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COMMERCIAL BOTANY

OF THE

NINETEENTH CENTURY.

COMMERCIAL BOTANY

OF THE

NINETEENTH CENTURY.

A Record of Progress in the Utilisation of Vegetable Products

in the United Kingdom, and the Introduction of

Economic Plants into the British Colonies,

during the Present Century.

JOHN R. JACKSON, A.L.S.,

Associate Royal Botanical Society of London, Curator of the
Museums, Roi/ul Gardens, Keic.

CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited

LONDON, PARIS f MELBOURNE.
1890.

[AIX BIOHT9 RESERVED. J

CONTENTS

PARE

Introduction .......... 1

CHAPTER

I. India-rubber or Caoutchouc . . . . .10

II. GuTTA-pERCHA ........ 27

III. Food Products 37

IV. Beverages ........ 52

V. Drugs 58

VI. New Drugs ......... 87

VII. Oils and Waxes 106

VIII. Gums, Resins, and Varnisiiks ..... 115

IX. Dyes and Tanning Materials . . . . .119

X. Paper Materials. ....... .123

XL Fibres 132

XII. Fodders .147

XIII. Timbers and Hard Woods 151

XIV. Miscellaneous Products 158

COMMERCIAL BOTANY OF THE
NINETEENTH OENTUBY.

INTRODUCTION.

Lv considering this subject, the whole history of Economic
Botany may be said to be placed under review, for it is
quite within the last thirty years that anything like real or
general attention has been directed to the subject.

It is true that in the present century no single plant
lias been introduced either to commerce or for home cultiva-
tion of such widespread importance as the tobacco and
potato plants, nevertheless what has been accomplished in a
comparatively few years in the cultivation of the cinchonas
and the various caoutchouc-producing plants in various
parts of the world will bear favourable comparison with
anything done in a similar direction in previous centuries,
and judging from tlie present rate of scientific progress the
importance of these plants alone in future years may, and
probably will, equal those of the tobacco and potato.

It would be impossible to form any correct idea of what
lias been attained in the knowledge of plants, useful or
otherwise, without referring to the results of the principal
expeditions which have left our shores for different parts of
the world during the present century, such, fur instance, as
Ross's Antarctic Expedition, which resulted in " The
Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H.M. Ships Erebus
and IWror, in the years 1^39 to 18-43," by Dr. (now Sir)

B

2 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

J. D. Hooker ; or Captain Kellet's voyage of the Herald,
after which appeared ' ' The Botany of H. M. S. Herald
during the years 1845 to 1851," by Berthold Seemann ; or
in still later times Captain Nares' Challenger Expedition
from 1873 to 1876, the botany of which occupies two large
volumes, principally the work of Mr. W. B. Hemsley,
F.R.S. Not that these expeditions have resulted directly in
the introduction of any one useful plant either for general
culture or commerce, but they have been instrumental in im-
parting a knowledge of the resources of the several countries
visited, and m this way have awakened an interest in them.
Important, indeed, as these expeditions have been in elu-
cidating the botany of the world, still more so has been the
formation of the several museums in the principal centres of
the United Kingdom for the especial purpose of developing
the economic resources of the vegetable, animal, and mineral
kingdoms, such as the Food Collection, first xt South
Kensington in 1857 and later at Bethnal Green, the In-
dustrial Museum at Edinburgh, and the Museums of
Economic Botany at Kew, founded in 1847. These, to-
gether with the Royal Botanic Society of London, founded
in 1839, and the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain,
founded in 1841, must always be considered the centres
from which knowledge on these points has flowed, and
continues to flow. Nor must we forget the several Inter-
national Exhibitions siuce 1851, where the vegetable
resources of the globe, especially of our colonies, have been
prominently brought to the notice of millions of people.
Then, in connection with these museums and exhibitions
is the literature which emanates from them, such as the
handbooks and guides, in which, though published mostly
for a few pence, a mass of valuable information is given.
We cannot leave this part of the subject without a word of
high commendation on the handbooks and catalogues issued
by the several colonies at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF PLANTS. 6

of 1886, which should be in the library of everyone inter-
ested in Economic Botany.

In the following notes the difficulty has been to keep
them within what might be considered reasonable bounds.
It was found impossible to even enumerate all the plants
reputed to have economic properties that have been intro-
duced to the United Kingdom during the present century,
therefore those that seemed to have but little claim for notice
have been omitted. On the other hand, such important plants
as those yielding india-rubbers, gutta-perchas, cinchonas,
etc., whose cultivation in other countries than their own is
of vast importance to our commerce, and to the prosperity
and welfare of our countrymen in our widely-spread domin-
ions, have received a large share of attention, because it
was thought that the information here brought together
would be useful were it more widely disseminated than it
has hitherto been.

Throughout these pages it will be seen how often fresh
products have been brought forward and have shown pro-
mise of becoming important commercial articles, and then
have collapsed, sometimes finally, and sometimes to crop up
again after a lapse of years. It is hoped that a perusal of
these facts will inspire those who have opportunities to take
up new products, or even to resuscitate those recorded here
as having failed, to persevere in thoroughly testing their
properties, or placing them in the proper channels for so
doing.

A commercial rather than a scientific arrangement has
been adopted, as being probably the more generally useful.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF PLANTS.

1801.— Waste vegetable fibres applied to paper-making.

1806 — Khatany root (Krameria triandra) introduced as a medicine.

1S07. — Itohun bark (Suymida febrifugd) introduced as a modicine.

Gambicr or Terra japonica ( Uncaria Gambler) introduced about

tbis time.
u 2

4 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

1809. — Quassia wood (Picrcena excelsa) introduced as a medicine.

Belladonna leaves (Atropa Belladonna) introduced as a

medicine.
Cowhage (Mueuna pruriens) introduced as a medicine.
1813. — Cajuput oil (Melaleuca leucadendron, var. minor) introduced
about this time.
Patent granted for an invention for making fabrics air-pi-oof

by being treated with India-rubber or Caoutchouc.
The use of Ipecacuanha as a specific in dysentery confirmed in
England.
1819. —The development of the India-rubber trade commenced about

this time.
\820. — Colchicum seeds (Colchieum autumnale) introduced as a

medicine.
1821. — Buchu leaves (Barosma crenulata, B. serratifolia, and B.

betulina) introduced as a medicine.
1825. — Kusa or ginger grass oil (Andropogon Schcenanthits) introduced

about this time for perfumery.
1826. — Vegetable ivory (Phytelephas macrocarpa) introduced about

this period.
1829. — Indian tobacco (Lobelia injlata) introduced as a medicine.
1832. — Lemon grass oil (Andropogtn citralus), introduced for per-
fumery.
1835. — Greenheart bark (Nectandra Rodimi) first received attention

as a tonic and febrifuge.
1837. — Beetroot Sugar Refinery established at Chelsea.

Gama grass or buffalo grass (Tripsacum dactyloides) introduced
for fodder.
1839. — Cherry darnel (Pr units Laurocerasus) introduced for making
cherry-laurel water.
Cultivation of cinchona plants suggested in India.
From this period to 1841 Kousso (Hagenia abyssinica) attracted
some attention as an anthelmintic.
1840. — Tibet hay (Frangos pabularia) introduced as a fodder plant.

Ordeal bean of Old Calabar (Physostlgma venenosum) intro-
duced.
Ground nut (Arachis hypogaa) introduced.
First vineyard planted in S. Australia.

1842. Tussock grass (Aira jiabellata — Dae/yli.s cuspitosa) introduced

as a fodder plant.
Jute (Corchorus capsularis) introduced about this time.
Gutta-percha first brought to notice.

CHRONOLOGICAL TADLE OF PLANTS. 0

1844. — Introduction of glycerine to commerce.

1847. — Cotton seeds first imported as oil seeds, and piassaba fibre

introduced about this time for brush-making.
1849. — " Child's night-lights" introduced.

Masseranduba (Mimusops elata) milk and China grass (Bahmcria
nivea) first brought to notice about this time.
1850.— Cedron (Simula Cedron) introduced as a medicine.

Sumbul [Ferula \_Eitryangium~] Sumiul) introduced as a

medicine.
Bael fruit (JEgle Marmelos) introduced as a medicine.
1851. — Experiments made in cultivation of Ullueus tuberosus as a
substitute for the potato.
Shea batter [Butyrospermum Par/. .') introduced about this time
for soap-making.
1852. — First lime-fruit orchards planted in Montserrat.
1854. — Mexican fibre (Agave heteracantha) introduced about this

time for brush-making.
1856. — Paper first made from Espai'to.

Blue gum (Eucalyptus Globulus) introduced for cultivation,

and for its medicinal properties.
Guarana (Paicllinia sorbilis) introduced, and again in 1870.
1858. — Larch bark (Larlx europea) first used as a medicine.
1859. — Balata (Mimusops alobosa) introduced.

TJdika fat (Irvingia Barteri) first brought to notice.
Expedition arranged under Mr. Clements Markham to proceed
to the South American Forests to collect cinchonas for
transmission to India.
1860. — Urceola esculenta first noticed as a rubber-yielding plant.

Black snake root (Cimieifuga racemosa) introduced as a

medicine.
Belladonna root (Atropa Belladonna) introduced as a medicine.
Pine wool introduced to commerce about this time.
1861. — Briar-root pipes introduced about this time.
[862. — Palmite (Prionium palmita) introduced for brush and paper-
making.
Indi m poke root (Yeratrum viride) introduced as a medicine.
1863. — Wild black cherry bark (Primus serotina) introduced as a

medicine.
L864. — Podophyllum peltatum, MaUottu philippinensis, and Kemidesmus

indicus admitted to British Pharmacopoeia.
1866. — Elands Bontjes (Elephantorrhiza Burchellii) fit st brought to
notice, but not used in this country for tanning till 1886.

0 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

18P>7. — About this time attention began to be directed by the Indian
Government to the introduction and cultivation of Ipeca-
cuanha in India.
Roffia (Papbia Puffia) introduced for tying plants about this

time.
Betel nuts (Areca Catechu) first used in medicine.
18G8. — Botanical source of Zanzibar Anime determined.
18G9. — Sumbul plant [Ferula Sumbul) discovered in Samarkand.

Coffee plantations attacked in Ceylon by Hemilcia vastatru:
1870. — Jalap (lpomcea purga) first cultivated in India.
Strophanthus first brought to notice.
Telfairca occidentalis seeds first received at Liverpool as oil

seeds.
Ispaghul (Plant ago ovata or Inpaghula) introduced.
Quantities of red cinchona bark from Darjiling arrive in the
London market.
1871. — Cundurango {Marsdenia cundurango) introduced for the cure of

cancer.
1873. — Para rubber plants [Ilevra brasiliensis) introduced to India.
Pituri (Duboisia Hopwoodi) introduced to medicine.
Mhenm officinale inti'oduccd to cultivation in this country.
Mahogany [Swietenia Mahagoni) introduced for cultivation in

India.
Experiments made at Chatham with a paint prepared with
Euphorbia juice.
1874. — Cinnamodendron corticosiim flowered for the first time in Eng-
land at Royal Botanic Gardens, Regent's Park.
Coca (Erythroxylon Coca) first brought prominently to notice

in this country.
Goa powder (Andira Araroba), Jaborandi (Pilocarpus pennati-
folius), Boldo (Peumus Boldus), and Damiana [Turnera dif-
fusa) introduced to medicine.
Liberian entire (Coffca liberica) introduced for cultivation in
Jamaica, Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Dominica, Blont-
serrat, New Granada, Rio de Janeiro, Mauritius, Natal,
Ceylon, East Indies, and Java.
lS7.r). — Paper first made from Bamboo.

Algaroba (Cccsalpinia brevifolia) introduced for tanning.
Sumbul plant flowered at Moscow, and scientific name deter-
mined.
Seeds of Central American rubber plants (Casti.'loa) collected
for transmission to India.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF PLANTS. 7

Camauba roots {Copernicia eerifera), Caroba leaves [CybUlax

antisyphilitica), and Dita bark (Alstonia scholaris) introduced

to medicine.
1876. — Paper first made from Baobab bark.

Uniola virgata tested for paper-making.

Bamia cotton introduced.

Kava {riper methysticuni) began to attract some attention for

its medicinal properties.
Seeds of Cassia occidentals introduced as a substitute for coffee.
Ipecacuanha dried and prepared for use in India from native-
grown plants.
Central American rubber plants [Castilloa elastica) introduced

into West Africa, Ceylon, Java, etc.
Para -rubber plants (Hevea brasiliensis) introduced into West

Africa, Dominica, Jamaica, Java, Queensland, Singapore,

and Trinidad.
Ceara-rubber plants (Manihot Glaziovii) introduced to Kew

for transmission abroad.
1877. — First crop of cinchona bark received in London from Jamaica

plantations.
Attention first drawn to Mahwa flowers (Bassia latifolia) for

feeding cattle, and for distilling purposes.
Attempts first made to introduce African rubber plants for

transmission abroad.
Prickly comfrey [Symphytum peregrinum) introduced as a

fodder plant.
Calotropis giganiea, Cavanillesia platanifolia, and Yucca brevifolia

suggested as paper materials.
V&1_%.—Molbwa (a. lea and Ischamum angustifoKum introduced for

paper-making.
Pods of Wagatea spicata introduced from India for tanning.
"Zulu" hats from Cyperus tegetiformis introduced.
Queensland Fever Bark {Alstonia constricta) and Chaulmugra

(Gynocardia odorata) introduced to medicine.
Wourali poison (Strychnos toxifera) first brought to notice in

this country.
Liberian rubber plants (Ficus Yogclii) introduced.
About this time a considerable amount of attention was given

to the properties of the Papaw (Cariea Pa;-'
1879. — White Quebracho (J : Quebracho-bianco), Ycrha

Rcuma (Frankenia grand if ul in), Menthol, and Tonga intro-
duced to medicine.

8 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Paper Mulberry bark [Bromsonctia papyri/era) and Eye straw
first used for paper-making.

Chestnut flour [Castanea saliva) brought to notice as a probable
article of food.

Sugar made in America from Sorghum saccharatum.

African rubber plants {Landolphia) introduced into Australia,
Ceylon, North America, Demerara, Fiji, Jamaica, Kio de
Janeiro, Natal, Singapore, and Trinidad.
1S80. — Cocoa plants [Thcobroma Cacao) transmitted from Trinidad for
acclimatisation in Ceylon, Singapore, and Fiji.

Socotra Aloes plant introduced to cultivation.

Ledger bark [Cinchona Calisaga, var. Ledgeriana) attracts con-
siderable attention.

China Cuprea [Remijia spp.) appears in the English market.

Artificial Indigo introduced.

First consignment of Indian boxwood received.

Lallemantia iberica seeds introduced as oil seeds.

G-utta Sundek seeds introduced from Ferak for cultivation in
( leylon.

Kola-nut plant [Cola acuminata) propagated al Kew and trans-
mitted to Endia, Ceylon, Java, Singapore, Demerara, Domi-
nica, Mauritius, .Sydney, and Zanzibar.
1881. — Anda-assu [Joannesia princeps) and Cheken [Myrtus Ckeken)
introduced to medicine.

Jalap [Ipomaia purga) successfully cultivated in Jamaica.

Plantain and Banana stems proposed for paper-making.

Myristica surinamensis seeds imported as oil seeds.

Jequirity [Abrus precatoriits) and Euphorbia pilulifera intro-
duced to medicine.
1883. — Manaca [Franciscea uni flora) and Cascara Sagrada [Rhamuns
Purshiana) introduced to medicine.

Ogea Gum [Daniellia sp.) introduced.

Discovery of Inhambane Copal [Copaifera Gorskiana).

Kittool fibre [Cargo/a urens) first used commercially for brush-
making.

Seeds of Hyptis spicigera imported as oil seeds.

About this time Paraguay tea [Hex paraguariemis) was intro-
duced as a substitute for Chinese tea.
1881. — Chew stick [Gouania domingensis) introduced to medicine.

Seeds of Myristica angolensis and Poly gala rarifolia imported as
oil seeds.
1885.— Cape boxwood [Btixus Macowani) introduced.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLK OF PLANTS. V

Doundake bark [Sarcocephalus c.sculentus), Mabee bark (Coin-

brlna reclinata), and Cascara Amarga (Picramnia antidesma)

introduced to medicine.
Choco [Sechium edule) introduced into Ceylon, India, and

Singapore.
1886. — Fresh fruits of various kinds from West Indies, British

Guiana, Australia, and North America received at Colonial

and Indian Exhibition, and sold in the Colonial market.
Piche [Fabicma imbricata) introduced to medicine.
About this time Gum Euphorbium was introduced for mixing

with rubber.
1887. — Lophira (data seeds introduced as oil seeds.

Shantung cabbage (JBratssica chinensis) grown at Kew.
Crosnes tubers [Staehys tuberifera) grown in this country and

introduced as a vegetable.
18SS. — Demerara rubber [Forsteronia gracilis) and Jamaica rubber

(F. Jloribunda) introduced for trade.
Brazilian gum arabic [Piptadertia macrocarpa) introduced to

commerce.
Bombay aloe fibre brought to notice at Kew.
Jarrah wood [Eucalyptus marginata) first used for road-paving

in London.
1889. — Bolobolo fibre [Honckenya jiciforia) introduced from Lagos.

Madagascar and Lagos Piassaba first brought to the notice of

the Kew authorities, though the former appears to have

been known in commerce for sonic years.

10
CHAPTER I.

INDIA-RUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC.

Few, if any, products, vegetable or otherwise, have made
such rapid advances in any given time as has caoutchouc or
India-rubber. When we remember that it was quite un-
known in this counti'y till the latter end of the last century,
and when we try to think of what the world wrould now be
without it, we are able to realise to some extent the great
value of this remarkable and interesting substance.

The introduction of Para-rubber antedates by some years
the period within our review. It will perhaps be of some
use to briefly sketch the history of the development of
caoutchouc in this country.

In a work on " Perspective," by Dr. Priestley, published
about 1770, the writer speaks of the rubber as a new and
important discovery for " wiping from paper the marks of a
black-lead pencil," and he says that it could then be obtained
at only one place in London, the price being three shillings
for a cubical piece of about half an inch. In 1836-37 Para-
rubber of good quality was imported into this country to tin-
extent of 141,735 pounds, which had increased twenty
years later to 3,477,445 pounds.

The first patent granted in tlie present century in con-
nection with caoutchouc was in 1813 to John Clark, for an
invention by which fabrics treated with India-rubber were
made air-tight and applicable for air-beds, pillows, cushions,
etc. ; but for the greater improvements in the India-rubber
manufactures we are indebted to Mr. Thomas Hancock, so
long connected with the firm of Charles Macintosh and Co. ;
and though the commencement of the trade in this country
dates from about the year 1819, its greater development has
been effected within the last thirty years. In 1839 India-

INDIA-RUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC. 11

rubber was first applied to the manufacture of large fiat-
bottomed boats, which were used for pontoons as well as for
exploring purposes, their great recommendation being their
portable character and the ease with which they could be
carried when not inflated.

The patents that have been granted for manufactures in
connection with India-rubber have been extremely numerous.
Some idea of their extent may be obtained when it is stated
that the " Abridgments of Specifications relating to India-
rubber (Caoutchouc and Gutta-percha) " issued by the Patent
Office forms an octavo volume of over 700 pages, and this
extends only to the end of the year 1857. The use of rubber
is now so universal that it has come to be regarded as one
of the necessaries of life. Enveloped in a thin film of India-
rubber, as we are when equipped in our macintosh, we are
inclined to regard it as one of the blessings of modern times.
Air-cushions, hot-water bottles, water-beds, elastic stockings,
doormats, etc., are all modern luxuries, the introduction of
which we owe to caoutchouc. Amongst other uses to which
soft rubber is put maybe mentioned valves, buffers, washers,
packing, garden hose, waterproof garments, etc. ; and from
hard rubber or ebonite are manufactured photographic and
surgical instruments, vessels for holding liquids, acid-pumps,
insulators, and a host of other articles both useful and orna-
mental. Vulcanite or hard rubber has indeed almost entirely
replaced glass for fiictional electrical machines.

Important as all these applications are, and to meet the
demands for which enormous quantities of rubber are now
brought into the English market, they are eclipsed by the
application of this substance as an insulator in telegraphy.
The progress made even in the last ten years in the develop-
ment of electrical science has been materially assisted by
the peculiar properties of India-rubber, for as a coating for
the wires of deep-sea telegraphs and telephones it, together
with its allied substance gutta-percha, has played a most

12 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

conspicuous part As an insulator, hov/ever, India-rubber
possesses a superiority over gutta-percha in its much higher
resistance and considerably lower capacity. For torpedoes
and military telegraphs, again, it is largely used, because it
is not so readily injured as gutta-percha by rough handling
or by heat. One of the most recent adaptations of rubber
is in the manufacture of kamptulicon for floor-coverings,
which is composed of waste rubber and cork dust.

Para- rubber {llevea brasiliensis). — In the earlier years
of the rubber industry the supply came almost exclusively
from Para. Other sources have, however, since been dis-
covered, and at the present time the rubber supplies to this
country are procured from various plants of South America,
Africa, India, Borneo, and the Malay Archipelago. In con-
sequence of the very great demand for this substance, and
the fear lest the sources of supply should become exhausted,
the attention of the Kew authorities was first drawn in 18 7. '5
to the necessity of introducing the Para-rubber plant to
India. In the " Report on the Progress and Condition of
the Royal Gardens at Kew" for that year the following
paragraph occurs : — " Dr. King, the Superintendent of the
Calcutta Botanic Gardens, has returned to his duties, taking
with him living plants of the true India-rubber plant of
Para (Ilpvea brasiliensis), the seeds of which were procured
from the Amazons and sent to Kew by Mr. Markham of
the India Office." Again, in the report for the following
year (1874), Dr. (now Sir Joseph) Hooker writes: — "The
plants of the true India-rubber of Para (Hevea brasiliensis),
•which I stated in my last report had been taken out to India
by I >r. King, Superintendent of the Calcutta Botanic
Gardens, have safely arrived, and have already to some
extent been propagated by cuttings. The propagation of
this \y<' is extremely important, not merely from the vari-
able quality of the rubber obtained from it, but also in view
of the diminished supply from the Indian Ficus elastica,

INDIA-RUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC. 13

which, owing to its epiphytal germination and mode of
growth, is not well adapted for cultivation for this purpose,
while severe inroads have been made upon it in the forests
where it occurs."

Again, in 1875 Sir Joseph Hooker reported that experi-
ments at Kew proved that the Ilevea brasiliaisis was capable
of easy propagation by cuttings, and that the seeds very
quickly lost their germinating power, hardly one per cent,
reaching Kew alive.

In 1876 Sir Joseph Hooker reports that, " On the 14th
of June Mr. H. A. Wickham, a resident on the Amazons,
who has been commissioned by the India Office to collect
seeds of Ilevea brasiliensis, arrived in England with 70,000,
obtained on the Rio Tapajos. In consequence of their re-
taining vitality for but a very short period, they were all
sown the day after arrival, and covered a space when sown
of over 300 square feet, closely packed together. About
3| per cent, germinated — some as early as the fourth day
after sowing, and many in a fe.w days readied a height of
18 inches. • Upwards of 1,900 plants were transmitted on
August 12th, in 38 Wardian cases made specially to accom-
modate the rapid growth of the seedlings, to Ceylon under
the charge of a gardener." Of this consignment 90 percent,
of the . plants l'eached Ceylon in excellent condition, where
they were nursed and established for subsequent transmission
through the Indian Gardens to Assam, Burma, and other
provinces.

Smaller consignments were also made to the West < !oa I
of Africa, Dominica, .Jamaica, Java, Queensland, Singapore,
and Trinidad. In this year Mr. Robert Cross, who had been
sent to South America to collect the living plants, arrived
with about 1,000, a very small proportion of which ulti-
mately survived.

In the following year an unsuccessful attempt was made
to transmit some 50 of the plants direct to Burma ; all of

14 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

them, however, perished on their journey. Plants were
afterwards sent to Saharanpur, Calcutta, Assam, and to
Burma. Subsequent reports from Ceylon showed that the
climate was apparently suited to the growth of the species,
forming handsome spreading trees, from which cuttings were
taken in large quantities, and after being struck were dis-
tributed. Plants were sent from Singapore to Perak, and
Mr. Low, reporting upon them under date February 3rd,
1879, says that " the Heveas are now 12 to 14 feet high.
They take to the country immensely." From Burma the
reports clown to 1879 were favourable, but from Fiji, Cal-
cutta, Assam, Zanzibar, and Jamaica they have not been
assuring. It will be seen from these facts that no pains
have been spared to introduce into the British colonies and
dependencies a really useful plant for extended cultivation ;
and though the result has not been so satisfactory as was
anticipated, the introduction and cultivation of other plants
and the discovery of other sources of supply of rubber has
emanated from these efforts. But notwithstanding these
discoveries Para-rubber is still the principal source of supply,
the total imports of which were estimated during the year
1889 to amount to nearly G,000 tons.

Central American Rubber (Castilloa elastica). — Next
to Para-rubber the plants that have received most attention
for the purpose of cultivation in other countries are those
which yield the kinds known as Central American Rubber
(Castilloa elastica) and Ceara Scrap (Manihot G'laziorii).
The first-named began to attract the attention of the autho-
rities of Kewin 1875. In the " Kew Report " for that year
it is stated that " Mr. Robert Cross was despatched by the
India OHice to Central America to obtain seeds and plants "
of this species. Upwards of 7,000 seeds were transmitted
to Kew, but all failed to germinate. With a good deal of
difficulty, and after undergoing shipwreck, Mr. Cross
succeeded in bringing home a considerable collection of

IXDIA-RUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC 15

cuttings, which wore propagated so rapidly that in 1876
tliey were ready for distribution to the West Coast of Africa,
Ceylon, and Java. From the two latter places satisfactory
reports have been received. Dr. Trimen, reporting from
Ceylon in 1880, says : — "Our largest trees at Heneratgoda
have now a circumference of nearly 17 inches at a yard from
the ground, and the trees are beginning to take their true
form." Again, in October, 1SS2, Dr. Trimen writes : — " We
have some sturdy little seedlings of Castilloa coming on
from seed. Only three fruits ripened in June, and the
fifteen seeds from these were sown at once, and germinated
in tifteen days. The rubber from Castilloa strikes me as
the most satisfactory sort growing here, the proportion of
caoutchouc in the milk being larger than in any of the
others."

Of CEARA-rubber, plants and seeds were brought home
by Mr. Cross to the Royal Gardens, Kew, in 1876. The
botanical name of this valuable rubber-plant was unknown
up to this period.

Under the name of Hevea guyanensis, a plant had been
in cultivation in the gardens of the Royal Botanic Society,
Regent's Park, as well as at Buitenzorg, Java, and at
Mauritius, which was proved in 1877 at Kew to be
Manilcot Glaziovii, the same species brought home by
Mr. Cross as the Ceara-rubber plant. These plants were
rapidly propagated at Kew, and quantities were sent to
Singapore, Calcutta, and Ceylon, and in 1878 to the Con-
servator of Forests in Madras. From this period the dis-
tribution of Ceara-rubber plants was proceeded with
rapidly from most of the Colonial Botanic Gardens, which
had received their first consignments from Kew. So im-
portant and successful has the spread of this species become
that the insertion here of a few extracts on the subject,
from the reports of the officers in charge of the several
gardens to which they were originally sent, may be desirable.

16 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

In 1879 Dr. King, of Calcutta, reported as follows : —
" The Ceara-rubber promises to grow well in Calcutta. The
seedlings received from Kew have thriven vigorously, and
some of them are now 20 feet high. The Director of the
Botanic Garden in Ceylon having, at the request of the Sec-
retary of State, undertaken the propagation of this species, a
quantity of seeds of it were distributed by him to Indian
officers during the year. Supplies were, I understand, sent
to the Conservators of Forests in Burma and Assam, and
to the Inspector-General of Forests for Madras. A large
supply was received at this garden, and a thousand seeds
were sent, at the request of the Conservator of Forests of
Bengal, to the officers in charge of the forest plantations
near Chittagong. The seeds received here have begun to
germinate, and I expect before long to be in a position to
issue supplies of seedlings for trial in different parts of the
country. The plant appears to thrive very well in Upper
India ; and if the quality of the rubber yielded by it in this
country turns out to be good, its introduction may prove
to be of much importance/' In 1880 as many as 24,550
seeds and 1,870 rooted cuttings of this important plant
had been sent out to different parts of the world from the
Botanic Garden, Ceylon. In 1882 Dr. Trimen reported
from Ceylon that some planters were going in largely for
cultivating this plant, and that if it proved protitable it
would be "a great help, as it grows anywhere up to almost
2,500 feet." From a quotation from (lie Madras Mail of
October 21, 1883, published in the "Kew Report" issued
in November, L883, some idea of tl e progress of tin- plant
in Southern India may be gathered. "About six months
ago," the writer says, "some gentlemen imported Ceara-
rubber seed from Ceylon. The produce of those trees may
now be seen flourishing in a wonderful manner at the foot
of the Nilgiri Hills. . . . The rapid growth of the Ceara-
rubber tree is marvellous ; some, measured six months oltJ

INDIA-RUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC.

17

from seed, were fully eight feet high, and a cutting that
had been put down scarcely six months ago was quite eight
feet high and in blossom. Being of sucli wonderfully rapid
growth, the tree is naturally very susceptible to wind and
liable to be blown over, until it gets firm hold of the
ground. Consequently a sheltered position is most neces-

India-rubber {Hevca brasiliensis)

sary. It seems to thrive on poor soil, requires no shade
and very little rain. . . It is better to plant out the young
plants after the first heavy burst of the Monsoon — say in
the months of August or October — when the ground is
thoroughly saturated, and the showers only occasional, with
bursts of sunshine between. The germination of the seed
seems a very simple process, and generally occurs hi ten
days, and sometimes less, from the time the seed is placed
in the damp sand. The seed-coat, being extremely hard,
C

18 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

requires very careful filing, so as to enable it to burst more
easily ; if this is not done, the seed may take months to
germinate."

A new source of India-rubber has quite recently been
brought to the notice of the Kew authorities under the
name of Colombian Rubber, or Colombia Virgen. By
this latter name it seems to have been known in English
commerce for the last few years, though the origin or source
of it has only just been determined at Kew as that of
Sapium biglandulosum, a euphorbiaceous plant allied to
Manihot Glaziovii, yielding Ceara scrap (see pp. 14 and 15).
The details connected with the discovery of this rubber
are fully given in the Kew Bulletin for July, 1800. It
is there said that Colombian Rubber has been generally
known in commerce from the place of export as " Cartha-
gena," and is supposed to have been the produce of species
of Castilloa, which may to some extent still be the case. The
plants yielding this so-called "Colombia Virgen " rubber, un-
like all other known sources of this substance, grow at a
high elevation on the Colombian Andes, viz., at from 6,000
to 8,000 feet above the sea. A report of an examination
of this rubber made at the works of the rndia-rubber,
Gutta-percha, and Telegraph Works Company, Limited, at
Silvertown, was not favourable, in consequence of the
presence of a resinous substance ; but a more recent opinion
of a well-known firm of rubber brokers of London anil
Liverpool, is that it "is of a very superior quality indeed,"
and was valued in May, 1890, at about 2s. lid. or 3s. per
pound.

African Rubber (species of Landolpkia). — A large
quantity of rubber has found its way into the English
market for a long time under the name of African rubber,
exported chiefly from the West Coast. It was known to
be produced from some species of Landolphiti, climbing
plants with thick, woody stems, belonging to the natural

INDIA-RUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC. 19

order Apocynacese ; the species, however, which yield the
rubber were but imperfectly understood, nevertheless at-
tempts were made in 1877 to introduce the rubber-producing
species to Kew. Sir John Kirk, H.M. Consul-General at
Zanzibar, thus writes in the "Kew Report" for 1877:
" The district called Mungao extends from lat. 9° '25' to
Delgado, in lat. 10° 41'. This last year yielded .£90,000
worth of India-rubber, an industry that has been created in
the last two years by my representation. This year the
yield will be more, and other places are now collecting it.
Thus, Kilwa and Mombasa will this year probably double
the supply, which I anticipate will reach in value not less
than =£180,000 worth of India-rubber. East Africa to the
south — that is, from Delgado Lay to the Zambesi — is pro-
ducing it as well." Two years later, in 1879, a consider-
able stock of these plants were got together at Kew, and
were distributed to the Botanic Gardens of Adelaide, Bris-
bane, Cambridge, U.S., Ceylon, Demerara, Fiji, Jamaica,
Natal, Bio de Janeiro, Singapore, Sydney, Toronto, and
Trinidad. From the material thus collected at Kew, the
authorities were enabled to clear up the doubts regarding
the identity of the species, both from the East and West
Coasts, which yield rubber, the results of which were, pub-
lished in the "Kew Report" for 1880. These notes are a
very important contribution to the knowledge of African
rubber-yielding plants, and to the sources of the commercial
supply of this commodity, as they proved that from the
genus Landolphia the whole of the East and West African
rubber is obtained. The following species may be enu-
merated : —

L. ovmriensis. — This species possesses the widest lati-
tudinal range, having been collected in Sierra Leone,
Angola, Niger, near the mouth of the Congo, and under a
slightly different form it was found in North Central Africa
by Schweinfurth, who remarks that " it is well known in
C2

20 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

the Guinea trade for its production of caoutchouc." He
further describes the fruit as having a sourness exceeding
that of the citron, in consequence of which the natives
of Djur-land prepare from it a " beverage refreshing as
lemonade."

L. florida. — This species is widely distributed over the
whole of Central Tropical Africa, and yields a portion of
the rubber obtained both from the East and West Coasts,
irrespective of its commercial interest, Sir Joseph Hooker
says : " Its heads of large, sweet-scented, jasmine-like
flowers would render it a desirable introduction, from
merely a horticultural point of view, in stove cultivation."
The plant flowered at Kew in 1887. The fruits, which
are about the size and shape of a pomegranate, are very
acid, and are eaten by the natives on the Niger. West
African rubber, which comes into the English market in
masses composed of more or less agglutinated small cubes,
is collected in the following peculiar manner : — When
wounded, every part of the plant exudes a milky juice,
which, however, does not flow, but dries quickly, so as to
form a ridge over the wound and to prevent the further
flow. Long cuts are made in the bark by the native
collectors, and as the milky juice flows out it is continually
wiped off" with the fingers and smeared over the arms,
shoulders, and breast till a thick covering is formed, when
it is peeled oil' their bodies and cut into small squares,
which are said to be afterwards boiled in water.

Regarding the produce of rubber from this species on
the East Coast of Africa, Sir John Kirk, reporting to the
Foreign Office from Zanzibar in 1S79, says : "It has been
for many years known that the jungles on the mainland
contained almost anywhere an abundance of rubber-pro-
ducing lianas, and on my first arrival at Zanzibar an
attempt was made, at my representation, to induce the
people of Dar Salam to collect it ; at that time, however,

INDIA-KUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC. 21

everyone was engaged in the slave trade, and the experi-
ment in consequence failed. Within the last few years
India-rubber has, however, become one of the chief exports
we possess."

L. Kirkii. — This species, which is named in honour of
Sir John Kirk, who discovered it and sent it to Kew, is the
source of the best quality and the largest quantity of rubber
obtained on the Zanzibar coast. The development of this
trade is due entirely to the energy of Sir John Kirk.
Some idea of its progress may be obtained from the' fol-
lowing extracts from reports made to the Foreign Office in
1880 by Vice-Consul Holm wood and Consul O'Neill. The
former describes the mode of collecting as follows : " The
process consisted in cutting clean slices of bark from the
trunk and branches from 3 to 10 inches in length, and
from \ to f inch in breadth. The cuttings were made
sometimes from one side only, but generally they are
scored all over the tree, about half of its bark being thus
removed. The method of making the balls of rubber,
which average two inches in diameter, is as follows : — A
quantity of milk is dabbed upon the fore-arm, and being
peeled off forms a nucleus. This is applied to one after
another of the fresh cuts, and being turned with a rotary
motion, the exuding milk is wound off like silk from a
cocoon. The affinity of this liquid for the coagulated
rubber is so great that not only is every particle cleanly
removed from the cutting, but also a large quantity of
semi-coagulated milk is drawn away from beneath the uncut
bark, and during the process a break in the thread rarely
occurs. By working hard, one person can collect five
pounds of rubber per diem, though the average is only half
the amount. I was assured, however, that in the intei'ior
where the trees run large it is no uncommon thing for one
man to collect seven, or even nine, pounds in a day."

In the districts of Munsao and Kilwa alone the do-

22 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

velopment of India-rubber has created a new trade, which
gives a profitable employment to those classes whose means
of subsistence ceased with the suppression of the illegal
slave trade. The total export from the above-named
places exceeded, in 1880, 1,000 tons. The price also rose
rapidly at this period from £140 to £250 per ton. In a
report on the trade of Mozambique for the year 1880,
Consul O'NeiH says: "It is curious to note the marvel-
lously rapid development of the India-rubber industry. In
1873 only £443 worth of India-rubber passed through the
Custom House of Mozambique. In 1876 it reached the
value of £22,198, and in 1879 it exceeded £50,000. It
would seem now almost to have reached its climax, while
the present rude method of collecting this produce prevails,
and until communications with the interior are properly
opened up, for the cai'eless cutting of the tree by the un-
taught hands of the natives has resulted in the destruction
of enormous tracts of India-rubber forest near the coast."

L. Petersiana. — This is noted in the " Kew Report " for
1880 as a new species, furnishing a third variety or quality
of rubber on the East Coast. The plant was described as
growing near Tanga, on the coast of the mainland opposite
Pemba. The mode of preparing the rubber is said to be
quite different from that practised with the other kinds,
inasmuch as the juice is collected in a fluid state by tapping
and then coagulating it by heat. The quality of the rubber,
however, is said to be inferior to that of the other species.

To Sir John Kirk is due the credit of having introduced
to the Royal Gardens, Kew, living plants of four species of
Zanzibar rubber-yielding Landolphias, from which supplies
have been sent to the British colonies. From a return of
the imports of caoutchouc into London and Liverpool during
the year 1889 it seems that 5,919 tons were imported,
against 5,080 tons in L888.

Borneo Rubber. — A good deal of uncertainty has always

INDIA RUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC. 23

been attached to the sources of rubbers or caoutchoucs from
the East. From specimens brought to Kew, however, in
1880, it would seem that all the rubber from the Malay
Peninsula is furnished by species of WUlughbeia and Leu-
conotis, allied genei'a belonging to the natural order Aj^ocy-
nacese, to which the Landolphias before mentioned as the
sources of African rubber belong. The following species of
WUlughbeia have been referred to in the " Kew Report "
for 1880 as the probable source of the Malayan rubbers : —

1. WUlughbeia Burbidgei, nov. sp., known as Manungan
pulau.

2. W. 7'reacheri, nov. sp. , known as Bertabu, and
probably the source of the rubber of North-West Borneo.

3. Leuconolis eugenifolius, known as Manungan bujok,
which is said to yield the best gutta (or rubber) of the
Bornean woods.

4. Chilocarpus viridis, also a Bornean species of Apocy-
naceaj yielding caoutchouc.

5. Chilocarpus jlavescens, nov. sp. Of this, excellent
specimens were received at Kew in 1880 from the Singapore
Botanical Gardens. The quality of the rubber from this
plant was reported upon by Mr. Silver as " very fair" and
"useful in our manufactures." It was valued at the time
at Is. 3d. a pound.

From the great attention that rubber-yielding plants
have received at Kew during the past few years, it would
seem to be proved that what is known in commerce as
Borneo rubber is not yielded by Urceola elastica, as has
been generally stated in all works hitherto dealing with the
subject, but by one of the plants here mentioned, or at
least by some allied species.

Fiji Rubber [Alstonia plumosa). — A sample of this was
first sent to Kew in 1877 by Sir Arthur Gordon, the then
Governor. It was favourably reported upon as a " strong,
elastic, pure rubber of the same character as the higher

24 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

grades of African rubber." It proved to be the produce oi
Alstonia plumosa, another apocynaceous plant.

Liberian Rubber (Ficus Vogelii). — This species was
introduced in 1878 by Mr. Thomas Christy from Liberia.
It was discovered by Vogel at Grand Bassa, and described
in the Niger flora under the generic name of Urostigmo,
which is now united with the genus Ficus. The rubber,
which was formerly made into balls about the size of a
large orange, has been valued in the London market at
Is. Gd. per pound, and would fetch a higher price if sent
home in a cleaner state.

The trees yielding this rubber are known in West Africa
by the name of " Abba," and in the Kew Bulletin for
November, 1888, and May, 1890, the subject is discussed
in detail. The rubber is described as containing a large
amount of resin, which has prevented its general use in this
country. Some improvements, however, have recently been
made in collecting the fresh milk, so that a better quality of
rubber has been obtained. In a note from the District
Commissioner at Badagry to the Colonial Secretary at Lagos,
published in the Kew Bulletin for May, 1890, referred to
above, the coagulation of the milk is thus described : —

"When the milk is first brought to me in gin-bottles, I
at once strain it into perfectly clean bottles through a piece
of muslin fixed in a frame. The bottles are then allowed
to stand for twenty-four hours for the milk to rise. It is
then poured into a large tin, and put on the fire to boil.
If much water is seen with the milk, none is added ; but if
only a little, about a pint of water is added to every six
bottles. As the water and milk begin to boil, lime juice is
added in the quantity of one lime to each bottle. This
assists the rubber to coagulate. When all the rubber in
the water has formed into a large lump, it is taken out and
forced into the moulds perforated and fixed in wood cases.
Heavy weights are tlien laid on for twelve or twenty-four

INDIA-RUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC. 25

hours, and then the rubber is taken out, when it will be found
ready for shipment. If one could only induce the natives to
collect the milk, a large trade might be done ; but they are
intolerably lazy, and do not care to attempt a new trade."

The report upon this rubber from the India-Rubber,
Gutta-Percha, and Telegraph Works Company at Silver-
town, dated March 20th, 1890, was fairly satisfactory.
With a careful system of collecting and preparation from
the plant, it is anticipated that the rubber may become a
useful addition to our African supplies.

Regarding the growth of the plant, and the probability
of its increased cultivation, it is stated in the Kew Bulletin
that " the Abba trees of West Africa are widely distributed,
and are generally used as shade-trees in market places,
streets, and compounds. They can be propagated by ' the
simple method of cutting off the branch and pushing it
into the ground ; and on account of the facility and rapidity
with which it grows, the natives use it largely for fence
posts.'" It is further stated : " From the trees already in
full growth in the bush and towns, a considerable export
trade could be rapidly established, and systematic planting
would develop the trade to almost an unlimited extent."

Macwarrieballi, or Demerara Rubber (Forsteronia
gracilis). — This was first brought to notice in the Kew
Bulletin, No. 15, for March, 1888, and is the produce of a
large twining plant belonging to the natural order Apocy-
naeea;. From a report on this rubber obtained from the
India-rubber, Gutta-percha, and Telegraph Works Company
at Silvertown, by the Kew authorities, it would seem that
if the substance can be obtained in any quantity it may
eventually become a commercial article.

Jamaica Rubber (Forsteronia floribunda). — An allied
plant to the former, and having a similar habit; it is confined
to the Island of Jamaica, where it is known as Milk Wythe
or Milk Vine. The rubber was first brought to notice in

26 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

the Report of the Director of the Botanical Department of
Jamaica in 1883, and again in 1884, and the whole subject
is fully treated of, together with reports on its probable
usefulness, in the Kew Bulletin, No. 2-i, for December, 1888;
from this report it seems that the rubber will probably
prove to be of considerable commercial value, and the notice
thus taken of it may perhaps lead to an extensive cultiva-
tion of the plant.

Other rubber-yielding plants of minor importance have
attracted the attention of the Kew authorities during the
past ten years, as Urceolct esculeuta, at one time known as
Chavannesia esculenta, first noticed as a rubber-yielding
plant by Mason, in Burma, in 1860 ; Willughbeia echdis or
W. martabanica, a Malayan plant; and Glwnemorpha macro-
phylla, a large scandent evergreen shrub of the Andamans,
which is stated to yield a considerable quantity of caoutchouc.

We have gone thus fully into the sources of caoutchouc
in consecpience of its very great and increasing commercial
importance. As a proof of this we may quote from the
annual report for 1886 of one of the principal brokers in
the trade, that " The world's consumption of all kinds is
steadily increasing," and we may further quote the following
statistics of the imports and value of raw and manufactured
rubber for the past seven and five years respectively : —

Raw Caoutchouc.
1883 - - - 229,101 cwt. ralue 63,652,817
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889

1882
18S3
1884
1885
1SS6

- • - 198,844

,,

,,

2,272,1011

- 180,141

,,

,.

1,981,73.'>

- 192,518

,.

.,

2,202,71(1

- 235,539

,,

,,

2,682,545

- 218,171

,,

,,

2,529,436

- 236,274

„

u

2,012,70 1

Manufactured < ' \.o\

TCHOUC.

-1,447,739

lb.

value

£154,924

-2,073,374

,,

,,

211,408

-2,612,710

,,

262,336

-3,139,632

,.

397,730

-2,681,210

)>

,

353,729

27
CHAPTER II.

GUTTA-PERCHA.

This product ranks next in importance to India-rubber,
and although somewhat similar in substance and chemical
properties, is tough and inelastic, which causes it to be
inapplicable for many purposes to which rubber is put.
Gutta-percha when exposed to the air and light absorbs
oxygen and changes into a brittle resinoid substance, which
uulits it for exposed uses. Under water, however, or in the
dark it does not readily change, and lasts for a considerable
period.

The history of the discovery and development of gutta-
percha is one of great interest. It was first brought to
notice in 1842, at Singapore, when it attracted much atten-
tion, and soon found its way to Europe ; one of the first
uses to which it was put being for soling boots, in con-
sequence of its imperviousness to water, and its supposed
greater durability than leather. Being easily moulded by
heat, it was soon applied to the manufacture of pails,
buckets, basins, water-pipes, door-handles, knobs for drawers,
and a host of similar purposes. In consequence of its
being a non conductor of electricity, coupled with its dura-
bility under water, it soon became used for coating the wires
of deep-sea telegraphs ; for this purpose, however, India-
rubber is now much more extensively used. The plant
was originally described by Sir W. J. Hooker, in 1847, in the
Journal of Botany, under the name of Isonandra Gutta,
which has since been sunk under that of Dicliopsis Gutta,
Benth., by which name the true gutta-percha-yielding tree
is now known. It is a large tree, sixty to seventy feet high,
with a trunk two to three feet in diameter. At the time of
its discovery it was abundant at Singapore, but during the

28

COMMERCIAL BOTAXY.

next five or six years it was so pei-sistently destroyed for
the extraction of the milky juice that the tree was almost
exterminated, and at the present time only a few trees, that
are carefully preserved as curiosities, exist at Singapore.
In 1847 it was plentiful at Penang, but a similar fate has
overtaken it there.

To collect the milk the trees are cut down, and the bark

Gutta-percha {Bichopsis gutta).

stripped off, when it flows readily, and is collected in a
cocoa-nut shell, the spathe of a palm, or some similarly im-
provised vessel, and formed into blocks or lumps of various
sizes and shapes, the fluid quickly coagulating on exposure!
to the air. The average quantity obtained from one tree is
about twenty pounds, and as the imports into this country
amount to between 40,000 and 60,000 cwt. annually, an
enormous number of trees have to be sacriticed to supply
the demand. In consequence of this destruction, and fear
of the entire loss of the article to commerce, attention was

GUTTA-PERCHA. 29

drawn to it in the Kew Reports for 1876 and 1877, which
resulted in the Government of the Straits Settlements
taking up the question, so that in 1878 Dr. Dennys, Assist-
ant Curator of the Raffles Museum, Singapore, drew up an
important report to that Government, some extracts from
which it may be both useful and interesting to quote. The
true gutta-percha from Dichopsis Gutta is known in the
Straits Settlements as gutta- taban. " It does not appear
that the juice is collected at any special period. Mr. Lowe
states, however, that there is a very marked difference in
the yield of the wet and dry seasons ; at the former period
an average tree will yield some five catties (a catty =1^ lb.),
while in the dry season it will only yield one. Considerable
difficulty, by the way, appears to exist in ascertaining the
actual yield per tree ; and the difficulty will, owing to native
habits of exaggeration, continue until some trustworthy
European himself watches the operation. Mr. Murton
states that a native gutta-percha merchant mentioned forty
catties as the yield of a single tree ; while he himself, from
other information, puts down the yield at from five to

fifteen catties per tree, and never exceeding twenty

In view of the enormous number of trees which must have
been destroyed if even ten catties be taken as an average, I
should be inclined to accept the higher estimate.

"The destruction of trees involved in the process of col-
lection is so enormous that it seems impossible for the
supply to long continue. It is computed that over 7,000 trees
were cut down during 1877 in the neighbourhood of Klang,
while 4,000 must have perished near Selangor in a single
month to furnish the 270 piculs (a picul = 138ilb.) returned
as exported. The estimated annual export from the Straits
Settlement and the Peninsula was given as ten millions of
pounds in 1875, which, at the high average of fifteen
pounds to a single tree, would give 600,000 trees. The
demand seems always to exceed the supply.

30 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

" The principal adulterant made use of seems to be
gutta-jelutong.

"Singapore and Penang are the chief collecting depots
for gutta-percha, and a failure in the supply might seriously
injure the trade of either port."

The gutta-jelutong referred to here is the milky juice of
an apocynaceous plant described by Sir Joseph Hooker in
the Journal of the Linnean Society, vol. xix., p. 291, and
also in the Flora of British India, vol. iii., p. GGI, under the
new generic name of Dyera (in honour of Mr. W. T.
Thiselton Dyer, Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew), and
the specific name of costulata.

Next in value to true gutta-percha is gutta sundek,
which is obtained in large cpiantities from Perak. Of this
tree Dr. Trimen, of the Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Cey-
lon, reports in 1880: — -';I have during the year, through
the kind exertions of Mr. Low, our Resident at Perak,
received a consignment of germinating seeds of the second
best variety of that country. This is called gatah sundek,
and Mr. Low informs me that it forms a very largo tree,
120 feet high, but quick-growing. From specimens of the
foliage and fruit sent with the seeds, it would appear (so far
as it can be identified without flowers) to lie a species of
Payena. This is a valuable gift, as the gatah trees in
Perak sufficiently large to px'oduce the gum are now very rare,
and very great difficulty arises in procuring seeds or speci-
mens." Dr. Trimen further reports that the young plants
were growing vigorously in Peradeniya and Heneratgoda.

Referring to the aid that the Colonial Government
might give in preserving these valuable trees or extending
their growth, Dr. Dennys says: — "It may lie difficult for
the Colonial Government to exercise a direct influence in
favour of care and prudence on the part of the native
administrations, but much might be done to encourage
enterprise in the formation of new gutta plantations. It

GUTTAPERCHA. • 31

may also be worth while to ascertain whether the appoint-
ment of Eiu-opean conservators, under the control of the
residents, would not achieve the end of preserving a most
valuable monopoly to the different governments ; as it may-
be assumed that the expenses thus incurred would be amply
justified by the commercial results, both to Singapore and
Penang as depots, as well as to the original collectors and
vendors of such important articles of trade.

" It is not impossible, also, that fresh discoveries might
be made, if not of new trees yielding similar products, of
sub-varieties which might furnish a commercially valuable
substitute ; while it is moi'e than probable that vast areas
of virgin growth might be disco vei-ed in the interior portions
of the Peninsula by an explorer under Government auspices.

" The principal obstacles in the way of individual enter-
prise lie in the time necessary to mature the tree, said to
be about fifteen, or perhaps twenty years at least, and the
difficulty of obtaining seeds, saplings, or cuttings wherewith
to commence plantations. These can only be met by the
cordial co-operation of the residents and native authorities,
the latter especially needing to be convinced that by aiding
the movement they will not be depriving themselves of a
valuable monopoly. As regards the former, it is probable
that but very few Europeans would embark capital which
would not yield an outturn for fifteen or twenty years,
which I am informed, on botanical authority, is the average
time required before a tree is ready for tapping ; many
trees, indeed, are reputed to be thirty years old when
tapped, and it would therefore seem that the Government
alone can afford to undertake the establishment of planta-
tions. At present we are without data as to probable
expense, but as the trees are essentially jungle trees, and
require no care when once fairly started, this may be taken
as very low. Assuming each picul of 133 J- lb. of the best
qualities to represent the yield of ten trees, and to be

32 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

worth $45, 10,000 trees would give a gross return of
S4">,000. The available Crown lands in Singapore could
probably grow 100,000 trees, at the lowest estimate, giving
$450,000 in the gross outturn, though this estimate must be
mere guesswork until a proper survey be made. But
assuming that the annual income of the colony could be
increased by $200,000, or less than halt' the sum named,
the matter seems worth attention ; while there is reason to
believe that even if the yield from the native states con-
tinued at its present figure, the additional supply would
soon find a market without materially lowering the price."

Though we have referred here to only two sources of
gutta — namely, gutta-percha or gutta-taban from Dichopsis
Gtttta, and gutta-sundek from Payena (Geratophorus) Leerii
— it is very clear that the substance is yielded in the east
by other allied trees belonging to the Sapotacese ; and
though but little or nothing is known of them scientifically,
it is very important, both for the sake of science and com-
merce, that some steps should be taken to obtain materials for
a complete investigation of this interesting question. Though
the complete history of the substance is encompassed by a
period of forty years, its importance to the commerce both of
this country and our eastern possessions is immense ; and
there is no reason why, with the discovery of new sources of
produce, or the proper care and development of the old
sources, the trade should not still be considerably extended.

The imports and value of gutta-percha into this country
have been declining for the past few years until last year,
when they suddenly rose, as will be seen from the following
returns since 1884 : —

1884 - ■

■ - 62,713 cwt. -

- value

£462,745

188.') - •

• - 53,894 „ - ■

■ -

348,104

1886 - ■

. - 40,697 „ - ■

■ -

269,808

1887 - •

. - 24,145 „ - •

■ -

156,563

1888 - ■

• - 22,483 „ - •

■ -

181,660

18S9 - ■

. - 48,042 „ -

»

576,896

GUTTA-PERCHA. 33

Balata (Mimusops globosa).

A substance known as Balata, very similar to gutta-
percha, but with the recommendation of its being more
ductile, and consequently more durable, is obtained from the
trunk of a large forest-tree sixty to seventy or even one
hundred feet high, said to range from Jamaica and Trinidad
to "Venezuela and French Guiana. It belongs to the natural
order Sapotacese, to which the other gutta-percha-yielding
trees belong, and is known to botanists as Mimusops
globosa. Balata was first brought to notice in this country
in 1859, at the instigation of Messrs. Silver and Co., of
London, Dr. Van Holt, of Berbice, having previously
noticed the presence of the substance in the bark.

The sample sent to Messrs. Silver by Mr. David Mel-
ville did not prove, upon examination, so satisfactory as was
anticipated, and nothing more was heard of the substance
till the International Exhibition in London in 18G2, where
specimens were exhibited in the British Guiana court, and
Sir William Holmes brought it into prominent notice.
"The result of his zealous efforts was that Messrs. Silver
and Co. applied for a further sample, and some of the dried
material was sent them. A better opinion of the merits of
balata seems to have been derived from this experiment.
Some appears, also, to have been submitted about the same
time to the Gutta-percha Company, in London, and a
demand was created for it. In 1865, three years later, the
quantity exported was 20,000 lb. Then the trade com-
menced to fall off, and continued to decrease till 1874, when
the amount sold only realised £1 11. In 1877 the demand
revived, but fell again the following year ; reviving again
the next year, and increasing up to 1884, when there was a
falling off."

In the ten years between 1875 and 1885 the India-
rubber, Gutta-percha, and Telegraph Works Company, at
Silvertown, used balata to a great extent, but since the
D

31 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

latter date it has been given up by them, in consequence of
its having been found not durable when exposed to the air.
Articles manufactured from it are said to have cracked on
the surface, and the inner portion to have lost its tenacity.
Balata seems to be unsuited for mixing with gutta-percha,
and has, therefore, been generally used alone. At the
present time it is estimated that not more than fifty tons
are imported into this country annually, and that probably
another fifty tons go to France and the United States.

As imported, balata, as a rule, is very uniform in
quality, fetching about 2s. per pound, while gutta-percha
ranges between Is. and 3s. 6d. per pound, according to
quality.

Gutta-shea (Butyrospermwni Parkii).

Under this name a substance has been brought to notice
during the past few years which resembles gutta-percha in
many respects, but is more brittle. It is obtained from shea
butter, the solid oil or fat expressed froui the seeds of
Butyrospermum Parkii. The tree is a native of Western
Africa \ and the fat is not only used by the natives as
butter, but it has also been exported in considerable quanti-
ties to this country, since 1851, for soap-making. It is
estimated that the quantity annually imported from Sierra
Leone amounts to about 500 tons. It is used in this coun-
try only for hard soaps ; and in the course of manufacture
gutta-shea is found to be present to the extent of from -5 to
•75 per cent. On the Continent it is largely used for
candle-making. In noticing this product, in the Kew
Report for 1878, Sir Joseph -Hooker says, " It is insoluble in
alcohol, a mixture of alcohol and ether, acids, and alkalies.
It is slightly soluble in pure ether, and ordinary animal and
vegetable oils and fat. From the extremely small propor-
tion in which it is present in shea butter, its extraction
would not be profitable ; and regarded as a bye-product it

GUTTA-PERCHA. 35

does not appear to be suitable for any purpose to which
gutta-percha itself is applied." Gutta-shea is, therefore, a
substance which, though an introduction of recent years,
does not, according to present lights, appear to have much
of a future before it. Nevertheless, some new application
may before long be found for it, and it may yet become an
important trade product.

Masseranduba or Cow-Tree of Para.

{Mimusoj)S data.)

A tree one hundred feet high, belonging to the same
natural order (Sapotacea?) as the gutta-percha, balata, and
gutta shea trees. Though attributed, as above stated, to
Mimusops elata, its specific name has not been determined
with certainty, as the flowers have not been examined. The
milky juice flows freely from wounds made in the bark : it
is of a cream-like appearance and substance, thickening and
becoming like gutta-percha on exposure to the air. This
substance was first brought to notice by the South American
traveller, Richard Spruce, who sent a sample of the wood
and milk, collected by himself, to the Kew Museum in 1849,
where they are still preserved.

Up to the present time the milk of the Masseranduba
has not been turned to any practical account.

Gum Euphorbium.

Under this name, or more frequently under the contrac-
tion of " G. E.," by which it is known in commerce, a sub-
stance has quite recently attracted much interest, in
consequence of its reputed adaptability for mixing with
gutta-percha and india-rubber to the extent of fifty per cent.
It was stated in September, 1887, that a piece of vulcanised
rubber containing fifty per cent, of euphorbium gum was
tested for some time in an exposed position on a roof, and
that it kept in better condition than a similarly exposed
D2

36 COMMERCIAL BOTAXY.

piece of ordinary pure vulcanised rubber. In combination
with gutta-percha it is said to reduce the tendency to become
brittle. Washers made with thirty per cent, of this gum
and vulcanised stand well, and retain their elasticity. Thp
gum comes to this country in small balls or ovoid masses
from one to four ounces in weight each ; in fracture it has
the appearance of broken balls of putty, friable when cold,
but easily kneaded or pulled out in hot water. It is very
clean, and has scarcely any admixture of bark or other
impurities. The bulk of the gum is said to come from the
Cameroons district. Nothing definitely is known of its
botanical origin, except that it has been referred by some to
a species of Euphorbia, and by others to a species of
Tragia.

A concrete milky juice, identical with this gum, was im-
ported into Liverpool in 1874 from St. Paul de Loanda, and
was then referred to the genus Euphorbia. Another sample
of a similar character was received at the Kew Museum in
1883 from Mossamedes, and upon being tried by a well-
known firm of linoleum manufacturers, was reported to be
likely to prove of some value in their trade. The develop-
ment of this gum, as well as its botanical origin, is still in
the future.

37
CHAPTER III.

FOOD PRODUCTS.

The Englishman is so conservative in the matter of food
that it takes a considerable time even to induce him to give
a trial to any article with which he is unacquainted, and a
much longer period before he will accept it as a regular, or
even an occasional, contribution to his diet. What he eats
when travelling on the Continent, or in foreign lands, his
soul abhors when he returns to his native shores ; therefore
new food products are not by any means abundant, and if,
perchance, they do occasionally appear in our markets, they
are looked upon only as a novelty to be recorded in some
journal, and again lost sight of, at least for a time.

The greatest strides made in the commerce of food
products during the present century have been in the
development of already existing sources. It is not within
our scope to trace the progress of these articles, but we may,
perhaps, legitimately, but briefly, point out to what extent
steam has assisted in placing within our reach foreign and
colonial produce of vegetable origin. Take, for example,
the increased and ever-increasing quantities of fresh and
preserved fruits, the latter hermetically sealed in tins, that
are now poured into our markets at all seasons of the year,
by which means our tables are furnished with fruits all the
year round that but a very few years since we could enjoy
only at certain seasons. The pine-apple is one illustration of
this; fresh fruits being brought from the West Indies by fast-
going vessels, and the preserved whole fruits in tins from
Singapore, Bahamas, and Natal, the flavour of which is
almost, if not quite, equal to that of the fresh fruits. But
a very short time since, tinned pine-apples were not known
to appear on the tables of even the well-to-do middle class,

38 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

but the excellence of their quality has won for them a place
at the present time amongst the more costly fruits on the
tables of the upper classes.

For some years past we have received consignments of
tinned fruits, such as apples, pears, peaches, &c, from
Ameilca and Australia, but it is not till within the last five
or six years that anything like a real and earnest attention
has been given to the subject of the general exportation from
our colonics into the mother country of preserved and fresh
fruits. A great impetus was given in this direction by the
Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886, not only by the
extensive and various exhibits of colonial fruits, but by the
establishing of a market for the sale of the fresh produce
brought from America, the West Indies, and even Australia,
by fast-going steamers ; by this means, though the supply
was intermittent, some of the fruits both of tropical and
sub-tropical countries were brought under the notice, and
within the reach of many who had never probably even
seen them before. As this question of the development of
the trade in colonial fruits formed the subject of a special
report in connection with the Exhibition, by Mr. D. Morris,*
it will suffice to give a few notes from that report, and to
point out that the entire subject therein dealt with is one
that has originated and grown to its present proportions
within the last twenty years. Regarding Canadian fruits,
Mr. Morris draws attention to the enormous proportion
which the apple trade has assumed ; and states that the
province of Ontario alone exported half a million barrels, all
of which, however, did not come to England, a considerable
quantity going direct to Norway and Denmark. In the
matter of packing, always a difficulty with fresh fruits, it is
stated that " nothing was, on the whole, so satisfactory as a

* Fruits, by D. Morris, M.A., F.L.S, Colonial and Indian
Exhibition, 1886. Reports on th ■ ons of the Exhibition.

Edited by 11. Trueman Wood, M.A. London : Clowes and Son.

FOOD PRODUCTS. 39

careful wrapping of fruit in tissue paper to prevent bruising,
and giving them as much air as possible in a cool storage."

Apples, pears, oranges, lemons, and a great variety of
well-known fruits came from the Australian colonies and
New Zealand ; while from the Cape and Natal came similar
fruits, as well as many others of indigenous growth, such as
the Amatungulu or Natal Plum (Carissa grandijlora), the
Kei Apple (Aberia Caffra), and others. Though both of
these fruits have a pleasant acid and refreshing flavour, and
have been introduced to notice before, so long back, indeed,
as the International Exhibition of 18G2, they are not yet
known in this country, except as curiosities ; the same may
be said of many of the Eastern fruits, such as the Rambltan
{Neplielium lappaceum), Lovi Lovi (Flacourtia inermis), the
Carambola (Averrhoa Carambola), the Mango (Mangifera
indica), and a large number from the West Indies, including
the Cherimover (Anona cherimolia), the Sweet Sop (Anona
squamosa), the Ginep (Mdicocca bijuga), the Sweet Cup
(Passiflora edulis), the Naseberry (Achras Sapota). These
and many others have been introduced to notice during the
last iifty years, but have never found their way into English
commerce as regular articles of trade, either in a fresh or
preserved state. We may, however, hope, and are led to
expect, that with the interest awakened in the subject
during the past year or two, a new and profitable branch of
commerce in this direction may be established ere long
between the British colonies and the mother country ; and
as an example of the benefit to be thus derived, we may
refer to the case of Fiji, one of the newest of our colonies,
where the value of the exports of fruit to Australia has
increased from .£507 in 187 7 to £23,994 in 1884. We have
thus far referred to those fruits that were only occasionally
brought to us from distant parts of Greater Britain. As an
illustration of the progress of the regular import trade in
certain fruits, we will quote the following table, as given by

40 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Mr. Morris, which shows the increased values during the
forty years ending in 1885 : —

1845 1865 1885

Apples, Oranges, Lemons, &c. - £158,098 £1,131,183 £3,619,788

Nuts, Almonds, &c. 80,682 424,866 701,910

Currants, Eaisins, Fig3, &c. - - 648,108 1,629,935 3,265, S25

£886,888 £3,185,984 £7,587,523
Amongst home-cultivated fruits none have increased of

Tomato (Lycopersieum esculent inn).

late years more rapidly, both in favour and in extended
culture in this country, than the Tomato {Lycopersieum
escul.en.tum). Originally a native of Mexico or South
America, the plant has spread by cultivation into tropical
and temperate climates, and in England its cultivation has
been gradually extending during the past thirty years, until
the consumption has increased to such great proportions that
it has recently been estimated at sixty pounds per head of
the whole population. So great is the demand, indeed, that

FOOD PRODUCTS.

41

to meet it enormous quantities are brought here from Jersey,
France, and other parts of the Continent ; and when the
season for fresh tomatoes has passed, the tinned fruits from
America are ready to take their place.

Tomatoes are no longer used only for making sauce or
for pickling, the fresh fruits boiled down with sugar make
an excellent preserve, scarcely to be distinguished from
apricot. Simply boiled in water they are a palatable vege-
table, besides which they may be cooked in a variety of
other ways, and they make excellent salads, while the tinned

Cucumber [Cucumis sativus).

fruits likewise lend themselves to many forms of culinary
treatment.

The Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is another fruit the
cultivation and consumption of which has extended very
much dining the past few years. Though it has been grown
in England from a very early period, it was not generally
cultivated till the middle of the fifteenth century, and it is
within comparatively recent years that its growth has
assumed the proportions we now see.

Besides frame cucumbers of many varieties, grown espe-
cially for table use, the plant is cultivated as a field crop
covering extensive areas, particularly in the home counties

42 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

whence the fruits reach the London market, and are largely
used for pickling. It has been stated that " in the market-
garden district of Sandy, in Bedfordshire, ten thousand
bushels of pickling cucumbers have been sent away in one
week." Cucumber cultivation, therefore, represents a large
sum of money in the aggregate. In the early season they
realise high prices, but in August and September they are
not unfrequently sold at the rate of a penny a dozen.

This account of cultivated plants would scarcely be com-
plete without some notice of the extension of the Potato
(JSolanumtiiberosum) cultivation in England, and though much
of this was effected before the period of which we have to treat,
nevertheless a very large number of the best recognised varie-
ties of the potato are of recent origin. "When we consider to
what perfection cultivation has brought this vegetable, which
in its native Chilian form is a globular waxy tuber not larger
than a walnut, and of which a well-known writer prophesied
in 1708 "that it might prove good for swine," we may
perhaps be surprised that even more has not been done
during the last fifty years in introducing and establishing
entirely new sources of food, such, for instance, as allied
species of Solaaum, that might under cultivation produce
edible tubers. Something in this direction has indeed been
done quite recently by Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R. S., who, in a
paper on "Tuber-bearing Species of Solanum," read before
the Linnean Society in 1884, and published in the Journal
of that Society, vol. xx., p. 489, pointed out that Solatium
Maglia — a close ally to S. tuberosum, and like it a native of
Chili — produced similar tubers. The plant, indeed, seems
to have been introduced to the Royal Horticultural Society's
garden at Chiswick in 1822 and to have been mistaken for
the true potato. aS'. Commersoni, a native of Uruguay,
Buenos Ayres, and the Argentine Republic, also produces
tubers, as well as S. Jamesii from the mountains of the
South-west United States and Mexico.

FOOD PRODUCTS.

43

Mr. Baker suggested "that these should be brought into
the economic arena and thoroughly tested as regards their
economic value, both as distinct types and when hybridised
with the innumerable tuberosum forms." Trials at hybridi-
sation were subsequently made at Messrs. Sutton's grounds
at Reading, under the superintendence of Earl Cathcart,
Mr. Baker, and Mr. A. Sutton, with the result that when

Potato {Solanum tuberosum).

the tubers were dug up those of S. Maglia were found to be
as large as ordinary potatoes and of fairly good cpuality when
cooked, while the other species were not so satisfactory, so
that in S. Maglia we have probably a new addition to our
future supplies of edible tubers.

Amongst tuberous roots that have been recommended at
different times during the present century, and even tried
as a substitute for the potato, may be mentioned the Arra-
cacha (Arracacia esctUerOa) an umbelliferous plant, the

44 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

native country of which is not accurately known, though it
is now generally cultivated as a food-plant in "Venezuela,
New Granada, and Ecuador. The plant was first introduced
to Kew between fifty and sixty years since, but it was found
to be unsuited for outdoor cultivation ; since then the roots
have been frequently re-introduced, but further trials have
proved that the English summer is not sufficiently long to
mature them. They have, however, been recently introduced
both into the West and East Indies, and promise to become
established food-plants in both countries. Another plant
that attracted some attention during the early years of the
potato murrain as a suggested substitute was the Ullucus
tuberosus, an herbaceous plant belonging to the natural order
Chenopocliacea?, a native of Peru and Bolivia, where it is
extensively cultivated for the sake of its tubers, which are
largely eaten as food. In appearance they are very like
potatoes, in their wild state about the size of hazel nuts, but
as cultivated at Kew in 1851 they grew to about two inches
long and one inch thick. The substance of the tubers is
close and waxy, and this was not improved by cultivation,
consequently they did not meet with approval.

Under the name of Choco or Chayote the fruits of
Sexhium edule, a climbing plant belonging to the Cucurbi-
tacese, and native of Tropical America, whence it has been
introduced to Madeira and the Atlantic Islands, is occasion-
ally seen in the London market. They are eaten simply
boiled, and are said to somewhat resemble a vegetable
marrow. They were first introduced thirty or forty years
since, but have never found much favour here. Within the
last two years the plants have been introduced into Ceylon,
India, and Singapore, where they seem to thrive and produce
a plentiful supply of fruits.

Two of the most recent introductions to cultivated vege-
tables are the Shantung Cabbage {Brassica chinensis) and
the Crosnes {Stachys Sieboldi, better known as S. tuberl/era).

FOOD PRODUCTS. 45

The first of these is fully described in the Kew Bulletin, No.
17, for May, 1888, from which we gather the following notes :
Seeds of this cabbage were offered to the Royal Gardens,
Kew, in April, 1887, by a correspondent who had occupied
an important position at Chefoo, China. He says, " I have
just received from Chefoo, North China, a small packet of
Shantung cabbage seed, and I should like, if possible, to intro-
duce this delicious cabbage into England. It grows in the
north of China, is lettuce-shaped, and weighs from five to
eight pounds. When boiled it is nearly as good, if not quite,
as sea-kale ; eaten raw in a salad it is of so delicate a flavour
that I know of no vegetable in England to approach it. It is
an autumn cabbage, should be planted abouo eighteen inches
apart, thrives best with moisture, and in Shantung is well
watered every day ; there the seed is sown in June. When
nearly full-grown it should be tied round so as to give it a good
white heart. If it can be acclimatised in this country it will
be a great addition to our vegetables." The seeds received
at Kew " were sown in a heated pit on the 3rd of May, and
in about a fortnight all had germinated ; they were pricked
off into boxes, and when large enough transferred to pots.
They were kept in a cold frame until the beginning of June,
when they were planted out in beds of rich soil, about
eighteen inches apart in the rows and the same distance
from row to row. About the middle of July the plants were
tied up in the same way as cos lettuce, and when well filled
and blanched were cut for use. They were pronounced to be
excellent. It is possible that this Chinese cabbage mav
prove a useful addition to English gardens."

The Crosses (Stack ys Sieboldi). The first notice of
tli is new vegetable appeared in the Revue Horticole, 1885,
p. 23G, and in 1887 was introduced for use in France, having
been cultivated by M. Paillieux, who now grows it on a
large scale for the Paris market, where it is known under
the above name of " Crosnes," from the locality where its

46 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

culture is carried on. It was first inferred to Stachys affinis,
then to S. tuberifera, and now to S. Sieboldi. In December,
1887, tubers from plants grown at West Moulsey were ex-
hibited at the Royal Horticultural Society of London, since
which time it has been grown in many English gardens, and
the tubers cooked and eaten, and from most of the growers
they have been very favourably reported upon as an esculent,
as well as for pickling in vinegar. We quote the following
from an article on this new vegetable in the Gardeners
Chronicle for Jan. 7, 1888, p. 16 : — " The plant is alleged to
be perfectly hardy, and of the easiest possible culture. It
will grow anywhere, on any ordinary soil, but like other
plants it will no doubt repay a little attention in the way of
trenching and manuring. Its defects at present are its small
size and the fact that its tubers do not keep weli when lifted,
but both these defects can be overcome or evaded. In point
of flavour we have heard it compared to salsify, Jerusalem
artichokes, and to boiled chestnuts ; our own taste would
lead us to consider it as most nearly allied in point of flavour
to the latter.

" M. Carriere, while admitting that the difficulty of pre-
serving the tubers militates against them as a market-garden
crop, points out that it is well suited for the domestic
kitchen-garden, where the tubers can be lifted in late
autumn or winter and eaten in a fresh state either boiled,
fried like salsify, made into sauce, or cooked in a dozen other
ways that any cook — especially a French one — will
devise."

The plant belongs to the natural order Labiate, is a
native of Japan, and produces its tubers abundantly at the
ends of the underground branches, exactly as in the potato.
It has been advertised by the seedsmen as " Chinese Arti-
choke," but the name " Stachys " has been suggested for it
as being more correct than either Chinese Artichoke or
Orosnes.

FOOD PRODUCTS. 47

In the matter of farinaceous foods, though no absolutely
new source has to be recorded as the introduction of the
nineteenth century, the extension of existing sources, both
in supply and demand, has been remarkable. The most
striking development, perhaps, is in Cornflour, Maizexa,
and similar preparations of maize or Indian corn (Zea
Mays). It is now nearly sixty years since William Cobbett
so strongly advocated the growth of maize in this country
in his treatise on " Cobbett's Corn," and even grew it ex-
tensively on his own farm at Nine Elms. It has since been
proved, however, that though the plant will grow well with
us, the average length of the English summer is not suffi-
cient to thoroughly ripen the crops. Nevertheless, we
import enormous quantities of the grain into this country
from the United States ; the trade returns of which show
that, while in 1856 444,453 cwt. of Indian corn or maize
were imported into England, in 1889 the quantity had 1'isen
to 36,203,009 cwt., representing a value of £8,580,080 ;
while of Indian corn meal, an article not known in 1856,
there were in 1889 imported 24,066 cwt., valued at £19,365.
Indian corn is not only an article of human diet, but it is
also used for feeding horses, as well as in distilling.

Rice, the grain of Oryza sativa, is another article of a
similar character which shows a large increase in imports
and consumption of late years. Thus, from British India we
received in 1889 4,632,097 cwt., and from other countries
1,950,652 cwt., making a total of 6,582,749 cwt., of the
aggregate value of £2,689,363 ; while in 1856 the imports
of rice from all countries were 3,692,001 cwt.

Sago, Tapioca, and similar farinaceous food products,
have also more or less increased.

Amongst pulses probably the most notable advance is
in Lentils, the seeds of Lens escuJenta, a very ancient food-
plant, cultivated by the Hebrews, and in Europe since the
days of the lloinan Empire, and at the present time

48 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

throughout the East, as well as in many parts of Europe,

Maize [Zea Mays).

North Africa, West Asia, and North- West India. Lentils
are used either whole as a vegetable, or ground into Hour

FOOD PRODUCTS.

49

for thickening soups, and are increasing in favour with us.
Lentils, when deprived of
their outer husk, are easily
digested, and form an im-
portant part in the composi-
tion of the well-known foods
so much advertised as " Er-
valenta " and " Revalenta."

As an illustration of a
neglected food product which
might he made available, or
at least largely developed, in
this country, we may refer to
a notice of chestnut flour in
the " Kew Report " for 1879,
where the fact is stated that
the Chestnut (Castanea
sativa) is an important article
of subsistence in the Apen-
nines, the chestnuts being

carefully dried and ground into flour and made into
cakes. The flour having been analysed by Professor
Church, he save the following results : —

Obtza sativa.

Moisture 14 -0

Oil or fat 2-0

Proteids 8*5

Starch 29 '2

Dextrin and soluble starch - 22,lJ

Sugar 17*5

Cellulose, etc. 3 '3

Ash -2-6

100-0

Professor Church further expressed an opinion "that
chestnut flour ought to be of easy digestibility, and a

50 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

suitable children's food, considering that it contains over 40
per cent, of nutritious matters soluble in-pure water." Chest-
nut flour is now an article of commerce in tins country.

We cannot dismiss the subject of food products without
a brief reference to the continued increase in the imports
and consumption of Sugar. It is not within our province
to follow the grievances of sugar planters, the question of
bounties, and the fluctuations of the market ; suffice it to
say that when sugar can be bought retail at twopence per
pound, it is truly within the reach of all. Though much of
the sugar brought to this country is still furnished by the
Sugar Cane (Saccharum officinarura) (see Frontispiece), and
is derived from the East and West Indies, Mauritius, and
Brazil, the Beetroot (Beta vulgaris) has become a formid-
able rival to the cane in consequence of the very great im-
provements that have been effected in the processes of
clarifying and crystallisation, by which means the sugar is
scarcely to be detected by an ordinary observer from cane-
sugar. The cultivation of beet for sugar-making has been
attempted several times in this country, but always on such
a small scale that no practical result has ever come of it.
When it was first introduced is not clear, but in 1837 a
beetroot-sugar refinery was established at Chelsea, and
many acres of land in and around Wandsworth and other
parts of the suburbs of London were put under beet culti-
vation. It did not, however, succeed, and most of the land
is now covered with houses. Beetroot culture has since
been tried in Essex and other counties, as well as in Ire-
land, but without success. The supplies of beet for sugar-
making purposes are chiefly obtained from Germany,
France, Belgium, Holland, Austria, and Russia.

A very interesting subject in connection with the sugar-
cane has been brought to light at Kew, and published in
the Kew Bulletin for December, 1888, and October, 1889.
The plant having been so long under cultivation, its native

FOOD PRODUCTS. 51

country, like that of many other cultivated plants, is en-
tirely unknown. The sugar-cane being propagated by
means of buds and suckers, the mature fruits have scarcely,
if ever, been seen. It was reported, however, from Bar-
bados, at the end of 1888, that seedling sugar-canes had
been found, and were being raised at the Botanical Station
in that island. It was further subsequently stated " that
certain varieties of sugar-canes still retain the power of pro
ducing mature seed." This is an interesting fact from a
scientific point of view, but it is also of considerable interest
to the sugar planters, who may be able to raise plants from
seeds that may prove far superior to the old varieties both
in quality of sugar and extent of yield.

Another kind of sugar which has attracted much atten-
tion is that obtained from the stems of the American
Sorghum {Sorghum saccharatum), and hence called Sorghtm
Sugar. An extensive series of experiments in the culti-
vation of the several varieties of the plant, and the manu-
facture of sugar from the stalk, was conducted by the
United States Department of Agriculture in 1879. At
the same time, also, much attention was given to maize as
a source of sugar. But these new fields of research have
not at present affected our sugar supply, though it is not
impossible they may ere long do so.

The total imports of sugar, refined and unrefined, in
1889 amounted to 26,567,505 cwt., against 7,761,210 cwt.
in 1856.

52

CHAPTER IV.

Beverages.

Like food products, the greatest progress made in the
development of beverages of vegetable origin has been in
the extension of applications, rather than the introduction
of entirely new sources. The most marked extension of
well-known beverages has been due to the introduction of
the vine ( Vitis vinifera) into Australia, the Cape, and
Canada, all of which have become wine-producing countries,
and the extension of the vine in each may be reckoned with
the growth of the colony itself.

The first vineyard planted in South Australia dates
back to the year 1840 ; in 1852, 282 acres of land were
under vine cultivation, which in 1884 had extended to
4,590 acres, yielding 473,535 gallons of wine. Every year
more land is being put under vine cultivation, so that the
trade is still extending. In Victoria and New South Wales
the vine is similarly spreading ; a considerable amount of
attention having been given to it, especially during the
last twenty years. The ravages of the phylloxera in the
European vineyards has indirectly helped to increase the
demand for the colonial produce. The wine imports during
the past thirty years show a considerable fluctuation : thus,
in 185G the returns were 9,481,880 gallons; in I860,
15,321,028 gallons; in 1876, 19,979,838 gallons; in 1886,
14,561,913 gallons; and in 1889, 15,934,934 gallons. This
falling-off since 1876 may, to some extent, be due to the
spread of temperance principles, for we find that the im-
ports of tea have increased from 86,200,414 pounds in 1856
to 221,602,660 pounds in 1889 ; while cocoa has also
increased from 7,343,475 pounds in 1856 to 26,735,974
pounds in 1889. Coffee, on the other hand, shows a

BEVERAGES.

53

diminution. One reason for the gi'eatly increased con-
sumption of tea must always be found in its very widely
extended cultivation, especially in British India, and still
more recently in Ceylon, from both of which countries we
now draw large supplies, indeed to the extent of nearly
one-half of the entire imports. These large and widened
resources have been the means of bringing tea within the

Grape Vine ( Vitis vinifera).

reach of all classes of the community ; and where good tea
often realised in the early years of the present century
eight or ten shillings a pound, it can now be had from two
shillings to two and sixpence.

Regarding cocoa, it is a comparatively recent develop-
ment, and its use has made very rapid progress amongst us,
owing chiefly, no doubt, to the improvements that have
been effected in its preparation, so that instead of having to

54 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

obtain the broken seeds or "nibs," and boil them for halt
an hour to obtain a cup of cocoa, the cocoa is now prepared
in a powdered and portable form, and the beverage can be
prepared with a minimum amount of trouble. These modes
of preparation, however, lend a ready means of adulteration
by the admixture of flour and similar substances, so that
the cocoa of the present day is not generally so pure a
beverage as when cocoa-nibs only were used. In view of
the increased demand for cocoa, steps were taken in 1880
by the Kew authorities to transmit from Trinidad some of
the best known varieties to Ceylon, Singapore, and Fiji,
Those sent to Ceylon and Singapore arrived in good order,
but those despatched to Fiji perished; a further consignment,
however, arrived in a healthy condition, and from all three
places favourable reports were received, so that cocoa has
now become established in countries far from its original
home.

On the subject of coffee little need be said, except to
recall the facts, so generally discussed at the time, of the
almost total destruction of the plants in Ceylon by the
Hemileia vastatrix. It will be fresh in the memory of all
how that in May, 1869, a few coffee plants were observed
to be attacked by a small fungus, which two months later
had spread over two or three acres, and after this worked
its devastation with extraordinary rapidity, till in 1872
there was not an estate in the island free from it, and it
also spread into Southern India; in 1878 it appeared among
the coffee plantations of Java, in 1880 in Fiji, and in 1881
in Mauritius. Its ravages, continuing for several years in
Ceylon, had a most serious effect upon the plantations, and
many suggestions were made to rid the island of the pest ;
amongst others that of introducing an entirely new species
of coffee — namely, the Liberian sort (Coffea liberica)—
which it was thought would be disease-proof. In 1874-75
large quantities of seeds and plants of this species of coffee

BEVERAGES. 55

were distributed from Kew to most of the coffee-growing
countries, including the following : — Jamaica, Bahamas,
Barbados, Bermuda, Dominica, Montserrat, New Grenada,
Rio de Janeiro, Mauritius, Natal, Ceylon, Bangalore,
Calcutta, Madras, and Java, from all of which subsequent
reports were obtained of the entire suitability of the plant
for cultivation, and recording its rapid growth and estab-
lishment. Liberian coffee, however, has not by any means
displaced the older Coffea arabica.

Under the name of Fedegosa, Negro Coffee, or Cafe
du Soudan, the seeds of Cassia occidentalis have been
brought to notice as a substitute for coffee. The plant,
which belongs to the Leguminosa?, yields its small seeds in
great abundance, and these, when roasted, are used in the
West Indies and Central America, as well as in Tropical
Africa, where the plant has become naturalised, in the
preparation of a beverage very similar to coffee, it is said,
indeed, that after being roasted and ground they are often
mixed with coffee as an adulterant. The seeds are further
said to have tonic and febrifugal properties. They were
introduced in 1 67G, but are now only occasionally seen in
the European market.

Paraguay Tea or Yerba de Mate, — Under these names
the leaves of Ilex paragua/riensis are extensively used in
Paraguay and Brazil in the preparation of a beverage. Up-
wards of five millions of pounds are said to be exported
annually from Paraguay alone. To prepare the tea for
market, the leaves and twigs are simply gathered and dried
in the sun or open air, after which they are broken or
coarsely ground, from which an infusion is made. The tea
contains caffein, and has been recommended at different
times for use in this country. About four or five years
since it was much advertised as a nervine tea, but it has
since dropped out.

A very important non-intoxicating beverage, but of a

56

COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

different class from those we have just been considering, is
Lime Juice, obtained from the fruit of the lime (Citrus
medico,, var. acida), a native of India, but now cultivated
on a very large scale at Montserrat. The first lime-tree
orchards were planted in that island in 1852, and the
plantations of the Montserrat Company now cover an area

Coffee {^nffea arabica).

of more than 600 acres, and contain 120,000 trees. The
trees are systematically cultivated, and the juice prepared
especially for the English market for use as a beverage. It
is brought to this country in large casks, and is here clarified
and bottled for the retail trade. Mixed with water, it forms
not only an agreeable and refreshing beverage, but it is also

BEVERAGES. 57

very useful in gout and rheumatism, as well as in fevers,
indigestion, dyspepsia, etc. It is, however, best known as
an antiscorbutic, and a considerable amount of attention
has been directed to it since the return of the Arctic
Expedition, as the outbreak of scurvy in the sledging
expeditions was a serious drawback to their success. An
inquiry into the matter resulted in the passing of an Act
on August 20th, 1867, which rendered it compulsory, under
certain penalties, for every ship to take on board lime or
lemon juice in sufficient quantity to serve out so much per
day to every member of the crew during the voyage. In
consequence of this enactment, scurvy is now very little
known in the English navy. The lime is cultivated on a
small scale also in Dominica and Jamaica.

The utilisation of the kola or cola-nut in the preparation
of cocoa is described under Drugs.

58

CHAPTER V.

Drugs.

Though drugs or medicinal agents in use by foreign
nations Lave always had a considerable amount of attraction
.for travellers, the consequence of which has been the fre-
quent introduction from time to time of new remedies, it
is during the last thirty years that the greatest achievements
have been attained, not only in the discovery and introduc-
tion into this country of new medicinal agents of vegetable
origin, but also for the introduction into our own colonies
of others whose established reputation has caused them
to become absolute necessities.

With the advance of chemical and medical knowledge,
the herbs of our own gardens which were so highly prized
for their very many supposed virtues by our grandfathers
and grandmothers have rapidly fallen into disuse, and at
the present time but very few British plants are included
amongst those furnishing useful drugs. No better illus-
tration can be had of the changes effected by the agency
of rapid and cheap communication with the various parts
of the world than a reference to the pages of the Phar-
maceutical Journal for the last twenty years, or to the
several numbers of Christy's Neio Commercial Plants and
Drugs.

In 1837 there appeared two volumes, consisting of
over 900 pages, treating of the medicinal plants of Great
Britain, under the title of " The British Flora Medica." A
new edition of this work was issued in 1877.* In the

*"The British: Flora Medica. A History of the Medicinal Plants
of Great Britain." By Benjamin II. Barton, F.L.S., and Thos.
Castle, M.D., F.L.S. A New Edition, Revised, Condensed, and partly
Re-written. By John R. Jackson, A.L.S. Chatto and Windus,
Piccadilly. 1ST 7.

60 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

forty years which passed between the appearance of the two
editions a complete change had taken place in medical and
therapeutical science, and the editor of the new edition, in
reference to this change, stated his reason for retaining in a
condensed form the opinions of ancient writers on the
subject-matter under consideration, that they were every
year becoming less known, and only to be found in the pages
of old and rare books. Thirteen years have now passed
since the preface was written to this new edition, and things
have probably altered as much in this short period as in
the whole forty years previously — new drugs are being dis-
covered almost weekly, or some fresh property detected in
old sources that was not previously known to exist. By
far the largest proportion of new medicinal plants find their
way from America, some of which have attained an acknow-
ledged pharmaceutical reputation, while many have been
found, upon careful trial and experiments in the cure of
certain diseases for which they had been recommended, to
possess no real or active properties.

Before, however, treating of new drugs in detail, it will
be more in place here briefly to review the greatest work of
intixxluction of any useful plant in India and many of our
colonies that has been effected in any previous century — -we
allude, of course, to the introduction and establishment of
the cinchonas. The history of this great work has been so
often and so fully recorded by the many persons engaged in
it that we shall content ourselves with a niere sketch or
outline

The reputation of cinchona bark for the cure of fever
was at an early period known to the Spanish Jesuits, and
when the Countess of Chinchon, wife of the Viceroy of
Peru, fell ill with fever, the bark was administered to her,
and speedily effected a cure; its wonderful properties soon
became known, and in 1G38 its reputation spread through-
out Spain under the name of Jesuits' bark, and for mo.ny

DRUGS. 61

years the ground bai'k, mixed with port wine, was a
favourite medicine. In the course of time, however, the
method of separating the active principles of the bark hi
the form of alkaloids as quinine, cinchonine, cinchonidine,
quinidine, etc., became known, and the first of these —
namely, quinine, or sulphate of quinine — soon assumed a
most important position as a drug, the demand for which
increased so rapidly, not only for consumption in our own
country, but also for exportation to India and the colonies,
that it realised a very high price, and led to a very great
increase in the demand for bark from the South American
forests, to meet which trees were cut down in ever-increas-
ing quantities ; and as no steps were taken by the govern-
ments of the states in which the trees grew to prevent this,
or to establish fresh plantations, it was apparent that at no
distant date the supply of cinchona-bark must fail, and the
most valuable medicine in all the pharmacopoeia be entirely
lost. Consequently in 1839 the advisability of introducing
the trees for cultivation in India was suggested by Dr.
Royle ; nothing, however, came of this suggestion for at
least twenty years. In the meantime the Indian Govern-
ment were paying enormous sums for quinine — as much as
£7,000 in 1852, increasing in 1857 to £12,000. This fact,
together with that of the absolute extinction of the plants
being in the near future, caused the Indian Government to
seriously consider the question, and to adopt arrangements
for the introduction of the trees into India. In 1859 Mr.
Clements Markham received instructions from the Secretary
of State for India to undertake the necessary arrangements
for obtaining plants from the South American forests of
those species of cinchona which were known to be the most
valuable for the production of quinine, and to transmit
those plants to India for experimental cultivation. For
this purpose two expeditions were organised, one under the
direct superintendence of Mr. Markham himself, and the

62 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

other under the superintendence of Mr. Richard Spruce,
an assiduous botanical collector, who had up to that time
done much towards the elucidation of Brazilian botany, and
who was then residing in New Grenada. In this work,
Mr. Robert Cross, at that time employed in the Royal
Gardens, Kew, was associated with Mr. Spruce, and to
these three gentlemen is due the successful introduction of
the cinchona plant into India. The energy and zeal shown
by Mr. Cross in this and in subsequent expeditions has
been commented upon in the literature of the subject, a
considerable share of the success of the whole scheme being
due to his knowledge and perseverance. Mr. Cross has
since made several expeditions, under orders of the Indian
Government, to the different Andean regions to obtain
plants of such species of cinchona which are known to be
richest in quinine ; the plants being brought home and
then transmitted to India under Mr. Cross's own personal
care, and the results of all his expeditions have been
eminently successful.

Referring to the reports on Mr. Markham's expedition,
Sir W. J. Hooker in his " Report on the Progress and
Condition of the Royal Gardens at Kew during the year
1863" says, "Mr. Markham informs me that in the
nurseries on the sites selected by him on the Nilghiri Hills
only three years ago, there were on the 1st December last
259,396 plants, of which 66,622 were planted out; that the
tallest plant is nearly 10 feet high; that two plants of
C. succirubra are in full flower; and, further, that 6,562
plants have been distributed to private individuals.

" The bark from some plants has been analysed by J.
E. Howard, Esq., and the results have been entirely satis-
factory.

" In the Darjeeling plantations, Himalaya, under the
superintendence of Dr. Anderson, there are 8,000 plants ;
and private applications for plants have already been

DRUGS. G3

made to that gentleman for the enormous number of
1,500,000."

This indicated not only the great interest taken in the
experiment at that early stage, but also proved that the
plants in their new home lost little or nothiDg of their
valuable properties, an incentive to private planters to em-
bark in their cultivation. During the following year, 1864,
plants were propagated in the Nilghiris at the rate of
30,000 to 40,000 per month ; while in Ceylon a stock of
190,000 plants had been obtained, and applications received
for 28,500 plants.

In the meantime, plantations had also been established
in some of the colonies ; and in Jamaica 400 plants had
been planted out, and were reported as growing satisfac-
torily.

In 1865 seeds of Cinchona officinalis, which furnishes
the pale cinchona or crown bark, were ripened in Ceylon
and were distributed to Jamaica, Trinidad, Mauritius, Cape
of Good Hope, Queensland, and other places ; while in
India, in the Nilghiris, at Calcutta, and at Darjeeling the
plantations were immensely extended.

In 1867 the plantations in Jamaica contained 30,000
plants; and three years later — namely, in 1870 — Sir
Joseph Hooker reported as follows : — " The success of the
cinchona experiment is now fully established in the Sikkim
Himalaya, the Nilghiris, Khasia Mountains (East Bengal),
Ceylon, and Jamaica. The bark from the first-named
localities has commanded a price equal to the Peruvian
in the English market, nineteen cases of red bark from Dar-
jeeling having been bought by Messrs. Howard and Sons
for Is. 9d. per pound, which these gentlemen inform me is
what South American bark of the same age would have
fetched. No less than a ton of prepared bark has been sent
to London from Ceylon, the produce of seeds sent to Dr.
Thwaites from Kew in 1861."

64 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Ill November, 1873, 25,000 pounds of bark from the
Nilghiri plantations were sold in London at an average price
of 2s. lOd. per pound, the total sum realised being £3,490.
One parcel of bark of C. officinalis fetched the unusually
high price of 5s. 9d. per pound. In the same year 33,000
pounds of dry bark of this species were used on the
Nilghiris by Dr. Broughton, the Government quinologist, in
the manufacture of a cheap febrifuge, the estimated value of
which was £3,300. It was further estimated that 50,000
pounds more bark would be harvested before the end of the
year, the value of which would be about £G,700, The total
income from the Nilghiri plantations alone for the year
1873 was thus calculated at £13,490, a very good return for
the short time the trees had been under cultivation.

In 1877 the first crop of cinchona bark was sent to
London from the Jamaica plantations, Mr. Thomson, the
superintendent of the Botanical Gardens, remarking at the
time that it was abundantly proved that several species of
cinchona were eminently fitted for cultivation in Jamaica,
so that the enterprise might be considered as having passed
from the experimental stage to that of an established agri
cultural industry. In 1878 a parcel of bark of Cinchona
succirubra — the red bark — of Jamaica growth was sold in
London at 2s. lOd. per pound, being a higher price than
that reached by either East Indian or Ceylon bark sold at
the same time.

Owing to the success that attended the growth of Cin-
chona succirubra in the Government plantation at Darjeel-
ing, the cheap preparation known as " Cinchona Febrifuge"
was begun to be manufactured from it in India in 1877.
This preparation was stated to contain " all the febrifugal
alkaloids of that species (C. succirubra) in the relative pro-
portion in which they exist naturally in the bark."

Dr. King, of the Calcutta Botanic Gardens, writing in
1878, says "Increased experience in the use of the new

DRUGS. 65

medicine during the past year has served to establish a large
amount of confidence in it. Complaints of its nauseating
are now rarely heard, and many medical practitioners of
experience affirm that instead of being less potent in the
cure of fever than quinine, the cinchona febrifuge is quite
equal, if not superior, to the more expensive drug. The
proper dose of the febrifuge is, moreover, found to be about
the same as, or even less than, the dose of quinine.

" Quinine during the year 1877-78 was very high in price,
and in Calcutta it, for some time, stood at 20 rupees per
ounce, a sum for which 16 ounces of the febrifuge were
always obtainable. The saving to Government by the sub-
stitution of cinchona febrifuge for quinine in their hospitals
and dispensaries has already been considerable ; I calculate
that, at a moderate estimate, it amounts to over three lakhs
of rupees (£30,000 sterling)."

Again in 1881 Dr. King reports that in the previous year
5,500 pounds of the febrifuge were used in the Government
hospitals and dispensaries, in substitution of quinine ; and
shows by a statement of figures that there was effected, up
to that period, a clear saving to the Government of sixteen
and a quarter lakhs of rupees.

This saving alone would have sufficiently justified the
action of the Government in introducing the plants into
India, hut the more important one of cheapening an indis-
pensable medicine, and bringing it within the reach of all,
must always be borne in mind as the grand result of the
cinchona extension.

Up to this period the plants that had been introduced
into India and the colonies were mostly the pale cinchona or
crown bark (Cinchona officinalis), the red bark (Cinchona
mccirubra), and the yellow hark (Cinchona Calisaya). In
the " Kew Report for 1878," however, the history is given
of the introduction of the Columbian barks into India, which
is a matter cf so much interest that we are compelled to

F

GG

C!< > M M E RC I A L BOTAN Y .

quote it in its entirety. " The Indian Government sent Mr.
R. Cross to New Grenada for the purpose of bringing to
England, for eventual transmission to India, plants of the
species of Cinchona yielding the ' Soft Columbian ' and

¥wM&

Yellow Cinchona {Cinchona Calisaya).

' Hard Carthagena ' barks of commerce. He arrived in tins
country in March of last year with five Wardian cases con-
taining 400 plants of the former and 200 of the latter.
The hard Carthagena included as many as six different

DRUGS. 67

kinds. The Larks of all, however, were very carefully
analysed by Mr. Howard, the well-known quinologist.
With regard to the soft Columbian known as ' Calisaya of
Santa Fe,' Mr. Howard reported that the bark analysed, and
which was taken from the rejected cane-like shoots brought
home by Mr. Cross, ' was of the very best description, and
such as indicates the probability of a much larger production
of alkaloid in the bark of more mature and developed trees.'
This bark yielded 0*24 per cent, of alkaloids, of which 3-25
per cent, was quinine, and 1*90 was cinchonidine. Mr.
Howard considers that ' if the young plants can be safely
conveyed to India, and established there, it may not im-
probably prove second to none.'

" Of the ' Hard Carthagena ' bark plants, the only one
which Mr. Howard considered worthy of attention was the
kind from Coralis Inza, in the Magdalena valley. This
yielded 4-75 per cent, of alkaloids, of which T88 was
quinine and 1*18 was cinchonidine. 'If a free grower, as
I think would be the case, it might be well worth
naturalising in India. The bark has met with a ready
sale in commerce.'

" The plants were placed under Mr. Cross's charge at
Kew, where every facility was afforded him for establishing
and propagating them. On the lGth October of last year
he reported as follows to the Under-Secretary of State : —

" ' On arrival in this country in March, the plants of
the " Calisaya of Santa Fe," carried all the way from the
banks of the Caqueta River, were thought to be in a weak
state. I am glad to state that, although the collection is
now somewhat reduced, there are in all forty plants more
or less growing and rooting, and which I am convinced will
soon become good established plants.

" ' The majority are from cuttings, but there are some
also from original imported root-pieces growing also,
although these in general seemed unwilling to take root
f 2

68 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

freely. The dry weather of summer was not so favourable
for the development of growth, but the chief cause was
the diminished vitality of the root-pieces, which were
carried overland so great a distance. When it is con-
sidered that these were dug up, and brought from the damp
forest whence rises one of the most important tributaries of
the Amazon, across the Eastern Cordillera down to
Popayan, where, in order to check the growth, they were
alternately covered up and exposed for nearly three
months, then carried down to the hot Cauca valley to the
Pacific, after which there was a month of sea voyage, I
think the result will be deemed rather remarkable. "

At the close of the winter ot 1878-9, the stock of
plants remaining at Kew were reduced to fifteen of the
Calisaya of Santa Fe, and ten of the hard Carthagena ;
these, however, were considered sufficiently vigorous for
transmission, with proper care, to India, and a portion of
them were accordingly sent during the summer and autumn
of 1879, besides which one plant of the hard Carthagena
bark was sent to Jamaica, which grew and was increased,
so that in 1883 Mr. Morris reported, " We have now a
large number of well-established plants growing at our
highest elevatinn, and as plants they are the strongest and
finest on the plantations."

The Santa Pe plants having succumbed soon after
leaving Ootacamund, it was decided by the India Office
that Mr. Cross should take out under Ins own personal
care the three plants that still remained at Kew, together
with a case of Carthagena plants. He left in September,
1880, and subsequently reported from Ootacamund that
the plants were "progressing very satisfactorily, and may
now be regarded as perfectly safe." Subsequent reports,
however, have shown that the plants have not made them-
selves at home in India.

Under the name of Ledger Park, the Bark of Cinchona

DRUGS. 69

Valisaya var. Ledgeriana began to attract a considei*able
amount of attention about the year 1880. The following
history of it is given in the " Kew Report " for that
year: — "The seed was collected in June, 1865, by a
trusted native servant of Mr. C. Ledger, from fifty trees
growing on the almost inaccessible banks of the River
Mam ore in Bolivia, a place to which no botanist has ever
approached more nearly than 100 miles. It was sent to
London to the care of Mr. Ledger's brother, who sold half
to the Dutch Government, for Java, and half to Mr.
Money, a cinchona planter on the Nilghiri hills." From
the seeds purchased by the Netherlands Government and
sent to Java some 20,000 plants were raised. The name
Ledgeriana appears to have been a plantation name (first
printed about 1873) used to distinguish the progeny of Mr.
Ledger's seed; the plant, however, was described in 1876
by the late Dr. Weddell as C. Calisaya var. Ledgeriana.
Dr. Trimen has since defined it as a distinct species, see
Journal of Botany for 1881, pp. 321-25.

The purchase of these seeds put new life into the
cinchona cultivation in Java. The bark sent thence up to

1872 had been almost entirely of an inferior quality, but in

1873 it was found that the new kind gave 8 per cent, of
alkaloids, of which from 5J to Gh was quinine. In the
following year this was greatly exceeded, one sample giving
a result of 12-97 alkaloids, 1L01 being quinine; while
other samples are reported as yielding the extraordinary
amount of 13*7 per cent, of quinine. The tree was con-
sequently cultivated in Java to a very large extent, the
plantations containing in 1880 no less than 443,270 trees,
and the nurseries 283,650 plants. From the seeds sent to
India 60,000 seedlings were raised. Dr. King, reporting
about this time to the Bengal Government, says, "After
seeing the Java Ledgerianas I have no doubt that our three
or four best kinds of Calisaya are precisely the same as

70 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

some of the forms of Ledgeriana cultivated by the Dutch ; "
and he thinks that the smaller yield of quinine from the
Indian plants is due to the differences of climate and soil.

From seeds sent to Jamaica a large quantity of plants
were raised, and in 1881 were reported as doing well.

Under the name of China Cupbea a new febrifuge
bark made its appearance in the English market in 1880.
When first introduced it met with no purchasers, and it
was even said that a quantity of it was thrown on to the
roads in the docks in London to be broken up and
destroyed. Shortly after this, however, it began to attract
attention in consequence of its high yield of quinine. Mr.
R. Thomson, writing from Bogota in December, 1880, says,
the plant " was found a few months ago in the state of
Santander. It exists in great abundance over several
hundred miles of hills, and considerable quantities have
been already exported. The bark is peculiar; it is hard
like cinnamon, and contains essential oil in considerable
proportion. The quantity of sulphate of quinine averages
from 2 to 3 per cent, ; 1,900 men have been collecting this
bark, and making roads through the forests in which it
abounds. But this will now be checked, inasmuch as the
Government has just enforced a tax of 20 dollars on every
' cargo ' to be exported. A cargo weighs about 250
pounds, a mule load. This species is farther remarkable
from the fact that it grows at the low elevation of from
2,000 to 3,000 feet above the sea — it will therefore become
amenable to cultivation in most tropical countries, i.e.,
those having hills of a moderate elevation. It seems
strange that this species should have been left so long
undiscovered ; perhaps it is owing to its peculiar character,
or perhaps to the fact that the district in which it grows is
surrounded and possessed by wild cannibal Indians."

Efforts were made at Kew to obtain seeds of this plant
for distribution, and to discover to what species it was to be

DRUGS. 71

referred. In 1882 seeds were sent to Ceylon, Calcutta, Fiji,
Jamaica, Mauritius, and Seychelles, but few of them,
however, germinated. Since then M. Triana has de-
scribed cuprea bark as being derived from a species of
Jtemijia, a genus allied to Cinchona. This identification
was interesting, as proving that the presence of febrifugal
alkaloids is not confined alone to the genus Cinchona.
Analysis showed that the better sorts of cuprea bark
contained on an average 1 '8 to 1 -9 of sulphate of quinine,
very rarely reaching 2 per cent., and in some varieties
almost entirely absent. The reason this bark has found
favour with manufacturing chemists is because of its
freedom from cinchonine, and the readiness with which it
pulverises. It is, however, very little used at the present
time. Remijia pedunculata and R. Pardieana are said to
furnish cuprea bark.

Ipecacuanha (Cephaelis Ipecacuanha). — This plant
probably ranks next in importance to the cinchonas,
both as regards the medicinal value as well as the interest
attached to the attempts to introduce its cultivation in
India. True ipecacuanha is a creeping herbaceous plant
belonging to the same natural order as cinchona — namely,
Rubiaceae. It is a native of Brazil, and produces long
wiry roots marked by annulated rings ; these roots creep
for some distance beneath the surface of the ground. For
commercial purposes they are dug up, cleansed of the
adherent earth, and carefully dried. Ipecacuanha is a
valuable expectorant and emetic, and is of very great
importance in the treatment of dysentery. It is a singular
fact that so long ago as 1648 it was pointed out by
Marcgrav and Piso that the powdered root of ipecacuanha
was a specific cure for dysentery. This information, how-
ever, appears not to have been acted upon till 1813, when
it was confirmed by Surgeon Playfair, and again in 1831 a
series of reports were published by the Madras Medical

72

COMULKCIAL BOTANY.

Board showing the effects of ijjecacuanha in hourly doses
of five grains, till a hundred grains were often ad-

Ipecacuaxha (Cephaelis Ipecacuanha).

ministered in a very short period. These facts again lay
in abeyance till about twenty-five years ago, when serious
attention was given by the Indian Government to the

DRUGS. I 3

value of the plant, and to the necessity of introducing
it for extensive cultivation into India. A plant was
taken thither from Kew in 1866, which plant, however,
died in 1868, fourteen plants having been propagated from
it in the meantime. In 1871 five of these plants had been
increased to 400 ; and during the year 1870 a large-number
of plants were transmitted to India from the Edinburgh
Botanic Garden, as well as from Kew ; and in 1873 the
stock had been increased by the method of leaf propagation
in Sikkim Himalaya to over 6,000, at which time it was
also being experimented upon in Ceylon. The system of
propagation by breaking up the rhizome into small portions,
from each of which a plant was grown, resulted in increas-
ing the number in a comparatively short time to about
63,000 plants. Time, however, has proved that while the
plant can be propagated to almost any extent, it does
better under glass or in frames ; and the slowness of its
growth, and the consequently small yield of roots, do not
recommend it for profitable culture in India. More recently
experiments have been made in Sikkim to cultivate the
plant in shady places, under trees. In 1876 a quantity of
the root was dried and prepai'ed by Dr. King for use in the
Medical College Hospital, Calcutta, with the result that its
etlicacy was proved to be quite as great as the best Brazilian
ipecacuanha.

The cultivation of ipecacuanha has also been attempted
in Burmah and Singapore ; and the report of its progress
in the Straits Settlements in 1886 was that it grew there
" with all the luxuriance of its native country when a
proper situation is hit upon," and under these conditions
it forms a compact little shrub about eighteen inches
high. Plantations containing thousands of plants in ex-
cellent health are reported from Johore, and the produce
of these plantations has found its way into the London
market.

74 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Ipecacuanha is imported into this country, chiefly from
Brazil, to the extent of about 65,000 pounds annually, re-
presenting a money value of about £1 5,000.

Jalap (Ipomcea purga). — Though this is by no means a
new introduction, the purgative properties of jalap-root
having been known in Europe since the sixteenth century,
the introduction and cultivation of the plant in the East and
West Indies claim a note in this place, if only to put it en
record. The plant belongs to the natural order Convol-
vulacese, is of a climbing habit, and is a native of the
eastern declivities of the Mexican Andes. 8o far back as
1870 some tubers were planted at Ootacamund, which grew
remarkably well, indicating that, if found necessary, the
plant could be extensively cultivated in that part of India.
The propagation of the jalap plants in the Ootacamund
Garden from root and stem cuttings was considerably
extended, till in 1877 there were upwards of L'5,000 plants
permanently planted out, covering an area of about live acres.
The experience gained in jalap cultivation in Madras showed
that the plants pref erred a tolerably rich, dry, and friable
loamy soil. Well drained grass land is best, and it should
be laid out in terraces ten feet wide ; the ground should be
dug over to the depth of two feet, and left exposed to the
action of the sun for two months. After being drilled and
manured, it should be planted with potatoes ; and when
these are lifted, the jalap tubers are planted in rows on
ridges a few inches high to present water from becoming
stagnant around them ; when the plants have become es-
tablished, ordinary garden culture is all that is required.

The plants being of a climbing habit require stakes, or
trellis, or some such support as is given to peas. The stems
die down annually, and the tubers remain dormant for two or
three months. The plants give off a number of underground
shoots, upon which tubers are formed, and from which fresh
plants are readily raised. One acre of land planted as

described would yield at the expiration of three years 5,000
pounds of green tubers, which, when thoroughly dried,
would give 1,000 pounds of jalap powder. In Jamaica a

similarly successful trial was made in 1881 in the culture of
jalap ; five acres of land were also planted in fins island, and
the crop yielded 3,000 pounds of green tubers, resulting in
1,077 pounds of cured jalap. Care in drying or curing the

76 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

roots seems to be as necessary as good culture of the plants.
In the report of the Jamaica experiment it is said that ''the
application of too much heat was apt to change ' the
character of the starch grains and convert them into an
amorphous mass.' The small tubers were dried whole,
while the larger ones were sliced or gashed." These latter
were not approved of in the London market, while in New
York they fetched higher prices than with us, and no
objection was made to the slicing.

Jalap is imported chiefly from Vera Cruz, and is brought
into the United Kingdom to the extent annually of 180,000
pounds.

Rhubarb (Rheum officinale). — This fine species was dis-
covered in South-eastern Thibet, where it is said to be often
cultivated for the sake of its root for use in medicine. The
plant was first obtained about 1 867. It was first grown in
this country in 1873 by the eminent pharmacologist, Daniel
Hanbury ; after which it was cultivated for medicinal
purposes at Bodicote near Banbury, where it is still grown.
At one time it was supposed to be the source of the best
quality of medicinal rhubarb; more recent information,
however, has shown that this is the produce of Rheum
palmalum, a large perennial herb first found wild by
Colonel Prejavalsky in 1872-3 in the Tangut district of
Kansu. It is said to extend over a large tract of country,
but not to be cultivated, though sometimes grown as a
garden plant. It is this species that is now known as the
real source of the Russian or Turkey rhubarb of commerce,
and is derived alone from the provinces of Shensi, Kansu,
and Szechuen. So great is the demand for medicinal
rhubarb at the present time that as many as 625,000 pounds
are annually sent from Hankow to Shanghai, 350,000
pounds of which find their way into the United Kingdom.

Socotra Aloes (Aloe Perryi). -The discovery of the
source of true Socotrine aloes is one of considerable interest

DRUGS. / 7

and importance, and may he briefly stated thus : — The sub-
s'ance called aloes was known to the Greeks so far back as
the fourth century before the Christian era as a product of
Socotra, and its source has been attributed by all writers,
even the best authorities, to Aloe Socotrina, a species
cultivated in England for more than a hundred years. It
was not, however, till 1878 that the flrst authentic specimen
of Socotra aloes was brought to this country by Mr.
Wykeham Perry. The plant reached Kew in a living state,
but did not survive. Professor Bayley Balfour, however,
during his visit to Socotra in 1880 obtained a supply of both
living and dried plants, as well as of the aloes itself in all
stages of preparation ; these specimens are now contained in
the Kew Museum, and one of the living plants flowered in
the succulent house at Kew in 1881, and has been named
by Mr. J. Gr. Baker A loe Perryi after its discoverer.

Dragon's Blood (Draccena schizantha and D. Ombet). —
Dragon's blood of Africa, though known in medicine from
the earliest historical times, now rarely finds its way into
commerce, and until recently little or nothing has been
known of its history. In 1871, however, Mr. Baker
described a species of Draccma found in Somaliland, and
yielding dragon's blood, under the name of D. schizantha,
and he also identified a species of Dracaena found in Socotra
as D. Ombet ; this tree is described as growing at an eleva-
tion of l,o00 feet above the sea; it attains a height of
twenty feet, with spreading drooping branches of a mushroom
form. The resin is obtained by scraping the bark, and after
tif teen or twenty days it exudes. It is exported from Aden
chiefly to Bombay, where it is used by goldsmiths.

Nepal and Bengal Cardamoms (Amomwm subulatum).
— Though it is well known that the bulk of the cardamoms
of commerce — namely, those grown in Southern India — are
the produce of Elettaria cardamomum, the sources of some
of the other kinds are by no means definitely settled. Those

78 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

known as JNepal and Bengal cardamoms, the latter of which
were supposed to be the produce of Amomum aromabicwm,
were proved, together with those of Nepal, by Dr. King, of
the Calcutta Botanic Gardens, in 1877, to be obtained from
Amomum subulatum. It is interesting also to learn from
the same authority that the fruits of the true Amomum
aromaticum of Roxburgh, which were doubtless in the
Indian markets in his days, are now unknown in commerce.

Black Snake Root, or Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga
racemosa). — A perennial herb common in the woods of
Canada and the United States. The roots were first intro-
duced into medical practice in America in 1823, and into
England about 1860. It is administered in the form of a
tincture in rheumatic affections, and is used also in dropsy,
phthisis, and in chronic bronchial affections.

Rhatany Root (Krameria triandra). — A woody
branched shrub about a foot high, belongJg to the natural
order Polygalese, native of the sandy declivities of the
Bolivian and Peruvian Cordilleras. The root is gathered
chiefly to the north, north-east, and east of Lima, and also
in the northern part of Peru. Rhatany root is a powerful
astringent, but is not much used at the present time in
this country. It first appeared at a London drug .sale at
the commencement of this century, and formed part of the
cargo of a Spanish prize. It was first described in the
M<, Ileal and Chirurgical Review in 1806.

Buchu Leaves (Barosma crenulata, B. serratifolia, and
B. betulina). — These are all shrubby plants, natives of the
Cape of Good Hope. Buchu leaves are chiefly administered
in diseases of the urino-genital organs ; and were introduced
to the medical profession of London in 1821. The plants
belong to the natural order Rutacese.

Bael Fruit (JEgle Marmelos). — A widely spread Indian
tree of moderate height It is held sacred by the Hindoos,
and is often planted in the neighbourhood of temples. It

DRUGS.

79

Cakdamom [Elettaria cardamomum).
belongs to the natural order Rntaceae, and is a close ally to

so

COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

the orange, which fruit it much resembles. Though it has
long been known in India as a remedy for dysentery and
diarrhoea, it was not till about the year 1850 that it began
to attract attention as a medicine in Europe.

Quassia Wood (Picrcena excelsa). — A tree of 50 or GO
feet high, belonging to the natural order Simarubese. It is
common in Jamaica, and is also found in Antigua and St.
Vincent's. Quassia wood was originally derived from
Quassia amara, a tree botanically allied to that under dis-

Quassia (Picrcena excelsa).

cussion, and a native of Panama, Venezuela, Guiana, and
Northern Brazil ; but in 1809 it was superseded by the
wood of Picrcena excelsa, which is a tree of much larger
size, and more abundant. The wood is used as a stomachic
and tonic, and is usually seen in the druggists' in the form
of chips or turnings. The bitter cups, which were common
a few years ago, and which gave a bitter draught by allow-
ing water to stand in them for a short time, were turned
out of this wood. Quassia has a slightly narcotic effect on
the higher animals, hut is poisonous to flies.

DRUGS. 81

Rohun Bark (Soymida febrifuga). — A large tree of
Central and Southern India, belonging to the natural order
Meliacese. The bark is used in India as an astringent tonic
and antiperiodic, in intermittent fevers, general debility,
diarrhoea, and in the advanced stage of dysentery. It was
sent by Roxburgh to Edinburgh at the end of the last cen-
tury, for trial, and was introduced into the Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia in 1803, and into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia
in 1807.

Cowhage or Cow-itch (Mucuna pruriens). — A strong
climbing leguminous plant, common throughout the tropics
of India, Africa, and America. It produces a large number
of pods from 2 to 4 inches long and about half an inch wide.
They are slightly curved, of a dark brownish colour, and
thickly covered with stiff sharp hairs, which are easily de-
tached from the valves, and penetrate the skin, causing an
intolerable itching. These hairs have long been known as a
vermifuge ; and in this country began to attract attention
at the latter part of the last century. As a drug, cowhage
was introduced into the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia in 1783
and into the London Pharmacopoeia in 1809. It is now
seldom used in European practice.

Wild Black Cherry Bark (Prunus serotina). — A
plant of variable habit, widely spread over North America,
forming a shrub in some localities, and in more favourable
situations growing to a height of GO feet. It belongs to the
natural order Rosacea:. The bark lias a high reputation in
America as a mild tonic and sedative, and was introduced to
notice in this country in 1863, but is not much used with
us in medical practice.

Cherry Laurel Leaves [Prunus Lauro-cerasus.) — ■
This well-known evergreen shrub thrives well with us, and
in other countries where the winters are not severe. Tt is
a native of the Caucasus provinces of Russia, North-western
Asia Minor, and Northern Persia, and has been introduced
Q

82 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

on account of its ornamental appearance to all the more
temperate parts of Europe. The leaves, cut up and distilled
with water, yield a volatile oil like bitter almond oil, which
contains hydrocyanic acid. They are also used for making
cherry laurel water, and were introduced to the British
Pharmacopoeia for this purpose in 1839.

Cajuput Oil (Melaleuca Leucadendron, var. minor). —
This is a large myrtaceous tree, abundant and widely spread
in the Indian Archipelago and Malay Peninsula. The oil,
which is obtained from the leaves by distillation, is chiefly
prepared in the island of Bouro, one of the Moluccas. It
first made its appearance at Amsterdam about 1727, was
admitted to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia in 1788, but
does not appear to have become an article of commerce with
us until 1813. It is used externally as a rubefacient
and occasionally given internally as a stimulant and dia-
phoretic.

Gambier or Terra Japonica (Uncaria Gambier). —
The plant yielding this substance is a strong-growing
climber, belonging to the natural order Bubiacese, and
native of the countries bordering on the Straits of Malacca.
It is also grown in Ceylon. For commercial purposes plan-
tations were formed for its cultivation in Singapore so far
back as 1819, and at the present time it is grown there on a
very large scale. Gambier is prepared by boiling the leaves
and young shoots in water in an iron pan, after which the
decoction is evaporated to the consistence of a thin syrup,
when it is poured into buckets and submitted to a kind of
churning action, when it becomes thick, and sets into a mass
resembling a soft yellowish clay, which is put into square
boxes and cut into cubes, and dried, when it is ready for ex-
portation. It was first brought to notice in this country
about the year 1807, and is used medicinally as an astringent.
It is also largely used in dyeing and tanning.

Indian Tobacco (Lobelia injlata). — An erect annual or

DRUGS. 83

biennial herb, 9 to 18 inches high, widely distributed over
the Northern United States. The plant belongs to the
natural order Campanulacese. The dried herb is imported
into this country in pieces of varying sizes, and compressed
into oblong packages. In moderate doses it is a powerful
emetic, but in large doses it acts as an acro-narcotic poison.
It is administered in spasmodic asthma. Its properties
have long been known in America, but it was not till about
1829 that it was introduced to England.

Chiretta (Sivertia chirata). — An annual herb belonging
to the natural order Gentianea?, and native of the moun-
tainous regions of Northern India. The whole plant
possesses a strong bitter taste, and has long been held in
high repute by the Hindoos as a tonic. About 1829 it
began to attract some attention in England, and was ad-
mitted to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia in 1839. It is a
pure bitter tonic, without aroma or astringency, and is used
in this country chiefly in the form of tincture. It is also
said to be used, in the place of gentian, to give flavour to
the compound cattle foods now so general.

Belladonna or Deadly Nightshade (Atropa Bella-
donna).— This well-known herbaceous plant is very widely
spread, not only in this country, but also through Central
and Southern Europe, Caucasia, and Northern Asia Minor.
The roots are chiefly used for the preparation of atropine,
employed in ophthalmia for dilating the pupil of the eye, and
for making a liniment for neuralgic pains ; for this purpose
it was introduced about 1860. The leaves were introduced
into the London Pharmacopoeia in 1809, for the preparation
of extracts and tincture.

Bebeeru or Greenheart Bark (Nectandra Rodiasi.) —
A large hard-wooded forest tree of British Guiana, belong-
ing to the natural order Laurineoe. The thick bark con-
tains an alkaloid known as Beberine, and has been recom-
mended as a bitter tonic and febrifuge. It first attracted
G 2

84

COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

attention about 1835, and the alkaloid was further examiued
in 1843. The supply of Greenheart bark to the English
market is very irregular.

Matico (Piper omgustifolium). — This is a shrub belong-
ing to the natural order Piperacese, native of Bolivia, Peru,

Belladonna (Atroya Belladonna).

Brazil, Venezuela, and New Granada. Matieo, as seen in
commerce, consists of the broken and compressed leaves,
which are very thick and very rough on the surface ; they
have a pleasant, somewhat pungent odour, and a bitterish
aromatic taste. They are used, either softened in water or
reduced to a powder, to stop bleeding, and an infusion pre-

DRUGS. 85

pared from them is also administered for internal haemor-
rhage. They come by way of Panama in bales or serons.
Matico was first brought to notice in this country by a
Liverpool physician in 1839.

Though the source of Matico is generally believed to be
the plant mentioned above, the leaves of other allied species
no doubt are often mixed with them. Thus, at the close of
the year 1888, a consignment of Matico leaves reached the
London market which proved to be derived from Piper
Mandoni.

Larch Bark (Larix europea). — The bark of this well-
known coniferous tree, which has been known for a very
long time to possess astringent properties, and is in conse-
quence used for tanning, was first brought to notice in this
country in 1858 as a stimulating astringent and expector-
ant. It is used chiefly in the form of a tinctm-e.

Areca or Betel Nuts (A reca Catechu). — This is a palm
growing to a height of 40 or 50 feet, with a straight smooth
trunk from 1 to 2 feet in circumference. The tree is prob-
ably a native of the Malayan Archipelago, where it is also
cultivated, as well as in the warmer parts of the Indian
Peninsula, Ceylon, and the Philippine Islands. The seeds
of this palm, which are known as Areca nuts, are about the
size and appearance of a small nutmeg somewhat flattened
at the base, and like the nutmeg they are ruminated or
marked throughout their substance by dark irregular lines.
They possess astringent properties, and are held in high
repute among Asiatics as a masticatory, as well as for
strengthening the gums and sweetening the breath. It has
attracted some attention of late years as a tsenifuge for the
expulsion of tapeworm, given in doses of from four to six
drachms in milk, and has been used in this country for this
purpose since L867.

Indian Pok r, root ( Veratrum viride). — A plant belonging
to the natural order Liliacese, and common in swamps and

86 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

low grounds from Canada to Georgia. The purgative and
antiscorbutic properties of the plant have long been known
in North America, and in 1862 the roots, or more properly
the rhizomes, were introduced into this country as a cardiac,
arterial, and nervous sedative.

Colchicum Seeds (Colchicum autumnale). — A. well-
known liliaceous plant in meadows and pastures in this
country, as well as over a large portion of Middle and
Southern Europe. The corms are the source of the specific
known as wine of Colchicum, and have been used in medicine
from early times. In 1820 the seeds were introduced into
medical practice on account of their being said to have a
more certain action than the corm, and were introduced
into the Pharmacopoeia in 1824.

87

CHAPTER VI.

New Drugs.

To give a complete list of the new remedies that have
been brought to the notice of the British pharmacist during
a comparatively recent pei'iod would occupy much more
space than would be justifiable, for scarcely a week now
passes without the appearance of a note on some novelty in
the pages of the medical and pharmaceutical journals. It
will therefore suffice to enumerate only those to which most
attention has been given, such as those which have already
come into use, or which promise to become established
medicines. Those which are enumerated below are classified
in alphabetical order of their scientific nomenclature.

Abrus precatorius. — A common tropical plant belonging
to the natural order Leguminosse, well known for its small
globose scarlet and black seeds, which are used almost every-
where in the tropics for making necklaces, bracelets, aud
other ornaments, as well as for weights by the diamond
merchants in India. These seeds began to attract attention
in 1882, having been experimented with on the Continent
in the treatment of ophthalmic diseases under the name of
Jequirity. In Egypt they are occasionally used as an
article of food, and are harmless, but powdered and intro-
duced beneath the skin they rapidly produce fatal effects.
The poisonous action is due to the presence of abriiie, which
is rendered inert by heat, and is closely allied to albumin in
composition. It is obtainable also from the routs and stem.
This plant has recently become known as the weather
plant.

Ahtonia scholaris. — A tree 50 to 80 feet high, widely
diffused in India, Africa, and Australia, and belonging to

88 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

the natural order Apocynaceaa. The bark is powerfully
bitter, and is used by the natives of India in bowel com-
plaints. Under the name of Dita bark it began to attract
attention in this country in 1875 as a most valuable anti-
periodic and tonic.

An allied species, A. constricta, a native of Queensland
and New South Wales, and known as the Queensland
Fever Bark, where it has had a reputation for some time,
has also been introduced since 1878, and used as a tonic and
febrifuge.

Andira araroba. — Under the name of Go A Powder a
substance was introduced in 1874 to the notice of pharmacists
as a cure for ringworm and other skin diseases. The drug
was imported into the London and Liverpool markets from
Bahia, and consisted of lumps of a yellowish substance, com-
posed partly of powder and partly of pieces of wood. For
some time its botanical source remained unknown ; but in
1879 Dr. I. M. de Aguiar published at Bahia a botanical
description of the plant under the above name. The active
principle of the drug, called Chrysophanic acid, soon
obtained for it a reputation in the cure of the diseases
referred to, and the drug is still included in the chemists'
trade lists.

Aspidosperma Quebracho-bianco. — A tree, native of the
Argentine Republic, and belonging, like the last, to the
natural order Apocynaeea3, furnishes the Quebracho-bianco
or White Quebracho bark of commerce. It is used in various
forms of dyspepsia, bronchitis, phthisis, etc., and was intro-
duced to the notice of English pharmacists in 1879.

Cannabis indica. — The common Hemp is well known to
be valuable for two distinct economic uses— namely, when
grown in cool countries it is valued for its fibre, and when
grown in hot countries, for the resin which is secreted
all over the plant. In India and other tropical countries
this is much used under the names of Bhang, consisting of

NEW DRUGS. 89

the dried leaves and slender stalks ; Ganja, the flowering

1'ai'aw [Carica papaya).
or fruiting .shoots; and ChurruB, the resin itself. Tho

90 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

introduction of the Indian drug into European practice is
chiefly due to experiments made in Calcutta by Dr.
O'Shaughnessy in 1838-39.

Cariea papaya. — The Papaw tree has always had a
peculiar interest attached to it in consequence of the state-
ments of travellers that it possessed the extraordinary pro-
perty of rendering tough flesh tender by merely hanging the
freshly-killed meat amongst the foliage of the tree. In the
" Natural History of Jamaica " Browne says that meat is
quickly made tender by washing it with water mixed with
Papaw juice ; and if left in the water for ten minutes, the
meat will fall to pieces or divide into shreds during the
process of cooking. Nothing like real attention was given
to this important property till about 1878, since which time
it has received considerable notice at the hands of chemists
and the medical profession, not only in this country, but in
Europe generally, in the treatment of dyspepsia, diphtheria,
etc. The native country of the plant is supposed to be the
warm part of the American continent, but it is now widely
scattered in toopical countries in both hemispheres. The
fresh fruits are generally cooked and eaten as a green vege-
table in the countries where the plant grows.

Cinnamodendron corticosum. — Under the names of Red
Canella, Mountain Cinnamon, or False Winter's Babe
the bark of this tree has been long known for its stimulant,
tonic, aromatic, and antiscorbutic properties. It is a small
tree, 10 to 15 feet high, but sometimes growing to a height
of 90 feet. It is confined to Jamaica; and though the bark
has been well known for so long, the plant remained uii-
described till about 27 years ago. Plants have been in cul-
tivation in the Royal Gardens, Kcw, and in the Gardens of
the Royal Botanical Society, Regent's Park, for some years,
and flowered for the first time at Regent's Park in 1874.

Cola acuminata. — This tree, which grows to a height
of about 40 feet, is a native of the west coast of Africa,

NEW DRUGS. 91

between Sierra Leone and the Congo, and belongs to the
natural order Sterculiacese. The seeds, several of which
are contained in a fleshy fruit four to six inches long, are
the well-known Kola-nuts of West Africa, where they are
extensively used for satisfying the cravings of hunger and
enabling those who eat them to endure prolonged labour
without fatigue. Powdered, they are used to clarify stag-
nant water, which is said to be thus rendered agreeable
to the taste. The trade in Kola-nuts is one of great im-
portance in the Gambia and at Sierra Leone, and of late
yeai's it has spread to Central Africa, and also to the
African shores of the Mediterranean, as well as in the
West Indies. In view of its probably becoming an im-
portant plant for cultivation in tropical countries, a number
of plants were propagated at Kew in 1880, and distributed
to Calcutta, Ceylon, Demerara, Dominica, Sydney, Mau-
ritius, Zanzibar, Java, Singapore, and Toronto ; so that
at the present time the nuts are produced in other countries
than Western Africa. Indeed, five or six years ago it was
reported from Jamaica that if a demand should arise for
them in this country, they could be shipped thence to the
extent of several tons a year. The suitability of the West
Indies for the cultivation of Kola-nuts was well exemplified
by the exhibits of fruits and seeds in the Colonial and
Indian Exhibition of 1886, which were very fine, especially
those grown in Grenada. Notwithstanding, however, that
Kola has occupied the attention of English and Continental
chemists and pharmacists for several years past, and import-
ant properties and uses have been assigned to it — notably
that of restoring the nerves after a too free use of stimu-
lants, and as an ingredient in the preparation of cocoa
and chocolate, by which the strengthening power of those
beverages is said to be considerably increased, so that a
workman can, on a single cup taken at breakfast-time, go on
with his work through the day without feelinir fatigued —

92 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

no great demand has up to the present time aiisen for it.
The Kola-nut plant has been in cultivation in this country
for some years previous to 1868, in which year it flowered
for the first time at Kew.

Colubrina reclinata. — The bark of this plant, under the
name of Mabee Bark, began to attract some notice in this
country as a medicine about 1885, in consequence of its
being largely used in the West Indies in the preparation
of a stomachic drink. The plant is a native of South
America.

Copernicia cerifera. — This is the Wax Palm or
Carnauba of Brazil, the roots of which are said to have
diuretic properties, administered in the form of infusion,
decoction, or fluid extract. The infusion has an agreeable
and slightly bitter taste, and an odour somewhat resembling
that of Sarsaparilla. It was introduced to notice in 1875,
but is now but little heard of.

Cybistax antisyphilitica. — The leaves of this plant, under
the name of Caroba, are used in Brazil as one of the best
alterative, diuretic, sudorific, and tonic medicines. Atten-
tion was first directed to it in this country about 1875.
From the accounts which accompanied its introduction it
would appear to be extremely useful in all kinds of syphilitic
affections.

Duboisia Hopwoodi. — The broken leaves of this plant,
known as Pituri, have been used by the aborigines of
Central Australia from an early period as a stimulating
tonic, being chewed by them to strengthen themselves on
long journeys or to increase their courage in battle. It
was introduced to the notice of the medical world in 1873
as a narcotic stimulant.

Eucalyptus globulus, BLUE Gum of Tasmania, where, as
also in Victoria, it grows over 300 feet high. Introduced
in 1856, it has become very common in many parts of
England, though, with the exception of Cornwall and the

NEW DRUGS.

93

West of Ireland, it cannot stand the winter without shelter.
In the South of Europe it has become familiar, and has been
largely planted in malarial districts in Italy, as, on account
of its rapid growth and antiseptic exhalations from
the leaves, it is said to absorb the moisture from the
ground and purify the air. The leaves have a bitterish,
pungent, camphoraceous taste and smell, due to the presence
of a volatile oil. They have been recommended as a remedy

Blub Gum (Eucalyptus globulus).

in fevers. The oil distilled from them is tonic, stimulant,
and antiseptic. It has been used externally as a rubefacient,
also in perfumery for scenting soaps, and internally in
bronchial and diphtheritic affections, under the name of
Euealyptol. The resin of this species and that of Euca-
lyptus amyydaUna forms Australian Kino.

Euphorbia Drummondii. — A prostrate or diffused much-
branched plant of Australia. An alkaloid contained in this
plant, called Drumine, has been discovered and applied within
the last year or two as a local anaesthetic.

NEW DRUGS. 95

Euphorbia pilulifera. — A native of Australia, where it
attracted much attention some few years since as a cure for
asthma and bronchial affections. The plant being poisonous,
care has to be exercised in its proper administration ; there-
fore too strong a decoction must not be used. It was intro-
duced to notice in this country in 1882.

ErytJwoxylon Coca. — Under the name Coca the leaves
of this plant have long been known and used by the Indians
of Peru and Bolivia as a valuable nervous stimulant, as well
as to prevent hunger, and to enable those who use them to
endure long periods of labour without fatigue. These pro-
perties began to be noticed in this country in 1874, since
which time the leaves have been experimented upon in
various ways, till coca has become an important medicine,
and both the leaves and preparations from them are now
fully-recognised articles of trade, and Cocaine, the active
principle of the plant, has become an important medicine.
The cultivation of the plant has been extended into several
of the British colonies, including Jamaica, Trinidad, Zanzi-
bar, Bi-isbane, etc.

Fabiana imbricata. — This is one of the latest introduc-
tions, having been first brought to notice in America in
1885 and in this country in 1886. It is known as Piche,
and is a native of Chili, Peru, and the Argentine Republic,
and belongs to the natural order Solanaceae. It is recom-
mended in lumbago, sciatica, rheumatic neuralgia, irri-
tability of the bladder, etc.

Ferula (Euryangium) Sumbul, an herbaceous perennial
dying after flowering, belonging to the natural order Urn-
bellifera?. The root, which has a strong musky odour, is
known as Sumbul or Musk Boot. The early history of
Sumbul cannot be traced ; all that is known about it is
that it was first introduced into Russia about 1835 as a
substitute for musk, and was then recommended as a
remedy for cholera. It began to be known in Germany in

96 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

1840, and in England in 1850, and was introduced into the
British Pharmacopoeia in 1867. Its source was unknown
till 1869, when the plant was discovered in the mountains
south-east of Samarkand, separating Russian Turkestan
from Bucharia, at an altitude of from 3,000 to -4,000 feet.
In 1872 a root was received at Kew from the Moscow
Botanic Garden, which continued to throw up leaves each
year till 1875, when it produced a fine flowering stem, but
did not ripen fruit, and afterwards died.

Pereira mentions two kinds of Sumbul known to com-
merce in his time — one called Russian and the other Indian
Sumbul, the latter coming to England vid Bombay. All
the Sumbul which reaches Europe and the United States at
the present time is imported from Russia. As seen in
commerce, Sumbul root occurs in roundish pieces or trans-
verse sections ; it has a powerful but agreeable musky
odour, which is very persistent. It is used in medicine as
a nervine stimulant and antispasmodic, and is given in
chronic pulmonary affections, hysteria, etc.

Franciscea uniflora. — A shrub belonging to the natural
order Scrophularinere, native of Brazil and other parts of
equatorial America. The roots, under the name of Manaca,
are used in the preparation of a powerful antisyphilitic,
purgative, and diuretic medicine. It was introduced to
notice in this country from North America in 1883.

Frankenia grandifolia. — An herbaceous plant of Cali-
fornia. Under the name of Yerba Reuma it was intro-
duced in 1879 as a remedy in catarrh, mucous discharges,
and in ophthalmia.

Gouania domiugensis. — A climbing West Indian shrub
belonging to the natural order Rhanmacea?. It has long
been known as Chew Stick, and used when pulverised as
an ingredient in tooth powder. Pieces of the stem, with
one end beaten into fibre, have also been used as tooth-
brushes. These stems appear to contain saponine. In the

NEW DRUGS. 97

West Indies the whole plant is considered a good anti-
septic ; a decoction of the root has been used in dropsy. It
was introduced to notice in this country about 1884 for use
in the preparation of an astringent gargle.

Gynocardia odorata. — A large tree of India bearing a
globular fruit about the size of a lai'ge orange, and contain-
ing numerous seeds, the oil of which is expressed and known
as Chaulmugra oil. This oil has been used in India for a
very long time in skin diseases, affections of the joints, etc.
It was not, however, till 1878 that it began to attract
much attention in England, when experiments were made
in many of the London and provincial hospitals, as well as
in private practice, to test its efficacy in rheumatic affections,
skin diseases, consumption, syphilitic affections, etc. ; it was
used both externally and internally, the latter in the form
of capsules. A certain amount of success seems to have
attended its use, but of late years it has ceased to attract so
much notice.

Hagenia abyssinica. — A handsome rosaceous tree 50 or
60 feet high, found over the whole table-land of Abyssinia.
Under the name of Kousso or Kosso the flowers have a
reputation as an anthelmintic. Notices first appeared as to
their medical properties in English periodicals during the
years 1839 to 1841, but no supply of the flowers reached
Europe till 1850, when a quantity was brought to London
and offered for sale at 35s. per ounce. Large quantities
were afterwards imported and sold at from 3s. to 4s. per
pound. It was not till 1864 that Kousso was introduced
into the British Pharmacopoeia.

Hemidesmus indicus. — A twining shrub of the Ascle-
piadere, native of India and Ceylon. The roots are known
as Indian Sarsaiukilla, and have been used for a long
period in native medicine in India. They are said to
have alterative, tonic, diuretic, and diaphoretic proper-
ties, and were introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia
n

98 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

in 1864. They are, however, very rarely employed in this
country.

Joannesia princeps. — Under the name of Anda-assu
this tree was first brought to notice in 1881 as yielding
seeds valuable in Brazil as a purgative and for affections of
the liver, jaundice, dropsy, etc. It belongs to the natural
order Euphorbiacese.

Mallotus philippinensis. — A large shrub or small tree 20
to 30 feet high, belonging to the same natural order as the
last, and very widely distributed, being found in Abyssinia,
Southern Arabia, throughout India, in Ceylon, Malay
Archipelago, Philippines to Australia. The red glandular
powder obtained from the fruits is known as Kamala.
It is used as a vermifuge, or rather as a tienifuge in the
cure of tapeworm in India, as well as for dyeing silk i-ed.
It was introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia in 1864.

Marsdenia cundurango. — The bark of this plant, under
the name of Cundurango, began to attract considerable
attention in America as a remedy for the cure of cancer in
1871. Samples having been sent from Ecuador, its reputa-
tion soon reached this country, but it was not till the fol-
lowing year (1872) that its botanical origin became known,
when it was described by M. Triana under the name of
Goriolobus cundurango, which has since been referred to
Marsdenia, natural order Asclepiadeae.

For some time Cundurango l>;uk was submitted to
numerous experiments, with the result that it was generally
pronounced to be of little or no use medicinally in cancer
cases. Some interest, however, attaches to it in consequence
of its being included amongst the plants used by the natives
for the cure of snake-bites, under the name of Guaco. The
word Cundurango means "vine of the Condor" — from a
tradition of the country that when the condor is bitten by
a poisonous snake, it swallows the leaves of this plant and
experiences no harm.

NEW DRUGS. 99

Mentha arvensis, var. piperascens. — A Chinese herb be-
longing to the Labiatea?. It yields an oil which contains a
large quantity of a crystalline substance known as Menthol
or Peppermint Camphor. This substance began to attract
attention in 1879, since which time Menthol has become an
increasing article of trade, and is much used in cases of
neuralgia, toothache, etc., by rubbing it on the parts affected.
A similar crystalline principle is obtained in India from
the oil expressed from the seeds of Carum copticum. The
Chinese peppermint plant has been recommended for culti-
vation in England, and especially in Ireland, where the
climate is moist and labour cheap.

Myrtus cheken.- — An evergreen climber belonging to
the natural order Myrtacea?, and native of Chili, where it is
known as Chequen, and is in great repute as a medicine in
inflammation of the eyes, in diarrhoea, and other disorders, for
which purposes it was introduced into this country in 1881.
Though the plant has been cultivated in our greenhouses
for many years, it flowered for the first time at Kew in 1866.

Paullinia sorbilis. — A woody climber belonging to the
natural order Sapindacese, and native of the Northern and
Western parts of Brazil. The seeds, which are like small
horse-chestnuts, are used in Brazil in the preparation of a
beverage and as a medicine. To prepare them the seeds are,
dried, powdered, mixed with water, and kneaded into a
kind of dough, then made into rolls, or moulded into various
forms, and known as GuARANA, GUARANA BREAD, or
Brazilian Cocoa. It is regarded as a tonic, febrifuge,
nutritive, and to some extent narcotic. As a nervous stimu-
lant, it is analogous to tea and coffee, and has been recom-
mended in this country in nervous headache, neuralg;a,
paralysis, and diarrhoea. It can be administered either in
the form of a substance, as a beverage, or mixed with cocoa
or chocolate. It was introduced to notice in this country
firstly in 1856, and again in 1870.
a J

100 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Peumus Boldus. — A shrub 10 to 20 feet high, native of
Chili, and cultivated in gardens in its native country for
the sake of its fragrant flowers and leaves. The plant
flowers in its native home in autumn, but under cultivation
at Kew and the Royal Botanical Society's Gardens, Regent's
Park, the flowers have appeared in winter. The plant be-
longs to the natural order Monimiacea?, and the leaves, under
the name of Boldo, were introduced to this country in
1874, as an aid to digestion as well as in diseases of the
liver. The properties of the plant are said to have been
discovered by noticing the beneficial effects upon a flock of
sheep that were suffering from liver disease. Having been
shut up in a fold which had been recently repah'ed with
the twigs of the Boldo plant, the sheep ate of the leaves
and shoots, and recovered very speedily. The leaves, dried
and pulverised, are used in Brazil as a sternutory.

Plvysostigma venenosum. — A perennial climbing plant
with a woody stem 50 or more feet high, belonging to the
natural order Leguminosa1, and found near the mouths of
the Niger and Old Calabar River. The seeds are known
under the names of Okdeal Beans of Old Calabar, or
Calabar Beans, and they were first brought to notice in
England about the year 1840 by Dr. W. F. Daniell, who in
18IG brought them more prominently forward in a paper
read before the Ethnological Society. Tim poisonous effects
of the beans on the human system were noticed by Chris-
tison in 1855, and again by Sharpey in 1858. In 1859 a
plant was sent by an African missionary to Professor
Balfour, of Edinburgh, who described it under the name it
now bears. It was not till about 18G3 that Professor
Fraser discovered that an alcoholic extract of the seed
possessed the power of contracting the pupil of the eye, since
which time it has been used in ophthalmic practice, as well
as in tetanus, rheumatic, neuralgic, and similar affections.
The plants are somewhat rare in Africa, being destroyed by

NEW DRUGS. 101

order of the Government, except so many as are required to
supply seeds for use as an ordeal. They find their way,
however, to this country in small quantities from West
Africa.

Picramnia aniidesma. — Under the name of Cascara
Amarga the bark of this Mexican tree, which belongs to
the natural order Simarubere, was first brought to notice in
America in 1885, and soon after reached this country. It
is said to be useful in syphilis, and as an external applica-
tion in the treatment of erysipelas.

Pilocarpus pennatif olius. — This is a shrub four or five
feet high, belonging to the order Rutaceae, native of Brazil,
and was first found in the southern provinces of Mato
Grosso and Sao Paulo, from whence it was introduced into
Europe in 1874, and is now found cultivated in the English
and Continental botanical gardens. Under the name of
Jaborandi a new drug was introduced to the notice of
British pharmacists in 1874. Jaborandi, however, appears
to be a comprehensive name in South America, and is
applied to a number of widely different plants. The deter-
mination of the source of the ordinary Jaborandi of com-
merce was made by Professor Baillon in 1875, who, from
the material available, considered that to the plant men-
tioned at the head of this paragraph must be referred the bulk
of commercial Jaborandi, a quantity also being afforded by
P. Selloanus. Jaborandi has obtained a reputation as a
very energetic diaphoretic sialogogue.

Piper methysticum. — The roots of this plant, which
belongs to the natural order Piperaceae, have been used
from an early period in the Society and South Sea Islands,
under the name of Kava, in the preparation of a well-
known intoxicating beverage. In 1876 the plant began
to attract some attention as to its medicinal properties
since which time many experiments have been made to de-
termine its physiological action. It has since been used in

102 COM5IERCIAL BOTANY.

practice in urethritis, leucorrhcea, dysuria, and all inflam
matory conditions of the urinary passages. In the Colonial
and Indian Exhibition, 1886, a spirit was retailed at the re-
freshment bars which was distilled from the roots of the
Kava plant. It was sold under the name of Kava
Schnapps or Yangona.

Plantago ovata. — This plant is perhaps better known
under the name of P. Ispaghula, by which it was described
by Roxburgh. It is an annual belonging to the order
Plantaginacea?, and found wild in North- Western India, and
also cultivated for the sake of its seeds, which are oval and
boat-shaped, of a greyish-pink colour, and extremely muci-
laginous ; by placing them in water they will yield a thick
mucilage, which is highly valued in India for its demulcent
properties, under the name of Spooel or Ispaghul seeds.
They Avere first introduced to notice in this country in 1870,
and have since been used in coughs, colds, diarrhoea, etc.,
as well as for feeding poultry.

Podophyllum peltatum. — A perennial belonging to the
natural order Berberidacea?, and found growing in moist
shady situations all over the eastern side of the North
American continent from Hudson's Bay to New Orleans
and Florida. The properties of the root or rhizome have
long been known to the North American Indians, and it
has been used as a purgative in American Pharmacy since
1820, but it was not till 1861 that it was admitted to the
British Pharmacopoeia. The active principle of the root,
under the name of Podophyllin, is now manufactured on a
very large scale both in America and England.

Rhaphidophora vitiensls. — This plant, which belongs to
the natural order Aroideae, is supposed to furnish the
principal component part of the celebrated medicine Tonga.
This mi (Heine was introduced to notice in 1879 as a new
drug from Fiji, having a high therapeutic value as a remedy
for neuralgia. The history of its introduction is singular,

XEW DRUGS. 103

and is as follows : — An Englishman who brought it here
obtained it from a settler, married to a half-caste Tongan,
who first prepared it for the use of her husband, and gave
to the drug the name of her native island. The material
as l-eceived here consisted for the most part of a mixture of
broken pieces apparently of a root and some pieces of bark.
From microscopical examination they appeared to belong to
some aroideous plant, which was confirmed at a later period
by the receipt of leaves, by which means the genus was
established as Rhaphidophora, probably R. vitiensis. Tonga
has been proved very efficacious in neuralgia, and may be
included amongst the important medicines of the age.

Rhamnus Purshiana. — Under the name of Cascara
Sagrada (lit. Sacred Bark), considerable attention has been
paid since 1883 to the bark of the above-named tree or
shrub, which belongs to the natural order Rhamnaceae, and
is a native of the Pacific slopes of North America, in which
country it has become very generally used as a purgative.
Introduced into this country from the United States in
1879, it has also found considerable favour with us.

Sarcocephalus esculenttt». — A West African tree,
belonging to the natural order Rubiacese, the bark of
which, under the name of Doundake, has attracted much
attention since 1885, both on the Continent and in this
country, as a tonic and febrifuge, as well as for the golden-
yellow colour contained in the bark. The fruit is known ;\s
the Sierra Leone Peach.

Simaba Cedron. — The Cedrox, which is the name under
which this plant is commonly known, is a small tree, 12 to
15 feet high, with a trunk measuring about 6 inches
through. It belongs to the natural order Simarubea», and
is a native of New Granada, on the banks of the Magda-
lena. It bears an oval fruit, about the size of a swan's egg,
containing usually not more than one seed, about two
inches long and half an inch broad. The earliest notice of

104 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

the Ceclron is contained in " The History of the
Buccaneers," published in London in 1G99, where its
use as an antidote for snake bites is referred to. The
method of using it is as follows: — When a person is bitten,
a small portion of the seed, mixed with water, is applied to
the wound, and about two grains scraped into brandy, or
even into water, is given internally. This treatment is
said to be an almost certain cure for the bites of the most
venomous snakes, scorpions, centipedes, and other noxious
animals. The seeds have an intensely bitter taste, and are
said to have proved valuable in cases of intermittent fever.
The seeds were introduced to Kew in 1846, and first
brought to notice as a remedy in 1850, and again as a
febrifuge and cure for toothache in 1884.

Strophanthus. — There are but few drugs of recent
introduction that have attracted so much attention chemi-
cally and plvysiologically as the active principle of the
seeds of the several African species of Strophanti us.

In 1870 Professor Fraser first pointed out, in a paper
read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the powerful
action of Strophanthus hispidus upon the heart, and stated,
as the result of his experiments, that " it acted in a power-
ful and direct manner upon the cardiac muscular fibre,
greatly prolonging the contraction of those fibres, rendering
it continuous, and only to be overcome when relaxation
occurs as a natural consequence of post-mortem decom-
position." For some time after the publication of this
paper little or nothing was heard of Strophanthus, till in
1877 it formed the subject of a paper by Messrs. E. Hardy
and N. Gallois in the Bulletin de Tlierapeutique et Chirur-
gicale. In 1885 it was again brought forward by Professor
Fraser at the British Medical Association meeting held at
Cardiff, and the paper was published in the British Medical
Journal for November 14th, 1885. The publication of this
paper naturally resulted in the attention of the whole

NEW DRUGS. 105

medical profession being drawn to this new and important
drug, and consequently there arose a veiy great demand for
it — a demand, indeed, far exceeding the supply. Immature
fruits containing unripened seeds, and consequently less
powerful action, arrived in the market together with the
seeds of other species than S. hispidus, so that the tincture
prepared from them could not be relied upon. Of late,
however, a better system of collecting seems to have been
established, and tincture and tabloids of Strophanthus are
now advertised as regular articles of trade. Though it
was to Strophanthus hispidus that the credit was first
given as possessing the valuable cardiac properties, a second
species was described as S. kombe, which has since shared
its reputation. These two are now included under the one
species, S. hispidus. In Central Africa, the seeds when
ground, mixed with water, and made into a paste, are used for
poisoning arrows, both for purposes of the chase and in war.

Strychnos toxifera. — This plant is well known as
furnishing the Curare or Wourali poison of British
Guiana, which is prepared by scraping the bark, steeping
it in water, and concentrating the fluid by evaporation.
The natives use it for tipping their arrows in hunting as
well as in war. It was brought to notice in this country
in 1878 as a remedy in epilepsy, chorea, and hydrophobia,
and is still included in our druggists' price lists.

Turnera diffusa, var. aphrodisiaca. — This plant belongs
to a small order, Turneracea?. A fluid extract of the plant
was introduced to English pharmacy in 1874, under the
name of Damiana, and recommended in renal and vesical
diseases and in nephritic albumina. In some reports of its
effects it is described as being " one of the best remedies in
inflammatory diseases of the kidneys ; " and taken as an
infusion in the form of tea, prepared by pouring a cupful
of hot water upon a teaspoonful of the dried leaves, it is
said to have a marked effect upon sick headache.

106

CHAPTER VII.

Oils and Waxes.

The extended use of gas and the discovery of the petro-
leum or mineral oils during the last few years have had a
marked effect upon diminishing the use of vegetable oils as
illuminants. The spread of machinery, on the other hand,
has had an opposite effect in creating a demand for oil for
lubricating purposes ; besides this there is always a large
demand for drying oils for mixing paints and for similar
uses. These facts, together with the increased use of oil-
cake for feeding cattle, cause a pretty brisk sale of oil seeds
generally, and oil crushers are alert and always ready to
give a trial to any new product of this nature arriving in
the English markets. A large quantity of these oil seeds,
especially those from the West Coast of Africa and Brazil,
find their way to the port of Liverpool, and it is surprising
how often new products of this nature, together with old
ones that have, perhaps, been sent years before and forgotten,
do come into that port. With a seed new to a broker,
coming into his hands for the first time, it is necessary that
he should make himself acquainted with its nature or pro-
perties— whether the oil it contains is wholesome or poisonous
— before he effects a purchase, it may be of a whole ship-load.
The nature of the seed governs not only the oil itself, but
also the marc or cake left after expression, which, in the
case of a sweet oil, would be valuable for cattle feeding,
\\ Idle, on the other hand, in the case of a poisonous oil
it might bring about serious consequences.

The best known oils, and those which an' most largely
employed, especially in soap and candle-making — which take
the bulk of the oils imported — are Cocoa-Nut and l\\i \i

A.TXI0A2I On. Pa;.:: i>

>ite>isis)

108 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Oil. The first, it is well known, is the produce of Cocos
nuci/era, a widely-spread tropical palm ; and the second, the
produce of Elceis guineensis, a palm confined to West Africa.
The trade in both these oils has been largely developed since
1840, and is due, to a great extent, to the energy of Price's
Patent Candle Company, which had its beginnings some fifty
years or more since. For some time the oil alone was im-
ported, the cocoa-nut kernel being crushed in Ceylon, whence
the bulk came. Of late years, however, both oil and dried
kernel have been imported, the latter known as "copra,"
which is submitted to pressure in this country. So rapid
did the utilisation of cocoa-nut oil become after the estab-
lishment of the company just referred to, that they turned
out in the month of October, 1840, twenty tons of cocoa-nut
candles, of the value of £1,590, and about twelve tons of
stearic and composite candles, valued at £1,227. In October,
1855, the quantity of stearic and composite candles
made by the firm amounted to 707 tons, of the value
of £79,500. For the purpose of the general illumi-
nation on the occasion of Her Majesty's marriage in
1840, Price's Candle Company introduced a cheap candle
that should require no snuffing, composed of a mixture
of stearic acid and cocoa nut stearine. " The public, con-
trary to the general opinion of the candle-dealers, proved
wise enough not to mind the candles being greasy, but as
the light was good, the candles comparatively cheap, and
the nuisance of having to snuff done away with, they
received the new composite candles with great favour, and
the manufacture rapidly grew."

In the development of the Palm Oil industry from Ela is
guineensis a very important substance, namely Glycerine,
was discovered ; it was first used in one of the hospitals for
skin diseases in 1844. Its uses at the present time are
very numerous, and are well known. About the year 1848
night-lights were introduced, and in the following year the

OILS AND WAXES.

109

well-known " Childs' Night-Lights " began to be made in
large quantities.

The following are the returns of cocoa-nut and palm oil
for the years stated between 1817 and 1889 inclusive : —

CoCOA-

nut Oil.

Talm Oil.

1S47 -

-

48,320 cwts.

1847

- - 366,840 cwts

1857 -

-

207,239 „

1857

- - 854,791 „

1867 -

-

124,314 „

1867

- - 812,080

1877 -

-

194,052 „

1877

- - 885,138

1886 -

-

156,667 „

1886

- - 993,091

1887 -

-

183,766 „

1887

- - 966,536

1888 -

-

197,773 „

1888

- - 955,369

1889 -

-

213,470 „

1889

- -1,019,077

Ground Nut (Arachia hypogaa).

Ground Nut (Arachis hypogcm).— This is a diffuse
herbaceous annual, growing one or two feet high, unknown
in a wild state, but now much cul tivated for the sake of its

110 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

oily seeds in all tropical and sub-tropical countries, especially
in "West tropical Africa. After the fall of the flower
the young pod pushes its way beneath the surface of the
earth, where it ripens. The introduction of the ground nut
as an oil seed into European trade dates from 1840, since
which time the imports have increased enormously. There
are no authentic records of the imports of ground-nut oil,
but West Africa, India, and China supply by far the largest
hulk. The oil is very free from stearine, and is consequently
much used in pharmacy in the same way as olive oil,
especially in India. With us it is also largely used for
culinary and industrial purposes, as soap-making, etc.

Cotton Seed. — The cotton seed of commerce is furnished
by several species of Gossi/pium. The seeds were first im-
ported into the English market as oil seeds some thirty or
forty years since, but it is quite within recent years that the
trade in cotton seeds has assumed a position of importance.
In America at the present time it has taken the place of a
distinct industry, over 400,000 tons of seeds being annually
expressed, the quantity indeed increasing every year. A
large quantity of this oil comes to this country directly and
indirectly. Egypt also sends cargoes of seeds to English
ports for expression here. Much of the oil is used by soap-
makers, besides which it makes a good lubricating oil ; and
when carefully refined in France, and put into white glass
bottles, it is sent into this country as " Pure Olive Oil," and
used for culinary purposes. So recently as December, 1888,
the British Consul at Venice, reporting on the trade and
commerce for that port for 1887, says that the action of the
Italian Government in enacting a higher import duty on
cotton oil with the intention of preventing its being mixed
with olive oil has had a contrary effect, the price of olive
oil being considerably lowered, the reason of which is
said to be that by the mixture of cotton oil the ordinary
qualities of olive oil, produced in the South of Italy,

OILS AND WAXES.

Ill

find an easier and more profitable sale. The residual cake,
after the expression of the oil, is used for feeding cattle and
as a fertiliser for the land.

Cotton (Gossypiwn.)

Dika or Udika Fat.— Under the name of Dika Bread
the compressed seeds were first exhibited at the Paris
Exhibition in 1855 as the produce of Mangifera gabonensis.

112 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

In 1859 it was brought to the notice of the Pharmaceutical
Society, and in 1862 a report of its nutritive value was
published in the Journal of the same Society ; from this it
would seem that its composition is analogous to coffee, tea,
cocoa, etc. ; and it was then suggested that it might become
an article of commerce in this country. The substance is
composed of the fatty kernels of the seeds of Irvingia
Barteri, a simarubeous tree of West tropical Africa, and is
made into masses of a cone-like form, sometimes weighing
as much as fifty pounds. It forms an important article of
food amongst the natives, and contains 70 to 80 per cent,
of solid fatty matter. It has quite recently been stated
that this fat is now used, mixed with cocoa butter from
Theobroma cacao, for medicinal purposes.

Telfairia occidentalis. — A climbing plant belonging to
the order Cucurbitacea?, native of West tropical Africa,
where the plant is cultivated for the sake of its seeds, which
contain a sweet bland oil. They are cooked and eaten by the
natives, and are said to be very palatable. The seeds are
occasionally brought into Liverpool as oil seeds. The plant,
which flowered at Kew in 1876, was raised from seeds
received in 1870 from the Liverpool Botanic Garden.

Myristica angolensis. — A native of Angola, where it is
known as Mutugo. The seeds, which are about three-
quarters of an inch long and half an inch broad, are
ruminated like an ordinary nutmeg, but have no aroma and
but little or no taste. They are said to contain about three-
fourths of their weight of fatty oil. They were first im-
ported into Liverpool as oil seeds in 188 I.

Other species of Myristica to which attention has been
directed as oil seeds are : — 1. M. surinauiensis, imported into
Liverpool from Para as oil seeds in 1881. Like the former,
they have no smell and very little taste. They are nearly
globular, about the size of a small marble, and are known as
Cuago nuts by the Spaniards. They are said to yield 72

OILS AND WAXES. 113

per cent, of their weight of solid fat, and the meal, after the
expression of the oil, is described as useful as a substitute
for linseed in making poultices.

2. M. guatemalensis. — A native of Guatemala, the seed
of which is ovoid, about one inch long and half an inch
broad. This also yields a solid fat in large quantity.

Hyptis spicigera. — An herbaceous plant belonging to
the natural order Labiataa. The small black seeds contain
a large quantity of oil, and are occasionally imported into
Liverpool from the west coast of Africa. They made their
first appearance in 1883.

Pali/gala rarifulia. — A shrubby plant belonging to the
natural order Polygaleae, native of West Africa, about
Sierra Leone and Angola. The seeds are very oily, and
were first received at Liverpool in 1884 und< r the name of
Maluku seeds.

Lophira aJata. — Under the name of Meni these seeds
have recently been brought into Liverpool from West Africa
for the sake of the oil they contain. The plant belongs
to the natural order Dipterocarpea?, and is known in
Sierra Leone as Laintlaixtaix, where the oil is used, as
well as in Senegambia, for cooking and for anointing the
hair.

Pentaclethra maarophylla. — Owala of the Gaboon,
Opachala of the Eboe country. This is a leguminous tree
growing to a height of 50 or 60 feet, the large seeds of
which are used as food on the Niger, and the oil which is
expressed from them in large quantities is used for domestic
purposes, for lubricating machinery as well as for soap-;
making. The seeds are not a regular article of trade, but
are occasionally imported into Liverpool.

Lallemantia iberica. — A plant belonging to the natural

order Labiata?, and said to be cultivated to a considerable

extent from Syria to Northern Persia. The small seeds

contain a very large quantity of sweet limpid oil, suitable

I

114 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

for culinary or other purposes. It was introduced to notice
in England in 1880.

Under the names of M'pogo nuts, Mabo nuts, and Niko
nuts, the hard bony fruits, minus the fleshy coverings in
which they are enveloped when fresh, come occasionally into
the port of Liverpool from the west coast of Africa, chiefly
from Liberia and the Gaboon. The fruits of the M'pogo,
which are imported from the Gaboon, are about two inches
long and from one to one and a half inches in diameter.
They contain three or four small roundish seeds, from which
a very large percentage of oil can be expressed. The Mabo
fruits are of an oblique-ovoid form, two inches or more long,
and about an inch in diameter, with a very rough or chan-
nelled surface. The seeds of this kind are also very rich in
oil, of a very fluid character. Tliese fruits and seeds are
imported from Liberia. The Niko nuts, which come also
from Liberia, are of a similar bony nature, about two inches
long and one and half inches in diameter. The seeds, like
the other kinds, contain a large proportion of oil. Neither
of these have become established articles of trade, though
the oil seems to be of a character that might become useful.
Owing to the want of authentic specimens of the leaves and
flowers of the plants producing these fruits, they have
never been botanically identified, though it has been sur-
mised that they might belong to the genus Parixarhun, of
the natural order Rosacea;. Probably, however, they may
prove to be a species of KUeocarpus. They first made their
appearance in Liverpool some ten or twelve years since.

115
CHAPTER VIII.

GUMS, RESINS, AND VARNISHES.

In the matter of new pi'oducts coming under either of
the above headings, there is but little to record as the dis-
covery of the period under review. The points of interest
connected with these substances lie more in the clearing up
of doubts relating to their botanical origin and their accu-
rate determination, as well as in their increased consumption
and imports. The former, however interesting though it
be, does not come within our scope, except where it hears
on the development of the substance from a commercial
point of view, or is instrumental in opening up new
sources of supply. Under these circumstances our notes
in this section will be necessarily limited. In passing,
however, it may perhaps be of some interest to note that of
Gum Arabic (which may be taken as the most important of
the true gums), the imports have increased from 25,289 cwts.
in 1839 to 75,399 cwts. in 1886, falling again in 1887 to
46,443 cwts., a decrease due to the disturbed state of the
Soudan, whence the best kind of gum is obtained, and
rising again in 1889 to 65,368 cwts. In consequence of
the Soudan war, however, higher prices have ruled the
market, and other gums have been brought into competition,
the most notable of which is that which appeared early in
1888, under the name of Brazilian Gum Arabic. In ap-
pearance it resembles the ordinary quality of Gum Arabic,
and is said to be derived from the Angico tree of Brazil,
which has been described as Acacia angico of Mart. It is
referred to in the Keio Bulletin, No. 17, for May, 1888,
but since then the plant has heen proved to be Piptadenia
macrocarpa, Benth. It may also be worth while pointing
out that the fragrant gum-resins, known as Balsams of Peru
I 2

116 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

and Tolu, were, fifty years ago, considered to be the produce
of the same tree, Tolu being the resin hardened by exposure.
It has, of course, been known now for some time that
Balsam of Peru is the produce of Toluifera Pereirce, native
of San Salvador, Central America, while Balsam of Tolu is
furnished by Toluifera Balsamum, a native of Venezuela
and New Granada. Under the trade names of Anime or
Copal several kinds of hard fossil resin have long been
known in commerce, partly derived from Africa, and partly
from the East. The sources of these gums, which were then,
as now, used exclusively in the manufacture of varnishes,
were for a long time quite unknown. Indeed, the most
valuable resin — namely, that known as Anime — was until
comparatively recent times supposed to be the produce of
India, being shipped to this country from Bombay. It is,
however, now known to be furnished by Trae/tylobittui
verrucosum, a leguminous tree of Zanzibar, the resin
being shipped thence to Bombay, and from Bombay to
England. The clearing up of this interesting point in
Economic Botany is due to Sir John Kirk, British Resident
at Zanzibar, who communicated a paper on the subject to
the Linnean Society in 1868, and sent full herbarium speci-
mens of the plant to Kew, as well as a fine series of gum
specimens. Seeds of the tree have since then been intro-
duced into India and Australia.

The best Anime is that which is dug from the ground
near the roots of the trees, or where the trees once stood,
but have now disappeared. Regarding the export of Anime
from Zanzibar, Sir John Kirk says it sometimes reaches
800,000 pounds, of the value of £60,000.

What promised to be a very important source of Copal
was made known in 1883, when the British Consul at
Mozambique reported the discovery at Inhambane of a tract
of Copal forest fully 200 miles long. Samples of this new
fossil Copal or Anime were sent to England, and upon

GUMS, RESINS, AND VARNISHES. 117

practical tests being made upon its suitability for varnish-
making, was favourably reported on, and valued at from
,£80 to £100 per ton. Some of these samples are now
contained in the Museum at Kew. It is the produce of
Copaifera Gorskiana.

Some later information on the subject is given in the
Kew Bulletin, No. 24, for December, 1888, where an extract
from a letter from Inhambane, under date Feb. 5, 1886,
states : — " Many tons of copal have been exported from
Inhambane. For some choice pieces I have received as high
as £13 10s. per cwt. The average price realised on larger
lots has been £7 per cwt. The forest containing the trees
extends from the River Sabia in a south-westerly direction
as far as Beleni."

Fresh seeds were also received at Kew, and several
hundred plants raised from them, which have been distri-
buted from Kew to India, Fiji, Singapore, Jamaica, Trini-
dad, Demerara, Dominica, and tropical parts of Australia.

Another varnish-making resin, but little less important
than Zanzibar Anime, is Kauri or Cowdie resin of New
Zealand. This, like Anime, is a semi-fossil resin, more
commonly known in trade, however, under the name of
Kauri Gum, and is the produce of Dammara australis, a
very large coniferous tree valued alike for its timber as for
its gum. (See Timbers.) The best Kauri gum is dug from the
ground beneath the trees, or where the trees do not at present
exist. Thirty-three years ago Kauri gum was imported
into this country only in small quantities, for we find that
in 1853 the total exports of the gum from New Zealand
to all countries amounted to only 829 tons, of the value of
£15,971; in 1883 this had risen to 6,518 tons, valued at
£336,606. It is said that over two thirds of the produce
goes to the United States; and there are no available
returns of the imports into this country, though the quan-
tities are very large. Though gum-digging gives employment

118 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

to a large number of persons, they generally consist of the
lowest orders. Quite recently, however, it has been stated
that, in consequence of depression of trade in New Zealand,
a large number of men have taken to Kauri digging, as
many as 10,000 being so occupied at present, and the
quantity of gum brought to the Auckland market has very
considerably increased.

Under the name of Ogea Gum a hard fossil resin of
the copal character was introduced to notice in 1883 by
Captain (now Sir Alfred) Moloney from the Gold Coast. It
is described as being the produce of a leguminous tree closely
allied to Daniellia thurifera; for lack of proper material,
however, its species has not yet been determined. The gum
is used by the natives both for lighting fires and for illu-
minating purposes ; powdered, it is also used as a body per-
fume by the women. It exudes from the trunk either from
wounds or from holes caused by the boring of insects. The
gum has not yet appeared in commerce.

119
CHAPTER IX.

DYES AND TANNING MATERIALS.

The greatest development in the direction of dyes has
not been towards those of vegetable origin. On the
contrary, for the last twenty or thirty years vegetable dyes
have been gradually displaced by the advances of chemical
science in utilising coal-tar, and in the artificial preparation
of colouring matters to supersede the old vegetable dyes.
In this direction we need but refer to the serious blow given
to the trade in Persian berries (Rhamnus infectorius) in the
Levant by the discovery of the Aniline dyes, or to the more
recently threatened substitution of chemically - prepared
Indigo for that of vegetable origin. So alarming did this
discovery seem to be to the indigo-planters in India that
we cannot refrain from quoting the following paragraph
from a letter of Professor Armstrong published in the Kew
Report for 1880. He says : — " Notwithstanding the number
of operations involved in the manufacture, it is stated that
it will be possible thus to produce indigo at such a price;
that it can even enter into competition with the natural
article, and that by substituting the method of dyeing pre-
viously described for the troublesome and somewhat un-
certain indigo vat method, there will be a still more distinct
advantage gained over the natural article. It is dilficult at
present to estimate the influence which this discovery may
have on the production of Indigo in India; but when it is
remembered, to take an analogous case, that the discovery
of a process of manufacturing madder red was only made in
18G'.', and that now it is almost impossible to procure natural
madder red or garancine, the annual value of the imports of
which into the United Kingdom alone for the years I ^">!» to
1868 amounted to about £ 1,000,000 sterling, it is difficult

120 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

to avoid the conclusion that artificial indigo will most
seriously interfere with, even if it does not within a very
few years altogether displace, the natural article."

Though this was written ten years ago, vegetable indigo
still retains its position in the market.

The hard, dried fruits now imported from India in such
large quantities under the name of Myrobalans were only
just making their way into commerce when Her Majesty
ascended the throne ; at the present time they come into
this country from India for the use of tanners to the extent
of over 640,000 cwt. a year. Two kinds are known in com-
merce— the Chebulic Myrobalan (Terminalia chebula) and
theBELLERic Myrobalan (T. belerica).

In 1875 the pods of a leguminous tree of South America
(Ccesalpinia brevifolia) were introduced from Santiago under
the name of Algaroba. They were said at the time to
contain a large amount of tannin— 90 per cent. — and to be
superior even to Divi-Divi (Ccesalpinia coriaria). In 1878
some pods of Wagatea spicata were sent from India to test
their value for tanning purposes. They were said to con-
tain 15 per cent, of tannic acid. The plant is a native of
the Concan, and is a scrambling thorny shrub belonging to
the natural order Leguminosa?. Seeds of this plant were
distributed from Kew to Demerara, Dominica, Jamaica,
Trinidad, and other places.

Elephantorrhiza Burchellii. — Under the name of Elands
Bontjes the root-bark of this leguminous plant first attracted
attention in 1866, when a paper was read before the Phar-
maceutical Society by Professor Attfield, and published in
the Pharmaceutical Journal, Vol. VII 1., 2nd Series, p. 316.
The plant, which was there referred to a species of Acacia,
is said to furnish food from its seeds, a medicinal infusion
from its root, and also a valuable tanning material. It was
found upon analysis to contain 20 per cent, of tannic acid.
Nothing further was heard of this root till 1886, when it

DYES AND TANNING MATERIALS. 121

was exhibited in the Natal Court of the Colonial and Indian
Exhibition. Mr. T. Christy, in his New Commercial Plants
and Drugs, No. 10, published in 1887, says :— " Mr. W. N.
Evans, who tested the root, states that it contains 25 -37 per
cent, of tannin, and that, if it were to work up in a similar
manner to Mimosa bark, the best samples might be worth
from £14 to £15 per ton. With regard to its practical
value as a tanning material for leather, from the incomplete
trials that were made with the small cjuantity received, it
was found to give too red a colour; but I should not like to
speak positively upon this point, as in treating a few cwts.
of the roots at a time it might be found that this detriment
could be overcome."

PJiyllocladus Irichomanoides. — A very large coniferous
tree of New Zealand, where it is known as Tanekaha.
The bark, which is of an orange-yellow colour, has of late
years come largely into use in this country for dyeing kid
or dogskin gloves the fashionable golden orange.

Under the name of Canaigre a tanning material has
been known in America for the last ten years or more, and
accounts of it have appeared from time to time in this
country. In the Leather Trades Circular for August 8,
1885, under the head of "New Tanning Agents," the
following occurred : — "An Arizona paper states that a new
tanning agent, likely to be of great value, has been dis-
covered, one which also has the property of adding weight
to the leather. The plant is an annual, and grows upon
desert and dry upland soil. It is known by the Mexicans
and Indians as Gouagka. . . . Practical use demonstrated
that the tanning properties of this root were about three
times as great as the common oak bark, and that in all
essentials it was superior to the bark in the manufacture of
leather." The roots, which are fleshy, are from three to six
inches long, and one and a half to three inches broad, of a
somewhat oval .shape, and covered with a dark brown skin.

12'2 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

The stems and leaves are described as being acid, like
rhubarb, and are used in a similar way in California and
Utah under the name of Wild Pie plant. In Texas the
roots are used for tanning. The plant has recently been
determined as Rumex hyinenosepalum, belonging to the
natural order Polygonacea?, and from a_i analysis made so
recently as March of the present year (1890), it would
seem " that these roots will be a valuable addition to our
list of tanning products." This interesting substance is
fully detailed in the Kew Bulletin for April, 1890.

123
CHAPTER X.

PAPER MATERIALS.

The enormous demand for paper that has sprung up of
late years has, like the demand for so many other products,
caused those most interested to divert their attention to new
sources of material. Notwithstanding that so long ago as
1801 Matthias Koops obtained a patent for manufacturing
paper from hay, straw, thistles, waste, and refuse of hemp
and flax, and different kinds of wood and bark, linen and
cotton rags remained almost the exclusive material from which
paper was made until about forty years ago. Then, as the
penny daily paper appeared and became general, old ropes,
sacking, jute, and a host of other substances were pressed
into the service. The most important introduction, however,
was Esparto (Stipa tenacissima). It was in 1856 that the
late Mr. Thomas Routledge, so well known in connection
with the paper trade, obtained a patent for manufacturing
paper from Esparto grass. Some of the first paper made
from this grass was used for printing the Report of Dr.
Forbes Royles' paper on Indian Fibres, and formed the
number of the Journal of the Society of Arts for Novem-
ber 28, 1850. In that year the total imports of Esparto
amounted to only 50 tons, the whole of which was worked
up at Mr. Routledge's mill at Eynsham, near Oxford. In
1864 the quantity imported rose to 50,000 tons, and in 1886
the return was over 200,000 tons, which continues to be the
average quantity imported at the present time. This enor-
mous demand for Esparto, coupled with the destructive
manner of collecting it — namely, by tearing it from the
roots — has considerably diminished the sources of Bupply,
so that at present paper-makers are as much alive as ever
to new materials. Another substance to the utilisation of

IU

( N i.M U ERCIAL BOTANY.

Estaeto [Slipa lenacissima).

which Mr. Rout-
ledge paid con-
siderable attention
was the young
stems of bamboos,
and he succeeded
in showing that
a very fine paper
could be made
from these stems,
as he published a
pamphlet on the
subject in 1875
which was printed
on paper made
from bamboo. It
was proposed that
the stems should
be crushed at the
place of growth
and shipped in
that state to this
country j so as to
reduce bulk and
freight. The in-
terest in the pro-
ject to utilise the
bamboos as a
paper material be-
came general, both
in England, India,
and America. As
I liesc gigantic
grasses will grow-
in almost any tro-

PAPER MATERIALS. 1 25

pica] country, there seemed to be an unlimited source of
supply. Opinions of botanists, however, were divided as to
whether the continued cutting of the young bamboo stems
would not considerably weaken them and eventually reduce
the supply. One thing to be borne in mind in considering
this subject is that the several species of Bambusa and Den-
drocalamus are equally suited to the manufacture of paper,
and that in India bamboos are very plentiful. Indeed, Sir
1). Brandis states "that there are about 1,800 square rniies
of almost pure bamboo forest in the Arrakan division of
British Burma within a moderate distance from the coast,
and all accessible by navigable streams." The accessibility
is, of course, a matter of considerable importance in bringing
bulky material down to a point whence it could be the more
readily transferred for shipment to England.

Notwithstanding the interest taken in the Bamboo
as a probable source of paper material, it has not,
down to the present time, become a recognised article of
trade.

Baobab (Adunsonia digilata). — The fibrous bark of this
West African tree was hist brought to the notice of the
paper-maker in 187G. It was proved upon trial to possess
all the necessary propcri ies for making an excellent paper.
The drawback to its general utilisation has been the slow
growth hoth of tree and bark, and the probability of a
failure in the supply.

Paper Mulberry (Broussonetia pdpymfera). — This
well-known tree, from the bark of which the Polynesian
islanders make their Tapa cloths, and the Japanese a large
portion of their excellent paper, which they put to such a
multitudinous variety of uses, was first brought to the
notice of English paper-makers in 1879. The late Mr.
Routledge, in reporting upon it, described it as " nearly, if
not quite, the best fibre he had seen," requiring very little
chemicals, and giving an excellent yield.

12G

COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

In Japan the plant is cultivated for paper-making, the
young shoots being used for the purpose.

Californian " Cactus." — Under this name the steins

Taper Mulbeeby (Broussonetia papyri/era).

of a plant were brought to the notice of the Kew authori-
ties in 1877 as a valuable paper material. It was difficult,
from the material first brought, to determine its botanical
affinity. In 1878, however, further material came to hand,

PAi>ER MATERIALS. 127

from which the plant turned out to be Yucca brevi folia,
described in California previously, but incorrectly, as Yucca
Draconis. Forests of this plant existed in the Mohave
desert for several miles, through which the Southern Pacific
Railway runs. The stem of this plant, which grows to a
diameter of a foot or more, is of a very fibrous character,
and it was soon found to be an excellent paper material,
in consequence of which the plants have been systematically
cut down and turned into paper, which was at one time
used almost, if not quite, exclusively for printing the Daily
Telegraph upon.

Amongst other vegetable substances more or less suit-
able for paper-making that have been brought to notice at
Kew during the past ten years may be mentioned the
following : —

Cavanillesia platanifolia. — A plant belonging to the
Malvaceae, found abundantly in the eastern part of the
State of Panama, and as far east as Carthagena, known as
Volandero. The fibrous bark was found to pulp well,
bleach readily, and to make a strong opaque white paper of
fine quality. This was tested in 1877.

Uniola virgata. — A grass locally abundant in Jamaica.
In consequence of its bulky nature it would not pay to
send it in its raw state to England, but it might be
exported in the form of paper stock, and form a somewhat
inferior substitute for Esparto. It was tested in 1876.

Calotropis gigantea. — Under the name of Mudar this
asclepiadaceous plant is well known in India, where the
fibre from its stems is used in making cordage, and the floss
from the seeds for stuffing cushions, and occasionally for
weaving. It was first proposed as a paper material in
1877, but the ti-ials made with it were not satisfactory.
Again, in 1880 it was spoken favourably of in a report from
India, but it has still not been received favourably in this
country.

128 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Ischasmum angustifolium. — This is the Babar or Baboi
Grass of India, and grows abundantly in many parts of the
country. It has long been used in India for making into
ropes and cordage, and has latterly become one of the
principal paper materials, being largely used in the Bally
Paper Mills near Calcutta. It was introduced to notice in
England in 1878, and Mr. Routledge reported upon it as
follows : — " A small quantity of bleach brings it up to a
good colour. The ultimate fibre is very tine and delicate,
rather more so than Esparto, and of about the same
strength ; the yield, however, is 42 per cent., somewhat
less. I think I may venture to say it will make a quality
of paper equal to Esparto."

The great drawback to the general utilisation of the fibre
in this country is that the plant has to be collected in India
over wide and distant areas, and its bulky nature increases
the cost of freight. It might, however, be converted into
paper stock in India, and exported in that form. That the
plant is capable of extended cultivation in India if a de-
mand for it should spring up in this country, has been
recently shown in an account of its culture published in the
Proceedings of the Agricultural and horticultural Society of
India for October, 18S7. The plant is, perhaps, equally
well known under the names of Eriophorum comosum and
1'ollinia eriopoda, under both of which it has been de-
scribed.

Molinia cceridea. — This well-known British Grass wa?
brought to notice as a probable source of paper material in
1878, and in the Kew Report for 187!) it is stated :— " Mr.
N. G. Richardson, of Tyaquin, county Galway, has actively
promoted its experimental cultivation in the West of
Ireland. At a private meeting held at Athenry, a com-
mittee was formed to raise subscriptions to plant ten Irish
acres of bog with it at Tyaquin. Mr. W. Smith, of Golden
Bridge Mills, had manufactured paper from this grass with

PAPER MATERIALS. 129

which he was so well satisfied that ' he was prepared to buy
1,000 tons if any one would supply him.'"

Secale cereale, Rye Straw, was proposed in 1879, Mr.
Routledge's report being that " it is very largely used in the
States, also on the Continent. It will make a harder and
firmer paper than any other cereal straw, except perhaps
maize."

Musa, spj). — The utilisation of Plantain and Banana
stems for paper-making was brought forward in the Kew
Report for 1881. It is there pointed out that there can be
no question as to the suitability of the fibre for the purpose,
but that the pi'actical difficulty has been in dealing with
the 90 per cent, of water which the stems contain. By me-
chanical treatment, however, the fibre of a plantain stem
can be dried oft' within a period of eight hours, and as the
plants are very abundant in India and Burma, it might be
worth while to systematically extract the fibre for paper-
making. Dr. King, of Calcutta, reporting on this subject,
says : — " In my opinion this proposed plantain industry
has a good deal of promise about it, and I think it might be
well worth while for Government to spend a little money in
sending a sufficiently large shipment to the London market,
and to allow it to be sold for what it will fetch in small lots,
so that the new material may become generally known to
the paper-making interest. If the fibre answers for paper,
Government need do no more ; the matter will, no doubt, be
taken up by private enterprise.

" The Bengal Government will be prepared to give all
reasonable assistance to any mercantile firm -or individual
wishing to try experiments, and will arrange for future
supplies at reasonable rates. It will also give such other
assistance as may be deemed necessary and proper."

Commenting on this, Sir Joseph Hooker says: — ^What-
ever the success of the enterprise in India, I think the
matter is well worth attention in the West Indies. The

130 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

cultivation of bananas for export is assuming a constantly

Plantain (Mtmn paradisiaca).
increasing magnitude. Each banana stem is useless after it

PAPER MATERIALS. 131

has borne fruit, as it does not do this more than once. To
work up the decaying stems into paper pulp, if it could be
done inexpensively, would be a desirable addition to the
profit of banana-growing, and would get rid of the evils in-
cident to the decomposition of the useless stems."

Wood Pulp. — The reduction of the trunks of certain
coniferous trees, as well as of the Poplar, in the preparation
of wood pulp, is a well-known industry of Norway and
Sweden, where factories for this purpose are still increasing,
and whence a large portion of the product finds its way to
this country. It is a comparatively new industry, and one
capable of almost unlimited extension.

.) -2

132

CHAPTER XI

Fibres.

Few branches of manufacture have attracted so much at-
tention in recent years as the application of new fibres.
The numerous uses to which fibres are put will sufficiently
explain this ; paramount, of course, must always be that for
textile purposes, then for rope and cordage, next as a sub-
stitute for bristles in broom and brush-making, and finally
for paper-making, which has been treated of under a distinct
heading.

It is, then, for the first three uses that we have now to
consider the fibre supply; and in glancing at the subject from
its first aspect, mainly as furnishing textiles, we may briefly
allude to the cotton supply, which in 1800 was only about
600,000 cwt., the increase going on steadily down to our
own time, as will be seen from the following statistics : —
1837 Total imports of raw Cotton ... 3,636,489 < wt.
1856 „ „ „ ... 9,141,842 .,

1860 „ „ „ ... 12,419,096 .,

1862 „ „ „ ... 4,678,333 ..

1866 .. .. „ ... 12,295,803 ..

1886 „ „ ... 15,187,299 ..

1887 „ „ ... 15,903,117 .,

1888 .. „ „ ... 15,246,40S ..

1889 ., „ „ ... 17,159,316 ..

It will be remembered how seriously the American civil war
affected the cotton trade in this country, and this is specially
marked in the above table. Much larger supplies were at
that time drawn from British India, and of the total imports
for last year British India supplied 2,438,968 ewt.

In 1876 a new kind of cotton was introduced to the
notice of planters under the name of Bamia Cotton*. It
made its first appearance in Egypt, and attracted a good

FIBRES. 133

deal of attention on account of its mode of growth and its
abundant fruit-bearing. It was described as sending off
branches regularly from the bottom of the main steins up-
wards, but bearing close to the ground two, three, or more
branches, and then rising to a height of eight or ten feet
without a branch. This erect growth was considered an
advantage, inasmuch as a much larger number of plants
could be grown within a given area than is possible with
ordinary cotton. The plant was also described as a prolific
fruit-bearer, so that the yield was estimated at a considerably
higher rate than any other known variety. In consequence
of these very strong recommendations the seeds were dis-
tributed as widely as possible from Kew with very varied
results. The quality of the cotton was reported as not to
be materially different from that of ordinary Egyptian
cotton, of which, indeed, it was found to be a fastigiate
variety. Bamia cotton is now seldom or never heard of.

A textile fibre of undoubted quality which still awaits
development is the so-called China Grass. This fibre
seems to have made its first appearance in this country,
in the form of finely-woven handkerchiefs, not long
before 1849, for it was about this time that a specimen
of the fabric was received at Kew together with other
materials, from which it was found that the plant fur-
nishing it, though called China Grass, was in reality a
bushy-growing nettle — the Boshmeria nivea or Urtica nivea
of botanists. From this time the fibre began to attract
mueh attention, and a patent was obtained in the same year
(1849) in connection with its preparation. At the Great
Exhibition in 1851 three prize medals were awarded for
China Grass fibre. It was then proved that from the fibre,
properly cleaned and prepared, fabrics could be woven equal
in every respect to the finest French cambric. Notwith-
standing this, the interest in China Grass dwindled down
and remained in abeyance for some time, till in 1865 a

134 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

fresh interest was given to it by the American "Vice-Consul
at Bradford, Yorkshire, suggesting to his Government at
Washington the desirability of their introducing the plant
and fostering its growth in the United States, for the double
purpose of utilising its fibre in America and of exporting it to
this country. The practical results of this communication,
though it excited fresh interest in this country at the time,
were almost nil. The great desideratum was the invention
of a machine that would clean the fibre, and prepare it at
such a cost that it might be put into the market at a price
to compete with other textiles of a similar character; and
with the hope of attaining this end, the Indian Government
offered in 18G9 prizes of £'5,000 and £2,000 for such a
machine. A Mr. Greig was the only competitor, and his
machine did not altogether fulfil the conditions necessary
for complete success, so that the matter again dropped. In
the meantime the China Grass plant has been grown for
experimental purposes in the South of France, near Mar-
seilles, and in Algeria, and many new inventions in
machinery for its preparation have been made in England,
America, and on the Continent. During the year 1887 a
fresh impulse was given to the fibre by a series of experi-
ments with new machinery in Paris, as well as by the
adaptation of a flax- cleaning machine, invented by Mr.
Wallace, and exhibited during the year at an Exhibition of
Irish Industries held in London. At a still later period —
namely, in the Kew Bulletin for December, 1888 — it is
stated " that those who have in a measure been successful
in preparing the fibre in commercial quantities are dis-
appointed at the reception it has received at the hands of
the spinners and manufacturers."

The extended cultivation of the plant presents no diffi-
culties, given a suitable soil and a locality possessing the
necessary climatic conditions of heat and moisture. There
is no doubt that the Ramie or China Grass plant could

FIBRES. 135

be cultivated in most of our tropical possessions. Re-
garding the question of the decortication of the stems, this
problem remains still unsolved. And on this, as the K&vo
Bulletin says, "really hangs the whole subject. The third
stage [that of spinning] is disajipointing and unsatisfactory
because the second stage [that of decortication] is still un-
certain ; and being thus uncertain, the fibre is necessarily
produced in small and irregular quantities, and only comes
into the market by fits and starts. It would appear that
Ramie fibre differs so essentially from cotton and flax that
it can only be manipulated and worked into fabrics by
means of machinery specially constructed to deal with it.
Owing to the comparatively limited supply of Ramie fibre
hitherto in the market, no large firm of manufacturers have
thought it worth while to alter the present or put up new
machinery to work up Ramie fibre. If appliances or pro-
cesses for decorticating Ramie in the colonies were alreadv
devised, and the fibre came into the market regularly and
in large quantities — say, hundreds of tons at a time — there
is no doubt manufacturers would be fully prepared to deal
with it. At present the industry is practically blocked
by the absence of any really successful means of separating
the librc from the stems, and preparing it cheaply and
effectively. This, after all, is the identical problem which
has baffled solution for the last fifty years."

Further trials in cleaning Ramie fibre by machinery
were made in Paris during the Exhibition of 1889, the
results of which have been recorded in the November and
December numbers of the Kew Bulletin for that year. It
will suffice for our purpose to know that the conclu-
sions arrived at were that Fiance appeared to be the best
market for the fibre. A well-known London firm of fibre
brokers, reporting on the trade in November, 1889, say
that strips of the hark — known as ribbons — were sold during
that week at from £14 to £16 per ton, and that they were

13G COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

disposed to think that the bases of a real trade in the article
were in process of formation.

The plant is a native of China, but is cultivated in India
and the Malay Islands. By the Chinese it is known as
Tchou-ma, in Assam as Rheea, and in the Mahay Islands as
Ramie. It has been introduced at different times into most
of the British colonies.

About the year 18G0 a substance called Pixe Wool was
introduced to notice, two factories having been established
near Breslau, in Silesia. The process consisted of reducing
the pine-leaves to a coarse kind of fibre of a brownish-yellow
colour. This was used for stuffing cushions, mattresses,
etc., and as a kind of wadding ; more recently it has been
made into a yarn, and woven with animal wool, aiid sold as
pine-wool flannel, which is said to have advantages over
ordinary flannel, inasmuch as it keeps the body warm
without heating, and is very durable. The pine chiefly
employed is Finns Laricio. More recently — namely, within
the last two or three years — pine wool has been made in
North America from the long leaves of the Turpentine
Pine (Pinus australis), and used for making mats and
carpets.

Perhaps no other fibre, whether textile or otherwise, has
made such rapid strides as a commercial commodity as Jute.
The beginning of the Jute trade is intimately associated
Avith Dundee, and dates back near upon fifty years. It is
the inner bark of two or more species of Corchorus, of
which Gorcliorus capsularis and C olitorvus are the chief.
They are annual plants, belonging to the natural order
Tiliacese, and are now largely cultivated in India, especially
in Bengal, exclusively for the sake of this fibrous bark.
This bark was at one time used only to make Gunny bags,
in which to export Indian raw sugar; these, after being
emptied of their contents in this country, were sold to the
Jews, who extracted the remaining sugar by boiling, and

FIBRES.

137

then sold the old bags to the paper makers, to be converted
into pulp or paper stock. The fine glossy character of the
jute fibre soon, however, began to recommend itself for
textile pui'poses, and 9,300 tons were imported into this
country in 1846, which rose in 1887 to 373,480 tons.

Jute (Corchorus capsular is).

At first jute was only used for mixing with wools in
cheap druggets and carpets. At the present time it is
applied to a great variety of pm-poses, such as imitation
tapestry, carpets, cords, twines, and even for mixing with
cheap silks, to which it lends itself on account of its bright
glossy appearance.

138

COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Cocoanut (Corns nucifera).

Amongst vege-
table fibres used
for brush and
broom -making,
several very im-
portant introduc-
tions have been
made, foremost of
which, of course,
is the fibrous husk
of the Cocoa-nut
(Cocos nucifera).
This fibre, now so
generally known
by the name of
Coir, has become
within the last
twenty or thirty
years a most im-
portant article of
import. Its in-
troduction may be
said to date from
about the year
1836, when a shop
for the sale of
articles made of
Coir was opened
in Agar Street,
Strand. In 1839
a partner in this
business took out
a patent for the
manufacture of
various fabrics

FIBRES. 139

from the fibre, and from this time its uses rapidly increased.
One of the earliest applications of cocoa-nut fibre was for stuff-
ing mattresses and cushions, and for this purpose it was
cleaned, crushed, and dyed in imitation of horsehair ; for
brushes it Avas also early applied, and is still largely used
for this purpose. The treatment of the fibre and the im-
provement of the machinery used had so far developed in
1842 that on the occasion of the baptism of the Prince of.
Wales in that year, St. George's Hall, Windsor, was laid
with cocoa-nut matting, which fact was recorded in the Times
of January 2Gth in that year as follows : — " The floor
was covered first with a matting made of the husk of the
cocoa-nut."

The Exhibition of 1851 was the means of giving a
further impetus to the trade, from which time it has gone
on increasing. In the process of separating the fibre from
the cocoa-nut husk three distinct commercial articles are pro-
duced— namely, the long fibres, used for matting and mats ;
the shorter or more stubborn fibres, for brooms and brushes ;
and the still shorter or refuse, for hoi'ticultural purposes.
As a further illustration of the commercial importance of
Coir, it may be stated that 5,243 tons were imported in
1S66, which had increased in 1882 to 11,590 tons.

Another important brush-making material, but of more
recent introduction, is Bass or Piassaba, the produce of two
distinct palms — namely, Leopoldinia Piassaba from Para,
and Attalea funifera from Bahia. These two kinds are
distinguished in trade, the fibre of the Attalea beinc;
superior to that of Leopoldinia for brush-making, on account
of its being stiff and yet "springy," so that longer lengths
can be used ; the Para fibre is more flexible, and can only
be used in short lengths ; it is, however, of a brighter colour.
The Attalea fibre can be obtained either very fine or very
thick and strong ; each fibre is more or less round, while
the Pai'a kind is flat.

140 COMMERCIAL BOTASY.

The introduction of Piassaba fibre into England for
brush-making dates back about forty years, and is almost, if
not entirely, due to the exertions of Mr. Arthur Robottom.
When first introduced, it was used exclusively for road-

Baiiia Tiassaba [Attalea funifera).

brushes or brooms, which were generally known as whale-
bone brooms ; indeed, before the nature of the material was
fully ascertained it was considered to be split whalebone.
The fibre is easily collected from the trunks by cutting it

FIBRES.

141

away at the bases of the leaves ; and when a sufficient
quantity is collected, it is roughly cleaned by fixing pieces
of stick in the ground with sharp points and drawing the
fibre through them. This rough system of combing separates

Kittool, or Wine Palm (Caryota urens).

the flossy fibre, which is not exported, but is used in Brazil for
making ropes to tie poles together, or for making fences.
The Piassaba is then pressed in bales or bundles ready for ship-
ment. In 1861 nearly 6,000 tons of Piassaba were imported

142 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

into England. The price has considei'ably advanced of late,
owing to the diminished supply ; and much interest is
now being shown in the discovery of similar fibres from
other sources. About eight years ago a new kind of Pias-
saba was introduced to the British market from Madagascar,
and still forms an article of import. The fibres are thinner
and much softer than those of either the Para or Bahia
kinds, and consequently not so valuable for brush-making.
Though this Madagascar Piassaba is proved to be the
produce of a palm, the exact plant has not yet been deter-
mined. More recently a thick, whalebone-like fibre has been
introduced as Lagos Piassaba, but little is at present known
of it. It is apparently the produce of Raphia vinifera.

Another fibre that has recently taken a prominent
position in the brush trade is Kittool, which is found in
lai"ge quantities around the bases of the leaves of Caryota
urens, a well-known Cingalese palm. Kittool fibre has been
known in this country for some thirty or forty years, but it
is within the last five or six years that it has become a regu-
lar commercial article. When first imported, the finer fibres
were used for mixing with horsehair for stuffing cushions.
As the fibre is imported it is of a dusky-brown colour ; but
after it arrives here, it is cleaned, combed, and arranged in
long straight fibres, after which it is steeped in linseed oil to
make it more pliable ; this also has the effect of darkening it,
and it becomes indeed almost black. It is softer and more
pliable than Piassaba, and can consequently be used either
alone or mixed with bristles in making soft, long-handled
brooms, which are extremely durable, and can be sold at
about a third the price of ordinary hair brooms. The use of
Kittool fibre is said to be spreading not only in (his country
but a;so on the Continent.

Under the name of Mexican Fibre or Istle a stiff fibre
is now imported into the English market, chiefly for making
scrubbing and nail brushes. The history of this fibre is

FIBRES. 143

interesting, and may be given briefly as follows : — "When
the war broke out between England and Russia, one of the
sources of hemp — namely, from Russia — was stopped ; the
Istle, which was known to some Mexican merchants, was
suggested as a substitute, and a small trial shipment was
made to England. It was soon found, however, that it was
unsuited for rope-making. A portion of it having come into
the hands of Mr. Robottom, whose name has before been
mentioned in connection with Piassaba, he at once suggested
its use for brush-making, and purchased the whole consign-
ment of about twenty tons that had been shipped from New
York to Hamburg. On arrival in this country it was sold
for about £28 per ton ; the price soon rose to £85 per ton,
falling to £18, and afterwards rising again at the time of
the insurrection in Mexico to £140 per ton. The trade
afterwards increased vei'y rapidly, and the fibre is now
imported in very large quantities, chiefly from Tampico, and
used for making scrubbing and nail brushes, whitewash
brushes, bath brushes, etc., and at one time it was largely
used by crinoline-makers. The source of this fibre was
unknown till in 1879 Dr. Parry sent specimens to the Kew
museum under the name of Agave Lechuguilla. This, how-
ever, has quite recently {Bulletin of Jlfiscellaneous In-
formation, Royal Gardens, Kew, No. 12, December, 1887,
p. 5) been shown to be identical with Agave heteracantha, to
which plant Mexican fibre or Istle must now be referred.
The present value of this fibre is stated to be about £26
per ton.

Another Mexican brush fibre, the botanical source of
which has been quite recently cleared up, is that known as
Broom Root or Mexican \Vhisk. Though it appears to be
a comparatively new industry, there seems to be no record
when it was first introduced. It is shipped from Vera Cruz,
chiefly to Germany and France, a small quantity only
coming direct to this country. In Fiance, however, it is

144 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

mixed with Venetian Whisk, the roots of Chri/sopogon
Gryllus, which, though somewhat lighter in colour, are
similar in appearance, but of a superior quality ; and in this
mixed condition it is exported to England for making clothes,
velvet, carpet, and dandy brushes. The roots are known
in Mexico as " Raiz de Zacaton," and are referred in the
Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, Royal Gardens, Kew,
No. 12, December, 1887, p. 9, to Epicampes macroura.

About twelve years ago a new material was introduced
for gardening purposes — namely, for tying plants — under the
name of Roffia or Raffia ; for some time the origin of
this article remained unknown, but it was subsequent lv
proved to be the thin but very strong cuticle of the leaf
of Iiaphia Bujfia, a palm, native of Madagascar. It is
exported chiefly to Mauritius, and thence to England — at
the present time in very large quantities. Its value in the
London market ranges from £25 to £200 per ton, but its
avei'age price may be taken at from £40 to £50 per ton.
In Madagascar this same substance, split into fine threads
and dyed, is used for making mats and cloths, some of
which are very beautiful.

It is said that the cuticle of the leaves of B. taidigera,
a Brazilian species, is also exported to this country, and helps
to make up the bulk of the Roffia of trade. This material
has entirely supplanted the old Cuba Bast from Hibiscus
elatus, which was so largely used in gardens about forty
years ago. It was originally used for tying up bundles of
real Havanna cigars ; and during the Russian war, when
the bast from the lime-tree became scarce, it was used as a
substitute for that article, and has now passed from notice
to give place to Rofna.

In the London International Exhibition of 1862,
amongst the South African products some prominence was
given to a stiff black fibre which was advocated for brush-
making, as a substitute for hoi'sehair, and for paper-

FIBRES. 145

making. This fibrous substance was known as Palmite or
Palmiet, and is found in quantities encircling the stems of
Prionium Palmita, a stout-growing plant of South Africa,
belonging to the natural order Juncaceae. Though it at-
tracted some attention at the time, it never came into actual
use.

Another substance which has come into use in recent
years as a substitute for horsehair is known as Cein Vege-
tal, and consists of the crushed fibres from the leaves of
Ohamcerops humilis, the European Fan Palm. It is culti-
vated in some parts of Southern Europe and Northern
Africa, particularly by French colonists in Algeria. It grows
rapidly, so that almost any quantity of the leaves could
be obtained. It is said that one man can cut 400 pounds
of leaves per day. The extraction of the fibre, which is a
very simple process, is usually done by women and children.
The fibres are either dried in their natural colour — green —
or dyed black to resemble horse-hair, as a substitute for
which in upholstery work it is chiefly used. It is exported
principally to England, France, Germany, and the United
States. The exact date of its introduction is not known.
Lai'ge quantities of the dried leaves are \ised for making
baskets.

In the early part of 1889 a new fibre from the west
coast of Africa was brought to notice at Kew, whence it
was received from the Governor of Lagos. It was sent
under the name of Bolobolo, and is also known in the
Yoruba language as Agbonrin Ilassa. From specimens of
the plant which accompanied the fibre, it was proved to be
derived from Ilonckenya Jicifolia, belonging to the natural
order Tiliacea?. A report on the commercial value of the
fibre was furnished by Messrs. Ide and Christie, of Mark
Lane, and published in the Kew Bulletin for January,
1889. The following is an extract from their report : —
"We consider this a very valuable fibre of the jute class,

K

146 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

but distinctly superior to the latter in many respects, and
more particularly in strength. It is of good length, and
well cleaned. If this fibre is capable of being produced in
large quantities, there is a very wide field open to it com-
mercially. Its market value would be regulated by that of
jute, but in our opinion it would always command a higher
price. At today's currencies it would sell at £16 per ton
in London. We do not think the minimum price would
ever fall below £12 ; and if the jute market made a further
advance, this Bolobolo fibre might realise £20. If this fibre
could be prepared of a whiter colour, it would prove still
more acceptable ; but even as it is, we should be very
glad to see large quantities placed on this market, where
they would sell readily."

Under the name of Bombay Aloe Fibre a sample of a
white fibre was received at the Kew Museum at the close of
1888. It was imperfectly prepared, and the price obtained
for it in the London market was exceptionally low. The
botanical source of this fibre being unknown, application
was made by Kew to the India Office to obtain from Bom-
bay plants or material to enable it to be identified, when it
proved to be obtained from Affave vicipnra, a plant closely
allied to the common American Aloe. A quantity of about
200 tons was received in the London market in 1889, the
prices quoted for which were £12 per ton for good quality
and £5 for common. The fibre could only be used for
ropes. The subject is fully treated of in the Kew Bulletin
for March, 1890.

147
CHAPTER XII.

FODDERS.

The question of the extended cultivation of fodder
plants, as well as the consideration of their storage for
winter use, has always occupied more or less of the atten-
tion of agriculturists, and of late years more practical
results have accrued in sending new fodder plants for culti-
vation into our colonies than in introducing such into our
own country.

About fifty or sixty years since, several plants of this
character were brought to notice as suitable and very de-
sirable for cultivation in England. The exact dates, how-
ever, when they were first proposed it is difficult to fix.
About fifty years ago a considerable amount of interest
was excited in the Gama Grass or Buffalo Grass (Trip-
sacum dactyloides) of the Southern States of America.
Though it is considered by some a good forage plant, it is
somewhat too tender for general cultivation with us.

AiraflabeUata, better known as Dactylis ccespitosa — The
Tussock Grass— a strong-growing tufted perennial native
of the Falkland Islands, was introduced to Kew in 1842,
and seeds were afterwards obtained and freely distributed.
It was at one time supposed that it might become thoroughly
established in this country, but experience has shown that
the climate is too hot and dry. It has, however, succeeded
in the West of Scotland, and has become established in the
island of Lewis. It is doubtful whether the plant is really-
adapted for pasture purposes. The tussocks are only formed
slowly, so that cattle would soon destroy them, and the
plant thus become exterminated.

Under the name of Bromua Schraderi a new fodder
grass was introduced some fifteen or sixteen years ago. The
K 2

148 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

plant, which is now known to botanists as Ceratochloa unio-
hides, is commonly known as Australian Prairie Grass.
It occurs from Central America to the last Alpine zone of
Northern Argentina, and has spread over many parts of the
globe. It is described as one of the richest of all grasses,
grows continuously, and spreads rapidly from seeds, par-
ticularly on fertile and somewhat humid soil. It is a very
nutritious fodder and pasture grass, besides which it is said
to be very valuable for sowing in coverts, as it entices hares
and rabbits into the woods, away from the grain crops.

Prangos pabularia, Tibet Hay. — A perennial, belong-
ing to the Umbellifera?, forming a stem a few feet high. It
is a native of Tibet, as its common name implies, where it
is extensively used as a fodder for sheep, goats, and oxen.
It was introduced for cultivation as a fodder plant in this
country about 1840, but it did not succeed.

Perhaps the most important fodder plant introduced
during this century is that which is now so well known as
Prickly Comfrey. This was first brought to notice in
1877, and advertised as Symphytum asperrimum. The
history and value of the plant is thus summarised in the
Kew Report for 1878 : — "It is apparently identical with a
Symphytum which has long been naturalised in the neigh-
bourhood of Bath and elsewhere, and which has been iden-
tified by botanists with S. asperrimum, a native of the Cau-
casus. Neither the naturalised nor the forage plant appear
to be really identical with that species, but the latter has
been found by Mr. Baker to agree with Symphytum pere-
grinum, which appears to be not certainly known as wild
anywhere, but to be probably a hybrid of garden origin be-
tween Symphytum officinale and S. asperrimum . ... In
England Prickly Comfrey has been found very useful for
winter fodder, as it forms large tufts of root leaves, which
start into growth early in the year, and bear several cut-
tings; it is greedily eaten by animals which refuse ordinary

FODDERS.

149

comfrey, the habit and appearance of which are not very
dissimilar." The acclimatisation of the plant has been

l&oi

mm.

W

Pbioelt Comfekt {Symphytum officinale).

attempted in various parts of the world, including India,
Ceylon, Singapore, Australia, and Queensland, with, how-
ever, but little success, as it is more suited for cool or tem-
perate countries.

150 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Tn 1877 a considerable amount of interest was directed
to the fleshy corollas of the well-known Indian Mahwa
(fiassia latifolid). The tree, which belongs to the natural
order Sapotaceae, is very common in many parts of India,
especially in Bengal, and the flowers are produced in such
large quantities as to cover the ground when they fall ; they
are succulent and sweet, somewhat like a raisin in appear-
ance, but with a heavy cloying taste and smell. They are
largely used as an article of food, both fresh and stored for
winter use. In the year previously mentioned (1877) a
quantity of these flowers was sent to England for trial in
feeding cattle, as well as for distilling a spirit from them.
For the first they were reported upon most favourably — the
flesh of pigs fed upon them being said to be especially good —
while for distilling purposes they were said to have yielded
as much as 6T6 gallons of proof spirits per cut., the flavour
of which was very similar to that of Irish whisky, though
by careful rectification it might be made exceedingly pure and
free from flavour. In India the spirit is manufactured on a
large scale, and it is said that recently the flowers have be-
come a regular article of export from Bombay to France,
where they are distilled, the spirit being put into French
bottles, labelled as French brandy, and exported again to
Bombay. As an article of import to this country, how-
ever, Mahwa flowers have not fulfilled what was anticipated
of them.

151

CHAPTER XIII.

TIMBERS AND HARD WOODS.

Though the extended application of iron during the last
twenty years, both for ship and house building, has to some
extent supplanted the use of timber, the increased building
operations all over the country have caused a continued
demand for the various building timbers. The attention of
our timber merchants and ornamental wood dealers has not
been so much directed to the introduction of new woods as
to new sources of supply of existing kinds. The pines and
oaks are still the woods mostly in demand for structural
purposes, and it is for cabinet-work that most interest is
shown in the application of new woods. Notwithstanding
all that has been done by the British possessions, as well as
by foreign countries, to bring their forest resources promi-
nently forward at the several International Exhibitions
since 1851, the result cannot be said to be satisfactory so
far as the British timber trade is concerned.

The magnificent collections of Australian timbers that
have from time to time been shown, as well as those from
the Cape of Good Hope- notably in the Colonial and Indian
Exhibition of 1886 — have not resulted, as might have been
anticipated, in creating a demand for them in this country.
It may be thought that a periodical exhibition is not the
best means of keeping such things fresh in the minds of
those most interested, and to some extent this is true ; but
when these collections find a permanent home, always open
to the public, as they are at Kew, there can be no such
excuse. In the case of Australasian timbers, however,
there may be some reason why they have not yet figured as
regular articles of import with us, and this is the cost of

152 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

freight for so long a distance, coupled with the fact that
most of the timbers of those far-off colonies are very dense
and remarkably heavy. This is, of course, especially the
case with the numerous species of Eucalyptus, which genus
furnishes some of the most characteristic of Australian
woods. The hardness of these woods indeed is their special
recommendation. One species — namely, the Jarrah (Euca-
lyptus marginata), a native of "West Australia — has attracted
some attention during the last year or so as a material for
paving roadways ; and blocks made from it have been laid
down by several of the metropolitan vestries, as, for instance,
at Islington ; King's Road, Chelsea ; Westminster Bridge
Road; and in the Strand. There are some others that have
appeared occasionally in our markets, and ought to be regu-
larly known in the timber trade, if only for cutting into
veneers, should the woods be too costly to use in the solid.
Of such we may mention Muskwood (Olearia argophylla),
Tasmanian Myrtle (Fagus CunningJiami), and Huon Pine
(Dacrydium Franklinii), all of which have been greatly
admired by our ornamental wood dealers ; but some system
of a demand on this side of the world, and a ready response
on the other, seems to be needed to create a trade in these
bulky commodities.

So far as woods for cabinet purposes are concerned,
though fashion rules the demand in this, as in everything
else, there is always a sale for such well-known woods as
mahogany (which has been used in this country as a cabinet
wood since the middle of the last century), walnut, etc.; and
in connection with this it may be worth while here to place
on record what has been done in the introduction of the
mahogany-tree in India, Ceylon, and Mauritius, so that
future generations may draw their supplies of this valuable
wood from the East as well as from the "West Indies. So
far back as 1873 seeds were sent from Kew to India, and
in 1879 the cultivation of the tree was referred to as an

154 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

"accepted success," so that there is apparently no fear of
the mahogany supplies failing.

One of the valuable woods that has been introduced to
this country within the last fifty years is Sabicu, or, as it
is sometimes called, Savicu. It is the produce of Lysiloma
Sabicu, a leguminous tree of Cuba and San Domingo, from
whence it is imported to this country, and latterly in small
quantities from the Bahamas. The wood is so hard, dense,
and durable, that it was much used at one time in ship-
building for keelsons, beams, engine-bearers, stern-posts, etc.
It was not much known, however, before 1851, in which
year it was used for the stairs of the Great Exhibition;
and, notwithstanding the immense traffic upon them, they
were found at the close of the exhibition to be but little
the worse for wear. In 1879 Bahamas Sabicu wood was
first used for weaving shuttles and bobbins, but the demand
for this purpose has never been large.

Another building timber of great importance is Kauri
(Dammara atistralis). This is a large tree, 100 to 150 feet
high ; native of the northern Island of New Zealand. Mr.
Ransome says, in his report on Colonial Timbers (Colonial
and Indian Exhibition, 1886), that "this is undoubtedly
the best of all soft woods, being remarkably sound, durable,
and straight-grained." It is eminently suitable for doors,
straight and circular mouldings, match-boarding, and other
joiners' work, as well as for casks and engineers' patterns.
The wood has been imported in small quantities for many
years, and always meets with a ready sale. It yields a
valuable resin known as Kauri Gum. (See Resins.)

Probably there is no branch of the subject relating to the
supplies of wood or of its utilisation of more importance than
that which touches the supply of boxwood, or the discovery
of an efficient substitute for engraving purposes. For some
years past there has been a gradual falling off in the
supplies; indeed, in 1875 it was stated that the boxwood

TIMBERS AXD HARD WOODS. 155

forests of Mingrelia, in the Caucasian range, were almost
exhausted, and wood that had been rejected in old forests
was being eagerly cut, and purchased at high prices for ex-
port to England. The cutting of wood in Abhasia and in
all the Government forests in the Caucasus was prohibited,
and about the same time a prohibition was issued by the
Porte against the cutting of boxwood at Trebizond. The
discovery of a wood that might be used as a substitute for
box is not a new matter ; for many years it has occupied
the attention of practical, as well as of scientific men, but
up to the present time no wood has been discovered that at
all equals box for engraving purposes ; so that while other
woods may be substituted for the various other uses to
which box was at one time largely put — namely, for shuttles,
turnery, carving, and ornamental uses — for the best engrav-
ings box alone is still in demand. In 1880 some consign-
ments of Indian boxwood were received in the London
market ; but the difficulty and cost of transit from the
Himalayas, where the tree grows, operate against its be-
coming a regular article of export.

The great increase of illustrated books and newspapers
continues to put a heavy pressure on the boxwood resources,
so that an efficient, if not a perfect, substitute is as much
a necessity as ever.

The following are the names of the principal woods that
have been tried and reported upon by practical men during
the last few years : —

1. Acer saccharinum. — Sugar or Bihd's Eye Maple. North America.

Not favourably reported upon.

2. Amelanchier canadensis. — American Shade or Service Tree.

Might prove useful.

3. Bn/a chains. — Cocrs Wood. Jamaica. Equals bad box.

4. Bursaria spinosa. — Tasmania* Boxwood. Found in North, West.

and South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Vic-
toria, and Tasmania. Equal to common or inferior box.

156 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

5. Carpinus Betulus. — Hornbeam. Britain. Not very favourably

reported upon.

6. Cornus Jlorida. — North American Dogwood. Bough, suitable

only for bold work.

7. Cratcegus oxyacantha. — Hawthorn. Britain. By far the best

wood after box.

8. Biospyros ebenum. — Ebony. Ceylon. Nearly as good as box in

texture; colour of wood an objection.

9. Biospyros texana. — A North American tree. Nearly equal to b< st

box.

10. Elceodcndron oust rale. — Queensland and New South Wales. Suit-

able for diagrams, posters, etc.

11. Euonymus europceus, var. Hamiltonianus. — Bai'cha. China, where

the wood is much used for carving and engraving. A
useful wood, especially for bold work.

12. Eugenia proeera. — Jamaica, Antigua, and Martinique. Suited

for bold, solid newspaper work.

13. Monotoca elliptica. — New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania.

Not very favourably reported upon.

14. Fittosporum bicolorantl F. undulalum. — New South Wales, Victoria

and Tasmania. Both woods are suitable only for bold out-
lines.

15. Byrus communis. — Common Pear. Britain. Not very will

reported upon, but it does well for engraved blocks for
calico printers.

16. Rhododendron californicum and M. maximum. — Both of these have

been favourably reported upon from North America.

17. Talwbuia pentaphylla. — West Indian Box. West Indies and

Brazil. A fairly good substitute for box.

The most recent substitute for true boxwood that has
been brought to notice, and one that at tirst promised to
become of considerable importance, is that known as Cape
boxwood. The first notice of this wood was contained in a
letter from East London, Cape Colony, in 1885, addressed
to the writer, and in t lie same year about three tons arrived
in London. Samples were submitted to several practical
men for trial and report, and they all agreed that the wood

TIMBERS AXD HAKD WOODS. 157

did not cut smoothly, but was harsh and ragged, and on the
whole that it was far inferior to boxwood. The trees were
said to be sufficiently abundant in the East London forests
to furnish a large supply of wood. Upon receipt of foliage
and flowers at Kew, the tree was found to be a new species
of Buxus, and was named Buxus Macowani. The wood has
not yet come into general use.

158
CHAPTER XIV.

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS.

Under this head are included such products as could not
readily be classified under any of the foregoing, but which are
— many of them, at least — of great commercial and economic
interest. A reference to one trade alone will suffice to prove
this — we mean the trade in Walking-sticks and Umbrella
and Parasol handles ; for while at the present time this is
one of the great trades of this country, in the early years of
the present century it was practically nil. There are no pub-
lished returns showing the importation of raw material used
in this trade ; but from figures which we have been at some
trouble to obtain, it would seem that of rattan canes alone,
imported during the year 1886, there were some 1,500
tons, of the estimated value of £30,000, while other canes
impoi-ted from the East numbered 28,950,000, valued at
£94,000 ; and to these may be added imports from other
parts of the world, as Brazil, Algeria, West Indies, France,
etc., bringing up the gross total value of rough material to
£189,000. Placing this against the value of the imports in
1850 of £1,600, it will be seen what progress has been
made in this one trade alone, which deals almost exclu-
sively with produce furnished by the vegetable kingdom.
As a further proof of the importance of this trade at the
present time, I may mention that Messrs. Henry Howell
and Co., of 180, Old Street, City Road, E.C.— the largest
firm engaged in this trade in London, and to whom I am
indebted for the above facts — constantly employ as many
as 530 hands in their establishmeiit. Another trade whose
operations are confined almost exclusively amongst plants,
and which within the last thirty years has considerably
developed as a branch of English commerce is that of

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS. 159

perfumery, for we not only import attar and essential oils
in large and increasing quantities from Roumelia, Singapore,
and other places, but the cultivation of perfume plants in
this country has received more attention; and when we know
that Mitcham lavender and peppermint oils are unequalled
in the mai'kets of the world, there seems no reason why
the cultivation of such plants, and the distillation of their
oils, should not be made specially a home industry. As an
illustration of the great value of imported perfumery oils,
we will briefly refer to those produced by species of Andro-
pogon, which are introductions of the present century. Thus
Lejion Grass Oil, the produce of Andropogon citratus, was
first imported into London about 1832 ; while Rusa, or
Ginger Grass Oil, from A. Schcenanthus, was first brought
to notice in 1825, and Citronella Oil, from A. Kardus, at a
much more recent period. Citronella and lemon grass plants
are extensively cultivated in Singapore and Ceylon for com-
mercial purposes, large plantations in the latter place being
devoted to them, and the oil distilled on the spot. Ginger
grass oil is chiefly distilled in Khandesh, in the Bombay
Presidency. Twenty-five years ago the export of citronella
oil from Ceylon was 622,000 ounces, of the value of <£8,230,
and it has considerably increased since then ; besides which
are to be added the still greater exports from Singapore, a
very large proportion of which comes to this country.

As an illustration of what may be done in the utilisation
of waste products, Cork stands forward as a prominent
example. Fifty years ago the uses of cork — the bark of
Quercus suber — were chiefly as stoppers for bottles, floats
for nets, in the construction of lifeboats, etc. In 1851, how-
ever, the adaptability of cork for very many other domestic
and manufacturing purposes was practically illustrated, and
its uses became wider and more general. The utilisation of
virgin cork for horticultural purposes does not date back
more than about twenty years ; previous to its application for

160 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

window-boxes, rockeries, orchid-growing, etc., it was a waste
product, as, owing to its irregular growth and porous nature,
it is quite useless for stoppers. Another use, however, has
since been found for it — namely, for grinding into powder,
and mixing with linseed oil and rubber, in the manufacture
of the floor-covering known as linoleum. In view of the still
further extended use of the cork-tree, plants have been intro-
duced into India, where they seem to have made healthy and
vigorous growth.

Vegetable Ivory. — The seeds of Phytelephas macro-
carpa, a low-growing or almost stemless palm, found on the
banks of the river Magdalena, and producing large globular
bunches of fruits about the size of a man's head, containing
numerous white seeds, which become very hard as they
ripen, are extensively used as a substitute for real ivory,
chiefly for inlaying, for knobs for drawers, and very largely
for coat buttons. Vegetable ivory is said to have been
introduced into Europe about the year 1826, but when
it first came into commeixe in this country is not accuratrly
known.

During the summer of 1878 London, and indeed the
whole of the United Kingdom, was deluged with an enor-
mous importation of hats plaited from a kind of sedge.
Though they were known to come from China, they soon
obtained the name of Zulu Hats, and they found their
way even into the remotest villages of the kingdom, being
sold at the remarkably low price of one penny each. So
abundant were they indeed that the market became glutted,
and the hats were sold for use as strawberry guards in
gardens by cutting out the ci'owns. The Consul at Ningpo
reported that no less than 15,000,000 of these hats, all
made by hand, had been exported in one year. The plant
from which they are made, which proved to be Cyperus
tegetiformis, is cultivated especially for this manufacture in
rice grounds, and the hats are made by women and children

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS. 161

The same plant is used for making the Chinese matting
which has been imported into this country, and so largely
used for bed-room and drawing-room floors during the last
six or seven years.

The so-called Briar-root Pipes, which have now become
such a large article of trade, were first introduced to this
country about thirty years ago. For some time their
origin was quite unknown, and they were made only in small
quantities. A flourishing industry is now established at
several places in Italy and France, notably at Leghorn,
Siena, and Grossitto. The roots of the " briar," which
word is a corruption of Bruyere {Erica arborea), are col-
lected on the hills of the Maremma, where the plant grows
luxuriantly and attains a great size. When brought to the
factory, the roots are cleaned of the earth which is attached
to them, and the decayed parts cut away. They are
then cut roughly into pipe-shapes, placed in a vat, and
gently simmered for twelve hours, by which time they
acquire a rich yellowish-brown colour, for which the best
pipes are noted. The rough blocks are then put into sacks
containing from forty to a hundred each, and sent to France,
where they are bored and finished off ready for exportation.

Under the name of Loofahs, our chemists have ex-
bited in their shops for the last few years natural flesli
brushes, consisting of the vascular tissue of the fruits of
Luffa o'gy]>tiaca, a climbing cucurbitaceous plant, native of
Egypt and Arabia, but grown also in the West Indies and
Western Africa, where it is generally known as the Towel
Gourd. In the countries where the plant grows, the
vascular network of the fruit is commonly used for
straining palm wine and other fluids, as well as for
scrubbing-brushes, and making light ornamental articles,
such as baskets, hats, etc. Quite recently a large fac-
tory has been established in Germany for converting the
Lufla fruits into useful domestic articles, of which soles or
L

162 COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

socks to place in boots, to keep the feet dry and warm in
winter and cool in summer, are among the most important.
They are elastic, and easily washed with soap and water.
Saddle undercloths are also made from Luffas, and are
intended to supplant the felt cloths hitherto used. They
fit the saddle perfectly to the back of the horse, and they
prevent the animal remaining wet under the saddle after
sweating. Surgical bandage stuffs are also made from
Luffas, and ai-e competing with the wood-wool kind intro-
duced some years ago.

The uses to which the Luffas or Loofahs may yet be put
are very numerous when we consider that they are obtain-
able in almost any quantity and at a very low rate ; some
bales received in the London market a few years ago
having been sold at five fruits a penny.

A new kind of paint or composition, especially intended
for coating ships' bottoms to prevent corrosion, was brought
to notice, and experiments made with it in Chatham dock-
yard in 1873, when a sheet of iron coated with the paint
was lowered into one of the basins, and after two years'
immersion was found to be practically as clean as when
first put down. In 1877 a company was formed, under the
title of the Protector Fluid Company, for manufacturing
this paint on a large scale. The fluid, with which any
colour can be mixed, is prepared with the juice of one or
more species of Euphorbia, collected, it is said, in Natal.
The discovery of this property of the Euphorbia juice is
said to have been made accidentally when cutting plants of
Euphorbia in Natal. It was found that the juice adhered
firmly, and coated the blades of the knives, thus preserving
them from rust. The value of a preservative against corro-
sion and the attacks of barnacles will be apparent in saving
the cost of frequent cleaning, and in maintaining the speed
of fast-going vessels.

1G3

INDEX.

Abba, 24

Aberia Caffra, 39

Abrus precatorius, 87

Acacia Angico, 115

Acer saccharinum, 155

Achras Sapota, 39

Adansonia digitata, 125

.Sgle Marmelos, 78

African rubber, 18

Agave heteracantha, 143 ; Leehu-

guilla, 143; vivipara, 146
Agbonrin Ilassa, 145
Aira flabellata, 147
Algaroba, 120
Aloe fibre, Bombay, 146
Aloe Perryi, 76 ; Socotrina, 77
Alstonia constricts, 88 ; plumosa,

23 ; scholaris, 87
Amatungulu, 39
Amelanchier canadensis, 155
American service tree, 155 ; shade

tree, 155
Amomum aromaticum, 78 ; subula-

tum, 77, 78
Anda assu, 98
Andira araroba, 88
Andropogon citratus, 159; Schaen-

anthus, 159 ; Nardus, 159
Angico, 115
Anime, 116
Anona cherimolia, 39; Bquamosa;

39
Arachis hypogaea, 109
Areca Catechu, 85
Arracacha, 43
Arracacia esculenta, 43
Artichoke, Chinese, 46
Aspidosperma Quebracho-blanco, 8S
Atropa Belladonna, 83
Attalea funifera, 139
Averrhoa Carambola, 39

Babar grass, 128
Baboi grass, 12S
Bael fruit, 78
Balata, 33

B.

Bamboos, 124

Bamia cotton, 132

Banana, 129

Baobab, 125

Barosma bctulina, 78 ; crenulata,

78 ; serratifolia, 78
Bass, 139

Bassia latifolia, 150
Bebeeru bark, 83
Beet-root, 50
Belladonna, 83
Bertabu, 23
Beta vulgaris, 50
Betel nuts, 85
Beverages, 52
Bhang, 88

Bird's-eye maple, 155
Black Cohosh, 78
Black Snake root, 78
Blue gum, 92
Bcehmeria nivea, 133
Boldo, 100
Bolobolo, 145
Borneo rubber, 22
Boxwood, 155 ; Cape, 156; Tas-

manian, 155 ; West Indian, 156
Brassica chinensis, 44
Brazilian cocoa, 99
Brazilian gum arabic, 115
Briar-root pipes, 161
Broom root, 143
Bromus Schraderi, 1 1 7
Broussonetia papyrifera, 125
Bruyere, 161
Brya ebenus, 155
Buchu leaves, 78
Buffalo grass, 14 7
Bursaria spinosa, 155
Butyrospermum Parkii, 34
Buxus Maeowani, 157

C.
Cactus, Californian, 126
Caesalpinia brevifolia, 120; coriaria,

120
Cafe du Soudan, 55
Cajuput oil, 82
Calabar beans, 100

L ^

164

COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Calisaya of Santa Fe, 67

Calotropis gigantea, 127

Camphor, Peppermint, 99

Canaigre, 121

Cannabis indica, 8S

Carambola, 39

Cardamoms, 77

Carica papaya, 90

Carissa grandiflora, 39

Carnauba, 92

Caroba, 92

Carpinus Betulus, 156

Carum coptieum, 99

Caryota nrens, 142

Cascara amarga, 101 ; sagrada, 103

Cassia occideotalis, 55

Castanea sativa, 49

Castilloa elastica, 14

Cavanillesia platanifolia, 127

Ceara scrap rubber, 14

Cedron, 103

Central American rubber, 14

Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, 71

Ceratochloa unioloides, 148

Ceratophorus Leerii, 32

Chamwrops humilis, 145

Chaulmugra, 97

Chavannesia esculenta, 26

Chayote, 44

Chequen, 99

Cherimoyer, 39

Cherry, Wild black, 81

Cherry laurel, 81

Chestnut flour, 49

Chew stick, 96

"Childs' night lights," 108

Chilocarpus flavescens, 23; viiidis,
23

China cuprea, 70

China grass, 133

Chinese artichoke, 46

Chiretta, 83

Choco, 44

Chonemorpha macrophylla, 26

Chrysopogon Gryllus, 144

Chrysophanie acid, 88

Ghuirus, 89

Cimicifuga racemosa, 78

Cinchona, 60; Calisaya, 65; cali-
saya, var. Ledgeriana, 69 ; febri-
fuge, 64; officinalis, 63; succi-
rubra, 62

Cinnamodendron corticosurn, 90

Citronella oil, 159

Citrus medica, var. acida, 56

" Cobbett's Corn," 47

Coca, 95

Cocoa, 53

Cocoa-nut fibre, 13S

Cocoa-nut oil, 106

Cocos nucifera, 108, 138

Cocus wood, 155

Coffee, 53

Coffea liberica, 53

Coir, 138

Cola nuts, 91

Cola acuminata, 90

Colchicum autumnale, 86

Colombia Virgen Rubber, 18

Colubrina reclinata, 92

Columbian barks, 65

Copal, 116; Inhambane, 116

Copaifera Gorskiana, 117

Copernicia cerifera, 92

Copra, 108

Corchorus capsularis, 136; olitorius,

136
Cork, 159
Corn-flour, 47
Cornus florida, 156
Cotton, 132; seed, 110
Cow tree, 35
Cowdi resin, 117
Cowhage or cow-itch, 80
Crataegus oxyacantha, 156
Crin Vegetal, 145
Crosnes, 44
Cuago nuts, 112
Cuba bast, 144
Cucumber, 40
Cucumis sativus, 40
Cundurango, 9S
Curare, 105

Cybistax antisyphilitica, 92
Cyperus tegctiformis, 150

D.
Dacrydium Franklinii, 152
Dactylis csespitosa, 147
Damiana, 105

Dammara australis, 117, 154
Daniellia fchurifera, 118
Deadly ui-htshadc, 83
Demerara rubber, 25

INDEX.

165

Dendrocalanius, 124

Dichopsis Gutta, 27

Dika bread and fat, 111

Diospyros ebenum, 156; texana, 156

Dita bark, 88

Divi divi, 120

Dogwood, American, 156

Doundake, 103

Dracsena Ombet, 77; schizantLa, 77

Dragon's Blood, 77

Drugs, 58

Drumine, 93

Duboisia Hopwoodi, 92

Dyera costulata, 30

Dyes, 119

3 E.

Ebony, 156
Elaeocarpus, 114
Elaeodendron australe, 15G
Eheis guineensis, 108
Elands bontjes, 120
Elephantorrhiza Burcbellii, 120
Elettaria cardamomum, 77
Epicampes macroura, 144
Erica arborca, 161
Eriophorum comosum, 128
Ervalenta, 49
Erythroxylon Coca, 95
Esparto, 123
Eucalyptol, 93
Eucalyptus, 92, 152; amygdalina,

93 ; Globulus, 92 ; marginata,

152
Eugenia procera, 156
Euonymus europajus, var. Hamilton-

ianus, 156
Euphorbia Drummondi, 93 ; piluli-

fera, 95
Euphorbia paint, 162
Euryangium Sumbul, 95

F.

Fabiana imbricata, 95

Fagus Cunninghami, 152

False Winter's Bark, 90

Fedegosa, 55

Ferula Sumbul, 95

Fever bark, Queensland, 88

Fibres, 132

Ficus elastica, 12; Vogelii, 24

Fiji rubber, 23

Flacourtia inermis, 39

Fodders, 147

Food products, 37

Forsteronia gracilis, 25 ; floribunda,

25
Franciscea uniflora, 96
Frankenia grandifolia, 96
French brandy, 150

G.

Gama gras:\ 147

Gambier, 8ls

Ganja, 89

Ginep, 39

Ginger grass oil, 159

Glycerine, 108

Goa powder, 88

Gonolobus cundurango, 98

Gossypium, 110

Gouagra, 121

Gouania domingensis, 96

(Jreenheart, 83

Ground nut, 109

Guarana, 99

Gums, 115

Gum arabic, 115

Gum euphorbium, 35

Gutta jelutong, 30; percha, 27;

shea, 34 ; sundek, 30, 32 ; taban,

29
Gynocardia odorata, 97

H.

Hagenia abyssinica, 97

Hard Carthagena bark, 67

Hard Woods, 151

Hawthorn, 156

Hemidesmus indicus, 97

Hemp, 88

Hevea brasiliensis, 12; guyanensis,

15
Hibiscus clatus, 144
Honckenya ficifolia, 145
Hornbeam, 156
Huon pine, 152
Hyptis spicigera, 113

Ilex paraguariensis, 55

Indian corn, 47; poke-root, 85;

tobacco, 82
India-rubber, 10
Indigo, 119
Ipecacuanha, 71

1G6

COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Ipomaea purga, 74
Irvingia Barteri, 112
Ischaemum angustifolium, 128
Isonandra Gutta, 27
Ispaghul, 102
Istle fibre, 142
Ivory, Vegetable, 160

J.

Jaborandi, 101
Jalap, 74

Jamaica rubber, 25
Jarrab, 152
Jequirity, 87
Joannesia princeps, 98
Jute, 136

K.
Kamala, 98
Kauri, 117, 154
Kava, 101
Kei apple, 39
Kino, Australian, 93
Kittool, 142
Kola nuts, 91
Kousso, 97
Krameria triandra, 78

Laintlaintain, 113
Lallemantia iberica, 113
Landolpbia, 18 ; florida, 20; Kirkii,

21 ; owariensis, 19 ; Petersiana,

22
Larch bark, 85
Larix europea, 85
Lavender oil, 159
Ledger bark, 68
Lemon grass oil, 159
Lens eseulenta, 47
Lentils, 47

Leopoldinia Piassaba, 139
Leuconotis eugenifolius, 23
Liberian coffee, 53 ; rubber, 24
Lime juice, 56
Linoleum, 160
Lobelia inflata, 82
Loofah, 161
Lophira alata, 113
Lovi lovi, 39
Luffa a-gyptiaea, 161
Lycopersicum esculentum, 40
Lysiloma Sabicu, 154

M.

Mabee bark, 92

Mabo nuts, 114

Macwarrieballi, 25

Mahogany, 152

Mahwa, 150

Maize, 47

Maizena, 47

Mallotus philippinensis, 98

Maluku seeds, 113

Manaca, 96

Mangifera gabonensis, 111 ; indica,

39
Mango, 39

Manihot Glaziovii, 14
Manungan bujok, 23 ; pulau, 23
Marsdenia cundurango, 98
Masseranduba, 35
Matico, 84

Melaleuca Leucadendron, 82
Melicocca bijuga, 39
Meni, 113

Mentha arvensis, 99
Menthol, 99
Mexican fibre, 142
Mimusops elata, 35 ; globosa, 33
Miscellaneous products, 15S
Molinea caerulea, 128
Monotoca elliptica, 156
Mountain cinnamon, 90
M'pogo nuts, 114
Mucuna pruriens, 80
Mudar, 127
Mulberry, Paper, 125
Musa, 129

Musk root, 95 ; wood, 152
Mutugo, 112
Myristica angolensis, 112; guate-

malensis, 113; surinamensis, 112
Myrobalans, 120
Myrtle, Tasmanian, 152
Myrtus cheken, 99

N.

Naseberrv, 39
Natal plum, 39
Nectandra Kodiasi, 83
Negro coffee, 55
Ni'phclium lappaceum, 39
New Drugs, 87
Niko nuts, 114

INDEX.

167

0.

Ogea gum, 118

Oils, 105

Olearia argophylla, 152

Opaehala, 113

Ordeal beans of Old Calabar, 100

Orvza sativa, 47

Owala, 113

P.

Pai'cha, 156

Palm oil, 108

Palmiet or Palmite, 145

Papaw, 90

Paper materials, 123

Para-rubber, 12

Paraguay tea, 55

Parinarium, 114

Passiflora edulis, 39

Paullinia sorbilis. 99

Payena, 30 ; Leerii, 32

Pear, 156

Pentaclethra maerophylla, 113

Peppermint camphor, 99 ; oil, 99

Perfumery, 159

Persian berries, 119'

Peru, Balsam of, 116

Peumus Boldus, 100

Phyllocladus trichomanoides, 121

Physostigma venenosum, 100

Phytelephas maeroearpa, 160

Piassaba, 139 ; Lagos, 142 ; Mada-
gascar, 142

Picbe, 95

Picrama excclsa, 80

Picramnia antidesma, 101

Pilocarpus pcnnatifolius, 101 ; Sel-
loanus, 101

Pineapple, 37; wool, 136

Pinus Laricio, 136; australis, 136

Piper methysticum, 101 ; angusti-
folium, 84 ; Mandoni, 85

Piptadenia maeroearpa, 115

Pittosporum bicolor, 156; undula-
tuin, 156

Pituri, 92

Plantago Ispaghula, 102; ovata, 102

Plantain, 129

Podophyllin, 102

Podophyllum peltatum, 102

Poke-root, Indian, 85
Pollinia eriopoda, 128
Poly gala rarifolia, 113

Potato, 41

Prairie grass, Australian, 148

Prangos pabularia, 14S

Prickly comfrey, 148

Prionium Palmita, 145

Primus serotina, 81 ; Lauro-cerasus,

81
Pyrus communis, 156

Q.

Quassia wood, 80
Quassia amara, 80
Quebracho-bianco, 88 ; White, 88
Quercus suber, 159

R.

Raffia, 144

" Raiz de Zacaton," 144

Rambutan, 39

Ramie, 135

Raphia Ruffia, 144 ; ttedigera, 144 ;

vinifera, 142
Rattan canes, 158
Red canella, 90
Remijia pedunculata, 71 ; Purdi-

eana, 71
Resins, 115
Revalenta, 49
Rhamnus infectorius, 119; Purshi-

ana, 103
Rhaphidophora vitiensis, 102
Rhatany root, 78
Rhea, 136

Rheum officinale, 76; palmatum, 76
Rhododendron calif ornicum, 156;

maximum, 156
Rhubarb, 76
Rice, 47
Roffia, 144
Rohan bark, 81
Rumex hymcnosepalum, 122
Rusa oil, 159
Rye straw, 129

S.
Sabicu or Savicu, 154

Saccharum olBcinarum, 50
Sago, 4 7

Sapium biglandulosum. IS
S.uvocephalus esculent us, 103
Sarsaparilla, Indian, 97
s. i ale cereale, 129
Sechium edule, 44

168

COMMERCIAL BOTANY.

Shantung cabbage, 44

Sierra Leone peach, 103

Simaba Cedron, 103

Socotra aloes, 76

Solatium Commersoni, 42 ; Jamesi,
42 ; Maglia, 42 ; tuberosum, 42

Sorghum saccharatum, 50

Soymida febrifuga, 81

Spogel, 102

Stachys Sieboldi, 44, 45 ; tuberi-
fera, 44, 45

Stipa tenacissima, 123

Strophanthus, 104 ; hispidus, 105

Strychnos toxifera, 105

Sugar cane, 50 ; maple, 155

Sumbul, 95

Sweet cup, 39 ; sop, 39

Swertia Chirata, 83

Symphytum asperrimum, 148; offi-
cinale, 148; peregrinum, 148

T.

Tabebuia pentaphylla, 156

Tanekaha, 121

Tanning materials, 119

Tapa cloths, 125

Tapioca, 47

Tchou-ma, 136

Tea, 52

Teli'airia occidentalis, 112

Terminalia belerica, 120; chebula,

120
Terra japonica, 82
Tibet hay, 148
Timbers, 151
Tobacco, Indian, 82
Tolu, Balsam of, 110
Toluifera balsamum, 116 ; Pereira?,

116
Tomato, 40
Tonga, 102
Towel gourd, 161
Trachylobium verrucosum, 116

Tragia, 36

Tripsacum dactyloides, 147

Tumera diffusa, 105
Tussock grass, 147

TJ.
Udika, 111

Ullucus tuberosa, 44

Uncaria Gambier, 82

Uniola virgata, 127

Urceola elastica, 23 ; esculenta, 26

Urostigma Vogelii, 24

Urtiea nivea, 1 33

V.

Varnishes, 115
Vegetable ivory, 160
Veratrum viride, 85
Vine, 52

Vitis vinifera, 52
Volandero, 127

W.

Wagatea spicata, 120

Walking-sticks, 158

Waxes, 105

Wax palm, 92

Whisk, Mexican, 143; Venetian, 144

Wild black cherry, 81 ; Pie, 122

Willughbeia Burbidgei, 23 ; edulis,

26; martabanica/26; Treacheri,

23
Winter's bark, False, 90
Woods, Hard, 151
Wood pulp, 131
Wourali, 105

Y.
Yan^ona, 102
Yerba de Mate, 55
Yerba Reuma, 9C<
Yucca brevifolia, 127; Draconis, 127

Z.

Zea mays, 47
Zulu hats, 160

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7s. 6d. ; Persian morocco, 10s. 6d. ; tree-calf, 15s.
Secular Life, The Gospel of the. Sermons preached at Oxford. By

the Hon. Canon Fremantle. Cheaper Edition. 2s. 6d.
Shall We Know One Another in Heaven ? By the Rt. Rev. J. C.

Ryle, D.D.. Bishop of Liverpool. Cheap Edition. Paper covers, 6d.
Stromata. By the Ven. Archdeacon Shrringham, M.A. 2s. 6d.
"Sunday," Its Origin, History, and Present Obligation. By the

Ven. Archdeacon Sessev, D.C.L. Fifth Edition. 7s. 6d.
Twilight of Life, The. Words of Counsel and Comfort for the

Aged. By the Rev. John Eli.erton, M.A. is. 6d.
Voice of Time, The. By John Stroud. Cloth gilt, is.

Selections from Cassell # Company's Publications.

(Btmcational Mtorha ant. Utatettite' ittamtals.

Agriculture Series, Cassell's. Edited by Professor Wrightson, Prin-
cipal of Downton Agricultural College. SOILS AND MANURES,
by Dr. J. Munro, is. 6d. ; CROPS, by Prof. Wrightson, is. 6d.

Alphabet, Cassell's Pictorial. 3s. 6d.

Arithmetics, The Modern School. By George Ricks, B.Sc. Lond.
With Test Cards. (List on application.')

Atlas, Cassell's Popular. Containing 24 Coloured Maps. 3s. 6d.

Book-Keeping. By Theodore Jones. For Schools, 2s. ; cloth, 3s.
For the Million, 2S. ; cloth, 3s. Books for Jones's System. 2s.

Botany in the Nineteenth Century, Commercial. By J. R. Jackson,
A.L.S., of the Royal Gardens, Kevv. 3s. 6d.

Chemistry, The Public School. By J. H. Anderson, M.A. 2s. 6d.

Classical Texts for Schools, Cassell's. (A List post free on application.)

Copy-Books, Cassell's Graduated. Eighteen Books. 2d. each.

Copy-Books, The Modern School. Twelve Books. 2d. each.

Drawing Copies, Cassell's Modern School Freehand. First Grade,
IS. ; Second Grade, 2S.

Drawing Copies, Cassell's "New Standard." Fourteen Books.

Books A to F for Standards I. to IV., 2d. each. Books G, H, K., L,
M, O, for Standards V. to VII., 3d. each. Books N and P, 4d. each.

Electricity, Practical. By Prof. W. E. Ayrton. 7s. 6d.

Energy and Motion. By William Paice, M.A. Illustrated, is. 6d.

English Literature, First Sketch of. By Prof. Morley. 7s. 6d.

English Literature, The Story of. By Anna Buckland. 3s. 6d.

Euclid, Cassell's. Edited by Prof. Wallace, M.A. is.

Euclid, The First Four Books of. New Edition. In paper, 6d. ; cloth, gd.

Experimental Geometry. By Paul Bert. Illustrated, is. 6d.

French, Cassell's Lessons in. New and Revised Edition. Parts I.
and II., each 2s. 6d. ; complete, 4s. 6d. Key, is. 6d.

French-English and English-French Dictionary. Entirely New
and Enlarged Edition. 1,150 pages, 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d.

French Reader, Cassell's Public School. By G. S. Conrad. 2s. 6d.

Galbraith and Haughton's Scientific Manuals.

Plane Trigonometry, 2s.6d. — Euclid, Books I., II., III.,2s.6d. — Books
IV., V., VI.,2s.6d.— Mathematical Tables, 3s. 6d.— Mechanics, 3s. 6d.
— Natural Philosophy, 3s. 6d.— Optics, 2s. 6d. — Hydrostatics, 3s. 6d. —
Astronomy, 5s.— Steam Engine, 3s. 6d. — Algebra. Part I., cloth, 2s. 6d.;
Complete, 7s. 6d. — Tides and Tid.il Currents, with Tidal Cards, 3s.

German Dictionary, Cassell's New. German-English, English-
German. Large Paper Edition, 7s. 6d. ; Cheap Edition, Cloth, 3s. 6d.

German of To-Day. By Dr. Heinemann. is. 6d.

German Reading, First Lessons in. By A. Jagst. Illustrated, is.

Guide to Employment for Boys. By W. S. Beard, F.R.G.S. is. 6d.

Hand-and-Eye Training. By G. Ricks, B.Sc. 2 Vols., with 16 Coloured
Plates in each Vol. Cr. 4to, 6s. each. Cards for Class Use, 5 sets, IS. each.

Handbook of New Code of Regulations. New and Revised Edition.
By John F. Moss. is. ; cloth, 2s.

Historical Cartoons, Cassell's Coloured. Size 45 in. x 35 in., 2S.
each. Mounted on canvas and varnished, with rollers, 5s. each.

Historical Course for Schools, Cassell's. Illustrated throughout.
I. — Stories from English History, is. II. — The Simple Outline of
English History, is. 3d. III. — The Class History of England, 2s. 6d.

Latin-English and English-Latin Dictionary. By J. R. Beard,
D.D., and C. Beard, B.A. Crown Svo, 914 pp., 3s. 6d.

Latin-English Dictionary, Cassell's. By J. R. V. Marchant, 3s. 6d.

Latin Primer, The First. By Prof. Postdate, is.

Latin Primer, The New. By Prof. J. P. Postuath. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.

Latin Prose for Lower Forms. By M. A. Bayfield, M.A. 2s. 6d.

Selections front Cassell § Company's Publications.

Laundry Work for Schools. By Emma Lord. Price 6d.

Laws of Every- Day Life. By H. O. Arnold-Forster. is. 6d.

Little Folks' History of England. Illustrated, is. 6d.

Making of the Home, The: A Book of Domestic Economy for School
and Home Use. By Mrs. Samuel A. Barnett. is. 6d.

Map-Building Series, Cassell's. Outline Maps prepared by H. O.
Arnold-Forster. Per Set of Twelve, pric is.

Marlborough Books :— Arithmetic Examples, 3s. Arithmetic Rules, is. 6d.
French Exercises, 3s. 6d. French Grammar, 2s. 6d. German do., 3s. 6d.

Mechanics and Machine Design, Numerical Examples in Practical.
By R. G. Blainb, M.E. With Diagrams. Cloth, 2s. 6d.

"Model Joint" Wall Sheets, for Instruction in Manual Training. By
S. Barter. Eight Sheets, 2s. 6d. each.

Music, An Elementary Manual of. By Henry Leslie, is.

New Poetry Readers, Cassell's. Illustrated. 9 Books, price id. each.

Object Lessons from Nature. By Prof. L. C. Miall, F.L.S. 2s. 6d.

Popular Educator, Cassell's NEW. With Revised Text, New Maps,
New Coloured Plates, New Type, &c. To be completed in 8 Vols. 5s. each.

Popular Educator, Cassell's. Complete in Six Vols. , 5s. each.

Readers, Cassell's "Higher Class." (List on application.)

Readers, Cassell's Historical. Illustrated throughout, printed on
superior paper, and strongly bound in cloth. (List on application.)

Readers, Cassell's Readable. Carefully graduated, extremely in-
teresting, and illustrated throughout. (List on application.)

Readers for Infant Schools, Coloured. Three Books. 4d. each.

Reader, The Citizen. By H. O. Arnold-Forster. Illustrated, is. 6d.

Reader, The Temperance. By Rev. J. Dennis Hird. Cr. 8vo, is. 6d.

Readers, The " Modern School" Geographical. (List on application.)

Readers, The " Modern School." Illustrated. [List on application.)

Reckoning, Howard's Anglo-American Art of. By C. Frusher
Howard. Paper covers, is. ; cloth, 2s.

Science Applied to Work. By J. A. Bower, is.

Science of Everyday Life. By John A. Bower. Illustrated, is.

Shade from Models, Common Objects, and Casts of Ornament,
How to. By W. E. Sparkes. With 25 Plates by the Author. Price 3S.6d.

Shakspere's Plays for School Use. 5 Books. Illustrated, 6d. each.

Shakspere Reading Book, The. Illustrated. 3s. 6d.

Spelling, A Complete Manual of. By J. D. Morell, LL.D. is.

Technical Manuals, Cassell's. Illustrated throughout:—

Handrailing and Staircasing, 3s. 6d.— Bricklayers^ Drawing for, 3s.—
Building Construction, 2s.- Cabinet-Makers, Drawing for, 3s.— Car-
penters and Joiners, Drawing for, 3s. 6d. — Gothic Stonework, 3s.
— Linear Drawing and Practical Geometry, 2s. — Linear Drawing and
Projection. The Two Vols, in One, 3s. 6d.— Machinists and Engineers,
Drawing for, 4s. 6d. — Metal-Plate Workers, Drawing for, 3s.— Model
Drawing, 3s. — Orthographical and Isometrical Projection, 2S.— Practical
Perspective, 3s.— Stonemasons, Drawing for, 3s. — Applied Mechanics,
by Sir R. S. Ball, LL. I)., 2s.— Systematic Drawing and Shading, 2S.

Technical Educator, Cassell's. Revised Edition. Four Vols., 5s. each.

Technology, Manuals of. Edited bv Prof. Avrton, F.R.S., and
Richard Wormf.ll, D.Sc, M.A. Illustrated throughout :—
The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics, by Prof. Hummel, 5s.— Watch and
Clock Making, by D. Glasgow, 43. 6d.— Steel and Iron, by Prof. \\\ H.
Greenwood, F.C.S., M.I.C.E., &&, 5s.— Spinning Woollen and
Worsted, by W. S. B. McLaren, M.P., 4s. 6d.— Design in Textile
Fabrics, by T. R. Ashenhurst, 4s. 6d.— Practical Mechanics, by I'rof.
Perry, M.E., 3s. 6d.— Cutting Tools Worked by Hand and Machine,
by Prof. Smith, 3s. 6d. (A Prospectus on application.)

Test Cards, Cassell's Combination. Insets, is. each.

Test Cards, "Modern School," Cassell's. In Sets, is. each.

CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited, Ludgate Hill, London.

Selections from Cassell $ Company's Publications.

§ooka for fjmntg fpeople .

"Little Folks" Half-Yearly Volume. Containing 432 410 pages, with

about 200 Illustrations, and Pictures in Colour. Boards, 3s. 6d. ; cloth, 5s.
Bo- Peep. A Book for the Little Ones. With Original Stories and Verses.

Illustrated throughout. Yearly Volume. Boards, 2s. 6d. ; cloth, 3s. 6d.
Cassell's Pictorial Scrap Book, containing several thousand Pictures

beautifully printed and handsomely bound in one large volume.

Coloured boards, 15s. ; cloth lettered, 21s. Also in Six Sectional Vols.,

3s. 6d. each.
Wanted— a King: or, How Merle set the Nursery Rhymes to

Rights. By Maggie Browne. With Original Designs by Harry

Furniss. 3s. 6d.
The Many Stories of Jack and Jill. Consisting of 65,536 Tales. By

the Rev. F. Bennett. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.
Schoolroom Theatricals. By Arthur Waugh. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.
Flora's Feast. A Masque of Flowers. Penned and Pictured by Walter

Crane. With 40 Pages in Colours. 5s.
Legends for Lionel. With 40 Illustrations in Colour by Walter Crane. 5s.
"Little Folks" Painting Book, The New. Containing nearly 350

Outline Illustrations suitable for Colouring. Price is. ; post free, is. 2d.
Little Mother Bunch. By Mrs. Molesworth. Illustrated. Cloth, 3s. 6d.
The New Children's Album. Fcap. 4to, 320 pages. Illustrated

throughout. 3s. 6d.
The Tales of the Sixty Mandarins. By P. V. Ramaswami Raju.

With an Introduction by Prof. Henry Morley. Illustrated. 5s.

Books for Young People. Illustrated. Cloth gilt, 5s. each.

The Champion of Odin: or, Viking

.Life in the Days of Old. By J.

Fred. Hodgetts.
Bound by a Spell ; or, The Hunted

Witch of the Forest. By the

Hon. Mrs. Greene.

Books for Young People. Illustrated. Price 3s. 6d. each.
Polly : A New-Fashioned Girl.

The King's Command: A Story
for Girls. By Maggie Symingt 11.

Under Bayard's Banner. By
Henry Frith.

The Romance of Invention.
By James Burnley.

By L. T. Meade.
For Fortune and Glory: A Story

of the Soudan War. By Lewis

Hough.
" Follow My Leader." By Talbot

Baines Reed. [Pitt.

The Cost of a Mistake. By Sarah
A World of Girls: The Story of

a School. By L T. Meade.

Lost among White Africans. By
David Ker.

The Palace Beautiful. By L T.
Meade.

On Board the "Esmeralda." By
John C. Hutcheson.

In Quest of Gold. By A. St. John-
ston.

For Queen and King. By Henry
Frith.

Books for Young People. Price 2s. 6d. each.

Heroes of Every-day Life. By

Laura Lane. Illustrated.
Decisive Events in History. By

Thomas Archer. With Original

Illustrations.
The True Robinson Crusoes.

Early Explorers'

The "Cross and Crown" Series.
2S. 6d. each.
Strong to Suffer: A Story of

the Jews. By E. Wynne.
Heroes of the Indian Empire:

or, Stories of Valour and

Viotory. By Ernest Foster.
In Letters of Flame : A Story

of the Waldenses. By C. L.

Mateaux.
Through. Trial to Triumph. By

Madeline B. Hunt.

Home Chat with our Young Folks.

Illustrated throughout.
Jungle, Peak, and Plain. Illustrated

throughout.
The World's Lumber -Room. By

Selina Gaye.
By Thomas Frost.

With Illustrations in each Book

By Fire and Sword : A Story of
the Huguenots. By Thomas
Archer.

Adam Hepburn's Vow: A Tale of
Kirk and Covenant. By Annie
S. Swan.

No. XIII. ; or, The Story of the
Lost VeBtaL A Tale of H;irly
Christian Days. By Emma Mar-
shall.

Selections from Cassell $ Company's Publications.

•'Golden Mottoes " Series, The. Each Book containing 208 pages, with
Four full-page Original Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 2s. each.

' Honour is my Guide." By Jeanie

Hering (Mrs. Adams-Acton).
' Aim at a Sure End." By Emily

Searchfield.
' He Conquers who Endures." By

the Author of "May Cunninghams

Trial," &c.

" Nil Desperandum." By the
Rev. F. Langbridge, M.A.

"Foremost if I Can.'
Atteridge.

By Helen

Cheap Editions of Recent Popular Volumes for Young People.

Wild Adventures in Wild
Places. By Dr. Gordon Stables,
R.N. Illustrated Price 2s. 6d.

Freedom's Sword : a Story of the
Days of Wallace and Bruce. By
' s S. Swan. Price 2s. 6d.

Perils Afloat and Brigands Ashore.
By Alfred Elwes. Price as. 6d.

Pictures of School Life and Boy-
hood. Selected from the best Au-
thors. Edited by Percy Fitzgerald,
M.A. Price 2S. f

Modern Explorers. By Thomas Frost. Illustrated. Price 2s. 6d.

Books for Children. In Illuminated boards, fully Illustrated.
Twilight Fancies. 2s. 6d. 1 A Dozen and One. 5s.

Cheerful Clatter. 3s. 6d. Bible Talks. 5s.

Cassell's Picture Story Books. Each containing Sixty Pages of
Pictures and Stories, &c. 6d. each-
Little Talks. Daisy's Story Book.
Bright Stars. Dot's Story Book.
Nursery Toys. A Nest of Stories.
Pet's Posy. Gk>od-Night Stories.
Tiny Tales. Chats for Small Chatterers.

Auntie's Stories.
Birdie's Story Book.
Little Chimes.
A Sheaf of Tales.
Dewdrop Stories.

Cassell's Sixpenny Story Books. All Illustrated, and containing
Interesting Stories by well-known writers.

The Smuggler's Cave.
Little Lizzie.
Little Bird, Life and Adven-
tures of.
Luke Barnieott.

The Boat Club.

Little Pickles.

The Elchester College Boys.

My First Cruise.

The Little Peacemaker.

The Delft Jug.

Cassell's Shilling Story Books. All Illustrated, and containing Interest-
ing Stories.

Bunty and the Boys.
The Heir of Elmdale.
The Mystery at Shonclift

School.
Claimed at Last, and Roy's

Reward.
Thorns and Tangles.
The Cuckoo in the Robin's Nest.
John's Mistake.
The History of Five Little

Pitchers.
Diamonds in the Sand.

Surly Bob.
The Giant's Cradle.
Shag and Doll.
Aunt Lucia's Locket.
The Magic Mirror.
The Cost of Revenge.
Clever Frank.
Among the Redskins.
The Ferryman of Brill.
Harry Maxwell.
A Banished Monaroh.
Seventeen Cats.

Illustrated Books for the Little Ones. Containing interesting Stories.
All Illustrated, is. each ; cloth gilt, is. 6d.

Scrambles and Scrapes.
Tittle Tattle Tales.
Up and Down the Garden.
All Sorts of Adventures
Our Sunday Stories.
Our Holiday Hours.
Indoors and Out.
Some Farm Friends.

Wandering Ways.

Dumb Friends.

Those Golden Sands.

Little Mothers & their Children.

Our Prettv Pets.

Our Sohoolday Hours.

Creatures Tame.

Creatures Wild.

Albums for Children.

The New Children's Album.

Illustrated throughout Cloth.
The Album lor Home, Sriiool,
and Play. Containing Stories by
Popular Authors. Set in bold
type, and Illustrated throughout.

Price 3s. 6d. each.

My Own Album of Animals. With

lull page Illustrations.
Picture Album of All Sorts. With

Full-page Illustrations.
The Chu-Chat Album. Illustrated

throughout

Selections from Cassell $ Company's Publications.

The World's Workers. A Series of New and Original Volumes.
With Portraits printed on a tint as Frontispiece, is. each.

Dr. Arnold of Rugby. By Rose
E. Selfe.

The Earl of Shaftesbury. By
Henry Frith.

Sarah Robinson, AgneB Wes-
ton, and Mrs. Meredith. By
E. M. Tomkinson.

Thomas A. Edison and Samuel
P. B. Morse. By Dr. Denslow
and J. Marsh Parker.

Mrs. Somerville and Mary Car-
penter. By Phyllis Browne.

General Gordon. By the Rev.
S. A. Swaine.

Charles Dickens. By his Eldest
Daughter.

Sir Titus Salt and George
Moore. By J. Burnley.

David Livingstone. By Robert

Florence Nightingale, Catherine
Marsh, Frances Ridley Haver-

tal, Mrs. Ranyard ("L.N.R.").
y Lizzie Alldridge.
Dr. Guthrie, Father Mathew,

Elilm Burritt, George Livesey.

By John W. Kirton, LL.D.
Sir Henry Haveloek and Colin

Campbell, Lord Clyde. By E. C.

Phillips.
Abraham Lincoln. By Ernest Foster.
George Miiller and Andrew Reed.

By E. R. Pitman.
Richard Cobden. By R. Gowing.
Benjamin Franklin. By E. M.

Tomkinson.
Handel. By Eliza Clarke. [Swaine.

Turner the Artist. By the Rev. S. A.
George and Robert Stephenson.

By C. L, Mateaux.

Smiles.

•«• The above Works (excluding RICHARD COBDEN) can alto be had Three in
One I'd., cloth, gilt edges, y.
Library of Wonders. Illustrated Gift-books for Boys. Paper, is.
cloth, is. 6d.
Wonderful Adventures. Wonders of Bodily Strength

Wonders of Animal Instinct. and Skill.

Wonderful Balloon Ascents. Wonderful Escapee.

Cassell's Eighteenpenny Story Books. Illustrated.

Faith's Father.
By Land and Bex.

Wee Willie Winkie.

Tips and Downs of a Donkey's

Life.

Three Wee Ulster Lassies.
Up the Ladder.

Dick's Hero; and other Stories.
The Chip Boy.
Raggles, Baggies, and the

Emperor.
Roses from Thorns.
Gift Books for Young People

Original Illustrations in each.
The Boy HunterB of Kentucky.

By Edward S.Ellis.
Red Feattier: a Tale of the

The Young Berringtoni.

Jeff and Leff.

Tom Morris's Error.

Worth, more than Gold.

" Through Flood— Through Fire; "*

and other Stories.
The Girl with the Golden Locks.
Stories of the Olden Time.

With Four

By

By Popular Authors.
Cloth gilt, is. 6d. each.

Major Monk's Motto. By the Rev.

F. Langbridge.
Triiy. By Maggie Symington.
Rags and Rainbows: A Story of

Thanksgiving.
Uncle William's Charges; or, The

Broken Trust.
Pretty Pink's Purpose; or. The

Little Street Merchants.
Tim Thomson's Trial. By Caorge

Weatherly.
Ursula's Stumbling -Block. By Julia

Goddard.
Ruth's Life-Work. By the Rev.
Joseph Johnson.

Cassell's Two-Shilling Story Books. Illustrated.
Stories of the Tower.
Mr. Burke's Nieces.
May Cunningham's Trial.

Seeking a City.
Rhoda's Reward; or.

Wishes were Horses.
Jack Marston'B Anchor.
Frank's Life-Battle ; or,

Three Friends.
Fritters. By Sarah Pitt.
The Two Hardcastles. By Made

line Bona via Hunt.

If

The

The Top of the Ladder : How to

Little Flotsam. (Reach it.

Madge and Her Friends.

The Children of the Court.

A Moonbeam Tangle.

Maid Marjory.

Peggy, and other Tales.
Books for Boys.

Ships, Sailors, and the Sea.
By R. J. Cornewall-Jonci. Illus-
trated. 5s.

The Four Cate of the Tippertons.

Marion's Two Homes.

Little Folks' Sunday Book.

Two Fourpenny Bits.

Poor Nelly.

Tom Heriot.

Through Peril to Fortune.

Aunt Tabitha's Walfa.

In Mischief Again.

School Girls.

Famous Sailors of Former Times.
By Clements Markharn. Illustrated.
3s. 6d.

Selections front Cassell § Company's Publications.

NEW WORKS BY EDWARD S. ELLIS.

Lost in Samoa. A Tale of Adventure in the Navigator Islands. By
Edward S. Ellis. Illustrated. 3s. 6d.

Tad; or, "Getting Even" with Him. By Edward S. Ellis. Illus-
trated. 3s. 6d.

The "Deerfoot" Series. By Edward S. Ellis. With Four full-page
Illustrations in each Book. Cloth, bevelled boards, 23. 6d. each.
The Hunters of the Ozark. I The Camp is the Mountains.
The Last War Trail.

The "Log Cabin" Series. By Edward S. Ellis. With Four Full-
page Illustrations in each. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2S. 6d. each.

The Lost Trail. | Camp-Fire and 'Wigwam.

Footprints in the Forest.

The " Great River " Series. By Edward S. Ellis. Illustrated.
Crown 8vo, cloth, bevelled boards, 2s. 6d. each.

Down the Mississippi. Lost in the Wilds.

TJp the Tapajos; or. Adventures in Brazil.

The " Boy Pioneer " Series. By Edward S. Ellis. With Four Full-
page Illustrations in each Book. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. each.
Ned in the Woods. A Tale of I Ned on the Biver. A Tale of Indian
Early Days in the West River Warfare.

Ned in the Block House. A Story of Pioneer Life in Kentucky.

The "World in Pictures

A Ramble Bound France,

All the Bussias.

Chats about Germany.

The Land of the Pyramids
(Egypt).

Peeps into China.
Half-Crown Story Books.

Little Hinges.

Margaret's Enemy.

Pen's Perplexities.

Notable Shipwrecks.

Golden Days.

Wonders of Common Things.

Truth will Out.

Illustrated throughout. 2S. 6d. each.
The Eastern Wonderland (Japan).
Glimpses of South America.
Bound Alrica.

The Land of Temples (India).
The Isles of the Pacific.

Soldier and Patriot (George Wash-
ington).

The Young Man in the Battle of
Life. By the Rev. Dr. Landels.

The True Glory of Woman. By the
Rev. Dr. Landels.

At the South Pole.

Three-and-Sixpenny Library of Standard Tales, &c.
trated and bound in cloth gilt. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. each.
The Three Homes. I Esther West.

All Illus-

J.

Deepdale Vicarage.

In Duty Bound.

The Half Sisters.

Teggy Oglivie's Inheritance.

The Family Honour.

Books for the Little Ones.

The Merry-go-Bound. Poems for
Children. Illustrated. 5s.

Ehymes for the Young Folk.
By William Allinghaiu. Beautilully
Illustrated. Ss. 6d.

The Little Doings of Borne
Little Folks. By Chatty Cheer-
ful. Illustrated. 5s.

The Pilgrim's Progress. With
Coloured Illustrations. 2s. 6d.

Working to Win.

Krilof and his Fables. By W. R. 5.

Ralston, M.A.
Fairy Tales. By Prof. Morlcy.

The History Scrap Book: With

nearly i.ooo Hngravings. 5s.; cloth,

7s. 6d.
The Old Fairy Tales. Wit)

Illustrations. Boards, Is.; cl., Is. bd.
My Diary. With is Coloured Plates

and 366 Woodcuts. Is.
The Sunday Scrap Book. With

One Thousand Scripture Pictures.

Boards, 5s. ; cloth, 7s. 6d.

Casfscll & Company's Complete Catalogue will be sent post
free on application to

CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited, Lud-ate Hill, Lou.ion.

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