Plate XVI. ( Frontispiece .) 86. Fucus yesiculosus. 87. Fuctib serratus a. fertile cell ; b. zoospores ; c. spores, THE COLLECTOR’S HANDY-BOOK OF ALGiE, DESMIDS, FUNGI, LICHENS, MOSSES, &c. WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR THEIR PREPARATION AND FOR THE FORMATION OF AN HERBARIUM. BY JOHANN NAVE. TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY KEY. W. W. SPICER, M. A ILLUSTRATED WITH 114 WOODCUTS . LONDON : W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 WATERLOO PLACE, PALL MALL. S.W. S £532,77 2-^3 6 (q^ S&G COL LONDON : PRINTED BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO., 13 WATERLOO PLACE. b.W» PREFACE. Of the convenience and utility of an Herbarium to the Botanist, it is needless to say a word. The first instinct of the student of Natural History is to col- lect together specimens of the objects to which his attention is directed. Indeed before long he becomes aware of the positive necessity of having by him examples, on which he can readily lay his hand, for reference and comparison. Simple, however, as it appears to be to make an Herbarium, there is no point, respecting which the young naturalist (without experience and without a guide) more frequently violates the most important canons of science. The correct representation of the natural habit of the plant, and the best method of preserving it when found, are the rocks on which the beginner constantly makes shipwreck. Speaking generally, his errors arise from giving either too much or too little atten- tion to the matter. In the first case he looks only to the beauty of the specimen, and its neat appearance in the cabinet. He takes care — too much care, indeed — to lay out the various parts in a manner to please the eye, but without any reference to their natural PREFACE. -vi position, or true relation to each other. In the other case, he is careless about the preservation of the plant, and neglects the commonest rules, whereby alone it can be saved from speedy destruction. The result, in both cases, is the same. His preparations are un- trustworthy and well nigh useless — at any rate, can lay no claim to any scientific value. The lower Cryptogamia especially, such as the Algae and Fungi, require a somewhat complicated mode of treatment : so much so, indeed, that many a beginner is frightened from prosecuting his studies, disgusted by the continued failures, which, without a guide to lead him, it was next to impossible for him to escape. And yet so full of beauty and in- terest are these lowly orders — enchaining the mind and arresting the attention of all, who are deeply engaged in their study, that it seems hard, that any should be debarred from the enjoyment of so much pleasure by mere mechanical difficulties, which, after all, may be easily removed. As cases of this kind have frequently come under my own observation, I have prepared the following pages with a view to place near the novice in botany an adviser, who may offer him, in a condensed form, some useful suggestions respecting the best methods of collecting and preparing plants for the Herbarium. I have done this without the intention, or even the idea, of offering to the public anything essentially new, or better than what has been already published ; PREFACE. Vll but because I know how troublesome and difficult it is for the tyro, in the commencement of his studies, to search through numerous works for a description of the method of preparation, which he may chance to need at the time. Here at least I can promise him, that he will find the most important facts con- tained in nuce , to the saving of both his time and patience. And this is the more necessary, because a novice’s library is not usually too well stocked with books of reference ; and, besides, he is not always in a situation to consult larger and more important works, bearing on the subjects treated of here. Therefore I launch this little volume into the world, with the earnest wish that its perusal may be of service in lightening the labours and smoothing the path of more than one self-taught botanist. Joh. Nave. The reader will observe, that the chapters into which the book is divided, are of very unequal proportions, and that the greatest prominence is given to the Algae, which occupy quite one-half of the whole work. This is owing to the extraordinary variety of form and habit, which characterises this family, calling fo.i numerous descriptions of methods of preparation j. which need not to be repeated. J. N. These are Thy glorious works, Parent of good, Almighty, Thine this universal frame, Thus wondrous fair ; Thyself how wondrous then, Unspeakable! who sitt’st above these heav’ns To us invisible or dimly seen In these Thy lowest works; yet these declare Thy goodness beyond thought, and power divine. Milton. CONTENTS j?Aaa I. Of the Alge generally 1 II. Of the Diatomacee 11 III. Of the Free Diatomacee .... 14 IV. Of the Stipitate Diatomacee . . . 30 V. Of the Characteristics of the Diatomacee . 37 VI. Of the Desmidiacee, and some similar minute Alge .50 VII. Of the Filamentous Alge 62 VIII. Of the Oscillatorie 76 IX. Of the Gelatinous, Crustaceous, and Stone-like Alge 82 X. Of the Marine Alge , . ... 89 XI. Of the Characee 107 XII. Of the Fungi 115 XIII. Of the Lichens . . . . . . .132 XIV. Of the Mosses and their Allies . . . .139 XV. Of the Ferns and Flowering Plants . . .154 XVI. Of the Herbarium . , . . • .174 LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS. Spirogyra .... PLATE i FIG 1-6 PAGE 7 Toxonidea Gregoriana ii 9 15 Donkinia carinata . 10 ib. Amphiprora maxima >> 11 ib. Diadesmis Williamsonii . 12 ib. Triceratium striolatum . hi 13 23 Amphitetras antediluviana » 14 ib. Closterium Liebleinii •> 15 ib. ,, striolatum IV 16 31 Eua strum oblongum — front view >J 17 ib. „ „ side view )) 18 ib. Micrasterias rotata . }) 19 ib. Cosmarium margaritiferum V 20 39 „ „ empty frond )> 21 ib. „ „ end view » 22 ib. Ankistrodesmus falcatus 23 ib. Collecting bottle >» 24 ib. Navi cula didyma . )> 25 ib. Pinnularia major . J> 26 ib. Isthmia enervis VI 27 47 Amphitetras antediluviana J> 28 ib. Licmophora flabellata VII 29 55 „ „ fan 5> 30 ib. Mastogloia Danseii VIII 31 63 Dickieia ulvoides >> 32 ib. ,, pinnata . » 33 ib. Berkeleya fragilis . . . »> 34 ib. Cocconeis major . . , H 38 ib. „ nitida it 39 ib. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI Schizonema G-revillei PLATE . IX FIG 40 TAGE 71 Micromeg?, helminthosum • 99 41 ib. ‘Colleton ema neglectum • 99 42 ib. Biddulphia pulchella . X 46 79 Triceratium castellatum . • 99 47 ib. Pleurosigma formosum. . XI 49 87 Penium digitus • 99 50 ib. ,, navicula • » 51 ib. Docidium clavatum . • J> 52 ib. „ ,, end of frond • JJ 53 ib. Staurastrum dejectum . XII 54 95 „ gracile? • >> 55 ib. ,, spongiosum . • )) 56 ib. „ alternans • )) 57 95 Euastrum didelta • >> 58 ib. Hyalotheca dissiliens . XIII 59 103 Spirotsenia condensata • 60 ib. Cosmarium botrytis • 5J 61-70 ib. Volvox globator XIY 71 Ill Pandorina morum . • 5J 72-81 ib. Press for drying Botanical Specimens XY 82 119 Zygnemacese conjugating • » 83-85 ib. Fucus vesiculosus . XVI 86 j Frontis- „ serratus .... • » 1 87 piece. ib. „ nodosus XVII 88 127 „ canaliculatus . *• )) 89 ib. Torrubia entomorrhiza . XVIII 90 135 „ „ section . • 99 91 ib. ,, militaris . • 99 92 ib. „ gunnii • )) 93 ib. „ sphingum . * 99 94 ib. „ „ isaroid condition • 99 95 ib. „ „ fertile stipe XIX 96 143 „ stylophora • 99 97 ib. Morcbella esculenta * >5 98 ib. Lycoperdon gemmatum . , 99 ib. Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Lycoperdon saccatum PLATE . . XX FIG. 100 PAGE 151 „ atropurpureum 101 iU Aregma bulbosum . . . XXI 102 159 Triphragmium ulmarise . • • » 103 ib. Sphceria herbarum . • • JJ 104 ib. Asterosporinm Hoffinanni . . XXII 105 167 Puccinia graminis . 106 ib.. Achlya prolifera . XXIII 107 175 Marasmius oreades . . XXIY 108 183- „ „ section • • 5> 109 ib. Scolopendrium vulgare . . . XXY 110 191 Ceterach officinarum • • )} 111 ib. Osmunda regalis . . XXYI 112 199 Ophioglossum vulgatum . • * • >> 113 ib ^ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT. Iron Ladle .... • • • 7 4 f Caspary’s Rake .... 8 5 Quetschhahn or Spring Tap 35 22. » »» 36 ib. Henning’s Washing Apparatus . 37 26 Envelope for Diatoms, &c . 43 35 Slide for „ „ . 44 ib. Diagram representing Diatom . 45 38 Valves and Hoop of „ 48 41 Digger ..... . 114 158 GUIDE TO COLLECTION. CHAPTER I. OF THE ALGiE GENERALLY. Few studies afford more instruction, or are attended with more genuine pleasure, than that of the Algas. And this is not simply due to the boundless wealth of form which they exhibit, and which astonishes and delights even those who have never given their attention to Natural History. Nor is it merely on account of the inexhaustible materials for observation and comparison which they afford to the botanist. But the main point of interest consists in this, that it is only by a close investigation of the conditions of life existing in the Alga*, that we are enabled to get a true insight into the structure and functions of the higher plants. In fact, it is not too much to say, that vegetable anatomy and physiology, and the theory of the nature, deve- lopment, and increase of vegetable cells — depend in no slight degree on the close observation of the Algse ; because in them the separate existence of each cell is so clearly seen. Whoever, therefore, would cultivate the study of vegetable anatomy, must first make himself thoroughly acquainted with this particular family. Materials for observation are always near at hand, for Algae abound everywhere ; often, indeed, where the superficial observer -would scarcely expect to find even the smallest trace. Wherever water collects in large or small quantities, in a sea or lake, in a river or pond, and equally in the smallest ditch or puddle, or even on the face of a damp wall, there A] gas thrive, and invite the attention of the B I 2 UF THE ALGiE GENERALLY collector. It would be a mistake, therefore, to examine only the larger masses of water ; for frequently the least impor- tant localities afford the largest supply : indeed, certain families (for instance the Scytonemacese and Nostochaceas) would be constantly overlooked, if the lowlier spots were habitually neglected. In the same way a careful survey of a half-dried pool or puddle will often give the richest returns. The filamentous Algge (such as the Confervacece , Zygnemacece , and Vciucherice) are generally the first to strike the attention of the collector, partly on account of their mode of growth, in large tufted masses, and partly on account of their bright green colour, so like that of the Phanerogamia.* It is best, therefore, to make our first ac- quaintance with these, and through them with the more minute members of the order — the Diatomacese, Desmi- diacese, &c., numbers of which are generally to be found adhering to the entangled tufts of their more gigantic relations. The rest may be made out by degrees, as the necessary amount of observation is given to them. To avoid needless repetitions, we will commence by offering some suggestions which will be found useful in collecting these plants. As a general rule, the collector is strongly advised to give his attention to everything that can possibly be of the nature of an Alga ; for, without the microscope, he will often be unable to decide what he has before him. And if he is sometimes vexed at finding that he has carried home some worthless object, he is at least as likely to regret having thrown away from ignorance some- thing of value. * Many members of the Zygnemaceous family are especially con 1 spicuous, when viewed under the microscope or a good lens, on account of the beautiful manner in which the cell contents are dis- posed. Instead of forming a simple uniform ground colour, as is usually the case, the chlorophyll, or green matter, is arranged in spirals of exquisite pattern. In a few species the serpentine band is solitary, but, generally speaking, there are from two to four spirals interlacing and crossing each other at regular intervals. Figures 1 to 6, Plate i., will help to illustrate the above remarks. — Ed. OF THE ALGiE GENERALLY. Green and brown excrescences on wood, slimy masses on plants, pieces of wood and stone that have lain long under water, layers of mud of a greenish or rusty brown colour are things not to be passed by. Neither let him neglect to examine such matter as the outfiowings from a manufactory, or walls which have been moistened by the vapour issuing from a steam engine; for, in situations of this kind, ‘Algas are often developed, which may otherwise be looked for in vain except in hot springs. But, above all, the Algologist should never forbear to collect an object under the suppo- sition that he already possesses it. In the first place he cannot be quite sure of this until he has placed it under the microscope. Next to that, on the same batch of speci- mens which have been collected early in the season, most interesting parasites (as, for instance, Characium and Hydrocytium) will often be found at a later period. Lastly, it is actually necessary to examine certain species at different times of the year, if the development and fructi- fication are to be satisfactorily determined. Let it then be an axiom with the collector of Algge, to take care to gather always more, rather than less, than he actually needs. With regard to the fittest season for collecting water- weeds it is sufficient to observe, that they are to be obtained at all periods of the year, not excepting the winter, many of the Diatomaceas showing themselves to be perfectly indifferent to extreme changes of temperature. At the same time increase takes place most largely in the spring. On the other hand the autumn is the best time for gathering Desmidiaceje. In fact, the periods of vege- tation vary considerably. The species of Ulothrix, for instance, occur only during the early months of summer, and then vanish almost entirely. Again it is requisite to observe, whether Alga3 are constant in any given spot, or whether (as is often the case) they appear there for a time only, and then disappear altogether. Thus I have noticed Hildenbrandtia rosea, CEdogonium fonticola, and Batrachospermum moniliforme developing themselves, 4 OF THE ALGAS GENERALLY. season after season, in the same situation; while other species, which were at one time just as abundant, have entirely vanished, without any apparent reason. Take, for example, Hydrodictyon utriculatum. It is quite astonish- ing in what abundance this species will suddenly fill some pond or ditch, at times almost obstructing the flow of water, only to disappear again after a while without leaving a trace behind. So that, if a person is anxious to gather a large number of specimens (for the sake, say, of making exchanges), he must be careful to do so while he has the opportunity, and not leave them to a future period, under the idea that they will await his convenience ; for he is likely enough in that case to deceive himself, and, on returning to the piece of water, to find only emptiness, where, the year before, there was superfluity. It is far better to secure the requisite number of examples on first coming across the species ; indeed, if necessary, the whole stock may be taken, as there is little likelihood of extir- pating any kind of Alga. What few implements are needed in the collection of Algse are neither complicated nor expensive. The following will be found useful : — 1. A small iron or tin ladle, two inches across, fig. 7. About one-third of the circum- ference on the right hand side is provided with a number of teeth, three lines long, and bent inwards. A short hollow handle projects from one side of the ladle, whereby it may be at- tached to a walking-stick. This little instrument serves to fish out plants which lie be- yond arm’s length ; and the teeth may be usefully employed in entangling small species which occur on the surface of the water, such as Rivularise, Cylindrospermum, &c. Fig. 7. OF THE ALGuE GENERALLY. 5 2. A tiny sieve, such as is sometimes suspended from the mouth of a teapot to intercept the minute portions of the leaves. It must be of very fine wire, and provided with a handle. Its use is to secure floating masses of Desmidiacese, Limnochlids, &c. 3. A common iron spoon is convenient for lifting with care the upper layers of mud, where there is reason to suspect the presence of Diatomaceas and Desmidiacege. 4. Where Characeas are likely to be met with, or, indeed, for dredging purposes generally, Caspary’s rake is an Fig. 8. admirable instrument, fig. 8 . It is made of iron, and is of the following dimensions ; — Length, a, b , ten inches ; width, c, d , from the point of one tooth to the opposite point, three and three-quarter inches; distance between the points of the teeth c , e, three-quarters of an inch. The handle, f < 7 , terminating in a ring, to which a stout cord may be attached, is five inches long. The weight of the instrument must not be less than two or three pounds; if lighter, it is apt to jump over slight obstacles at the bottom of the water, and thereby miss the object to be caught. The length of line, which should be about the thickness of a finger, must of course be adapted to the depth of the water. An Alpine lake frequently requires as much as eighty or ninety feet. For convenience 6 OF THE ALG-jE GENERALLY. of carriage, the teeth of the rake may be enclosed in a wooden channel (just as a crosscut saw is generally carried), and the rope tied round and round it. It is a mistake to fix the rake into a long handle (as is sometimes done), not solely on account of the difficulty of transport, but because it can only be used in water of moderate depth. Moreover, it is by no means easy to fix the in- strument with sufficient firmness into the wooden handle, and it is consequently liable to be lost, if it meets with an obstruction of more than ordinary size. 5. A sufficient quantity of oiled paper, or some similar material, such as waxed cloth, or india-rubber or gutta- percha sheeting, in which to fold up the specimens, and prevent the water from draining out. Several small parcels can be packed in a larger piece of sheeting, and these again placed in a bag, to be carried across the shoulders. 6. A number of small bottles with wide mouths, for the purpose of holding Diatomaceas, and similar minute specimens. Cork stoppers are to be preferred to glass, as the latter are apt to get loose and fall out from the constant friction of sandy particles, whose presence it is impossible to avoid. Besides, glass stoppers make the bottles both heavier and more expensive, without any corresponding return. The bottles may be safely carried in the breastpocket of a coat — that is, for short expeditions. For longer journeys, and on occasions where many bottles must be carried, it is best to provide a kind of knapsack, not too large, in which they may be laid, one against the other. To prevent shaking or breaking, some paper or strips of pasteboard may be laid between each bottle. 7. Lastly, it is of the utmost importance to be pro- vided with a good lens, or a pocket -microscope, so as to be able to distinguish in a moment, and on the spot, useless from useful matter. There is no need to recommend a stout walking-stick and a pocket-knife, as no sensible botanist would think of Spirogyra. OF THE ALCLE GENERALLY. 9 going on an expedition without being provided with both the one and the other. The former especially is indis- pensable to the Algologist, as it forms a ready handle for his ladle and sieve. With these few instruments the collector of Algaa is prepared for his outdoor work. A tin vasculum, such as is commonly used in gathering Phanerogamia, need not be rejected ; still it is by no means a necessity, because the Algee are sufficiently protected by the waterproof paper or sheeting. Nor are they of the same fragile nature as the higher plants. Besides, a considerable portion will be contained in the bottles. At the same time, however carried, care must of course be taken not to squeeze the specimens too closely together. As soon as the stock of specimens is brought home, the first business of the collector will be to place them (each species by itself, as far as may be) in glasses of water (which should be, if possible, quite soft), in order to keep them fresh until he is prepared to examine them. Many species may be preserved in this way for several days without spoiling, especially if the water in which they are placed be in some quantity, and is changed every day. Others however, the Vaucherke for instance, perish very quickly, and cannot be preserved for long. These there- fore must be attended to first. But even when any of these are completely lost, it is well not to throw them away until they have been carefully searched for Diato- macea3, many of which will survive the decay of the plants to which they were clinging when first removed from the water. A small quantity of muriatic acid may be poured into the glass, as this has a tendency to check putridity, and then the Diatomacese may be separated at leisure. If from want of time, distance from home, or any like cause, the specimens collected cannot be at once prepared, the best plan is to place them in a bottle, and pour over them a quantity of gin, which may be procured almost anywhere. It is true the alcohol destroys the colour of 10 OF THE ALGiE GENERALLY. the plants, and turns them yellow or brown; but even that is to be preferred to losing them altogether. At the same time the collector should not forget to note the fact of their having been immersed in alcohol, otherwise, if exchanges are made, strange mistakes may arise as to the original colour of the specimen. As may be supposed, plants which have grown in swiftly flowing streams are more liable to decay after they have been gathered, than those whose home is the stagnant pond or marsh, since the conditions of life in the latter are not so much interfered with by their removal ; indeed, they will often continue to live and vegetate in a room, provided attention be paid to the chemical quality of the water in which they are found. As this little work is intended for the collector and not for the systematist, nothing will here be said with regard to the genera into which the Algje have been divided. That portion of their history must be sought for in other works, though of course in this, as in every other depart- ment of Natural History, an intimate knowledge of both genera and species is essential to the student. But, for convenience sake and to avoid repetitions, we will, in the following pages, confine our treatment of the subject to certain heads, corresponding in some degree to the natural divisions of systematic authors. [Having given on a preceding page one or two examples of the lovely patterns which distinguish some of the fila- mentous Alga3, it will not be amiss to insert here some specimens of the families of Diatomaceze and Desmidiacese. The figures will assist the young student in discriminating the members of these minute, but important, divisions of the vegetable kingdom ; they will also help to point out to him what wonderful treasures lie within his grasp, ready to be seized as soon as his eye and hand are sufficiently educated to make them his own. In the accompanying Plates (n. hi. iv. v.) the Diatomace^ are represented by figures 9 to 14, the Desmidiacese by figs. 15 to 23. — Ed.] OF THE DIATOMACEiE. 11 CHAPTER II. OF THE DIATOMACEiE. These tjny members of the great vegetable kingdom are generally the first to engage the attention of the collector, for their distribution is almost boundless. I suppose there is scarcely a single piece of water anywhere which does not contain at least some individuals of the commoner species. They are to be found alike in the lake that crowns the mountain-top, and the swamps and peat-beds which fill the lowest valley ; in the water-course employed to irrigate the meadows ; in the broad ocean and the shallow puddle left by the overflowing of a ditch. The brackish water, where the tidal river meets the sea ; salt- works and salt-pits ; even inland lakes, which have a trace of salt in them— each affords a rich variety of characteristic Diatomaceas, varying according to the chemical quality of the water.* They are to be frequently found also on rocks and masses of stone, damp from overhanging trees, or from the constant trickling of water. There they nestle among the tufts of moss, or the layers, of Oscillatorige ; or, in company with other minute Alga?, form a slimy mass of a brown or olive green colour on the face of the bare rock. Never let the collector pass by a spot of this description without giving it a close examination. He will be often rewarded with some of the rarest and most lovely species. * It is quite astonishing what a slight infusion of salt suffices to fix the character of the Diatomacese. For example’s sake I may mention a lake in Hungary, and some pieces of water in Southern Moravia, which contain an inappreciable quantity of salt, neverthe- less the Diatomaceous forms answer exactly to those usually found in brackish water. — J. N. 12 OF THE DIATOMACE.E. In any case he is tolerably sure to come across good speci- mens of other Cryptogamic orders. The fact that the separate valves of the Diatomacese are protected by an almost indestructible coating of silica, allows of their being recognised years after the organism itself has ceased to exist, as may be seen in almost any dried-up pool. Nay, countless ages may pass away, and still the valves, on being brought to the light of day, will exhibit their delicate markings as clearly as though the hand of the Creator had sculptured them but yester- day. Numerous deposits of these peculiar Alga? are to be found in different parts of the world. It is sufficient to mention San Fiore in Tuscany, Franzenbad in Bohemia, and Berlin, as well-known examples. This remarkable quality of endurance naturally leads us to look for traces of their presence in localities where we should not usually search for the Alga?. Guano, for instance, is rich in beautiful forms. Dwellers by the seaside may furnish themselves with numerous species, which vegetate in the unknown depths of the ocean, by a microscopic examina- tion of the contents of the stomachs of fishes, mollusks, and medusae ; a task not much to the taste perhaps of the beginner, but one which we would recommend him to undertake boldly, as he is sure to meet with a rich return. So minute are the Diatomacea?, that, with few excep- tions, individuals escape the eye of the collector altogether, save when armed with a microscope or powerful lens. Still he should never hesitate to carry off a supply of what may, at first sight, appear to be worthless matter. For oftentimes he will find examples of most interesting species in gatherings which, to the naked eye, seem entirely desti- tute of vegetation, and, for the sake of these, he must be content to draw a few blanks in the vegetable lottery. It is rare, indeed, to find Diatomacese in any quantity free from admixture with other members of the Alga?, and uncontaminated by mud and sandy particles. Generally OF THE DIATOMACEA2. 13 speaking, the cleanest specimens, by which I mean those best adapted for immediate preparation, are the filamentous genera of Melosira, Odontidium, Fragillaria, and Schizo- nema ; also certain parasitical kinds, such as Cocconeis, Achnanthes, Synedra, Gomphonema, Licmophora, &c., which often cover the plants to which they are attached to such an extent as to hide the original form. With regard to the fossil Diatomacege it is a singular fact, that although they exist in such countless quantities, they are nevertheless ranged under a very small number of species. As in the case of the Algge generally, the outfit required for gathering Diatomacege is of the simplest kind. A common iron spoon, to scrape the surface of mud ; a few small bottles, wide-necked and cork-stoppered ; a quantity of oiled paper, or some similar material. With these few articles the botanist may safely commence an expedition in search of these minute plants. [The collector will often come across likely-looking spots, lying beyond the reach of his arm ; perhaps a mass of weeds in the middle of a wide ditch, or a tempting hollow at the base of a steep slippery bank. To meet this con- tingency, he should provide himself with an ounce vial, broad-brimmed and wide-mouthed, and, besides, a stout india-rubber ring. The bottle, when required, can be easily attached to the end of a walking-stick by means of the ring (as shown in fig. 24, Plate v.), and then in- serted among tufts of Algse, &c., at some distance from the side of the pond or stream. — E d.] 14 OF THE FREE DIATOMACEiE. CHAPTER III. OF THE FREE DIATOMACEJ3. The Diatom ace as may be conveniently divided into two classes, the free species, or those which have an indepen- dent existence ; and the stipitate, or such as are attached to other objects, generally the larger A1 gee, by means of a stalk. This kind of classification, though purely arbitrary, is not without a certain importance, so far as the purposes of collection and preparation are concerned ; for, as it is one of the main points in a well-ordered herbarium to retain the natural habit of each plant, we must not over- look the various modes of growth to which the Diato- macese are subject. [Acting on the Iloratian maxim, that * Segnius irritant animos demissa per aures, Quam quae sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus/ I add here a few examples of the two classes of Diatoms referred to above. Figs 25, 26, Plate v., represent members of the ‘ Free ’ genera, Navicula and Pinnularia. In these it will be seen that each plant is a separate and independent individual ; whereas in those* which follow, individuals are attached together, or to some other body, either by a slender cord, or by a stem, from the ends or sides of which they are produced; in other words are 1 Stipitate : ’ for these see Plates vi. and vii. A third form includes the Frondose species, or those in which numerous individual frustules are enclosed in, and held together by, a coating of gelatine ; bearing, in this state, a strong resemblance to the frond of a tiny seaweed. Figs 31 to 34 (Plate vm.) belong to this group. — E d.] Plate II. 9. Toxonidea Gregoriana. 10. Donkinia carinata. 11. Amphiprora maxima. 12. Diadesmis Williamsonii. OF THE FREE DIATOMACEAC. 17 The free growing members of the family (or those which are in no sense parasitic) are found entangled among the tufts of filamentous Alg®, Oscillatoriae, Mosses, &c. ; or we see them below the surface of the water, wherever the soil, or a stone, or fallen leaf, is stained with a yellowish brown hue. In the latter case the colour is almost invariably due to multitudes of Naviculacese and Nitzschise, genera which usually prefer shallow spots, only a few inches deep, though occasionally they occur in considerable depths, as for example in Alpine lakes. In swiftly flowing streams they become more scattered, and numbers of them remain suspended in the foam, consequent on the water beating violently against stones and other obstacles, and thus may be easily collected without any admixture of sand and mud. In like manner they often rise to the surface with the bubbles of gas, which are disengaged from water-plants under the influence of the sun’s rays. Whenever these foam bubbles are seen to be tinged with a brown colour, the collector knows at once, that they are charged with numerous specimens of the plants he is in search of, and he has only to skim them oft into a wide-mouthed bottle to be sure of ample materials for study on his return home. Those individuals which are caught among the filaments of Algas, or Mosses, must be gathered with the latter, care being taken to drain as little moisture as possible from the tuft, lest the Diatomaceaa escape with it. Let the whole mass be carefully laid in oiled paper, and on afterwards washing it in clean water, the lesser Algse will be disengaged from their temporary nidus, and after a while sink to the bottom of the vessel, when the superfluous water may be poured off. If it is desired to dry the sediment at once, this can be managed by filtering it through some fitting material. It is less easy, however, to separate them from the Oscillatorias, because the latter are so fragile, that it is almost impossible to prevent numerous fragments of their filaments from being mingled with the Diatomaceas. To 18 OF THE FREE DIATOM ACE^E. get rid of these, the objects to be cleaned should be placed in an evaporating dish of porcelain, or in test tubes (such as are used in chemical laboratories), into which some strong mineral acid — muriatic or nitric — has been pre- viously poured, and the whole suspended over a spirit- himp. By this means the fragments of Oscillatorise and other organic matter will be dissolved, leaving a residuum of the silicious coats of the . Diatomaceee (which are practically indestructible), and also whatever flinty par- ticles of sand may have been introduced : these latter can be got rid of by washing, in a way to be presently described. During the boiling which ensues, means must be taken to let the vapour escape that rises from the heated acid, by placing the apparatus, for instance, on the hob of a fire- grate, so that the steam may be carried up the chimney. If this precaution is neglected, serious damage is likely to ensue to articles in the room, the lenses of a microscope will be spoilt, and any metallic substance is sure to be tarnished, not to mention the injury that may be done to the observer himself, from imbibing the poisonous vapour. How long the boiling should continue can be determined only by practice and experience ; a few minutes are gene- rally sufficient. Sometimes, however, a second application of acid is needed, before the whole of the organisms are dissolved. The best test, perhaps, of this having been accomplished is the clear bright appearance of the acid that remains in the tube or saucer, and then the Diatoma- ceous valves may be considered as thoroughly cleansed. To clear them of the acid, empty the mass into a tolerably large glass of pure water, and allow the Diatomaceee to sink to the bottom. Immediately pour off the water, taking the utmost care not to disturb the sediment, and introduce a fresh supply, which must, in its turn, be poured off, and the glass refilled. This should continue until a strip of litmus paper ceases to be tinged with a OF THE FREE DIATOMACE2E. 19 reddish hue ; a proof that not an atom of the acid is left in the glass. The greatest attention must be paid to this cleansing process, for, should it be carried out carelessly or incom- pletely, the valves, on account of the acid still clinging to them, will make very imperfect preparations for the micro- scope. Supposing, however, that all has been done as it should be, the flinty coating of the Diatomaceas suspended in the water will be seen to give it a sort of flickering appearance. Time must be given them to settle on the bottom of the glass, and then they may be passed through the filter and dried ; or, if not wanted immediately, they may be kept in alcohol for future observation. The species which lie on the surface of mud must also go through a process of cleansing, for it is exceedingly difficult to collect them in so pure a state as is needed for a really good preparation. They can rarely, in fact, be gathered without a large infusion of sand and earthy in- gredients, though, of course, the more careful the col- lector is in taking them up, the less will be his trouble and anxiety afterwards. Generally speaking, these species appear as a yellowish brown deposit at the bottom of the ditch or shallow pond in which they are found. The finer the weather and the brighter the sun, the richer and more conspicuous is this deposit, because these circumstances are favourable to the vegetative powers of the Diatomacese, which then move with considerable activity, and draw themselves towards the light, -forming a thin layer, which may be lifted carefully off the surface of the mud with an iron spoon, and dropped into a wide-mouthed bottle. Sometimes, under the influence of the sun’s rays, causing gases to bubble up from the underlying mud, myriads of these tiny plants are caught by passing fragments of Oscillatorise and other weeds, are raised to the top of the water, and may then be secured in a perfectly pure condition. When however, as is more usually the case, earth and c 2 20 OF THE FREE DIATOMACEjE. wind are mixed with the captured Diatomacese, the former must be got rid of by the process of washing alluded to just now. There are different arrangements for effecting this ; in the simplest, a few wine glasses are all the apparatus needed. Empty the contents of a bottle into one of these, and shake them well together. Let the glass remain at rest for a short time, until the heavier particles have sunk to the bottom ; then pour the water slowly and carefully into another glass, and the Diatomacese and other light bodies will be carried with it. As some of the material might be lost by clinging to the outside of the glass, in consequence of the slow passage of the water, it is a good plan to smear the edge with a little tallow or suet : this will cause the water to flow in a steady compact stream. Now let the vessel be quite still as before, so as to allow of the heavier ingredients once more subsiding, and again decant the contents, leaving the residue in the glass. This process may be repeated again and again, until the Diatomacea? are entirely purified from all admixture of mud or sand. Indeed, by the same mode of proceeding, the larger species may be effectually separated from the lesser ; because, owing to their weight and form, certain kinds are sure to reach the bottom more quickly than their lighter com- panions. The clearer the water appears to the eye, so much the longer must the glass remain at rest, because, in consequence of their smaller specific gravity, the lesser species take a longer time to sink. Lastly, the separate deposits are to be examined under the microscope, and their contents filtered and dried. The plan recommended by Okeden is rather more complicated than this, but is perhaps more effectual in the end. The gathering of mud and DiatomacesB is emptied into a tall narrow vessel — a champagne glass for instance — into which water has been poured to the depth of two inches, and is then to be stirred with a glass rod. The vessel is left quiet until the more solid particles have OF THE FREE DIATOMACEJS. 21 separated themselves, and sunk to the bottom. This will take place in about half a minute. The fluid is next carefully decanted into a second glass, and the amount of water lost made up, the same process being gone through five or six times. The sediment in the second glass now contains all the Diatomacea?, and sandy particles, which were too light to subside during the first half minute. To separate these still further, this sediment is treated exactly as was the original gathering, excepting that a longer time is given it (say two minutes and a half), between each decanting. In the same way the contents of the third glass are sorted, only that a still longer period, not less than five minutes, is allowed. Every glass now contains samples of Diatomacege, mingled with earthy ingredients of varying weights, the last glass having of course the lightest. To remove the foreign bodies altogether, each mass of sediment is placed in turn in a short wide glass, and about an inch height of water is poured over it, where it is left for a minute or two. As soon as the whole of the contents may be supposed to have settled, a rotatory motion is given to the water, by moving the vessel with the hand in a circular direction. The Diatomacese, con- sisting mostly of thin plates or valves, are raised by the agitation of the water to the surface, while, on the other hand, the sandy particles being more or less round, are rolled upon each other at the bottom, and gradually collect in the centre of the vessel. The fluid is now quickly, but with great care, decanted into a second glass, where the Diatomacese are allowed to subside. What remains in the first glass may be again and again submitted to the same process, until it is tolerably certain that not a single Diatom has been overlooked. In order to effect a separation of the different species, by taking . advantage of their varying specific gravities, the following method, introduced by Munro, is excellent, and has the merit of great simplicity. A glass tube, three to four feet in length and half an inch wide, is 22 OF THE FREE DIATOMACEJ2. suspended, or fixed, in an upright position. To the lower part is attached a short piece of india-rubber tubing,, ending in a glass mouthpiece with a fine opening, and provided with a kind of tap, known in Germany as a ‘ Quetsclihahn,’ which may be freely interpreted ‘ spring- tap.’* The Algse having been partially cleansed from sand and dirt, the mass is poured into the upper opening of the tube, and a short time being allowed for settle- ment, the tap is opened, and a portion drawn off into a glass. The tap being again closed, and a few minutes allowed to pass, some more of the water is run into a second glass ; and so on, a longer period being allowed between each opening of the tap, until the whole of the * As this peculiar and most useful form of tap is, I believe, known, or nearly so, Fig. 35. Tig. 36. to English Diatomologists^ I append a short 'description. It con- sists, as shown in the accompanying figures, of an elastic wire bent round to form two parallel sides, which are again bent at right angles to its axis, so as to cross one another, and each ending in a flat button A, B. Its elasticity, when made to grasp the india-rubber tubing, completely prevents the passage of a fluid. If it is desired that the fluid should escape from the tube, it is only necessary to press the buttons A, B, upon which the two sides separate to any required extent. On re- leasing the buttons, they immediately fall back to their former position, and the flow of liquid is arrested. This instrument (which may be procured at Mr. Baker’s, 243, High Holborn) is greatly to be preferred to the ordinary stop-cock for use in washing Diatomaceae ; being cheaper, more easily cleaned, and far less liable to get out of order, or to be choked by sand or mud. — E d* Plate III OF THE FREE DIATOMACEiE. 25 fluid is received into several glasses. If now these are examined, it will be found that they contain individuals of different species, for the heaviest sorts sank first to the bottom of the tube, and were the first drawn off, the lighter swam longer on the surface of the water contained in the tube, and were the last therefore to leave it. Another plan, as ingenious as it is easy to put in practice, is that recommended by Reinicke, the principle of which is founded on the peculiar property, possessed by the Diatomacea?, of pressing towards the light. Having collected a quantity of mud, which is seen to be overlaid by a deposit of Diatomacete, it is spread out on a shallow plate, a common dinner plate answers the purpose very well. Upon this is laid a piece of thin linen, or canvass, or cotton stuff, and sufficient water gently poured upon the whole to cover it entirely. The plate is then left near the window of a room in a clear light, or, better still, where the full rays of the sun may fall upon it. The tiny organisms immediately begin to creep through the meshes of the overlying cloth, and, in two or three days, form on it a thickish coating (free from all earthy matter), which may be taken up by means of a camel’s hair pencil, and laid upon a slip of glass. Of course this process is avail- able only so long as the plants are fresh and full of life. If left too long in the room, they lose their vitality, and must be got at by some other means. Another point to be remembered is, that it can be employed only with certain species, such as the Nitzschias and Navicular, whose move- ments are perfectly free and active. There are numerous genera in which the individuals have but slight inherent powers of motion; these cannot be prepared after this method. Gerstenberger's plan of propagating Diatomacese in confinement, depends on nearly the same principle He also spreads out the mud on a plate or shallow dish, and places it near a window in the full light of the sun. Stimulated by its rays, the plants begin to multiply 26 OF THE FREE DIATOMACEiE. Fig. 37. rapidly, forming a brown layer on the surface of the mud. As soon as a sufficient quantity is produced, the water is carefully poured away, or (preferably in my opinion) is drawn off by the aid of a small glass syringe. The mass is now to be swept up with a camel’s hair pencil, and either deposited at once on a slip of glass, or im- mersed in clear water. The mud remaining in the plate may be a second time moistened and placed in the sun, and the collection of the Diatomacese repeated as be- fore. By degrees, however, the vitality of the little plants ex- hausts itself, and it is necessary to revive their vegetative powers. This may be accomplished by creating for them an artificial spring and winter. And there is, in truth, no difficulty in pro- ducing these unseasonable sea- sons ! You have only to allow the water to evaporate, and the mud to become nearly, not quite, dry. Then pour fresh water over it, and once more the Dia- tomacese break up, and vegeta- tion commences anew. In this way, gatherings originally poor may be made to yield an abun- dant supply of plants. Another contrivance for obtaining the Diatomacese in a pure state is the washing apparatus of Benning, fig. 37. It consists of a glass cylinder, two feet six inches in height and two inches wide, on one side of which four holes are pierced, c, d , of systematists, preponderate on the northern shores. As we approach the equator we find the Algce assuming a size and brilliancy of colouring far surpassing anything we are accustomed to see in the temperate zone. [The figures on Plates xvi. and xvii. will assist the young Algologist in recognising members of the great 1 dark-spored r group, the commonest on our shores, and generally the first to strike the eye of the beginner. — Ed.] OF THE CHARACE^E. 107 CHAPTER XI. OF THE CHAR ACEA2. The individuals grouped under the term Characeae have 1 found a great difficulty in establishing a place in nature. They have been a kind of vegetable outcasts, 4 casuals/ without any special ward assigned to them ! The truth is, that while their organs of reproduction are those of a Cryptogam, their external form so nearly resembles that of many of the higher orders, that the earlier botanists may well be excused for having given them a habitation among the latter. The great Linnaeus ranged them in his class and order, Monoecia Monandria, removing them, strange to say, from a place which he had formerly given them, and which was much nearer to the truth, among the Crypto- gamia, not far from the Lichens. Jussieu, De Candolle, and Robert Brown retained them among the Phanerogamia ; Agardh and Wallroth referred them to the Algae. Only recent authors, Hooker, Lindley, &c., have allowed their claim to a separate order, and have fixed their identity as members of the Cryptogamic family. But even now the unfortunate Characeae are far from finding permanent rest,, being bandied about from one neighbourhood to another, from Algae to Fungi, and from Fungi to Lichens and Equi- setaceas. Without pretending to lay any claim to sys- tematic accuracy in this little work, I believe that we are adopting a right course in placing our troublesome proteges betAveen the Alg^ and Fungi ; their tubular stems recalling the former, while the spore-like bodies contained in the nucule seem to mark their affinity with the latter. Like many of the Algae, too, a large number of Charas are gifted with the power of encrusting their stems and branches 108 OF THE CHARACEJ3. with carbonate of lime ; an unfortunate property for the collector, as it renders them so brittle, that he has some difficulty in securing plants in a perfect condition. All the Characea? prefer, for their habitats, ponds and ditches with a muddy bottom, and in which the water is clear, although stagnant : they are rarely found in swiftly flowing streams and rivers. As a rule, they prefer shallow pieces of water, though many species flourish at consider- able depths in the larger lakes. Some, perhaps a fourth of the European varieties, delight in brackish water ; a few in the sea itself. Their geographical range is wide, being found in greater or less abundance in every quarter of the globe, although most common in the more temperate climes. On account of the extreme brittleness which characterises these plants, it is extremely difficult to handle them without breaking off j)ortions. A first consideration, then, with the collector is to avoid entangling the individuals as they are brought out of the water, as his subsequent efforts to separate them from each other will cause him infinite trouble and vexation. There is no difficulty in collecting them, when they chance to grow near the bank. The collector must dip his hand into the water, and seizing a tuft of the plants as near to the root as possible, grasp them firmly and draw them up to the surface in such a way that they shall not bend over on themselves, and get their branches twisted and jumbled together. Before attempting to get rid of the mud, quantities of which are sure to be clinging about the root, the upper clean part should be enveloped in paper : this will prevent it from getting dirtied, and will keep the stem and branches from entangling. Then hold the roots in the water, kneading them softly with the hand, but not drawing the fingers through them. The purified masses may then be laid lengthways between folds of damp paper and carried home : a portfolio is the best and safest mode of transport. The greatest care must be taken not to allow OF THE CHARACEjE. 109 the specimens to dry up before they are properly laid out, as their brittleness is increased a thousandfold when they have lost their fluids. Hence the necessity of sprinkling them with water on reaching home, if they are to be left for any time before being got ready for the herbarium ; but the best plan is to set about preparing them at once. "Where the species grow in very deep water or beyond the reach of the arm, it is requisite to employ the double rake, which has been already described at p. 5. If the collector has a boat at his command, it is better, as of course he has so much larger an expanse of water on which to make his experiments; otherwise he must confine his efforts to the comparatively small area, em- braced by the distance to which his line will reach from the bank. In any case the rake must be allowed to reach the bottom, and then dragged slowly along (if in a boat, the movement of the latter as it floats without the use of oar or paddle, will give sufficient impulse to the rake) until a check is felt, upon which it must be drawn up and the booty secured. It is rare that this little instrument, if made according to the instructions previously given, fails in the services required of it. Of course in fishing in such deep waters, it is impossible to guess what they will yield, and a good deal of worthless stuff will be dragged into the boat. However bright and clear the waters may be, it requires an experienced eye to detect what may be growing at the bottom ; and even that resource is cut off if the slightest wind ruffles the surface. But, generally speaking, the collector will be able to judge pretty well of what he may expect to find by paying attention to the fragments cast on the banks. In places where irrigation is carried on, it is advisable, in the winter and spring when the fields are flooded, to examine the masses of duckweed, sedges, &c. that are scattered about. The chances are, that he will hit upon some minute fragments of Chara, indicating what he may expect to find worth gathering later in the year. Among the CharaceaB themselves too he will frequently 110 OF THE CHARACEiE. come across small portions of other species, proving that the latter grow somewhere in the neighbourhood and may he got at by diligent search. Not unfrequently several species grow together in a single colony ; or again numerous kinds may flourish in distant parts of the same piece of water, requiring close observation on the part of the intelligent botanist, who will not be content with securing a solitary specimen, but will take a careful survey of the banks step by step. He will bear in mind, too, that in this order several species bear a close resemblance to each other, while they are wet ; whereas, on being dried, which speedily takes place on being exposed to the air, the specific differences are easily seen, as they depend mainly on the manner in which the tubular stem is formed. The first step to be taken in preparing the Characese for the herbarium is to lay the larger masses on a table, divide them into smaller portions, and then extract the individual plants. I recommend this being done on a table and not in water, because the plants we are dealing with have a strong tendency to intertwine their branches, especially if there is any movement ; and this is almost unavoidable in the fluid on which they rest. The separate specimens may now be dropped into a basin of water, those only having been selected which are furnished with root, stem, and branches ; for, as in the case of the Phanerogamia, those examples only should be pre- served which give a true picture of the whole plant. No mere fragment, however pretty to look at, is, under ordinary circumstances, worth the attention of the botanist. Now let a piece of stout paper of the proper size be inserted under the Chara, and let the latter be drawn over it root foremost. The only further care necessary is to draw the paper slowly out of the water, and with a blunt needle re-arrange any branches which may have been dis- placed. Leave the paper undisturbed for a short time to let the water drain off, then lay it on some sheets of blot- ting paper, and cover it with stearine paper. This may be Plate X1T. 71. Volvox globator. 72 to 81. Pandorina morum. OF THE CHARACEA2. 113 repeated until a convenient pile is formed, which should be forthwith submitted to the press. After the lapse of a few hours the damp blotting paper must be removed, and replaced by dry material, special care being taken not to disturb the stearine covering, as the Characeee are very apt to cling to it : but this is of no consequence, as they will easily separate as soon as the specimen is perfectly dry. If, on finally removing them from the press, the plants do not adhere completely to the paper on which they lie, a little gum-arabic may be placed under the stem and prin- cipal branches. The extreme fragility of the Characeaa must never be lost sight of during their preparation, and the drier they become, the more strongly marked is this tendency to break up into fragments. This tendency remains even after they are placed in the herbarium : the only remedy I can sug- gest is to insert a very thin layer of common wadding be- tween every half-dozen sheets of the prepared specimens. The wadding, however, must be previously moistened with benzine or corrosive sublimate, or sprinkled with camphor ; otherwise it is but inviting the attacks of Anobia and Dermestes, and similar destructive insects. The Characeas being of a comparatively large size, a low power only of the microscope is needed for determining their characteristics ; indeed an ordinary lens is generally sufficient. The stratum of carbonate of lime, which invests the majority of these plants, must of course be got rid of by means of an acid, before any observations can be made on their inner structure. The species of Nitella, as being entirely free from this incrustation of lime, afford the best opportunity to the student of watching the wonderful phenomenon known, in technical language, as < cyclosis,’ or 1 rotation of the protoplasm,’ but commonly called ‘ circulation of the sap : 1 this , however, it is not. Under a power of not less than 200, green globules are seen to circle round and round each of the cells. But these globules are not the sap, I 114 OF THE CHARACEJ2, but granules of chlorophyll (the substance which gives the green colour to plants), and they are being forced along by a current of mucilaginous matter, termed proto- plasm. What the purpose of this never-ceasing rotation may be has not yet been discovered. In the Characea3, also, may be observed the movements of the spiral filaments or spermatozoids, which swim actively in water, on being pressed out of the globule or antheridium. OF THE FUNGI. 115 CHAPTER XII. OF THE FUNGI. As the Alg^e require water in larger or smaller quantities for tlieir support, so the Fungi demand for their perfect development the decaying remains of other organisms. Wherever rottenness and corruption are present, there are we sure to meet with a rich Fungal vegetation. Let a plant for instance be sickly, it is seized upon immediately by a host of parasites belonging to this class ; their cotton- like mycelium penetrating its cellular tissue, disorganising its structure, and extracting nourishment from its infected juices. Wet wood, fallen leaves, animal excretions, all afford a nidus for these scavengers of nature, who only spring from the earth itself when the latter is rich in humus, or, in other words, in decayed vegetable matter. For a like reason they are to be found in abundance on damp tree stems and in mines and cellars, where fragments of rotten wood supply the conditions necessary to their existence. It must not however be imagined, that, because they are found in deep mines or in cellars, into which the rays of the sun never find their way, Fungi are less dependent for their perfect development on the action of light and air, than the more highly organised members of the vegetable kingdom. The fact is, that they exist in these localities only in a certain condition, as byssoid products or mycelium ; they never come to perfection It is a matter of grave doubt to this day, what is the perfect form of the well-known Rhacodium cellare. There is in truth scarcely a single object in the whole realm of nature which is not liable to the attacks of these minute enemies. The timber of our houses, as many a 116 OF THE FUNGI. landlord knows to his cost, crumbles into dust under the influence of ‘ dry rot 7 (Merulius lacrymans). Our bread, our cheese, our ink, and an infinite number of similar household matters — only let the conditions be favourable — are quickly overrun with the delicate Fungi, which, in common language, are grouped under the name of ‘ mould 7 (Mucoracese and Botrytacese). A stroll in the garden, or a walk through a field, shows us how readily our flowers and cereals succumb to the insidious growth of ‘smut 7 and ‘ brand 7 (Uredinacese). Nor are the members of the animal kingdom one whit more exempt from the assaults of the common enemy ; while Empusina fixes itself on the common house-fly, and Torrubia on a caterpillar,* Muscar- dine is the name of a so-called disease which destroys myriads of silkworms in sunny Italy, and which is in fact nothing but the mycelium of a Fungus (Botrytis bassiana), growing within their bodies and consuming their vital powers. The most favourable situations, however, for the de- velopment of the Fungi are undoubtedly those where a moderate degree of dampness is united with an equable and not too high temperature. Hence forests and woods are certain to provide the collector with abundant material, since they are rich in the elements most needed for the production of Fungal life ; viz. organic substances in a state of decay, shelter from cold biting winds, shade, and moisture. For like reasons, old thick hedges, not too much exposed to the sun, often abound in crimson Pezizse, orange Tremellte, and the curious nest-like Nidularise. Warm rains also in the autumn are favourable to the growth of this class, so that it is not an unusual thing to see astonishing quantities of mushrooms in the fruiterers’ shops, or to come across gigantic puff-balls and boleti in the woods, at that time of year, when they have been quite scarce during the hot summer months. Not that the germs depend for their growth on any particular * On Plates xvm. xix. (96, 97) are given several examples of this singular parasite. OF THE FUNGI. 117 season ; at no period, other circumstances being favourable, need the collector fear to return home from his excursions empty-handed. His outfit is comprised in a few words : 1. A bag, or rather knapsack, the back and front of which are kept apart by two or three pieces of stout mill- board — these same pieces dividing the interior into separate divisions. The use of this knapsack is for the large thick specimens — the Agarics (Plate xxiv.), Helvellids (Plate xix. 98), and Lycoperdaceas (Plates xix. 99, xx.), also pieces of wood on which minute Fungi have fixed them- selves. 2. An old book, in which to carry leaves and other thin parts of plants ; the habitats of Puccinise, Lecythese, &c. An india-rubber ring will keep the whole together. 3. A supply of chip and pill boxes, and small wide- mouthed bottles. These are all useful for the transport of the more delicate Fungi. 4. Paper for wrapping up the objects. 5. A strong sharp knife. Armed with these, and taking care to keep a good look- out among trees and bushes, hedges and palings, the collector may fairly expect to reap the reward of his zeal in a well-filled knapsack. So strangely, indeed, do the Fungi vary in form and size, that his eyes must be at the same time both telescope and microscope. They must not only be able to embrace, from a distance, the outline of the great Bovista, but they must peer among dead leaves and decayed fragments of wood, and be able to detect the faint traces which betray the presence of an Aregma or a Triphragmium (Plate xxi. 102, 103). Every tree stem must be diligently searched, and careful glances thrown on the herbaceous plants around him : every broken limb and rotting bough lying in his path should be lifted up and examined above and below ; for it is on these, that Sphasria (Plate xxi. 104), and Asterosporium (Plate xxn. 105), and a host of other curious forms delight to grow. 118 OF THE FUNGI. True, the very minute Fungi are not to be detected by the naked eye, or at least very rarely ; and it may seem superfluous to bid the young botanist search for what he cannot perceive. But in truth, though he cannot perhaps see them, he can see where they are ; he can see spots and lines and fissures and excrescences ; he can see distortions and discolouration s, all of which announce plainly that the little miner lias established himself, and is hard at work carrying out the mission entrusted to him by Providence- Of course judgment and discrimination are necessary here, as in every other department of science. Not every black spot on a cereal is an Ustilago, nor is every knob or distortion an Hysterium, or a Polycystis. Experience is, no doubt, of the greatest possible use ; and,, more than that,, it must be bought ; there is assuredly no 1 royal road ’ to a knowledge of the Fungi. Nevertheless the student will do well, if it lies in his power, to seek the advice and counsel of an older mycologist; so that, on his first few botanical trips, he may have some kind of notion regarding the characteristics of the minute Fungi. If he is not so fortunate as to have a friend, who can lend him a helping hand, he must needs work the matter out for himself,, and trust to his own tact and common sense to discover these tiny organisms where the eye of the uninitiated would see only a dirty spot, and at the same time to separate the worthless from the valuable.* By taking trouble at first to inspect the leaves in a living condition,, he will soon get to notice those in which the Chlorophyll is beginning to fail, and which have in consequence a sickly appearance ; an almost sure sign that the germs of * I take this opportunity of commending to the notice of the mycological student, Mr. M. C. Cooke’s admirable manuals, £ A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi,’ and ‘ An Introduction to the Study of Microscopic Fungi.’ (Hardwicke.) The research displayed is only equalled by the clearness with which the results of the author’s investigations are placed before the reader. To the beginner;, especially, they will prove invaluable aids. — Ed. Plate XV, OF THE FUNGI. 121 some destructive Fungus are developing themselves. All such leaves he will gather and place in his book for future examination ; although, perhaps, there is nothing beyond this visible to the eye, to show what mischief is at work. By way of illustration, I will refer to the disease which so frequently seizes on the leaf of the potato during the summer. Its first attacks escape the vigilance of even the most experienced eye. Soon, however, a chemical change begins to take place in the Chlorophyll : the hitherto green leaf assumes a yellowish-brown tint, and is finally enveloped in a layer of white cobweb-like threads ; all of which is due to the presence of a mould, known to botanists as the 4 Peronospora devastatrix ’ of De Bary. Another minute Fungus may be observed in the form of a pale spot, which gradually envelops the leaf on which it is seated with a delicate web ; and a very close inspection will detect tiny black dots scattered among the meshes. These are the conceptacles, or capsules, en- closing the spores ; and the whole mass is the well-known 4 mildew,’ belonging to a genus Erysiphe, the members of which work sad destruction among roses, hops, peas, and numerous other plants. Wherever, in a word, the eye of the collector detects an unnatural colour in a leaf, or a diseased appearance in a stem, it is worth his while to examine the sickly part, as the chances are greatly in favour of the evil being due to the baneful action of some Fungus. Thus the pedicel of the thistle, the leaf of the hawthorn, the ripening stem of the wheat plant, &c., are frequently swollen and dis- coloured by iEcidia and Puccini® (Plate xxn. 106), which have worked their way into the cellular tissue, and are rapidly destroying it. But it is not the stems and leaves alone that are subject to the attacks of these active assailants. It is rare to stroll through a field of standing corn late in the summer, without finding traces of that terrible pest, the 4 smut,’ {Ustilago segetum), a dust-like agglomeration of minute 122 OF THE FUNGI. black spores, which in certain seasons propagate themselves in countless myriads, always taking up their abode in the ears. No less injurious is another microscopic Fungus, generally known as 1 bunt ’ (Tilletia caries), which grows within the grain itself, filling it with its dark mass of spores. On pressing the grain the spores become visible to the eye as a sooty and foetid dust. Of the cases in which Fungi are noxious to animal life, the commonest and most easily observed is that of the Empusina musese, Cohn ., to which so many house-flies fall victims. It is by no means a rare thing, especially during the autumn, to find flies with outstretched legs apparently glued to the window-panes, and surrounded by a white filmy cloud extending to a distance of one inch or two inches on each side of the body. This filmy cloud is a Fungus, which, generated within the body of the animal during life, has now forced its way out between the rings of the abdomen, and is spreading its filaments in every direction. [Recent investigations have brought to light the almost incredible fact, that this Empusina, when immersed in water, alters its whole character and develops into a plant, which was long looked upon as a Confer void Alga (Achlya prolifera, Nees ), (Plate xxm.) ; a plant only too well known to keepers of gold fish, whose sides it clothes with numberless tufts of long colourless filaments, gradually wasting their powers and destroying their vitality. Nor does the wonder cease here : there is reason to believe, though the fact is not yet well established, that Achlya is but another form of Botrytis bassiana, the 1 Muscardine,’ to which I have already alluded as consuming the intestines of silkworms. — Ed.] All the larger Fungi must be thoroughly dried before they can be put away with safety in the herbarium. With regard to the species which flourish on such compact material as branches, palings, &c., the simplest plan is to cut off so much of the wood as is convenient, and leave the preparation in the open air until the moisture has completely evaporated* OF THE FUNGI. 12 8 Fresh leaves and stems infested by microscopic forms of Fungi may be dried in the same way as the fronds of ferns or leaves of the Phanerogamia, of which more will be said hereafter. The only precaution necessary is, that the pres- sure be not too heavy, and that the blotting paper be con- stantly changed. As these Fungi arise, in the first instance, from below the cuticle in which they excavate (so to speak) little hollows, and then spread themselves around in yellow or black pulverulent masses, too severe a pressure may force them back into' the cavities, or at least squeeze them against the plane surface of the leaf, and thereby destroy their natural habit and appearance. The reason why it is advisable to make frequent changes of the drying material is, that various forms of mould are developed wherever there is moisture present. This is of little consequence where large plants are being prepared, but may give rise to serious errors when the objects are of a microscopic nature. The most difficult kinds to manage are the fleshy pileate Fungi, those, I mean, included under the order Agaricacese, or Hymenomyeetes, of systematic authors. Numerous ex- periments have been made from time to time with a view to strike out some plan of retaining their natural form and features after death. But one arrangement after another has had to be abandoned, and mycologists have been compelled to fall back upon the earliest and withal the simplest method, that of drying them. Even this simple method, however,, is not possible with the larger individuals, not only on ac- count of their size, but because the substance of which they are composed is so sensitive to the influence of moisture, that it is hopeless to think of preserving them by any ordinary treatment. Under the most favourable circumstances they are shrivelled and shrunk out of all shape when taken from the press. So the student must be content with having por- tions only of the original pilant at his command ; but these may be prepared in such a way as to be full of instruction, if he will follow out the suggestions I am about to offer. [But first of the parts which go to form an ordinary 124 OF THE FUNGI. Agaric (Plate xxiv.). On taking up one of these plants (or rather one of their fructifying organs, for the plant itself is concealed under the soil in the form of Mycelium) we see a convex expansion called the pileus or cap, sup- ported by the stipes or stem, which itself rises out of the volva or wrapper, a tough membrane, which at one time enclosed the entire organism, but through which the pileus and stipes have forced their way, leaving only a fragmentary cup behind. The pileus, in fact, is a thick leathery roof, concealing and at the same time affording protection to the hymenium or reproductive organs ; and, on turning the pileus over, we see that the hymenium is divided into numerous plates, the lamellae or gills, radiating from the centre to the external border. Further investigations under the microscope reveal the fact, that these lamellae are recep- tacles containing the sporules, the germs of the future Agarics. Perhaps it will simplify the matter to some of my readers if I add, that the pileus with its accompanying hymenium forms the edible portion of the common mush- room, the stipes usually going to form that useful sauce, ‘catsup.’ What are termed ‘button mushrooms’ are the young plants still imprisoned within the volva, or which have but just burst through its membranous coat. — Ed.] In the first place, longitudinal sections must be made, traversing the whole organism, from the top of the pileus to the base of the stipes. To effect this, the operator takes a very sharp knife, or better still a razor, and with a firm hand makes a bold cut from above downwards right through the plant. This he repeats three or four times, so as to obtain successively several laminae, each about two lines thick, presenting a kind of diagram of the different parts. These should be at once placed under the press. The quicker the operation of drying is performed, the finer will be the appearance of the preparation, and the better will the natural colouring be retained. This may be for- warded by frequently changing the paper, and by warming it before laying it on the object. OF THE FUNGI. 125 Of tlie two halves remaining over and above the portions cut away, the operator should separate the stem from the cap, and scoop out a large proportion of the hymenium, so as to leave the pileus entire with a certain amount of fleshy matter adhering to it. It might be better, perhaps, to re- move the whole of the internal substance ; but, in that case, the preparation would have a bad appearance, from being too transparent after it was dried. The remains of the stipes must be similarly treated ; that is to say, a large portion of its interior must be removed, and then the frag- ments thus prepared are ready for the press. As soon as the pieces are all perfectly dry, one of the stems must be gummed or glued on white paper, and at its upper end one of the halves of the pileus fixed in like manner, so as to get, in fact, a more or less characteristic representation of the original plant. Where there is an abundance of specimens, the collector need not be so particular about preserving the two halves that have been already cut through. It is better indeed to dry the whole of a pileus, having first scooped out the greater part of the hymenium previous to fastening it on paper. When drying and gumming down the longi- tudinal section, pains must be taken not to disturb the arrangement of the lamellae and their relation to the stipes. The foregoing applies particularly to the very large fleshy Agarics. Those of a medium size may be simply divided through the centre of the cap and stem, and each half pressed and dried. The preparation is not very elegant, but gives satisfactory results from a scientific point of view. The smaller species, such as the Marasmii, Colly bii, &c., require no special preparation beyond suspen- ding them for some hours in a current of air (but not in the sun) until they have lost a portion of their contained fluids, and feel flabby and loose to the touch. They may then be submitted to the press as usual. I should perhaps have mentioned before, when speaking of the very fleshy kinds, that all Fmigi of a soft nature, like Mushrooms and Toadstools, should be hung up in the air 126 OF THE FUNGI. for at least twelve hours before being operated on. The work itself is rendered much easier, and there is less chance of the delicate parts being mangled. Small coriaceous Fungi (the Polypori, Thelephorse, &c.) must not be weighted too severely. There are some kinds of Fungi, which are as hard as wood; from such thin sections may be taken in various directions, and put away at once. Several species belonging to the genera Peziza, Hirneola, &c., are of a totally different consistency, being strictly gelatinous. These will partially recover their original form and appearance on being moistened, long after they have been deposited in the herbarium. As a final process, subsequent to the pressure and dry- ing, every portion of the Fungi — of the leathery and fleshy kinds, I mean — must be impregnated with corrosive subli- mate, to save them from the attacks of insects. But with regard to this I will speak more freely when treating of the herbarium, and the best method of preserving its contents uninjured. However well prepared, dried Fungi, especially the pileate group, are very difficult of determination. If, therefore, from want of time or leisure, the student is unable to submit his freshly gathered examples to a rigid •examination, he should at least assist his memory by making a note of such characteristics as come under his eye before the plants are dried. The main points to observe are these : the colour of the stem and of the upper surface of the pileus ; consistency of the fleshy substance, whether hard and brittle, tough and gelatinous, soft and spongy, &c. ; the odour emitted, of garlic, of violet, of putrid flesh, &c. ; the presence or absence of a milky fluid when fragments are broken off ; and, lastly, the changes of colour, which take place when the plant is freshly cut. For a more scientific diagnosis it is necessary to ascertain, what relation the reproductive parts hold to the general structure of the organism ; whether, for instance, the spores are imbedded in lamellae (as with the Agarics), are borne in tubes on the lower Plate XVII. 88. Fucus nodosus. a. Spores. 89. Fucus canaliculatus. a. Spores. OS? THE FUNGT. 129 part of the disc (as in the Polypori), or whether they cover the top and sides of a club-shaped receptacle (as in Clavaria, &c,). The spores themselves should also be secured as useful aids. This may be done by laying the fructifying organs on a piece of white paper, and leaving it undisturbed for about twenty-four hours. On lifting it at the end of that time the paper will be seen to be sprinkled with a brown (occasionally white) dust, which is in fact a multi- tude of ripe spores : these may be wrapped in paper, or shaken into a corked tube for future examination. I strongly advise the young mycologist to make drawings of the Fungi, or at least of the principal forms, which come under his notice. Even if he is not a practised draughts- man, he can by perseverance soon acquire skill enough ta copy their outline, and lay on the proper colouring : how- ever roughly done, he will probably find his sketch of considerable use in the comparison of individuals and the determination of species. The systematic examination of these plants cannot be carried on without the aid of the microscope, on account of the extreme minuteness of their organs. In some instances an ordinary needle attached to a wooden handle is sufficient to expose their inner structure: generally speaking, however, the cellular tissue and organs of fructification cannot be properly seen unless a delicate section is made with a razor. With such as rest upon a stout, firm base, like the branch of a tree, there is no diffi- culty ; a little practice will enable the student to make a clean cut from end to end. The same may be said with respect to the Agarics and other soft, fleshy kinds : in these a section may be easily made through the pileus, so as to include the hymenium. On the other hand, species which are parasitic on the leaves of Phanerogamia must be treated in a different way. The leaf itself, not giving sufficient support to the cutting instrument, must be laid between two pieces of cork — a common wine cork divided longitudinally answers perfectly well; then, by cutting K 180 OF THE FUNGI. clean through cork and leaf, sections of the required thin- ness may be obtained without difficulty. To keep the two pieces of cork from shifting during the operation, they may be thrust through a metal ring of suitable size, or a piece of stout paper may be gummed round them ; a still simpler plan is to tie them together with strong thread or thin string. The section can be placed at once on a slide with a fine hair pencil. In a large number of cases the fruit must be examined in a dry state, in order to ascertain the true connection of the spores with their receptacles, as water causes them to separate. Of this description is the whole order of Botry- tacese or Hyphomycetes — an order which embraces most of the common 1 moulds,’ growing upon organic substances, both dead and living ; the Peronospora of the potato, to which I lately alluded ; the parasites which infest the onion, pea, rose, and clover, and numerous other pests of the farm and garden. In all these (which to the naked eye appear as patches of a white woolly substance) the fruit, or acrospores, as they are called in technical lan- guage, are situated on the tips of certain upright threads, sometimes solitary, but more generally branched, so as to have the appearance of miniature forest trees, only that there are no leaves, and that each branchlet supports at its apex a single round or oval acrospore. In some cases the branchlet itself is moniliform, or made up of rows of these tiny reproductive organs, adhering end to end. From some unknown cause, the 4 pedicels’ no sooner come in contact with water, than they 1 lose their heads ; ’ the fruit drops off, and the observer misses the chance of ascertaining the way in which pedicel and acrospore were united. If then a fluid is applied at all, a single drop must be laid on the slide after the specimen has been placed ready for examination. Let the water touch the covering glass, and it will creep under by capillary attraction and saturate the object. OF THE FUNGI. 131 The following re-agents may be used with advantage m the examination of the spores — sugar, sulphuric acid, iodine, and caustic potash, in solution. [As to the method of employing re-agents, I must refer the student to the works of Dr. L. Beale and others, bearing more directly upon the subject than this little work pretends to do. — Ed.] 182 OF THE LICHENS. CHAPTER XIII. OF THE LICHENS. Judging from external appearances and from their natural habits, no two groups of plants would seem to be more distinctly separated than the Fungi and the Lichens. Their boundaries, one would suppose, are as sharply defined as any embraced under the great family of Cryptogamia. Nevertheless, modern authors are gradually drawing to the opinion that, sooner or later, the Lichens must be reduced to mere forms of the Fungal class. The point on which the ‘ Separatists 7 have mainly relied is the presence, in the thallus, of globular gonidia, containing a green matter in the cells, which gonidia are supposed to be wanting in the Fungi ; but it is certain that some of the Lichens (Abrothallus for example) are destitute of green gonidial cells. And it is by no means certain that some analogous structure is not to be found in many of the Algse. Agardh considers Lichens more nearly allied to Fungals than to Algals : he remarks, that 1 if Sphasrias, or Pezizas, had a thallus, they would be Lichens ; and that the same part is all that determines such genera as Calycium, Verruca ria, or Opegrapha to be Lichens and not Fungi. 7 (Lindley, ‘Vegetable Kingdom, 7 47.) However, 'eaving these matters to be discussed by physiologists, we will assume for our purposes, that the distinction ordinarily laid down in regard to the two classes is correct, viz. that ‘ while the Fungi have their vegetative structure immersed in the medium in which they grow, the Lichens are entirely aerial encrusting plants. A practical matter of great importance to the collector, though of no value in the eyes of the systematist, is the OF THE LICHENS. 133 admitted fact, that no Lichen is ever submersed, and that they are never developed in mines, caverns, or places deprived of light. In this respect they form a striking contrast to both Algce and Fungi ; the former, as we know, depending for their very existence on the presence of water, while the latter love moisture, and the absence of direct sunlight. Lichens, however, prefer the driest and most exposed localities. Within certain limits they bear, with equal indifference, the scorching heat of the midday sun and the icy breath of the north wind. Even when so dried and withered as to crumble in the hand, they will wake to new life when again moistened and placed in such conditions as allow of the development of their cells. This extraordinary persistency, the power of retaining life under circumstances which would be fatal to any other organised being, causes the Lichens to be veritable pioneers in the vegetable king- dom. Taking possession of the bare face of a cliff, where not even a moss could find footing, they seize the passing dew or raindrop, introduce it into the shallow fissures of the rock on which they are clustered, and thus gradually prepare a foothold for the higher plants. Nor is their usefulness limited to their living state ; their very death is made subservient to the great purposes of nature, by filling the cavity on which they grew with the humus formed out of their own corruption ; doubtless a trifling amount, but sufficient to support the tiny moss which succeeds them, and which in its turn lives and dies only to supply nutriment for some more highly organised plant. Perhaps the most remarkable evidence of the powers of vitality belonging to this class is shown in the fact, that no sooner do the streams of lava begin to cool after a volcanic eruption, than a Lichen (known as Stereocaulon Vesu- vianum) spreads its hard solid thallus over the glowing surface. Most of the Lichens prefer to grow on either stone or wood ; very few flourish on the naked soil ; a small propor- 134 OF THE LICHENS. tion are parasitic, either on other Lichens (as Abrothallus) or on the leaves of box and similar evergreens (as Strigula) The collector may hope to get his best gatherings from stone and brick walls, trunks of trees, palings, and posts, all of which are often clothed with an immense variety of these plants, especially where they have a northern aspect. Many of the species are exceedingly minute and of so dark a colour, as not to be easily distinguished at a short distance from the bark on which they rest. In fact, tree stems and palings must be as diligently searched for Lichens, as the leaves and stalks of herbaceous plants for microscopic Fungi. The same outfit is requisite here as was recommended in the last chapter, with the addition of a couple of chisels (pointed and broad) and a hammer for detaching the species which grow on the surface of rocks. Those kinds which are more or less free (that is to say, in which the thallus is not wholly fixed down to the object on which it grows) may be simply taken off by hand, and, if not too dry, placed between the leaves of a book. It is best to gather them when they are damp ; consequently y the fittest time for searching for them is after rain, or in the early morning before the dew has passed away. Botanists, however, cannot always time their excursions so nicely as to meet these circumstances exactly. When this is the case, and the specimens on being gathered feel dry and brittle, they must be dipped in water, and suffered to imbibe so much of the fluid as to render them limp and flexible. After this, allowing the surface moisture to evaporate, they may be safely carried in the book, or wrapped in paper, in the pocket. I may as well observe here, that most of the Lichens, which are of a light grey tint when dry, become much darker, and frequently quite green, when moistened. I mention this that the beginner may not be disappointed, and attribute to his unskilful preparation what is in fact a natural change of colour. On being brought home the specimens must be looked Plate XVIII. 90. Torrubia entomorrhiza, 91. Section, &c. 92. Torrubia militarise 93. Torrubia gunnii. 94. Torrubia spbingum. 95. Torrubia spbingum. Isaroid condition. OF THE LICHENS. 137 over, and, when necessary, again damped and softened. They should then be spread out between sheets of blotting- paper, so as to exhibit as near as can be their original character, and left to dry under a light pressure. On the whole, the Lichens cause less trouble in their pre- paration than any other group of plants, except perhaps the Mosses. In the case of certain small species (as, for instance, Boeomyces roseus) which grow on the earth, the better plan when collecting them is to carry away with the plant a thin layer of the soil itself. This is easily effected by means of a knife. In the same way all such as flourish on wood, tree stems, palings, &c., should, on being taken off, retain a very thin section of their support. The difficulty of gathering those which are firmly fixed to the face of a rock, overgrowing it like a thin crust, is far greater, as the stone itself must be chipped off with chisel and hammer. Of course the difficulty is increased where the operator has to deal with the smooth surface of a compact rock ; as, on the other hand, it is considerably lessened when the material is of a calcareous, slaty, or schistose character. Each piece, on being broken off, must be wrapped separately in paper, to prevent them from rubbing against one another, thereby spoiling the incumbent Lichen, or at least destroying its fruit. I take this opportunity of cautioning the botanical novice against preserving only such small specimens of the chipped- off rock as will lie between the sheets of his herbarium ; an error he is liable to fall into for the sake of uniformity and for convenience of arrangement. He forgets that, as time goes on and his collection increases, it must of necessity be divided into numerous smaller portions, and be put away in drawers or boxes. He had, therefore, much better at once secure good instructive examples, even though he is obliged to keep them in separate repositories, than have to do his work over again at a future period. I need scarcely perhaps add that, with Lichens, as with 138 OF THE LICHENS. any other form of plant, those are the most instructive examples in which the organs of fructification are well displayed. As regards the Lichens, indeed, the presence of the fruit is indispensable. Investigation into their minute structure is accomplished, as in the case of the Fungi, by means of thin sections, cut through both frond and receptacle. OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. 13 & CHAPTER XIV. OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. The Mosses occupy a less exclusive position than the pre- ceding classes of the Cryptogamia, inasmuch as in many respects they approximate to the great family of plants, the Phanerogamia. [Not that there is any likeness to a 4 flower r in their organs of fructification ; so far there is still a wide gulf between the highest of the 4 Muscal alliance ’ and the lowest of the sexual plants : nevertheless, when we come to examine their structure, we find that among Mosses a great step in advance has been made in the scheme of nature. For the first time now we have to deal with a true root, a true stem, and true leaves ; though it must be owned, that in a few instances it is a work of some difficulty to detect these organs. Thus Buxbaumia aphylla has re- ceived its specific name from the apparent absence of leaves, and the species of Sphagnum retain their roots only in the young state. For the first time, too, we meet with traces of that special characteristic of the more highly organised plants — a vascular system. — Ed.] With regard to the localities in which the Mosses delight to dwell, we find them to be truly cosmopolitan. The particular species are by no means indifferent to the situation they may occupy; but, taking them as a whole, the members of this order exist wherever shade and moisture are afforded ; the actual species varying according to the nature of the soil, and the material on which they grow. Streams and morasses have their peculiar species. Fonti- nalis, Sphagnum, &c., are strictly aquatic ; and from these we may trace them, step by step, to the sloping sides of a ditch, the weather-beaten roof of a thatched cottage, the 140 OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. refts in a wall, the hard surface of a rock, and finally to spots (such as the resort of the charcoal-burner) where the soil, though sheltered by trees, has been withered and scorched by the action of fire. Mosses, observes Lindley, 1 are found in all parts of the world where the atmosphere is humid, but they are far more common in temperate climes than in the tropics. They are among the first vegetables that clothe the soil with verdure in newly formed countries, and they are the last that disappear when the atmosphere ceases to be capable of nourishing vegetation. The first green crust upon the cinders of Ascension consisted of minute Mosses ; they form more than a quarter of the whole Flora of Melville Island ; and the black and lifeless soil of New South Shetland is covered with specks of Moss struggling for existence.’ Their favourite localities, however, are those which are rich in decaying vegetable matter, and but little exposed to the sun’s lieat ; so that it is to the wood and forest, the deep ravine and the narrow valley, that the collector must look for his principal gatherings. The shady side of bold ridges must be carefully searched ; also damp hedgerows and wet rocky places, especially with a northern aspect, for in these many of the delicate Jungermannise love to grow. A few, comparatively rare, forms (the Splachna) choose the dung of animals as their habitat, principally in Alpine and Subalpine districts. ‘ One of these, Splachnum angustatum, which is commonly met with upon dung, we once saw growing vigorously upon the foot of an old stocking near the summit of Ingleborough, Yorkshire. The same species was found by a friend of ours covering the half- decayed hat of a traveller who had perished on the mountain of St. Bernard in Switzerland ; and the same, if we mistake not, was discovered by Captain Parry in Melville Island, vegetating in the bleached skull of a musk ox.’ * The Sphagna, as stated above, are truly aquatic, * Mascologia Britannica. OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. 141 choosing by preference the swamp and morass, great tracts of which they cover with their spongy tufts. They may be easily distinguished, even at a long distance, by their singular pale yellow hue, so different to the bright rich green which generally marks the Moss tribe. The denizens, however, of the water are far inferior in number to those which draw their nourishment from the atmosphere, thriving on the surface of rocks, damp walls, and stems of trees. Thus the Orthotricha are almost entirely confined to the latter habitat, the exceptions occurring on rocks, never on the naked soil. The collector, therefore, must take a rigid survey of the trees, as well as of the ground which they overshadow, taking particular care to examine the hollows formed by the junction of the branches with the stem ; also the base of the tree where the latter passes into the root and buries itself in the soil ; for it is in places of this description that the rain and dew settle, and consequently Mosses are encouraged to develop themselves. Uprooted trees, on which time and the weather are beginning to make an impression, are also favourite localities for nearly all the members of the Muscal alliance. Let them be closely investigated, for, other conditions being aus- picious, more examples will often be gathered here than hours of research will disclose in many less-favoured spots. A strong knife, a waterproof bag or small tin vasculum, a few small bottles, and a supply of paper, are all that is necessary, by way of outfit, for a 1 ramble among the Mosses.* If possible, only such specimens as are in full fructifi- cation should be gathered ; for, as a practical matter, mere tufts of leaves without signs of fruit, or with immature fruit, are really of very little value. So important is this, that, should the collector find himself in a neighbourhood where the Mosses do not yet display their fruit, he had far better leave them for a while, than gather them at once, however tempting the opportunity, or lovely the specimens. Let him mark the place carefully, and revisit it in a month or two, and in all probability he will be amply rewarded 142 OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. for his self-denial. Of course there are cases in which he has but little chance of seeing the spot a second time ; there is no help for him then but to secure the prize while he can. There are a few cases too in which the plants rarely, if ever, develop their organs of fructification. Here again he must ‘ take things as he finds them ; ’ it would be of no use to wait, and he must be satisfied with sterile examples. [The reproductive organs of Mosses consist of so-called antheridia and pistillidia, or archegones. The former are minute globular or oval bodies, supported on a short pedicel, and, when ripe, discharging a granular matter, which has been likened to pollen. They are usually associated with a number of jointed cellular filaments or paraphyses, the 1 fila succulenta * of Hedwig. These antheridia are considered to be the representatives of the stamens, or male organs of the flowering plants. The pistillidia, on the other hand, minute flask-shaped bodies, swollen at the base, are looked upon, as their name implies, as corresponding to the pistils, or female organs of the Phanerogamia. By degrees they are developed into the long stemmed capsule, or theca, so conspicuous in most Mosses by their bright chestnut colour. Now it is requisite, if possible, that the student should provide himself with examples of each of these organs, not only because of the interest attached to them, but from the increasing tendency of museologists to base their systems of classification on these minute structures. — Ed.] It frequently happens, however, that Mosses are dioe- cious ; that is to say, the two kinds of reproductive organs are situated on separate plants, the mature female of course being the most conspicuous. This is exactly analogous to what occurs among the true sexual plants ; but then their parts, as a rule, are evident enough, whereas among the Mosses and their allies the same parts, at any rate at first, are strictly microscopic. All we can recommend to the student is, to make diligent search. If the antheridia are not to be found in the 1 pistillidiferous ’ specimens, he should Plate XIX. 96. Torrubia sphingum, fertile stipe. 97. Torrubia etylophora. 98. Morchella esculenta. 99. Lycoperdon gemmatum. OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. 145 examine the neighbourhood (especially where it varies a little in elevation or dampness) for male plants. ‘ Practice makes perfect,’ and though frequent disappointments may occur, success will follow, in a greater or less degree, as he applies himself more vigorously to his work. In gathering the Hepaticse it is indispensable to secure the organs of fructification : these are of simpler structure and lower organisation than in the Mosses, consisting of capsules either imbedded in the thick cellular frond (the Iticcise), or elevated on footstalks (Marchantia, Junger- mannia, &c.), but in either case unprovided with the calyptra and operculum, the hoods which distinguish and protect the spore cases of the true Mosses. When then the latter plants are placed in the bag or vasculum, precautions must be taken against losing the hoods, as they are of great service in the elucidation of genera, and unhappily they are very apt to drop off— [I always myself * bottle ’ a few small specimens, the enclosed moisture preventing the separation of the calyptra from the theca. The leaves too are kept fresh and the plants generally are saved from rubbing and consequent mutilation. This refers more particularly to the Jungermannise, the extreme delicacy of whose fruit, and stem, and leaves demand most tender treatment. The ‘ bottling * also ensures a specimen being ready for examination immediately on returning home ; though this is by no means essential, as all the Moss tribe speedily recover their plumpness and general appearance, on being immersed in water, after they have been lone: dried.— Ed.] 6 They are very easily prepared for the herbarium, all that is necessary being to separate them into convenient portions, pick out all foreign bodies (such as fragments of leaves, &c.), place them between blotting-paper, and sub- mit them to the press. The weights employed must be of the lightest, as otherwise the natural appearance of the plants are distorted. The true Mosses are usually divided into two chief sections — the Acrocarpi, or those in which L 146 OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. the fruit is situated at the summit of a stem, and the Pleurocarpi, which bear the fruit on the sides. In one word, in the first, the theca or capsule is terminal; in the second it is lateral. This difference of structure necessitates a difference of treatment in preparation. Bunches of the lateral fruited species may be separated by the hand without taking the trouble to isolate individual plants : it is better, in fact, to leave them massed together, as showing their character of growth more accurately. With the terminal fruited species, on the contrary, the natural habit of the plants is seen better if they are separated, though they need not be entirely so. For this purpose, two or three clean cuts may be made with a knife through the tuft, from above downwards, thereby making thin sections held together slightly at the bottom, either by the adherent earth, or by their own interwoven roots. Some of the very delicate kinds, such as Brachyodus or Seligeria, and many of the Jungermannise should be collected together with the bark or stone to which they have at- tached themselves. The Hepaticse need great care in their preparation ; not the least difficulty is the getting rid of the soil from their roots without injuring the leaves or breaking the stem. The best method of accomplishing this is to lay the plants, just as they are brought home, in a cup of clean water, then, by a gentle movement of the fluid backwards and forwards, the earth will gradually separate itself and settle at the bottom. The water should be constantly renewed, until no signs of discoloration appear. Next let the plant be carefully lifted out of the cup and laid on soft paper to allow of the water draining off. Here, again, great care is needed, because some of the important parts are easily broken off and lost from their extreme minuteness, if any roughness or over-haste is used; such are the so-called gemmae, the calyx or vaginule, and the antheridia, on their short pellucid footstalks. An ordinary lens is sufficient for the examination of the stems and branchlets of the Mosses ; but the construction of OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. 147 the leaf (especially in the Hepaticse) can only be properly seen with a microscope whose powers are not less than 200 diameters. For this purpose a leaf must be separated, by means of a pair of forceps, quite close to the stem, or the stem itself may be divided above and below the point of attachment, and the whole section submitted to the micro- scope. This last is perhaps the better arrangement, be- cause it often happens that the base of the leaf is furnished with peculiar cells, which are of service in discriminating species. A drop of water should be added to the leaf, when it is laid on the slide, as this renders the delicate network of cells more pervious to light. I have found the following plan bring out the form of the cells of the Jungermannise, and indeed of many of the Mosses, very clearly. First, let the leaflet be warmed to ebullition in a solution of caustic potash, rinse it in soft water, and then add a drop of a solution of chloride of zinc and iodine. By this means the cell walls, after a while (though sometimes not for hours), assume a blue tint, and on being slightly pressed under the covering glass, the layers of cellular tissue exhibit themselves to great perfection. The arrangements, however, of the leaf cells may be best seen in vertical sections, made by means of a divided cork in the way recommended at p. 129. In many cases the necessity for preparing these thin sections is not called for, while in others (as Fissidens, Polytrichum, Sphagnum, &c.) the true construction of the leaf cannot be made out without them.* * The following observations on the leaves of the Jungermannise are of value : — ‘ The leaves are remarkably varied in their form and arrangement, and usually afford excellent guides in the discrimina- tion of one species from another. A glance at the figures which follow will show their great variation in this particular. ... In all cases the leaves are without footstalks, and in each British species alternate ; that is, they are not arranged in pairs at the same level on the stem, but one is always a little above or below its nearest neigh- bour in its attachment. In some cases they are ranged in two row® 148 OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. The amphigastria are a kind of modified leaves in the Hepatic^, answering in some respects to the stipules of more perfect plants. Growing, as they do, on the lower surface of the stem, and being very minute, considerable trouble is involved in searching for them, as numerous stems have to be examined ; neither are they always pre- sent over the whole extent of the stem. The most likely parts are healthy young shoots, especially those that sup- port the reproductive organs. The eye, too, should be directed to the sides of the under-surface, rather than along the central axis. For the purpose of examination the amphigastrise may be shaved off with a thin and very sharp penknife, or the stem itself may be divided, as directed for the true leaves. The latter method has the advantage of securing the stipule from injury, and of giving a good insight into its mode of attachment. on opposite sides of the stem. In other and fewer instances they are attached to, or grow from, all sides of the stem. It is of rare occur- rence to find the leaves notched at the margin, hut this sometimes takes place. The cells, of which the leaves are composed, are roundish, or hexagonal, from pressure, and very variable in size. This also is a great assistance in the determination of species. . . . The cells of the ladder scale Moss (Alicularia scalaris), for instance, contain peculiar nucleate bodies of from two to four granules in a hne in each of the cells (fig. 2) ; those of the three- toothed scale Moss (Pla- giochila tridenticulata) fig. 3, and of the curled-leaved scale Moss (Jungermannia curvifolia), fig. 4, will illustrate some of the forms of leaf cells.’ (‘ British Hepaticse ; an Easy Guide to the Study of,’ by M. C. Cooke — a work which piay be consulted with advantage by the student. It is crowded with figures, and its exceedingly low price places it within every one’s reach.) — Ed. OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. 149 The vagimile, which answers to a certain extent to the calyx of the Phanerogamia, at first encloses the spore-case ; the latter, however, soon bursts through its cellular en- velope, and is elevated on a delicate threadlike stem. The vaginule should be examined in its early state, previous to its losing its contents, first from the exterior ; and, when its outward form is familiar to the observer, he should divide it under water into two halves longitudinally, in one of which he will see the organs of fructification in a greater or less degree of development. Ordinarily this division of the vaginule may be easily effected by means of a forceps in each hand ; occasionally it is of so fleshy a nature as to allow of being cut with a knife. For studying the anatomical structure of the fruit of the Mosses a capsule must be taken with the fruit not yet ripe. Thin sections, vertical and horizontal, may be made with great ease. A peculiar organ is found in the capsules of nearly all the Hepaticse, called the elater. It is a single or double filament, spirally twisted, and enveloped in a slender tube : both tube and elater form interesting objects for the microscope. Of what service the elaters may be in the economy of the plant is not yet accurately ascertained ; their probable office is to disperse the spores by their elas- tic movement as soon as the latter are ripe. A still more mysterious organ found in the antheridia of most of the Mosses is the spermatozoid, or antherozoid, or spermatic filament ; for by all these names it is known among botanists. It is a minute thread, of ■which the functions are not yet known. On being placed in water these spermatozoids exhibit active spontaneous motion, as may be seen by squeezing the contents of a ripe antheridium into a drop of water on a slide, covering it with thin glass, and then submitting it to a microscope with a power of from 300 to 600 diameters. If the movements are too quick for observation, they may be retarded by allowing a drop of iodide solution to make its way under the covering glass. * 150 OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. For the determination of species the capsule and its enclosed spores must be quite ripe, and must still retain its operculum (or lid), and calyptra (or veil'). A few species (as Phascum) are destitute of an operculum ; and in some (as Sphagnum) the calyptra disappears long before the capsule reaches maturity. In all cases however,, where they are present, both lid and veil drop off as soon as the spores are ready for dispersion ; an office which is greatly assisted by a third organ, which crowns the capsule,, and is known as the fringe or peristome. This last, which is sometimes single and at others double,, is of the utmost importance in the discrimination of genera ; so much so that, in systematic works, the characters of the subsections are founded on its absence or presence ; and the Aploperistomi (plants with a single fringe), the Diplo- peristomi (those with a double fringe), and the Gymno- stomi (or such as are destitute of a fringe), form acknow- ledged divisions in the Muscat family. The peristome, moreover, from its peculiar construction and delicate colouring, makes a lovely object for the micro- scope. A specimen is easily prepared : lay the capsule on the thumb-nail of the left hand and cut it across the shorter axis with a sharp knife, rather towards the summit. The upper portion, which now represents a short tube, is next to be cut half through vertically. The fringe may then be spread out on a slide and covered with a thin glass to pre- vent it from again curling up. The leaves may be preserved for future observation by laying them between two pieces of thin glass, united at the edges by asphalte. When wanted for use the specimen is- dipped into water, which entering between the glasses moistens the leaf, and restores it temporarily to its original appearance. All the more important organs may be treated in the same way. By this arrangement much time is saved, when it is desired to examine any particular species, of which perhaps there may be but few examples- in the herbarium, and the specimens themselves, preserved Plate XX. 100. Lycoperdon saccatum. 101. Lycoperdon atropurpureum. OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. 153 between the sheets of paper, are saved from the wear and tear to which they would be subjected if constantly brought out for investigation. I am of opinion, that if the specimens were mounted in silicate of potash (or waterglass, as it is sometimes called), much future time and trouble would be saved, as the leaf would probably retain its fair appearance without being immersed in water every time it was wanted. But my own experience is not sufficient to justify me in recom- mending it to others. [I have frequently employed silicate of potash as a preservative medium for the leaves of Mosses and other objects. In some instances it has suc- ceeded thoroughly, the leaflets retaining their fresh appear- ance, and remaining unaltered. But it appears to be un- certain in its action, 4 vacuoles ’ and bubbles often appear- ing in its midst in the most unaccountable manner. For pleasantness in using, rapidity in drying, &c., it surpasses any medium with which I am acquainted. — Ed.] 154 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS, CHAPTER XV. OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. I have thought it as well to unite these two classes, not only on account of the external resemblance which they bear to each other (as compared with the preceding- families), but because, speaking generally, the same method, of preparation are applicable to both. As a rule, Ferns, especially the commoner sorts, are far better known to the botanical student, than any of the Cryptogamic orders, not excepting the Algae. Their bright green colouring and the graceful outline of their fronds invite the attention of the passer-by ; and many a beginner glories in a collection of dried Ferns, who has never troubled himself about their specific or even generic differences. These depend almost exclusively upon the fructification, the absence or presence of an indusium, the form of the spore-case and its ring, and the shape of the sorus or collected spore-cases. It would be beside the object of this Handy -book to enter into this subject, nevertheless the accompanying plates (xxv. and xxvi.) will assist the student in discriminating some of the genera more commonly met with ; the glossy Hartstongue (xxv. 110), and scaly Ceterach (111), the glorious flower- ing Fern (xxvi. 112), and its humble relative theAdders- tongue (113). For a more intimate knowledge of the structural differences in this interesting family I must refer the reader to John Smith’s ‘ Ferns, British and Foreign,’ and to the works of Newman, Moore, and other well-known Pteridologists. If it were necessary to warn the student to secure perfect examples of the more lowly organised plants — the Algae, Fungi, Lichens, and Mosses — still more needful is it to OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 155 repeat the warning here. Among the Phanerogamia, with very rare exceptions, flower and fruit, leaves, stem and root, are fully developed ; and (excluding the first-named) they are equally perfect in the Ferns. Consequently every one of these organs ought to find a place in the herbarium. There is no positive reason why the stem, or the root, should be neglected any more than the flower, or the leaf. And yet this is just the point in respect to which beginners make the most w-oful mistakes. They are satisfied with a moiety, when they should have the whole. An her- baceous plant, for instance, is plucked off at some distance above the junction of the stem with the root, and carried triumphantly home as a specimen of that particular species. What is the result ? Suppose it is an Orchis which the tyro has in hand. He searches through one or the other of the standard botanical works, and, under the head of Orchis, he finds that the specific differences depend in a greater or less degree on the form of the root : thus, while one important subdivision has ‘ tubers undivided/ another is provided with ‘ palmate tubers.’ Hence he is reduced to guess at the name of his fragment, or at best to do his work of collecting over again — not always a convenient task. The fact is, there are peculiarities in every part of a plant, from the root to the inflorescence, which cannot be neglected with impunity. What a large number of species depend for their due identification upon the presence of the radical or root leaves, and which cannot be satisfac- torily determined, unless these are under the observer’s eye ! The very names of some are based upon the fact of the root-leaves having a totally different form to the series which clothe its upper parts. It is well known that the stem-leaves of the common hare-bell are narrow and linear. Whence then its technical name, Campanula rotundifolia ? It was given to it by the great Linnagus, who saw it in the early summer forcing its way through the chinks of some stone steps in the university of Upsal. At that season the 156 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS crown of the root is encircled by round or cordate leave which quickly decay and vanish ; hence the origin of its specific title. Here then is a case in point, illustrating the need of gather- ing examples of all the leaves, radical and cauline alike. There are certain families also, like the Roses and Brambles, in which the leaves vary much in form according to the part of the plant on which they grow. Specimens of these variations must be gathered, if the student hopes to have at all a satisfactory collection. Where the plants are either monoecious or dioecious, it stands to reason that both the sexes must be secured, whether found on separate individuals, or on different parts of the same plant. The fructification plays a most important part among both generic and specific characteristics. What, for instance, is the value of a flower, taken alone, among the Crucifer® and Umbellifer® ? Almost nil ! It is to the fruit that we have to look to bring order out of chaos, and settle the limits of genera. In a modified degree the same may be said of other families. As many species flower through a large part of the year, there is seldom any difficulty in securing with the flower the half-developed fruit, which should be noted down and again visited at a later period, when the seed- vessel is mature. The Crucifer®, except in their earliest stage, are tolerably certain to supply the collector with both flowers and fruit — the latter in a more or less advanced con- dition— the ripest at the base of the stem, and so passing through every stage up to the barely opened corolla. Another group of plants, which has to be carefully watched, are those trees and shrubs in which the flowers are produced on naked branches, the leaves not appearing until some time after the flowers themselves have withered away. Of course, in such instances, flower and leaf must be gathered on different occasions. Only let the collector be careful to take the latter from the same specimen, fiom OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 157 which he has already gathered the flower. The same foresight must be extended to the fruit. The latter, indeed, is not indispensable, though certainly desirable ; for the reader may easily picture to himself what confusion and errors may possibly arise, where there is no certainty of the examples, which lie together in the herbarium, having been the produce of the same plant. The above remarks refer with tenfold force to the Willows, which seem to have a peculiar facility for hybri- dising ; and, therefore, the greatest care should be taken to isolate every specimen, and if possible to have it in one’s power to identify the very tree from which each was taken. The Ferns are no exception to the rule, which demands that the plant should be seen in its integrity when dried. The crown and root must always, if possible, be secured as well as the frond ; and of the latter, those which have no fruit on them must not on that account be passed by, as the two kinds often exhibit wide differences in form, and mark the character of the plant. More than one species of the remarkable genus, Equisetum, is furnished with both sterile and fertile fronds ; both of which must of course be gathered and laid side by side in the herbarium. In the case of the common Equisetum arvense, the succulent, fawn-coloured, fruit-bearing stem rises upright from the soil weeks before the harsh green procumbent frond spreads itself over the ground. In others again the fertile shaft is entirely unbranched, while the sterile stems are enriched by frequent whorls of elegant pendant branches. The two sorts of frond may be easily recognised ; while the barren stem tapers gradually to a point, the fertile is furnished with a stout clavate head, which is in fact the receptacle, and contains the spores in a number of separate sporangia. These spores are themselves very interesting objects : each is furnished with four filamentous processes, known as elaters, though very unlike the elaters which are mingled with the spores in the capsules of the Hepaticse. They are extremely sensitive to the influence of moisture, 158 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. and, if breathed upon while under the microscope, will be seen to curl and uncurl themselves, enfolding the spore or causing it to dart on one side. The collector is well prepared for a botanical expedition when he has furnished himself with a common gardener’s trowel, a strong knife (if provided with a saw so much the better), and a tin vasculum, the latter larger or smaller according to the probable duration of his trip, the time of year, the plants likely to be met with, &c.* If, on returning home, the dowers have closed their petals, as frequently happens, it is only necessary to set the roots in a basin of water, until the corollas have again opened, when the roots may be roughly dried, and the preservation of the plant proceeded with. Should they be wet from dew or rain, when gathered, they must be laid by until every trace of moisture has disappeared ; other- * A very -useful instrument was brought under my notice, many years ago, by that eminent botanist, Philip Barker Webb. The ac- companying figure exhibits its general form. The total length is 15 inches, of which the handle occupies rather more than one-third. The blade (which is triangular in shape 1 14 - each side of the triangle measuring seven-eighths of an inch where it joins the handle) is brought to an obtuse point. About midway between the two extremities, or, more correctly speaking, some 4^ inches below the handle, it begins to make a gentle curve, the lower end being about one inch out of the true line. One of the angles forms the back of the curve. For convenience of carriage it should be fitted into a stout leather case. This instrument, which was Mr. Webb’s invariable com- panion in his numerous Alpine excursions, is of great value for forcing plants from between the fissures of rocks, massive tree roots, &c. ; in a word, from places where the broad surface of a trowel cannot be inserted, or would probably be broken, if it could be got in at all. It is also useful for extracting tap roots without injury or any other hard dry soil. If made of good material, it will last a lifetime. My own has seen a good deal of rough service, but is practically in as good condition as when it was made twenty years ago. — E d. from chalk Plate XXI, 102. Aregma bulbosum. 10-3. Triphragmium ulmarise. 104. Sphosria herbarum. OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 161 wise mould and mildew will speedily develop tliemselves, or at any rate the corollas will lose their bright tints, and the leaves become spotted and black. As most of our readers must be aware, all these plants are prepared for the herbarium, by being laid between sheets of paper and placed under pressure. The choice of paper for this purpose is by no means a matter of indifference, as the beauty of the specimens and their ultimate preserva- tion depend in a great measure on the speedy and thorough extraction of the fluids contained in their tissues.* Blotting paper is an excellent material ; but the quantity required when the gatherings are on a large scale prevents it from being ordinarily employed. On the whole, common print- ing paper may be recommended with safety ; and the cheap- ness and abundance of newspapers in the present day makes it easily attainable in large quantities. Proof, however, should be made of its powers of absorp- tion before being used; for some of the newspapers are prepared in such a manner as to prevent them from im- bibing water freely. One special point to be kept in view is, not to be sparing of the drying material, but to have so much at hand that frequent changes may be made. This is of the last im- portance, as a false economy is ruinous here. In order to dry the sheets when they are removed from the press, they must be spread out in such a manner as to expose the largest possible surface to the air. But as this occupies more space than most botanists can spare, the following plan will be found of service : it is quite as effectual, and the eye is not offended with the sight of numberless papers lying in disorder about the floor of a * An excellent paper in appearance (I have not yet had the oppor- tunity of trying it), is manufactured expressly for botanical pur- poses by E. Newman, Devonshire Street, Bishopsgate, N.E. ; and is also sold by Mr. J. Smith, 42, Rathbone Place, Oxford Street. — Ed. M 162 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. room. Four or five sheets having been laid on one another, a thread is passed through them on the folded side, some two inches from the border ; and then the two ends of the thread are tied together so as to leave a loop sufficiently large to admit of a longish rod or stick being passed through it. In this way packet after packet of damp paper is loosely fastened on the stick, and the latter is suspended horizontally in any convenient place, where there is a current of air — between the rafters of an out-house — across two chairs near a large fire — or, weather permitting, in the open air, where it will catch the rays of the sun. A few rods fitted up after this plan will allow of an immense number of sheets being dried at the same time. From the loose papers having both their sides acted on by the draught, they give up their moisture more quickly than if laid on the ground, and are not liable to be blown about by gusts of wind. The business of sewing the paper together is considerably lightened, if the end of a ball of thread is drawn, by means of a packing needle, through a great number of sheets at once, the thread being afterwards divided in lengths sufficient to bind up the packets as previously described. This saves the time, which would otherwise be wasted if the thread were cut into the required lengths before being passed through the packets. As soon as the plants are freed from the moisture on their surface, and the paper has been distributed into con- venient parcels of five or six sheets, the process of drying may be proceeded with by making alternate layers of packets and specimens until a height of some two feet has been reached. Next let the whole pile be placed between two smooth boards of the same size as the paper, and weighted with bricks, as previously recommended. . Great attention must be paid to the degree of pressure laid on ; if it be too severe the specimens will be squeezed out of all shape, whereas, if too light, the leaves, petals, and other tender parts will be shrivelled and wrinkled. It is a point on which experience and common sense must be brought to OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 163 bear, and they will be found safer guides than volumes of •advice and description. In arranging the specimen on the drying paper, the •appearance it had when living is the first thing to be thought of ; indeed, the main object in submitting it to a press at all, is that it may retain its form permanently. Before all things, therefore, care must be taken not to do violence to the plant, or force any of its members into positions which they could not possibly have held in their living state ; otherwise an ill-shapen, distorted object, which can never be restored to anything like its original form, will be the inevitable result. For the same reason no leaf or twig must be removed for the mere sake of pro ducing symmetry, or to indulge a false taste. The ono grand point to be kept in view — I cannot impress it too strongly on the young student — to which everything else must be made to yield, is the preservation of the natural habit of the plant. If that is lost sight of, his herbarium may form a pretty object in the eyes of superficial observers, but it can never be a collection of jDlants by which science will be promoted, or a knowledge of botany advanced. Of course there are times — and that not rarely — when it is actually necessary to curtail certain portions of a plant, in order that it may be prepared satisfactorily. Leaves, for instance, are constantly in the way, and must be removed to prevent them from concealing flower or fruit, or from being squeezed irregularly against the stem. Whenever, then, amputation is unavoidable, let it be performed in such a manner that there may be no mistake about it — that, in a word, anyone may see at a glance that leaves, twigs, &c. really have been removed. To this end let the leaf, supposing a leaf to interfere with the due disposition of a flower, be cut off, not quite down at its junction with the stem, but a short distance up, so as to leave a good portion of the petiole adherent to the plant ; and so of a twig, or a flower-head, or any other part, that must inevitably be sacrificed. But amputation had much m 2 164 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. better not take place at all, if it be possible to do with- out it. Should the specimen be too large to be contained within the compass of a sheet of paper, the stem must be cut half through at a convenient spot, and bent over, but at a certain angle, so that as little as possible of the upper layer shall press on the lower. Where the specimen is so long, that it is impossible to bend it so as to prevent its project- ing beyond the paper, there is no help for it but to divide it into short lengths, care being taken to mark each part, so that their true connection may be seen at once. This can be easily managed by simply varying the shape of the cut : let the two corresponding sections be rounded, notched, truncated, &c., and no mistake can arise. But I repeat, let all amputation be avoided as long as possible. As far as circumstances will permit, the different mem- bers of the specimen, I mean the leaves, stem, flowers, and so on, must not be permitted to lie directly on each other ; for, if they do, they are almost certain to cling to- gether and to become discoloured. Where it is impossible to avoid this, pieces of paper must be interposed ; any kind of paper will suffice for the leaves, stalks, and less delicate parts, but for the petals only tissue, or thin note paper, should be used : indeed, the employment of the latter during the whole course of preparation, in addition to the re- gular drying material, tends greatly to preserve their colour. Care must be taken, when arranging the order of the specimens one over the other, not to lay a thick woody plant next in succession to a thin slender specimen, as the latter will bear the impress of its stouter neighbour much to its detriment. Should it be found impossible to escape «uch an arrangement, the only remedy is to lay, not a single packet of paper as usual, but several packets between the two specimens — to heap them up, in fact, until the hand, when passed roughly over, fails to detect the protuberant stem beneath. The young botanist, in the course of his investigations, OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 165 will meet with numerous plants, belonging principally to the family Crassulaceas, such as Sedums and Sempervivums, which are so succulent and so tenacious of life, that they continue to grow after they have been laid between the sheets of drying paper. These require a special treatment of their own in order to destroy their vitality before any attempt is made to preserve them for the herbarium. To this end they are to be placed between two or three sheets of paper, the inflorescence alone projecting beyond it, and a hot iron is then passed over them. Two special pre- cautions must be taken during the operation ; one, that the flowers are not singed— the other, that the papers are changed more than once, as the plants being always of a succulent nature, a large amount of water is discharged by the heat. There are some plants the surface of which is coated with a glutinous matter, which causes them to cling to the paper, especially when under pressure : indeed, some of the foreign . Semperviva combine both these unpleasant con- tingencies, extraordinary vitality and extreme viscidity. To obviate the latter, the best plan is to sprinkle the specimen with the spores of Lycopodiiun clavatum — to be procured at most chemists under the name of f Lycopodium.’ The spores can be shaken off as soon as the plants are thoroughly dry. Delicate water plants are often difficult to deal with, as their long trailing leaves and stems are apt to get hopelessly interwoven at the moment they are taken out of their native element, and it is an almost impossible task to separate, them after they are dried. Such plants must be treated in the same way as was recommended in the case of the filamentous Alga?, viz. passing under them, while still in water, the paper, on which they are to lie. There are certain terrestrial plants, aiso of a fragile perishable nature, which must be laid at once between pieces of blotting-paper and not again disturbed until the whole process of preparation is concluded. The packets of paper, between which the specimens are 166 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. first laid, absorb their moisture so rapidly as to require frequent renewing. The oftener this can be done during the first few days the better: indeed, the student should bear in mind, that whatever trouble he gives himself in this respect will be amply rewarded by the beauty and durability of his specimens; whereas a neglect of this precaution will as surely meet with its penalty in their discoloration and ultimate destruction by mildew and the ravages of insects. The changing of the paper may be accomplished in the following manner : — Let the bundle of plants be laid on a table, and, on the operator’s left hand, a pile of fresh dry packets. Now let the topmost layer be lifted off the plants,, a blunt needle being brought into play where any part of the latter is found to adhere. On the specimen thus ex- posed, let a packet of dry paper be laid ; then let both it and the packet on which the plant lies be slowly raised up, the same precautions being taken with regard to any adherent parts of the next underlying plant. The two packets, with the intermediate specimen, being now turned over, the dry one will of course be the lowest. The damp paper must next be taken off and replaced by a fresh packet. Proceeding in this manner a large pile may gradually be renewed by simply laying a dry packet on each plant suc- cessively, and turning it over on to the one which preceded it ; and thus the whole work may be accomplished without injury or disturbance to the tenderest or most delicate speci- men. Last of all, the pile is covered with a final packet, and again submitted to the press. I need scarcely add that, where the stoutness of a plant calls for it, several packets of paper should be interposed, as was directed to be done in the first instance. During the first week the plants must be shifted daily, the succulent ones even oftener. After that, if they appear to be going on well, the changes may be irade less frequently ; at the same time the operator must be very careful not to remove the weights too quickly, or the consequences will be most disastrous. Plate XXII. 105. Asterosporium Hoffmanni. 106. Puccinia graminis. o. natural size ; b. magnified ; c. d. uredo form. OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 169 There is one point on which it is very difficult to give advice — I mean the ascertaining, with anything like ac- curacy, the degree of dryness to which the specimens have attained. Here each one must be left very much to his own sagacity, because, after the superficial moisture has been absorbed, and the plant has become more or less stiffened, the mere passing the hand over it will seldom betray the presence of damp. The best plan with which I am ac- quainted, is to lay the specimen against the cheek ; if it imparts a sensation of coldness, it may be inferred that there is still a good deal of damp to be got rid of. At any rate, it is always better to 1 err on the safe side ’ by leaving the pile of plants longer under the press than their actual condition may seem to warrant or to call for. I will lay before the reader another method of preparation, which is recommended by many experienced botanists. It consists in laying each specimen between a sheet of very thin blotting-paper before placing it on the regular drying- paper. The specimen is to be arranged in the usual manner on the open sheet, the upper half of which is then carefully folded over, and a packet of drying- paper laid on, proceeding in the same way with each specimen. When it is requisite to change the packets, the damp one is re- moved, and the thin envelope to the plant is simply lifted up (without opening it, or in any way disturbing its contents) and laid upon a fresh packet of drying material. It is true that many good botanists are opposed to this plan : they think that the moisture retained in the thin sheet at each renewal is likely to cause permanent injury, and that it is scarcely counterbalanced by the facility which it gives of lifting the specimen without disturbance. But in point of fact the blotting-paper retains a mere trifle of moisture, which it quickly imparts to the new packet, and, with ordinary care, very beautiful results may be obtained. I am acquainted with a person who prepares thousands of examples yearly for a society of nathralistsq nothing can exceed the beauty or the durability of his pre- 170 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. parations, and yet every one of them is dried in the manner I have just been describing. The truth is, that every mode of preparation depends greatly upon the foresight, the patience, and the handiness of the operator ; and impatient, unskilful workers will make a failure with even the best of means at their command. An arrangement advocated by Auerswald has much to recommend it. I cannot speak of it from my own experienc j, but I feel bound to mention it for the benefit of those who make long botanical excursions, and collect large quantities of plants, as it is likely to save them both time and labour. In the ordinary method of drying, where the sheets are placed between two boards, the upper and lower sides not being exposed to a current of air, the moisture can escape only through the open edges of the paper. The conse- quence is, that a large quantity of paper is wanted, and a good deal of time is consumed in the preparation. Auerswald’ s object is to economise both these important requisites — time and material ; and he accomplishes it in this manner : — Instead of two solid boards he provides himself with a couple of iron frames of a size to suit the paper ; they should be light and thin, but at the same time strong enough to allow of being strapped tightly together without bending : wire netting is stretched across them, and on each of their longer sides two loops are fastened for the leather straps to pass through. In the middle of one of the shorter sides a ring is attached for the convenience of carrying the parcel, or in order to suspend it in the open air and sunshine. Now, as the moisture contained in the plants can readily escape on every side, it stands to reason that the work is done much more quickly, and the traveller is saved both the time consumed in shifting his plants, and also the heavy load, which he must otherwise carry about with him. Doubtless many succulent plants will not come out so well under these circumstances as they would with the con- OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 171 veniences and appliances brought to bear on them in the botanist’s own residence ; but, on the other hand, it must be remembered that they woidd suffer greatly, perhaps as much, from being transported for a week or ten days in a vasculum, before they were pressed. Two sets of frames with a proper supply of paper will be found sufficient; and, as soon as the plants are partially dried, which, with most of them, takes place within twenty- four hours, they may be transferred from the first to the second set. When the preparation is complete, they may be laid one upon the other for the convenience of carriage,, without fear of any permanent injury being done to them. To return to the more usual methods of preparation. Specimens collected on different occasions ought not, if possible, to be placed under pressure in the same pile; because the last and freshest are sure to impart some of their moisture to the others, which are already more or less dried, and are very likely to spoil them in consequence. If the piling them together is unavoidable, then they must be separated by thin boards, so as to prevent the damp from the plants more recently obtained being communicated to those which have already perhaps been shifted two or three times. For a like reason very succulent plants should not be put up with those of a less sappy nature ; besides, the former require to be more frequently shifted than their drier neighbours ; and to place them together would cause unnecessary disturbance to the latter. [Through the kindness of a friend, I have lately been made acquainted with a process of drying, which, if we may judge from the very beautiful results obtained, leaves no- thing to be desired. It consists in placing the specimen,, soon after it is gathered, in a tall narrow vessel, and then pouring over it very gently a sufficient quantity of clean dry sand, to cover it entirely. In this state it is left undis- turbed (unless, as sometimes happens, the drying material has to be renewed) until the moisture emanating from the 172 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. plant is absorbed by the sand. It is then removed with | ■ great care, and flattened in the usual manner, between sheets of paper. By this plan the petals retain their colour fl in a way that I have never seen equalled. — Ed.] j With regard to the physiological and anatomical inves- tigation of the flowering plants, the limits of this little ai volume will not allow of my entering into it, nor would it ai lie within my province to do so. [At the same time I offer no apology for concluding this chapter with the following useful suggestions from the late Dr. Lindley’s excellent 1 Descriptive Botany.’ 1 The student should select for examination as perfect a specimen as he can obtain, and should carefully study every part. ... In doing this he must on no account guess, but be certain that he sees correctly, what is before him. This is not difficult in the case of roots, stems, leaves, and their parts ; but the flower, from its general smallness and somewhat complicated structure, demands a little skill in dissection, which is only to be gained by experience. ‘After its external structure has been determined, it is necessary to open the flower. Mere looking down into its tube or interior leads to nothing but error. The student should hold it in his left hand, and split it longitudinally by a rapid cut from below upwards. This lays bare the whole of the interior, shows the number and position of their parts, and their insertion, which is very important. If he attempts to divide a flower by cutting it from above down- wards, he only crushes and disfigures his specimen. In the case of the ovary it is usually necessary to ascertain its placentation, which, if it is not seen in the first longitudinal section, can be best determined by making a transverse section. ... In examining seeds of any kind, where dis- section is required, cut into them perpendicularly, beginning at the hilum, and passing the knife through the axis : m this way the embryo and its relation to other parts usually ^ becomes distinctly visible. Failing this, the observer mns OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 173 have recourse to crushing or careful skinning and unrolling. . . . When parts are shrivelled or dried up, as is always the case in herbaria, they must be relaxed by immersion in boiling water. 1 In all cases where dried flowers are to be dissected, the air should be driven out by boiling for a short time, before any attempt is made to separate their parts.’ — E d.] 174 OF THE HERBARIUM. CHAPTER XVI. OF THE HERBARIUM. The object whicli the collector has in view (or at least should have in view) is, not the mere gathering together of a great number of different plants, but the acquisition of material, wherewith he hopes to enlarge the bounds of his own knowledge, and, so far as lies in his power, to advance the interests of science. For this purpose he arranges his ■examples in a certain definite order, grouping them together in the manner that seems most consonant to the system of nature ; in one word, he forms an Herbarium. Simple as this process may appear to the novice, it will not I trust, be superfluous to offer a few words on the subject, pointing out certain fixed principles, which should guide the student in the arrangement of an herbarium intended to be scientifically useful : to these shall be added some suggestions to aid him in its preservation. For the best arranged and most admirably got-up collection is certain to fall before the assaults of its numerous enemies, if not properly looked after. As my readers are by this time well aware, the first step towards the preservation of a dried specimen is to place it between a sheet of paper; and this applies to plants of every known order with the exception of a few, which are either too large (like the Laminarias), or which cling too tenaciously (as many Lichens do) to a stone or some other rough object, to be removed. Provided that the specimens are laid upon clean white paper, the choice of the wrapper may be left very much to the fancy of the student ; it should not be very thick, otherwise the fascicles will take up too much room ; and 4 , 107. Achlya prolifera. OF THE HERBARIUM. 177 it should be uniform in size and appearance. The kind that I have always used is a stout light brown material, much employed in packing ; it measures seventeen inches by twelve ; the white paper on which the specimens lie, measures fifteen inches by nine. This is quite the largest size I would recommend ; anything wider or longer than this becomes cumbersome and difficult to manipulate ; in fact, a size smaller would probably be quite as efficient. In any case, whatever form or size is adopted, let not the student, from any motives of economy, employ too cheap a wrapper : above all, let him avoid the thin gray and blue sorts, so much used on the Continent, and frequently imported into England with foreign herbaria. (In Germany it is known as' 1 Fliesspapier.’) The innumerable hollows arising from the inequalities of surface in cheap papers invite colonies of insects to take up their abode ; while, from their rough uneven nature, it is impossible to eject the 1 voracious crew ’ from their head-quarters, when once they have established themselves. Another objection to a too flimsy wrapper is its great flexibility, and the consequent injury likely to accrue to the enclosed specimen, every time it is handled. We will now suppose the plants to be laid, each species by itself, on their half sheets of white paper, and these again slipped within the fold of their wrappers, the opening of the wrapper looking to the left hand. If the examples of any given species are numerous, representing varieties, abnormal forms, or growths from different localities, they must be laid on separate white sheets, but enclosed in a single wrapper. In all cases, however, the wrapper must be confined to one species, or section of a species, if, as is often the case, the latter is subdivided. This last suggestion must be carefully attended to ; otherwise the arrangement of the herbarium will be constantly interfered with ; besides, there is a great danger of the tickets being transposed from one species to another, whenever the wrapper is opened for N 178 OF THE HERBARIUM. the purpose of examining its contents, which might cause "indescribable confusion. Dried specimens of the Phanerogamia and Ferns may be laid on their separate papers at once without any further manipulation, with the exception of the smaller and more fragile species, which should be previously fastened on to a piece of paper by means of adhesive slips, passed across the stem, &c. Mosses and Hepaticse may be fixed to the paper by touching a portion of the tuft here and there with gum, not by smearing the whole under-surface, as beginners are apt to do * Some, at least, of the Mosses should be pre- served in paper bags, as the fragile organs of fructification, the calyptra and operculum particularly, are very apt to be rubbed off and lost, from their unavoidable collision with the surface of the wrapper, whenever it is moved. As regards the Lichens, which are generally attached to some rough surface, such as a piece of rock or wood, the student * I mast confess myself altogether opposed to fixing the specimens at all, except in rare instances, where in fact it is unavoidable, as with most of the Algae. Of course something must he done to secure the safety of the smaller plants, or they will he constantly shaken out of their places, broken, and lost. I prefer to fold in pieces of paper the very minute examples — as, for instance, many of the Hymenophyllaceous Ferns, or the tiny Myosurus minimus— gumming the lower surface of the packet to the half sheet of white paper. In this way three or four may be placed on a single half-sheet, without any danger of their rubbing against each other. The author himself supplies us with an argument in favour of this, mode of proceeding in the very next sentence to that which, has given rise to this note. Less minute specimens— such as the delicate masses of the aquatic Ranunculacese — may be kept in their place by passing a tolerably broad band of paper, not too tightly, across the whole— the band being adhesive at the two extremities only. The specimen can then be slipped in and out of its guard with the greatest ease, when re- quired for examination. My reason for recommending this plan is, that the smaller the plant and the more minute its structure, the more need is there to have it in one’s power to examine it by trans- mitted, as well as by reflected, light; and how is the former to be accomplished, if the specimen is permanently glued to an opaque object ? — Ed. OF THE HERBARIUM. 179 must, first of all, decide whether the preparation is suf- ficiently thin and fiat to be laid between the sheets of the herbarium, or whether it must be kept’ in a separate cabinet, like a specimen of mineralogy. A large number, those which have a crustaceous thallus, and others which are not attached to their support by their whole circumference, may be disposed of in the first mentioned way ; care being taken that the stone or wood be made as thin as is compatible with the safe keeping of the epiphyte : to prevent any undue pressure between neighbours, they should be placed by the side of, not exactly over, each other. Certain, however, of the gymno- carpous section (like Calycium and Coniocybe), which are characterised by stalked apothecia, would be spoiled, if their safety was not better cared for. These should be deposited in chip or pasteboard boxes with covers, or they may be fastened on cardboard, with strips of wood, gummed on each side, of sufficient thickness to keep the specimen from being rubbed : a piece of cardboard laid on the wooden strips will still further ensure its integrity ; it may then be laid between the pages of a wrapper, as usual.* In very large collections coarse solid objects, such as stones, which have been encrusted by Lichens, should be put away in drawers and boxes, apart from the herbarium. At the same time, as their absence necessarily causes a gap in the systematic arrangement of the specimens, it is well to deposit in the place, which should have been occupied by the Lichen, an empty sheet of the wrapping paper with a label, which bears on its face the name of the missing species, and the number, with which it is ticketed in the drawer. The same mode of proceeding may be adopted with *A11 adhesive materials, as gum, &c., should be first poisoned by an infusion of corrosive sublimate ; or a small quantity of some essential oil should be mixed with them. This prevents the growth of Fungi, and the attacks of insects. — Etf. n2 180 OF THE HERBARIUM. those Fungi and Alga3 which cannot be preserved in the herbarium, on account of their size and roughness. Mi- croscopic Fungi, on the other hand, growing on leaves, twigs, &c., should be fastened down by adhesive slips, [but in such a way as to allow of their being taken out and replaced, Ed.,] all superfluous wood having first been removed, so as to render the specimen as thin and flat as possible. Sections of the pileus, hymenium, &c., may be similarly treated, and put away in the herbarium. Finally, as regards the Algas, the original conditions of their preparation, as the reader will remember, necessitated the application of paper, before they were removed from the water ; to this support they generally cling with the greatest tenacity, scarcely rising above the surface — indeed very often having all the appearance of a delicate painting. The precautions requisite for the preservation of the Diatoms and Desmids have been already fully described, in the chapters devoted to those subjects. Every plant should have a label attached to it, on which is inscribed its name and certain other notices, which should not be omitted. These are — 1. The name of the family, genus, species, and variety, in the Latin language. The Latin tongue (interlarded with Greek) has been fixed upon, by common consent, as the medium of communication in the scientific world, or, at least, over the wide domains occupied by the kingdoms of botany and zoology. By this means uniformity of nomenclature and accuracy of description are to a large extent obtained ; more so, at any rate, than when the titles are given in either of the living languages ; for these are of merely local value, are without meaning to foreigners, and often incomprehensible beyond the narrow limits of a district. 2. The name of the author, that is, of the person who first gave the species the denomination, by which it has since been recognised. It is written in an abbreviated OF THE HERBARIUM. 181 form immediately after the second name of the plant : thus, 4 Sonchus arvensis, Linn (for Linnaeus), 4 Lastrea cristata, Pr' (Presl), 4 Synedra acicularis, W. Sm* (William Smith). This addition of the author’s name should never be omitted, because the same plant is often published under different names ; and, as often, widely different plants are described under the same name. We have an instance in one of the examples given above : 4 Synedra acicularis, W. Sm.y is a diatomaceous species found in brackish water, to which the name of Synedra laevis has been given by Kiitzing, while, to make confusion worse confounded, this last author’s Synedra acicularis is a fresh water species, which Smith calls 4 Nitzschia acicularis ; ’ so that it is not only not identical with the first-named Synedra acicularis, but actually is a separate genus ! If then, in such a case as this, the student simply gave the name of the plant without that of the author, no one would know which Synedra acicularis was intended, that of Smith or of Kutzing. Examples of this kind might be multiplied indefinitely. To the name of the author should also be added, it possible, the title of the work in which the species was first described, with a reference to the volume, page, &c. ; the whole to be enclosed in brackets. All the longer words to be abbreviated. 3. A list of the synonyms, or, at least, the more recent ones ; that is to say, the names which have been given to the specimen by authors of repute, in addition to the one by which it is generally known and accepted. These it is usual to place between brackets, immediately under the established name, together with the work in which the synonym was first made known to the world.* * So huge has the catalogue of synonyms become, that in many instances it would be simply impossible to recount them without overstepping the limits of any ordinary label ! The common Cysto- 182 OF THE HERBARIUM. 4. The locality where the plant was growing when it was gathered ; in other words, the name of the mountain, marsh, town, village, &c., on or near which it flourished. Any information of this nature is of the greatest benefit to later botanists, especially in the case of rare kinds. [Great Britain is so restricted in extent, and so well hunted over by botanists, that it is sometimes actually necessary, if a new acquisition to our Flora is to retain its place, to conceal its locality from the eyes of those, who are bota- nists in name, but exterminators in fact. These, however, are exceptions ; and on the Continent, with its vastly larger surface, and greater distances to travel over, it is of benefit instead of injury, to disclose the whereabouts of any given species. — Ed.] Thus Orthotrichum rogeri, Br. y has been gathered on the Jura Alps, but has never been rediscovered, because the description 1 Jura Alps’ was too vague and indefinite to be of any service to future col- lectors. To the geographical or topographical position should be added a word or two, descriptive of the soil on which the individuals flourished, whether dry, swampy, woody, &c. It is frequently also of service to indicate the geological formation underlying the locality ; the influence of the subsoil on the development and general character of the plant being often very striking. 5. The date on which the specimen was gathered. This, too, is of importance, as marking the season of flowering, fruiting, &c. 6. The name of the collector, and, if the example has passed through another hand, that of the person, from pteris fragilis, Bernh ., enjoys at least twenty-seven different aliases. Of the still more common Pteris aquilina, Linn., Sir William Hooker — having first enumerated seventeen or eighteen names — writes (Spec. Fil. ii. 197) : ‘ Other synonyms might he added, if it were worth en- cumbering our pages with them. . . . Mr. Moore has twenty synonyms under the European Pt. aquilina, without taking ^inta account Pt. esculenta, caudata, &c. of authors ! ’ — Ed. Plate XXIV. 108. Marasmius oreades. 109. Marasmius oreades, section of. . ■ . i \; ' i OF THE HERBARIUM. 185 whom it was received. These particulars are guarantees of the genuineness of the specimen ; they also impart to it considerable authority, where the collector and communi- cator are known in the botanical world as accurate observers and safe guides. It is usual to write these in Latin and to abbreviate them thus : 1 Leg.’ (for legit, ‘ collected,’) and 1 Com.’ (for communicavit, 1 communicated ’) ; or 4 Ex Herb.’ (for ex herbario, 1 from so and so’s herbarium ’). Below is an example of a label, illustrating the various points to which I have called the reader’s attention, Diatomacese. Nitzschia acicularis, W. Sm. (Synops. Brit. Diatom, vol. i. p. 43, tab. xv. 123.) (Synedra acicularis, Ktz. Bacill. p. 63, tab. iv., f. 3. Ceratoneis acicularis, Pritch. Inf us. p. 783.) B. closterioides, Grun. tab. xii. f. 19. Near Briinn in Moravia, in a ditch of clean, but stagnant, water. Formation, Syenite. Leg. J. N. July 15, 1863. Com. (or ex Herb.) A. B. Any observations, which the collector has the opportunity of noting down in regard to the life history of the indi- vidual plant, add greatly to the value of his collection ; but I need scarcely add, that they must be perfectly trust- worthy, and formed on his own experience. There is no recognised form of label to recommend to the student ; as long as he takes care that it is not too small, and that it is unencumbered with finical ornamentation, he can choose the size and the form that he fancies most for himself. If he wishes his herbarium to have a particularly neat appearance, he can have slips of paper cut, and printed at a small cost, something in this form : — 186 OF THE HERBARIUM. Herbarium (with his own name added). Fam., &c. Loc. Form. Leg. Date. Com. (or ex. Herb.) The labels had better be laid under the specimen, when the latter is not fastened down, as then they are not so easily lost at the opening of the wrapper ; at the same time the name should be left exposed, so as to avoid disturbing the plant, each time the name is required. Where the specimen is fixed down or kept in a paper bag, the label may be attached by means of gum arabic. To the young student it may appear the simplest plan to write the name, &c., at once on the paper on which the specimen lies, without the intervention of a label. But experience has proved that the latter plan is the most advantageous. In the first place, there is frequently no room on the half-sheet, a good-sized plant with its leaves and twigs occupying nearly the whole of its surface. Again, the plant may be wrongly named, for the beginner must natu- rally expect to make numerous mistakes in nomenclature. Now (supposing the name to be written on the paper itself), as soon as he discovers his error, either corrections must be made, giving the specimen an unsightly appearance, or else a new half-sheet must be introduced, an unnecessary waste ; whereas, in the case of the label, he has only to remove the old one and substitute a new one in its place. It is customary, when a specimen is received from another OF THE HERBARIUM. 187 botanist, to retain the original label, i.e. the one sent with it ; if, however, the name employed by the giver differs from that in the system after which the student arranges his own herbarium, then let him add a second label with the necessary information. It frequently happens with some of the Alga*, that the species gathered are irretrievably mingled together, so that it is hopeless attempting to separate them : this is more particularly the case with the Desmidiacese and Diatomacese. If the collector has sufficient material, he should proceed to make as many preparations as there are species in the gathering, introduce them into their proper places, and ticket them accordingly. For instance, we will suppose, that there have been taken at one gathering specimens of Gomphonema, Pinnularia, Meridion, Synedra, Fragilaria, and Closterium. Should he not be able to separate them satisfactorily, let him make six different preparations, each containing examples of the several genera. Next let him inscribe one label with the Gomphonema species, another with the Pinnularia, &c., and arrange them in his herbarium as though the species denoted by the ticket were the only one present in that preparation. When, however, the gathering is too small in quantity to allow of dividing it in this manner, he must make a single preparation, but place labels, corresponding to the number of species in the preparation, in their respective ■wrappers. Thus, taking the last-named illustration, the preparation will occupy the wrapper apportioned (we will say) to Gomphonema ; the others, Pinnularia, Synedra, &c., will be represented in their wrappers by tickets, labelled with their names, and referring the reader to the Gom- phonema preparation. I strongly recommend the student not to be satisfied with solitary examples of plants from a single habitat. The delicate shadings and variations, due to differences of situation, soil, and climate, cannot be rightly appreciated, until the observer has before him an abundant supply of 188 OF THE HERBARIUM. material from different localities, embracing widely-sepa- rated areas. The more numerous the localities represented in an her- barium are, the more valuable is it in the eyes of the man of science. For the same reason he should bring together, in the case of the Phanerogamia, not only flowers, but ripe fruit, both with and without the capsule, or, if the plants are dioecious, examples of both the sexes ; in the case of the Cryptogamia, sterile as well as fertile forms from numerous localities, since, in many cases (as for instance among the Mosses) peculiarities of situation, hindering or promoting the fertility of a plant, influence its habit and character in no slight degree. In a word, in each order of plants, the collector should endeavour to obtain the successive stages of development, if he intends to study them thoroughly, and to give a scientific value to his collection. That he may study the specimens with ease, his herba- rium should be so arranged, that he may be able to lay his hand at any moment, and without loss of time, on the ex- ample he wishes for ; and also be able to take it out and replace it without injury to the collection. For this, I recommend the following plan. The wrappers being laid on a table with their openings looking to the left, the whole of the species belonging to a single genus (or a section of them, if the genus is very large) is to be lifted off the pile, and enclosed in a separate wrapper, the opening of which looks to the right. This arrangement tends greatly to convenience in handling the specimens, as the operator can remove each genus, (or, it may be, portion of a genus,) with the greatest ease, and, when properly labelled, any desired genus can be got at without disturbing the other packets. The genera included under an order should next be isolated. As a rule, this involves a pile of specimens much too bulky to be comprehended within the limits of a single wrapper. The better plan, therefore, is to lay the pile be- tween two sheets of stout pasteboard of corresponding size, OF THE HERBARIUM. 189 (just as they were before laid between two boards during the process of drying), and either tie them round with thick string, or buckle them together with a strap of a woven material. The beginner is often tempted to lay out his money on nicely got-up portfolios, in which to enclose the orders ; but, if he will take my advice, he will save his money, and be content with the pasteboard covers, though their appearance is certainly less elegant. My own expe- rience is decidedly in favour of the latter, because, first of all, much time is consumed in the tying and untying of the numerous ribbons, with which a portfolio is furnished ; and, secondly, because the pressure of a tight string or strap (especially the latter, on account of its breadth) is much more equal. Besides, the ribbons are apt to break off with constant use, and they cannot be replaced without giving an untidy appearance to the portfolio ; whereas a string, or strap, can be renewed at will. Should the roots (as sometimes happens) interfere, from their thickness, with the proper disposition of the packets, raising them up at one end, and forcing the whole pile out of the level, it is easy to turn a certain number of the packets round, thus doing away with the unevenness of the bundle, and giving it the desired flat surface. Next for the best system of labelling. First gum a ticket just above the lower border (and equidistant from the two corners) of the pasteboard cover, with the name of the order upon it. Then, on the lower left-hand corner of the 4 Genus ’ wrapper, let a ticket be gummed, bearing the name of the genus ; similarly, on the lower right-hand corner of the 4 Species ’ wrapper, gum a ticket, bearing the name of the species, preceded by the initial of the genus : thus 4 R. Kohleri’ marks the species 4 Kohleri,’ of the genus 4 Rubus.’ If the names are written in bold legible characters, they cannot fail to catch the eye of the observer immediately on his turning over the wrappers. But how is the student to grope his way through the mass of paper, accumulated in his herbarium, in order to 190 OF THE HERBARIUM. lay liis hand on any wished -for specimen ? This is easily effected by the simple process of numbering the tickets outside the wrappers, one set of numbers for the genera, and another for the species in each genus, the orders being distinguished by Roman figures. Whatever sys- tematic work the student has taken as his guide in the arrangement of his herbarium may be made the ground- work of his numbering. Should the work in question not be numbered, the student will have no difficulty in going himself through the volume, first marking the genera from beginning to end with consecutive numbers, and then the species, in these confining the consecutive numbers to a single genus. All that is requisite now is to look into the index of the book for the genus to which the desired specimen belongs, and to ascertain its number. Then, by keeping his eye on the external labels of the herbarium, the student can find the specimen without being compelled to open any but the right packet, and also with the least expenditure of time. A specimen can be replaced in the same simple manner. Of course the descriptive tickets accompanying the examples are also numbered ; and the search is much facilitated, if a list of the genera contained in each order, or at least a list of their reference numbers, is slipped under the string or strap enclosing the fascicle. When the herbarium has grown to a large size, so that individual packets are less frequently consulted, it is well to wrap the separate fascicles in paper, or, better still, in linen, bringing the ends well round, so as to overlap the centre, and tying them together by two strings fastened to the opposite corners of the covering material. Each string is carried right round the bundle, and looped in again, where its other end is attached to the linen cover. If paper is employed, the pasteboard covers must be placed over and under it, to keep it in place. In either case the list of enclosed genera may be slipped under the outside fastening. Plate XXV, OF THE HERBARIUM. 193 Although by this arrangement the difficulty of getting at the specimens is undoubtedly increased, still the advantages are great, where (as I observed before) the fascicles are not in constant requisition ; it saves the specimens from dust, it keeps the wrappers in good order, and it helps to ward off the ravages of insects. I referred just now to the need of selecting some system- atic work as a guide in the arrangement of the herbarium. This is easily done as regards the flowering plants and the higher Cryptogamia ; there are works enough published to satisfy the taste of every collector, whatever his views may be, whether Linnsean, Jussiasan, Candollean or Lindleyan, But this, I regret to say, is far from being the case with the lower Cryptogamia, the Lichens, Fungi, and Algas. Inde- pendently of the fact, that the systems hitherto arrived at are far from perfect, there is the additional circumstance, that science in its onward strides is ever bringing new species to light, or compelling the re-arrangement of those with which we are already acquainted. Consequently, we must either find room in our catalogue for species of whose existence we had no conception a short time before ; or, on the other hand, we must be prepared, in consequence of a deeper insight having been gained into their structure and habits, to separate species, hitherto closely combined, and not un- frequently to place them in distinct genera. To meet these difficulties a certain elasticity must be allowed to the catalogue, so as to permit of the names of species being introduced or removed without disturbing its general arrangement. For this purpose quarter-sheets of foolscap paper are prepared; one, two, or three for each genus, according to its size. The generic name, with its reference number, being placed at the head of the paper, the species are added in due order beneath, a considerable space being- left between each name to admit of others being introduced. In this way new species can be inserted in their proper places, without having recourse to endless interpolations, which disfigure the page and confuse the raider. o 194 OF THE HERBARIUM. Should the genus be so extensive, as to necessitate the division of the species into sections, it may be labelled and catalogued after the following fashion. We will suppose that the Diatomaceous genus Nitzschia is the 138th in the system adopted by the student, and that he possesses the species named below. 138. Nitzschia, Hass. a. Frustules arcuate. 1. N. amphioxys, W. 8m. b. Frustules constricted in the centre. 1. N. plana, W. 8m. 2. N. constricta, Pritch. 3. N. parvula, W. 8m. 4. N. latestriata, JBreb. c. Frustules sigmoid. 1. N. sigmoidea, W. 8m. 2. N. curvula, W. 8m. d. Frustules straight, linear, or lanceolate. 1. N. tenuis, W. 8m. 2. N. communis, Bab. 3. N. hyalina, Greg. It will be observed, that the sections are marked by a letter of the alphabet, and that each commences with number * one.’ Care must be taken to leave sufficient space between each section to allow of the insertion of fresh names. The herbarium is best preserved on the shelves of a closet provided with well-fitting doors to exclude the dust, and kept in a room in which a fire can be lit during the winter, and in exceptionably damp weather. It is of no use, however, to take pains in preparing specimens, labelling them correctly, and providing them with shelves and drawers, unless the greatest care be taken for their preservation afterwards^ If the plants are liable to injury from damp or rough usage, still more so are they from not being touched at all. Neglect is worse than careless handling, or indeed than any OF THE HERBARIUM. 195 other of the numerous ills to which a * Hortus Siccus ’ is exposed ; because it is mainly due to neglect, to leaving the specimens to take care of themselves, that insects are encouraged in their depredations. The student may have an intense affection for his botanical treasures; he may handle them tenderly, when extracting some much-prized example ; he may see that the room is duly warmed to pre- vent the admission of damp with its accompanying swarm of minute Fungi ; but all his labour and love will be throwr away, if he be not constantly on the watch, turning ovea. the sheets, and examining his favourites individually, scrutinising their condition, and looking with an almost microscopic eye for the first traces of the enemy. 1 Prin- cipiis obsta ’ should be the motto inscribed over the portals of his cabinet. He must strive to prevent the fiend from entering his paradise at all ; for if once he and his progeny gain a footing there, it will cost him many a weary hour’s hard work to eradicate them. As a means to this end, no plant, whether dried by himself, or communicated from some other source, should be introduced into the herbarium without first undergoing a strict investigation. Indeed, if a number 01 specimens are received in bad condition, it is always as well to £ sulphur ’ them, according to the plan given below, to prevent the possible infection of the whole cabinet. A world of future trouble and vexation will be saved, by taking care, in the first instance, that no ova or larvag are concealed among the leaves or in the flower -heads. Another necessary precaution is to 1 poison ’ the speci- mens before laying them by. Frequent experiments have been made in this direction, with the view of discovering some means of warding off the attacks of the insect world, or at least of rendering them harmless. Not one of the numerous methods, however, can be pronounced absolutely certain in its operation. Many of the lower forms of plants, the Alga*, the Lichens, and the Mosses are, compara- tively speaking, exempt from their ravages ; but they seen* 196 OF THE HERBARIUM. to revel in the destruction of the Ferns, the flowering plants, and the Fungi, especially the two last named. Strange to say, certain orders of the Phanerogamia are more liable than others to the visits of these 1 pests of the herbarium.’ I may mention the Willows, the Umbelliferae, and the Composite plants, as among their favourite haunts. The Composite especially are greedily attacked by Ano- bium, Dermestes, &c., possibly because the large flower- heads, with which many of the species are furnished, afford them such admirable hiding-places. These, then, must be thoroughly impregnated with some poisonous substance, before they are finally deposited in the cabinet. The best preservative medium with which I am ac- quainted, is a solution of corrosive sublimate in alcohol. To apply it, the specimen should be laid on a. smooth surface of glass or tin, and well painted with the mixture, by means of a broad soft hair pencil. As the alcohol evaporates, a deposit of sublimate is left behind. In the case of very delicate plants or flowers, which are en- dangered by the touch of even a soft hair pencil, it is better to apply the solution through a glass syringe, thoroughly sprinkling every part. The specimen may be replaced in its wrapper as soon as it is dry, which takes place very speedily on account of the volatile properties of the spirits of wine. This poisoning process, .be it under- stood, is by no means permanent : it is of service for a time, but only for a time, and must be renewed at stated intervals. My own experience leads me to suggest, that the herbarium should be carefully inspected twice a year, in the spring and autumn, and a coating of poison laid on to every plant, or, at any rate, on those which are most liable to the attacks of insects. Camphor, oil of turpentine, and other strong- smelling substances, have been recommended from time to time,, but I confess I have but little faith in them as preservatives. Indeed I have generally found, that they are far more OF THE HERBARIUM. 197 disagreeable to the botanist in his study, than to the insects in his herbarium ! Should it be found, that the larvse, in spite of all pre- cautions, have established themselves in any part of the herbarium, the infected packets must be at once removed, and submitted to the fumes of sulphur. For this purpose let a box be provided — if made of iron or lined with tin, so much the better — large enough to hold two or three of the packets. An air-tight lid being requisite, let a shallow groove or channel be run round the upper edge of the box. to receive the lid when closed ; the groove itself is to be filled with water when the box is in use, thus rendering it air-tight. It is necessary to retain the fumes of the sulphur within the box, not only on account of their evil odour, but because they are apt to produce unpleasant, and even injurious, symptoms in the operator, if imbibed to too great an extent. For the same reason, the work should be carried on in an outhouse or in the open air, not in an inhabited room. A movable framework of iron fits loosely into the box, consisting of netting, or of a few cross bars sufficiently strong to support the packets, and resting on legs three or four inches high. Now let a shallow pan of burning sulphur be laid on the bottom of the box ; the framework with its packets placed over it ; the lid shut down ; and the whole left un- disturbed for about forty-eight hours ; and it will be found that at the end of that time not a single insect survives. I have had occasion to try this plan repeatedly, and never knew it to fail. [Another method, of which I can speak with approval, consists in placing the packets in an oven, and leaving them to bake for some hours. No form of animal life — at least of animals destructive to plants — can stand against the continued heat : it is especially useful in very damp climates. Care must be taken that the oven is not too hot, or the specimens will be rendered over-dry and brittle. — Ed.] The best season for making these experi- 193 OF THE HERBARIUM. ments is towards the end of summer, or even as late as October. [Having now clothed in an English dress the results of Herr Nave’s large experience in collecting, preparing, and preserving plants, I leave this little work in the hands of the reader, with the confident hope that he will pardon its defects for the sake of its object. That object will have been fully accomplished, if it be the means of awakening in the Botanical Student a desire to become more closely acquainted with the loveliest of all the Creator’s works, or in smoothing some of the difficulties, which must inevitably surround the path of the tyro. — Ed.] ‘ Thy desire, which tends to know The works of Grod, thereby to glorify The great Workmaster, leads to no excess That reaches blame, but rather merits praise, The more it seems excess .... For wonderful indeed are all His works, Pleasant to know, and worthiest to be all Had in remembrance always with delight.’ Milton. PLATE XXVI. 112. Osmunda regalis. a. Pinnule of barren frond. 113. Ophioglossum vulgatum. a. fertile spike enlarged. . INDEX ALf> LGriE, abundance of, 1 ; best season for collecting, 3 ; implements for collecting, 4, ’65 ; knowledge of, necessary to the Botanist, 1 ; to preserve, 9, 66, 93 AlgEe, filamentous, 2, 62; crus- taceous, 83; gelatinous, 82, 99 ; marine, 91, 125 ; parasi- tical, 3, 83, 81 ; stone-like, 85 B ENNING-’S method of clean- ing Diatoms, 26 Brand, 116 Bunt, 122 C ASPARY’S rake, 5, 109 Catalogue of Herbarium, to make, 189 Cells, shallow, to make, 57 note Characese, characteristics of, 107 ; to collect, 108 ; to preserve, 110; where found, 108 Chlorate of potassium, to clean Diatoms with, 49 Conjugation, m Desmids, 53 ; in Zygnemacese, 73 DIA Cooke’s British Eungi, 118 note ; British Hepaticse, 147 note. Crassulacese, to destroy the vital- ity of, 165 Cyclosis, phenomenon of, 113 D AVIS’S Manual of Prepara- tion, 49, 102 Desmidiaceae, best season for collecting, 50 ; characteristics of, 60 ; mode of propagation, 52 ; structure of, 51 ; to clean, 51 ; to preserve, 53 ; where found, 50 Diagram representing a Diatom, 38 Diatomacese, characteristics of, 37 ; implements for collecting, 1 3 ; influenced by locality, 1 1 ; in guano, 12; in stomachs of fish, &e., 12 ; to be preserved in crude and prepared form, 28 ; striation of, 43 ; to clean, 17, 20; to draw, 42 ; to mea- sure striation of, 48 ; to pre- pare, 25, 43 ; to preserve, 28, 34 ; to secure in a clean state, 19 ; where found, 11, 17, 33 202 INDEX. DIA Diatomacese, filamentous, 13, 34; fossil, 12, 13; free, 14; frondose, 14, 34; parasitic, 13; stipitate, 14, 30 Digger, useful form of, 158 note. Dry rot, 116 Drying paper, 161 E NVELOPE to hold Diatoms, ^ &c. 34 Equisetacese, 157 F ERNS and flowering plants, 154; implements for col- lecting, 158 ; to examine, 172 ; to prepare, 161 Front and side views of a Dia- tom, 38 Fungi, best season for collecting, 116 ; characteristics of, 123, 126; implements for collect- ing, 117; to collect spores, 129 ; to draw, 129 ; to pre- serve, 122; where found, 115 Fungi, brand, 116; bunt, 122; dry rot, 116; mildew, 121; mould, 116; muscardine, 116, 122; parasitical on flies, 116, 122; on gold fish, 122; on insects, 116 ; on plants, 117; on the silkworm, 122; smut, 116, 121 n ERSTENBERGER'S method VT of cleaning and propagating Diatoms, 25 Gum arabic, to be poisoned before using, 179 note ; to fix Diatoms with, 29 H ANTZSCRS preservative fluid, 54 Herbarium, its object, 174; to form, 174; to number and catalogue, 189 ; to preserve,. 190, 194 T NCINERATION, 43 L ABEL, form of, 1 85, 186 Labelling of specimens, 180 Laminar ise, to preserve, 100 Lichens, characteristics of, 132 ; to collect, 134; to prepare, 134 ; where found, 133 Lime in Algae, &c., to be got rid of, 75, 84, 102, 113 M ildew, 121 Mosses and their allies, characteristics of, 139, 142, 150; fructification of, 142, 145 ; implements for collect- ing, 141 ; to prepare, 145 ; to- preserve, 150 ; where found, 139 Mould, 116 Munro’s method of cleaning Dia- toms, 25 Muriatic acid, to clean Diatoms with, 18 Muscardine of the silkworm, 116, 122 "YTITRIC acid, to clean Diatoms -Li with, 18, 49 O KEDEN’S method of cleaning Diatoms, 25 Oscillatoriae, characteristics of, 76; colours of, 76; meaning of the name, 76 ; to prepare, 77 ; to separate Diatoms from, 1 7 where found, 7 6 INDEX. 203 PAP P APER, to prepare for Algae, 66 ; to dry, 161 Plants, to ticket for the Her- barium, 180 Pleurosigma, as a test object, 45 Potato disease, 121 Press for drying plants, 68 Primordial utricle, 54 Protoplasm, 54 ; rotation of, 113 Q UETSCHHAHN, or spring tap, 22 E- AGENTS, 131 Reinicke’s method of clean- ing Diatoms, 25 S ECTIONS, to make, of Algae, 85, 102 ; of Fungi, 129 ; of Lichens, 138; of Mosses, 147 Shadbolt’s turn-table, 16 note Silicate of potash, or waterglass, 153 ZYG Smith’s Ferns, British and For- eign, 154 Smut, 116, 121 Soft water, 52 Sommering’s mirror, 42 Spermatozoids in Cliaraceae, 114; in Mosses, 149 Spores of Fungi, to collect, 129 Spring tap, or Quetschhahn, 22 Stearine paper, 68 Striation of Diatoms, 43 Sulphuring box, 197 Swarming spores, 74 rjTEST objects, 45 yOLVOCINEiE, 61 Z YGNEMACEJE, spiral ar- rangement of chlorophyll in, 2 note, to preserve, 53, 72