly certain that five or six years were
sufficient for the rubber-tree to produce, the number of groves would
increase considerably. The importance of this point has led me to
give it particular attention.

Superficial observers, in the regions where the rubber-tree is found,
believe that the time necessary for its development is not less than
from twelve to twenty years. Those who are more experienced and
closer observers fix a shorter term. After having heard many and
widely differing opinions on this point from agriculturists and studied

<auantit£ of IRubber HJtelfcefc b£ a Uree. 391

the question very carefully myself, I am inclined to think that six
years, counting from the time the seed was planted, is the period re-
quired for the rubber-tree to yield its product, in the soil best suited to
its development; for it is quite evident that in less favorable soil, it
would need a longer time.

During my recent stay in Soconusco, I was able to satisfy myself
by facts of the correctness of the opinion fixing six years for the devel-
opment of the rubber-tree.

I frequently found trees whose age, owing to their being in a well-
known spot, such as the courtyard of a farm, could be ascertained by
asking it of the persons who had seen them planted or growing from
the seed. This was sometimes difficult, but the difficulty could be re-
moved in every case, and then it appeared that trees from six to eight
metres high, with a trunk from six to eight inches in diameter, were
three or four years old. This seemed to me conclusive evidence that
a tree six years old would have attained the necessary growth to begin
bearing without suffering any injury, provided always that it were
situated in the best conditions of climate, soil, and cultivation.

Practical and experienced persons in the State of Veracruz have
assured me that along its coast, bordering on the Gulf, six years are
considered a sufficient period for the development of the rubber-tree.

7. QUANTITY OF RUBBER THAT EACH TREE CAN YIELD.

There is another question not less important than the preceding
one; it relates to the quantity of rubber that each tree can yield
yearly. There is also a great variety of opinions upon this subject.
Many experienced agriculturists are of opinion that the trees can be
tapped every two months without injury to them, yielding each time
six pounds of rubber, which, in one year, would amount to thirty-six
pounds; while there are others who think it imprudent to make more
than one extraction every year, and from which not more than six
pounds can be obtained. Between these two opinions, there are others
differing both as to the number of tappings and the quantity of the yield.
Finally, there are some who believe that extracting the sap every two
years would give the same quantity as two tappings annually, but the
proportion of rubber would be greater.

The information obtained from workmen who, for two years, have
been engaged in Soconusco in extracting rubber, to the extent of de-
stroying all the large trees, does not bear upon the question ; for, in
the first place, the trees used are much older, a great many of them
being centenarians; and, in the second place, because they are cut
down to obtain the sap. Their statements, moreover, refer to measures
of capacity and not of weight, as will be shown later; for they first
collect the rubber in gourds and afterwards pour it into jars. But

392 lFnfcia*1Rubl>er Culture in

even according to these statements, a tree having attained its proper
dimensions in six years, and having had its sap extracted without
being cut down, would produce a quantity of rubber weighing not less
than six pounds.

It is to be observed, as has been already said, that in order to con-
vert into rubber the sap that flows from the tree after making the in-
cision, it is necessary to let the watery part evaporate, which, according
to Prof. Faraday's analysis, which agrees with Dr. Ure's opinion, is
as much as fifty-six per cent., the remaining forty-four per cent, being
what is properly called rubber. Consequently, the sap coming from
the tree must lose at least that quantity before being converted into
rubber.

8. METHOD OF EXTRACTING RUBBER WITHOUT DESTROYING THE TREE.

The process of extracting the sap from the tree is also an important
point in determining the success of a plantation. In Soconusco a
method entirely primitive is used, which causes a great loss of sap,
prevents this from being pure, and, what is worse, kills the tree.
They begin by cutting down the tree, and then make various incisions
across the trunk with a machete, at a distance of three spans (twenty-
nine inches) from each other ; this being done, leaves from the tree
are placed below the incisions to collect the sap, which is afterward
poured into a gourd, and finally put in the jar.

It seems to me that with so ruinous a system, less sap is obtained
than if the tree had not been cut down ; for I believe that, being no
longer in a vertical position, the force of gravity which causes the sap
to flow, ceases, and, consequently, the quantity drawn is less than if
the tree had been left standing to receive the same number of incisions.
When, by chance, they do not cut down the tree, they make only one
or two incisions in it at about the height of a man's stature; it is then
more difficult to collect the sap by the imperfect means of the leaves.
With this process, it frequently happens that earth, dry leaves, small
insects, and other foreign substances become mixed with the sap and
remain in the rubber, making it impure, causing it to fall into discredit
in the market, and greatly reducing its value.

Believing that a more advanced method of collecting the sap was
used in Pard, I also made some inquiries upon the subject, to the
United States Consul in that province. The information he sent me
will be found further on.

It is evident, that to extract rubber properly, a more adequate in-
strument than a machete is required; and to collect the sap a better
receptacle than the leaves used in Soconusco, or the clay used in
Brazil. I think it very probable that such instruments, if they are not
yet used, soon will be, in view of the need there is for them, and the

Coat of a IRubber plantation* 393

advances that are being daily made in the manufacture of agricultural
implements.

To prevent the tree from dying in consequence of the incisions re-
ferred to, it is indispensable to observe two things carefully: first, the
incision must not go beyond the bark, for if the woody part is injured,
the tree may die; second, such incision should not isolate the lower
from the upper portion of the bark, as, in that case, the sap being un-
able to ascend to the upper part of the tree, this also would cause its
death. It is also necessary that the tapping be not too frequent.

There are some who think that to yield a greater quantity of sap,
the tree requires several incisions, or a single one in spiral form around
its entire length; while others express the opinion, better founded,
perhaps, that a single incision made in the lower part is sufficient, as
the force of gravity causes all the sap to run down without much injury
to the tree.

It is well to be careful, after all the sap is taken out, to heal the
wounds made by the incisions, by covering them with wax, woollen
stuffs, or clay.

VI.
PROBABLE COST OF A PLANTATION OF RUBBER-TREES.1

It seems proper, before concluding this paper, and with the object
of furnishing the greatest amount of information relating to the prac-
tical points concerning rubber, to present an estimate of the probable
cost of a plantation. It must be remarked, that the following data are
based upon the present cost of agricultural operations in Soconusco,
and were given to me by Senor Don Sebastian Escobar, of Tapachula
— an experienced agriculturist, as I have already stated, and thoroughly
acquainted with everything pertaining to agriculture in that district.

The cost would vary according to the proximity of the trees, and
also, according to whether the soil has been prepared exclusively for
planting rubber-trees, and not for anything else, such as cotton, as
has been already indicated. Supposing that the plantation is to con-
tain ten thousand trees, and that they are placed at a distance of three
yards from each other, applying the measurement used in Soconusco,
it will result that a cuerda, the unit of the standard agrarian measure of
that district, forming a square of twenty-five yards on each side, or an

1 1 have to repeat here what I said in the introduction of this book, namely, that
conditions have changed in Soconusco so much since this paper was written, especially
in the price of land, labor, taxes, etc., that the estimate of expenses contained in this
chapter, while correct at the time it was written, would be now four or five times
larger, and that were I to write this paper again, I would make much more con-
servative the estimate of the rubber produced, which so far was only guesswork.

394 HnDia*lRubber Culture in

area of a little over six hundred and twenty-five square yards, will con-
tain eighty-seven trees; a little less than one hundred and forty-one
and a half cuerdas being required for the ten thousand trees; and if the
trees are placed at four yards apart, fifty-two and a half trees would go
in each cuerda and two hundred and fifty-one cuerdas would be required
for the ten thousand trees ; and if the planting is made at a distance
of five yards apart, there will be thirty-six trees in a cuerda, and it will
require three hundred and ninety-two and a half cuerdas for ten thou-
sand trees. In that case, including the price of the land, the cost will
be as follows:

Planted at a distance of three yards apart : The value of 141^ cuerdas of
land, or a little less than six and a half hectares, at 25 cents a hec-
tare, the price fixed in the tariff of the Department of Fomento, on
the 1st of January of the present year, for 1872 and 1873, f°r unculti-
vated lands situated in the State of Chiapas, one hundred per cent, for
the expenses of surveying, stamped paper, title, etc. , at which price a

great deal of private land can also be purchased $3 25

Clearing the land, at 50 cents per cuerda 70 5a

Planting, at the rate of 25 cents per cuerda 35 25

Removing the weeds, brushwood, etc., for six years, at 25 cents per cuerda

for each removal, at $36.25 for five removals 176 25

Total cost $285 25

To keep the grove six years, until it is in condition to produce rubber.

If planting is done at a distance of four yards, it will cost :
Value of 251 cuerdas of land, or u£ hectares, at 25 cents, adding the above

charges $5 75

Clearing the land 125 50

Planting 62 72

Five removals of weeds in six years 313 75

Total cost $507 72

Should the grove be planted at a distance of five yards, it will cost :
Value of 392^ cuerdas of land, or 17$ hectares, at 25 cents per hectare,

adding the charges indicated $8 76

Clearing the land iQ6 25

Planting 98 12

Five removals of weeds in six years 49° 62

Total cost $793 75

The cost of each tree would be, during the six years, including the
value of the land :

Planted at a distance of three yards, a little less than three cents each.
Planted at a distance of four yards, a little more than five cents each.
Planted at a distance of five yards, a little less than eight cents each.

It must be remarked that the expenses will not be made at the same
time, but gradually during the six years.

•Rubber in para, Brasil, 395

The planting of one hundred thousand trees would cost respect-
ively :

$2,852.50, when done at a distance of three yards.
$5,077.50, at a distance of four yards.
$7,937.50, at a distance of five yards.

After six years, the yield will be as follows :
Ten thousand trees, at a minimum rate of six pounds of sap each, will give
60,000 pounds, which, reduced to rubber, supposing that 56$ is lost by
evaporation, will leave 26,400 pounds of rubber, the cost of which, as
calculated by Senor Escobar, is at the rate of three cents a pound. The
rubber sold on the place of production at 45 cents a pound, after the
deduction already referred to, will give for the 26,400 pounds ........ $11,880 OO

Deducting the expenses of cultivation, at the rate of three cents a pound,

according to the information furnished by Senor Escobar ........... 792 oo

Leaving as a profit for the first year ...................... $11,088 oo

Considering that the yield of rubber has been calculated at the
minimum rate of production, and that it will necessarily increase every
succeeding year, to the extent of being three or four times greater than
in the first, it is impossible to ignore the great future of that important
source of public wealth.

VII.

INFORMATION RELATING TO RUBBER IN THE PROVINCE OF
PARA, IN BRAZIL.

Considering, as I said before, that as the Province of Para, in Bra-
zil, is the locality producing the greatest quantity of rubber and of the
best quality known, due, in some manner, to the way in which it is ex-
tracted, that it might be the product of a cultivated tree, and wishing to
obtain all the data possible upon that important branch of commerce,
I addressed during my stay in Soconusco the following letter to Mr.
James B. Bond, United States Consul at Para : 1

1 My letter and Mr. Bond's answer were written in English, and translated into
Spanish, in the Spanish edition of this paper made in 1872. Now they have been re-
translated into English from the Spanish translation, and therefore, although their
meaning has not been changed, the wording must necessarily be very different from the
original English text.

When I published, in the City of Mexico, in December, 1872, my paper on India-
rubber culture, I sent a copy of the same to Mr. James B. Bond, United States Consul
at Para, Brazil, and made further inquiries from him on rubber in Brazil. My letter
was received by him in Para when he was no longer United States Consul there, but
was getting ready to return home, and when Mr. Charles M. Travis was fulfilling the
duties of that office. Mr. Bond answered my letter in Para on January 8, 1873,
giving me additional information which he had collected while there, and on his arrival
in New York he addressed me another letter with a similar purpose, dated February
26, 1873. I also received a letter from Mr. Travis dated at Para, January 21, 1873, on
the same subject, and considering these letters of interest I append them to this paper.

396 Un&ia^lRubber Culture in fl&ejico.

44 TAPACHULA, SOCONUSCO, MEXICO,
4 ' September 26, 1872.

11 James B. Bond, Esq., United States Consul, Pard, Brazil :

" DEAR SIR : — I beg you to pardon the liberty I take in asking you for some informa-
tion relating to the culture of the rubber- tree in the Province of Para, in the Empire
of Brazil, that branch of agricultural industry being destined to a great future in
Mexico. I will thank you very much if you will do me the favor to furnish me with
whatever data you may have upon the following points :

44 i. Is the rubber-tree wild or cultivated in Para?

" 2. When forming a plantation of rubber-trees, are the seeds sown, are slips
planted, or are saplings transplanted ?

" 3. How long does it take for the tree to produce rubber after being planted?

11 4. What is the yield of a tree per year?

44 5. How often is the rubber extracted from the tree ?

44 6. What is the best way to extract the rubber without injuring the tree ?

44 7. How many different kinds of rubber are produced in Para, and what are
their particular qualities ?

44 8. At what distance from each other must the trees be planted ?

14 9. Does the rubber-tree require to be planted in the sun or in the shade for its
best development ?

44 10. What climate and soil are most favorable to rubber-trees ?

11 II. What is the height of rubber-trees, and the diameter of the trunks at dif-
ferent ages ?

44 12. What is the estimated value of each tree, and what the cost of extracting the
rubber ?

44 13. What is the annual production of rubber in Brazil ?

44 1 will be very much obliged to you if you will have the kindness to answer in
detail, as far as may be possible, each of the preceding questions, addressing your
communication to this place, via Panama, by the Pacific Mail steamers, or through
the Legation of the United States in Mexico.

44 1 am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

44M. ROMERO."

On my return to the City of Mexico, I received the following
answer to the above letter :

44 NEW YORK, October 22, 1872.
" Senor DonMatfas Romero, Tapachula, Mexico :

44 DEAR SIR,— I received your letter of the 24th of September last, and, although I
am no longer consul at Para, having resigned that position last year, and as the new
appointee has not yet reached his post, and could not probably answer your questions
until well acquainted with that country, I shall give you all the information in my
power that can interest you.

44 1. The rubber-tree is a spontaneous product of nature in Brazil, and unculti-
vated.

44 2. It can grow from seeds, but then, to reach maturity, it will, of course, re-
quire a longer time than if propagated by transplanting.

4< 3. The time required for the planted tree to be in a proper state to extract the
rubber profitably, depends, necessarily, upon the quality of the soil and other favor-
able conditions for its development. In the localities where it has been extracted for

•Rubber in para, Brasil. 397

some time, the men employed are using to-day the most slender trees and even the
shoots ; and I have been assured that this custom, and that of not letting the tree have
time to recuperate, has destroyed those that were the most accessibly situated on the
river banks.

" But little reliance can be placed on the information obtained from uneducated
and unobserving persons like those who are engaged in that trade ; when I asked how
long it would take for a tree, under ordinary conditions, to reach a vigorous maturity,
I was told from ten to fifteen years.

" 4. The exact yield that each tree can give has never been known, although I have
asked it often of the workmen. It is evident that much must depend upon its size and
condition ; and, probably, upon the place where it has been growing. It is generally
believed that the trees which yield the most, are those whose roots are periodically
submerged, but I also have been assured that there is a species of trees which grow in
high altitudes and give good sap, though not abundantly. The tree is centenary, and
attains great dimensions under favorable circumstances, both as to the locality and
age.

" To answer your question to the best of my knowledge, I will say, that many
persons have told me that the trees from which no rubber has been previously ex-
tracted, yield, in the season, as much as sixteen pounds. Others have given double
that quantity, and some only seven pounds when they had been tapped before.

"5. In Brazil rubber is extracted from the trees annually. An earthen vase is
fixed to the tree below the incision to receive the sap. The workman who makes this
same operation on a certain number of them, collects daily the sap contained in the
vases ; and, returning to his hut, smokes it in the evening, and during the night, a
process which is used to harden it. In the rainy season the rivers rise and generally
inundate the places where the works are going on ; if that does not happen, the con-
stant rains prevent the clay from adhering to the trees, which, for this reason, are left
untouched until the return of the dry season. The information I have been able to
obtain leads me to believe, that although incisions are made all over the tree, they do
not cause it any serious injury, or, at least, the harm done to it is much slower in its
effects. I consider this as a sufficient answer to your sixth question.

" 7. Three kinds of rubber are produced in Para, fine, middling, and ordinary,
or negro head. The medium is somewhat impure or adulterated, and frequently con-
tains a mixture of smoked and fresh rubber. The ordinary one consists principally of
the waste or scrapings taken out of the vases already mentioned, or of pieces which
became hard when the sap flowed from the incisions. All this is mixed with the
sap, sometimes imperfectly smoked, and sold with all its impurities. The value of
rubber varies. The middling quality is generally worth from one to two dollars less
than the fine one, per arroba of thirty-two pounds, but little of it is put on the market.
The ordinary kind is always in great demand. From last accounts, the difference in
the price of one or the other class was from seventeen to twenty-six milreis per arroba
of thirty-two pounds.

"8. As no plantations have been made, I cannot tell at what distance the trees
ought to be separated. However, as they grow wild, and their value would increase
according to their growth and size, I would plant them twenty-four feet apart from
each other. To utilize the land between them, I would plant some cacao, which would
give sufficient shade to the saplings, and produce a revenue several years before the
rubber-tree reaches its maturity. This idea is simply speculative, although confirmed
by various opinions of more or less value, which I obtained incidentally.

" 10. I am unable to inform you as to the most proper soil and climate for the de-
velopment of the rubber-tree. It grows in the valley of the Amazon, preferring damp
places or those liable to be inundated along the water-course. The species found in

398 fnfcia*1Rul)ber Culture in dDejfco.

the upper Amazon, the Madeira, and Purus rivers, is the most valuable, but it is due,
perhaps, to the fact that the particular kind of fuel used to smoke the rubber is more
abundant, or, perhaps, because in that region the rubber is sent only after the rising of
the rivers ; and for that reason reaches the market in a drier condition. I doubt whether
there is much difference in its intrinsic quality.

" I must say, however, that there are various kinds of trees that produce rubber,
or substances very much like it, but more or less inferior to each other in elasticity, and
which are not in great demand on the market when they arrive in large quantities. It
has not, as yet, been positively determined if the difference results from the intrinsic
qualities or from a distinct care taken in the preparation. Of that kind is the rubber
called Rio Prieto. I also have received some rubber from Venezuela by way of the
Orinoco. I believe that the tree possesses sufficient vitality to develop itself in climates
of very changeable temperatures, from a tropical to a temperate one.

" 12. The rubber-tree has no value in Brazil ; anybody can go into the forests of the
public domain, select and clear a plot of ground, which he can claim afterward as his
own, provided he does not abandon it beyond a certain time. It must not be supposed,
however, that the prospector for rubber obtains his plot without trouble : the forest is
dense, the jungles are very thick, and the trees do not grow close to each other as in
our oak or pine forests, but are scattered, and difficult of access, until paths are made
to reach them. The transportation of laborers and provisions to the place, must be
considered as another expense for the exploitation.

" I cannot tell how much the rubber costs to the producer. This must depend
upon the wages of the workmen, the price of their provisions (flour of manioc being
the principal article), and other circumstances. About six or eight years ago, it was
said, but I do not know if it was true, that the producer was repaid at a price from
12,000 to 14,000 reis the arroba. Since then the cost of living in Para is much
higher ; the price of rubber rose to 48,000 reis the arroba, and went down to 22,000
during the last three years. I believe, though I may be mistaken, that the producer
would receive a good price for his rubber, at the rate of 20,000 reis ($10) the arroba.

" I see no reason to think that the production is decreasing. The majority of the
trees are not injured, at least not seriously, by the extraction of rubber made from
them. The forests, at all events, will remain inexhaustible for many years to come.
New plantations are being formed gradually as the old ones are exhausted ; and I
believe that the closer relations between Bolivia and the valley of the Amazon will
furnish to Brazil the only element it needed until now to increase its facilities of produc-
tion. In treating this question, many thoughts that are as speculative as practical,
arise in one's mind ; but the time is wanting to develop them, and the subject proba-
bly may not interest you. I am, sir,

" Your obedient servant,

(Signed) " JAMES B. BOND."

VIII.
DATA ON THE RUBBER OF ASSAM, IN ASIA.

In the latest edition of his Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and
Mines, Dr. Andrew Ure gives much important information regarding
the rubber of Assam, a province of India, tributary to Great Britain,
situated beyond Grafes in the valley of the river Brahmapootra between
25° 45' and 28° 15' latitude north, and 90° 35' and 96° 50' longitude

IRubber tn Bssam, Bsia, 399

east of the meridian of Greenwich. I deem it useful to insert here the
principal data.

A short time ago, Mr. William Griffith published a report upon the
Asiatic rubber-tree called Ficus elastica, in which he stated that it was
sometimes found isolated, at other times in pairs, and at others in
groups of three. It is larger and gives more shade than all the other
trees of the forest where it is found ; and can be distinguished from them
at a distance of several miles by its picturesque appearance, due to
the great height and dense foliage of its top. The trunk of one that
was carefully measured, had a circumference of 74 feet; the area of its
branches a circumference of 610 feet; and its height was 100 feet. On
an area of 30 miles long by 8 miles wide, near Ferozpoor, in the dis-
trict of Chardwar, in Assam, 43,240 trees of that kind were counted.

Lieutenant Weitch afterward discovered that the Ficus elastica was
equally abundant in the district of Naudwoor, where it is met with on
the brow of the hills at an altitude above the level of the sea calcu-
lated to be 22,500 feet.

The sap of the Ficus elastica of Chardwar is better in the old trees
than in the young ones, and more abundant in winter than in summer.
It is drawn off by means of incisions in the bark, around the trunk and
the branches, as far as the top, and at a distance of one foot from each
other. The quantity of the sap increases in proportion to the height
of the incisions. The liquid flowing from them is of the same con-
sistency as that of cream and extremely white. Each tree yields forty-
two pounds for every extraction ; that is to say, every fortnight. The
sap contains from four to six tenths of water and from six to four
tenths of rubber.

Mr. Griffith affirms that the best kind is obtained from incisions
made in the woody parts of the large roots that are a little above the
surface. Below the line of the incisions, the inhabitants of Assam dig
a hole in the ground in which they put a leaf of the Phrynium cdpitalum
rudely shaped as a vase.

The United Rubber Co. of London has recommended that the sap
of the ficus elastica be put in bottles of from i£ to 2\ inches in
diameter, and from 4 to 5 inches long; but in Mr. Griffith's opinion,
this is the worst way to prepare rubber because it requires more
manipulation, causes the rubber to become black in drying, and does
not prevent the viscosity of the sap when exposed to the sun. He ad-
vises, as the best method, to work it by hand, to wash it in water and
to press it.

It has already been shown that the rubber called Ficus elastica is in-
ferior in quality to the American species called Siphonia elastica y and,
for this reason, cannot compete with it.

400

1FnMa*1Rubber Culture in

IX

STATISTICAL DATA RELATING TO RUBBER.

It seems proper to conclude this paper by giving some statistics
which will tend to demonstrate the importance of the production of,
and trade in, rubber.

The following figures, taken from the article on " Caoutchouc," in
Appletori s New American Encyclopedia^ show the import and export of
rubber to the United States, from June 30, 1856, to June 30, 1857.

1856.

Import of manufactured rubber .... $97,796

Export of crude rubber 1,045,576

Total

Re-export of manufactured rubber ...................

Re-export of crude rubber ..........................

Export of rubber shoes in 1856, 685,220 pairs ; in 1857,
537,328 pairs ..................................

Export of other rubber articles ......................

$18,379
120,802

427,936
665,602

Total export from the United States ...... $1,232,719

1857-
$180,585
832,058

$1,012,643

$62,593
64,491

312,387

770,596

From January i, to June i, 1857, England imported 5433 quintals
(cwt.) of rubber, and for the same period in 1858, 9115 quintals
(cwt.).

In the article on Para, in the same Encyclopaedia, it appears that the
export of rubber from that place, in 1856, was 4,696,829 pounds.

In the report already quoted, on the commercial relations between
the United States and foreign nations, for the year ending the 3oth of
September, 1870, the following data are given (page 65) on the export
of rubber from Para during 1869:

Quantity.

d

^j3
'cS
>

Additional
value of
40 %.

•a
i

To Great Britain (arrobas of 32 pounds).
To the United States (arrobas of 32 pounds).
To other countries (arrobas of 32 pounds) . .

Total

158,432

179,394
19,829

$1,736,490
2,083,465
221,175

$694,596
833,386
88,470

$2,431,086
2,916,851
309,645

357,655

$4,041,130

$1,616,452

$5,657,582

In the same report is found the following very important table,
showing the annual export of rubber from Para, from 1851 to 1870:

Statistical Data on IRubber. 401

EXPORT OF RUBBER FROM PARA, FROM 1851 TO 1870.

DESTINATION.

1851.

1852.

1853.

1854.

United States

airobas.
52 848

arrobas.
40 251

arrobas.
Q4 2O I

arrobas.
IO4 184

England

30, 485

45,573

yv«*v

38.243

55,444

France

4,26q

9,330

3,446

4,548

Other ports

4,573

9,750

2,213

2,063

Total

02.1715

113,904

138,103

166,239

DESTINATION.

1855-

1856.

1857.

1858.

United States

arrobas.
83 067

arrobas.
71 760

arrobas.
40 Q23

arrobas.
53.I4Q

England

C6,732

65.046

54.307

48,844

France

4,782

9,732

6,784

4,343

Other ports

6 067

502

5.583

8,114

Total

150,648

147,130

116,687

114,450

DESTINATION.

1859.

1860.

1861.

1862.

United States

arrobas.
8c 2Q2

arrobas.
72 IQ5

arrobas.
31 864

arrobas.
54.O4I

England

55,436

60 QO3

IOO,II2

93,535

5,733

8,378

0,Q07

8,423

Other ports . .

2 823

Q 682

5 56o

13.137

Total

149,284

160,158

147,542

169,137

DESTINATION.

1863.

1864.

1865.

1866.

United States . ...

arrobas.

82 356

arrobas.
71 260

arrobas.
04,263

arrobas.
106,491

England

118 408

140,352

140,138

154,457

France

4.Q4Q

18,547

11,787

2I,9IO

4,853

4,811

10,175

11,742

Total

2IO 656

243,070

256,363

294,600

DESTINATION.

1867.

1868.

1869.

1870.

United States

arrobas.
1-14 a jc

arrobas.
121,908

arrobas.
182,030

arrobas.

France

165,510

213,142

180,548

158,432

Total

2QQ 834

335 O5O

363 487

158,432

The arroba contains 32 pounds.

402 fln&ia*1Rubber Culture in /iDejtco,

x.

CONCLUSION.

In my opinion, what precedes is sufficient to demonstrate incon-
testably the great future of rubber culture in Mexico, and the large
profits it would yield after a few years to those who would devote
themselves to that industry. It may be affirmed, without any exagger-
ation, that neither cocoa, tea, coffee, sugar-cane, henequen, indigo,
nor any other tropical product, would give the same profits as rubber,
and the returns from each of these enterprises are, in reality, equal
to those obtained from a rich mine.

When that culture is propagated in Mexico, it will open up a source
of inexhaustible wealth that will change the fate of the rubber-growing
districts, which, from being poor and miserable as they now are, will
become rich and opulent when that plant begins to produce. Anyone
in a situation enabling him to make a rubber plantation of greater or
less extent may undertake it at once with the full conviction that it is
the safest and most lucrative industry. While the coffee, cocoa, sugar-
cane, or any other plantation, in favorable years and under good con-
ditions, can give a return of one hundred per cent, on the capital
invested in the year, not upon the capital expended in preparing the
plantation, including the value of the land, one of rubber will give
over one thousand per cent., not alone upon the cost of the extraction,
but upon the first capital invested, including the value of the land.

I shall consider my efforts amply rewarded, if the data contained
in this paper shall in any way realize the object I had in view in
writing it, and which is to create among our agriculturists the desire to
plant fields of rubber-trees in suitable localities. By so doing they
will be assured of a bright future, and contribute on a large scale to
increase the wealth of the country, to promote the welfare and pros-
perity of places where to-day poverty reigns, and where it can scarcely
be said that civilization has penetrated.

I shall be very glad if persons of knowledge and experience in this
important branch of public wealth fix their attention upon this subject,
and, by their writings, contribute to the great object that I have
simply indicated, correct the errors contained in this paper, and supply
whatever is lacking to complete it.

MEXICO, December 12, 1872.

APPENDIX.

I append now the two letters from Mr. James B. Bond, United
States Consul at Para, Brazil, dated at that city on January 8, 1873,
and New York, February 26, of the same year, and a letter from Mr.
Charles M. Travis, the successor of Mr. Bond in that Consulate, dated
at Para on January 21, 1873, the two former containing additional in-
formation about rubber in that rich Brazilian province, and to which
I refer in the foot-note that appears on page 395.

CONSULATE OF THE UNITED STATES AT PARA, BRAZIL,

January 21, 1873.
M. ROMERO, Tapachula, Soconusco, Mexico.

DEAR SIR :

Yours of Sept. 24, 1872, was duly received, and not being as well acquainted with
the India-rubber tree, its cultivation and production, as my friend Mr. James Bond,
ex-Consul of the United States at this port, I addressed him requesting the answers to
your inquiries, and such other information as he could give you. I enclose herewith
his letter to me, which I hope you will find entirely satisfactory. I would be greatly
obliged to you if you would inform me of the result of any attempts that your people
make to cultivate the India-rubber tree in Mexico. I can assure you that my motives
in wishing this information are entirely for the purpose of a thorough acquaintance with
the cultivation and production of India-rubber in the different parts of Central and
South America, where the climate may be suitable.

I trust your efforts will be abundantly successful, and that you will do me the
favor to communicate with me the efforts being made and the result to introduce into
your country that valuable and important article of commerce. If I can furnish you
any further information as I become better informed myself, it will be a pleasure to do
50. I am, sir, very respectfully,

Your obedient servant,

CHAS. M. TRAVIS, U. S. Consul.

PARA, January 8, 1873.
CHAS. M. TRAVIS, ESQ., U. S. Consul.

DEAR SIR :

I have your favor of this date enclosing one from Mr. Romero, in which he asks
for information respecting the production of India-rubber in this province.
I answer his questions seriatim :

I. The India-rubber tree is of spontaneous growth ; it is never planted or culti-
vated here.

403

404 flnfcfas'lRubber Culture in /iDejico.

2. The tree will grow from the seed ; the latter part is answered above.

3. It would yield the milk at any period of growth, but of course in quantity pro-
portioned to the size of the tree. As the tree has never been cultivated, no systematic
observation has been made in regard to its growth. I should think, however, that a
plantation would not be ready for profitable working in less than fifteen years.

4. That depends upon the size and condition of the tree. New trees yield better
than those which have been repeatedly tapped. A seringal is considered a good one that
will yield eighteen pounds a day per 100 trees. The proprietor of a seringal, if he has
good judgment and wishes to preserve his trees in good condition, will give them an
interval of repose during the season. It is not safe, if the seringal is to be worked
year after year consecutively, to tap the same trees daily for more than three months
of the six which make the crop season.

5. Every year during the dry season, which may be said to last six months, vary-
ing, however, in term and duration in different parts of the valley.

6. The collector having cleared paths through the forests from tree to tree (which
is no light job), goes his rounds in the morning, and beginning as high up as he can reach,
makes with a hatchet light diagonal cuts about six inches apart all round the body of
the tree. Under each of these he sticks a small cup fashioned of damp clay, a lump
of which he carries with him. Each collector is supposed to attend to one hundred trees.
As they are often far apart, by the time he has gotten back to his starting-place and taken
his meal, it is necessary to go his round again. He empties the little clay cups into
which the milk has trickled, and returns with it to his hut. The next day he makes
other cuts about six inches below the first and under the spaces left in the first circle,
and so on every day. The tree bleeds most abundantly as the cuts descend. Now the
smoking process must commence, or the milk will spoil. This is done by means of a
nut called urucuri, which burned under a sort of inverted funnel gives a very pungent
ammoniacal smoke. A sort of paddle is dipped into the milk and passed through this
smoke. Layer after layer is thus smoked and dried, until the weight becomes unman-
ageable. An incision is then made round the edge, the mould taken out, and the pro-
cess recommenced until the milk is all secured. It is to the use of this urucuri that the
superior quality of the Para rubber, and particularly that of the Madeira River, is
attributed. There are several qualities of rubber-tree, of which at least three are well
known to the ordinary worker. One of these called "the white" gives little or no
milk.

7. Answered before. They are found scattered through the forest at irregular dis-
tances. In some places and in some districts more abundant than in others, but never
holding almost sole possession of the ground, like the pine- and the oak-trees in some
parts of North America.

8. I should think it would require shade, in early periods of growth, at least.

9. It must be less exclusive in choice of climate than has generally been supposed.
Recently it is said to have been found as far south as Rio de Janeiro and Paraguay. It
grows abundantly far up the river Purus, in Bolivia, where the climate is temperate,
and no doubt would adapt itself to most countries which are free from frost in winter and
have a long and hot summer. This, however, is mere conjecture. I have no doubt
that it would grow in Mexico, and even in Southern California. Here it is found to
flourish best on the river-sides where the roots are periodically overflowed. There is, I
am told, an upland tree, but it does not yield so well. Too much dependence, how-
ever, must not be placed on such accounts. The workers in rubber are a very ignorant
class, not apt to make accurate observations, and the banks of the rivers are almost the
only parts of the country that are accessible.

10. The height I do not know. The largest of which I have any account was five
feet in diameter ; three feet would probably be a nearer average.

405

ii. The price depends upon the cost and expenses of opening the seringal on pub-
lic lands. No tax is imposed on the worker. Once opened and worked it becomes
the property of the person who has cleared it, and he can sell it to another. The cost
of production must, of course, vary with many circumstances and be greater in one part
of the country than in another. The producer in many cases sells his product to the
country store, sometimes taking merchandise in return. Sometimes they are hired in
gangs. The price of farinha de Mandioca, which is their main food, must enter largely
into any estimate of cost. Taking one year with another, I made an estimate six or
seven years ago that 12 cts., or 14 cts. ($6 or $7), p. A. of 32 Ibs. would pay wages to
the workman. Since then the cost of living has increased, and without being able to
make anything like an exact calculation, I should think 20 cts., or $iop. A. of 32 Ibs.,
would leave good wages, one year with another. The price has ranged much higher
than this. The export last year was 370,000 A. of 32 Ibs. each.

It must be remembered that the Brazilian arroba is 32 Ibs. ; not like the Spanish,
28 Ibs.

There are three qualities of rubber :

Fina : The smoked rubber above described.

Entre-fina : Sells for about $1.50 p. A. less than the fina. It has often a layer
of coagulated milk unsmoked, or it may have some adulteration or dirt.

Sernamby consists of the thin skin which dries in the clay cups or trickles over and
hardens on the tree. These pieces are rolled in a ball and stuck together with un-
smoked milk. In the English markets it is called " negro head." It sells usually at a
difference from fina of say 10 cts., or $5 p. A.

I may be permitted to say one word in reference to the effect produced upon the
condition of the people by the abundance of this valuable natural production.

In my opinion it would be better for the people if the tree did not exist in its
native state. As it is not cultivated, the laborer does not see in its yearly growth the
increasing fruit of his industry. He is not, therefore, encouraged to industrious habits,
or induced to fix his habitation permanently on the soil that has become his own by
right of the labor he has bestowed on it, and which, in increasing value, he may trans-
mit to his children. On the contrary, he is tempted to neglect regular labor, to live
from hand to mouth as best he may through one-half of the year, looking to the rapid
gains of the rubber season for the payment of his debts. The surplus is for the most
part dissipated in orgies, and the most of the workmen leave the seringals with little
or nothing to show for their work.

This, of course, would not be the case were the tree regularly cultivated after Mr.
Romero's idea. It remains to be seen whether such cultivation would compete in
cheapness with the natural product. I think it would where land can be had for the
asking.

This, I believe, is all I can say to meet Mr. Romero's inquiries. If I mistake not,
I have already replied to most of the above questions in answer to a letter addressed
me by the Mexican Legation recently in New York.

Very truly, JAMES B. BOND.

NEW YORK, February 26, 1873.
M. ROMERO, ESQ., Mexico.

DEAR SIR :

I have much pleasure in acknowledging receipt of your kind favor of Dec. 2ist,
and of the Correo in which your report is published. I have no kind of objection to
the publicity given to the meagre information which I had it in my power to contribute,
and write now principally to say that on my recent visit to Para, from which place I
returned three days since, my friend, the U. S. Consul, placed in my hands a letter

flnfcia*1Rubber Culture in

from you containing more or less the same interrogatories as those which I had partially
replied to here. Being on the spot, I was able to refresh my memory in regard to cer-
tain details, and I hope you will find the replies more full and more satisfactory than
those which I had previously the pleasure of communicating. Should you at any future
time get the rubber nut from the Amazon region for plantation in Mexico, be particular
in the selection. Of the three best-known varieties, that which gives a white porous
wood, to which in your article you make an incidental allusion, is by far the least
esteemed.

The suggestion referred to as made by certain collectors of making a "spiral cut
round the body of the tree," was at one time tried, but it was found so injurious to the
tree that no one follows this method. Indeed, I think a law was made many years ago
specially to prohibit this practice.

In the letter to Mr. Travis, I give a description of the present system of extraction.

It may be worth while to say that a few years since a French gentleman from
Cayenne employed whisky or rum of a certain proof (18° or 20°, I think, but am not cer-
tain) to produce immediate separation and coagulation of the milk. I have heard of
an herb which in some parts of Central America is used for the same purpose.

I shall be very happy to aid you in the enterprise you are engaged in by furnish-
ing or obtaining information, or indeed in any way by which the prosperity of our sister
republic may be promoted.

I have read your article with much satisfaction, and, if not too much trouble,
would be glad to receive any future contributions on the subject.

I remain, dear sir, yours, JAMES B. BOND.

The India-Rubber World, Vol. XI., No. 6, New York City, March
15, 1894 :

To the Editor of the " India-Rubber World":

Will you be so kind as to give me some information in regard to planting rubber-
trees, the length of time it will take before the tree can be tapped, and the yield of
fluid in Mexico ; also the expense ? References to any literature on the subject will
be gladly received.

EDGAR ZEH, M.D.

WATERFORD, N. Y., February 12, 1894.

[Mr. F. O. Harriman has in Mexico a plantation of rubber-trees which, he esti-
mates, will yield at seven years a larger output of rubber than has ever been gained
from the wild trees of that section. He has shown to the editor of the India-Rubber
World some specimens of goods manufactured from rubber obtained from cultivated
trees four years old. His advice, however, is not to tap them before six years, after
which he estimates the yearly yield at three pounds. The Mexican Minister at Wash-
ington, a number of years ago, planted some rubber-trees in Soconusco, with the idea
that the trees would yield, after the sixth or seventh year, about three pounds each.
His estimate of the cost of a plantation of 100,000 trees up to the productive age — six
years — was about $8,000. Mr. Harriman has cultivated rubber and coffee together, so
that his report does not give the cost of rubber culture alone. This industry is in the
experimental stage, the work which has been done in it being for the most part too
recent to admit of conclusive results. There is little to be said in regard to it newer
than what is contained in a little book entitled India-Rubber and Gutta-Percha : Being
a Compilation of all the Available Information Respecting the Trees Yielding these
Articles of Commerce and their Cultivation. Second edition. Colombo, Ceylon :
A. M. & J. Ferguson, 1887. It should be read by any one interested before investing
in rubber-planting. — THE EDITOR.]

INDEX TO GEOGRAPHICAL AND
STATISTICAL NOTES.

Agave, where found, 48 ; use, 48, 49
Agriculture, products, 243, 244
Alfalfa, how grown, and uses, 56
Alligator pear, use, 63
Americans in Mexico, cannot compete

with Spaniards in frugality, 79 ; some

Mexicans were afraid the country would

become Americanized, 80
Area, of Mexico, 5, 91 ; of silver mines,

13 ; of City of Mexico, 98, 107
Army, strength of, 99, 100

B

Bananas, where grown, cost, yield, and

size, 61 ; export of, variety, an article

of food, 62
Bancroft, H. H., referred to, 108 ; his

statistics on drainage of Mexico, 274
Banks, names of, 131, 225, 226 ; National

Bank of Mexico, 131 ; Bank of London

and Mexico, 132
Bees, 71, 72

Belize, occupied by, 6 ; boundary of, 7
Birds, 71, 72
Bolson de Mapimi, 12
Boundary of Mexico, with the United

States, 5 ; with Guatemala, 6 ; with

Belize, 6, 7
Brocklehurst, 109
Bucyrus Co., 277
Bustamante, Don Alejandro, 15

Cables in Mexico, where located, 123

Cactus, species, 51

Cadereita, Marquis of, Viceroy, 273

Canaigre, use, where found, 55

Canal, size of, 270, 278, 279 ; lining of,
report on, 271 ; sum appropriated for
building of, and loan, 275 ; contracted
by, articles of contract, 277, 278 ; how
work carried out, 278 ; flow, 278, 279 ;
length of, 280

Castillo, Bernal Diaz del, 19

Catholics, wealth of, 93, 94

Cattle, raising, export of, 56-8 ; cost of
fattening, lack of water, 57

Cerralvo, Marquis de, his plan in regard-
to canal and tunnel, 272

Cession of territory to the United States,
by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
by the Gadsden treaty, by treaty signed
at Washington with Mexico, 7, 8

Charcoal, 4

Chewing-gum, demand, production, 53 ;
value, 54

City of Mexico, location and settlement
of old city, 107, 108, 267-9 I present
city, 108, 109, 268 ; public buildings,
109, no ; factories, no ; mortality, in,
114, 115, 279 ; threatened by an inun-
dation in 1604, often flooded in the
early days, 269 ; plan to change capi-
tal, 272

Climate, rainfall, 35, 36 ; temperature,
36, 37 ; climatic conditions, 37, 38 \
meteorological observations taken in
several cities of Mexico, 38, 40, 41 ;
meteorological observations taken in
several localities of Mexico, 39 ; Mex-
ico as a sanitarium, 41, 42 ; of City of
Mexico, no, in; meteorology in the
Mexican Republic, in, 114; climato-
logical data of the City of Mexico, 112 ;
summary of meteorological observa-
tions of the City of Mexico, 113 ; good
for work, 128 ; of City of Mexico, 274,.

275

Clouds, 38
Coal, cost of, and mining, 22 ; coal-fields,,

23-5

Cochineal, where cultivated, price, 53
Cocoa, where produced, 51, 52 ; disad-
vantages of raising, 52
Cocoa-nuts, where grown, use, 62, 63
Coffee, best location, production, 44, 45 r
advantages and disadvantages of rais-
ing, 127

Coinage of precious metals, gold and
silver, 21 ; mints, 27, 109

407

408

Colleges and universities established by
the Spaniards, 100-102

Copper, quality, amount produced, 22, 23

Cortez, Hernan, reference to, 19, 55, 123,
268, 269

Cotton, best location, expense of produc-
tion, 48 ; seed, 24

Courts, Supreme Federal, 26

Debt of Mexico, bonds, loans, etc., 129,
130; accomplishing credit, 130; amount
of debt, 130, 131 ; National debt to
June 30, 1896, 221, 222

Dering, Sir Henry, quotations from, 47,

54, 55, 64

Diaz, President, referred to, 115-18,
122-4, I3° J tribute to, 280

Dikes, first dike in 1450, 267 ; descrip-
tion of, by Prescott, 268 ; one built by
Spaniards, 269

Domestic animals, 71, 72

Drainage works of the Valley of Mexico,
where article on, was first published,
how long to complete work, 266 ; mag-
nitude of work, 267 ; by the Mexican
Government, 274-6 ; works consist of,
276 ; works completed, 279, 280 ; im-
portance to the City of Mexico, 280

E

Egypt, compared with Mexico, 10, n
English in Mexico, immediately after the
independence, nearly all disappeared,

79

Espinosa, Don Luis, present director of
tunnel work, 275

Expenses, amount of, 137, 138 ; of Fed-
eral Government, 139-41 ; of custom-
houses, 147 ; of internal revenue, 148 ;
of direct taxes, 149 ; of Mexican States,
151 ; of municipalities, 153 ; of Mexico
in the year 1896-97, 245

Exports, from 1826-28, 155 ; from 1877-

96, 159 ; by countries and custom-
houses from 1894-96, 1 60 ; value of
metals and commodities exported in
1895-96, 161 ; of commodities from
1886-96, 162 ; of agricultural products
from 1877-96, 164 ; destination and
value of metals and commodities from
1882-92, 168, 169 ; total exports, 169 ;
value of Mexican exports during 1872-
73, 172 ; from Mexico and to the
United States, 173 ; of domestic mer-
chandise to Mexico 1858-83, i78-*8o ;
from the United States to Mexico 1889-

97, 182, 183; articles exported from
the United States to Mexico, 184,
185 ; tropical products supplied by
Mexico to the United States, 185, 186 ;
cattle exported to the United States,
186 ; of precious metals and minerals in

the years 1879-80, 1889-90, and 1894-
95, 1 88 ; of silver, of silver bullion,
189 ; of silver ore, 190 ; of gold,
190, 191 ; of gold from Mexico to the
United States, 192 ; of Mexico by
countries and custom-houses in the year
1896-97, 246 ; Mexican exports to the
United States, 247

F

Financial condition, of Mexico, 126, 137,
138; of railroads, 119, 120, 195, 196;
of banks, 132 ; of States and municipal-
ities, 154

Fish, 71, 72

Flora in Mexico, products raised, 42, 43 ;
flowers grown, 63, 64

Foreign immigration, encouragement to,
125 ; difference of, from the United
States, 126, 127 ; cost of labor, 127 ;
warning from consular reports, 127,
128 ; those who should immigrate, 128

Foreign trade, small before railroads
built, cost of transportation, 154;
amount of, with United States, 170;
why difficult to have correct data with
United States, 170, 171 ; commercial
transactions between Mexico and the
United States from 1820-50, 173 ; com-
merce in merchandise between the
United States and Mexico from 1851-
97, 174; total commerce between the
United States and Mexico by years and
decades from 1851-97, 175 ; increase
of trade during 1896-97, 184; between
Mexico and the United States during
the first nine months of 1897, 247

Forests, 37, 38 ; destruction of, 65, 66 ;
in Mississippi Valley, 66

Forey, Marshall, 108

Franciscan monks, work done by, 273

French in Mexico, own large dry-goods
houses, 79

Fuel, 23-5 ; demand for, 24 ; consump-
tion of, 64

Garay, Senor Don Francisco de, plan for
tunnel, 275

Gelves, Marquis de, his orders about
tunnel, 271

Geology, rock formations, 12 ; rich in
ores, 12, 13

Germans in Mexico, succeeded by Eng-
lish, and are doing well, 79

Gil, Mr. George, British Colonies, 6

Ginger, yield, 55

Gold, where found and how reduced, 14,
19, 20 ; amount of production, ex-
tract from Mr. Cramer, 20 ; weight and
standard value, 133 ; production of, in
years 1879-80, 1889-90, and 1894-95,
1 88 ; accredited to Mexico, 192

409

Government of Mexico, 98, 99
Grasses, where grown, use, 56
Guatemala, boundary, latitude, length of

southern boundary, 6 ; cochineal raised

there, 53
Guggenheim, smelter, 23, 28, 29

H

Henequen, where grown, average pounds

per acre, 49
Humboldt, Baron von, reference to, 13,

15, 81, 104, 271
Hydrography, coast, gulfs, harbors, bays,

32; islands, 33; rivers and torrents,

33, 34

Imports, from 1826-28, 155 ; from 1872-
75, 156 ; from 1885-86 and 1888-90,
157 ; from 1892-96, 158 ; by countries
from 1888-90, by custom-houses from
1894-96, 1 60 ; values of metals and
commodities from 1882-92, 165-7 ;
resume of total, 167 ; to Mexico and to
the United States, 172 ; of merchandise
from Mexico from 1858-83, 176, 177 ;
into the United States, 181, 182 ; lead-
ing merchandise imports from Mexico
to the United States, 184; of gold
bullion, ore, and coin into the United
States, 191 ; of Mexico by countries and
custom-houses in the year 1896-97,246;
from the United States, 248

Indians, Mexican, tribes, 72 ; classifica-
tion of tribes, 73 ; similar to Malay-
Asiatic races, 73, 74 ; extract from
San Francisco, Cal. , Bulletin, 73 ; char-
acteristics, 74, 75 ; prominent men among
them, marriages, 74 ; education, 76,
105 ; strength, 78 ; religion, 97 ; Sir
William Kingston on, 75 ; originated
work on canal, 267-9

India-rubber, places best adapted for it
as an industry, 46, 47 ; amount of pro-
duction, 46 ; profits and expense of,
47, 48

Inhabitants, most thickly inhabited parts,
37; manner of living, 128; aborigines,
per cent, of, 72

Inundations of the City of Mexico, used
to be flooded once on an average of
every twenty-five years, the one in 1580,
in 1604, 269 ; one in 1607, 270 ; one
which occurred in 1629, 272 ; decrease
in, since Nochistongo opening, caused
by cutting of forests, 274

Iron, where found, 21, 22, 25 ; Cerro del
Mercado mine, quality, 21 ; impor-
tation of, foundries, 22

Irrigation, but little at present in Mexico,
63 ; scarcity of water, 64, 65 ; cause of
decrease in rainfall, good investment,
66 ; reason for short grain supply, 70 ;
Kazas irrigation, 67-70

Lakes, number of, description of, 268,
269 ; disappearance of Lake Mexico,
269 ; Lake Texcoco filling up, lake al-
most disappeared, 274 ; altitudes of,
275 ; canal crosses Lake Texcoco, 276

Lamoreaux, map showing cession of ter-
ritory, 7

Languages in Mexico, varieties, 85, 86 ;
Indian, similar to Oriental, 74 ; synop-
sis of Indian, 86-8

Latitude, of Mexico, 5 ; of Guatemala,
6 ; of silver mines, 13 ; of City of
Mexico, 107

Laws, mining, 25-7 ; lands, 124 ; coloni-
zation, 125, 126 ; banking, 131

Lead, ores, 17, 18 ; yield, 28, 29

Lemons, where grown, 60

Lempriere, Notes on Mexico, 9

Libraries in Mexico, 106 ; names, number
of volumes and students, 233-5

Li Hung Chang and the Mexican silver
mines, 18, 19

Limes and shaddocks, where planted,
variety, 61

Longitude, of Mexico, 5 ; of silver mines,
13 ; of City of Mexico, 107

Mamey, use of, 63

Mangoes, cultivated taste, transporta-
tion of, 63

Manufacturing, factories in 1893, 236 ;
additional establishments, 237

Martinez, Enrico, his plan for canal, 270;
plan inaugurated, 271 ; plan accepted
in 1614, 271, 272 ; scored for not doing
his work right, 272 ; referred to, 272-4 ;
again requested to carry out work,
273

Matthews, Mr. James F., 18

Maximilian, 108 ; downfall, 95

Mendez, Simon, his plan for canal, 273 ;
reference to, 275

Mercado, Gines Vazquez del, Cerro del, 21

Mexico as a Central American State,
where article was published, 249 ; how
article originated, 249, 250 ; geographi-
cal situation of Mexico, 250 ; five States
of Central America, 250 ; States of
Mexico, 251 ; geographical extension of
Central America, 251 ; how remarks
were received by a Guatemalan repre-
sentative, 252

Miller, Mr. Chas., 18

Mining, richness of mines, 13 ; miners,
25 ; Mexico offers great advantages in,
128, 129

Money, weights and measures, 133, 134

Monies Claros, Marquis de, reference to,
269

Museum, National, 103

4io

N

Navigation, number of vessels, 237 ; ves-
sels arrived at Mexican ports in 1895,
238; vessels departed from Mexican
ports in 1895, 239; foreign passengers
arrived at Mexican ports in 1895, 240 ;
foreign passengers departed from Mex-
ican ports in 1895, 241 ; resume of
vessels and passengers arrived and de-
parted by rail and ports in 1895, 242 ;
vessels arrived and departed from Mex-
ican ports in 1894-96, 243

Navy, strength of, 100

Netzahualcoyotl, saw the necessity for a
drainage canal, 267 ; one of the dikes
built by, 268

Newspapers, 106

Noyes, Theodore W., Mexico and Egypt,

10, II

Ophidians, 71

Oranges, where and how raised, irrigation,
distillation, 59 ; flavor, yield compared
with coffee, Frederico Atristain re-
ferred to, the cyclone in Florida, 60

Orography, mountains and plateaus, 29-
32 ; elevation of mountain ranges, 31

Papaya, use, 63

Patents, number of, 132

Pearson, S., & Son, contractors for canal,
277

Peat, 23, 24

Peppermint, where grown, 55

Pineapples, uses, where grown, 62

Political organizations of Mexico, of
Federal Government, 98, 99

Political parties, Church, its wealth, 93,
94 ; Liberal, 94

Population of Mexico, increase of, 76, 77 ;
decrease of Mexican Indians, 77, 78 ;
from 1795 to 1895, 89 ; parts most
thickly settled, 90; of United Mexi-
can States, 91

Position of Mexico, 9

Postal service, number of offices and
agencies, 123, 124 ; mail carried, re-
ceipts, 133 ; post-offices in Mexico in
1895, 223 ; earnings and expenditures
of post-offices from 1869-96, 224 ;
number of postal pieces transported
from 1878-95, 225

Prescott, History of Conquest of Mexico,
268

Profiles, MeAican, from Veracruz to
Mexico by the Mexican Railway, from
Apizaco to Puebla, a branch of the
Mexican Railway, 253 ; from Veracruz
to Mexico by the Interoceanic Railway,

from the City of Mexico to Morelos
by a branch of the Interoceanic, 254 ;
from Puebla to Izucar de Matamoros, a
branch of the Interoceanic, 255 ; from
the City of Mexico to El Paso del
Norte by the Central Mexican, 255-7 ;
from Aguascalientes to Tampico by the
Mexican Central, 257, 258 ; from Ira-
puato to Guadalajara, a branch of the
Mexican Central, 258 ; from the City
of Mexico to Laredo Tamaulipas by
the Mexican National, 258-60 ; from
Acambaroto Patzcuaro, a branch of
the Mexican National, 261 ; from
Piedras Negras to Durango by the
Mexican International, 261, 262 ; from
Sabinas to Hondo, a branch of the
Mexican International, 262 ; from the
City of Mexico to Cuernavaca and
Acapulco, 262, 263 ; from Puebla to
Oaxacabythe Mexican Southern, 263;
from Coatzacoalcos to Salina Cruz by
the National Tehuantepec, 263, 264 ;
from the City of Mexico to Pachuca by
the Hidalgo and Northeastern Railway,
from San Augustin to Irolo, a branch
of the Hidalgo Railway, 264 ; from
Durango to Mazatlan by bridle path,
from Manzanillo to Guadalajara by
wagon road, 265 ; from Tehuacan to
Oaxaca and Puerto Angel by wagon
road, 266

Publications about Mexico, non-official,
134 ; newspapers, 228

Public lands, granted to Indians and
Spaniards, survey of, 124 ; division of,
124, 125 ; price of, 125 ; titles of, 227,
228

Pulque, where and how cultivated, 48,
49 ; fermentation of, expense and profit,
50 ; thorn and root useful, 51

Purpose of this paper, 244

Quicksilver, production of, 23
R

Railway itineraries (see Profiles)
Railways in Mexico, history of, 115, 116 ;
extent, 116, 119; President Diaz's policy
on, 117, 118 ; President Diaz's statistics
on, 119; financial condition of, 119-
21 ; length of, passengers and tons
carried, 133 ; mileage in operation
October 31, 1896, 193-5 ; resume of,
195 ; Mexican Central, 196, 197 ;
Mexican National, 196-8 ; Mexican In-
ternational, 199, 200 ; Mexican South-
ern, 200, 201 ; Mexican Railroad, 201 ;
Interoceanic Railway, Sonora Railway,
Hidalgo and Northeastern Railway,
202 ; Merida and Progreso Railway,
Tehuacan and Esperanza Railway,

Railways in Mexico — Continued.

Me'rida and Peto Railway, 203 ; Sinaloa

. and Durango Railway, Merida and
Campeche Railway, Merida and Valla-
dolid Railway, 204 ; Tlalmanalco Rail-
way, San Juan Bautista and Carrizal
Passenger Railway, San Andres and
Chalchicomula Railway, 205 ; Orizaba
and Ingenio Railway, Santa Ana and
Tlaxcala Railway, Cardenas and Rio
Grijalva Railway, 206 ; Toluca and
San Juan de las Huertas Railway, Vane-
gas, Cedral, Matehuala, and Rio Verde
Railway, Merida and Izamal Railway,
San Marcos and Nautla Railway, 207 ;
Monterey and Gulf Railway, Cordova
and Tuxtepec Railway, Maravatio and
Cuernavaca Railway, Salamanca and
Santiago Valley Railway, 208 ; Monte
Alto Railway, Valley of Mexico
Railway, Puebla Industrial Railway,
Mexican Northern Railway, Mexico,
Cuernavaca, and Pacific Railway, 209 ;
Federal District Tramways, Veracruz
and Alvarado Railway, 210 ; traffic and
receipts of Mexican railroads, 211;
subsidies paid by Mexican Government
to June 30, 1896, 212-20

Read & Campbell, Messrs., contractors
of tunnel, 276, 277

Real del Monte, 15-17

Religion in Mexico, Catholic clergy and
convents, 92, 93 ; in politics, 94 ;
Catholics of to-day, 94, 95 ; Protestant
missionaries, 95-7; Protestant churches
established by Mr. Henry C. Riley,
96 ; statistics on Protestants, 97, 98

Revenue, increase, 137 ; difficult to get
data, 138 ; statistics of, from 1808-67,
139 ; statistics on, from 1867-88, 140 ;
statistics on, from 1888-96, 141 ; Fed-
eral appropriations from 1868-95, 142 ;
sources of, import duties, 143 ; addi-
tional import duties, export duties, 144 ;
custom receipts, 145, 146 ; internal
revenue, 146, 147 ; direct taxes, 148,
149 ; of Mexican States, 150 ; of mu-
nicipalities, 152 ; of Mexico in the year
1896-97, 245

Rice, how cultivated, 53

Ruins in Mexico, Uxmal, 80, 81 ; Pa-
lenque, Cholula, 81 ; Teotihuacan, 81-
83 ; Mitla, 83 ; extract from Sir Vivien
Cory on, 83-5

Sanchez, Father, plan for tunnel, 270;

plan condemned. 271
Sandy Plains of Mexico, 12
Sanitarium, Mexico as a, 41, 42
School of Engineering, 103
School of Medicine, 102, 103
Schools, statistics of, 105, 106 ; public,

229, 230 ; private, 231, 232

Sewage of the City of Mexico, danger of,
274 ; description of, and how to be
effected, 279

Sheep, mistakes made in raising, 58

Shipping, mercantile marine, vessels in
foreign and coasting trade, tons car-
ried, 133

Silk culture, where grown, varieties, 52 ;
how sold, 53

Silver, yield, and where found, 13, 14 ;
system of reduction, 14 ; history of
some mines, 15, 16 ; duties on, 28 ;
weight and standard value, 133 ; total
coinage of, 186 ; total production of,
coined by Mexican mints from 1535
to 1895, 187 ; production of in the
years 1879-80, 1889-90, and 1894-95,
188 ; coined and exported from 1874-
96, 189

Smelting plants, Mexican Metallurgical
Co., 28 ; National Mexican Smelter at
Monterey, 28, 29 ; Central Mexican
Smelter, Velardena Mining Co., The
Chihuahua Mining Co., The Mazapil
Copper Co., Limited, Sabinal Mining
and Smelting Co., Chihuahua, La
Preciosa, The Boleo Smelter, 29

Smith, Captain, referred to, 275

Spaniards in Mexico, characteristics, 78,
79 ; climate check on growth, little
education, 79 ; built dike for canal, 269

Starr, Professor, his theory, 76

States of Mexico, classification and divi-
sion, etc., 90, 91

Sugar-cane, size, places best adapted for
raising, cost of raising, 45

Switzerland, compared with Mexico, 10

Technical schools, at the present time,
103, 104 ; reorganization of, 104, 105

Tejada, Senor Lerdo de, 115

Telegraphs, number of different com-
panies, 121-3 ; length of, 133 ; earn-
ings and expenditures from 1869-96,
224

Telephones, length of, 133

Terreros, Don Pedro Jose Romero de, 15,
109

Texas, annexation of, 7

Tobacco, quality of, 45, 46

Topia, new mines, 17

Trade-marks, number of, 132, 133

Transportation, of money, 131 ; cost of,
railroads have revolutionized, 154, 155 ;
of mangoes, 63 ; of postal pieces, 225

Treaties, Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Gadsden,
one signed at Washington between
the United States and Texas, 7, 8

Tunnel, originated, 270, 271 ; blocked
up, 272 ; work carried on in 1614,
closed, 271 ; opened out, 272 ; earth-
quake destroyed it in 1637 ; condi-
tion of old tunnel now, 273 ; dangers

412

Tunnel — Continued.

in building, 273, 274 ; location of, 275 ;
contract for, size, 276, 277 ; discharged,
managed by, 277 ; length of, 280

Valley of Mexico, its development, 106,
107 ; topographical conditions, 267

Van Boot, Adrian, sent to make a report,
his plan, 271

Vanilla, where grown, production, varie-
ties, etc., 52 ; how sold, 53

Vegetation, 36

Velasco, Viceroy Don Luis de, 271

W

Wages, advantages of foreign labor, 48 ;
prevents immigration to Mexico of
poor people, 126-9

Warner, Charles Dudley, Mexico com-
pared with other countries, 10 ; climate
of Mexico, 42, 43 ; on church edifices,
92,93

Water, Mr. J. A., Pinos Altos Gold
Mine, 14

Winds, 38

Woods, cabinet and dye, where grown,
some of the species, 43, 44, 55

Yuca, when and where grown, 54 ; yield

55
Yucatan, configuration, civilization, 9

Zapote, use, 63

Zones, products of cold, temperate, and
hot, 58

INDEX TO ARTICLES ON COFFEE AND
INDIA-RUBBER CULTURE.

Age of coffee-tree, some think duration

depends on shade, 342
Altitude, of various places in Soconusco,

297 ; its effect on climate, 15,000 ft.

snow line in Soconusco, 362
Asiatic rubber-tree, grows larger than

American, 378
Aublet, his botanical name for rubber, 378

B

Bearing, trees 25 and 30 years, 342

Blossoming (white) of coffee-tree, time
of, 343

Bond, Mr. James B., extract from com-
munication to State Department giving
information about rubber, 384 ; letters
from him in reference to rubber in
Brazil, 396-398

Botanical names of rubber-tree, 378

Chacon, Sr. Don Jose Maria, owner of
Zanjon Seco rubber plantation, 384 ;
opinion about the way to plant rubber
cuttings, 387 ; his opinion about rubber
planted in Soconusco, 388

Chardwar, rubber, number of large trees
in, near Ferozpoor, sap of Ficus elastica
better in old trees than in young, yield

of, 399

Cheapness of coffee-raising, 287 ; made
cheaper by raising sugar-cane at the
same time, 288

Clavijero, Father, his description of
Mexican rubber-trees, 379

Clearing ground for rubber, should be
done first, 386

Climate, Soconusco suitable for coffee-
raising, 286, 295 ; coffee affected by
humidity, 298 ; affected by sun, latitude,

and altitude, 362 ; location of mountain
chains, 362, 363 ; distance from sea,
inclination of country to course of sun,
geology of soil, degree of cultivation
of soil, 363 ; winds, 363, 364 ; amount
of rainfall, 364 ; hot country best for
rubber, 385

Coffee-raising in Soconusco, compared
with other countries, 286, 287 ; com-
pared with Ceylon, 357-359

Coffee sent to market in casks and bar-
rels, 350

Color of coffee, bluish color which after-
wards changes to grayish green, 350

Condamine, M. de la, his description of
rubber-trees on banks of Amazon, 378 ;
extraction of rubber, 380

Corn, custom in Soconusco to plant at
same time with coffee but not best to
doit, 314

Cost of coffee in Barcenas, nursery and
seed, stakes and holes, preparation of
the soil, transplanting, weedings, other
expenses, 354; of each cuerda, 355

Cost of coffee plantation in Ceylon, ist
year, 355, 356 ; 2d year, 356 ; 3d year,
356, 357; total cost and loss, 357

Cost of coffee plantation in Soconusco, of
ground, ist year, 351 ; 2d, 3d, and 4th
years, resume of, 352

Cost of coffee-raising in Soconusco, as
compared with Ceylon, 333

Cost, of rubber plantation, of 10,000 trees
at distance of 3 yards, 393 ; distance of 5
yards, estimate of 10,000 trees at 3 yards,
4 yards, and 5 yards, of each tree during
6 years, 394 ; of 100,000 trees at a dis-
tance of 3, 4 and 5 yards, yield after 6
years, 395

Cost of sugar-cane plantation, 288, 289

Cuerda, number of coffee plants to the,
303, 304

Cultivation of soil, affects climate, re-
claiming of marshy land makes temper-
ature warmer, 363

413

414

Demand for rubber, has increased, in
Para and other regions, wild trees have
been destroyed, price increased, 374 ;
is increasing, likely to supersede iron,
38i

Digging holes for staking for coffee, time
for 317 ; manner of, size in Soconusco,
in Ceylon, planting without, 318

Discovery of rubber-tree, verylittleknown
of, French astronomers first to call
attention to it, 379

Distance between coffee plants, difference
of opinion regarding, 302 ; general
practice of, what it depends on, 303 ;
area of each tree, 314 ; advantages of
long, advantages of short, 305 ; rules
regarding, 305, 306

Distance between rubber-trees, very
important, makes difference in yield in
proportion to distance apart, 389

Drainage, how it should be made, method
in Ceylon, Mr. Sabonadiere on, 335

Drying coffee beans in Guatemala, put
on threshing floor and exposed to sun,
should not be piled up, time required
for, 346; stoves invented for but not
used, 347

Drying coffee in Ceylon, heaped upon
inclined platform to drain and then
spread out to dry in sun, good, inferior
and waste coffee dried apart, 349 ; bean
dried, 350

Dyeing coffee in Guatemala, bluish color
desirable in Soconusco markets, how
color is given, 347

E

Encyclopedia Britannica on india-rubber,

377
Enemies to coffee-tree, many in Ceylon,

336 ; grubs, coffee bug, ants in Ceylon,

337 ; ants in Soconusco and Guatemala,
337

Escobar, Don Sebastian, experiment
made with transplanting rubber- trees,
386, 387 ; estimate of cost of rubber
plantation by, 393

Esmeralda, large rubber plantation on
southern coast of Oaxaca, 374

Evaporation, loss of rubber, 382

Export of india-rubber, from United
States, manufactured and crude, in 1856
and 1857, from Para in 1856 and 1869,
400 ; from Para from 1851 to 1870, 401

Extraction of rubber, by making incision
in bark, exposed to sun or fire, water
evaporates and leaves rubber, exposed
to air it becomes dark, 379 ; method in
Soconusco ruinous to trees, to extract
properly a more adequate instrument
than machete and something better than

leaves or clay for receptacle are re-
quired, 392 ; rules in regard to, incision
should be healed, 393

Faraday, Prof., analysis of rubber, 380,
382

Felling trees, best season for, to prepare
coffee plantation, 313

Ferguson, A. M. and J., india-rubber and
gutta-percha, 375

Fertilizer for coffee, necessity for, and
advantage of, used in Soconusco, used
in Ceylon, 338 ; substances used, 339,
340 ; manner of applying, 340, 341 ;
when to use, cost of, 341

Ficus elastica inferior to American rub-
ber, 399

Finck, Hugo, his opinion in regard to
shade, in regard to coffee-trees, 368

Forests, destruction of, may be fatal to a
region, 363

Frisman, found rubber-trees in 1751, 379

Fruit of coffee-tree, time of crop, time
of second crop, 4th year after trans-
planting best crop, 342 ; size, color,
when it should be picked, 343

Future of india-rubber, very great, 373 ;
large profits, safe industry, 402

Gauffrau, Dr., rubber plantation in Nica-
ragua, 385

Geological character of soil, how it affects
climate, 363

Goodyear, Mr. Charles, inventor of vul-
canized rubber, 380

Griffith, Mr. William, report on Asiatic
rubber in district of Chardwar, 399

Guatemala, coffee-raising of to-day and
twenty years ago, 283, 284 ; price of
land compared with land in Mexico,
284 ; coffee culture in, 284 ; labor in,
290

H

Hardiness of rubber-tree, simplifies cul-
ture, 389

Harriman, F. O., letter to India-Rubber
World, recommending Tehuantepec
lands for coffee-raising, 360 ; Mr. Ro-
mero writes to editor of India-Rubber
World in which letter he refers to and
criticises Mr. F. O. Harriman's article,
364, 365 ; letter of, 365, 366 ; Mr. Ro-
mero answers letter of, 367

Harriman, J. P., letter in answer to Mr.
Romero's of September 25, 1893, 360

Hatillo, rubber plantation at, 385

flnfcej.

415

Importance of india-rubber culture in
the future of Mexico, 373 ; extracts of
the same published in India-Rubber
World of New York of April 15, 1893,
374

Importation of rubber, manufactured and
crude, in the United States in 1856 and
1857, from England in 1857 and 1858,
400

Inclination of country to course of sun,
affects climate, 363

India-rubber tree, difference between
large and small trees, size and shape
of leaf, shape of tree, bark, 379

Irrigating, indispensable in dry places,
336

Jacquieu, his botanical name for the
india-rubber tree, 378

K

King, Mr. William, his views on coffee
fertilizers, 340

Labor, required in cultivating rubber, 386

Laborers in Soconusco, scarcity of, 287,
289 ; regulated by price paid in Guate-
mala, 287 ; debts of, 289 ; Indians as,
290

Laborie, system of transplanting, 316 ;
his method compared with Sabonadi-
ere's, 317 ; system of pruning, 329,
330 ; pulping machines have been in
use since time of, 345

Latitude determines temperature of
locality, 362

Letters, from Mr. Romero to editor of
India-Rubber World of New York
criticising Mr. F. O. Harriman's article
on rubber growing in Tehuantepec
lands, 364, 365 ; from F. O. Harriman
in answer to Mr. Romero's on the
question of shade, 365, 366 ; inCoatza-
coalcos Valley, it is an experiment,
366 ; from J. P. Harriman to editor
of India-Rubber World of February
15, 1894, in answer to Mr. Romero's
letter in which he states that Tehuan-
tepec is well suited to coffee, gives the
yield of trees, 367 ; an answer from
Mr. Romero to editor of India-Rubber
World published in their issue of
February 15, 1894, in answer to letters
of F. O. and J. P. Harriman in which
he states why it was written, speaks of
temperature of different regions and
effects on coffee, 368 ; advice to Mr.

F. O. Harriman, denies high lands are
good for coffee, 369 ; from Mr. Romero
dated at Tapachula, Soconusco, Sep-
tember 26, 1872, to Mr. James R. Bond
asking about the culture of india-rubber,
396 ; from Mr. James R. Bond dated
at New York October 22, 1872, in
answer to Mr. Romero's questions
about rubber, 396-398
Lindley, John, Treasury of Botany, 378
Linnaeus, his botanical name for india-
rubber, 378

M

Manchinelli, Mr. Jeronimo, description of
rubber-trees on his San Carlos farm,
379 ; size of his trees, 389

Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, ex-
periments for utilizing rubber, 379

Mexican Agricultural Dictionary and
Rural Economy, rules given for im-
proving quality of coffee seed, 310

Mountain chains, location of, affects
climate, 362, 363

N

Nelson, Mr. William, his rubber planta-
tion in Guatemala, 384

New American Encyclopedia, articles on
rubber, 377

Norris, Mr. Lee, his way of keeping rub-
ber in milky form, 380

Nursery for coffee in Ceylon, place chosen
for, how coffee is planted, drainage,
312 ; when and how to transplant, 312,
313

Nursery for coffee in Soconusco, definition
of, advantages of, 307 ; land suitable for
and location of, 307, 308 ; formed from
seeds, 308 ; preparation of ground for,
time for planting, 309 ; replanting, how
to make it, 310

Paper on coffee, 299, 300 ; inducements

for writing, 283
Persoon, his botanical name for rubber,

378
Picking coffee in Ceylon, how effected,

344
Picking coffee in Soconusco, how done,

price paid for, 343 ; very costly, 344
Plan of coffee plantation, how made, 314
Plantations in Soconusco, where situated,

359
Planting rubber-trees, how done, 386 ; an

economical way of, 387
Plants for selling, nursery for, profitable

industry to supply, 312
Preparation of coffee in Ceylon, 348
Preparation of coffee in Colima and So-

416

conusco, 348 ; primitive method em-
ployed in Soconusco, 345

Prevailing winds, great influence of, on
climate, 364

Price of coffee, in Soconusco, profit, 285

Price of coffee plants, in Guatemala, in
Soconusco, 312

Price of rubber, 381 ; quadrupled in So-
conusco in the last ten years, 381, 382

Priestly, Dr. , Prospective, 379

Productiveness of coffee in Barcenas,
yield 3d year, 4th year, 354

Productiveness of coffee in Soconusco,
yield, net profit, 353

Profits of coffee culture, extensive lands
in Mexico suitable for coffee which will
make the fortune of those engaged in
it, 360

Profits of coffee culture in Barcenas, pro-
ceeds, cost, profit a year, 354

Profits of coffee culture in Soconusco,
yield in 3d, 4th, and 5th years, net
profit, 353

Profits of rubber, estimates of, 382, 383 ;
yield of trees annually, 383

Pruning coffee plants, time for, 311, 333;
root of plant in transplanting, 321 ;
rules of, 326 ; principles of, 326, 327 ;
advantages of, 327, 328 ; topping sys-
tem used in Soconusco, height of in So-
conusco, Guatemala, and Ceylon, 328;
system used in Soconusco, difficulties
of, rules for, 329 ; system of Laborie,
329, 330, 332, 333 ; system of Sabona-
diere, 330, 331 ; system of practical
cultivator of Ceylon, 331 ; system of the
Observer of Colombo, 331, 332

Pulping coffee in Ceylon, how done, 349;

Pulping coffee in Guatemala, how done,
345

Rainfall, amount of, affects climate, 364 ;
Replanting coffee-trees, how done and

where necessary, 325
Retrilla, used for shelling coffee, 347
Ridges for coffee plants, system sometimes

used in Ceylon, 336
Ripening of coffee, time required for,

343
Roads for coffee plantations, how made,

in Ceylon, 334 ; cost of, 335
Rubber culture, lack of information on,

377

Sabonadiere, Mr. William, his Coffee
Planter in Ceylon, 292 ; transplanting
coffee, 316, 317 ; pruning coffee plants,
33O, 331 ; making roads for coffee
plantations, 324 ; on drainage, 335 ; on

fertilizers, 337 ; on cost of manuring in
Ceylon, 341 ; his opinion of pulping
machines, 345, 346 ; estimate of cost of
plantation by, 355, 356, 357 ; estimate
of cost of coffee by, 357, 358, 359

Samayoa, Mr. Jose Maria, his plantation,
354

Screber, his botanical name for rubber,
378

Sea, proximity to, advantageous to raising
of coffee, 287, 288 ; productiveness at
high altitude above level of, most
suited to coffee-raising, 296, 297

Seed-plot, plan of , combination of nursery,
380

Seeds, best state to plant, 309 ; should be
put in water, sowing, 310

Separating good from bad coffee in
Guatemala, 346

Shade for coffee, advantages of, 300, 301,
302 ; disadvantages of, 301, 302 ; some
think durability of coffee-trees in Cey-
lon depend on, 342

Shade for rubber, whether required, 388

Sites for plantations, character of ground
suitable for, 299

Slips of coffee plants, nursery formed
from, 311

Soil for coffee- raising, Guatemala suit-
able, 284 ; Soconusco suitable, 284-
286 ; clayey sub-soil best, 291 ; dif-
ferent opinions on, 291, 292 ; layer
of vegetable soil indispensable, slopes
of volcanoes best as, 292 ; comparison
of virgin forest land, and land recently
cleared as, 292, 293 ; comparison of
level and hilly soil as, 294, 295

Soil for rubber, in Soconusco, selection
of, 386 ; Soconusco good for rubber,
387, 388

Sorting coffee in Ceylon, how performed,
350

Sorting coffee in Guatemala, performed
by hand, classes of coffee, 348

Special Consular Report, 1892, on rubber
culture in Brazil, India, and Africa,
374, 375 I confirms points laid down
here, 375

Specific gravity of rubber, 3/9, 380

Staking for coffee, necessary, time for,
operation of, 315 ; work of the men,
315, 316 ; in Ceylon, 316

Sun, effect on coffee-tree, 297 ; effect on
climate, 361, 362

Supply of coffee for United States,
Mexico destined to become chief source
of, 285

Supply of rubber, diminishing, 381

Taylor, Mr., his opinion as to shade for
coffee-trees, 368 ; Coffee Growing in
Mexico, 365

417

Tehuan tepee, Mr. F. O. Harriman rec-
ommends lands of as good for coffee
and india-rubber culture, 361 ; Mr. Ro-
mero answers Mr. F. O. Harriman's
letter about coffee and india-rubber,
364 ; Mr. F. O. Harriman thinks coffee
wherever planted in Isthmus of, needs
shade, 365 ; in Isthmus of, coffee-rais-
ing is no new experiment, 366

Time required by rubber-tree to yield,

39°.. 391

Transplanting coffee plants, time in So-
conusco, time in Ceylon, time in Guate-
mala, 311 ; number of ways of, 318;
time for, manner of, 319, 320, 321,
322 ; in slips, in Ceylon, 322, 323

Transplanting rubber-trees, not necessary
to plant in nursery, 386

Transportation of coffee, Soconusco near
to sea, 287, 288 ; new roads needed for,
288 ; in large plantations cart roads have
to be constructed, 243 ; in Ceylon,
from trees to where it is prepared for
market, 344

Trenches for draining coffee plantations,
system used in Ceylon of making, 335,
336 ; methods of and cost of making,
336

Trunk of rubber-trees in Soconusco,
spongy white wood with large pores,
379

U

United Rubber Co., recommends sap to
be bottled, best method of treatment
according to, 399

Ure, Dr., analysis of rubber, 380, 382 ;
his opinion of Asiatic rubber, 386 ;
thinks fifty-six per cent of rubber after
incision is made evaporates, 392 ; on
rubber in Assam, 398

Uses of coffee, 285

W

Washing coffee in Ceylon, how done, 349
Washing coffee in Guatemala, how done,

346
Water, coffee should be planted near,

irrigation for coffee, 299
Weeding coffee plants, why necessary,

323, 324 ; method in Ceylon, 324 ; man-
ner of, number to be made during year,

324, 325

Weeding rubber-trees, 390

Weitch, Lieutenant, discovered abun-
dance of ficus elastica in district of
Naudwoor, 399

Where most rubber-trees are found, 385

Wildenow, his botanical name for rubber-
tree, 378

Wild rubber-trees, thus far rubber has
been extracted entirely from, 384 ;
found in forests, 388

Winds, plants should be sheltered from,
for coffee-raising, 298

Yield of coffee, each cuerda, 304 ; of

trees, 342
Yield of rubber per tree, 391 ; loss in

evaporation, 392
Young coffee plants, time for stiirting

nursery of, how to be planted, 311

Zuchiate Rubber Plantation, where lo-
cated, size, number of trees, etc., 373,
374

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