vV COMMERCIAL BOTANY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. HACCHAIU'M OKKICIXJA1U M. COMMERCIAL BOTANY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. A Record of Progress in the Utilisation of Vegetable Products in the United Kingdom, and the Introduction of Economic Plants into the British Colonies, during the Present Century. BY JOHN 11. JACKSON, A.L.S., Associate Royal Botanical Society of London, Curator of the Museums, Royal Gardens, Keu~. CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED: LONDON, PARIS $ MELBOURNE. 1890. IGHTS RESBBVK0.J CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I. INDIA-RUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC ..... 10 II. GuTTA-pERCHA ........ 27 III. FOOD PRODUCTS ... ..... 37 IV. BEVERAGES ........ 52 V. DRUGS ........... 58 VI. NEW DRUGS ......... 87 VII. OILS AND WAXES ........ 106 VIII. GUMS, RKSINS, AND VARNISHES ..... 115 IX. DYES AND TANNING MATERIALS ..... 119 X. PAPER MATERIALS ........ 123 XI. FIBRES .......... 132 XII. FODDERS ......... 147 XIII. TIMBERS AND HARD WOODS ...... 151 XIV. MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS ...... 158 2091078 COMMERCIAL BOTANY OF THE NINETEENTH OENTUET. INTRODUCTION. IN considering this subject, the whole history of Economic Botany may be said to be placed under review, for it is quite within the last thirty years that anything like real or general attention has been directed to the subject. It is true that in the present century no single plant has been introduced either to commerce or for home cultiva- tion of such widespread importance as the tobacco and potato plants, nevertheless what has been accomplished in a comparatively few years in the cultivation of the cinchonas and the various caoutchouc-producing plants in various parts of the world will bear favourable comparison with anything done in a similar direction in previous centuries, and judging from the present rate of scientific progress the importance of these plants alone in future years may, and probably will, equal those of the tobacco and potato. It would be impossible to form any correct idea of what has been attained in the knowledge of plants, useful or otherwise, without referring to the results of the principal expeditions which have left our shores for different parts of the world during the present century, such, for instance, as Ross's Antarctic Expedition, which resulted in " The Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H.M. Ships Erebus and Twror, in the years 1839 to 1843," by Dr. (now Sir) B 2 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. J. D. Hooker ; or Captain Reliefs voyage of the Herald, after which appeared "The Botany of H.M.S. Herald during the years 1845 to 1851," by Berthold Seemann; or in still later times Captain Nares' Challenger Expedition from 1873 to 1876, the botany of which occupies two large volumes, principally the work of Mr. W. B. Hemsley, F.R.S. Not that these expeditions have resulted directly in the introduction of any one useful plant either for general culture or commerce, but they have been instrumental in im- parting a knowledge of the resources of the several countries visited, and m this way have awakened an interest in them. Important, indeed, as these expeditions have been in elu- cidating the botany of the world, still more so has been the formation of the several museums in the principal centres of the United Kingdom for the especial purpose of developing the economic resources of the vegetable, animal, and mineral kingdoms, such as the Food Collection, first At South Kensington in 1857 and later at Bethnal Green, the In- dustrial Museum at Edinburgh, and the Museums of Economic Botany at Kew, founded in 1847. These, to- gether with the Royal Botanic Society of London, founded in 1839, and the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, founded in 1841, must always be considered the centres from which knowledge on these points has flowed, and continues to flow. Nor must we forget the several Inter- national Exhibitions since 1851, where the vegetable resources of the globe, especially of our colonies, have been prominently brought to the notice of millions of people. Then, in connection with these museums and exhibitions is the literature which emanates from them, such as the handbooks and guides, in which, though published mostly for a few pence, a mass of valuable information is given. We cannot leave this part of the subject without a word of high commendation on the handbooks and catalogues issued by the several colonies at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF PLANTS. 6 of 1886, which should be in. the library of everyone inter- ested in Economic Botany. In the following notes the difficulty has been to keep them within what might be considered reasonable bounds. It was found impossible to even enumerate all the plants reputed to have economic properties that have been intro- duced to the United Kingdom during the present century, therefore those that seemed to have but little claim for notice have been omitted. On the other hand, such important plants as those yielding india-rubbers, gutta-perchas, cinchonas, etc., whose cultivation in other countries than their own is of vast importance to our commerce, and to the prosperity and welfare of our countrymen in our widely-spread domin- ions, have received a large share of attention, because it was thought that the information here brought together would be useful were it more widely disseminated than it- has hitherto been. Throughout these pages it will be seen how often fresh products have been brought forward and have shown pro- mise of becoming important commercial articles, and then have collapsed, sometimes finally, and sometimes to crop up again after a lapse of years. It is hoped that a perusal of these facts will inspire those who have opportunities to take up new products, or even to resuscitate those recorded here as having failed, to persevere in thoroughly testing their properties, or placing them in the proper channels for so doing. A commercial rather than a scientific arrangement has been adopted, as being probably the more generally useful. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF PLANTS. 1801. — Waste vegetable fibres applied to paper-making. 1806 — Rhatany root (Kramer la triandra) introduced as a medicine. 1807. — Rohun bark (Soymlda felrifuga) introduced as a medicine. Gambier or Terra japonica ( Uncaria Gambler] introduced about this time. B 2 4 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. 1809. — Quassia wood (Picrtena excelsa) introduced as a medicine. • Belladonna leaves (Alropa Belladonna) introduced as a medicine. Cowhage (Mucuna prurient) introduced as a medicine. 1813. — Cajuput oil (Melaleuca leucadendron, var. minor) introduced about this time. Patent granted for an invention for making fabrics air-proof by being treated with India-rubber or Caoutchouc. The use of Ipecacuanha as a specific in dysentery confirmed in England. 1819. — The development of the India-rubber trade commenced about this time. 1820. — Colchicum seeds (Cokhicum autumnale) introduced as a medicine. 1821. — Buchu leaves (Barosma crenulata, B. serratifolia, and B. betulina) introduced as a medicine. 1825. — Rusa or ginger grass oil (Andropogon Scheenanthus) introduced about this time for perfumery. 1826. — Vegetable ivory (Phytelephas macrocarpa) introduced about this period. 1829. — Indian tobacco (Lobelia injlata) introduced as a medicine. 1832. — Lemon grass oil (Andropogon citratus), introduced for per- fumery. 1835. — Greenheart bark (Nectandra Rodicei) first received attention as a tonic and febrifuge. 1837.— Beetroot Sugar Refinery established at Chelsea. Gama grass or buffalo grass (Tripsacutn dnctyloides) introduced for fodder. 1839. — Cherry-laurel (Prunus Lawocerasu*) introduced for making cherry -laurel water. Cultivation of cinchona plants suggested in India. From this period to 1841 Kousso (Hagenia abyssinica) attracted some attention as an anthelmintic. 1840.— Tibet hay (Prangos pabularia) introduced as a fodder plant. Ordeal bean of Old Calabar (Physostignui venenotum) intro- duced. Ground nut (Arachis nypogcea) introduced. First vineyard planted in S. Australia. 1812. — Tussock grass (Aira Jlabellata = Dactylis caspitosa) introduced as a fodder plant. Jute (Corchorus capsularis) introduced about this time. Gutta-percha first brought to notice. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP PLANTS. 5 1844. — Introduction of glycerine to commerce. 1847. — Cotton seeds first imported as oil seeds, and piassaba fibre introduced about this time for brush-making. 1849.—" Child's night-lights" introduced. Masseranduba (Mimmops elata) milk and China grass (JBcehmeria nivea) first brought to notice about this time. 1850.— Cedron (Slmaba Cedron) introduced as a medicine. Sumbul (Ferula \Eur\jang\uni\ StunbuF) introduced as a medicine. Bacl fruit ( JEyle Marmelos) introduced as a medicine. 1851. — Experiments made in cultivation of Ullucus tttberosus as a substitute for the potato. Shea butter (Butyrospermum Par I .') introduced about this time for soap -making. 1852. — First lime-fruit orchards planted in Montserrat. 1854. — Mexican fibre (Agave heieracantha) introduced about this time for brush-making. 1856. — Paper first made from Esparto. Blue gum (Eucalyptus Glolulus) introduced for cultivation, and for its medicinal properties. Guarana (PaKllinia sorlilis) introduced, and again in 18~0. 1858. — Larch bark (Larix europea) first used as a medicine. 1859. — Balata (Mimusops globosa) introduced. Udika fat (Irving ia Barteri) first brought to notice. Expedition arranged under Mr. Clements Markham to proceed to tho South American Forests to collect cinchonas for transmission to India. 1860. — Urccola esculenta first noticed as a rubber-yielding plant. Black snake root (Cimicifit 1889 . - 213,470 „ 1889 - - 1,019,077 .X GEOTTND NUT (Arachis hypogad). GROUND NUT (Arachis hypogcea).—This is a diffuse herbaceous annual, growing one or two feet high, unknown in a wild state, but now much cul tivated for the sake of its 110 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. oily seeds in all tropical and sub-tropical countries, especially in West tropical Africa. After the fall of the flower the young pod pushes its way beneath the surface of the earth, where it ripens. The introduction of the ground nut as an oil seed into European trade dates from 1840, since which time the imports have increased enormously. There are no authentic records of the imports of ground nut oil, but West Africa, India, and China supply by far the largest bulk. The oil is very free from stearine, and is consequently much used in pharmacy in the same way as olive oil, especially in India. With us it is also largely used for culinary and industrial purposes, as soap-making, etc. COTTON SEED. — The cotton seed of commerce is furnished by several species of Gossypium. The seeds were first im- ported into the English market as oil seeds some thirty or forty years since, but it is quite within recent years that the trade in cotton seeds has assumed a position of importance. In America at the present time it has taken the place of a distinct industry, over 400,000 tons of seeds being annually expressed, the quantity indeed increasing every year. A large quantity of this oil comes to this country directly and indirectly. Egypt also sends cargoes of seeds to English ports for expression here. Much of the oil is used by soap- niakers, besides which it makes a good lubricating oil ; and when carefully refined in France, and put into white glass bottles, it is sent into this country as " Pure Olive Oil," and used for culinary purposes. So recently as December, 1888, the British Consul at Venice, reporting on the trade and commerce for that port for 1887, says that the action of the Italian Government in enacting a higher import duty on cotton oil with the intention of preventing its being mixed with olive oil has had a contrary effect, the price of olive oil being considerably lowered, the reason of which is said to be that by the mixture of cotton oil the ordinary qualities of olive oil, produced in the South of Italy, OILS AND WAXES. Ill find an easier and more profitable sale. The residual cake, after the expression of the oil, is used for feeding cattle and as a fertiliser for the land. COTTON (Gossypium.) DIKA or UDIKA FAT. — Under the name of DIKA BREAD the compressed seeds were first exhibited at the Parts Exhibition in 1855 as the produce of Hangifera gabonensis. 112 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. In 1859 it was brought to the notice of the Pharmaceutical Society, and in 1862 a report of its nutritive value was published in the Journal of the same Society ; from this it would seem that its composition is analogous to coffee, tea, cocoa, etc. ; and it was then suggested that it might become an article of commerce in this country. The substance is composed of the fatty kernels of the seeds of Irvingia Barteri, a simarubeous tree of West tropical Africa, and is made into masses of a cone-like form, sometimes weighing as much as fifty pounds. It forms an important article of food amongst the natives, and contains 70 to 80 per cent of solid fatty matter. It has quite recently been stated that this fat is now used, mixed with cocoa butter from Theobroma cacao, for medicinal purposes. Telfairia occidentalis. — A climbing plant belonging to the order Cucurbitacea;, native of West tropical Africa, where the plant is cultivated for the sake of its seeds, which contain a sweet bland oil. They are cooked and eaten by the natives, and are said to be very palatable. The seeds are occasionally brought into Liverpool as oil seeds. The plant, which flowered at Kew in 1876, was raised from seeds received in 1870 from the Liverpool Botanic Garden. Myristica angolensis. — A native of Angola, where it is known as MUTUGO. The seeds, which are about three- quarters of an inch long and half an inch broad, are ruminated like an ordinary nutmeg, but have no aroma and but little or no taste. They are said to contain about three- fourths of their weight of fatty oil. They were first im- ported into Liverpool as oil seeds in 1884. Other species of Myristica to which attention has been directed as oil seeds are : — 1. M. surinamensis, imported into Liverpool from Para as oil seeds in 1881. Like the former, they have no smell and very little taste. They are nearly globular, about the size of a small marble, and are known as CUAGO nuts by the Spaniards. They are said to yield 72 OILS AND WAXES. 113 per cent, of their weight of solid fat, and the meal, after the expression of the oil, is described as useful as a substitute for linseed in making poultices. 2. M. guatemalen&is. — A native of Guatemala, the seed of which is ovoid, about one inch long and half an inch broad. This also yields a solid fat in large quantity. Hyptis spicigera. — An herbaceous plant belonging to the natural order Labiatae. The small black seeds contain a large quantity of oil, and are occasionally imported into Liverpool from the west coast of Africa. They made their first appearance in 1883. Poly gala rarifolia. — A shrubby plant belonging to the natural order Polygalese, native of West Africa, about Sierra Leone and Angola. The seeds are very oily, and were first received at Liverpool in 1884 under the name of MALUKU seeds. Lophira alata. — Under the name of MENI these seeds have recently been brought into Liverpool from West Africa for the sake of the oil they contain. The plant belongs to the natural order Dipterocarpese, and is known in Sierra Leone as LAINTLAINTAIX, where the oil is used, as well as in Seuegambia, for cooking and for anointing the hair. Pentaclethra macropliylla. — OWALA of the Gaboon, OPACHALA of the Eboe country. This is a leguminous tree growing to a height of 50 or 60 feet, the large seeds of which are used as food on the N iger, and the oil which is expressed from them in large quantities is used for domestic purposes, for lubricating machinery as well as for soap-f making. The seeds are not a regular article of trade, but are occasionally imported into Liverpool. Lallemantia iberica. — A plant belonging to the natural order Labiatse, and said to be cultivated to a considerable extent from Syria to Northern Persia. The small seeds contain a very large quantity of sweet limpid oil, suitable I 114 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. for culinary or other purposes. It was introduced to notice in England in 1880. Under the names of M'poco nuts, MABO nuts, and NIKO nuts, the hard bony fruits, minus the fleshy coverings in which they are enveloped when fresh, come occasionally into the port of Liverpool from the west coast of Africa, chiefly from Liberia and the Gaboon. The fruits of the M'pogo, which are imported from the Gaboon, are about two inches long and from one to one and a half inches in diameter. They contain three or four small roundish seeds, from which a very large percentage of oil can be expressed. The Mabo fruits are of an oblique-ovoid form, two inches or more long, and about an inch in diameter, with a very rough or chan- nelled surface. The seeds of this kind are also very rich in oil, of a very fluid character. These fruits and seeds are imported from Liberia. The Niko nuts, which come also from Liberia, are of a similar bony nature, about two inches long and one and half inches in diameter. The seeds, like the other kinds, contain a large proportion of oil. Neither of these have become established articles of trade, though the oil seems to be of a character that might become useful. Owing to the want of authentic specimens of the leaves and flowers of the plants producing these fruits, they have never been botanically identified, though it has been sur- mised that they might belong to the gemis Parinarium, of the natural order Rosacese. Probably, however, they may prove to be a species of Elceocarpus. They first made their appearance in Liverpool pome ten or twelve years since. 115 CHAPTER VIII. GUMS, RESINS, AND VARNISHES. IN the matter of new products coming under either of the above headings, there is but little to record as the dis- covery of the period under review. The points of interest connected with these substances lie more in the clearing up of doubts relating to their botanical origin and their accu- rate determination, as well as in their increased consumption and imports. The former, however interesting though it be, does not come within our scope, except where it bears on the development of the substance from a commercial point of view, or is instrumental in opening up new sources of supply. Under these circumstances our notes in this section will be necessarily limited. In passing, however, it may perhaps be of some interest to note that of Gum Arabic (which may be taken as' the most important of the true gums), the imports have increased from 25,289 cwts. in 1839 to 75,399 cwts. in 1886, falling again in 1887 to 46,443 cwts., a decrease due to the disturbed state of the Soudan, whence the best kind of gum is obtained, and rising again in 1889 to 65,368 cwts. In consequence of the Soudan war, however, higher pi-ices have ruled the market, and other gums have been brought into competition, the most notable of which is that which appeared early in 1888, under the name of Brazilian Gum Arabic. In ap- pearance it resembles the ordinary quality of Gum Arabic, and is said to be derived from the Angico tree of Brazil, which has been- described as Acacia angico of Mart. It is referred to in the Kew Bulletin, No. 17, for May, 1888, but since then the plant 'has been proved to be Piptadenia macrocarpa, Benth. It may also be worth while pointing out that the fragi-ant gum-resins, known as Balsams of Peru i2 116 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. and Tolu, were, fifty years ago, considered to be the produce of the same tree, Tolu being the resin hardened by exposure. It has, of course, been known now for some time that Balsam of Peru is the produce of Toluifera Pereirce, native of San Salvador, Central America, while Balsam of Tolu is furnished by Toluifera fialsamum, a native of Venezuela and New Granada. Under the trade names of ANIME or COPAL several kinds of hard fossil resin have long been known in commerce, partly derived from Africa, and partly from the East. The sources of these gums, which were then, as now, used exclusively in the manufacture of varnishes, were for a long time quite unknown. Indeed, the most valuable resin — namely, that known as Anime — was until comparatively recent times supposed to be the produce of India, being shipped to this country from Bombay. It is, however, now known to be furnished by Trachylobium verrucosum, a leguminous tree of Zanzibar, the resin being shipped thence to Bombay, and from Bombay to England. The clearing up of this interesting point in Economic Botany is due to Sir John Kirk, British Resident at Zanzibar, who communicated a paper on the subject to the Linnean Society in 1868, and sent full herbarium speci- mens of the plant to Kew, as well as a fine series of gum specimens. Seeds of the tree have since then been intro- duced into India and Australia. The best Anime is that which is dug from the ground near the roots of the trees, or where the trees once stood, but have now disappeared. Regarding the export of Anime from Zanzibar, Sir John Kirk says it sometimes reaches 800,000 pounds, of the value of £60,000. What promised to be a very important source of Copal was made known in 1883, when the British Consul at Mozambique reported the discovery at Inhambane of a tract of Copal forest fully 200 miles long. Samples of this new fossil Copal or Ajiirae were sent to England, and upon GUMS, RESINS, AND VARNISHES. 117 practical tests being made upon its suitability for varnish- making, was favourably reported on, and valued at from £80 to £100 per ton. Some of these samples are now contained in the Museum at Kew. It is the produce of Copaifera Gorskiana. Some later information on the subject is given in the Kew Bulletin, No. 24, for December, 1888, where an extract from a letter from Inhambane, under date Feb. 5, 1886, states : — " Many tons of copal have been exported from Inhambane. For some choice pieces I have received as high as £13 10s. per cwt. The average price realised on larger lots has been £7 per cwt. The forest containing the trees extends from the River Sabia in a south-westerly direction as far as Beleni." Fresh seeds were also received at Kew, and several hundred plants raised from them, which have been distri- buted from Kew to India, Fiji, Singapore, Jamaica, Trini- dad, Demerara, Dominica, and tropical parts of Australia. Another varnish-making resin, but little less important than Zanzibar Anime, is Kauri or Cow die resin of New Zealand. This, like Anime, is a semi-fossil resin, more commonly known in trade, however, under the name of Kauri Gum, and is the produce of Dammara australis, a very large coniferous tree valued alike for its timber as for its gum. (See Timbers.) The best Kauri gum is dug from the ground beneath the trees, or where the trees do not at present exist. Thirty-three years ago Kauri gum was imported into this country only in small quantities, for we find that in 1853 the total exports of the gum from New Zealand to all countries amounted to only 829 tons, of the value of £15,971 ; in 1883 this had risen to 6,518 tons, valued at £336,606. It is said that over two-thirds of the produce goes to the United States ; and there are no available returns of the imports into this country, though the quan- tities are very large. Though gum-digging gives employment 118 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. to a large number of persons, they generally consist of the lowest orders. Quite recently, however, it has been stated that, in consequence of depression of trade in New Zealand, a large number of men have taken to Kauri digging, as many as 10,000 being so occupied at present, and the quantity of gum brought to the Auckland market has very considerably increased. Under the name of OGEA GUM- a hard fossil resin of the copal character was introduced to notice in 1883 by Captain (now Sir Alfred) Moloney from the Gold Coast. It is described as being the produce of a leguminous tree closely allied to Daniellia thurifera; for lack of proper material, however, its species has not yet been determined. The gum is used by the natives both for lighting fires and for illu- minating purposes ; powdered, it is also used as a body per- fume by the women. It exudes from the trunk either from wounds or from holes caused by the boring of insects. The gum has not yet appeared in commerce. 119 CHAPTER IX. DYES AND TANNING MATERIALS. THE greatest development in the direction of dyes has not been towards those of vegetable origin. On the contrary, for the last twenty or thirty years vegetable dyes have been gradually displaced by the advances of chemical science in utilising coal-tar, and in the artificial preparation of colouring matters to supersede the old vegetable dyes. In this direction we need but refer to the serious blow given to the trade in Persian berries (Rhamnus infectoriun) in the Levant by the discovery of the Aniline dyes, or to the more recently threatened substitution of chemically - prepared Indigo for that of vegetable origin. So alarming did this discovery seem to be to the indigo-planters in India that we cannot refrain from quoting the following paragraph from a letter of Professor Armstrong published in the Kew Report for 1 880. He says : — " Notwithstanding the number of operations involved in the manufacture, it is stated that it will be possible thus to produce indigo at such a price that it can even enter into competition with the natural article, and that by substituting the method of dyeing pre- viously described for the troublesome and somewhat un- certain indigo vat method, there will be a still more distinct advantage gained over the natural article. It is difficult at present to estimate the influence which this discovery may have on the production of Indigo in India; but when it is remembered, to take an analogous case, that the discovery of a process of manufacturing madder red was only made in 1869, and that now it is almost impossible to procure natural madder red or garancine, the annual value of the imports of which into the United Kingdom alone for the years 1859 to 1868 amounted to about £1,000,000 sterling, it is difficult 120 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. to avoid the conclusion that artificial indigo will most seriously interfere with, even if it does not within a very few years altogether displace, the natural article." Though this was written ten years ago, vegetable indigo still retains its position in the market. The hard, dried fruits now imported from India in such large quantities under the name of MYROBALANS were only just making their way into commerce when Her Majesty ascended the throne ; at the present time they come into this country from India for the use of tanners to the extent of over 640,000 cwt. a yeai\ Two kinds are known in com- merce— the CHEBULIC MYROBALAN (Terminalia chebula) and theBELLERic MYROBALAN (T. belerica). In 1875 the pods of a leguminous tree of South America (Ccesalpinia brevifolia) were introduced from Santiago under the name of ALGAROBA. They were said at the time to contain a large amount of tannin — 90 per cent. — and to be superior even to Divi-Divi (Ccesalpinia coriaria). In 1878 some pods of Wagatea spicata were sent from India to test their value for tanning purposes. They were said to con- tain 15 per cent, of tannic acid. The plant is a native of the Concan, and is a scrambling thorny shrub belonging to the natural order Leguminosae. Seeds of this plant were distributed from Kew to Demerara, Dominica, Jamaica, Trinidad, and other places. Elephantorrhiza BurcJiellii. — Under the name of ELANDS BONTJES the root-bark of this leguminous plant first attracted attention in 1866, when a paper was read before the Phar- maceutical Society by Professor Attfield, and published in the Pharmaceutical Journal, Vol. VIII., 2nd Series, p. 316. The plant, which was there referred to a species of Acacia, is said to furnish food from its seeds, a medicinal infusion from its root, and also a valuable tanning material. It was found upon analysis to contain 20 per cent, of tannic acid. Nothing further was heard of this root till 1886, when it DYES AND TANNING MATERIALS. 121 was exhibited in the Natal Court of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. Mr. T. Christy, in his New Commercial Plants and Drugs, No. 10, published in 1887, says :— " Mr. W. N. Evans, who tested the root, states that it contains 25*37 per cent, of tannin, and that, if it were to work up in a similar manner to Mimosa bark, the best samples might be worth from £14 to £1 5 per ton. With regard to its practical value as a tanning material for leather, from the incomplete trials that were made with the small quantity received, it was found to give too red a colour; but I should not like to speak positively upon this point, as in treating a few cwts. of the roots at a time it might be found that this detriment could be overcome." Phyllocladus trichomanoides. — A very large coniferous tree of New Zealand, where it is known as TANEKAHA. The bark, which is of an orange-yellow colour, has of late years come largely into use in this country for dyeing kid or dogskin gloves the fashionable golden orange. Under the name of CANAIGRE a tanning material has been known in America for the last ten years or more, and accounts of it have appeared from time to time in this country. In the Leather Trades Circular for August 8, 1885, under the head of "New Tanning Agents," the following occurred : — " An Arizona paper states that a new tanning agent, likely to be of great value, has been dis- covered, one which also has the property of adding weight to the leather. The plant is an annual, and grows upon desert and dry upland soil. It is known by the Mexicans and Indians as GOUAGRA. . . . Practical use demonstrated that the tanning properties of this root were about three times as great as the common oak bark, and that in all essentials it was superior to the bark in the manufacture of leather." The roots, which are fleshy, are from three to six inches long, and one and a half to three inches broad, of a somewhat oval shape, and covered with a dark brown skin. 122 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. The stems and leaves are described as being acid, like rhubarb, and are used in a similar way in California and Utah under the name of WILD PIE plant. In Texas the roots are used for tanning. The plant has recently been determined as Rumex hymenosepalum, belonging to the natural order Polygonaceae, and from a_i analysis made so recently as March of the present year (1890), it would seem " that these roots will be a valuable addition to our list of tanning products." This interesting substance is fully detailed in the Kew Buttetin for April, 1890. 123 CHAPTER X. PAPEK MATERIALS. THE enormous demand for paper that has sprung up of late years has, like the demand for so many other products, caused those most interested to divert their attention to new sources of material. Notwithstanding that so long ago as 1801 Matthias Koops obtained a patent for manufacturing paper from hay, straw, thistles, waste, and refuse of hemp and flax, and different kinds of wood and bark, linen and cotton rags remained almost the exclusive material from which paper was made until about forty years ago. Then, as the penny daily paper appeared and became general, old ropes, sacking, jilte, and a host of other substances were pressed into the service. The most important introduction, however, was Esparto (Stipa tenacissima). It was in 1856 that the late Mr. Thomas Routledge, so well known in connection with the paper trade, obtained a patent for manufacturing paper from Esparto grass. Some of the first paper made from this grass was used for printing the Report of Dr. Forbes Royles' paper on Indian Fibres, and formed the number of the Journal of the Society of Arts for Novem- ber 28, 1856. In that year the total imports of Esparto amounted to only 50 tons, the whole of which was worked up at Mr. Routledge's mill at Eynsham, near Oxford. In 1864 the quantity imported rose to 50,000 tons, and in 1886 the return was over 200,000 tons, which continues to be the average quantity imported at the present time. This enor- mous demand for Esparto, coupled with the destructive manner of collecting it — namely, by tearing it from the roots — has considerably diminished the sources of supply, so that at present papei'-makers are as much alive as ever to new materials. Another substance to the utilisation of COMMERCIAL BOTANY. ESPABTO (SUpa lenacissima). which Mr. Rout- ledge paid con- siderable attention was the young stems of bamboos, and he succeeded in showing that a very fine paper could be made from these stems, as he published a pamphlet on the subject in 1875 which was printed on paper made from bamboo. It was proposed that the stems should be crushed at the place of growth and shipped in that state to this country, so as to reduce bulk and freight. The in- terest in the pro- ject to utilise the bamboos as a paper material be- came general, both in England, India, and America. As these gigantic grasses will grow in almost any tro- PAPER MATERIALS. 125 pical country, there seemed to be an unlimited source of supply. Opinions of botanists, however, were divided as to whether the continued cutting of the young bamboo stems would not considerably weaken them and eventually reduce the supply. One thing to be borne in mind in considering this subject is that the several species of Bambusa and Den- drocalamus are equally suited to the manufacture of paper, and that in India bamboos are very plentiful. Indeed, Sir D. Bi-andis states "that there are about 1,800 square miles of almost pure bamboo forest in the Arrakan division of British Burma within a moderate distance from the coast, and all accessible by navigable streams." The accessibility is, of course, a matter of considerable importance in bringing bulky material down to a point whence it could be the more readily transferred for shipment to England. Notwithstanding the interest taken in the Bamboo as a probable source of paper material, it has not, down to the present time, become a recognised article of trade. BAOBAB (Adansonia digitata). — The fibrous bark of this West African tree was first brought to the notice of the paper-maker in 1876. It was proved upon trial to possess all the necessary properties for making an excellent paper. The drawback to its general utilisation has been the slow growth both of tree and bark, and the probability of a failure in the supply. PAPER MULBERRY (Broussotietia papyrifera). — This well-known tree, from the bark of which the Polynesian islanders make their Tapa cloths, and the Japanese a large portion of their excellent paper, which they put to such a multitudinous variety of uses, was first brought to the notice of English paper-makers in 1879. The late Mr. Routledge, in reporting upon it, described it as " nearly, if not quite, the best fibre he had seen," requiring very little chemicals, and giving an excellent yield. 126 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. In Japan the plant is cultivated for paper-making, the young shoots being used for the purpose. CALIFORNIAN "CACTUS." — Under this name the stems PAPEB MULBEBBT (Browssonetia papyri/era). of a plant were brought to the notice of the Kew authori- ties in 1877 as a valuable paper material. It was difficult, from the material first brought, to determine its botanical affinity. In 1878, however, further material came to hand, PAl'ER MATERIALS. 127 from which the plant turned out to be Yucca brevifolia, described in California previously, but incorrectly, as Yucca Draconis. Forests of this plant existed in the Mohave desert for several miles, through which the Southern Pacific Railway runs. The stem of this plant, which grows to a diameter of a foot or moi'e, is of a very fibrous character, and it was soon found to be an excellent paper material, in consequence of which the plants have been systematically cut down and turned into paper, which was at one time used almost, if not quite, exclusively for printing the Daily Telegraph upon. Amongst other vegetable substances more or less suit- able for paper-making that have been brought to notice at Kew during the past ten years may be mentioned the following : — Cavanillesia platanifolia. — A plant belonging to the Malvaceae, found abundantly in the eastern part of the State of Panama, and as far east as Carthagena, known as VOLANDERO. The fibrous bark was found to pulp well, bleach readily, and to make a strong opaque white paper of fine quality. This was tested in 1877. Uniola virgata. — A grass locally abundant in Jamaica. In consequence of its bulky nature it would not pay to send it in its raw state to England, but it might be exported in the form of paper stock, and form a somewhat inferior substitute for Esparto. It was tested in 1876. Calotropis gigantea. — Under the name of MUDAR this asclepiadaceous plant is well known in India, where the fibre from its stems is used in making cordage, and the floss from the seeds for stuffing cushions, and occasionally for weaving. It was first proposed as a paper material in 1877, but the trials made with it were not satisfactory. Again, in 1880 it was spoken favourably of in a report from India, but it has still not been received favourably in this country. 128 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. Ischcemum angustifolium. — This is the BABAU or BABOI Grass of India, and grows abundantly in many parts of the country. It has long been used in India for making into ropes and cordage, and has latterly become one of the principal paper materials, being largely used in the Bally Paper Mills near Calcutta. It was introduced to notice in England in 1878, and Mr. Routledge reported upon it as follows : — " A small quantity of bleach brings it up to a good colour. The ultimate fibre is very fine and delicate, rather more so than Esparto, and of about the same strength ; the yield, however, is 42 per cent., somewhat less. I think I may venture to say it will make a quality of paper equal to Esparto." The great drawback to the general utilisation of the fibre in this country is that the plant has to be collected in India over wide and distant areas, and its bulky nature increases the cost of freight. It might, however, be converted into paper stock in India, and exported in that form. That the plant is capable of extended cultivation in India if a de- mand for it should spring up in this country, has been recently shown in an account of its culture published in the Proceedings of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India for October, 1887. The plant is, perhaps, equally well known under the names of Eriop/iorum comosum and Pollinia eriopoda, under both of which it has been de- scribed. Molinia ccerulea. — This well-known British Grass wa? brought to notice as a probable source of paper material in 1878, and in the Kew Export for 1879 it is stated : — " Mr. N. G. Richardson, of Tyaquin, county Galway, has actively promoted its experimental cultivation in the West of Ireland. At a private meeting held at Athenry, a com- mittee was formed to raise subscriptions to plant ten Irish acres of bog with it at Tyaquin. Mr. W. Smith, of Golden Bridge Mills, had manufactured paper from this grass with PAPER MATERIALS. 129 which he was so well satisfied that ' he was prepared to buy 1,000 tons if any one would supply him.' " Secale cereale, RYE STRAW, was proposed in 1879, Mr. Routledge's report being that "it is very largely used in the States, also on the Continent. It will make a harder and firmer paper than any other cereal straw, except perhaps maize." Musa, spp. — The utilisation of Plantain and Banana stems for paper-making was brought forward in the Kew Report for 1881. It is there pointed out that there can be no question as to the suitability of the fibre for the purpose, but that the practical difficulty has been in dealing with the 90 per cent, of water which the stems contain. By me- chanical treatment, however, the fibre of a plantain stem can be dried off within a period of eight hours, and as the plants are very abundant in India and Burma, it might be worth while to systematically extract the fibre for paper- making. Dr. King, of Calcutta, reporting on this subject, says : — " In my opinion this proposed plantain industry has a good deal of promise about it, and I think it might be well worth while for Government to spend a little money in sending a sufficiently large shipment to the London market, and to allow it to be sold for what it will fetch in small lots, so that the new material may become generally known to the paper-making interest. If the fibre answers for paper, Government need do no more ; the matter will, no doubt, be taken up by private enterprise. " The Bengal Government will be prepared to give all reasonable assistance to any mercantile firm or individual wishing to try experiments, and will arrange for future supplies at reasonable rates. It will also give such other assistance as may be deemed necessary and proper." Commenting on this, Sir Joseph Hooker says: — "What- ever the success of the enterprise in India, I think the matter is well worth attention in the West Indies. The 130 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. cultivation of bananas for export is assuming a constantly PLANTAIN (Mttsa paradinaca). increasing magnitude. Each banana stem is useless after it PAPER MATERIALS. 131 has borne fruit, as it does not do this more than once. To work up the decaying stems into paper pulp, if it could be done inexpensively, would be a desirable addition to the profit of banana-growing, and would get rid of the evils in- cident to the decomposition of the useless stems." WOOD PULP. — The reduction of the trunks of certain coniferous trees, as well as of the Poplar, in the preparation of wood pulp, is a well-known industry of Norway and Sweden, where factories for this purpose are still increasing, and whence a large portion of the product finds its way to this country. It is a comparatively new industry, and one capable of almost unlimited extension. J 2 132 CHAPTER XI FIBRES. FEW branches of manufacture have attracted so much at- tention in recent years as the application of new fibres. The numerous uses to which fibres are put will sufficiently explain this ; paramount, of course, must always be that for textile purposes, then for rope and cordage, next as a sub- stitute for bristles in broom and brush-making, and finally for paper-making, which has been treated of under a distinct heading. It is, then, for the first three uses that we have now to consider the fibre supply; and in glancing at the subject from its first aspect, mainly as furnishing textiles, we may briefly allude to the cotton supply, which in 1800 was only about 600,000 cwt., the increase going on steadily down to our own time, as will be seen from the following statistics : — 1837 Total imports of raw Cotton ... 3,636,489 cwt. 1856 , , ... 9,141,842 „ 1860 , , ... 12,419,096 „ 1862 , , ... 4,678,333 „ 1866 , ... 12,295,803 „ 1886 , ... 15,187,299 „ 1887 , ... 15,903,117 „ 1888 , ... 15,246,408 „ 1889 „ ... 17,159,316 „ It will be remembered how seriously the American civil war affected the cotton trade in this country, and this is specially marked in the above table. Much larger supplies were at that time drawn from British India, and of the total imports for last year British India supplied 2,438,968 cwt. In 1876 a new kind of cotton was introduced to the notice of planters under the name of BAMIA COTTON*. It made its first appearance in Egypt, and attracted a good deal of attention on account of its mode of growth and its abundant fruit-bearing. It was described as sending off branches regularly from the bottom of the main stems up- wards, but bearing close to the ground two, three, or more branches, and then rising to a height of eight or ten feet without a branch. This erect growth was considered an advantage, inasmuch as a much larger number of plants could be grown within a given area than is possible with ordinary cotton. The plant was also described as a prolific fruit-bearer, so that the yield was estimated at a considerably higher rate than any other known variety. In consequence of these very strong recommendations the seeds were dis- tributed as widely as possible from Kew with very varied results. The quality of the cotton was reported as not to be materially different from that of ordinaiy Egyptian cotton, of which, indeed, it was found to be a fastigiate variety. Barnia cotton is now seldom or never heard of. A textile fibre of undoubted quality which still awaits development is the so-called CHINA GRASS. This fibre seems to have made its first appearance in this country, in the form of finely-woven handkerchiefs, not long before 1849, for it was about this time that a specimen of the fabric was received at Kew together with other materials, from which it was found that the plant fur- nishing it, though called China Grass, was in reality a bushy-growing nettle — the Bcehmeria nivea or Urtica nivea of botanists. From this time the fibre began to attract much attention, and a patent was obtained in the same year (1849) in connection with its preparation. At the Great Exhibition in 1851 three prize medals were awarded for China Grass fibre. It was then proved that from the fibre, properly cleaned and prepared, fabrics could be woven equal in every respect to the finest French cambric. Notwith- standing this, the interest in China Grass dwindled down and remained in abeyance for some time, till in 1865 a 134 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. fresh interest was given to it by the American Vice-Consul at Bradford, Yorkshire, suggesting to his Government at Washington the desirability of their introducing the plant and fostering its growth in the United States, for the double purpose of utilising its fibre in America and of exporting it to this country. The practical results of this communication, though it excited fresh interest in this country at the time, were almost nil. The great desideratum was the invention of a machine that would clean the fibre, and prepare it at such a cost that it might be put into the market at a price to compete with other textiles of a similar character ; and with the hope of attaining this end, the Indian Government offered in 1869 prizes of £5,000 and £2,000 for such a machine. A Mr. Greig was the only competitor, and his machine did not altogether fulfil the conditions necessary for complete success, so that the matter again dropped. In the meantime the China Grass plant has been grown for experimental purposes in the South of France, near Mar- seilles, and in Algeria, and many new inventions in machinery for its preparation have been made in England, America, and on the Continent During the year 1887 a fresh impulse was given to the fibre by a series of experi- ments with new machinery in Paris, as well as by the adaptation of a flax- cleaning machine, invented by Mr. Wallace, and exhibited during the year at an Exhibition of Irish Industries held in London. At a still later period — namely, in the Kew Bulletin for December, 1888 — it is stated " that those who have in a measure been successful in preparing the fibre in commercial quantities are dis- appointed at the reception it has received at the hands of the spinners and manufacturers." The extended cultivation of the plant presents no diffi- culties, given a suitable soil and a locality possessing the necessary climatic conditions of heat and moisture. There is no doubt that the Ramie or China Grass plant could FIBRES. 135 be cultivated in most of our tropical possessions. Re- garding the question of the decortication of the stems, this problem remains still unsolved. And on this, as the Kew Bulletin says, " really hangs the whole subject. The third stage [that of spinning] is disappointing and unsatisfactory because the second stage [that of decortication] is still un- certain ; and being thus uncertain, the fibre is necessarily produced in small and irregular quantities, and only comes into the market by fits and starts. It would appear that Ramie fibre differs so essentially from cotton and flax that it can only be manipulated and worked into fabrics by means of machinery specially constructed to deal with it. Owing to the comparatively limited supply of Ramie fibre hitherto in the market, no large firm of manufacturers have thought it worth while to alter the present or put up new machinery to work up Ramie fibre. If appliances or pro- cesses for decorticating Ramie in the colonies were already devised, and the fibre came into the market regularly and in large quantities — say, hundreds of tons at a time — there is no doubt manufacturers would be fully prepared to deal with it. At present the industry is practically blocked by the absence of any really successful means of separating the fibre from the stems, and preparing it cheaply and effectively. This, after all, is the identical problem which has baffled solution for the last fifty years." Further trials in cleaning Ramie fibre by machinery were made in Paris during the Exhibition of 1889, the results of which have been recorded in the November and December numbers of the Kew Bulletin for that year. It will suffice for our purpose to know that the conclu- sions arrived at were that France appeared to be the best market for the fibre. A well-known London firm of fibre brokers, reporting on the trade in November, 1889, say that strips of the bark — known as ribbons — were sold during that week at from £14 to £16 per ton, and that they were 136 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. disposed to think that the bases of a real trade in the article were in process of formation. The plant is a native of China, but is cultivated in India and the Malay Islands. By the Chinese it is known as Tchou-ma, in Assam as Rheea, and in the Malay Islands as Ramie. It has been introduced at different times into most of the British colonies. About the year 1860 a substance called PINE WOOL was introduced to notice, two factories having been established near Breslau, in Silesia. The process consisted of reducing the pine-leaves to a coarse kind of fibre of a brownish-yellow colour. This was used for stuffing cushions, mattresses, etc., and as a kind of wadding ; more recently it has been made into a yarn, and woven with animal wool, and sold as pine-wool flannel, which is said to have advantages over ordinary flannel, inasmuch as it keeps the body warm without heating, and is very durable. The pine chiefly employed is Finns Laricio. More recently — namely, within the last two or three years — pine wool has been made in North America from the long leaves of the Turpentine Pine (Pimis australis), and used for making mats and carpets. Pei-haps no other fibre, whether textile or otherwise, has made such rapid strides as a commercial commodity as JUTE. The beginning of the Jute trade is intimately associated with Dundee, and dates back near upon fifty years. It is the inner bark of two or more species of Corchoinis, of which Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius are the chief. They are annual plants, belonging to the natural order Tiliacese, and are now largely cultivated in India, especially in Bengal, exclusively for the sake of this fibrous bark. This bark was at one time used only to make Gunny bags, in which to export Indian raw sugar ; these, after being emptied of their contents in this country, were sold to the Jews, who extracted the remaining sugar by boiling, and FIBRES. 137 then sold the old bags to the paper makers, to be converted into pulp or paper stock. The fine glossy character of the jute fibre soon, however, began to recommend itself for textile pm-poses, and 9,300 tons were imported into this country in 1846, which rose in 1887 to 373,480 tons. JUTE (Cor chorus capsularis). At first jute was only used for mixing with wools in cheap druggets and carpets. At the present time it is applied to a great variety of purposes, such as imitation tapestry, carpets, cords, twines, and even for mixing with cheap silks, to which it lends itself on account of its bright glossy appearance. COMMERCIAL BOTANY. COCOASUT (Cocos nucifera). Amongst vege- table fibres used for brush and broom-making, several very im- portant introduc- tions have been made, foremost of which, of coiu-se, is the fibrous husk of the Cocoa-nut (Cocos nucifera). This fibre, no\v so generally known by the name of Coir, has become within the last twenty or thirty years a most im- portant article of import. Its in- troduction may be said to date from about the year 1836, when a shop for the sale of articles made of Coir was opened in Agar Street, Strand. In 1839 a partner in this business took out a patent for the manufacture of various fabrics FIBRES. 139 from the fibre, and from this time its uses rapidly increased. One of the earliest applications of cocoa-nut fibre was for stuff- ing mattresses and cushions, and for this purpose it was cleaned, crushed, and dyed in imitation of horsehair; for brushes it was also early applied, and is still largely used for this purpose. The treatment of the fibre and thB im- provement of the machinery used had so far developed in 1842 that on the occasion of the baptism of the Prince of Wales in that year, St. George's Hall, Windsor, was 'laid with cocoa-nut matting, which fact was recorded in the Times of January 26th in that year as follows : — " The floor was covered first with a matting made of the husk of the cocoa-nut." The Exhibition of 1851 was the means of giving a further impetus to the trade, from which time it has gone on increasing. In the process of separating the fibre from the cocoa-nut husk three distinct commercial articles are pro- duced— namely, the long fibres, used for matting and mats ; the shorter or more stubborn fibres, for brooms and brushes ; and the still shorter or refuse, for horticultural purposes. As a further illustration of the commercial importance of Coir, it may be stated that 5,246 tons were imported in 1866, which had increased in 1882 to 11,590 tons. Another important brush-making material, but of more recent introduction, is BASS or PIASSABA, the produce of two distinct palms — namely, Leopoldinia Piassaba from Para, and Attalea funifera from Bahia. These two kinds are distinguished in trade, the fibre of the Attalea being superior to that of Leopoldinia for brush-making, on account of its being stiff and yet " springy," so that longer lengths can be used ; the Para fibre is more flexible, and can only be used in short lengths ; it is, however, of a brighter colour. The Attalea fibre can be obtained either very fine or very thick and strong ; each fibre is more or less round, while the Para kind is flat. 140 COMMERCIAL BOTASV. The introduction of Piassaba fibre into England for brush-making dates back about forty years, and is almost, if not entirely, due to the exertions of Mr. Arthur Robottom. When first introduced, it was used exclusively for road- BAHIA PIASSABA (Attalea funifera). brushes or brooms, which were generally known as whale- bone brooms ; indeed, before the nature of the material was fully ascertained it was considered to be split whalebone. The fibre is easily collected from the trunks by cutting it FIBRES. 141 away at the bases of the leaves ; and when a sufficient quantity is collected, it is roughly cleaned by fixing pieces of stick in the ground with sharp points and drawing the fibre through them. This rough system of combing separates KITTOOL, OE WINE PALM (Caryota urens). the flossy fibre, which is not exported, but is used in Brazil for making ropes to tie poles together, or for making fences. The Piassaba is then pressed in bales or bundles ready for ship- ment. In 1861 nearly 6,000 tons of Piassaba were imported 142 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. into England. The price has considerably advanced of late, owing to the diminished supply ; and much interest is now being shown in the discovery of similar fibres from other sources. About eight years ago a new kind of Pias- saba was introduced to the British market from Madagascar, and still forms an article of import. The fibres are thinner and much softer than those of either the Para or Bahia kinds, and consequently not so valuable for brush-making. Though this Madagascar Piassaba is proved to be the produce of a palm, the exact plant has not yet been deter- mined. More recently a thick, whalebone-like fibre has been introduced as Lagos Piassaba, but little is at present known of it. It is apparently the produce of Raphia vinifera. Another fibre that has recently taken a prominent position in the brush trade is KITTOOL, which is found in large quantities around the bases of the leaves of Caryota urens, a well-known Cingalese palm. Kittool fibre has been known in this country for some thirty or forty yeai's, but it is within the last five or six years that it has become a regu- lar commercial article. When first imported, the finer fibres were used for mixing with horsehair for stuffing cushions. As the fibre is imported it is of a dusky-brown colour ; but after it arrives here, it is cleaned, combed, and arranged in long straight fibres, after which it is steeped in linseed oil to make it more pliable ; this also has the effect of darkening it, and it becomes indeed almost black. It is softer and more pliable than Piassaba, and can consequently be used either alone or mixed with bristles in making soft, long-handled brooms, which are extremely dm-able, and can be sold at about a third the price of ordinary hair brooms. The use of Kittool fibre is said to be spreading not only in this country but also on the Continent. Under the name of MEXICAN FIBRE or ISTLE a stiff fibre is now imported into the English market, chiefly for making scrubbing and nail brushes. The history of this fibre is FIBRES. 143 interesting, and may be given briefly as follows : — When the war broke out between England and Russia, one of the sources of hemp — namely, from Russia — was stopped ; the Istle, which was known to some Mexican merchants, was suggested as a substitute, and a small trial shipment was made to England. It was soon found, however, that it was unsuited for rope-making. A portion of it having come into the hands of Mr. Robottom, whose name has before been mentioned in connection with Piassaba, he at once suggested its use for brush-making, and purchased the whole consign- ment of about twenty tons that had been shipped from New York to Hamburg. On arrival in this country it was sold for about .£28 per ton ; the price soon rose to £85 per ton, falling to £18, and afterwards rising again at the time of the insurrection in Mexico to £140 per ton. The trade afterwards increased very rapidly, and the fibre is now imported in very large quantities, chiefly from Tampico, and used for making scrubbing and nail brushes, whitewash brushes, bath brushes, etc., and at one time it was largely used by crinoline-makers. The source of this fibre was unknown till in 1879 Dr. Parry sent specimens to the Kew museum under the name of Agave Lechuguilla. This, how- ever, has quite recently (Bulletin of Miscellaneous In- formation, Royal Gardens, Kew, No. 12, December, 1887, p. 5) been shown to be identical with Agave heteracantha, to which plant Mexican fibre or Istle must now be referred. The present value of this fibre is stated to be about £26 per ton. Another Mexican brush fibre, the botanical source of which has been quite recently cleared up, is that known as BROOM ROOT or MEXICAN WHISK. Though it appears to be a comparatively new industry, there seems to be no record when it was first introduced. It is shipped from Vera CruZj chiefly to Germany and France, a small quantity only coming direct to this country. In France, however, it is 144 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. mixed with Venetian Whisk, the roots of Chrysopogon GrylluA, which, though somewhat lighter in colour, are similar in appearance, but of a superior quality ; and in this mixed condition it is exported to England for making clothes, velvet, carpet, and dandy brushes. The roots are known in Mexico as " Raiz de Zacaton," and are referred in the Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, Royal Gardens, Kew, No. 12, December, 1887, p. 9, to Epicampes macroura. About twelve years ago a new material was introduced for gardening purposes — namely, for tying plants — under the name of ROFFIA or RAFFIA; for some time the origin of this article remained unknown, but it was subsequently proved to be the thin but very strong cuticle of the leaf of Raphia Rujfia, a palm, native of Madagascar. It is exported chiefly to Mauritius, and thence to England — at the present time in very large quantities. Its value in the London market ranges from ,£25 to £200 per ton, but its average price may be taken at from £40 to £50 per ton. In Madagascar this same substance, split into fine threads and dyed, is used for making mats and cloths, some of which are very beautiful. It is said that the cuticle of the leaves of R. tcedigera, a Brazilian species, is also exported to this country, and helps to make up the bulk of the Roffia of trade. This material has entirely supplanted the old Cuba Bast from Hibiscus elatus, which was so largely used in gardens about forty years ago. It was originally used for tying up bundles of real Havanna cigars ; and during the Russian war, when the bast from the lime-tree became scarce, it was used as a substitute for that article, and has now passed from notice to give place to Roffia. In the London International Exhibition of 1862, amongst the South African products some prominence was given to a stiff black fibre which was advocated for brush- making, as a substitute for horsehair, and for paper- FIBRES. 145 making. This fibrous substance was known as PALMITE or PALMIET, and is found in quantities encircling the stems of Prionium Palmita, a stout-growing plant of South Africa, belonging to the natural order Juncacese. Though it at- tracted some attention at the time, it never came into actual use. Another substance which has come into use in recent years as a substitute for horsehair is known as GRIN VEGE- TAL, and consists of the crushed fibres from the leaves of Ohamcerops humilis, the European Fan Palm. It is culti- vated in some parts of Southern Europe and Northern Africa, particularly by French colonists in Algeria. It grows rapidly, so that almost any quantity of the leaves could be obtained. It is said that one man can cut 400 pounds of leaves per day. The extraction of the fibre, which is a very simple process, is usually done by women and children. The fibres are either dried in their natural colour- — green — or dyed black to resemble horse-hair, as a substitute for which in upholstery work it is chiefly used. It is exported principally to England, France, Germany, and the United States. The exact date of its introduction is not known. Large quantities of the dried leaves are used for making baskets. In the early part of 1889 a new fibre from the west coast of Africa was brought to notice at Kew, whence it was received from the Governor of Lagos. It was sent under the name of BOLOBOLO, and is also known in the Yoruba language as AGBONRIN ILASSA. From specimens of the plant which accompanied the fibre, it was proved to be derived from Honckenya ficifolia, belonging to the natural order Tiliacese. A report on the commercial value of the fibre was furnished by Messrs. Ide and Christie, of Mark Lane, and published in the Kew Bulletin for January, 1889. The following is an extract from their report : — " We consider this a very valuable fibre of the jute class, 146 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. but distinctly superior to the latter in many respects, and more particularly in strength. It is of good length, and well cleaned. If this fibre is capable of being produced in large quantities, there is a very wide field open to it com- mercially. Its market value would be regulated by that of jute, but in our opinion it would always command a higher price. At to-day's currencies it would sell at £16 per ton in London. We do not think the minimum price would ever fall below £1 2 ; and if the jute market made a further advance, this Bolobolo fibre might realise £20. If this fibre could be prepared of a whiter colour, it would prove still more acceptable ; but even as it is, we should be very glad to see large quantities placed on this market, where they would sell readily." Under the name of BOMBAY ALOE FIBRE a sample of a white fibre was received at the Kew Museum at the close of 1888. It was impei-fectly prepared, and the price obtained for it in the London market was exceptionally low. The botanical source of this fibre being unknown, application was made by Kew to the India Office to obtain from Bom- bay plants or material to enable it to be identified, when it proved to be obtained from Agave vivipara, a plant closely allied to the common American Aloe. A quantity of about 200 tons was received in the London market in 1889, the prices quoted for which were £12 per ton for good quality and £5 for common. The fibre could only be used for ropes. The subject is fully treated of in the Kew Bulletin for March, 1890. 147 CHAPTER XII. THE question of the extended cultivation of fodder plants, as well as the consideration of their storage for winter use, has always occupied more or less of the atten- tion of agriculturists, and of late years more practical results have accrued in sending new fodder plants for culti- vation into our colonies than in introducing such into our own country. About fifty or sixty years since, several plants of this character were brought to notice as suitable and very de- sirable for cultivation in England. The exact dates, how- ever, when they were first pi-oposed it is difficult to fix. About fifty years ago a considerable amount of interest was excited in the GAMA GRASS or BUFFALO GRASS (Trip- sacum dactyloides) of the Southern States of America. Though it is considered by some a good foi'age plant, it is somewhat too tender for general cultivation with us. Airaflabettata, better known as Dactylis ccespitosa — THE TUSSOCK GRASS — a strong-growing tufted perennial native of the Falkland Islands, was introduced to Kew in 1842, and seeds were afterwards obtained and freely distributed. It was at one time supposed that it might become thoroughly established in this country, but experience has shown that the climate is too hot and dry. It has, however, succeeded in the West of Scotland, arid has become established in the island of Lewis. It is doubtful whether the plant is really adapted for pasture purposes. The tussocks are only formed slowly, so that cattle would soon destroy them, and the plant thus become exterminated. Under the name of Bromus Schraderi a new fodder grass was introduced some fifteen or sixteen years ago. The K 2 148 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. plant, which is now known to botanists as Ceratochloa unio- loides, is commonly known as AUSTRALIAN PRAIRIE GRASS. It occurs from Central America to the last Alpine zone of Northern Argentina, and has spread over many parts of the globe. It is described as one of the richest of all grasses, grows continuously, and spreads rapidly from seeds, par- ticularly on fertile and somewhat humid soil. It is a very nutritious fodder and pasture grass, besides which it is said to be very valuable for sowing in coverts, as it entices hares and rabbits into the woods, away from the grain crops. Prangos pabularia, TIBET HAY. — A perennial, belong- ing to the TJmbelliferae, forming a stem a few feet high. It is a native of Tibet, as its common name implies, where it is extensively used as a fodder for sheep, goats, and oxen. It was introduced for cultivation as a fodder plant in this country about 1840, but it did not succeed. Perhaps the most important fodder plant introduced during this century is that which is now so well known as PRICKLY COMFREY. This was first brought to notice in 1877, and advertised as Symphytum asperrimum. The history and value of the plant is thus summarised in the Kew Report for 1878 : — "It is apparently identical with a Symphytum which has long been naturalised in the neigh- bourhood of Bath and elsewhere, and which has been iden- tified by botanists with S. asperrimum, a native of the Cau- casus. Neither the naturalised nor the forage plant appear to be really identical with that species, but the latter has been found by Mr. Baker to agree with Symphytum pere- grinum, which appears to be not certainly known as wild anywhere, but to be probably a hybrid of garden origin be- tween Symphytum ojficinale and S. asperrimum. ... In England Prickly Comfrey has been found very useful for winter fodder, as it forms large tufts of root leaves, which start into growth early in the year, and bear several cut- tings ; it is greedily eaten by animals which refuse ordinary FODDERS. 149 comfrey, the habit and appearance of which are not very dissimilar." The acclimatisation of the plant has been PEICKLY COMFEEY (Symphytom cfficinale). attempted in various parts of the world, including India, Ceylon, Singapore, Australia, and Queensland, with, how- ever, but little success, as it is more suited for cool or tem- perate countries. 150 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. In 1877 a considerable amount of interest was directed to the fleshy corollas of the well-known Indian MAHWA (Bassia latifolia). The tree, which belongs to the natural order Sapotaceae, is very common in many parts of India, especially in Bengal, and the flowers are produced in such large quantities as to cover the ground when they fall ; they are succulent and sweet, somewhat like a raisin in appear- ance, but with a heavy cloying taste and smell. They are largely used as an article of food, both fresh and stored for winter use. In the year previously mentioned (1877) a quantity of these flowers was sent to England for trial in feeding cattle, as well as for distilling a spirit from them. For the first they were reported upon most favourably — the flesh of pigs fed upon them being said to be especially good — while for distilling purposes they were said to have yielded as much as 6-16 gallons of proof spirits per cwt., the flavour of which was very similar to that of Irish whisky, though by careful rectification it might be made exceedingly pure and free from flavour. In India the spirit is manufactured on a large scale, and it is said that recently the flowers have be- come a regular article of export from Bombay to France, where they are distilled, the spirit being put into French bottles, labelled as French brandy, and exported again to Bombay. As an article of import to this country, how- ever, Mahwa flowers have not fulfilled what was anticipated of them. 151 CHAPTER XIII TIMBERS AND HARD WOODS. THOUGH the extended application of iron during the last twenty years, both for ship and house building, has to some extent supplanted the use of timber, the increased building operations all over the country have caused a continued demand for the various building timbers. The attention of our timber merchants and ornamental wood dealers has not been so much directed to the introduction of new woods as to new sources of supply of existing kinds. The pines and oaks are still the woods mostly in demand for structural purposes, and it is for cabinet-work that most interest is shown in the application of new woods. Notwithstanding all that has been done by the British possessions, as well as by foreign countries, to bring their forest resources promi- nently forward at the several International Exhibitions since 1851, the result cannot be said to be satisfactory so far as the British timber trade is concerned. The magnificent collections of Australian timbers that have from time to time been shown, as well as those from the Cape of Good Hope- -notably in the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886 — have not resulted, as might have been anticipated, in creating a demand for them in this country. It may be thought that a periodical exhibition is not the • best means of keeping such things fresh in the minds of those most interested, and to some extent this is true ; but when these collections find a permanent home, always open to the public, as they are at Kew, there can be no such excuse. In the case of Australasian timbers, however, there may be some reason why they have not yet figured as regular articles of import with us, and this is the cost of. 152 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. freight for so long a distance, coupled with the fact that most of the timbers of those far-off colonies are very dense and remarkably heavy. This is, of course, especially the case with the numerous species of Eucalyptus, which genus furnishes some of the most characteristic of Australian woods. The hardness of these woods indeed is their special recommendation. One species — namely, the JARRAH (Euca- lyptus marginata), a native of West A ustralia — has attracted some attention during the last year or so as a material for paving roadways ; and blocks made from it have been laid down by several of the metropolitan vestries, as, for instance, at Islington ; King's Road, Chelsea ; Westminster Bridge Road; and in the Strand. There are some others that have appeared occasionally in our markets, and ought to be regu- larly known in the timber trade, if only for cutting into veneers, should the woods be too costly to use in the solid. Of such we may mention MUSKWOOD (Olearia argophylla), TASMANIAN MYRTLE (Fagus Cunninghami}, and HUON PINE (Dacrydium Franklinii), all of which have been greatly admired by our ornamental wood dealers ; but some system of a demand on this side of the world, and a ready response on the other, seems to be needed to create a trade in these bulky commodities. So far as woods for cabinet purposes are concerned, though fashion rules the demand in this, as in everything else, there is always a sale for such well-known woods as mahogany (which has been used in this countiy as a cabinet wood since the middle of the last century), walnut, etc. ; and in connection with this it may be worth while here to place on record what has been done in the introduction of the mahogany-tree in India, Ceylon, and Mauritius, so that future generations may draw their supplies of this valuable wood from the East as well as from the "West Indies. So far back as 1873 seeds were sent from Kew to India, and in 1879 the cultivation of the tree was referred to as an 154 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. "accepted success," so that there is apparently no fear of the mahogany supplies failing. One of the valuable woods that has been introduced to this country within the last fifty years is SABICU, or, as it is sometimes called, SAVICU. It is the produce of Lysiloma Sabicu, a leguminous tree of Cuba and San Domingo, from whence it is imported to this country, and latterly in small quantities from the Bahamas. The wood is so hard, dense, and durable, that it was much used at one time in ship- building for keelsons, beams, enginfe-bearers. stern-posts, etc. It was not much known, however, before 1851, in which year it was used for the stairs of the Great Exhibition ; and, notwithstanding the immense traffic upon them, they were found at the close of the exhibition to be but little the worse for wear. In 1879 Bahamas Sabicu wood was first used for weaving shuttles and bobbins, but the demand for this purpose has never been large. Another building timber of great importance is KAURI (Dammara australis). This is a large tree, 100 to 150 feet high ; native of the northern Island of New Zealand. Mr. Ransoaie says, in his report on Colonial Timbers (Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886), that "this is undoubtedly the best of all soft woods, being remarkably sound, durable, and straight-grained." It is eminently suitable for doors, straight and circular mouldings, match-boarding, and other joiners' work, as well as for casks and engineers' patterns. The wood has been imported in small quantities for many years, and always meets with a ready sale. It yields a valuable resin known as KAURI GITM. (See Resins.) Probably there is no branch of the subject relating to the supplies of wood or of its utilisation of more importance than that which touches the supply of boxwood, or the discovery of an efficient substitute for engraving purposes. For some years past there has been a gi'adual falling off in the supplies; indeed, in 1875 it was stated that the boxwood TIMBERS AXD HARD WOODS. 155 forests of Mingrelia, in the Caucasian range, were almost exhausted, and wood that had been rejected in old forests was being eagerly cut, and purchased at high prices for ex- port to England. The cutting of wood in Abhasia and in all the Government forests in the Caucasus was prohibited, and about the same time a prohibition was issued by the Porte against the cutting of boxwood at Trebizond. The discovery of a wood that might be used as a substitute for box is not a new matter ; for many years it has occupied the attention of practical, as well as of scientific men, but up to the present time no wood has been discovered that at all equals box for engraving purposes ; so that while other woods may be substituted for the various other uses to which box was at one time largely put — namely, for shuttles, turnery, carving, and ornamental uses — for the best engrav- ings box alone is still in demand. In 1880 some consign- ments of Indian boxwood were received in the London market ; but the difficulty and cost of transit from the Himalayas, where the tree grows, operate against its be- coming a regular article of export. The great increase of illustrated books and newspapers continues to put a heavy pressure on the boxwood resources, so that an efficient, if not a perfect, substitute is as much a necessity as ever. The following are the names of the principal woods that have been tried and reported upon by practical men during the last few years : — 1. Acer saccharinum. — SUGAR or BIRD'S EYE MAPLE. North America. Not favourably reported upon. 2. Amelanchier canadensis. — AMERICAN SHADE or SERVICE TREE. Might prove useful. 3. Brya ebenus. — Cocus WOOD. Jamaica. Equals had box. 4. Bursaria spinosa. — TASMANIAN BOXWOOD. Found in North, West, and South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Vic- toria, and Tasmania. Equal to common or inferior box. 156 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. 5. Carpinus Betulu*. — HORNBEAM. Britain. Not very favourably reported upon. 6. Cornus forida. — NOETH AMERICAN DOGWOOD. Rough, suitable only for bold work. 7. Cratcegm oxyacantha. — HAWTHORN. Britain. By far the best wood after box. 8. Diospyros ebenian. — EBONY. Ceylon. Nearly as good as box in texture ; colour of wood an objection. 9. Diospyros texana. — A North American tree. Nearly equal to best box. 10. Elceodendron atistrale. — Queensland and New South Wales. Suit- able for diagrams, posters, etc. 11. Ewnymus europaus, var. Hamiltomanus. — PAI'CHA. China, where the wood is much used for carving and engraving. A useful wood, especially for bold work. 12. Eugenia procera. — Jamaica, Antigua, and Martinique. Suited for bold, solid newspaper work. 13. Monotoca elliptica.—New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania. Not very favourably reported upon. 14. Pittosporum bicolor and P. undulattim. — New South Wales, Victoria^ and Tasmania. Both woods are suitable only for bold out- lines. 15. Pynts communis. — COMMON PEAK. Britain. Not very well reported upon, but it does well for engraved blocks for calico printers. 16. Rhododendron californicitm and E. maximum. — Both of these have been favourably reported upon from North America. 17. Tabebuia pentaphylla, — WEST INDIAN Box. West Indies and Brazil. A fairly good substitute for box. The most recent substitute for true boxwood that has been brought to notice, and one that at first promised to become of considerable importance, is that known as Cape boxwood. The first notice of this wood was contained in a letter from East London, Cape Colony, in 1885, addressed to the writer, and in the same year about three tons arrived in London. Samples were submitted to several practical men for trial and report, and they all agreed that the wood TIMBERS AND HARD WOODS. 157 did not cut smoothly, but was harsh and ragged, and on the whole that it was far inferior to boxwood. The trees were said to be sufficiently abundant in the East London forests to furnish a large supply of wood. Upon receipt of foliage and flowers at Kew, the tree was found to be a new species of Buxus, and was named Buxw Macowani. The wood has not yet come into general use. 158 CHAPTER XIV. MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS. UNDER this head are included such products as could not readily be classified under any of the foregoing, but which are — many of them, at least — of great commercial and economic interest. A reference to one trade alone will suffice to prove this — we mean the trade in WALKING-STICKS and UMBUELLA and PARASOL handles ; for while at the present time this is one of the great trades of this country, in the early years of the present century it was practically nil. There are no pub- lished returns showing the importation of raw material used in this trade ; but from figures which we have been at some trouble to obtain, it would seem that of rattan canes alone, imported during the year 1886, there were some 1,500 tons, of the estimated value of £30,000, while other canes imported from the East numbered 28,950,000, valued at £94,000 ; and to these may be added imports from other parts of the world, as Brazil, Algeria, West Indies, France, etc., bringing up the gross total value of rough mateiial to £189,000. Placing this against the value of the imports in 1850 of £1,600, it will be seen what progress has been made in this one trade alone, which deals almost exclu- sively with produce furnished by the vegetable kingdom. As a further proof of the importance of this trade at the present time, I may mention that Messrs. Henry Howell and Co., of 180, Old Street, City Road, E.C.— the largest firm engaged in this trade in London, and to whom I am indebted for the above facts — constantly employ as many as 530 hands in their establishment. Another trade whose operations are confined almost exclusively amongst plants, and which within the last thirty years has considerably developed as a branch of English commerce is that of MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS. 159 perfumery, for we not only import attar and essential oils in large and increasing quantities from Roumelia, Singapore, and other places, but the cultivation of perfume plants in this country has received more attention; and when we know that Mitcham lavender and peppermint oils are unequalled in the markets of the world, there seems no reason why the cultivation of such plants, and the distillation of their oils, should not be made specially a home industry. As an illustration of the great value of imported perfumery oils, we will briefly refer to those produced by species of Andro- poffon, which are introductions of the present century. Thus LEMON GRASS OIL, the produce of Andropogon citratus, was first imported into London about 1832; while RUSA, or GINGEE GRASS OIL, from A. Schcenanthus, was first brought to notice in 1825, and CITRONELLA OIL, from A. Nardus, at a much more recent period. Citron ella and lemon grass plants are extensively cultivated in Singapore and Ceylon for com- mercial purposes, large plantations in the latter place being devoted to them, and the oil distilled on the spot. Ginger grass oil is chiefly distilled in Khandesh, in the Bombay Presidency. Twenty-five years ago the export of citronella oil from Ceylon was 622,000 ounces, of the value of £8,230, and it has considerably increased since then ; besides which are to be added the still greater exports from Singapore, a very large proportion of which comes to this country. As an illustration of what may be done in the utilisation of waste products, CORK stands forward as a prominent example. Fifty years ago the uses of cork — the bark of Quercus suber — were chiefly as stoppers for bottles, floats for nets, in the construction of lifeboats, etc. In 1851, how- ever, the adaptability of cork for very many other domestic and manufacturing purposes was practically illustrated, and its uses became wider and more general. The utilisation of virgin cork for horticultural purposes does not date back more than about twenty years ; previous to its application for 160 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. window-boxes, rockeries, orchid-growing, etc., it was a waste product, as, owing to its irregular growth and porous nature, it is quite useless for stoppers. Another use, however, has since been found for it — namely, for grinding into powder, and mixing with linseed oil and rubber, in the manufacture of the floor-covering known as linoleum. In view of the still further extended use of the cork-tree, plants have been intro- duced into India, where they seem to have made healthy and vigorous growth. VEGETABLE IVORY. — The seeds of Phytelephas macro- carpa, a low-growing or almost stemless palm, found 011 the banks of the river Magdalena, and producing large globular bunches of fruits about the size of a man's head, containing numerous white seeds, which become very hard as they ripen, are extensively used as a substitute for real ivory, chiefly for inlaying, for knobs for drawers, and very largely for coat buttons. Vegetable ivory is said to have been introduced into Europe about the year 1826, but when it first came into commerce in this country is not accurately known. During the summer of 1878 London, and indeed the whole of the United Kingdom, was deluged with an enor- mous importation of hats plaited from a kind of sedge. Though they were known to come from China, they soon obtained the name of ZULU HATS, and they found their way even into the remotest villages of the kingdom, being sold at the remarkably low price of one penny each. So abundant were they indeed that the market became glutted, and the hats were sold for use as strawberry guards in gardens by cutting out the crowns. The Consul at Ningpo reported that no less than 15,000,000 of these hats, all made by hand, had been exported in one year. The plant from which they are made, which proved to be Cyperus tegetiformis, is cultivated especially for this manufacture in rice grounds, and the hats are made by women and children MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS. 161 The same plant is used for making the Chinese matting which has been imported into this country, and so largely used for bed-room and drawing-room floors during the last six or seven yeai-s. The so-called BRIAR-ROOT PIPES, which have now become such a large article of trade, were first introduced to this country about thirty years ago. For some time their origin was quite \inknown, and they were made only in small quantities. A flourishing industry is now established at several places in Italy and France, notably at Leghorn, Siena, and Grossitto. The roots of the "briar," which word is a corruption of Bruyere (Erica arborea), are col- lected on the hills of the Maremma, where the plant grows luxuriantly and attains a great size. When brought to the factory, the roots are cleaned of the earth which is attached to them, and the decayed parts cut away. They are then cut roughly into pipe-shapes, placed in a vat, and gently simmered for twelve hours, by which time they acquire a rich yellowish-brown colour, for which the best pipes are noted. The rough blocks are then put into sacks containing from forty to a hundred each, and sent to France, where they are bored and finished off ready for exportation. Under the name of LOOFAHS, our chemists have ex- bited in their shops for the last few years natural flesh brushes, consisting of the vascular tissue of the fruits of Luffa cegyptiaca, a climbing cucurbitaceous plant, native of Egypt and Arabia, bub grown also in the West Indies and Western Africa, where it is generally known as the Towel Gourd. In the countries where the plant grows, the vascular network of the fruit is commonly used for straining palm wine and other fluids, as well as for scrubbing-brushes, and making light ornamental articles, such as baskets, hats, etc. Quite recently a large fac- tory has been established in Germany for converting the Lufla fruits into useful domestic articles, of which soles or 162 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. socks to place in boots, to keep the feet dry and warm in winter and cool in summer, are among the most important. They are elastic, and easily washed with soap and water. Saddle undercloths are also made from Luffas, and are intended to supplant the felt cloths hitherto used. They fit the saddle perfectly to the back of the horse, and they prevent the animal remaining wet under the saddle after sweating. Surgical bandage stuffs are also made from Luffas, and are competing with the wood-wool kind intro- duced some years ago. The uses to which the Luffas or Loofahs may yet be put are very numerous when we consider that they are obtain- able in almost any quantity and at a very low rate ; some bales received in the London market a few years ago having been sold at five fruits a penny. A new kind of paint or composition, especially intended for coating ships' bottoms to prevent corrosion, was brought to notice, and experiments made with it in Chatham dock- yard in 1873, when a sheet of iron coated with the paint was lowered into one of the basins, and after two years' immersion was found to be practically as clean as when first put down. In 1877 a company was formed, under the title of the Protector Fluid Company, for manufacturing this paint on a large scale. The fluid, with which any colour can be mixed, is prepared with the juice of one or more species of Euphorbia, collected, it is said, in Natal. The discovery of this property of the Euphorbia juice is said to have been made accidentally when cutting plants of Euphorbia in Natal. It was found that the juice adhered firmly, and coated the blades of the knives, thus preserving them from rust. The value of a preservative against corro- sion and the attacks of barnacles will be apparent in saving the cost of frequent cleaning, and in maintaining the speed of fast-going vessels. 163 INDEX. A. Abba, 24 Aberia Caffra, 39 Abrus precatorius, 87 Acacia Angico, 115 Acer saccharinum, 155 Achras Sapota, 39 Adansonia digitata, 125 JEgle Marmelos, 78 African rubber, 18 Agave heteracantha, 143 ; Lechu- guilla, 143; vivipara, 146 Agbonrin Ilassa, 145 Aira flabellata, 147 Algaroba, 120 Aloe fibre, Bombay, 146 Aloe Perryi, 76 ; Socotrina, 77 Alstonia constricta, 88 ; plumosa, 23 ; scholaris, 87 Amatungulu, 39 Amelanchtier canadensis, 155 American service tree, 155 ; shade tree, 155 Amomum aromaticum, 78 ; subula- tum, 77, 78 Anda assu, 98 Andira araroba, 88 Andropogon citratus, 159; Scham- anthus, 159 ; Nardus, 159 Angico, 115 Anime, 116 Anona cherimolia, 39; squamosa, 39 Arachis hypogsea, 109 Areca Catechu, 85 Arracacha, 43 Arracacia esculenta, 43 Artichoke, Chinese, 46 Aspidosperma Quebracho-bianco, 88 Atropa Belladonna, 83 Attalea funifera, 139 Averrhoa Carambola, 39 Babar grass, 128 Baboi grass, 128 Bael fruit, 78 Balata, 33 L 2 13. Bamboos, 124 Bainia cotton, 132 Banana, 129 Baobab, 125 Barosma betulina, 78 ; crenulata, 78 ; serratifolia, 78 Bass, 139 Bassia latifolia, 150 Bebeeru bark, 83 Beet-root, 50 Belladonna, 83 Bertabu, 23 Beta vulgaris, 50 Betel nuts, 85 Beverages, 52 Bhang, 88 Bird's-eye maple, 155 Black Cohosh, 78 Black Snake root, 78 Blue gum, 92 Boehmeria nivea, 133 Boldo, 100 Bolobolo, 145 Borneo rubber, 22 Boxwood, 155; Cape, 156; Tas- manian, 155 ; West Indian, 156 Brassica chinensis, 44 Brazilian cocoa, 99 Brazilian gum arabic, 115 Briar-root pipes, 161 Broom root, 143 Bromus Schraderi, 147 Broussonetia papyrifera, 125 Bruyere, 161 Brya ebenus, 155 Buchu leaves, 78 Buffalo grass, 147 Bursarja spinosa, 155 Butyrospermum Parkii, 34 Buxus Macowani, 157 C. Cactus, Calif ornian, 126 Caesalpinia brevifolia, 120; coriaria, 120 Cafe du Soudan, 55 Cajuput oil, 82 Calabar beans, 100 161 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. Calisaya of Santa Fe, 67 Calotropis gigantea, 127 Camphor, Peppermint, 99 Canaigre, 121 Cannabis indica, 88 Carambola, 39 Cardamoms, 77 Carica papaya, 90 Carissa grandiflora, 39 Carnauba, 92 Caroba, 92 Carpinus Betulus, 156 Carum copticum, 99 Caryota urens, 142 Cascara amarga, 101 ; sagrada, 103 Cassia occidentalis, 55 Castanea sativa, 49 Castilloa elastica, 14 Cavanillesia platanifolia, 127 Ceara scrap rubber, 14 Cedron, 103 Central American rubber, 14 Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, 71 Ceratochloa unioloides, 148 Ceratophorus Leerii, 32 Chamaerops humilis, 145 Chaulmugra, 97 Chavannesia esculenta, 26 Chayote, 44 Chequen, 99 Cherimoyer, 39 Cherry, Wild black, 81 Cherry laurel, 81 Chestnut flour, 49 Chew stick, 96 " Childs' night lights," 108 Chilocarpus flavescens, 23; viridis, 23 China cuprea, 70 China grass, 133 Chinese artichoke, 46 Chiretta, 83 Choco, 44 Chonemorpha macrophylla. 26 Chrysopogon Gryllus, 144 Chrysophanic aeid, 88 Churrus, 89 Cimicifuga racemosa, 78 Cinchona, 60 ; Calisaya, 65 ; cali- saya, var. Ledgeriana, 69 ; febri- fuge, 64 ; officinalis, 63 ; succi- rubra, 62 Cinnamodendron corticosum, 90 Citronella oil, 159 Citrus medica, var. acida, 56 "Cobbett'sCorn,"47 Coca, 95 Cocoa, 53 Cocoa-nut fibre, 138 Cocoa-nut oil, 106 Cocos nucifera, 108, 138 Cocuswood, 155 Coffee, 53 Coffea liberica, 63 Coir, 138 Cola nuts, 91 Cola acuminata, 90 Colchicum autumnale, 86 Colombia Virgen Rubber, 18 Colubrina reclinata, 92 Columbian barks, 65 Copal, 116; Inhambane, 116 Copaifera Gorskiana, 117 Copernicia cerifera, 92 Copra, 108 Corchorus capsularis, 136; olitorius, 136 Cork, 159 Corn-flour, 47 Cornua florida, 156 Cotton, 132; seed, 110 Cow tree, 35 Cowdi resin, 117 Cowhage or cow-itch, 80 Crataegus oxyacantha, 156 Crin Vegetal, 145 Crosnes, 44 Cuago nuts, 112 Cuba bast, 144 Cucumber, 40 Cucumis sativus, 40 Cundurango, 98 Curare, 105 Cybistax antisyphilitica, 92 Cyperus tegetiformis, 150 D. Dacrydium Franklinii, 152 Dactylis csespitosa, 147 Damiana, 105 Dammara australis, 117, 154 Daniellia thurif era, 118 Deadly nightshade, 83 Demerara rubber, 25 165 Dendrocalamus, 124 Dichopsis Gutta, 27 Dika bread and fat, 111 Diospyros ebenum, 156; texana, 156 Dita bark, 88 Divi divi, 120 Dogwood, American, 156 Doundake, 103 Dracaena Ombet, 77; schizantl.u, 77 Dragon's Blood, 77 Drugs, 58 Drumine, 93 Duboisia Hopwoodi, 92 Dyera costulata, 30 Dyes, 119 E. Ebony, 156 Elaeocarpus, 114 Elaeodendron australe, 156 Elaeis guineensis, 108 Elands bontjes, 120 Elephantorrhiza Burchellii, 120 Elettaria cardamomum, 77 Epicampes macroura, 144 Erica arborea, 161 Eriophorum comosum, 128 Ervalenta, 49 Erythroxylon Coca, 95 Esparto, 123 Eucalyptol, 93 Eucalyptus, 92, 152; amygdalina, 93; Globulus, 92; marginata, 152 Eugenia procera, 156 Euonymus europaeus, var. Hamilton- ianus, 156 Euphorbia Drummondi, 93 ; piluli- fera, 95 Euphorbia paint, 162 Euryangium Sumbul, 95 P. Fabiana imbricata, 95 Fagus Cunninghami, 152 False Winter's Bark, 90 Fedegosa, 55 Ferula Sumbul, 95 Fever bark, Queensland, 88 Fibres, 132 Ficus elastica, 12 ; Vogelii, 24 Fiji rubber, 23 Flacourtia inermis, 39 Fodders, 147 Food products, 37 Forsteronia gracilis, 25 ; floribunda, 25 Franciscea uniflora, 96 Frankenia grandifolia, 96 French brand y, 150 G. Gama grasj', 147 Gambier, 8:-. Ganja, 89 Ginep, 39 Ginger grass oil, 159 Glycerine, 108 Goa powder, 88 Gonolobus cundurango, 98 Gossypium, 110 Gouagra, 121 Gouania domingensis, 96 Greenheart, 83 Ground nut, 109 Guarana, 99 Gums, 115 Gum arabic, 115 Gum euphorbium, 35 Gutta jelutong, 30; percha, 27; shea, 34 ; sundek, 30, 32 ; taban, 29 Gynocardia odorata, 97 H. Hagenia abyssinica, 97 Hard Carthagena bark, 67 Hard Woods, 151 Hawthorn, 156 Hemidesmus indicus, 97 Hemp, 88 Hevea brasiliensis, 12; guyanensis, 15 Hibiscus ektus, 144 Honckenya ficifolia, 145 Hornbeam, 156 Huon pine, 152 Hyptis spicigera, 113 I. Ilex paraguariensis, 55 Indian corn, 47 ; poke-root, 85 ; tobacco, 82 India-rubber, 10 Indigo, 119 Ipecacuanha, 71 106 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. Ipomsea purga, 74 Irvingia Barter!, 112 Ischsemum angustifolium, 128 Isonandra Gutta, 27 Ispaghul, 102 Istle fibre, 142 Ivory, Vegetable, 160 J. Jaborandi, 101 Jalap, 74 Jamaica rubber, 25 Jarrah, 152 Jequirity, 87 Joannesia princeps, 98 Jute, 136 K. Kamala, 98 Kauri, 117, 154 Kava, 101 Kei apple, 39 Kino, Australian, 93 Kittool, 142 Kola nuts, 91 Kousso, 97 Krameria triandra, 78 Laintlaintain, 113 LaUeraantia iberica, 113 Landolphia,18; florida, 20; Kirkii, 21 ; owariensis, 19 ; Petersiann, 22 Larch bark, 85 Larix europea, 85 Lavender oil, 159 Ledger bark, 68 Lemon grass oil, 159 Lens esculenta, 47 Lentils, 47 Leopoldinia Piassaba, 139 Leuconotis eugenifolius, 23 Liberian coffee, 53 ; rubber, 24 Lime juice, 56 Linoleum, 160 Lobelia inflata, 82 Loofah, 161 Lophira alata, 113 Lovi lovi, 39 Luff: i segyptiaca, 161 Lycopersicum esculentum, 40 Lysiloma Sabicu, 154 il. Mabee bark, 92 Mabo nuts, 114 Macwarrieballi, 25 Mahogany, 152 Mahwa, 150 Maize, 47 Maizena, 47 Mallotus philippinensis, 98 Maluku seeds, 113 Mangifera gabonensis, 111 ; indica, 39 Mango, 39 Manihot Glaziovii, 14 Manungan bujok, 23 ; pulau, 23 Marsdenia cundurango, 98 Masseranduba, 35 Matico, 84 Melaleuca Leucadendron, 82 Melicocca bijuga, 39 Meni, 113 Mentha arvensis, 99 Menthol, 99 Mexican fibre, 142 Mimusops elata, 35 ; globosa, 33 Miscellaneous products, 158 Molinea cserulea, 128 Monotoca elliptica, 156 j Mountain cinnamon, 90 M'pogo nuts, 114 Mucuna pruriens, 80 Mudar, 127 Mulberry, Paper, 125 Musa, 129 Musk root, 95 ; wood, 162 Mutugo, 112 Myristica angolensis, 112; guate- malensis, 113; surinamensis, 112 Myrobalans, 120 Myrtle, Tasmanian, 162 Myrtus cheken, 99 N. Naseberry, 39 Natal plum, 39 Nectandra Rodiaji, 83 Negro coffee, 55 Nephelium lappaceum, New Drugs, 87 Nikonuts, 114 T67 Ogea gum, 118 Oils, 105 O. ls, 105 Olearia argophylla, 152 Opachala, 113 Ordeal beans of Old Calabar, 100 Oryza saliva, 47 Owala, 113 P. Pai'cha, 156 Palm oil, 108 Palmiet or Palmito, 145 Papaw, 90 Paper materials, 123 Para-rubber, 12^ Paraguay tea, 55 Parinarium, 114 Passiflora edulis, 39 Paullinia sorbilis. 99 Payena, 30 ; Leerii, 32 Pear, 158 Pentaclethra macrophylla, 113 Peppermint camphor, 99 ; oil, 99 Perfumery, 159 Persian berries, 119 Peru, Balsam of, 116 Peumus Boldus, 100 Phyllockdus trichomanoides, 121 Physostigma venenosum, 100 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 160 Piassaba, 139; Lagos, 142; Mada- gascar, 142 Piche, 95 Picraena excelsa, 80 Picramnia antidesma, 101 Pilocarpus pennatifolius, 101 ; Sel- loanus, 101 Pineapple, 37 ; wool, 136 Pinus Laricio, 136 ; australis, 136 Piper methysticum, 101 ; angusti- folium, 84 ; Mandoni, 85 Piptadenia macrocarpa, 115 Pittosporum bicolor, 156; unduk- tum, 156 Pituri, 92 Pkntago Ispaghula, 102; ovata, 102 Plantain, 129 Podophyllin, 102 Podophyllum peltatum, 102 Poke-root, Indian, 85 Pollinia eriopoda, 128 Polygala rarifolia, 113 Potato, 41 Prairie grass, Australian, 148 Prangos pabularia, 148 Prickly comfrey, 148 Prionium Palmita, 145 Prunus serotina, 81 ; Lauro-cerasus, 81 Pyrus communis, 156 Q. Quassia wood, 80 Quassia amara, 80 Quebracho-bianco, 88 ; White, 88 Quercus suber, 159 Raffia, 144 " Eaiz de Zacaton," 144 Rambutan, 39 Ramie, 135 Raphia Ruffia, 144 ; taedigera, 141; vinifera, 142 Rattan canes, 158 Red canella, 90 Remijia pedunculata, 71 ; PurJi- eana, 71 Resins, 115 Revalenta, 49 Rhamnus infectorius, 119; Purshi- ana, 103 Rhaphidophora vitiensis, 102 Rhatany root, 78 Rhea, 136 Rheum officinale, 76; palmatum, 76 Rhododendron calif ornicum, 156 ; maximum, 156 Rhubarb, 76 Rice, 47 Roffia, 144 Rohun bark, 81 Rumex hymcnosepalum, 1 22 Rusa oil, 159 Rye straw, 129 S. Sabicu or Savicu, 154 Saccharum officinarum, 50 Sago, 47 Sapium biglandulosum, 18 Sarcocephalus esculentus, 103 Sarsaparilla, Indian, 97 Secale cereale, 129 Sechium edule, 44 168 COMMERCIAL BOTANY. Shantung cabbage, 44 Sierra Leone peach, 103 Simaba Cedron, 103 Socotra aloes, 76 Solanum Commersoni, 42 ; Jamesi, 42 ; Maglia, 42 ; tuberosum, 42 Sorghum saccharatum, 50 Soymida febrifuga, 81 Spogel, 102 Stachys Sieboldi, 44, 45 ; tuberi- fera, 44, 45 Stipa tenacissima, 123 Strophanthus, 104 ; hispidus, 105 Strychnos toxifera, 105 Sugar cane, 50 ; maple, 155 Sumbul, 95 Sweet cup, 39 ; sop, 39 Swertia Chirata, 83 Symphytum asperrimum, 148 ; offi- cinale, 148; peregrinum, 148 T. Tabebuia pentaphylla, 156 Tanekaha, 121 Tanning materials, 119 Tapa cloths, 125 Tapioca, 47 Tchou-ma, 136 Tea, 52 Telfairia occidentalis, 112 Terminalia belerica, 120; chebula, 120 Terra japonica, 82 Tibet hay, 148 Timbers, 151 Tobacco, Indian, 82 Tolu, Balsam of, 116 Toluifera balsamum, 116 ; Pereirae, 116 Tomato, 40 Tonga, 102 Towel gourd, 161 Trachylobium verrucosum, 116 Tragia, 36 Tripsacum dactyloides, 147 Turnera diffusa, 105 Tussock grass, 147 TL Udika, 111 Ullucus tuberosa, 44 Uncaria Gambier, 82 Uniola virgata, 127 Urceola ekstica, 23 ; esculenta, 26 Urostigma Vogelii, 24 Urtica nivea, 1 33 V. Varnishes, 115 Vegetable ivory, 160 Veratrum viride, 85 Vine, 52 Vitis vinifera, 52 Volandero, 127 W. Wagatea spicata, 120 Walking-sticks, 158 Waxes, 105 Wax palm, 92 Whisk, Mexican, 143; Venetian, 144 Wild black cherry, 81 ; Pie, 122 Willughbeia Burbidgei, 23 ; edulis, 26; martabanica, 26; Treacheri, 23 Winter's bark, False, 90 Woods, Hard, 151 Wood pulp, 131 Wourali, 105 Y. 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