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THE

COMMON OBJECTS

OF

THE SEA SHOKE;

INCLUDING

HINTS FOE AN AQUAEIUM.

BY THE

EEV. j. a. WOOD,

AUTORH OF "THE ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY.

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY G. B. SOWERBY,

LONDON:
EOUTLEDGE, WAENE, & EOUTLEDGE,

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1860.

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PREFACE.

This little work is simply a popular account of
the " Common Objects of the Sea-Shore," and is
restricted to those objects which every visitor to
the sea-side is sure to find on every coast. For
descriptions of those creatures which only inhabit
certain localities, and those whose lives are passed
in the deep water, requiring the dredge, the net, or
the drag to bring them to the light of day, the
reader is referred to those magnificent and com-
prehensive works that have been written for
tne purpose of illustrating particular branches of
science.

During my visits to the sea-coasts for the last
six or seven years, I have taken note of the ques-
tions put to me by persons who were anxious to

IV PREFACE.

know something of the curious objects that every-
where met their eyes ; and the following pages are,
as nearly as possible, the condensed conversations
that then took place.

The whole of the illustrative plates were drawn
expressly for this work by Mr. Sowerby, whose
name is a sufficient guarantee for their truth.

London, May, 1857.

COMMON OBJECTS OF THE SEA-SHORE,

CHAPTER I.

MARINE BIRDS — PORPESSE.

Whether the sea is approached by land or by water,
the first indications of its existence are generally to be
found in the air. On some days, the electric clonds
that skirt the cliffs map out, as it were, the ,sea-coast ;
and when such signs fail, the marine birds give evident
tokens that the sea, their great store-house, is close at
hand. With the birds, then, we will commence our
observations of the sea and its shores.

The bird that usually presents itself as the ocean's
herald is the Common Gull {Larus canus). There
are some twelve or thirteen species of British Gulls,
including the Kittiwake and the Iceland Gull. The
bird represented in the accompanying figure is the
Great Black-backed Gull [Larus marinus), which is
tolerably frequent on our coasts, but not so often seen
as the Common Gull, nor does it form such large
societies as those in which its more sociable relations
love to congregate.

Why the word "gull" should be employed to ex-
press stupidity I cannot at all comprehend, for the

B

2

GULL.

gulls are very knowing birds indeed, and difficult to
be deceived. If a piece of bread or biscuit be thrown
from a boat, it remains but a very short time on the
surface of the water before it is carried off by a gull,
although previously not a bird was visible. But if a
number of gulls are flying about, and a piece of paper
or white wood be thrown into the water, there is not
a gull who will even stoop towards it, although to the
human eye the bread and the paper appear identical.
The cry of the gull is very curious, being a kind of
mixture of a wail, or scream, and a laugh, and on
a dark stormy day adds wonderfully to the spirit of
the scene. Its flight is peculiarly quiet, combining
great power of wiug with easy elegance of motion. It
is a very bold bird, and for many miles will follow
boats so closely that the very sparkle of its eyes is
plainly visible, as it twists its wise-looking head from
side to side while watching the voyagers.

SLACK-BACKED GULL.

The gull is an exclusively marine bird, being found
only on the sea- shore or at the mouths of large rivers,

TERN. 3

although more than usually violent storms occasionally
drive it inland, where it wanders about for some time
very miserable, and quite out of its element, until it
gets shot by some rustic sportsman.

The next bird to which our attention will be directed
is the Common Tern {Sterna hirundo), or Sea Swallow,

as it is very appropriately called. It belongs to the
gull family, and has many of the gull habits, but is
readily distinguishable from the gulls, even at a con-
siderable distance, on account of its rapid, darting
flight. It is not at all unlike a swallow in general
shape, for the wings are long and pointed, the body is
rather large in front, and tapers to a point, and its tail
is forked like that of a swallow.

It is extremely dexterous in its capacity as a fisher,
for in its swift flight over the waves it darts upon any
small fish that may be unfortunate and curious enough
to come near the surface, and scoops it up, as it were,
from the water, without seemingly interrupting the
speed of its course. The nest, if it can be dignified
with the title, is merely a hollow scooped in the sand,
well above high-water mark; and in this hollow two or
three eggs are deposited. On the Scottish and northern
coasts the Common Tern is not often found, but the

4 CORMORANT.

Arctic Tern (Sterna macroura) conies to supply its
place. There are ten or eleven species of British
Terns.

On many of the English coasts, especially those that
look towards the Channel, may be seen a tolerably large
black-feathered bird, having a yellowish countenance, a
decidedly long and rather hooked bill, and a pair of
green eyes. This h the Cormorant (Graeulus carlo)

one of our three British representatives of the Pelican
family. The enormous pouch which decorates the
lower bill of the white pelican is only rudimentary in
our British pelicans, probably because there would be
no use for it, as the birds live on or close to the coast.

The other English pelicans are the Gannet, a figure
of which will be given shortly, and the Common Shag,
a bird of a monosyllabic English cognomen, but who
ought to consider himself recompensed by the scientific
game given to him by pertain naturalists, namely,

CORMOIIANT. 5

Phalacrocorax cristatus; the epithet crlstatus, or crested
being due to a tuft of reverted green feathers that
decorates the head. This tuft, however, is only worn
during the breeding season, when most animals put on
their gayest apparel, and is lost as soon as the young
Phalacrocoraces cristati take their places as independent
members of society.

The cormorant is a persevering fisher, insatiable in
appetite, and almost unparalleled in digestion. The
pike and the shark among fish appear to possess much
the same proportionate digestive power as the cormo-
rant among birds. The cormorant is not content with
sitting, like the heron, on the edge of the water, and
snapping up the fish that may enter the shallows ; or
even, like the gulls, with seizing them from the surface
of the waves; but he boldly defies his prey in its own
element, plunges into the water, dives below the sur-
face, and actually proves himself a more expert
swimmer than the very fish themselves. In former
days the cormorant was employed in England for the
purpose of catching fish; and such is still the case in
China. The Chinese cormorant, however, is not the
same species as that which is found on our coasts. It
is rather a curious circumstance, that one of the mam-
malia, namely, the otter, and some of the birds, should
be enabled to carry on a successful subaqueous chase,
and that both beast and bird have been pressed into the
service of man.

The cormorant is sometimes found inland, especially
in the winter season, and exhibits its powers among the
fresh- water fish.

Although the pouch is comparatively small in the
cormorant, it still exists, and is useful in giving elas-
ticity to the throat and neck; a property which is much
required, for the cormorant is a very greedy bird, and
often swallows fish of so large a size that a throat of
twice its dimensions seems incapable of permitting the
passage of so bulky a body. In order to swallow a

6

CORMORANT.

fish, the cormorant generally seizes it crosswise, tosses
it in the air, and then catches it as it descends with its
head downwards. One of these birds, however, has been
seen to miss its aim, and to catch the fish with its head
upwards; in this position the cormorant endeavoured
to swallow its prey, but when the fish had passed about
half-way down its captor's throat, the sharp fins pre-
vented its further progress, and both bird and fish were
soon dead. The poor cormorant seemed terribly dis-
tressed, and made violent struggles, but all to no
purpose ; for the fish was immovably fixed, and could
neither be swallowed nor rejected.

The feathers of the cormorant, although they appear
to be of a dusky black, are really of a very deep green,
so deep, indeed, as to appear black at a little distance,
something like the plumage of the magpie. The nest
is composed of dried sea- weed, and. is usually placed on
lofty rocks, but is sometimes built among the branches
of trees. The eggs are remarkable for a thick coating
of chalk, which seems to envelope the shell quite inde-
pendently, and can be easily removed with a knife.
There are from three to five eggs in each nest.

f^^M#l^aK

THE OANNET.

GANNET — GUILLEMOT. 7

Our remaining English pelican is the Gannet (Sula
bassanea), also called the Solan Goose. It is to be
found on many of our shores, but especially on the
well-known Bass Rock, at the entrance of the Frith of
Forth. There is no difficulty in identifying this bird,
even at some distance, as it has very much the appear-
ance of wearing spectacles ; a circumstance that has
earned it the title of the Spectacled Goose, although it
is not a goose at all.

It is in the search after these birds, their eggs and
young, that the St. Kilda cragsmen imperil their lives
year by year.

The Auk family find representatives in the Guillemot,
and the comical little Puffin. The Guillemot {Uria
troile) is a common bird on many of our coasts, and

GUHI,E5IOT.

may be seen, in the breeding season, sitting with extra-
ordinary gravity and importance over a solitary egg.

PUFFIN.

The egg is often laid, and the young hatched, on such
a narrow ledge of rocs, that it is quite a wonder how
the egg can escape a fall, or how the young bird can
even open its big beak without toppling over the
precipice.

The guillemot has earned the epithet of " foolish,"
because, when sitting on this solitary egg, it will suffer
itself to be taken by hand, rather than forsake its duty.
I would suggest that the word " faithful" be substi-
tuted for " foolish." The egg is a very handsome one,
very large, and variable both in colour and shape. It
is generally covered with large irregular blotches, of a
brown colour, on a pale-green ground.

As to the Puffin [Fratercula arctica), it is generally
to be found in company with the guillemots, and indeed

lives in much the
same manner. It is
a lively little bird,
easilydistinguished by
its large beak; from
which feature it has
derived the popular
name of Sea Parrot.
This beak is very
useful to the bird for
three especial pur-
poses : the first being,
to catch fish ; the
second, to dig the bur-
rows in which its egg
PUFFIN- is laid; and the third,

to fight the ravens and other foes who try to get at the

The favourite food of the puffin appears to be the
common sprat, which it chases under water, and of

which it
in a neat
their heads.

generally secures six or seven, all arranged
row along the puffin's beak, and hanging by

DUNLIN. 9

There are many more marine birds tnat are often
seen, but those already mentioned are the most common.
Yet there is one other bird that I must notice, because
it has not so much the marine aspect as the gulls and
cormorants: this is the Dunlin Sandpiper {Tringa

alpina), a very interesting little bird, that frequents
the sandy shores in great numbers, for the purpose of
feeding on the insects and small crustaceans that are
found in such profusion, either buried in the sand, or
hidden under stones and drifted sea-weeds.

It is quite aware that on the edge of every wave may
be found the various substances which constitute its
food, and so skirts the very margin of the sea, running
hither and thither; and occasionally venturing a few paces
into the retiring waters in chase of some detached
limpet, some houseless worm, or tiny crab, as restlessly,

10 PORPESSB.

and almost as untiringly,, as the many-voiced waves
themselves.

There is no difficulty in watching the habits of this,
or indeed of any other bird. All that is required is
perfect stillness and silence, and the birds will come
and pick up their food almost within arm's reach.

In the hot summer months the observer may watch
the sands without seeing a single Dunlin, for they then
desert the sea-shores in favour of inland moors, where
they lay their eggs, and hatch the young; returning
with their offspring towards the end of August. This
bird is sometimes called the Purre.

If we now leave the sands for a time, and ascend the
cliffs, we shall probably be indulged with a transient
glimpse of a very singular animal. Some little dis-
tance from the shore a number of black objects may be
seen partly emerging from the water, executing a sum-
mersault, and disappearing below the surface. These

are Porpesses (Phocvena communis), and very curious
creatures they are, belonging to the mammalia ; forced,
therefore, to breathe atmospheric air, and yet perma-
nently inhabiting the sea, with something of the form
and many of the habits of the fish. It is a curious con-
nexion of the two most distant links of the chain of
the Vertebrates, the mammalia being the highest, and
the fish the lowest.

Some people say, that as it looks like a fish, and lives
like a fish, to all intents and purposes it is a fish. So

PORPESSE. 11

it is, if the diver at the Polytechnic Institution is a
fish ; for it holds its lease of life on precisely the same
tenure. Both diver and porpesse must breathe atmo-
spheric air, or they would die ; and therefore each finds
means to supply himself with that indispensable
material. The diver surrounds himself with a supply
of fresh air, with which to renovate his blood • but the
porpesse is able to renovate a surplus amount of blood,
that lasts him for some time : so the chief difference is,
that the diver takes down with him oxygen externally,
and the porpesse internally. The man goes down inside
the diving-bell, but the diving-bell goes down inside the
porpesse.

Yet the porpesse has no reservoir in which atmo-
spheric air is retained, for such a formation would make
it too buoyant. There is, however, in the cetacece, to
which family the porpesse belongs, a reservoir of blood,
which is renovated by the atmospheric air, and is passed
into the system as required. Even man has the same
power, although in a limited degree. In general, a man
cannot hold his breath more than one minute, and it is
not every man who can do even that. But if he
thoroughly renovates his blood by expelling all the im-
pure air that remains in the minuter tubes of his lungs,
and takes a succession of deep inspirations, he will be
able to abstain from breathing for a much longer period.
I have just made the experiment myself, and held my
breath without difficulty for a minute and a-half ; and
had there been any necessity, could have done so for
another half minute.

The porpesse is rather a sociable animal, being gene-
rally seen in shoals, or schools, as the sailors call them.
I should hardly have said so much about so common
a creature, were it not for the purpose of pointing out
these remarkable facts in its structure and habits : and
even though it be common, it is not so well known as
might be imagined. Not long ago, as I was on board
a steamer, a worthy old lady began to exhibit symptoms

12

PORPESSE.

of nervousness and alarm. I thought she was fearing
a storm, and told her that there was not the least
danger of any commotion of the elements, for the baro-
meter had been steadily rising for the last two or three
days. However, it was a different subject that caused'
her uneasiness. She had heard that there were por-
pesses in those parts, and wished to know whether we
were likely to meet one. I told her that we probably
should meet, several, but not so many as if a gale were
impending. At this reply her fright evidently increased,
and she asked, in much trepidation, whether, if we did
meet one, it would upset the ship !

. --„/-^ T^*©

lf/£ jf\A

^

18

CHAPTER II.

WHELK — COWRY — COCKLE — PHOLAS — LIMPET — SEA-WEEDS OK
SHELL— BALANUS — PURPURA— MUSSEL — PERIWINKLE, YELLOW —
PERIWINKLE, COMMON — TROCHUS.

Descending to the shore, we shall probably see at
our feet many shells, or fragments of shells, which
have been washed upon the beach by the advancing
tide, and which having lodged behind a stone, or being
sunk into the wet sand, remain behind when the waves
retreat. These shells are almost invariably empty,
their inhabitants having either died a natural death, or
having fallen victims to some ravenous inhabitant of
the sea.

The strong house with which most of these creatures
are furnished wTould seem to be an effectual defence
against the efforts of open foes, while the sensitive
nervous nature with which they are gifted would
appear to secure them from insidious attacks. Yet
the hard, stony shells, that turn the edge of a steel
knife, are constantly found to be perforated by creatures
that can be squeezed flat between the fingers, and whose
bodies are no harder than the human tongue. For-
merly, the external characters of shells were the
only object of the collector; and the conchologist, as
he was termed, might have, and very often did have,
a large collection of valuable shells, without the least
idea of the form, food, habits, or development of the
creature that secreted them. Now, however, those who
examine a shell are not satisfied unless they know some-
thing of the creature that inhabited it, and from whose
substance it was formed : and so this branch of Natural

14 LIMPET.

History has leaped at once out of the mere childish toy
of conchology into the maturer science of malacology.
The former treated merely of shells, and therefore
excluded the vast army of molluscs, that wear no shells
at all ; but the latter treats especially of the animal,
considering the shell to be of secondary importance.

And yet, even though the shell is considered to be
inferior to the animal by whom it was secreted, much
more attention is paid to the shell itself than was
the case in the old conchological times. In those days
the mere shape and colours of the shell were the cha-
racteristics by which its name and place in the system.
were determined ; but now we submit the shell to the
searching powers of the microscope, and find that
various kinds of shells are characterised by various
arrangements of particles, and are acted upon by polar-
ized light in various ways. It is, therefore, quite
possible to fix the character of a shell from a single
fragment no larger than a pin's head. There are few
things more curious than this wonderful arrangement
of the particles ; which, by the way, are brought within
the scope of the microscope, by making very thin
sections of the shells, by the aid of saw, file, and hone.

One of the commonest shells found on the sea-shore
'is the Limpet (Patella vulgata). See plate b, fig. 3.

In its living state it may be found adhering closely
to rocks or other substances, that give it a firm basis
of support. The adhesion is caused by atmospheric
pressure, for the limpet is enabled to raise the centre of
that part of the body that rests on the rock, while the
edge is closely pressed upon it. This movement causes
a vacuum ; and so firmly does the air hold the limpet
in its place, that the unaided fingers will find great
difficulty even in stirring it. The firmness of adhesion
is also increased by the fact that after the animal has
remained for some time in one spot, it forms a hollow
in the place where it rests, corresponding in size with
the shape of the shell. Into this depression the shell

WHELK. 15

sinks, and consequently there is no possibility of reaching
its edge, where alone it is vulnerable. When, however.
it is not warned, and prepared for resistance, it can be
easily detached by a sharp movement of the hand.

In general, it is not a migratory creature, and, conse-
quently, is often seen to be so covered with parasites of
various kinds, that its form can hardly be recognised.
I have now in my aquarium a limpet-shell, on which
a specimen of the common laver ( Ulva latissima) and
another of Porphyra laciniata have affixed themselves,
and are growing luxuriantly. There was also in the
same tank another limpet-shell, on which was growing
a whole forest of sea-grass (Enieromorpha compressa),
expanding as widely as the crown of a man's hat. The
acorn barnacle, too, often takes possession of the limpets,
and it frequently happens that, in some dark cavity of
rock, a colony of limpets may be found, each so covered
with these sessile barnacles, that not a particle of the
original shell is visible. Of this, however, we will speak
hereafter.

The figure, plate b, fig. 3 a, represents the appearance
of the limpet as it is generally seen on the rocks; 3 b
represents the under-surface of the same object, and
shows the animal itself. The limpet may easily be
thus seen, if it is placed in a vessel of sea-water with
flat glass sides, for it soon crawls up the side, and so
exhibits itself very perfectly.

The Common Whelk (Buccinum undatum) is another
shell that is sure to be found on the sands. This is so
well known a shell that no particular description is
here necessary, but mention will be made of it on a suc-
ceeding page. The little shell, figured on the left side
of the whelk, is one of the cowries, of which there are
almost innumerable varieties. Some of them, found
in the tropical seas, are of very large size, while others
are much smaller than the specimen represented. One
species of this shell is used as a medium of exchange
in some countries. Money that can be picked up on

16 PURPURA.

the sea-shore is, however, of very small value, fifteen
hundred cowries being considered as an equivalent to

one English shilling — hardly reimbursing the collector
for the trouble of stooping so often.

There is another shell allied or distinctly related to
the whelk which is very common on our coasts, and
which is well worthy of notice. This is the Purpura
lapillus (plate b, fig. 4), a shell that is sometimes found
nearly white, but mostly banded with brownish orange,
as is represented in the figure. Now, the creature that
inhabits this shell is one of those animals that furnished
the famous purple of the ancients, and from that pro-
perty it derives its name of Purpura. The colour is
not particularly beautiful, and it is rather remarkable
that the ancients, who had very good taste in colours,
should have placed so high a value on this purple,
which, according to their own account and our observa-
tions, closely resembled clotted blood.

Perhaps, however, its rarity constituted its value; for
there is so little in each shell, that an enormous number
of victims must have perished before a sufficiency of
the dye for one robe could have been obtained.

The ancients seemed to have managed the extracting
process in rather a clumsy manner; but if is easy enough
to procure the dye without mixing it with the juices of
the animal, as seems to have been the case in the olden

PURPURA — TOP. 17

times. If the reader would like to try the experiment,
it may be done as follows : —

Let him look among the rocks at low water, and
plenty of the shells may be found tolerably close to-
gether. "When a sufficient number are collected, they
should be killed by placing them in fresh water, after
the shell has been pierced or broken, as otherwise the
animal shuts itself up so tightly that the water cannot
gain admittance. When the creatures are quite dead,
the colouring matter may be found in a yellowish-look-
ing vessel, that derives its colour from the substance
contained wiihin. There is very little of this colouring
matter in the vessel. Now, if this yellow substance be
spread on white paper and placed in the sunshine, a
blue tinge enters the yellow, making it green. The
blue gradually conquers the yellow, and the green soon
becomes blue. Another colour, red, now makes its
appearance in the blue, and turns it into purple. The
red becomes gradually stronger, and in its turn almost
vanquishes the blue, but does not quite succeed in
doing so ; for the blue, having taken so much pains to
turn out the yellow, will not entirely vacate the
premises, and, coalescing with the red, forms a deep
purple, the red very much predominating. So we have
here all the primary colours fighting for the dominion,
and yellow, the most powerful of the three, forced to
retire before its complementaries.

There are great numbers of little shells, called Tops
from their form, which are found plentifully on every
coast, either empty and cast ashore by the waves, or
living, and found adhering to the sea- weeds that are
laid bare at low water. It is not often that these shells
are found quite perfect, for the shell is generally worn
away at the apex, so that the colouring substance is
removed and the point of the shell is white. One of
the most beautiful of these shells, the Livid Top
(Trochus ziziphinus), is represented on plate b, fig. 1.
The tongue of this species is remarkable for its
o

18 PERIWINKLES.

structure. Many molluscs are furnished with very
wonderful tongues, the true beauty of which can only
be seen by placing them under a microscope of moderate
power. Their tongue is easily extracted by drawing it
out from its hiding-place with a needle, and cutting it
off — the owner being, of course, previously killed.

When this organ is properly displayed, it will appear
furnished with one array of teeth, very minute, but
very strong, and quite adequate to the work which they
have to perform. In fact, the tongue is a miniature
file, and is used not so much for tasting the food, as
for a rasp, wherewith to cut it off. The top, therefore,
is an useful inhabitant of an aquarium, for he saves an
immensity of trouble in keeping the glass sides clean.
After an aquarium has fairly settled itself, the algae
pour out their spores, and these, adhering to the glass,
there affix themselves, so that in a few weeks the
glass becomes dimmed by the mass of minute vege-
tation. Here the tops and periwinkles come to our
aid, and by means of the natural scythes with which
they are armed, soon mow away the greater part of
this vegetable growth. They seem to do their work as
composedly and regularly as if they were paid by the
day for it. The Livid Top may be found alive among
the rocks at low water.

I have already stated that the periwinkles are useful
inhabitants of ah aquarium, and such is the case as
long as they can be kept alive. But they are often
very perverse in disposition, and show greater predilec-
tion for dying than for mowing. The Common Peri-
winkle, so familiar in our streets, is tolerably hardy in
confinement, and may be kept for some time. But
the handsomer Yellow Periwinkle {Littorina littoralis),
which is represented on plate .8, fig. 2, is still more
delicate in constitution, and seldom survives for many
weeks. But even the Common Periwinkle is a pretty
creature, as it exhibits itself when crawling upon the
glass of the aquarium, or on the sea-weeds where it

WENTLETRAP — COCKLE. 19

finds its food. The body is prettily banded with mul-
titudes of narrow dark markings, and the mode in
which the creature slides itself over the glass is very
curious.

There is a very pretty shell found in tolerable profusion
on our sands, and which will be recognised at once from
its portrait (plate b, fig. 5). This is the Common Wentle-
trap (Scalaria communis). It is not ouly a pretty shell,
but holds relationship with a very aristocratic connexion.
The Wentletraps are divided into two great sections;
the false Wentletraps, the whorls of whose spires touch
each other; and the true Wentletraps, whose whorls are
disjointed from each other. Of the former section our
little friend is a good example ; and of the latter, the
aristocratic relative alluded to. This is the Royal
Staircase Wentletrap, a shell formerly of such rarity
that a specimen only two inches and a quarter in height
would fetch eighty or ninety pounds.

The next shell which I shall mention is the Common
Cockle (Cardium edule), represented on plate b, fig. 6.

Perhaps this is the most abundant of all the littorine
shells ; for if a handful of shells be gathered at random
from the sands, nearly one-third will be cockles. When
living, the animals find a home under the sand, in which
they lie buried. The cockle is a capital delver, and,
armed with his natural spade, digs for himself a hole
in the sand nearly as fast as a man can dig with a
spade of metal. As for the wooden spades, so much
in vogue on sandy coasts, they have hardly a chance
against the cockle.

Many an observer has been perplexed at the little
jets of mingled sand and water which are so often seen
issuing from the sand when the waves have retired.
These tiny geysirs are occasioned by the cockles that
lie buried beneath the sand, and which are still in the
water below the sand level, although the surface is
tolerably dry.

Our cockle, however, is not only a digger, but a
c2

20 RAZOR-SHELL.

jumper, and the same instrument which serves him as
a spade to dig a hole in the sand also serves him as a
foot by means of which to spring into the air

There is another burrowing shell, that is found on
most sandy beaches. This is the Razor-Shell (Solen
ensis), for a representation of which, see plate b, fig. 7.

This creature burrows even deeper than the cockle,
being often found at th$ depth of two feet. It does
not, however, seem fond of sinking thus low, but gene-
rally remains sufficiently near the surface to permit the
tube just to project from the sand. The burrow in
which the animal lives is nearly perpendicular, and in
it the Solen passes its entire life, sometimes ascending
to the surface, and sometimes descending to the bottom
of its burrow, for it has none of the locomotive faculties
of its fellow-miner, the cockle. But although its range
of travel is circumscribed, the narrowness of its habita-
tion is compensated by the activity of its movements
therein. The fisherman who wishes to capture the
creature is aware of its agility, and takes measures
accordingly. As the tide retreats he watches for the
jet of sand and water which the animal throws into the
air when alarmed by its hunter's footstep. Into the
hole from which the jet ascended the fisherman plunges
a slender iron rod, which having a barbed, harpoon-like
head, pierces the animal, and retains it while it is
dragged from its hole. If, however, the fisherman
takes a bad aim, and misses his cast, he does not try a
second with the same creature, knowing that it will
have retreated to the termination of its burrow, whence
it cannot be extracted. »

Yet another burrowing shell. In most chalky rocks,
such as those of which the white cliffs of old England
are composed, many portions run well out to sea. If
these are examined at low water they will be found
to be perforated with numerous holes, running to
some depth, and varying considerably in dimensions.
These holes are made by the Pholas dactylus, plate b;

PHOLAS. 21

fig. 9, one of the most remarkable animals in
creaturedom.

Hard rocks and timber are constantly found perfo-
rated by this curious shell, but how the operation is
performed no one knows. It is the more wonderful,
because the shell is by no means hard, and cannot act
as a file. Indeed, in some species, the external shell is
almost smooth. And, moreover, if the shell were used as
the boring-tool, the hole would be nearly circular, instead
of being accommodated to the shape of the shell, as is
seen to be the case. However they get intq the stone,
there they may be everywhere found, and it does not
seem to be of much importance whether their habitation
be limestone, sandstone, chalk, or oak. Even the
Plymouth breakwater, solid stone as it is, was very
soon attacked by these creatures.

They are especially obnoxious to the builders of
wooden piers, for they seize on the submerged portion
of the piles on which the pier rests and do their utmost
to reduce them to a honeycombed state with the least
possible delay. Lately, however, the Pholades have
been conquered ; for they cannot pierce iron, and it is
found that if iron nails are closely driven into the sub-
merged portion of wooden , piles, they bid defiance to
the Pholas.

The specimen represented in our figure is shown
resting in its rocky bed, and seen edgeways. At each
side may be seen the furrowed shells ; the foot appears
in the centre, surrounded by the mantle, and the tube
is seen projecting far beyond the shell. Very many
good specimens may be obtained by splitting open the
piece of rock, and thus the shells extracted without
injury from the rocky home where they have lived and
died. In the interior of a perfect shell may be seer a
very curious projection, formed something like a spoon.
Its object does not seem to be very clearly ascertained.
The tube, which has been so often mentioned, is gene-
rally a composite organ, composed of two tubes or

22 TEREDO.

siphons, as they are called, which are placed closely
together, something on the principle of a double-
barrelled gun, or an elephant's trunk. Through these
tubes passes the water which is necessary for respiration,
being received into one tube, drawn from thence over
the gills, and finally expelled from the other tube.

There is another boring mollusc, which is on many
accounts worthy of notice. This is the so-called Ship-
worm {Teredo navalis), a representation of which may
be found on plate f, fig. 3. It has been placed on the
same page with some of the worms, in order to show
its very great external 'resemblance to some animals of
that class, and especially its similitude to the Serpula.
So closely, indeed, does it resemble the last-named
creature, that even Linnseus placed the Teredo between
Serpula and Sabella in his " System of Nature."

But this is really one of the molluscs, and a very
curious one. It is called the Ship-worm because it
has so powerful an appetite for submerged wood, and
especially for ship-timber. I have now by me a large
piece of oak, the remains of some wreck, which I found
entangled among the rocks at low water. It is so
completely devoured by the Teredo, that it is almost
impossible to find any portion of the wood that is
thicker than the sheet of paper upon which this
account is printed. Timber, however, can be protected,
from 'the Teredo by a closely studded surface of broad-
headed iron nails. These nails soon rust through the
action of the salt water, and the whole of the timber
is rapidly covered with a thick coating of iron rust, a
substance to which the Teredo seems to have a strong
objection.

The Teredo navalis is not a very large animal, but it
has a huge overgrown relation, the Giant Teredo, whose
diameter at the thickest part is three inches, and its
length nearly six feet.

On plate b, fig. 8, may be seen a shell, which will
probably be recognised at once as the Common Mussel

MUSSEL SCALLOP.

23

(Mytilus eduhs). The specimen figured is a young one,
and is shown as it appears when adhering to the rock
by means of the natural cable — or byssus, as it is
scientifically named — with which these creatures are
furnished.

These shells are exceedingly common, and large
masses of them may be found clinging to any rocks
or stones where they can anchor themselves. This
mussel is called Edulis, or eatable, because it is largely
used as an article of food. But it is by no means a
safe edible, as at certain times, or to certain constitu-
tions, it acts as a poison, producing most alarming and
sometimes fatal effects.

The byssus is an assemblage of delicate, silky, and
excessively strong fibres, the origin of which seems to
be at present rather obscure. Many shells are furnished
with this substance, which is shown in perfection in the
great Mediterranean Pinna, some specimens of which
measure nearly two feet in length. The byssus of these
creatures is often spun and woven like silk, and in
many places may be seen gloves, purses, and other
objects, which have been made from this substance.
It is, however, too rare to be put to any practical use.

The Common Scallop
(Pecten Jacobcea), generally
known in connexion with
oysters, may be found abund-
antly on our shores. Even
the empty shells are pretty
euough to attract observation;
but the animals are more
beautiful than their shelly
habitation. A living scallop
is well worthy of notice, if it
were only for the row of eye-
like points which are seen scallop.
peeping out from the very margin of the shell, when
the creature holds the valves partially open. Whether

%&&»

24 CHITON.

these brilliant spots are really eyes or not has not been
clearly ascertained, but at all events there appears no
reason why they should not be eyes ; and so to us eyes
they shall be.

The scallop is capable of changing its position, and
does so by the forcible ejection of water from a given
point. This mode of progress is analogous to that
employed by the larva of the dragon-fly. The title
Jacobsea is given to the scallop, from the shrine of St.
James (Lat. Jacobus), at Compostella; to which spot
iourneys were made by pilgrims, who, in token of
having paid their devotions at St. James's shrine, wore
a scallop-shell in their hats for the admiration of their
contemporaries, and bore it on their coats-of-arms for
the information of their posterity.

The story which connects the scallop-shell with St.
James is very curious, but too long for insertion.

The last shell-bearing mollusc which I shall mention
is one which does not at first appear to be a mollusc at
all. This is the curious little Chiton, a creature which,
instead of a tubular shell like the Teredo, a single
whorled shell like the whelk, or a double shell like
the scallop, bears an array of eight shelly plates on his
back, and thus gives to the observer an idea of a tiny
marine armadillo.

The entire back of the Chiton is covered with a strong
leathery coat, much larger than the living centre of the
animal. Upon this leathery mantle are placed eight
shell-plates, which overlap each other just as do the
tiles of a house. They are not very large on our
English coasts, but some foreign species are found
which exceed four inches in length.

If the shell-bearing molluscs are remarkable for the
elegant form and brilliant colouring of their habitations,
they seem to be equalled, if not eclipsed, in beauty by a
race of molluscs which possess no shell at all, and whose
chief beauty is derived from the singular peculiarity of
formation from which their name is derived. These are

NUDIBRANCHS — DORIS. 25

the Nudibranchs, or Naked-gilled Molluscs, so named
because their respiratory apparatus, instead of being
concealed within their bodies, or defended by shells,
is placed upon the exterior, in apparently heedless
defiance of surrounding objects. And the more that
the delicate construction of these branchiae is seen, the
more wonderful does it appear that these organs should
be placed in the position which they occupy without
suffering serious injury. If the lungs of one of the
mammalia were to be attached to its sides, and permitted
to hang loosely therefrom, exposed to the invasions and
collisions to which they would probably be liable, the
owner of the said lungs would hardly feel comfortable.
But the lungs, gills, or branchiae of the mollusc are so
exceedingly delicate, that the mammalian lung appears
quite coarse by their side.

There are many species of Nudibranchs found on
our coasts, one of the commonest of which (Doris
ptilosa) is represented on plate n, fig. 4. The gills
may be seen spreading like a feathery plume, or a
radiating flower, on the upper surface of the creature.
The position of the branchiae is by no means uniform,
for indeed the most fertile imagination would hardly
venture to depict such fantastic forms as are found
among the Nudibranchs, or, if they were depicted, could
hope that such wondrous shapes should be received by
men as existing in the same world with themselves.

Some species, like those whose shape has been already
alluded to, are nearly flat, and wear their lrmgs much
as a gentleman wears a bouquet, in his button-hole.
Others have their lungs neatly arranged round their
bodies in little spreading tufts, so that the creature has
something the aspect of a floriated coronet. Some have
their whole dorsal surface thickly studded with lungs,
so that it would bear a decided resemblance to a hedge-
hog, were it not that the spikes must be semitransparent,
and tinged with the most exquisite colours. Again,
there are some species which carry their lungs at a

26 NUDIBRANCHS.

distance from their bodies, and present them to the
waves as if they were holding the branchire in the
hands of their outstretched arms; while there are some
whose forms are so utterly unique and grotesque, that
a description would be useless except it were accom-
panied by a drawing.

As to the colouring of these creatures, there is hardly
a tint, from blackish grey to the most brilliant carmine,
that is not found in some member of this strange family.
They all belong to that division of the molluscs that go
by the name of Gasteropoda, because the lower surface
of the body forms the foot by which they move from
place to place. By the aid of this foot they often float
on the surface of the water, as has been already recorded
of other molluscs. This action, however, has been well
described, as creeping on the superincumbent stratum
of air. Many species of the genera Doris and Eolis,
together with others, may be found, at low water, cling-
ing to the rocks and stones. They will hardly be
recognised as Nudibranchs at a hasty glance, for they
subside into shapeless gelatinous knobs as soon as the
waves leave them, and do not resume their expanded
form until the surging sea returns.

The Nudibranchs, although most lovely creatures, are
very unsafe inhabitants of an aquarium, in spite of
their delicate and dainty looks; and a wolf would be
about as appropriate an inmate of a sheepfold, as a
Nudibranch of an aquarium where sea-anemones live.
Even the giant crassicornis, or Thick-horned Anemone,
has fallen a victim to the insatiable appetite of these
greedy creatures. In closing this short description of
the Nudibranch, let me strongly recommend the reader
to examine, if possible, the beautiful work on these
creatures by Messrs. Alder and Hancock, published by
the Ray Society.

27

CHAPTER III.

MARINE ALG£3; OR SEA-WEEDS.

Sea and land are, after all, wonderfully like each
other. The surface of the land has its mountains, its
valleys, its fire-vomiting volcanoes, its mountains of
eternal cold. So the bed of the sea is delved into vast
valle}rs, as yet unfathomable by human plummet ; and
these valleys we of the upper world call depths. Also,
it has its precipitous mountains, some towering above
the watery surface, and others lifting their heads until
they are dangerous neighbours to those that go in ships
upon the waters; and these we call by various insulting
names according to their degree of elevation. And
there are volcanoes of the sea as well as of the land ;
while the Polar islands, which are, in fact, the tops of
submarine mountains, are covered with snows as eternal
as those which crown the Monarch of mountains him-
self.

Then, the sea-bed has its Table Mountains, its vast
Saharas, its undulating prairies, its luxuriant forests,
and its verdant pasture-lands. And as the sandy tracts
or shingly beds are bare and devoid of vegetative life
on the upper earth, so are they also in the sea below;
while submarine forests lift their branches towards the
light of the sun, and submarine herbage waves its
many-coloured leaves in the rolling sea, just as flowers
and leaves bend to the breezes above. For in the
kingdom of Ocean, water is the atmosphere, and, like
its more ethereal relative, is ever rolling, and ever
changing.

Let us now visit the boundary line of the two great
kingdoms, Earth and Water, and though belonging to

28 TIDES.

the former, extend our researches as far as possible into
the latter.

Throughout the preceding pages it will be noticed
that the expression "at low water" is constantly used.
Now, this expression is quite necessary ; for were the
sea always to remain at the same height, our knowledge
of its wonders would be wofully circumscribed. It is
little enough even now, but that little would be almost
reduced to nothing were there no alternations of high
and low water.

Of the theory of tides there is here no opportunity
to speak, for it is a most complex subject, and even
to give a hasty sketch would occupy many pages, and
require many diagrams. Suffice it to say, that the
grand exciting cause of the tides is the force called
attraction, or gravitation; the moon being the chief
among the many agents through which it acts. It
matters not whether the water is salt or fresh, whether
as an ocean it fills the bed of the Atlantic, or as a drop
of dew trembles on a violet leaf. The tide-force still
acts on it, and tides there are, although we are incapable
of perceiving them. It is the same with the upper
sea, namely, the atmospheric air of our earth. In the
aerial ocean there are waves, whirlpools, calms, and
storms, although our eyes are too dull to perceive them,
and can only be made aware of their existence by seeing
their effects.

Twice in every day of twenty-four hours the water
advances and recedes, and thus at least one oppor-
tunity is given daily for the observer to follow the
retiring waves, and to discover some small portion of
the wonders of the sea. Some of its living and breath-
ing inhabitants have been mentioned in the preceding
chapter, and in the following pages will be briefly
described some few of its vegetative inhabitants, that
breathe not, but yet live.

If we walk on the sea-shore, vast masses of dark
olive vegetation meet our eyes ; if we wait until the

SEA- WEEDS BLADDER- WRACK. 29

tide has retreated, and examine the pools of water that
are left among the rocks, there we find miniature forests,
and gardens of gorgeous foliage, some of which are
scarlet, others pink, others bright green, others purple,
while some there are that play with all the pris-
matic colours, each leaf a rainbow in itself. If we take
a boat, and rowing well out to sea, cast overboard
a hooked drag, we shall find adhering to the iron claws
new kinds of vegetation, and probably among them will
be found a veritable flowering plant, — apparently as
much out of its place at the bottom of the sea as a
codfish in a birdcage. Now all this luxuriant, graceful,
and magnificent foliage, we dedecorate with the title
of sea.-weed. It is a miserable appellation ; but as it is
a term in general use, I shall employ it, although under
protest.

Those sea-weeds, then, which first strike our eyes,
are usually those denominated Wracks, the Common
Bladder-wrack (Fucus vesicalosus) being the most
common. For a figure of this plant, see plate J, fig 6.

There is little difficulty in distinguishing this con-
spicuous alga ; for the double series of round air-
vessels with which the fronds are studded, and the
mid-rib running up the centre of each frond, point it
out at once. This plant, together with one or two
others of the same genus, is still used in the manu-
facture of kelp, but not to such an extent as was
formerly the case. There is a variety of this plant
found in salt marshes, where it congregates in dense
masses : this variety is very small, being only an inch
or two in height, and the eighth of an inch, or even
less, in width. The plant is at all times very variable,
according to its locality, both in colour and form.

When trodden on, or otherwise suddenly compressed,
the air-vessels explode with a slight report, and seem to
afford much gratification to juveniles. This and other
fuci grow in the greatest abundance on rocks that are
covered by the waves at high water, and left bare when

30 DANGERS OP ROCKS.

the tide retires. Now on, under, and among these rocks,
the great zoological or botanical harvest is to be
collected, and therefore among these rocks the collector
must walk.

I make mention of this circumstance, because it is
necessary to warn the enthusiastic but inexperienced
naturalist, that the slimy and slippery fuci make the
rock-walking exceedingly dangerous; for the masses of
fuci are so heavy and thick, that they veil many a deep
hollow, or slightly cover many a sharp point, — in the
former of which a limb may be easily broken, and by
the latter a serious wound inflicted, — and there is
special reason for avoiding any such mishap. Pro-
verbially, time and tide wait for no man ; and should
a disabling accident occur when no one was near to
help, the returning waters would bring death in their
train — a death the more terrible from its slow but
relentless advance.

Now, the reader must be careful not to confound with
Fucus vesiculosus another species of somewhat similar
appearance, namely Fucus nodosus ; see plate J, fig. 1.

This plant may at once be distinguished from the
Common Bladder-wrack, by the absence of a mid-rib ;
it is of a tough consistence, and it grows to a large size,
being sometimes nearly six feet in length.

About half-way between high and low water another
species of fucus may be found : this is destitute of air-
vessels, it lacks the sliminess of the bladder-wrack, and
its edges are toothed, like the edge of a saw. It is
much about the same size as the bladder- wrack, but
perhaps rather longer ; see plate d, fig. 2.

This is a very useful plant indeed. It is a capital
manure for land, it can be preserved, and used as food
for cattle, it can be made into kelp, and it is an excel-
lent substance in which to pack lobsters, and other
marine productions that are sent inland. The bladder-
wrack is much used for the same purpose, but its sli-
miness renders it liable to heat and to ferment; nrhile

SPRING-TIDES. 31

Fucus serratits, being comparatively free from slime,
retains its cool dampness, and preserves the fish sweet.
It is really of importance, for a tainted lobster is not
only nauseous to the palate, but even dangerous to the
whole system.

There is a very tiny fucus, some four or six inches
lonsj at the most, that is to be found near hio-h water-
mark, chiefly in summer and autumn ; it may be
recognised by a number of small channels that furrow
one side of the frond. It has no air-vessels.

All these plants, together with all the algse com-
prised in this chapter, belong to the class of algse called
Melanosperms, or black-seeded ; so called from the
dark olive tint of the spores, or tiny seeds, from which
they spring. They all seem to be exclusively marine.

At spring-tides the waters recede considerably below
their usual mark, and these seasons are the harvest-
times of the shore-naturalist. As nearly as possible
at six hours after the high tide the waters will have
retired to their lowest boundary, and near that boundary
will be found myriads of new forms, both animal and
vegetable. Indeed, so prolific is the spring-tide harvest,
that an hour or two of careful investigation will some-
times produce as good results as several hours' hard
work with a dredge. It is better to go down to the
shore about half an hour or so before the lowest tide,
so as to follow the receding waters, and to save time.

When the naturalist has gained the spots below the
usual low-water mark, he will find himself in the midst
of a new set of vegetation, contrasting as strongly with
the productions of the higher grounds, as forest trees
with herbage and brushwood. Huge plants, measuring
some eleven feet or so in length, and nearly a yard in
width, are firmly anchored among the rocks by roots
rivalling in comparative size and strength those of the
oak-tree. This plant is commonly known by the name
of Oar -weed, and may be easily recognised from the
drawing in plate D, fig. 1. Its scientific name is Lami-

32 LAMINARIA CHORDA.

naria digitata, It is called " Laminaria " on account
of the flat thin plates, or laminse, of the frond, and
" digitata," or fingered, because the frond is split into
segments, something like the fingers of a hand.

I may as well mention here, that the sea-weeds have
no real root, and do not derive their nourishment from
the soil, as do the plants of earth; they adhere to
the rocks or stones by simple discs, and draw their
whole subsistence from the water that surrounds and
sustains them. In the so-called root of the Laminaria
there are no root-fibres, but a succession of discs, each
connected with the main stem of the plant by a woody
cable.

The stem of the Laminaria is very strong, and is
used for making handles to knives and other imple-
ments. When fresh, this stem is soft enough to permit
the tang of a knife-blade to be thrust longitudinally
into it. A portion of the stem sufficiently long for the
knife-handle is cut off, and in a few months it dries,
contracting with such force as to fix the blade immov-
ably ; and having much the consistency and appearance
of stag's horn. One good stem will furnish more than
a dozen of these handles.

Among the Laminarise maybe seen growing a singular
plant, more like a rope than a vegetable. It consists
of one long, cylindrical, tubular frond, hardly thicker
than an ordinary pin at the base, but swelling to the
size of a swan's quill in the centre. When the plant is
handled, it slips from the grasp as if it were oiled ; this
effect is produced by a natural sliminess, aided by a
dense covering of very fine hairs.

The name of this plant is Chorda filum. Its length
varies extremely, some specimens being found to measure
barely one foot, while others run from twenty to thirty,
and even to forty feet. It tapers gradually from the
middle to the point, where it is about the same thick-
ness as at the base.

I here make an exception to my general rule of

PADINA — DICHOTOMA — ECTOCARPUS. 33

excluding all but the commonest objects, in favour of
one sea-weed, which, although not very common, yet
may be found quite unexpectedly. It owes its intro-
duction to its very singular form. The name of it is
the Peacock's-Tail, deriving its title from its shape. Its
scientific name is Padina pavonia ; see plate a, fig. 3.

The habitation of this plant is midway between high
and low water-mark, where it may occasionally be found
adhering to the rocks. It is not a large plant, as it is
generally only two or three inches in height, but occa-
sionally reaches the height of five inches.

In the same order as the Padina is another little
algse, which, I think, is one of the prettiest of the
Melanosperms. I do not know whether it possesses
any popular name, but its scientific title is Dictyoto
dichotoma. For a figure of it, see plate a, fig. 5. It is
a very delicate-looking plant, and, unlike the Melano-
sperms in general, lives tolerably well in an aquarium.
The name Dictyota is derived from a Greek word, sig-
nifying a net ; and it will be seen, on examination, that
the surface of the frond appears as if woven into a tiny
network, with square, or rather slightly oblong meshes.
Its specific appellation of " dichotoma " is also of Greek
derivation, and signifies " cut in pairs," in allusion to
the shape of the frond.

Failing space permits only one more plant belonging
to the class, or rather, to speak accurately, the sub-class
MelanospermeEe. This is the plant known to botanists
by the title of E do carpus siliculosus, and which I men-
tion here because it is liable to be confused with other
algse that much resemble it in form, though not in
constitution ; see plate a, fig. 2. It is called Ecto-
carpus from two Greek words, signifying " external
fruit," and its specific title " siliculosus " is given to it
on account of the silicules, or little pod-like bodies, that
are found on the branches. These details are of very
minute size, and cannot be made out without the
assistance of a magnifying glass.
D

34 CHANGE OF TINT.

These dark-spored vegetables are very variable in
colour, as indeed are all the algee, without reference to
the colour of their spores; sometimes, indeed, even
trespassing on the colour of another sub-class. These
changes are mostly due to the varying depths of the sea
where the plants grow, and to the amount of light and
shade which falls to their lot. Even the hardy, rough,
and coarse bladder-wrack, which is usually of a very
dark olive-green, more approaching to black than to
green, becomes of a rich yellow tint when found at any
depth of water.

When dried the green vanishes totally, the colour
changing to dark-brown, and in many cases to black.
Most of this sub-class of algse require alternations or
water and air, the best specimens being found where
they are exposed to the heat of the sun and to the
force of the winds for some hours daily.

P

a

So

CHAPTER IV.

RED-SPOKED AND GREEN-SPORED ALG,E.

With this chapter we begin the account of another
sub-class of algse, the Rhodosperms, or red-seeded.
The plants belonging to this class are among the most
beautiful of the algse, that is, when they are placed in
favourable situations ; for they also change their
colours, and as their most beautiful colour is their
natural tint, any change is for the worse. Some of
them even become brown when there is too much light
for them.

About low water-mark may be found growing largish
masses of a dense, thread-like, reddish foliage, some-
times adhering to the rock, or sometimes even fixed to
the stems of the Laminaria. When removed from the
water the plant does not collapse, like many of its
relatives, but each thread and branch preserves its own
individuality. This is one of the large genus Poly-
siphonia, and the specific name is "urceolata." See
plate k, fig. 2.

By the side of the plant itself is represented a little
object that explains the latter title. This little jar-
shaped object is one of the fruits, or ceramidia, as they
are learnedly called, much magnified. The word
"urceolata" signifies pitchered, if we maybe permitted
to coin an English word corresponding to the Latin,
The name Polysiphonia is Greek, and signifies "many
siphons," or tubes. The reason for the name is evident
on cutting any of the branches transversely. It will
be then seen that the plant is composed of six tubes
d2

36 CHYLOCLADIA.

arranged round a central aperture ; the branches are
jointed, the length of each joint being several times its
own width.

There are twenty-six known British species of this
single genus.

That popular author and extensive traveller, Baron
Munchausen, tells us that in one of his journeys he
met with a tree that bore a fruit filled interiorly with
the best of gin. Had he travelled along our own sea-
coasts, or indeed along any sea-coasts, and inspected
the vegetation of the waves there, he would have found
a plant that might have furnished him with the ground-
work of a story respecting a jointed tree, composed of
wine-bottles, each joint being a separate bottle, filled
with claret. It is true that the plant is not very large,
as it seldom exceeds nine or ten inches in height ; but
if examined through a microscope, it might be enlarged
to any convenient size.

The name of this plant is rather a long one, but very
appropriate, Chylocladia articulata, i. e. the "jointed
juice-branch." See plate a, fig. 1.

It may be found adhering to rocks, or sometimes
parasitically depending on some of the larger algae, and
really does resemble a jointed series of transparent
bottles filled with claret or other red wine. The colour
is remarkably delicate and beautiful, but is rather apt
to fade after a time ; when it is preserved, dried, and
pressed, the gelatinous juice that filled the interior
disappears, and the plant can be flattened until it
hardly presents any thickness, even to the touch. There
is now before me a dried specimen of another species
of chylocladia, which adheres so firmly to the paper on
which it is laid, and is so delicate in substance, that
several persons to whom I have shown it have mistaken
it for a well-executed drawing.

If now the reader will refer to plate c, fig. 1, he will
there see depicted one of the most remarkable of the
algse ; remarkable in itself, and for the great battles which

CORALLINE. 37

have been fought over it by scientific individuals. This
plant is the Common Coralline (Corallina officinalis),
which may be found most abundantly on any of our
coasts, growing in greatest perfection near low water-
mark.

It is well enough known that many creatures,
formerly supposed to be vegetable, such as the corals
and the zoophytes, have since found their proper place
in the animal kingdom; and one consequence of this
reformation was, that several real plants were supposed
to be animals, because they possessed some of the cha-
racteristics which had distinguished those animals that
had been placed in their proper position. Of these
plants the coralline is a good example ; for until a com-
paratively late period, it was placed among the animals
in company with the true corals.

There was reason for this error, for the coralline is
a very curious plant indeed, gathering from the sea-
water, and depositing in its own substance, so large an
amount of carbonate of lime, that when the purely
vegetable part of the alga dies, and is decomposed,
the chalky portion remains, retaining the same shape
as the entire plant, and very much resembling those
zoophytes with which it has been confounded. While
growing, the coralline is of a dark purple colour ; but
when removed from the water, the purple tint vanishes,
and the white stony skeleton remains. It is, however,
a true vegetable, as may be seen by dissolving away the
chalky portions in acid : there is then left a vegetable
framework, precisely like that of other algse belonging
to the same sub-class.

The coralline is a small plant, seldom exceeding five
or six inches in height, and not often even reaching
that size. However, it compensates for its low stature
by its luxuriant growth, being usually found in dense
masses wherever it can find a convenient shelter.

If a dried branch of coralline be inserted into the
flame of a candle, it exhibits a most brilliant whit©

38 DELESSERIA SANGUINEA.

light just at the point where it meets the flame. The
light is exhibited better by the flame of a spirit-lamp
than by that of a candle, and for obvious reasons.

It will live well in an aquarium, and, if tastefully
disposed, is an elegant ornament to the vase or tank.
There is now in my own aquarium a moderate tuft 01
coralline, which seems in good health, although the
water has lately been assuming an unpleasant milky
appearance, from some cause which I cannot as yet
detect.

We now come to a most magnificent sea-plant, mag-
nificent both on account of its gorgeous colouring, and
on account of its luxuriance. This is the Delesseria san-
guined, represented, about half its usual size, in plate J,
fig. 3.

The shape of the leaf, or rather of the frond, so
closely resembles that of terrestrial trees, that at first
sight few would attribute the beautiful scarlet leaf,
with its decided midrib and bold nervures, to an alga.
Yet an alga it is, and may be found in its most perfect
state about June or July : later in the year it becomes
very ragged, the broad flat frond giving way to the
fruit. In this state, although interesting to the
botanist, it is hardly suitable for the cabinet, as little
of the plant is left except the midrib, and a few flap-
ping raglets. When spread on paper and preserved, it
retains its colour well, and adheres very firmly.

The fronds are generally from two to seven or eight
inches in length, but they are not often found exceeding
five or six inches. A branch containing eight or ten
fronds, averaging five inches in length, may be considered
a good specimen, and worth preserving, if the edges are
entire. There is a very peculiar marine scent about
this plant, an " ancient and fishlike smell," quite inde-
scribable, but not to be forgotten. A large branch will
retain this scent for months. I have by me a tuft ot
this plant, which I gathered in July last, and its pecu-
liar smell is now (April) very perceptible.

PLOCAMIUM DULSE.

39

There are five British species of this beautiful genus,
none of them very rare. Delesseria hypoglossum (plate
D, fig. 4) may be found in the summer months growing
on almost every coast. It is a very pretty plant,
although not so gorgeous as its predecessor. The fronds
are generally of small size, being hardly a quarter of
an inch in length.

In the little sea-weed landscapes, that are sold so
abundantly at the fashionable sea-side towns, there is
one species of sea-weed in great request for trees and
bushes. It is of a bright pinky red colour, and is
thickly branched, so as to afford a tolerable representa-
tion of a forest tree, or of a thick bush. This is the
Plocamium coccineum, a plant sufficiently beautiful to
the unassisted eye, but especially so when submitted
to a magnifying lens. When examined through a glass
of moderate power, it will be seen that even the tiny
branchlets, each hardly thicker than a hair, are again
furnished with a row of smaller ramifications, somewhat
resembling a very finely-toothed comb.

On plate k, fig. 3, may be seen a specimen of the
Plocamium of the natural size, and near it a single
branch magnified, in order to show the tiny combs.

Many of the marine alga? are used as articles of
food; some eaten uncooked, and others after a long
course of boiling. To the former of these categories
belongs the Dulse, Dillisk, or Dillosk [Rhodymenia
palmata), although it is sometimes cooked. The species,
however, which is here illustrated, is Rhodymenia bifida,
a plant of a very fine rosy red when fresh, found in
tolerable profusion adhering to rocks or on the larger
algse. The fronds are generally two inches or so in
length, and about a quarter of an inch in width. For
a figure of this plant, see plate k, fig. 4.

The Carrageen Moss, so well known in the form of
jelly and size, is one of the Rhodosperm Algse, by name
Ckondrus crispus. (Plate J, fig. 5.)

It may be found growing on the rocks in large quan-

40 CARRAGEEN — FURCELLARIA — IRID£!A.

tities, where its shape will be the best guide to its detec-
tion, for its colour is exceedingly variable. Although
one of the Rhodosperms, it is very frequently of a
greenish tint, and in many places it assumes a yellow
jaundiced complexion, not at all of a healthy nature.

To preserve it for esculent purposes, it must be
washed in fresh water and then left to dry, when it
soon becomes horny to the touch, and resists pressure.
If boiled, it subsides into a thick colourless jelly, that
is thought to be very nutritive, and is employed for
many purposes. Invalids take it in their tea, or epicures
in their blanc-mange. Calico printers boil it down into
size, and use it in their manufactures. It is said to be
a good fattening substance for calves, if boiled in milk ;
and, lastly, pigs are very fond of it when it is mixed
with potatoes or meal. It is sometimes known by the
name of " Irish Moss." It will grow in an aquarium.

A plant is represented on plate J, fig. 4, that is found
plentifully between tide-marks. It is rather a conspicu-
ous plaut, and is appropriately named Furcellaria fas-
tigiata, the generic title being derived from a Latin
word signifying a little fork. It is of a dark-brown
colour with an obscure dash of purple, but in drying
the purple departs, and the brown becomes nearly black.

I have already mentioned that some of the algse
reflect prismatic colours. This is occasionally the case
with Chondrus crispus, and there is one genus which
is so resplendent that the name Iridcea is given to it ;
Iris signifying a rainbow. The species represented at
plate c, fig. 4, is Iridcea edulis, a plant which is some-
times eaten raw, and sometimes fried by unpoetical
gastronomists. I do believe that some people would
fry the rainbow itself if it were eatable.

The frond of this species is generally about nine or
ten inches in length, and five inches in width, although
it sometimes nearly doubles these dimensions. Its
colour is an uniform deep red, and its shape somewhat
resembling a battledore.

PTILOTA— GRIFFITHSIA — NITOPHYLLUM. 41

A particularly elegant species of alga, making a good
figure when spread on paper, is seen figured on plate k,
fig. 5. The fronds are sometimes more than a foot in
length, but do not often exceed ten or eleven inches,
some being only three or four inches long. The colour
is rather apt to fly, unless care be taken ; but it is a
beautiful plant, were it only for the elegance of its
form. Its name is Ptilota plumosa, both words having
a like signification, and meaning " winged," or feathery.

There is a pretty little alga, called Griffithsia srtacea,
which has the property of staining paper with a fine
pinkish-scarlet hue, when the enclosing membrane
bursts. Contact with fresh wrater will usually cause
the membrane to yield, and then the colouring matter
is shot out with a slight crackling noise.

Its length is generally about four or five inches. A
drawing of the plant of the natural size, together with
a magnified sketch of the fruit, may be seen on plate k,
fig.l.

The last of the Rhodosperms that will be noticed in
this volume is a very delicate species, entitled Nito-
phyllum punctatum ; see plate c, fig. 5. This plant will
easily be recognised from the drawing. Its usual size
is six or ten inches in length, and nearly as wide ; but
it is not uncommon to find specimens that exceed a
foot in length, while some huge monsters have been
found that measured five feet in length and a yard in
width. It is easy enough to distinguish this plant from
the Delesseria, as it has no midrib.

The Chlorosperms, or Green-seeded Alga, are the
best friends of those who keep marine aquaria, for they
are endowed with the power of pouring out oxygen in
very large quantities when placed in favourable circum-
stances. If any of my readers wish to preserve alive
the creatures that they find on the sea-shore, they can
do so without difficulty, by imitating as nearly as pos-
sible the natural state and accompaniments of the
animals which they have captured.

42 CHLOROSPERMS BRYOPSIS.

If even one or two fish, crabs, or, indeed, any living
animals, be placed in a jar of sea- water, they speedily
exhaust the free oxygen of the water, and, as the water
cannot absorb fresh oxygen from the atmosphere so
rapidly as the animals consume it, the water soon
becomes unfit to support auimal life, and its inhabitants
die as surely as a man would who was enclosed in an
air-tight box. It is possible to renew the oxygen by
dashing water into the jar from a height, or even by
pumping fresh air into it ; but such a process would
be very fatiguing, as it must be continually carried on
day and night. But it is found that plants have the
property of pouring out oxygen when they are in a
healthy state and acted on by light. So, if we can
procure plants that will thrive in a confined space, and
keep them in a light room, we shall find that each plant
acts as a natural pump, and not only supplies continually
fresh oxygen, but consumes the carbonic acid gas that
loads the water with its stifling influence. The Chlo-
rosperiais are peculiarly useful for this purpose, as many
of them will live for an unlimited time in confinement,
continually regenerating the water in which they are
placed. I have now an aquarium containing water that
I brought from the sea last August, and by the untiring
exertions of a few green sea-weeds the water has been
preserved bright and pure, even though inhabited by
all kinds of marine animals.

^ Among the most useful, as well as the most elegant
of the sea-weeds used for this purpose, is the little
Bryopsis j^lumosa; see plate D, fig. 3. This brilliant
and delicate little plant is common enough, and may be
found in the pools left by the retiring tide, where it
adheres to their rocky walls. The colour of the plant
is a very bright green, and its form is so feathery, or
rather fan-like, that it well deserves its name of
" plumosa."

In almost any little pool, between tide-marks, or
even hanging from rocks that have been left quite dry,

CLADOPHORA — ENTEROMORPHA. 43

may be seen thick tufts of a coarsish horse-hair-like
plant, of a dull green colour, often dashed with black.
This is the Cladophora rupestris, one of the commonest
species out of the twenty that are exclusively marine.
There are two species that inhabit ditches and lakes
where the sea occasionally obtains admission, and
several others that prefer water entirely fresh. The
length of the tufts is about four or five inches, often
less, but seldom more.

Another species of the same genus, Cladojihora arcta,
is of a brighter green than the preceding, and altogether
a prettier plant. It grows in a radiating manner from
a very broad disc. This plant is represented on plate
c, fig. 2.

But the most useful of the Chlorosperms may be
found almost at the very margin of high water, where
they live rather more in the open air than under water.
These are the Ulvce and Enter omorpli<£, the first being
known by the popular title of Laver, and the second of
Sea-grass. There is another plant that is also called
Sea-grass; but it is not an alga, and will be mentioned
at the end of this chapter.

The Common Sea-grass {Enterwnorpha compressa)
may be seen in abundance on the stones and rocks that
are even for a few hours submerged daily. The leaf, or
rather frond, of this species is variable in width, some-
times being hardly wider than common sewing thread,
and sometimes so wide as to resemble a very narrow
ulva. It is this variety which is represented in the
engraving, plate c, fig. 3. When the waves retire,
leaving sundry pools fringed with this and other sea-
weeds, their fronds form hiding-places for innumerable
living beings of very many species ; and by gathering-
masses of the wet weed into a basket, and then putting-
it into a large vessel filled with sea-water, myriads of
animals may be captured with hardly any trouble.
They will live perfectly well in the vessel if it is kept
in a light spot with a free circulation of air.

44 GREEN AND PURPLE LAVER.

The Common Green Laver ( Ulva latissima), plate k,
fig. 6, sometimes called the Sea Lettuce, is found most
abundantly on the same spots as the preceding plant.
Of all the sea-weeds for an aquarium, the Green Laver
is perhaps the very best. It is very pretty, from its
delicate green colour, and the various folds and puckers
into which it throws itself. Its power of expiring oxygen
seems to be almost unlimited. I have in my aquarium
a large plant of this species, which generally lives very
contentedly in the place where it had been deposited.
But, a few days ago, the sun shone brightly enough to
pierce through the veil of smoke with which the metro-
polis is generally hidden from his presence, and conse-
quently there was a greater abundance of light than
usual. On looking at the aquarium, I found that the
ulva had risen in the water, and was hanging in most
elegant festoons from the surface, forming emerald'
caves and grottos such as the sea-nymphs would love.
Even at a little distance it was a pretty sight, but a
closer inspection revealed still more beauties ; for being
excited by the unwonted light, the plant had poured
forth so much oxygen that its entire surface was thickly
studded with tiny sparkling beads, that had buoyed up
the whole plant, each bubble acting as a miniature
balloon. When, however, a black cloud came over the
sun, the bubbles soon detached themselves, ascended to
the surface, and as there were no more to take their
place, down dropped the plant to the bottom.

On a bright day the little oxygen bubbles are so
rapidly exuded, that they quite fill the water, rising to
the surface, and there dissipating, very much like the
sparkling air-bells in champagne.

The Purple Laver, as it is called in England, or the
Sloke, as it is termed in Ireland, is another of these
useful plants. In external appearance it very much
resembles the ulva, save that the colour, instead of
being light green, is purple. From this peculiarity of
colour it is called by botanists, Porphyra, which word

MODE OF PROCURING SPECIMENS. 45

signifies "purple." There appear to be only two
species of this genus belonging to our coasts, the one
P. laciniata, and the other P. vulgaris. The former of
these plants is engraved in plate a, fig. 4. Only a
portion of the frond is given. It is hardly inferior to
the preceding plant in value to the aquarium-keeper,
and flourishes wonderfully. P. vulgaris may be used
for the same purpose. I have seen one of these plants
in an aquarium, which had increased to such an enor-
mous size, that it was aptly compared by a bystander
to a lady's purple silk apron.

The ulva and porphyra, if intended to be eaten,
must be gathered in the winter, or, at all events, the
very earliest of the spring months. The purple laver
is said to be much superior to its green companion, but
I cannot speak from personal experience. If any of
my readers would like to try the experiment for them-
selves, they may easily do so ; the laver should be
stewed for several hours, until it is reduced to a pulpy
mass, which, with the addition of lemon juice, is con-
sidered by some persons a dainty.

I may here mention that, although both ulva and
porphyra will live in an aquarium, when floating
freely through the water without any attachment, yet
it is better that they should be adherent to some stone
or shell, by which they can be anchored in a convenient,
spot. Now these plants are very constant, for they
never have but one attachment during their whole
lives, and if torn from that one object they never affix
themselves to any other : so it is necessary to use a
chisel and mallet, or at all events a geologist's hammer,
for the purpose of detaching the portion of rock or
stone to which the plant is adherent. Generally the
geologist's hammer, if properly chosen, answers every
purpose. Almost at the commencement of my last
shore-season I dropped both my chisels into a rock-
pool, and not being able to find them again, brought
the hamm r into play; and so useful was that hammer,

4:6 ZOSTERA PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS.

that I did not find it requisite to procure a fresh set of
chisels during the fdur weeks of shore- searching.

A plant has been mentioned, which does not belong
to the sea-weeds, although from its residence at the
bottom of the sea it is often thought to be of that
family ; this is the Zostera marina, for a drawing of
which see plate J, fig. 2, a true flowering plant, growing
with a real root at the bottom of the sea. Its entire
character is so completely terrestrial, that it can at
once be distinguished from the alga.

The zostera is an useful plant to the zoologist, for
it grows in great numbers, or rather in great fields,
affording pasture to innumerable living beings, which
he captures in his net or dredge. It will live well
enough in an aquarium, and gives a decided character
to that portion of the tank in which it is placed.
Again, when dried, it is largely manufactured into bed-
stuffing, under the name of Alva, and is used instead of
hay or straw for packing glass, china, and other fragile
wares. On many coasts this plant is known by the
name of Grass-wrack, and is cast up in great quantities
on the shore, where it soon turns black, rots, and pre-
sents a very unsightly aspect.

If the naturalist wishes to dry and preserve the algse
which he finds, he may generally do so without much
difficulty, although some plants give much more trouble
than others. It is necessary that they should be well
washed in fresh water, in order to get rid of the salt,
which being deliquescent, would attract the moisture
on a damp day, or in a damp situation, and soon ruin
the entire collection. When they are thoroughly
washed the finest specimens should be separated from
the rest, and placed in a wide shallow vessel, filled with
clean fresh water. Portions of white card, cut to the
requisite size, should then be slipped under the speci-
mens, which can be readily arranged as they float over
the immersed card. The fingers alone ought to answer
every purpose, but a camel's-hair brusb and a needle

PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS. 47

will often be useful. When the specimen is properly-
arranged, the card is lifted from the water, carrying
upon it the piece of sea-weed.

There is little difficulty in getting the plants to
adhere to the paper, as most of the algse are furnished
with a gelatinous substance, which acts like glue, and
fixes them firmly down. Where they do not readily
adhere, the use of hot water will generally compel
them to do so ; and if they still remain obstinate, the
gelatine obtained by boiling the carrageen (Chondrus
crispus) — see p. 39 — will be an unfailing remedy. This
is a much better cement than animal glue, or even
gum-water, as it approaches nearer to the natural glue
of the, plant, Furcellaria fastigiata, CladopJiora arcta,
and others, are not easily affixed to the paper, and will
often require the aid of some adventitious substance.

This sketch of the British marine algae is necessarily
very imperfect ; but even as it is, they have occupied
rather more than their proper share of paper. Still,
there are sufficient different genera here mentioned to
prevent the inexperienced marine botanist from erring
very widely, and the specimens chosen have been
selected for two reasons ; the one being that they may
be found on almost every coast ; and the other, that
they form a series of landmarks, by means of which
the observer can be directed in the right course.

48

CHAPTER V.

EQQS OP MARINE ANIMALS — CUTTLES AND THEIR HABITS.

It is impossible to walk on the sea-shore without
being struck by the strangely-shaped objects that are
cast up by the waves, and left high and dry until
swept away by the next tide, which in its turn brings
new and varied forms; and these objects are continually
changing according to the season of the year. One
week may pass, and the observer will see nothing on the
sand with which he is not thoroughly acquainted ; and
in the course of the next week new and grotesque
objects will be found profusely scattered at his feet.
Some of these objects are purely natural, and their
presence is occasioned by the development of nature,
while others are but a mixture of the natural and
artificial.

For example, when green peas come into general
use, the empty pods are thrown into the sea, and
are after a space washed up by the waves, having been
so chemically acted upon by the salt water, so abraded
by sand and pebbles, and so nibbled by various marine
animals, that they can hardly be recognised even by the
very persons who have consumed the peas that were
once enshrined in these metamorphosed husks. Nut-
shells, gooseberry husks, currant stalks, cherry stones,
and many similar objects, assume, after a temporary
sojourn in the ocean, very singular forms, and may
easily deceive an unaccustomed eye, especially as they
often resemble vegetable and animal remains that pro-
perly belong to the sea. I mention this, because I
have seen many instances of such deception.

PSEUDO-CURIOSITIES — EGOS. 49

Only a year or two ago, I commissioned a friend to
procure for me any marine curiosities that could be
found, and to forward them when a sufficient quantity
had been amassed. In due time the parcel arrived,
having a pleasant marine smell about it, and on being
opened, was found to contain some very curious objects.
Among them was one on which the collector especially
prided himself, and in chase of which he had bravely
waded into the sea and undergone a complete wetting.
It was apparently a kind of sponge, about eight inches in
length, of a light brownish yellow colour, and hollow at-
one end, as are most sponges. But, on a nearer examina-
tion, this sponge proved to be a cabbage-stalk, of which
only the fibrous portion remained, and which had pro-
bably been tossing about for many months in the sea ;
sometimes soaked by the waters, sometimes lying on
a rock and bleaching in the sun, until the next high
tide carried it back again; and at other times entangled
among heavy sea- weeds, and anchored by them under
water. I still preserve it as an example of marine
curiosities.

It is quite necessary, therefore, to exercise much
caution in selecting objects. The surest mode of ob-
taining success is to gather indiscriminately everything
that presents itself, and having conveyed the cargo to a
place of shelter, deliberately to examine the heap. By
so doing, the valuable objects will be retained, and the
useless rejected, without so much danger of passing
over the one or preserving the other, as if the choice
were made immediately. After a time, the eye will
become so accustomed to note distinguishing characters,
that such a process will be no longer required, and the
eye will make its selection at once.

Among the singularly shaped substances that are
found thrown on the sands, are the eggs of various
marine creatures. Many of these eggs are so curiously
formed, that they would hardly be recognised as such
by one who was not acquainted with the animals to

E

50 EGGS OP WHELK.

which they belonged. Very many eggs are found
on the shores ; but as most of them may be referred
to one out of four or five classes of animals, I will
only mention those that are, as it were, the general
types.

Plate h is specially dedicated to eggs, and, as will be
seen on referring to the plate, some of them have any-
thing but an egg-like aspect. The commonest of all
the eggs, masses of which are to be found at almost all
seasons of the year, are those of the common whelk, the
shell of which is represented on p. 1 6, and its eggs on
plate H, fig. 3. The egg mass from which the drawing
was made, is now before me. It contains many eggs
as yet unhatched, many which are addled, and some
which have already discharged their inhabitants. It
was taken out of the sea at the very beginning of April,
but if it had been permitted to remain in its habitation
until the summer, all the egg-sacs would have been
found empty. I am keeping it in the aquarium in faint
hopes that some of the young whelks will be hatched;
but it is very doubtful whether the surrounding con-
ditions are sufficiently favourable. The enormous size
of some of these egg-clusters is remarkable ; for the
whelk itself is by no means a large shell, and so it often
happens that those persons who are practically ac-
quainted with the whelk, but not with the eggs, entirely
refuse to believe that there is any connexion between
objects so dissimilar. The empty egg-cluster bears
some resemblance to a rather dingy honey-comb, par-
tially squeezed between the hands. But when the mem-
branous egg-sacs contain their living inhabitants, the
animal nature is evident from the presence of the young
whelks, whose forms can be plainly seen through the
semi-transparent substance that envelopes them until
they are sufficiently strong to lead an independent life.

A description of the purpura has already been given
on p. 17, and it will be seen that this creature is
interesting, not only on account of the beautiful dye

EGGS OP PURPURA. 51

which it contains, but also for the singular shape of its
eggs, a cluster of which is represented in plate h, fig. 2.
Sometimes these curious eggs are found affixed to
little stones, and, indeed, when first* deposited, some of
them seem always to be thus anchored as it were, and
to afford support to the others, who stand on each
other's shoulders, something like the human pyramid
that is occasionally formed at Astley"s and similar
establishments. The cluster from which this sketch
was made I found lying among the rocks, and put it
carefully away. But in the course of travel, the box in
which it was placed gave way, and my poor little egg-
cluster was thrown among a large boxful of shells.
There it rested for some seven or eight months, and
when discovered was dry, shrivelled, and hardly to be
recognised. But, when placed in hot water, it absorbed
the liquid as if it had been composed of blotting
paper, and in two minutes had completely resumed its
natural aspect.

Often may be found, lying on the shore, masses of
dark soft substances, not unlike purple grapes, both in
size and in shape. If you ask a fisherman the name of
them, he will tell you that they are sea-grapes, but for
any further information you may usually ask in vain.
Indeed, as a general fact, those who live on the sea-
shore are hopelessly ignorant of its treasures. I knew
a person of intellect, education, and ordinary observing
powers, who had resided within a stone's throw of the
sea for a period of thirty years, who had been accus-
tomed to walk on the sands almost daily, and yet had
never in his life seen, and hardly ever heard of, a com-
mon sea anemone, although the shores were studded
with them as the sky with stars. And one of those
strange amphibious humanities, who get their living by
collecting shells, curious pebbles, sea-weed, zoophytes,
and other saleable curiosities, persisted in declaring
that the hermit crab was the young of the common
edible crab, and that when it grew old enough, and was
e2

52 EGGS OF CUTTLE.

too large for its shell, it abandoned the useless adjunct,
and commenced another course of life.

But to return to our sea-grapes, of which a sketch
may be seen on plate h. fig. 5. These are the eggs of
a cuttle-fish, and curious eggs they are. Each is pro-
duced into a flexible stalk, by means of which the mass
is held together, and affixed to any convenient object.
The egg-cluster from which the sketch was taken was
one of four or five which I preserved at different times,
in order to watch their progress. Here and there,
among the dark mass of eggs, appeared one nearly
white, and semi-transparent, through whose delicate
walls might be seen the little cuttle within, very lively
and seemingly anxious for his emancipation. At the
bottom of the egg-cluster may be seen one of the young
creatures escaping from the prison that had confined
him, and, as will be seen, the young cuttle is rather a
comical-looking little animal.

I was much amused with the perfect self-possession
of the first that was hatched in my presence. It had
not been free from the egg-shell for one minute before

CUTTLE. 53

it began a leisurely tour of the vessel in which it first
saw the light, examining it on all sides, as if to find
out what kind of a place the world was, after all. It
then rose and sank many times in succession over
different spots, and after balancing itself for a moment
or two over one especial patch of sand, blew out a round
hole in the sand, into which it lowered itself, and there
lay quite at its ease. It executed this movement with
as much address, as if it had practised the art for
twenty years.

The mode by which the creature forms this little
buiTow is sufficiently curious. Its siphon is a slightly
projecting tube, and by bending this towards the spot
selected, and then forcibly ejecting a column of water,
the sand is displaced apparently by magic. This siphon
is also useful as a means of progression ; and, in one of
the cephalopods, as these creatures are called, because
their feet are situated on their head, has not only cast
out water, but also the mistaken notions with which
careless observers had obscured its history.

Some cephalopods have bodies soft and naked, while
others are protected by a shell secreted by themselves.
Among these shelly cuttle-fish is the well-known
nautilus, who was once said to row himself over the sea
with his legs, and to stretch out his wing-like arms as
sails to catch the breeze. But it is now known that these
sails are kept closely wrapped round the shell, which,
indeed, they secrete originally, and can mend if in-
jured, while the legs are suffered to trail loosely.
Successive jets of water are then ejected from the
siphon, by which the creature is driven in a contrary
direction. By this water-power the nautilus is urged
through the waves, but when it wishes to move about
on the bottom of the sea, it just crawls exactly as a
large spider might be supposed to do.

On the arms, legs, feet, or tentacles of the cuttles,
are arranged rows of suckers, which are capable of
taking a very firm hold of any object to which they are

54 SUCKERS AND CUTTLE-BONE.

applied, aided in some species by sharp hooks. If any
one of these suckers is examined, it will be found to be
the living type of the air-pump, an exhausting syringe
that was in full operation thousands of ages before man
worked in metals, and more perfect than the best air-
pump ever made. For there are extant many specimens
of fossil cuttle-fish, the relics of one of which, by the
way, are familiar to most people by the title of " thun-
derbolts"— long cylindrical bodies, composed of cal-
careous spar, pointed at one end, and slightly hollowed
at the other, not unlike an elongated Minie bullet,
and which, when cut or broken across, display a radiated
•.structure.

If an arm of a cuttle be taken, and any one sucker
examined, it will be seen to consist of a thick mus-
cular membranous cup, having a cavity at the bottom,
something like the chamber at the bottom of a mortar.
The sucker should now be divided longitudinally, and
then at the end of this " chamber " will be seen a soft
muscular piston, exactly fitting the cavity. Now, if
the circumference of the sucker be closely pressed
against any substance of sufficient size and consistency,
and the piston withdrawn, a vacuum is at once created,
and powerful adhesion takes place. As, on an average,
each cuttle is furnished with nine hundred suckers, the
force of its hold may be imagined.

There is a substance that is often to be picked up on
the shore, and oftener to be purchased at the perfumer's
shops, known by the name of cuttle-bone, and when re-
duced to powder, used for various purposes. This so-
called cuttle-bone is not bone at all, but a very wonder-
ful structure, consisting almost entirely of pure chalk, and
having been at one time embedded loosely in the sub-
stance of some departed individual of the species called
Sepia officinalis. The "bone" is enclosed within a mem-
branous sac within the body of the cuttle, by which sac
it is secreted, and with which it has no other connexion,
dropping out when the animal is opened. On taking

SEPIA. 55

one of these objects into the hand, its extreme lighti
is very evident, and if it be cnt across and examined
through a lens, the cause of the lightness will be per-
ceived. The plate is not solid, but is formed of a suc-
cession of excessively thin laminae or floors of chalk, each
connected with each by myriads of the tiniest imagin-
able chalky pillars. When the cuttle is living, this
structure runs through the entire length of the ab-
domen, being of equal length with it, and occupying
about one-third of its breadth. In the Calamary the
analogue of this object is of a horny consistence, semi-
transpar|nt, something resembling in shape the head
of a spear, or the feather of a large pen, from which
latter resemblance it is sometimes called the Sea-pen.

The well-known colour, sepia, is or ought to be manu-
factured from a black liquid, which is possessed by
most of these creatures, and which can be ejected at
will, probably with the view of darkening the water,
and so temporarily baffling their enemies, of whom they
have many, even including their own species. And it
can also be employed while the animal is out of the
water, as was once rather amusingly exemplified.

There was an officer employed, as I hope my readers
have been and often will be occupied, in searching the
coast for objects of marine natural history. After a
while he came unexpectedly on a cuttle, who had taken
up his abode in a convenient recess. The cuttle has
a pair of very prominent eyes, and for a short time the
cuttle looked at the officer, and the officer at the cuttle.
Presently, the cuttle became uneasy, and taking a good
aim at his military visitor, shot his charge of black ink
with so true a range, that a pair of snowy white
trowsers were covered with the sable fluid, and rendered
entirely unpresentable. Even in many of the fossil
cuttles this ink has been discovered dry and hard in
its proper place within the creature. This most ancient
substance has been removed, and ground down like very
hard paint, and has been found to produce so beautiful

56 FLYING SQUID— EYE OF CUTTLE.

a sepia tint, that an artist to whom it was shown inquired
the name of the colourman who prepared it. And, in
order to prove the character of the colour, a drawing
of the fossil animal was made, and a description of it
written, with its own ink.

Some of the Cephalopods are gifted with great powers
of locomotion, and of those so gifted the Flying Squid
is a good example. One of these creatures has been
known to spring from the sea clear over the bulwarks
of a ship and to fall on the deck, where it was captured.
This specimen was six inches in length, and its habita-
tion was the Pacific Ocean, lat. 34 N. ^

The eye of. the cuttle is a most singular organ, its
anatomy having long perplexed the dissectors, who could
not conceive by what means the creature could see at
all. It would be impossible here to describe this
beautiful structure, and therefore I will content myself
with observing that the celebrated Coddiugton Lens is
merely a reproduction, though unwittingly so, of the
lens belonging to the cuttle's eye. So here we have a
pair of achromatic lenses and a series of air-pumps,
contained in the structure of one creature belonging
to the lower orders of the animal kingdom. Many
other analogies exist, but space suffices not for them
here.

The eggs of many fish are small and globular, being
generally known under the name of spawn. The
"hard-roe" of a herring furnishes a good type of this
class of eggs. These, however, are the eggs of fish
that are destined to be produced in countless myriads,
and to serve as food for the other inhabitants of the
deep, as well as for man. Uncounted thousands of
these eggs perish before their maturity, being devoured
by other fish which watch for them ; and even when the
young fry are born, comparatively few of them escape
destruction. In order to compensate for such a loss of
animal, the number of eggs is proportionably increased ;
one single cod-fish having been known to cast forth

EGGS OF PISH.

57

into the waves, in one single season, nine millions of
eggs — equalling eight times the population of London,

THE COD-FISH.

But the destroying fish are not multiplied to such
an extent, or the ocean would for a season teem with
battles, and after a time be utterly depopulated. The
eggs of such a creature as a shark, for example, are
singly committed to the ocean ; and in order to prevent
them from being carried about at the mercy of the
waves, or thrown to perish on the shore, they are of a
most singular form. An egg of one of our British
sharks, called the Dog-fish, is represented on plate
h, fig- 4.

The egg is of a softish, horn-like consistency, so that
it is not liable to be broken, or easily to be penetrated.
The general shape of the egg has been aptly compared
to a pillow-case, with strings tied to the corners; the

58 mermaid's purses.

enclosed pillow being the young shark. The long,
curling, tendrilous appendages speedily affix themselves
to sea-weeds, or other appropriate substances, and from
their form and consistence anchor the egg firmly. In

THE DOG-PISH,

order to enable th'e little shark to breathe, there is an
aperture at each end of the shell, through which the
water passes in sufficient quantity to renovate the blood.
And in order to permit the enclosed fish to make its
escape when sufficiently developed, the end of the egg
nearest to the shark's head is formed so as to open by
the slightest pressure from within. After the newly-
born shark has left the egg-shell, there is no perceptible
external change in its shape, for the sides are elastic,
and immediately close up as before.

These eggs are popularly known by the poetical title
of Mermaid's Purses — alas, empty !

There is another and more common Mermaid's Purse,
that is found of various sizes and of various tints,
although it is usually of a very dark brown, closely
approximating to black, and in length from three to
five inches. It will be at once recognised by the figure
on plate h, fig. 1.

This egg is the production of one of the skates, and
harmonises well with the strange, weird-like aspect of
the creature from which it was produced. The accom-
panying figure represents the Thornback Skate (Raia
clavata), a species that often attains a very great size,

SKATE-BARROWS.

measuring some ten or eleven feet in length, and very
nearly as much in breadth. From the four short arms

with which these eggs are furnished, they are thought
to bear some resemblance to hand-barrows; and if a
fisherman is asked the name of the object, he will
generally call it " Skate-barrer." If the egg is picked
up in the early part of the year, it will usually be found
to contain the young animal — not a very prepossessing
creature — as may be seen by reference to the engraving,
where a portion of the egg is represented as removed.
Perhaps the reader may remember Hogarth's " Gate of
Calais," where a fisherwoman has upon her knees a
huge skate, into whose countenance the painter has
wickedly infused an expression precisely like that of
the weather-beaten, withered old dame who holds it.

I was once talking about these eggs to some fisher-
men, who told me that in the spring they often found
these eggs before the young were hatched, and were
accustomed to boil and eat them just as hens' eggs are

60

skates' eggs edible.

eaten. Whether to believe them or not I could not
make up my mind, for fishermen are wonderfully
loose in their details. However, as they gave me the
information, I present it to the reader, and leave it to
his own discretion to judge, or haply to his own energy
to prove or disprove by actual experiment. I trust the
latter.

In the summer months the eggs are invariably
empty, or only filled with sand, little pebbles, and
other shore debris; so that, unless the experiment can
be tried in the earlier portions of the year, it cannot be
made at all.

;W^^?S

61

CHAPTER VI.

SEA ANEMONES AND OTHER ZOOPHYTES.

Theke is a singular class of animals, called by the
scientific name of Anthozoa, or living-flowers, because
their formation and external appearance seem to par-
take much of the vegetative nature. Among the most
conspicuous of the Anthozoa, are the creatures called
Sea- Anemones, although they are not in the least like
anemones, but do bear a very decided resemblance to
China-asters, daisies, or dahlias. Very many species of
these curious beings may be found on various portions
of the British coasts, especially those which lie quite to
the south; some of these creatures are only to be
found in certain localities, but there are two species
which are to be found on every coast where there is the
best shelter. These two species I shall describe.

On plate e, figs. 4 and o, is represented the commonest
of the Sea-Anemones, or Actinias, as they ought to be
called; one figure showing the animal as it appears
when covered with water and all its tentacles expanded
in search of prey ; and the other, as it appears when
closed, and at rest. I regret to say that it has an
exceedingly long title, and one which takes some time
to say as well as to write, "Actinia mesembryanthemum"
and which is generally curtailed in conversation or notes
to " Mes," just as Mephistopheles was contracted to
Mesty, by Mr. Easy, junior. Its popular name is the
Smooth Anemone, it being so called from the smooth
and slippery surface of its skin. When I say the
"popular" name, I must be understood to mean the

62 SMOOTH ANEMONE.

name popular among naturalists ; for as to the people
who live in close vicinity to it, they have no name for
it at all. Very often, the fisherman has never seen
such a thing as an actinia, or if he has been sufficiently
observant to note it, he has no name by which he could
describe it to another fisherman. Now, indeed, that so
many enthusiasts crowd the sea-shores in their search
after these actiniae, and press fishermen into their
service, a little knowledge on the subject is being
gradually diffused ; but some six or seven years ago, no
one troubled himself about creatures which he did not
catch with a net or line, and which he could not take
to market.

The Smooth Anemone is generally the first that
meets an observer's eye. As he wanders about among
the rocks and stones that are left dry by the receding
tide, he will see on many of them certain little lumps
of green or red jelly, varying in size from a pea to a
plum. On touching them, they do not feel soft, like
jelly, but are very smooth, slippery, and much firmer in
consistence than would be imagined from their aspect.
In this state, some of them are entirely green or red,
but the greater part are marked longitudinally with
lines of different colours according to the variety. For
there is but one species of " Mes," although the variety
of colour pass through several tints of green and red.

If they are to be examined, they can be detached
without injury, by slipping the thumb-nail or an ivory
paper-knife under the base, and so gradually peeling
them away from the support. Great care must be
taken of the sucking-base by which the animal affixes
itself, for a wounded base often causes death ; and if the
anemone has any nerves at all, as is but natural to sup-
pose, their situation is on the base. Still, the process
of peeling occupies some time, and if the tide is coming
in, every minute is of importance. In this case, they
can be removed instantaneously, by a judiciously aimed
blow with the sharp end of the geological hammer, so

AMPHIBIOUS LIFE OP THE ANEMONE. 63

that the portion of v0ck on which the animal is fixed
is detached by the stroke. In this way a cargo may
be collected in a very short time. They are generally
found in colonies, consisting of five or six up to twenty
or thirty in number ; but now and then a giant may
be found by himself or herself — for with them it is all
the same thing — living in solitary state.

The smooth anemone seems to lead almost an
amphibious life, for numbers of them are found affixed
to stones and rocks in such situations, that they spend
rather more time out of the water than in it. So that
the rock is tolerably shady, the creature seems to be
perfectly satisfied ; but there are some hardy individuals
who expose themselves to the full blaze of the sun.
Even when they cannot be seen, owing to failing light,
or rising tide, the touch will easily detect them, although
in the latter case there is a slight chance of getting the
finger nipped by a bad-tempered crab. I once filled a
small basket with these creatures in a quarter of an
hour or so, although the tide was driving me gradually
to the shore, and there was not sufficient light to dis-
tinguish the hands of a watch.

The chief beauties of this, or indeed of any other of
its relatives, cannot be seen until it is removed from
the sea, and placed in a vessel where it can be subjected
to light and exposed to close examination. While it
remains in its native rock-basin, or adheres to its opaque
support, the light cannot shine through the creature,
and its base, one of the most remarkable features of
its structure, is concealed by the stone on which it
rests. If, then, the observer wishes to examine the
anemone more closely, he may easily do so by acting
as follows : —

Let him procure any glass jar — a large one is not at
all requisite — and having chipped off a morsel of stone
on which is growing a frond of ulva or porphyra, place
it conveniently in the jar, and fill up with sea-water.
After an hour or two, the sea-weed will be studded with

64: ANATOMY OF ACTINIA.

tiny air-bells; and when that is the case the water is
fit for the reception of the anemones, of which there
should be only one or two. If the anemones are merely
dropped into the water, they will sink to the bottom,
and after a little while begin to crawl up the sides of
the jar. Now is the time for examination, and with a
lens of moderate power much of the structure may be
made out.

Perhaps the " Mes " is the least attractive of all the
anemones, but yet it possesses some extremely beautiful
features which are peculiar to itself. When the creature
is fully expanded, a row of little globules will be seen
round the edge, among the tentacles. They are usually
about the size of a No. 5 shot, and are blue and bright
as turquoise, to which jewel they fear some resem-
blance. Indeed, if there is any distinction between the
two, the animal turquoise is more beautiful than the
mineral.

If a dissection is contemplated (and it will well repay
the trouble), the creature can be killed by placing it in
fresh water. Its anatomical structure is very remark-
able, and even the muscular structure, that enables the
creature to expand or contract at pleasure, is worthy
of observation on its own account, independently of
the fact that the presence of muscle is a proof that
there must be nerves by which the muscles are excited.
Although the details are complicated enough, yet the
general notion of the creature is sufficiently simple, and
may be readily imitated. Let a linen bag be made,
and the mouth of it sewn up. Then let the closed
mouth be pushed inwards, until the bag assumes the
form of a cup with double walls, and it is the type ot
an actinia; the outer wall being the exterior of the
animal, and the inner its stomach. The tentacles are
hollow, and communicate with the space between the
walls. This space is always filled with water, and by
the contraction of the walls water is driven into the
tentacles, and so expands them.

STRANGE HABITATION. 65

This is a capital species for an aquarium, as it will
bear travelling, and is very hardy, enduring extremes
of heat and cold bravely, but perishing immediately in
pure fresh water. A rather remarkable circumstance
connected with these creatures occurred some little
time ago. A gentleman had brought some of them
to town with him, and had been examining them in
company with a friend. After the examination supper
was brought by an unsophisticated servant, and re-
moved by the same individual. While the table was
being cleared the servant asked what was to be done
with the anemones, and was told to put them carefully
away in a jug. Now the only jug at that time on the
table was a jug containing porter, and into that jug the
anemones were severally dropped. About a fortnight
afterwards, the anemones were again called into requi-
sition, and the jug demanded. Great was the astonish-
ment of their owner to see the porter-jug produced, and
still greater when he found the creatures were still
living. They have also been known to live in soapsuds
for a considerable time.

If specimens are gathered for an aquarium, they
should be chosen of a moderate size, for the larger
actiniae require a considerable bulk of water. They
are in general very migratory in their character,
marching at their own sweet wills over the sides of the
vessel in which they are confined, and now and then
paying a visit to the rocks, stones, and shells in its
centre. Sometimes they will attach themselves to a
frond of ulva, whose broad leaf affords a good hold for
their base j and there they will stay for weeks. Some-
times they will not take the trouble of crawling down
the sides, and then over the bottom, but turn them-
selves into boats by hollowing the base, and thus
floating with the base upwards, until they think fit to
contract themselves, and to sink. They generally
remain for some time partially supported by one edge
of the base against the side of the vase, but after

66 POOD OF ANEMONE.

a while they commit themselves freely to the water.
Fresh-water snails may be seen floating in a similar
manner.

The base of the actinia, by which it moves, and of
which it is so careful, is a very pretty object when seen
pressed against the glass side of a tank, and the light
shining through its substance, showing the dark-green
lines that radiate from the centre, and are so well con-
trasted with the azure gems that surround the disc.
The mode by which the anemone travels is simple
enough ; it pushes forward one portion of the base, and,
having fixed it firmly, draws the remaining portion
after it.

There is a delicate gelatinous membrane that covers
the entire animal, and which it frequently throws off.
After an actinia has been sojourning in one spot for
some time, and then moves away, it generally leaves
a cast coat behind, as if to mark the exact locality of its
habitation. Sometimes the creature appears to find a
difficulty in getting rid of this membrane, which gene-
rally adheres strongly to the mouth. In such a case it
is useful to assist nature, and a camel's-hair brush will
generally give great aid to the actinia ; who, in grati-
tude for help, expands itself immediately on being
freed. Numbers of their cast membranes will be
soon found in the aquarium, and should be re-
moved.

If these creatures are kept merely for their beauty,
they should be treated as greyhounds are treated ; that
is, kept almost entirely without food. They will live
very well for many months without requiring food, but
when it comes within their reach, they can devour and
digest unlimited quantities. Perhaps the best plan is
to give them a very tiny portion, which they eat, and
which only stimulates them to protrude their hungry
arms in the hope of getting more. Whenever I fed
my own specimens, I generally gave them small pieces
of beef, which they stf allowed, and after a few days

MODE OF EATING. 67

rejected, having extracted all the nourishment, and
only left a white fibrous mass.

They were also very fond of flies, and ate many of
them. Once a great bluebottle fly came buzzing into
the room, and made such a disturbance that I immo-
lated him, and gave him to the largest and hungriest
anemone. About three or four days afterwards I saw
the bluebottle floating on the surface of the water. On
lifting it out of the tank it fell to pieces, being in fact
the mere shell of the fly ; all the interior having been,
by some mysterious process, extracted in the stomach
of the anemone. It is amusing enough to see the way
in which an actinia eats. If a fly or a piece of meat
be presented to its tentacles, it is instantly seized by
them, and drawn to the mouth, the tentacle closing
upon it on all sides. The animal then literally tuck&,
in the morsel, and with it all the tentacles and the
upper portions of its body, until they reach the stomach.
Digestion then goes on very quietly, the presence of its
own arms in its stomach being of no consequence at
all to the animal ; and in due time it untucks itself, and
tosses away the indigestible portions of its food.

The " mes " multiplies readily in a tank. At the
beginning of last September I had fifteen specimens in
the aquarium, and by February in the present year
there were between forty and fifty, many of them very
minute, and very transparent. Indeed, scarcely a day
passed without the discovery of a nursery full of little
pink or green' actiniae, contained in an empty shell, or
studding the surface of a shady pebble. Funny little
things they are, and have a most consequential look as
they spread out their tiny tentacles in search of food.

When the "mes" is caught for the purpose of
stocking an aquarium, it will travel well if wrapped in
wet sea-weed. If care is taken, the ulvee, or entero-
morphse, that are used for this purpose, can be trans-
planted into the tank, and so two objects secured at
once, The best plan is to put some wet green algse at
v2

DO THICK-HORNED ANEMONE.

the bottom of a basket, and then to lay on them the
anemones, each wrapped in wet sea-grass; over them
another layer of green algee should be placed, and so will
they be quite comfortable.

The second species of Sea Anemone which I shall
describe is, in my opinion, the most magnificent of the
family, whether size or colour be the criterion. It is
possessed of a scientific name hardly inferior in length
to that of the smooth anemone, being called by the
learned, Bunodes crassicorniss It is much too long
a title for every-day use, and so it is contracted into
" Grass." A portrait of a half-expanded crass may be
seen on plate e, fig. 9.

This creature does not bear exposure to air and heat
so well as the smooth anemone, and must be sought for
in the shallows at low water. Sometimes at spring-
tide a solitary specimen is seen, high, dry, and dis-
contented ; but such is an exception ; usually it may be
found just beyond ordinary low water-mark, expanding
its gorgeous tentacles, and waiting for the numerous
crustaceans or fish that are always left in the tide-pools.

The colours of this animal are very varied, hardly
any two specimens being found of exactly the same tint,
and the magnitude of its fully expanded disc is nearly
equal to that of the crown of an ordinary hat. Some
of them are scarlet, some pink, some lilac, some deli-
cate grey, some of an olive-green, and all so delicately
transparent that no colour can faithfully represent
their beauty. On referring to the engraving, the reader
will see that the base of each tentacle is surrounded
with a pear-shaped, dark line. It is on this line that
the depth of colour is chiefly lavished, the tentacle
itself being always much fainter in tint, and as trans-
parent as if formed from gelatine. The tentacles are
very thick in proportion to their length, and it is from
that peculiarity that the creature derives its name of
" crassicornis," signifying " thick-horned."

The voracity of these animals is quite surprising.

VORACITY OF THE " CRASS." 69

I have often amused myself by watching them in their
native haunts, and experimenting upon their powers of
digestion. One single " crass," measuring barely three
inches in diameter, required two crabs, each the size of
a penny -piece, and a large limpet, before it ceased to
beg with extended arms.

It is evident by the fact of the crab-eating that the
crass must possess great powers of grasp, or it could
never hold, retain, drag to its mouth, and finally devour,
a creature of such strength as a crab of the size above-
mentioned. Such a crab struggles with great violence,
and requires a very firm grasp of the human hand to
prevent it from making its escape. And yet the ane-
mone, whose entire body is not larger than the closed
hand, and whose substance is quite soft, can seize and
retain the crab, if it is unfortunate enough even to
thrust one of its legs within reach of the tentacles.
There must, therefore, be some strange power by which
this object is achieved ; and the mode by which it is
accomplished I now proceed to describe.

It has been long known that many water-inhabiting
animals, of a class so low as to be scarcely more than
water animated, can throw out long fishing-lines, of a
substance so delicate as only to be descried by the
sparkle of light upon them as they float about in the
water, and that when these delicate lines even touch a
little fish or crustacean, some power destroys that fish
as effectually as if it had been struck by lightning. But
this is not the mode of attack with the anemone,
which resorts to means purely mechanical.

If the finger is brought into contact with the out-
spread tentacles of a healthy anemone, it will adhere
to them with a peculiar, almost indescribable sensation.
It is not in the least the adhesion of gum, glue, or any
such substance, but bears some resemblance to that
which is felt when the finger is thrust into the mouth
of the common ringed snake, or of several fish. The
mode of adhesion is only to be discovered by the aid of

70 THREAD-CAPSULES.

a tolerably powerful microscope, and when discovered
is found to be equal in beauty to any structure that is
yet known.

Scattered at intervals over various portions of the
body, and especially crowded on the tentacles, are found
tiny organs that are called by the name of thread-
capsules. These are little oval vesicles, imbedded in
the substance of the anemone, and containing within
them a long delicate thread, closely coiled, in forms
varying according to the description of capsule. The
extreme tenacity of the thread may be imagined from
the fact that the largest capsules are not more than the
three-hundredth of an inch in length, and that within
so small a compass the thread is coiled like a watch-
spring in the barrel. Indeed, the simile of a watch-
spring will nearly express the object, for the thread is
so strong, in spite of its tenuity, that it has aptly been
compared to the hair-spring of a watch. When the
tentacles are irritated or compressed, myriads of these
capsules start forward, become everted, and shoot forth
their tiny spears. The length and shape of these won-
derful filaments are very various, some being of a very
great length, and so fine that a microscope of high
power can hardly distinguish them ; while others are
only two or three times the length of the capsule that
contained them, and covered with an armature of short
hairs even more minute than themselves.

It is easy enough to see these singular organs, even
with the aid of a good hand-lens ; but with a microscope
nothing more is required than to cut off part of a ten-
tacle, get it well in the field of the microscope, and
then apply pressure: some of the capsules will dart
forth their threads almost immediately, but others
will require greater force before they will evert them-
selves.

The crass may often be passed by without observation
if it does not choose to display itself; for when closed
nothing appears but a round mass of sand and broken

RAPID CHANGE OF FORM. 71

shells, about the size of a penny-piece, and projecting
so slightly above the sand that an inexperienced eye
would see nothing remarkable in it. This unpromising
aspect is assumed when the creature has had a large
dinner, or when it is alarmed. It is rather curious to
see how suddenly a magnificent specimen of living
flower collapses into a shapeless, and not at all pleasing
knot of sand, stone, and shell. The crass is a delicate
animal to preserve, for it seems to require a large body
of pure water for respiration, and if in the least injured
does not recover from the wound like the smooth
anemone. If it were as easily detached as the "mes"
there would be less difficulty in preserving it ; but it has
an unpleasant habit of forming its base into some six
or seven lobes, attaching four or five of them to sepa-
rate stones or portiocs of rock, and pushing the others
into any crevices that may be convenient.

Very seldom, indeed, are the fingers alone sufficient to
extricate the creature without injuring the base, and
unless that important part be preserved in its integrity
the crass assumes various wonderful shapes, and very
soon dies. In such a case it generally begins by puffing
out several striped lobes from its mouth, which project,
and soon assume so enormous a size that they quite
overshadow the tentacles, and render it a matter of
some small difficulty to ascertain clearly whether the
animal is not reversed. After it has thus displayed its
own temper, it proceeds to try that of its possessor, by
assuming various forms with such rapidity, that lib
draw it with any accuracy is quite out of the question.
In the morning it may present a splendid and regular*
disc of tentacles, expanded to their utmost, and glowing
with scarlet, pink, or lilac : just as a rough sketch of
the creature is taken, it half withdraws the tentacles,
and begins to puff out the striped lobes or lips.
Another sketch is now taken of the crass, as it appears
when in a pouting humour ■ but there is no time for any
colouring, because the perverse animal now begins to

72 LIFE IN THE AQUARIUM.

take in water to an alarming extent, and soon succeeds
in turning itself into an animated hour-glass, hardly
a vestige of tentacle or pouting lips being visible.
Even this form does not seem to please it, and is
speedily exchanged for another, which in its turn gives
place to a fifth, and so on ad infinitum.

In order to avoid the danger of tearing the very
sensitive base, I was in the habit of digging out all
the stones and pieces of rock to which the crass had
affixed itself, and permitting the creature to free itself
in the tank; a feat which it generally soon accom-
plished. By taking these precautions I succeeded in
bringing a very large and gorgeous specimen to town,
and preserved it alive and healthy for upwards of six
weeks, in one of the most crowded parts of the city. It
would probably have lived much longer, had not the
density of the water in which it resided been corrected
too suddenly. The animal was in a large vase of sea-
water, which necessarily presented a wide surface to the
air; and so the water rapidly evaporated, leaving all its
salts behind, and rendering the remaining water much
too dense. In the correction of this evil the fresh water
was added too rapidly, and inflicted on the nervous
system of my poor crass a shock from which it never
recovered.

In such a case the tentacles begin to droop, they
then lose their beautiful transparent colouring, and
become dull, opaque, flaccid, and exceedingly small.
Whenever the creature is in this state it is not easily
restored to health and brilliancy.

This species does not travel in wet sea-weed nearly
so well as the smooth anemone, and besides, pours out
a vast amount of mucus, which makes the whole of its
neighbourhood exceedingly unpleasant. In order to
transport it in perfection it should be indulged with a
jar of sea-water, and have no travelling companions.
Its tentacles are so strong, and the animal is so vo-
racious, that it will frequently destroy any other

THE "crass" edible. 73

creature that happens to be placed in the same vessel.
The very specimen which I have described, killed,
during the few hours of its journey, a beautiful ^Esop
prawn, on which I rather prided myself, and a young
gurnard. It did not eat either of these creatures, but
simply caught them, and retained them until they were
dead. How they were killed I do not exactly know ;
but it is suggested with some reason, that the capsular
threads convey with them a kind of poison, that is
effectual enough among the smaller animals, but not
sufficiently powerful to affect human beings.

The coating of little stones and broken shell has
already been mentioned. These substances are evidently
chosen instinctively with a view to concealment, and
are fastened to the body by little sucker-like protu-
berances, with which the greater part of its surface is
studded. If the animal is used for culinary purposes,
for which it seems to be adapted as well as the oyster or
the periwinkle, this shelly coating must be removed ; an
operation which is easily enough effected by the fingers,
and not so tedious as plucking a fowl. There is no
difficulty in finding a sufficient number to form a
respectable dish, for any one who knows where to
search, and what to see, may capture an unlimited
supply in an hour or so.

I conclude this short history of the creature by
observing that the reader must not expect to find the
crass presenting precisely the appearance of the specimen
here depicted, for the whole of the body is generally
invisible when the creature is offended, part being
buried in the sand, and the remainder overshadowed by
the thick and close-set tentacles. If, however, it is
carefully removed, and takes up its residence in a jar
or tank where there is no sand, it then assumes the
shape of the figure, at all events for a time ; but after
a little experience of prison it changes its shape so
frequently that it almost realizes the fable of Proteus,
and his efforts in a similar difficulty.

74 MADREPORE.

On plate l, fig. 1, is a representation of another
British zoophyte, allied to the anemones, but yet distinct
from them. It is the Common Madrepore (Caryophyllia
Smithii), a member of that wondrous family that pro-
duces the coral and similar substances.

When removed from the water, or even when
alarmed, the animal portion of the madrepore suddenly
shrinks, and little is visible save a series of thin cal-
careous plates, standing on edge, and radiating from
a centre. But when the creature has recovered its self-
possession, and begins to feel rather hungry, a beautiful
semi-transparent living substance emerges from the
chalky plates, and after a while puts forth a number of
tentacles, tinted with most delicate hues, and much
resembling those of the anemones, except that each
tentacle is terminated by a little globular head. These
tentacles, like those of the anemones, are covered with
filiferous capsules, and adhere to the hand in much the
same manner, though not so strongly. This madrepore
is voracious enough in its own way, but does not seem
to care very much for food supplied artificially. I had
a specimen alive for some months, but could not get it
to eat any but the minutest portions of meat, while it
would have nothing to do with a small fly; yet it was
healthy, and almost constantly protruded its trans-
parent tentacles. The proximate cause of its death
appeared to be attributable to a bad-tempered Daisy
Anemone {Actinia bellis), which lived in a cave like
a hermit, and did not approve of intrusion. I am
accustomed to stir the water daily, in order to imitate
as far as possible the natural stir of the sea, and in
so doing this madrepore was washed into the cave where
resided the daisy anemone. Although it was speedily
replaced in its own little home, which had been specially
chiselled in the rock, it never properly recovered ; and
after leading a dull, inactive, colourless existence for
a week or two, fairly died, and left me nothing but its
skeleton as a memorial.

ALCYONIUir. 75

The madrepore may be found adhering to, and in
fact almost forming part of, the rocks, requiring the
aid of a strong knife to detach it without injury. The
specimen represented in the engraving is rather larger
than the general run, and only exhibits the tips of the
tentacles, and the expanded membrane that edges the
calcareous plates. When the creature is dead, or
alarmed, the arrangement of these plates is plainly
visible, reminding the bystanders of a reversed mush-
room suddenly petrified.

There is a certain substance often found on the shore,
tough, soft, fleshy, and unprepossessing, well deserving
the popular name that is given to it, namely "dead
man's fingers," or " dead man's toes," as the case may
be. For, just as the smooth anemone when touched
collapses into a shapeless lump of green jelly; as the
u crass " shrinks into the sand, an almost undistinguish-
able and unrecognisable excrescence ; as the madrepore
retires within its own chalky walls, so does this
zoophyte withdraw all its beauties in the uncongenial
conditions of heat and drought, and only present an
exterior anything but agreeable to sight or touch. The
scientific name of this zoophyte is Alcyonium digitatum,
or the Finger-shaped Alcyonium, and a representation
of it may be found in plate e, fig. 8, accompanied by a
magnified sketch of one polyp.

In this and other zoophytes, the qualities, fraternity
and equality, are exhibited in a manner far superior to
any republic, ancient or modern ; but there is very little
liberty in the case. In these curious creatures commu-
nism prevails to its fullest extent, one for all and all for
one. There is one body, so to speak, the polypidom as it
is called, and from this body protrude, under favourable
circumstances, innumerable polyps, each one gathering
its nutriment from the surrounding water, and convey-
ing that nutriment not to its own body only, and for
its own aggrandisement, but into the general polypidom,
affording to each of its thousand relatives a portion of

76 SERTULARIA — PLUMULARIA.

its own nourishment, and receiving from each of them
some modicum of their own.

When placed in clear sea-water, the alcyonium soon
begins to put forth a few crystalline columnar polyps,
each standing boldly out, and bearing a mouth or
head, composed of eight radiating, slender, pointed
petals, fringed with delicate hairs. The internal
anatomy of this creature, or rather of this creature-
mass, is very interesting, and worth studying practically.

On plate e, fig. 1, is shown an example of a plant-
like, compound animal, very common on the coasts,
either thrown on the shore dead or dying, or affixed to
large algae, near low water-mark. This is the Sertularia,
a beautiful family of zoophytes, of which some sixteen
or seventeen species are found on our own coasts. The
species represented is perhaps the commonest of all,
Sertularia filicula.

If one of these creatures is examined by the aid
of a moderately powerful lens, it will be seen to consist
of a horny, many-branched stem, each branch being
studded with a double row of little cells, open at the
mouth, which is much smaller than the base. If the
creature is placed in clear sea- water, and still watched
through the lens, each cell will be seen to protrude a
tiny polyp, whose star-like head is all that is visible
externally. The polyps are easily alarmed, and in
such a case withdraw themselves wholly within their
cells. There is a very similar zoophyte called by the
name of Plumularia, which may, however, be easily
distinguished from Sertularia, by the position of the
polyp cells, which only occupy one side of the branches ;
whereas those of Sertularia are to be found on each
side equally, sometimes in pairs, sometimes alternately,
according to the species. When dried, both these
creatures retain their chief characteristics, and if
any of the sea-weed landscapes be examined, both
Plumularia and Sertularia will generally be found among
the algse. They are delicate in constitution, and not

CORYNE. 77

easy to keep in an aquarium, unless under singularly
favourable circumstances.

There is another pretty, plant-resembling zoophyte,
found plentifully enough near low water-mark, but
at a rather higher elevation than the preceding. This
is known among zoologists as Coryne pusilla, and is
chiefly remarkable on account of the peculiarity from
which it derives its name. " Coryne " is a Greek
word, signifying a club, or knobbed stick, or more
properly a mace, such as the steel-headed, spike-armed
weapons with which our gentle ancestors were in the
habit of exciting the brains of their adversaries.

The stalk of this zoophyte is about as thick as ordi-
nary sewing thread, and it clings to the sea-weeds
among which it resides as much as the cotton in
question would do. Even when seen with the un-
assisted eye it is rather an elegant creature, but when
a lens is brought to bear upon it, sundry hidden
beauties become obvious, and among them that peculiar
formation of the polyp from which it has derived its
name of Coryne. Its club-shaped head is studded with
numerous tentacles, that are arranged in a manner
somewhat similar to the steel spikes of the war mace.
Each of the tentacles is furnished with a globular head,
and if submitted to a higher power of the microscope,
appears covered with minute knobs, at the extremity of
each of which is a short straight bristle. The stalk is
merely a horny tube, ringed in structure, and increasing
in size towards each polyp head, so as to allow room
for them to change their position. The movements of
these creatures are not very rapid, but can be clearly
seen. A magnified representation of a single polyp
head accompanies the figure of the zoophyte.

We now come to one of the most remarkable objects
in the whole range of animated creation, and which
requires a microscope of some power to develop. On
plate e, fig. 7, may be seen a kind of miniature tree ;
this is the representation of an elegant little zoophyte

78 bird's-head zoophyte. . ,

that is found plentifully near low water-mark. It is
small, seldom exceeding two or three inches in height,
and is of a delicate and feathery texture. To the naked
eye there is nothing of any great importance in this
creature, but if a portion of a branch be detached and
brought under the field of a microscope, a very strange
sight meets the eye. As is the case in all these zoo-
phytes, the branches are studded with cells, in which
live little polyps, at one time expanding wide their
feathery tentacles, and at others sulkily gathering them
up like an unsuccessful fisherman gathering his net on
his arm. But to each of the cells is attached a most
singular appendage, precisely resembling the head of
a bird and one joint of its neck, by which it is attached
as a point to the cell, and on which it works. There
is certainly no eye in the head, but there is a most
decided beak, which opens and shuts precisely like the
beak of a bird, while the entire head keeps up a con-
tinual nodding backwards and forwards on its joint.
If the portion selected is tolerably healthy, it will
contain from ten to fifteen, or even more, of these birds'-
heads, bowing to each other in the most oppressively
polite style, and every now and then shutting their
beaks with a sharp snap.

By the side of the zoophyte itself is shown one of the
bird-head appendages, as it appears when fastened to
the cell. The object of these strange organs is not at
all clearly ascertained, for they seem to have but little
connexion with the polyps that inhabit the cells, and
bow with as much perseverance when the cell is empty
as when it is occupied by its living inhabitant. Many
zoophytes possess the bird's-head ; but as that species
which I have mentioned is perhaps the most common,
and is easily detected, it has been admitted as the
representative specimen. It must be understood that
when these creatures are subjected to the action of
a microscope, they must be well supplied with water,
or they will die speedily. If the power is not very

FLUSTRA. 79

high, the entire creature may be placed in a flat glass
cell, and slightly compressed against the side by a glass
plate. The microscope should then be set horizontally,
and will show the structures tolerably well. But if a
higher power is requisite, a portion must be removed,
and placed in the animalcule cage with which every good
microscope is furnished. A flat watch-glass, aud a
piece of the thin microscopical glass used for covering
preparations, will make a good extemporised animalcule
cage, if -the regular machine is not at hand.

Among the other members of the animal kingdom
that are popularly ranked as vegetables are the Flustrce,
for an example of which see plate e, fig. 2. These
creatures do, indeed, much resemble the leaf of some
plant, and so closely that uneducated people can hardly
be made to believe their animal origin. If, however,
the fingers are passed over the surface of the flustra,
and especially if they are passed from the point of the
leaf towards the base, a peculiar rough, harsh, and stony
sensation will be perceived, and this sensation is caused
by the innumerable spine-crowned cells with which the
leaf is covered, and, indeed, of which it is composed.
A close examination with the naked eye shows that
there is a curious structure not usually met with in
plants; but if an ordinary pocket-lens is brought to
bear on it, the entire surface will be seen to be composed
of little oval cells, arranged in rows something like the
scales of a fish, or tiles on a house-top. Each cell is
armed with four short, sharp spines, that project from
the upper portion of the edge, two at each side, and
these spines are the cause of the peculiar rough sensa-
tion that is communicated to the finger. The cells are
placed back to back, like those of a honeycomb, so that
there is no right or wrong side to the flustra leaf; for
leaf it must be called, although its proper title is
polypidom. The species given in the plate is Flustra
foliacea, a very common zoophyte, and often found on
the shore, thrown up by the sea in large masses.

80 LEPEALIA.

On many sea-weeds may be found a kind of stony
scurf that spreads over their leaves or stems, and often
destroys the beauty of the specimen. It is true that
the appearance of the alga may be injured, but the
creature that injures it is of so curious and beautiful
a form that it ought to be preserved. This stony scurf
is called Lepralia, and consists of innumerable cells, not
unlike those of the flustra, spread evenly over the
surface of the substance to which it adheres, and often
so thickly that there is hardly a spot left uncovered.
I have now a remarkably fine specimen of Delesseria
sanguinea, measuring eighteen inches across, the whole
of whose stem, and great part of the leaves, is overrun
by several species of Lepralia, which, although they
certainly rather disfigure the plant as a dried specimen,
look so lovely under the microscope that I would not
on any account have them away.

A common species of Lepralia is depicted on plate
e, fig. 6. The upper figure represents the zoophyte as
it appears when magnified about thirty diameters,
equalling nine hundred times superficially; and the
lower figure shows its appearance when slightly magni-
fied by a simple pocket-lens. Almost every sea-weed
of any dimensions, and especially the Laminarice, will
be partially covered with the cells of this zoophyte, and
it may also be found on shells and other objects which
have been submerged in the sea for any length of time.
There are nearly forty British species of this single
genus, and if half a dozen specimens are examined, it
will probably happen that three or four will be distinct
species.

81

CHAPTER VII.

STAR-FISHES AND SEA-URCHINS.

People seem to have a strange love for comprehending
various descriptions of objects, whether animal, vegetable,
or mineral, under a single term, and generally contrive
to hit upon a word which could not be rightly applied
to any of them. Take, for example, the word " fish," as
we are speaking of marine objects. Not to mention the
whale, and other cetaceans, which are popularly called
by the name of fish, we have lobsters, crabs, shrimps,
oysters, limpets, mussels, &c, all comprised in the term
"shell-fish." Then, we talk of cray-fish, cuttle-fish,
jelly-fish, and star-fish, not one of the whole party
having the very smallest right to the title of fish.
Still, custom has so inextricably woven the name into
the idea, that they cannot well be separated, and there-
fore must be retained until the same power shall un-
weave its own web. These prefatorial remarks must
be my excuse for employing the word " star-fish " in
the present case, and " jelly-fish" in a succeeding
chapter.

Every one has heard of star-fish, and most people
have seen them, either in a preserved state, or as they
appear when thrown up by the waves. There are
very many British species of star-fishes, but out of
them I have chosen three, as types, to which, indeed,
most of the species can be referred. The commonest
of the British star-fishes is the Five-finger {V raster
rubens) ; for a figure of which see plate l, fig. 4. There
are few days when some of these creatures are not cast

G

82 FIVE-FINGER STAR-FISH.

on the shore, and there left by the retiring tide, so that
their habits and anatomy may be easily studied. Gene-
rally they appear to be dead, and, indeed, sometimes
are so ; but their apparent death is often but quiescence,
and if they are placed in sea-water they become lively
in a very short time.

If a star-fish is thus rescued, and laid in a shallow
rock-pool, where its movements can be watched, it will
give ample food for contemplation, were it only for the
mode in which it moves from one place to another.
This movement is very slow, gentle, and so regular,
that the eye cannot detect any motive power at work.
Should a stone, a ridge of rock, or any other impedi-
ment, be in the path of its progress, the star-fish does
not seem to trouble itself in the least, but continues its
still, gliding movement, as quietly as if it were moving
on level ground. As the stone is reached, one ray of
the star-fish is gently pushed upwards, and seems to
adhere to the stone; another follows, then a third, and
presently the creature is seen to climb the stone with
quite as much ease as if it were walking on level sand.
The rays accommodate themselves, in a very curious
manner, to the shape of the substance over which the
animal is crawling ; so that if it is passing over a sandy
spot, interspersed with furrows and pebbles, the arms
of the star-fish never bridge over the furrows, but pass
down one side and up the other, while precisely an
opposite process takes place with regard to the pebbles.
The star-fish can thus climb rocks that are perpendi-
cular, and clings firmly even when they overhang.
How this process is conducted we shall presently see.

I may as well remark here, that if the star-fish were
dead when put into the water, the observer would find
his patience well tried if he waited to watch for these
movements, so that he ought to be quite sure whether
he has hit upon a specimen that is living. Now, how-
ever dead a star-fish may appear to be, if it is of a tole-
rably firm consistence to the touch, it is a living being,

FOOT-SUOKERS. 83

even though there should be no perceptible movement.
If, however, in taking it up, it hangs loose and limp, life
has departed, and it can only be used as a specimen for
preparation, or for anatomical purposes. Any doubt
will soon be settled, by placing the dubiously vital
animal in clear sea-water for a few minutes, and then
suddenly turning it over. If there is any life remaining,
the numerous feet that occupy the under surface will
move about, and the creature will soon recover its
wonted activity.

When a living star-fish is laid on its back, a number
of semi-transparent, globular organs will be seen in
constant movement, being thrust forward and then
withdrawn, moving from side to side, as if feeling for
something, as indeed they are. These are the ambu-
lacral organs, as they are scientifically called, but I
prefer to call them feet, on account of their office.
These feet are, in fact, suckers, and can be protruded or
withdrawn by a very curious piece of mechanism, which
is not easily described without the use of diagrams, but
which I will endeavour to explain, as far as possible,
without them. The feet are hollow tubes, each passing
into the interior of the animal through a circular aper-
ture, and being furnished with a globular, membranous
head, just within the skin, filled with a fluid ; so that,
in fact, each foot or sucker bears some resemblance, to
a brass-headed nail driven through the skin, the head
remaining within the animal, and the nail itself project-
ing. Now, if the creature compresses the membranous
head, the fluid contained within it, being comparatively
incompressible, seeks an exit, and finds none except the
hollow of the tube. Through this tube it accordingly
runs, and so pushes forward the sucker which terminates
the foot. When the pressure is removed, the fluid
returns into the head, and the sucker is retracted.

The mouth of the star-fish is placed underneath, and
in the very centre of the body, the stomach being im-
mediately beyond the mouth, as is the case with the
g2

84 SELF-AMPUTATION.

sea-anemones. The stomach does not seem to occupy
very much space, but it is capable of accommodating
a large amount of nutriment, in which it is assisted by
certain supplementary stomachs, which run through
each ray, nearly to its extremity. These supplementary
stomachs, or cseca, as they are called, may be seen by
slitting up the skin of the upper surface of the rays,
when the caeca will be seen lying immediately beneath,
looking more like dark, loose, unformed masses of liver,
than mere appendages to the stomach. And it is a very
remarkable fact, that although these large and very
important organs exist in each ray, the star-fish appears
to be indifferent to the loss of one or more rays, and
fills up the wounded space so perfectly that it is hardly
possible to distinguish the spot where the ray once was.
This circumstance accounts for the fact that star-fishes,
apparently perfect, but only possessing four rays, are
sometimes met with, whereas the minimum of number
is five. When the star-fish has been seen to cast away
its rays in captivity, the amputated rays still continued
to move their feet-suckers as when they were attached
to the body, but they did not appear to be capable of
continuing their march.

Small as the mouth of a star-fish appears to be, small
as is its stomach, and feeble as are its muscular powers,
it can swallow a bivalve mollusc entire, or if needful,
open it, and suck out the contents in some mysterious
way ; a feat that no man could accomplish without tools.
Even with the proper knife, oysters are not very easy to
open without some practice ; but if a man's food were
restricted to oysters, which he must open without the
assistance of any tool, he would run considerable risk of
starvation. The ancient naturalists were well aware
that the star-fish possessed the power of eating oysters,
but they thought that the creature accomplished its
design by watching until an oyster opened its shell, and
then poking one of its rays between the shells as a wedge;
then, having once gained a partial admission, it slowly

SKELETON OF STAR-FISH. 85

insinuated itself, and finished by devouring the inhabi-
tant. It appears, however, by the reports of careful ob-
servers, that the oyster-eating is true as to the fact, but
false as to the mode. The star-fish seems to bring its
mouth in contact with the edge of the shell, and then
from some delicate vesicles never protruded at any other
time, to pour into the oyster some drops of a poisonous
fluid, which forces the animal to open the shells, and
finally kills it. Such is the account as it stands at
present.

The skeleton of the star-fish is one of the most compli-
cated structures imaginable, much too complicated for
description here. It may easily be obtained by any
one who wishes to possess such an object, if he takes a
perfect specimen of the creature, and places it near an
ants' nest. In a very few days, the ants will nibble it
to pieces with their sharp, sickle-like jaws, and eat away
every particle of the soft portions, leaving only the
skeleton, which will then look like a singularly beauti-
ful specimen of carved ivory. Ants, by the way, are
very useful insects to the naturalist, and are capital
skeleton developers. Only they do not store up the
food in their subterranean mansions, as is popularly
imagined ; for as they feed on animal substances, and not
on corn, their stores would soon be exhaled in the form
of gas. There are always plenty of ants' nests near the
coast, and it would be useful to look out for them as soon
as possible, taking care to choose those that are not ex-
posed to the public gaze, or near a public path. I would
recommend the use of a box, perforated with many holes,
as a convenient mode of keeping the specimens from
dust, and at the same time of permitting free access to
the ants. I had, until lately, an exquisite skeleton of
a lark that had been prepared in a similar manner.

The colour of the five-finger star is generally a dusky
red on the upper surface, the colouring matter of which
is sometimes irritating to those who possess delicate
skins. Sometimes, however, specimens are found of a

86 SUN-STAE.

purple or violet hue, and are by some authors con-
sidered to be a distinct species, although they are
probably but a variety of the common red five-finger.
This species, especially if large, is not very suitable for
an aquarium, and seldom survives for any length of
time. One individual that I tried to domesticate had,
for the last few days of its life, a curious habit of
resting merely on the points of its rays, and elevating
the disc in the centre, so that it presented somewhat
the aspect of a five-legged table, the rays forming the
legs and the disc the table itself.

There is another tolerably common species, that is
found on the shores, and is very different from the Five-
finger, being composed of a large disc, with twelve
short pointed rays proceeding therefrom ; so that when
a large specimen is seen in scarlet splendour on a rock,
it seems to blaze out like the sun, and has accordingly
been called the Sun-star. It is not easily mistaken for
any other creature, but in order to make its recog-
nition easier, a figure of it will be found on plate l,
fig. 5. Its scientific name is Solaster papposa. Its
usual colour is a bright red, but it is often seen to be
tinged with violet, while in some specimens the rays
are very much paler than the disc, and one most sin-
gular example has been recorded of a mixture of bright
green.

Occasionally near low water-mark may be found
specimens of a very curious star-fish, differing as en-
tirely from the sun-star, as it from the five-finger.
This is the Brittle-star, of which there are several
British species: the commonest of them, Ophiocoma
rosula, is given on plate l, fig. 3, and as will be seen,
is a very curious creature; its form has been well
described by „ the image of a little sea-urchin, sur-
rounded by five very lively centipedes. Indeed, it
hardly resembles the sun-star at all ; but these creatures
assume such singular shapes, that forms the most
dissimilar are found actually to be closely united;

BRITTLE-STAR. 87

this we shall see presently when we come to the
urchin. The Ophiocoma is called the brittle-star on
account of its inexplicable custom of breaking itself
into little bits when alarmed. It is really a matter of
some little difficulty to secure an entire specimen, so
that a really perfect brittle-star is rather a valuable
acquisition, though the creatures are so common that a
dredge will haul them up by pailfuls. One of the
largest British species of star-fish, Luidia fragilissima, a
creature measuring some two feet across, possesses this
suicidal property in a high degree. In Forbes's British
Star-fish, a work which I strongly advise all naturalists
to obtain, or at least to read, is a most ludicrous account
of an adventure with a Luidia and a bucket.

When undisturbed in their own element, the brittle-
stars are well worthy of observation; for their long
fringed arms wriggle about with great vivacity, and
well carry out the simile of the centipede. In order
to destroy these creatures without damage, a vessel of
fresh water should be brought to them, and if they are
rapidly submerged, the saltless fluid destroys them
before they have time to discover that there is anything
wrong. In the case of the Luidia, however, the sight (if
star-fishes see) of the fresh water was so alarming that
the precautions were useless.

If the star-fishes are needed for the cabinet, they
must be dried ; an easy process enough, but requiring
patience. They must first be thoroughly washed in fresh
water, in order to get rid of the salt, and then carefully
spread out on a clean smooth board, and dried in the
open air. They should not be placed in the cabinet
until they are thoroughly dry, or there will be sad
damage done.

I said just now that we should soon find that forms,
apparently dissimilar, were in reality closely connected
with each other ; and this fact we shall see exemplified
in the creature that next comes before our notice, the
Common Sea-egg or Sea-urchin (Echinus sphcere) whose

88 SEA-URCHIN.

external appearance is shown on plate l, fig. 2. There
doeb seem -to be some slight connexion between the
three star-fishes which we have just examined; but
that there should be any connexion at all, or any re-
lationship, between the brittle-star and the sea-urchin,
appears too preposterous an assertion for credibility:
yet such is really the case, as will soon be seen. The
specimen from which the drawing was made is a
tolerably perfect one, being still furnished with its
array of spines from which it derives its name of sea-
urchin, the urchin being a popular name for the hedge-
hog. But if these spines are rubbed away, a smooth
surface will be left, on which are numerous tubercles,
marking the spots on which the spines formerly rested.
If now the reader will take a damaged urchin, plenty
of which are to be found on the shores, and examine its
external appearance, he will see that it has a very close
relationship indeed with the star-fishes. Let a common
five-finger star-fish be laid on its back, and the points
of its rays stitched round a little disc of leather, it will
then assume very much the aspect of a skeleton urchin.
Let then the spaces between the rays be filled up with
a substance of the same structure as the rays them-
selves, and then we have a complete Echinus, complete,
at all events, as to its general external appearance.

The specimens that are found cast up by the waves
are generally destitute of the spiny armature that is
found upon them in their living state, and thus permit
the eye to perceive the formation of the shell. Close
by the figure of the Echinus itself will be seen a little
diagram composed of several angular forms studded
with little tubercles. These represent the pentagonal
plates of which the shell consists, and which are most
wonderful instances of animal economy. In the shell
of every Echinus are hundreds of these plates, varying
in size according to their position, and so closely con-
nected with each other that externally their marks of
junction are not perceptible ; but if the shell is broken,

SHELL AND TEETH OP ECHINUS. 89

and examined from the interior, the shape of these
plates becomes tolerably well defined. It will be ob-
served also, that when the shell is broken, the serrated
edges of the fractured portions show the angular form
of the plates. As'the shell is composed of these plates,
it may well be asked how the creature can possibly
increase in size, because it cannot, like the lobster and
other crustaceans, throw off its old coat when too small,
and take to itself a better; and to add to the dif-
ficulty, there is no supply of arteries and veins ramifying
through these plates, as is the case with the bones of
a vertebrate animal, but each plate is dense and dead.

In order to overcome these apparently insuperable
difficulties, a very beautiful arrangement takes place.
The delicate living membrane with which the entire
surface of the body is covered insinuates itself between
the edges of these plates, and continually deposits
round the margin of each particles of calcareous matter •
so that each plate simultaneously increases round its
edge, and the original form of the shell is preserved.

If we still keep before our eyes the image of the
rolled-up star-fish, we shall see that as the mouth is
precisely in the centre of the disc, it would also be found
' in the centre of the Echinus shell. And such a mouth
as it is could hardly be conceived. If a human being,
say a man of '• six feet in height, were to be possessed of
a similar mouth, it would be about the size, aad very
much the shape, of an ordinary wooden pail, the teeth
being as long as. the staves of the pail, only they must
be made very sharp at the top, and but five in number.
The teeth of the Echinus may be seen protruding from
the mouth, and their extreme hardness may be tested
by the finger without any danger. The entire arrange-
ment of teeth and muscles, and bony scaffolding, is so
exceedingly complicated, that even with the help of
diagrams it would be difficult to explain the structure,
and without their aid quite impossible. I may, how-
ever, mention, that there is some resemblance between

90 SPINES AND PEDICELLARI.E.

the teeth of the Echinus and those of rodent quadru»
peds, there being a provision for adding fresh sub-
stance to the tooth as fast as it is worn away by use.

If the reader will now examine the interior of an
Echinus shell, he will see that it is marked out into five
equal parts, by five double rows of perforated plates,
containing many hundreds of very minute apertures.
Through these apertures protrude sucker-feet, just like
those of the star-fish, which have already been described,
and worked in the same manner.

Reverting now from the interior to the exterior, we
shall find its surface thickly studded with spines, which,
as well as the suckers, are employed as a means of loco-
motion, and therefore must be freely movable. If a
single spine be removed, and note taken of the part
which it previously occupied, it will be seen that on the
shell is placed a rounded tubercle, and that the base of
the spine is furnished with a hollow socket into which
the tubercle fits, so that the spine has perfect facility
of movement. The spine is bound to the tubercle by a
short tendinous ligament, connecting the centre of each,
much as is the case with the larger joints of vertebrate
animals. The power of motion is communicated by
the membranous covering that envelopes the body
during the life of the animal. The spines of some
foreign species of Echinus are very delicate and sharp,
piercing the unwary hand like so many needles.

Besides all these multiplied means of progression,
there are other very tiny organs, which may possibly be
used as assistants for the same purpose, or they may
possibly perform some office at present unknown.
Among the spines there may be seen, with the assistance
of a lens, a very great number of little three-headed pin-
cers, standing each upon a flexible footstalk. These are
called pedicellarice, and are also found on several of the
star-fishes. Some naturalists have regarded them as
distinct animals, residing parasitically upon the Echinus.
The Echinus is often boiled and eaten, just like eggs;

HOLOTHUEIA. 91

from which circumstance it is sometimes called the Sea-
egg. All these creatures are called by the general name
of Echinodermata, signifying "urchin-skinned." We
have already seen how great is the apparent distinc-
tion between the several creatures that are classed
together under this title, and this outward distinction
is quite as great in the last example that will be here
mentioned.

There is a curiously-shaped creature represented on
plate f, fig. 6, looking something like a cucumber, with
a feathery fringe attached to one of its ends. This is
popularly called, on account of its shape, the Sea-
cucumber, and is scientifically termed Holothuria. The
derivation of the word is Greek, but its signification is
very uncertain. It was used by Aristotle in his " His-
tory of Animals ;" but the reason why he so named the
creature no one can tell.

The holothurise are very curious creatures, for they
possess some organs of the Echinodermata, by virtue of
which they rank as Echinoderms, and they also have
other organs, which seem to imply a connexion with the
sea-anemones, while the shape somewhat approximates
to the annulate form of the worms. Like the star-fishes
and the Echinus, they possess five rows of sucker-feet
along the body, although in some species these sucker-
feet are scattered over the entire surface. If a holothuria
be opened, almost the entire cavity of the body is filled
with small white tubes, which are apt to tumble out,
and become inextricably confused, if care is not taken.
Indeed, at first sight, a freshly-opened sea-cucumber
reminds one of the famous cucumber in the " Arabian
Nights," which was stuffed with pearls by command of
the talking bird, only that the sea-cucumber appears to
have been stuffed with white bobbin. These white
threads are the egg tubes. Altogether, it does not pre-
sent the most inviting aspect to the eye, nor does it
appear to be a very suitable object for the table. Yet
it is one of the favourite dishes of that omnivorous

92 CURIOUS PROPERTY OF HOLOTHURIA.

nation, the Chinese, who pay large sums for fine
specimens.

When the holothuria feels unwell, or is displeased,
it has a very remarkable habit of dispensing with its
teeth, stomach, and entire digestive apparatus, and so
converting itself into a mere empty bag, with an use-
less mouth at one end of it. However, animals of this
order are not easily killed, and before very long a fresh
set begins to grow, and in a few months the holothuria
is as perfect as ever. The beautiful feathery plume
that surrounds the head, or rather the mouth, is the
organ that has caused some naturalists to class the
creature with the actiniae or anemones, to whose ten-
tacles the plume bears so close a resemblance, In general,
the body of these animals is too thick, and the skin too
tough, for the adoption of the suicidal habits of the
star-fishes ; but in some of the species, whose diameter
is very small in proportion to their length, the creature
actually does succeed in breaking its body into several
fragments. The reader may compare with this habit
the similar custom that prevails among many lizards,
of snapping their tails off if they are touched or sud-
denly alarmed ; as is especially exemplified in the case
of the Common Blind-worm, which is often known to
break itself across, as if it had been made of glass. If
any of these creatures are found in a living state, they
will not at first put forth their tentacular crown, and
the owner must be content to wait. But if they are
properly supplied with clear and pure sea-water, they
will generally exhibit a large portion of the tentacles, if
not the whole. They may usually be found clinging
firmly to stones and pieces of rock, in situations where
they are not exposed to light ; for the influence of light
seems to be exceedingly painful to them.

93

CHAPTER VIII.

ANNELIDS — BARNACLES, AND JELLY-PISH.

On plate f may be seen some figures of strange-
looking creatures, having a kind of general resemblance
to each other, but belonging to very different ranks in
the animal kingdom. They are, however, placed near
each other, in order to show how the same idea of
form runs through different genera. The figure on the
left is no worm, although it bears some resemblance to
the creatures whose portraits occupy the top and right
of the sam«. plate. No. 3 is a mollusc, ranking with the
periwinkle, mussels, nudibranchs, and other creatures,
which have already been described in Chap. II. Then,
again, the figure occupying the bottom of the plate has
rather a worm-like aspect, and would bear even a close
likeness, if it were much longer in proportion to its
diameter, as is the case with some of its congeners.
This animal, however, belongs to the star-fishes. The
central figure, which is really one of the worms, looks
much more like a common garden slug than an earth-
worm ; to which latter creature, however, it is in near re-
lationship. One may therefore easily pardon the errors
of the earlier naturalists, who were deceived by the
external form, and classed the creatures according to
shape, and not according to anatomical structure.

To begin, then, with the worms, or annelids, as they
are called, being composed of a series of rings bound
together by muscular and tendinous substances. The
insects and many other creaturap, by the way, are also
composed of a series of rings ; but they possess jointed
limbs, and by virtue of those limbs occupy another
place in the system of living beings.

94 LTJG-WOKM.

The commonest of all the terrestrial annelids is the
earth-worm ; and there is a marine earth-worm that
corresponds with its terrestrial relative in habits and
uses. On the sand may often be seen little heaps of
contorted sandy strings, possessed of no compactness,
but dispersing when touched, and looking as if Michael
Scott's familiar were hard at work at his task of twist-
ing ropes from sea-sand, and throwing down his abortive
attempts. These ropes or strings are the sand-casts of
the lug-worm, a creature that is possessed of no par-
ticular beauty, but is very useful to the fishermen, who
use it as bait, much as the earth-worm is used by fresh-
water anglers. Parties of boys may be seen, armed
with spades and boxes, trudging knee-deep in the
muddy sand-flats, as soon as the tide goes out, in full
search after logs, as they call the worms. Although
the shape of this worm is not very beautiful, yet it is
not utterly devoid of some beautiful features ; for the
double row of scarlet branchias, or lung tufts that fringe
the central portions of the creature, are remarkable for
their brilliant tints.

While speaking of this worm, and its representative,
the earth-worm, I may as well mention that the popular
idea of the multiplication of the earth-worm by
division is quite erroneous. The general notion on this
subject is that if an earth-worm be cut in two near the
middle, the divided portions reproduce those organs
which they have lost, and so in a short time the earth
is richer by one more worm than before. This notion,
however, is untrue. The severed worm seldom seems
to recover in the least from its wound, although the
portion on which is placed the head survives longer
than that to which the tail is attached. The ring
next to the wound very soon dies, contracts, withers,
and drops off by mortification. The next ring is
then attacked in the 'lame way, and dies in its turn.
And so on in both portions, the anterior perishing from
the wound towards the head, and the posterior portion

TEREBELLA. 95

from the wound towards the tail. The latter portion,
indeed, loses the power of locomotion altogether, and
can only twist and wriggle about on the spot where it is
placed. If only a portion of the tail end be cut off,
the remaining part has sometimes sufficient strength
to heal the wound, and the creature survives ; but the
wounded portion is not capable of producing a fresh
tail, or even of forming a single fresh ring.

If the sand or stones be carefully examined at low
water, certain curious objects will often be found
between tide-marks, sometimes existing singly, but
generally living in societies. One of these objects is
represented on plate p, fig. 2. It is a tube composed of
innumerable fragments of shell, or sometimes of entire
shells, if they are sufficiently minute, grains of sand,
and other similar substances, agglutinated together by
a secretion that is poured from the surface of the
body, and which soon hardens into a tough mem-
branous substance. The mouth of the tube is adorned
with a fringe, which is composed of a number of much
smaller tubes formed from the same substances, and in
the same manner, as the principal tube. The creature
that inhabits this dwelling goes by the name of
Terebella. Its empty tubes are sometimes torn away
from their attachments by the power of the waves, and
in this case are thrown upon the sea-shore together
with the algae, shells, and other debris that mark the
line beyond which the proud waves can no further go.
Generally, however, they are fixed with such firmness,
that to procure an entire specimen is a matter of some
difficulty. There is no connexion between the tube
and its inhabitant, who seems on occasion to be able
to take little journeys among the rocks, and even to
swim on the surface of the water by spreading its
numerous tentacles abroad as the molluscs spread their
foot. Sometimes the terebella becomes ambitious, and
instead of contenting himself with sand and tiny stones,
affixes a stone of some size to his tube. One that I

96 SABBLLA.

possessed for some time had fastened the centre of its
tube to a pebble more than an inch in length, and
very nearly the same in width.

The reader will not fail to remark the analogy
between the tube-inhabiting annelid, and the larvee of
the common caddis, or stone-fly of anglers, which build
tubes in a very similar manner, pressing into the
service all sorts of substances, and which, like the tere-
bella and others, has no organic connexion with the
tubes in which their soft bodies are sheltered from
danger. The tube that is represented in the engraving
is of the natural size, and was drawn, as indeed were
most of the figures, from an actual specimen.

On the same plate as that which is occupied by the
terebella, and at fig 5, may be seen a group composed
of innumerable tubes, massed together as if they had
been a handful of earthworms compressed into a small
space, and then suddenly liberated. These are the
tubes of another annelid, called the Sabella, and, like
those of the terebella, are built up from the particles
of sand on and among which the worm lives. At the
bottom of the mass may be seen one of the worms
crawling from its tube. These tube-masses may be
found in abundance at low water-mark, especially where
the corallines are plenty ; and the size of the masses is
very various, some being only composed of a few tubes
twisted together, while others are several feet in
diameter. It is not often that a fragment is found
where the tubes are so plainly shown as in the specimen
depicted. Generally the surface of the mass somewhat
resembles a sponge with circular apertures, with here
and there a tube, or a portion of a tube, twining itself
into the substance. Various alga? are often found
affixed to the tubes of these creatures.

Another of these tube-inhabiting worms, or Tubi-
colous Annelids, to use the correct term, forms a shelly
tube so closely resembling that of the ship- worm, Teredo
navalis, that the two are often confounded with each

SEIIPULA. 97

other, especially if a portion only is in question. This is
the Serpula, a group of which is given on plate p, fig. 1,
the species being Serpula contortuplicata. There are
several species of this curious and beautiful worm, one
of which, and perhaps the most common, possesses a
bayonet-shaped shell, which twists about on the surface
of stones or other convenient substances, and does not
erect itself freely. But the species that will be more
particularly noticed here, after taking a turn or two upon
its support, as if to obtain a firmer basis, and at the
same time to determine its direction, shoots boldly
upwards.

Now if a group of these tubes, situated, we will say,
on an oyster-shell, be taken into the hand, they will all
appear to be empty and useless ; but if the tube is not
very much contorted, a something scarlet may be seen
at some little distance down the tube, and by that
sign the living state of the inhabitant may be known.
When the serpula is placed in clean sea-water, it gene-
rally remains quiet for a few hours, as if to make
itself acquainted with the atmosphere of its new home ;
by very slow degrees the scarlet object is pushed nearer
and nearer to the mouth of the tube, and at last
emerges, when it is seen to be an exquisitely formed,
conically shaped cork or stopper, its small end being
prolonged into a kind of footstalk. Two of these
stoppers may be seen on reference to the engraving,
but they are hardly represented of sufficient size in
proportion to the diameter of the tubes. After a little
time, a row of scarlet feathery objects slowly follow
the stopper, and in a few minutes spread themselves out
into a most elegantly shaped plume.

Slowly as the serpula protrudes itself from the tube,
it is by no means slow in retreating. If one of these
creatures is fully extended in an aquarium, and the
hand is rapidly moved outside without even touching
the glass, the worm pops back into its tube with
marvellous rapidity, so rapidly, indeed, that the eye fails

H

98 HABITS OP SERPULA.

to follow the movement, and the creature vanishes as
if by magic. A cloud passing over the sun, or even
the shadow of a person passing by, will have the same
effect. It seems evident, therefore, that the serpula
must be able to see, although, as yet, no eyes seem
to have been discovered. After awhile, however, the
creature appears to become partially tame, so to speak,
and is less alarmed at a casual movement or shadow.
Such at all events was the case with my own specimens,
which at first were painfully shy, and avoided all close
inspection, but, after a fortnight or so, permitted me
to place a lens sufficiently near them to examine the
beautiful plumes and stopper.

This last-mentioned organ is the developed one out
of a pair which the creature possesses, the other being
very small and not put forward to view. This may
remind the reader of an analogous arrangement in the
tusks of the Narwhal; in which cetacean there are
really two tusks, but one only is fully developed, the
other lying concealed in the jaw. The beautiful fan-
shaped plume is composed of that part of the breathing
apparatus which separates the oxygen from the water,
and is analogous to the gills of fishes, or the lungs of
man.

If serpulse are kept in an aquarium, they should
be closely watched, as they, in common with the sabella
-djid others, have a bad habit of dying when they are not
suspected, and so tainting the water, to the destruction
of animal life. Most of the tubicolous worms come
Out of their houses before they die, but the serpula
often excepts himself from the general rule, retreats
into his shell as far as he can go, and there dies. It is
very difficult to discover whether the animal is really
dead or only sulky — if the latter, he recovers his
temper in a day or so, and waves his plumes as usual ;
but if the former, a white film begins to collect over the
mouth of the tube : this must be accepted as a hint for
instant removal. In general, if a serpula does not

SEA-MOUSE. 99

spread its fans boldly and decidedly from the tube, and
permits the stopper to droop over the mouth, it should
be gently touched with a cameFs-hair brush ; if it does
not smartly shoot back into its tube, that serpula is in
a bad state of health, and must be looked after. It is
always better to remove the creature at once, than to
run the risk of tainting the water with the unpleasant
smell that immediately follows upon the death of any
marine animal.

On plate f, fig. 4, may be seen a figure of a
creature that does not look at all prepossessing, yet
this very animal is one of the most gorgeous creatures
that can be imagined, the metallic brilliancy of whose
colouring would not suffer in comparison with the
plumage of the brightest humming-bird. This animal
is popularly known by the name of Sea-mouse, its
scientific title being Halithcea, or Aphrodite aculeata.
Edging the body may be seen rows of bristles or hairs
which, when simply printed in black and white, give
no idea at all of the iridescent colouring of their
surfaces; while even, if coloured, the resemblance is
but faint, because it wants the changing tints which
flash along the hairs whenever they are moved.

It is a strange thing, and one that shows the lavish
beauty of creation, that an animal endowed with such
glorious colours, that can only be exhibited by a full
supply of light, should have its habitation in the mud.
When kept in an aquarium, they geuerally appear to
avoid the light rather than to seek it, and keep them-
selves so hidden among the weeds and stones, that it is
not always an easy matter to find them. They are
rather migratory in their habits, but not erratic, for they
seem to go over the same course week after week ; so
that, having seen them on one day, it is not difficult to
predict their locality on the next.

The bristles of the aphrodite are not only worthy of
notice on account of their wonderful colouring, but
also on account of their shape. Among other offices,
h2

100 SPINES OF SEA-MOUSE

they seem to play the part of weapons, like the spines
of the porcupine or hedgehog. But as they surpass
the hedgehog's quills in external beauty, so do they in
form. There are certain islands, called "Friendly,"
whose amicable inhabitants are famous for the ingenuity
of their clubs wherewith to knock out another friend's
brains, and of spears wherewith to perforate him.
Many of these spears are made with rows of several
barbs, one placed immediately above the other, in order
to add more destructive power to the weapon. Now.
if the Friendly islanders had possessed microscopes, we
might with some justice have said that they took their
idea of the many-barbed spear from the bristles of the
Sea-mouse ; for a magnified representation of one of these
bristles wTould give a very fair idea of the Friendly lance.

All these lances can be withdrawn into the body of
the sea-mouse at the will of their owner, and it would
therefore be a most unpleasant circumstance, if the
creature were to wound itself with its own weapons.
In order, therefore, to obviate this difficulty, each spear
or bristle is furnished with a double sheath, which
closes when it is retracted into the body, and opens
again when protruded. It is hardly possible to conceive
a more wonderful structure in the whole of the animal
kiugdom, and certainly not possible to conceive one
more beautiful, when the changing tints of orange,
scarlet, or azure are taken into consideration.

There is a kind of slimy muddiness about the back
of a sea-mouse that rather counteracts the beautiful
effect of its hairs. This is caused by the muddy soil
in which it loves to reside, and which is strained through
a dense mass of fine hairs that interlace with each other,
and arrest the muddy particles, while they permit the
water for respiration to pass between them. The
whalebone plates that fringe the mouth of the Green-
land whale have a somewhat similar office, only the
fringe of the whale catches molluscs, and that of the
aphrodite catches mud.

ACORN- SHELL. 101

Wherever rocks are found between tide-marks, their
surfaces are usually selected as resting-places by some
very curious animals, known by the name of Acorn-
shells, which will at once be recognised by the sketch
on plate n, fig. 3, where is represented a group of these
creatures which have affixed themselves to the shell of
a limpet. In the original specimen, the entire surface
of the limpet was covered with acorn-shells ; but one
or two were removed, in order to show the nature of
the substance on which they rested. Their scientific
name is Balanus balanoides, and they belong to a class
of molluscs that are called Cirrhopoda, on account of
the cirrhi, or ciliated arms, which form their chief
characteristic.

The first acquaintance that is usually made with
these animals is seldom of an agreeable nature, and
generally takes place after the following manner : — An
. nexperienced but earnest observer is picking his way
among the rocks and stones at low water, his eyes being
more engaged in searching for curiosities than in
looking after his own feet. Suddenly, he puts his foot
on a sloping rock, rendered slippery as ice by the slimy
algaa that cover it, or is inadvertently caught in a rocky
pitfall, whose orifice was concealed by the heavy masses
of wrack or tangle that are flung over it by the tide,
and at the bottom of which is a pool of water just deep
enough to wet his feet, and to irrigate his body by
spirting up along the sides of the cavity. In either
case he catches frantically at the nearest piece of rock,
and finds his fingers cut in several places by the sharp
edges of the acorn-shells that have there affixed them-
selves, and present as uncomfortable a hold for the
undefended hand as a wall tipped with broken bottles.

While they are left in the open air, there is nothing
attractive in the balani, which seem rather to disfigure
the rock than to improve its appearance. But when
the sea returns and brings back the welcome supply of
nourishment, these dull, lifeless objects suddenly start

102 FISHING-NET OP BALANUS.

into activity, and begin to fish as industriously as if
they knew that they had only a limited time for eating,
and must, during that time, procure a sufficiency of
food to employ their digestive organs while the tide is
out, The manner in which the Cirrhopoda fish is very
remarkable. Some animals, like the sea-anemones,
hang out a net and await the approach of prey, who
unwarily come within the scope of their power, and so
rush to their own destruction. Other creatures hang
out fishing lines, like the common fresh-water Hydra,
or the beautiful marine Beroe, which will be described
on a future page. Others, again, chase their prey
through the water, and capture it by virtue of superior
swiftness or cunning. But neither of these modes is
employed by the balanus, which is furnished with a
veritable casting-net, which it ever and anon throws
expanded into the wrater, and then retracts when
closed. The action of a man throwing an ordinary
casting-net is much the same as that of the acorn-shell.
If the reader will refer to the plate, he will see two of
these creatures in the act of making their cast, and the
net is formed from the cirrhi from which the entire
class derives its name.

Each cirrhus is found, on examination, to be double
the pair springing from a single footstalk. They are
of a partially horny consistence, and separated into
numerous joints, each joint being furnished with long
stiff hairs. These hairs stand out boldly from the
centre, and the consequence is, that when the whole
apparatus is fully extended, it forms a kind of network
of hairs, permitting none but the smallest substances
to pass between them. In the balanus, the cirrhi are
of a delicate white colour, and have a singularly elegant
appearance as they are alternately thrown abroad and
gathered together again. There is hardly a prettier
sight than a large stone, or piece of rock, that is covered
with balani, and immersed in clear sea- water. Each
little conical shell opens at the tip, and from the aper-

ROVING EARLY LIFE OP BALANUS. 103

ture a fairy-like little hand is constantly thrust, grasping
at some coveted object, and then closed and withdrawn.
There is a grace and elegance about the whole movement
that is not easily described. This sight may often be
witnessed in the rock-pools when they are of sufficient
depth to cover the balani, and are not exposed to the
action of the wind.

With all their beauty, however, the balani are un-
congenial inhabitants of an aquarium, although they
add much to its appearance at first. They soon become
languid, their graceful cirrhi remain half protruded
from the shell, they then die, and shortly exude such a
detestably scented gas, that the surrounding water soon
becomes unfit for the respiration of the other inhabitants
— they in their turn die, and the whole aquarium is
ruined. So, present beauty must be sacrificed to
ulterior service; and if any balani are growing on a
rock intended for the aquarium, they must be removed
before it is placed in the tank.

They do not seem to be particular as to their place
of residence, for they may be found on rocks, wooden
piles, stones, and even on living shells, of which they most
affect the limpet, because it is not of migratory habits.

It is a very remarkable fact, that although the
balanus never moves from the spot on which it has
taken up its habitation, and, indeed, is incapable of any
kind of locomotion, yet when very young it was an
active, wandering little creature, furnished with jointed
limbs, much resembling a young shrimp or crab, and
swimming freely through the water with a succession of
bounds. When first discovered, the young balani were
thought to be veritable crustaceans; but after careful
observation they were seen to affix themselves to the
sides of the vessel in which they were placed, and
straightway to change their roving life for an existence
of settled quiet. Similar strange developments take
place in many marine animals, but there will not be
sufficient space for their discussion.

104

BARNACLE.

The balanus has a very near relative going by the
popular name of Ship-barnacle, and the scientific title

of Pentalasmis anatifera, the latter title signifying " the
five-plated goose-bearer." It is called Pentalasmis, or
five-plated, because its shell is composed of five distinct
portions, curiously arranged, and between them the
cirrhi are protruded. The word "goose-bearing" is
given to it because an old writer named Gerard, who
lived in 1636, discovered that the Bernicle-goose (Ber-

EEH1TICLE GOOSE.

nicla leucopsis) was produced from the ship-barnacle ;
and in order to prove his own rather startling account,

ORIGIN OP BERNICLE-GOOSE. 105

he gives drawings of the creatures in all their stages,
from the mollusc to the bird. Whether the worthy
man intended to deceive, or was himself the victim of
others, it is impossible to say. His account is so
quaint that I here give an extract : —

" What our eyes have seen, and hands have touched,
we shall declare. There is a small island in Lancashire
called the Pile of Foulders, wherein are found the
broken pieces of old and bruised ships, some whereof
have been cast thither by shipwracke, and also the
trunks and bodies with the branches of old and rotten
trees, cast up there likewise ; wherein is found a certain
spume or froth, that in time breedeth into certaine shels,
in shape like those of the muskle, but sharper pointed,
and of a whitish colour; one end whereof is fastened
into the inside of the shell, even as the fish of oisters
and inuskles, the other end is made fast into the belly
of a rude masse or lumpe, which in time commeth to
the shape and form of a bird : when it is perfectly
formed the shell gapeth open, and the first thing that
appeareth is the aforesaid lace or string; next cOme the
legs of the bird hanging out, and as it groweth greater
it openeth the shell by degrees, till at length it is all
come forth and hangeth only by the bill: in short
space after it commeth to full maturitie, and falleth
into the sea, where it gathereth feathers, and groweth to
a fowle."

The anatomy of this barnacle is curious, and will
repay examination. The shell should be removed, and
the animal carefully displayed with the assistance of
a pair of scissors and a needle or two : all dissections
of small animals should be made under water; or if
the dissected creature is intended to be permanently
preserved, it should be immersed in *he fluid which
is used as a preservative.

These creatures are often found clinging in great
numbers to the bottoms and keels of vessels, sometimes
interfering with their speed. Their growth is very

106 JELLY-FISH.

rapid, and it has often happened that a ship has started
upon a short voyage without a single barnacle adhering
to her planks, and yet has come back encumbered with
a whole army of them. They are often found adhering
to pieces of wreck, or to floating spars that are cast
upon the shore by the waves. The stalks or tubes of
the individual represented in the engraving are not
sufficiently long in proportion to the dimensions of the
shells themselves, and ought to have been drawn nearly
double their length.

After a gale, especially if the wind sets landwards,
the shores afford a great harvest to the naturalist; and
if the gale and the spring-tides coincide, he inwardly
wishes for the hundred eyes of Argus to look after the
objects that lie scattered on the shore, and for the
hundred arms of Briaraeus wherewith to pick them up.
Among the strange things that are cast on the shore
will be seen many lumps of a jelly-like substance, vary-
ing much in size, called popularly by the name of Jelly-
fish. These are strange creatures, of wondrously low
organization, that thickly populate the ocean, and are
anything but shapeless when living and in health.
Scientifically they are called Acalepkce, from a Greek
word signifying a nettle, because many of the species
have the power of stinging the hand that incautiously
touches them.

Sometimes they lie on the shore in vast numbers ;
and there is a story on one of our coasts, that a farmer
ordered down his carts to the sea, and carried away
several cartloads of jelly-fish to serve as manure for his
fields; but by the next morning the heaps of jelly-fish
had disappeared, leaving behind them a few lumps of
membranous threads. In fact, all the real animal
matter that the carts had carried to the fields might
have been conveyed in the farmer's own hand, for jelly-
fish are really little but animated sea-water.

On plate n, fig. 2, will be seen a singularly shaped
creature, bearing two long threads covered with spiral

BEROE ITS IRIDESCENCE. 107

tendrils; this is one of the jelly-fishes, called by the
name of Beroe or Cydippe, and a wonderful creature it
is. If on a calm day a gauze net is passed gently
through the water, there will often be found adhering
to its sides sundry little gelatinous knobs, perfectly trans-
parent, and apparently lifeless. Now, if the net be
lowered into a glass vessel of pure sea-water, and
slightly agitated, the lump of jelly will be loosened,
and left in the water. For a moment the eye fails to
perceive that the water has any inhabitant at all ; for
the beroe, as the gelatinous knob turns out to be, is
itself little but sea-water, but may soon be recognised
by the flashes of light that appear on its surface. It is
a creature that can hardly be drawn, for it ought to
have no outline, and only to be shown by the brilliancy
of its surface, which surpasses that of the water around.
Presently, as the creature begins to feel more at home
in its new habitation, it swims about with an easy
gliding movement, and an iridescent light shows itself
on one part of the surface. The iridescence continues
to increase, and at last is seen to reside in eight longi-
tudinal bands that completely encircle the animal ;
over these bands the light plays, and at last all the
colours of the rainbow ripple over its surface with
indescribable beauty.

These iridescent bands are the organs of locomotion,
and it is to their form and mode of use that the
beautiful colour is owing. By the side of the beroe
may be seen a magnified portion of one of these bands.
Its surface is covered with little square scales, disposed
in a manner somewhat similar to the boards of a water-
wheel. Each of these steps, so to speak, is capable of
motion backward and forwards, and by their rapid and
successive motion a series of prisms are formed, and by
them the light is decomposed to the prismatic colours;
this iridescence is best seen when the sun shines upon
the creature.

"When the beroe has been watched for a little time as

108 FISHING-LINES OF BEROE.

it swims about in its glass prison, two long and most
delicate threads will be seen depending from its exterior,
and falling into graceful curves as the creature ascends
or descends in the water. The threads are so exceed-
ingly delicate that they are not observed at a first
glance ; and when they are seen, rather convey to the
spectator's mind the idea of spun glass, than of any
animated structure. Indeed, the whole creature looks
as if it were formed of crystal, cut and polished, and
the threads almost seem to be spun from its sub-
stance as it moves about. These threads are called
the fishing-lines, and if closely watched are found to be
fringed with smaller tendril-like threads, that are dis-
persed along the chief line, just as a fisherman attaches
several baits to his line by supplementary strings. The
fishing-lines can be entirely withdrawn into the body of
the animal, or they can be shot out to lengths that ap-
pear wonderful, considering the size of the creature to
which they belong. The supplementary tendrils elon-
gate themselves when the fishing-line is drawn out to
its full length, and become more tightly twisted as the
line is retracted into the body. Many people, and
especially those who live on the sea-shore, imagine that
the beroe is the egg of the sea-urchin.

It must be remembered that the creature can alter
its shape by expansion and contraction ; which circum-
stance accounts for the fact, that if several artists sketch
this creature, each figure may have a different form.
The species represented in the engraving is Cydippe
pileus, shown as it appears when fully expanded. The
life of the creature is fragile as its form ; and if it is
kept in a vessel of water, it plays about rapidly for a
time, then dies, and disappears as if it had melted into
nothing. Yet, if it be cut into pieces while lively, or
broken up by the force of the waves, as is often the
case, its ciliated bands still continue to perform their
work, and the iridescent light plays over the fragments
as beautifully as when the creature was entire. It is

MEDUSA PHOSPHORESCENCE OP SEA. 109

seldom or never found in an entire state at the surface
of the water when the wind is rough, but sinks below
into the calmer regions,, where its delicate organization
is not exposed to the rude collision of wave and wind.

The beroe glides along by means of the ciliated bands ;
but this is only one of the means of progression em-
ployed by the Acalephs. Some move themselves about
with cirrhi, and are therefore called Cirrhigrade ; the
beroe being called a ciliograde. Others again are named
Physograde, because they are buoyed up by a kind of
bubble, or bladder filled with air. The well-known Por-
tuguese Man-of-war is a good example of this order.
There is another order which moves through the water
by a series of regular pulsations like those of the lungs,
and the species belonging to it are called, in consequence,
Pulmonigrade. An example of a pulmonigrade Acaleph
is given in plate n, fig. 1. It belongs to the genus
iEgerea, of which many species may be found on our
coasts, and, with many others, passes under the general
title of Medusa. The size of these creatures varies
excessively, and there are strange peculiarities in their
growth and structure, which should be learned from
some one of the books devoted exclusively to the
Acalephs. The movements of a little Medusa in a clear
glass vessel are exceedingly graceful, and may easily
enough be witnessed ; as if a vessel is filled with water
drawn from the surface of the sea on a calm day, there
are generally a few Medusae in it. But if there should
be none, a little work with a gauze net will secure
plenty.

Very many of these Acalephs are phosphorescent,
and through their instrumentality the sea appears at
night as if filled with fire. This property is especially
shown when a little breeze ripples the surface, or a boat
dashes the water aside. In the latter case the oars ap-
pear to throw from them torrents of fire, and a blazing
line marks the direction which the boat has taken. The
chief cause of this phosphorescence is a very tiny creature,

110 NOCTILUCA.

called Noctiluca miliaris. If a vase be filled with sea*
water and placed in the dark, it will emit small sparkles
of light whenever it is tapped, or even when the foot is
stamped on the ground. This phenomenon is more
exemplified at the sides of the jar, and but a very few
sparks are perceptible at the bottom. Each spark is
caused by a Noctiluca ; and if it is wanted for examina-
tion, it may be caught in a glass tube, in the manner
employed for microscopic animalcules, and brought
under the necessary magnifying power. Its natural size
is about half that of a common mustard-seed. When sub-
mitted to magnifying power, it appears to be a creature
of a form nearly round, but with a notch or depression
on one part of its circumference. Close by that de-
pression is a little knot of muddy matter, from the
centre of which springs a kind of tail, or perhaps pro-
boscis, by the agitation of which the creature rows itself
about in the water. The entire form of a Noctiluca is
not unlike that of a melon, the proboscis being the
stalk.

Ill

CHAPTER IX.

CRABS — LOBSTERS— SHRIMPS— PRAWNS, AND PISH.

Among the living creatures that force themselves on
the notice of any one who walks on the borders of the
sea, the various crustaceans are perhaps the most con-
spicuous. Without attempting here to treat of the
Crustacea scientifically, I shall mention those creatures
that may be seen almost on any day and almost on any
shore, leaving the deeper scientific details to be obtained
from the very elaborate works that exist on the subject.

It is nearly impossible to walk for more than a few
paces on the wet space between tide-marks, without
disturbing a host of little crabs, that scuttle about
in dire perplexity, either trying to flatten themselves
against the ground, hoping to be mistaken for pebbles,
or endeavouring to conceal themselves under the shade
of a bunch of wrack. Sometimes, on lifting up a heavy
mass of sea-weed, out comes a crab very unexpectedly,
holding up a pair of claws with so ferocious an air
that he often escapes before his discoverer has quite
recovered his presence of mind. The former species,
that try to escape in such a hurry, are generally the un-
eatable green crab, although even it is often found of no
small size; while the big pugnacious one is of the edible
kind, and, from his objection to capture, seems to know
it. Sometimes crabs of a very tolerable size may be
found concealed in the crannies of the rocks, where they
are concealed by the rock itself, and by the fuci and
laminaria that hang about in great profusion. Bare-
legged boys may be often seen creeping about among

112 EDIBLE CRAB.

the rocks, and armed with a basket and an iron rod
hooked at the end. This latter weapon is ever and anon
thrust into the holes and clefts of the rock ; and should
an unfortunate crab have there concealed himself, he is
soon hooked out of his retirement, and, if edible, con-
signed to the basket.

The great monsters that are brought to market are
mostly caught in sunken baskets, much on the principle

of the mousetrap, which permits an animal to enter
without any difficulty, but opposes an effectual barrier
to his egress. It is not always safe to grope for crabs,
unless a companion be at hand, for a powerful crab has
actually been known to grasp with its claws the hand
of its opponent, and to hold him there without the
power of moving until a passer-by came to his assist-
ance. Should such a circumstance occur, the best
plan for making the animal loosen its hold is said to be
by detaching the claw that is unemployed.

The young of the crab is quite unlike the adult ani-
mal, and has been described under the name of Zoea.

ZOBA — SWIMMING CRAB. 113

In this state it is a very quaint-looking creature, is
possessed of a long tail, two great eyes, something-
like those of a diver's helmet, and wears a spike on its
throat nearly as long as its entire body. It is no marvel
that it has been treated of as a separate creature from
the crab, for it bears about the same resemblance to
the crab that a caterpillar bears to a butterfly, or a
wire-worm to a beetle. The long tail of the Zoea formed
one of the distinctive points that separated it from the
crabs ; and yet, if a crab is laid on its back, a tail is
seen to be tucked up under its body, in a position some-
thing like that assumed by the tail of an alarmed dog.

Many species of crabs may be found on the sea-shore ;
that is, if they are sought in the proper localities.
The two species already mentioned are totally incapable
of swimming. They can crawl upon the shore, half
bury themselves in the sand, or push their way among
the algee with much rapidity ; but if they are thrown
into deep water, they sink helplessly to the bottom,
spreading about their limbs in the vain search after
some object which they can grasp. There are, how-
ever, several species of crabs found on the British shores,
which are good swimmers, one of which is given on
plate m, fig. 4. This is the Velvet Swimming Crab, or
the Velvet Fiddler, as it is sometimes called. If the
figure of this animal be compared with that of the com-
mon crab, on p. 112, the reader will observe that there
is a considerable difference between the two creatures;
one of the chief distinctions lying in the shape of the
hinder pair of legs, which in the common crab are sharp
and rounded, but in the swimming crab are flattened
at their extremities. These flattened limbs are used as
oars or paddles, and by their repeated strokes the
creature is able to urge itself through the water with
some velocity. The peculiar movement of the limbs
being thought to resemble the action of a violinist's
arm, the crab has thence derived its name of Fiddler.

The Velvet Fiddler (Portunus puber) is common
i

114 SPIDER CRABS.

enough on our coasts, and is a tolerably hardy inhabit-
ant of an aquarium, but not a safe tenant. It is a
most ferocious creature, lurking unseen in a corner, and
from its den darting forth at any unsuspicious inhabit-
ant that may come near. One of these creatures has
been known to attack a moderately-sized hermit
crab, and to destroy it with a single snap, despite
its shelly habitation and strong claws. After having
killed the poor hermit, the fiddler proceeded to eat
its body.

There are some crabs, again, which, in consequence
of their peculiarly shaped body and long sprawling
limbs, are termed Spider Crabs; for an example of
which creatures, see plate m, fig. 3. The bodies of
these crustaceans are short, wide, and produced into a
snout-like form in front. If they will live, they are
useful creatures in an aquarium; for they are good
scavengers themselves, and, in addition, often carry on
their shells a whole army of zoophytes. Two of these
creatures, which inhabited a large aquarium belonging to
a friend, were perfect treasures to the microscopist ; for
when a specimen of a living zoophyte was wanted, one
of the spider crabs was hunted up, and the requisite
portion removed. They were both rather sluggish
animals, and generally resided in two dark holes, in
different parts of the aquarium, where a practised eye
was needed to discover them.

The species represented is Maia squinado; but there
are several other spider crabs to be found on the shores,
some of whom possess limbs so wonderfully elongated,
that they seem to have been subjected to the process
of wire-drawing. These may be captured at spring-
tides, when the water has sunk much below its usual
level, and left the unsuspecting crabs on dry land.
Various curious fish, and other creatures, may also be
taken at the same time.

We now come to a very curious race of creatures,
the Soft-tailed Crabs. Those already mentioned are

HERMIT CRABS. 116

entirely covered with a strong shelly mail ; but there
are others whose tails are left bare and defenceless, and
which are forced to seek an artificial defence in lieu of
natural armour. These creatures are generally called
Hermit Crabs, because each one lives a solitary life in
his own habitation, like Diogenes in his tub ; and some-
times go by the name of Soldier Crabs, on account or
their very pugnacious habits. The species here given
is the Common Hermit Crab (Pagurus Bemhardus),

HERMIT CRAB.

and the particular individual is inhabiting a whelk-
shell, a domicile that is in great request when the
creature grows to any size. Hermit crabs may be
found plentifully on the coasts, of all sizes, and inhabit-
ing all kinds of shells, from the trochus to the whelk;
and I have often seen a poor little hermit forced to
take up with a huge whelk-shell, of which only the last
whorl remained entire, and into which he exactly fitted.
He was almost at the mercy of his habitation, for he
could not hold it against the power of the waves, which
tumbled it over and over most ruthlessly, while the
hermit was making futile grasps at stones and sand by
which to arrest his progress.
i2

116 THE HERMIT AND THE CRASS.

The hermit is furnished with an apparatus of pincers
at the extremity of his tail, by which he holds
firmly to the shell in which he takes up his temporary
habitation, and he flattens himself so firmly against the
shell that it is difficult to seize the creature at all; and
even when a grasp of any portion can be secured, the
hold of the tail is so firm that the animal runs some
risk of being torn apart, sooner than leave the shell.
Some years since, I was rather anxious to see how the
hermit got into his shell, and so, having caught a
tolerably large one in a whelk-shell, I tried to pull him
out. However, he stuck so close to his shell, that there
was no hope of success without inflicting much injury,
and I should probably have let him escape, had not an
idea then come across my mind. Close by the rock-
pool where the hermit had been captured was a
colony of very fine sea-anemones (B. Crassicornis), and
I thought that, probably, by their aid, Mr. Hermit
might be enticed out of his shell, even if he would not
be dragged out. So I popped the hermit among the
wide-expanded tentacles of the crass, which immediately
began to contract. The hermit was evidently acquainted
with his danger, and, in his hurry to escape from the
adhesive tentacles that were twining about him, loosened
his hold of the shell, and was instantly plucked out. I
let him walk about for a while in the pool, where he
looked very woe-begone, trailing his defenceless tail
behind him as if he were ashamed of it. After a
while I dropped a damaged Purpura shell into the
pool, and the crab at once went up to it, and after
a very short examination, stuck the end of his tail
into it, for it was not large enough to accommodate
the entire tail, and walked about as before. At last,
I put the original habitation into the pool, to the
very great delight of the hermit, who exchanged
shells with a marvellous rapidity, and seemed so much
at home again that I could not think of disturbing
him. I have frequently tried the same plan of

THE CANNIBAL HERMIT. 117

enticing the hermits out of their shells, and never found
it to fail.

The combative propensities of these creatures are quite
wonderful for their development. If only two hermits
of tolerably equal size are placed in an aquarium, they
are not content with appropriating different portions of
the vessel to themselves, but must needs travel over it
and fight whenever they meet. This struggle is con-
stantly renewed, until one of them discovers his infe-
riority and makes way whenever the -victor comes near.
When they fight, they do so in earnest, tumbling . over
each other, and flinging about their legs and claws with
singular energy.

They are not at all particular about diet, so that it
is of an animal substance, and will eat molluscs, raw
meat, or even their own species. More than once, when
a hermit has died, I have dropped the body into the
water so as to bring it within view of another hermit.
The little cannibal caught the descending body in one of
his claws very dexterously, and holding it' firmly with
one claw, he picked it to pieces with the other, and put
each morsel into his mouth in a rapid and systematic
manner, that was highly amusing. It was literally
" tucking in." Only the soft abdomen was eaten, and
the hard legs, claws, and thorax rejected. Some prawns
came and tried to eat the rejected portions, but unsuc-
cessfully, although they dragged them about the water
for a few minutes.

When one of these hermits is in captivity, and feels
ill, he crawls out of his shell, and generally dies in an
hour or two afterwards. It is a very curious propensity,
and one that is shared by the tube-inhabiting worms,
as has already been mentioned. The habit is the more
remarkable, as the usual instinct of animals leads them
to the most retired spots that they can find, and there
to resign themselves to death.

The formation of the hermit is wonderfully suited
to the strange habitation which it adopts, and a hermit

118 CHANGING HOUSE.

when removed from the shell would hardly be recog-
nised for the same creature as that which was snugly-
curled up within it. Even the claws are modified, for
the purpose of lying smoothly in the shell's mouth, one
of them being very large, and placed in front, as a
shield and weapon united, while the other is very
small, and is almost wholly retracted within the shell.

When a hermit desires to change his habitation, he
goes through a curious series of performances, which,
if he had hands, we should be disposed to call manipu-
lations. A shell lies" on the ground, and the hermit
seizes it with his claws and feet, twists it about with
wonderful dexterity, as if testing its weight ; and having
examined every portion of its exterior, he proceeds to
satisfy himself about the interior. For this purpose,
he pushes his fore-legs as far into the shell as they will
reach, and probes with their assistance every spot that
can be touched. If this examination satisfies him, he
whisks himself into the shell with such rapidity, that
he seems to have been acted upon by a spring. Such
a scene as this will not be witnessed in the sea, unless
the hermit is forcibly deprived of his shell, as in the
cases above mentioned ; but when hermits are placed in
a tank or vase, they seem to be rather given to " flitting."

The crab is not always the sole inhabitant of the
protecting shell, for one of the curious worms, called
Nereides, is very frequently found in joint possession.
The fishermen value the Nereis for bait, and turn out
the poor hermits in order to obtain this worm that is
concealed within the whelk-shell.

The Common Lobster (Astacus marinus) is an example
of another order of these creatures, the Macroura,or Long-
tailed Crustaceans. The cray-fish, prawns, and shrimps,
all belong to this order. The lobsters are usually taken
in basket-traps, after the same manner as the crabs, and
when caught they are kept in well-boxes, through which
the sea-water runs freely; that is, if there is no imme-
diate sale for them.

REPRODUCTION OP LIMBS.

119

Both crabs and lobsters, together with other crusta-
ceans, possess the remarkable faculty of throwing off a
limb or two when injured, or even if they arc alarmed,

THE LOBSTER.

and of reproducing the lost members. This voluntary
amputation often takes place even in the huge claws
that lobsters carry, and which are so valued at table.
Sailors sometimes hold out a threat to the fishermen,
that they will sail to the lobster-grounds, and there
discharge heavy guns ; the effect of which would be to
make the lobsters throw off their claws, and thereby
render them unsaleable.

Most crustaceans are pugnacious in character, and it
often happens that when they fight, they inflict serious
injury upon each other's limbs; and in such cases the
maimed limb is detached, not at the wounded spot, but
at the joint immediately above, and after awhile a
slight protrusion opens itself at the amputated joint,
which protrusion becomes more protruded, and in short
space develops into a limb. It is a very common cir-
cumstance to find a lobster with one very large claw,
while the other is of comparatively small size. There

120 CHANGE OP SHELL.

is a very wise object in this power. The blood vessels
of the crustaceans are but slightly contractile, and in
consequence, if a wound is inflicted, the vessels continue
to bleed freely. But by this amputation the wounded
surface is reduced to a very small portion, and the
substance of the joint contracts with sufficient force to
stop the bleeding.

The shell of these creatures is formed of unyielding
calcareous substance; and although it may be a most
excellent defence for the full-grown crab or lobster, it
leaves no room for growth. In order to obviate this
difficulty, the crustaceans are possessed of the power of
discarding their shells at certain seasons of the year;
at which time, also, a new and larger shell is formed.
This, in its turn, is cast off; and so continually, until
the creature has attained its full growth. Not only
are the mere shelly coats of the body and limbs thu3
changed, but the lobster, for example, when it changes
its shell, discards with the shell the following portions
of the body : —

The footstalks of the eyes.

The external cornea of the ^yes.

The internal thoracic bones.

The membrane of the ear.

The membranous covering of the lungs.

The tendons of all the claws.

The lining of the stomach.

And the stomachic teeth.

The lobster seems to experience some difficulty in
casting its skin ; and from this list of organs that are
changed, it is but little wonder that there should be a
difficulty.

There are certain glass toys that were once much in
vogue. A reel covered with thread, or a model of a
railway engine and tender, were exhibited in a bottle with
a very narrow neck. The puzzle was, to discover how
the reel got into the bottle. But in the case of the
lobster, there is a puzzle of precisely an opposite cha-

AGILITY OP LOBSTER. 121

racter : for it is easy enough to understand how a lobster
gets into his shell, or rather how the shell forms over
the lobster; but how he gets out of it, and especially
how he withdraws his huge pincers without leaving the
slightest mark of fracture, is a riddle far more wonder-
ful than that of the bottle. At all events, it is accom-
plished, and that with such nicety that the cast shell
exhibits precisely the same appearance as when it
surrounded the living animal.

When the shell is rejected, the creature is almost
undefended, its body being only covered with a mem-
branous skin ; and is therefore liable to be injured by
foes who would be treated with contempt were the
shelly armour in its place. So the defenceless animal
conceals itself in a quiet spot, and there waits until
another shell has been secreted.

The movements of the lobster, and indeed of all its
relatives, may be reduced to two kinds, crawling and
shooting. Its legs are the means by which it accom-
plishes the former mode of progression, and the tail
by which the latter. I should rather have said, that
the tail was the organ of retrogression ; for when the
lobster shoots through the water by means of the tail,
it is in a backward direction. The extremity of the
tail is furnished with an array of broad plates, so dis-
posed, that when the lobster violently bends its body
into the curved shape that it assumes when boiled the
force of its action against the water is so strong, that a
single stroke will urge the creature to a distance of
twenty feet or more, and even enable it to spring out
of the water. The natural position of the lobster is
straight, and it only curls itself on emergencies, such as
a sudden fright, or immersion in hot water. And its
sight is so good, or its instinct so wonderful, that it
can thus throw itself between two rocks where is barely
room for its body to pass. As to the sight, it may well
be good, for the lobster possesses compound eyes like
the insects, only the shape of the lenses is square instead

122

of hexagonal. Many crustaceans have their eyes hex-
agonal instead of square.

Beside the crab, the lobster, and the crayfish, two
other crustaceans find their way to the table ; some of
them gaining in liveliness of hue by their passage
through the hot water, such as the lobster, the shrimp,
and the crayfish ; while some, as the crab, make very
little change, one way or the other, and some, as
the prawns, positively lose their exquisite tints. Heat
applied in any way has the same effect, and so has alcohol.

As the shrimps are of more common occurrence than
the prawns, they will have the precedence. Still, many
so-called shrimps are really prawns, and among them
may be noticed the red shrimp, as distinguished from
the brown. The true shrimps are called by the fishermen
''sand-raisers," and with reason ; for they have a habit
of scooping out furrows in the sand, and sinking into
them until hardly any portion of their bodies is visible.
And in doing so, they raise quite a cloud of sand,
which settles down again and assists in obscuring their
bodies.

They are caught in peculiarly-shaped nets, which are
pushed along the bottom of the sea, and into which
the alarmed shrimps rush. The shrimp net, however,
contains many objects besides shrimps or prawns, and
it is useful to bargain with a shrimper to put all his
"' rubbish" into a basket and bring it back at the end
of his short but hard work. In this way all sorts of
marine creatures are captured, especially the smaller
fish, and various crustaceans. It is also a charity to
the shrimpers, for their work is severe, very trying to
the constitution, and badly paid. They are mostly
good-natured, honest fellows, always ready to earn a
shilling, and can be made into useful assistants as soon
as they have got over their astonishment at the value
attached to the objects which they have been in the
habit of throwing away as rubbish, and which they will
still throw away if not looked after.

YOUNG SHRIMPS. 123

In the little rock-pools that are left by the tide,
numbers of small shrimps may be found, but not easily
caught ; for they are exceedingly active, darting about
with the rapidity of arrows, and, being just the colour
of the sand, are difficult to perceive. They cause in-
numerable furrows in the sand by their little darting
flights; and although their marks are usually obliterated
by the returning tide, yet there are instances where the
furrows, together with the spots produced by rain-drops,
and the footmarks of shore birds, have been petrified,
and remained as witnesses of events that took place
many ages ago. If these little shrimps are desired as
specimens, they may be easily captured, by passing a
gauze net rapidly through the water. The shrimps are
startled at the flash of the net, and as they dart about
wildly, here and there, are caught in the very object
which they were endeavouring to avoid.

The shrimp is a prolific creature, and produces a large
number of eggs, which it carries about until hatching
time comes. The young shrimps are comical little
creatures, anything but harmonious in their proportions,
and bear no more resemblance to their parents than
a newly-hatched blind chick does to a gallant game cock.
They seem to be gregarious in their habits, and at a
little distance look like a cloud of active white particles.
They can be easily brought together for observation, or
captured, by holding a lighted candle to the side of the
vessel which contains them; for they crowd to the light
like so many moths or gnats, which latter insects they
slightly resemble. Unfortunately, many marine animals
are very fond of young shrimps, and a great amount of
catching and eating goes on whenever a fresh batch of
shrimps comes into existence, so that only a very small
per centage attain maturity.

The prawns when living are most exquisite beings,,
their partially transparent bodies being diversified with
delicate tintings, and their radiant eyes glowing like
living opals. A boiled prawn loses as much of its living

124 EYES OF CEUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

beauty as a trout or a mackerel when subjected to the
same process. I have already remarked that the com-
pound eyes of the Crustacea are analogous to the cor-
responding organs in the insects, and the analogy is
further carried out by the power of reflecting and
refracting light. The eyes of many insects, especially
those who fly by night, possess this property; and of
all British insects, the Common Death's-head Moth is
perhaps the most conspicuous in this respect. Either
by daylight, or when the rays from a candle fall upon the
eyes, they glow as if lighted from within by some hidden
fire ; a circumstance which adds in no small degree to
the terror which is often inspired in the uneducated
mind at the sight of one of these insects. In all cases
the light departs together with the life of the animal :
its origin is not as yet clearly ascertained. Even the
eyes of the common Dragon-fly, a diurnal insect, possess
a kind of fiery glow when viewed during the life of the
creature, but turn to dull, dead hemispheres as soon as
it perishes. The light that is reflected from the eyes
of cats, &c. is accounted for on principles that do not
hold good with regard to the compound eyes of insects
or Crustacea. The ordinary edible prawns are not
found between tide-marks, except occasionally when
an unhappy individual has been driven towards the
shore, and has not been able to regain the sea before the
waves have retired. For this creature, the shrimping
net or the dredge is requisite ; and as it is tender in
constitution, a vessel of sea- water should be ready for
its reception when taken out of its native haunts.

There are, however, several species of shore prawns
which quite equal, if not excel, those of the deeper waters
in beauty. One of these, the Common vEsop Prawn, is
given on plate m, fig. 1. It is called the iEsop Prawn
because it wears a kind of hunch upon its back, thereby
following the example of the great fabulist. Its scientific
name is Pandalus annulicornis, or the Ring-horned
Pandalus. The title "ring-horned" is given to it, because

MODE OF CAPTURING SHRIMPS, ETC. 125

the horns, or antennae, are exquisitely ringed with scarlet
lines at regular distances. These antennae are most
lovely organs; and as the prawn swims through the
water in its usual graceful gliding progression, the
antennae wave to and fro, producing elegant and ever-
changing curves. The whole body of the creature is
covered with scarlet lines, which show out exquisitely
upon the pellucid groundwork.

These creatures will not be found in the winter, or
even in the early spring ; but in the summer months
they may be seen in abundance in the rock-pools, and
captured by means of the gauze net without any
difficulty. If the pool is too large, and permits the
enclosed animals to escape from the net by means of
their extreme activity, the water may generally be
drained away by a judiciously cut channel, well guarded
by stones and pebbles, or even by the more simple
but more tedious mode of baling; the collecting jar
makes a very good baling pan. By adopting either of
these plans, the surface of water soon becomes con-
tracted, and the imprisoned animals are driven * into
narrower limits, from which they may be extracted at
leisure.

On most sandy shores a curious appearance may be
seen bordering the skirts of the waves, an appearance
as if innumerable little grasshoppers continually leaped
into the air, and in some places so numerous as to fill
the air with a sort of misty cloud, to the height of
several inches from the ground. Often as the prome-
nader walks along the sea-shore, his footsteps put up
whole swarms of these creatures, and induce him
to catch them, or rather to attempt their capture.
Perhaps one very large individual jumps into the air,
and comes down so determinately, that it is marked
out for a victim. Down comes the hand upon the
spot, but the creature has actively hopped away, and is
making off with a succession of agile leaps, that re-
mind one of a kangaroo or a bull-frog. If the pursuer

126 SAND-SKIPPER.

can drive the agile creature from the sea, he may run
it down after a smart chase ; and when he has caught
it he will see that it is a little crustacean, whose form
may be recognised on plate M, fig. 2. From its hopping
propensities, it goes by the name of Sand-hopper, or
Sand-skipper.

It generally lives on the shore, burrowing deep holes
in the sand, where it lies concealed until the waves again
cover the sands. And if fine specimens are wanted
for collection or preservation, they may easily be ob-
tained by digging into the sand with those wooden
spades, of which there is no lack wherever there are
children, and so pouncing on the sand-skippers before
they can recover their alarm at so sudden an entrance
into the light of day. They may also be found plen-
fully swimming about in the rock-pools, or concealed
in the masses of ulva or enteromorpha that mostly fringe
those miniature ponds. If a basketful of these weeds be
plucked at random, and then thrown into a large vessel
of sea-water, some twenty or thirty sand-skippers will
generally be seen swimming about, and may so be
captured.

They feed on the green sea-weeds, and would be
hurtful inhabitants of the aquarium did they not serve
as food for the anemones, crabs, and other living
creatures that are generally kept in such receptacles.
It is surprising how soon they vanish from the scene,
as soon, indeed, as a stock of carp and roach vanish if
placed in a pond where several large pike have taken
up their abode. A whole handful of sand-skippers
may be transferred to a well-stocked aquarium, and in
a week or so hardly one will have survived ; there will
be plenty of empty shells and rejected limbs at the
bottom of the aquarium, but nothing more than their
vestiges to tell that sand-skippers once were.

In the same rock-pools where the shrimps, prawns,
and sand-skippers are found, there reside also tem-
porarily numbers of little bright eyed active fish, hardly

GOBIES. 127

distinguishable from the shrimps until captured. One
of these fishes is shown on plate N, fig. 5, and its name
is popularly, the One-spotted Goby, and scientifically,
Gobius unipunctatus. It derives its name from the
single spot that may be seen on the dorsal fin, and
which is so conspicuous a mark that by it the creature
may be easily distinguished, at all events with suf-
ficient accuracy for ordinary purposes. There is another
species of goby, called the Two-spot, that is very
common on the coast; so common indeed are these
little fish, that I have taken upwards of thirty in as
many seconds, merely by sweeping with the gauze net
the waters of a rock-pool that had been condensed, as it
were, by draining.

The gobies are hardy little fishes, and are able to
withstand the prejudicial influences that are inseparable
from even the best regulated aquarium. Some three
or four are sufficient in number, and impart to the
tank a liveliness that is very pleasing. The ventral
fins of the gobies are so formed that they can be
pressed together and used as a sucker, by means of
which they can adhere firmly to the glass forming the
sides of the aquarium, or to the rocks and stones of
their native sea. The rapidity, too, with which a goby
affixes itself to the glass is quite surprising. These
little fish are terrible enemies to the shrimps, for they
feed greedily either on the eggs themselves, or on the
young shrimps when they have just emerged from the
egg. They also feed much on the animalcules of various
kinds that throng the alga, and so may be conveniently
fed by placing in the tank a handful of freshly gathered
ulva, enteromorpha, or indeed any of the sea- weeds whose
growth is sufficiently dense to afford shelter to the
animalcules. By the aid of a lens, the tiny creatures
may be seen coming by thousands out of the floating
sea-weed, and snapped up almost as fast as they show
themselves.

The Black Goby (Gobius niger) may also be captured

128 THE SHANNY.

as he lies lurking in cunning recesses beneath the stones
and rocks, waiting for prey. He is decidedly a
fierce fish, and its admission into an aquarium is a
doubtful point, inasmuch as he has been known to
catch and devour the two-spot goby. It is a larger
fish than either of those already mentioned, being about
three inches in length.

Another very curious fish is found in much the same
locality as the gobies. This is the Shanny, Tansy,
or Smooth Blenny, as it is indifferently named, one
individual of a large family, whose features are suf-
ciently remarkable for recognition. The scientific
name of this fish is Blennius pholis, and a portrait of
it is given on plate n, fig. 6 .

Any one who possesses an aquarium should search
after this creature, for it is quite as hardy, if not more
so, than the gobies themselves, and is also a bold active
fish, making itself very comfortable in its new home,
and sparing no opportunity of procuring food, even
snatching it from the very jaws of less active fish. The
colour of this fish is variable, some specimens being
beautifully marked with green and yellow, while there
are some almost wholly black or brownish olive. But
in all varieties, it has one beauty that never seems to
change, and that is the eye, which is decorated with a
ring of brilliant crimson. It is a small fish, only a
few inches in length, and is to be caught in precisely the
same manner as the gobies.

H

K

M

N

I N I) E X.

Acornshell, 101.
Alcyonium, 75.
Algae, 27.
Alva, 46.
Anemones, 61.

Daisy, 74.

smooth, 61.

thick-haired, 68.

Annelids, 93.
Aphrodite, 99.
Auks, 7.

Balanus, 101.
Barnacle, 104.
Berniclo-goose, 104.
Beroe, 107.
Birds, 1.
Bird's-head, 78.
Bj adder-wrack, 2D.
Blenny, 128.
Bryopsis, 42.

Carragocn, 39.
Cephalopoda, 53.
Chiton, 24.
Chlorosperms, 41.
Chorda, 32.
Chylocladia, 36.
Cirrhopoda, 101.
Cladophora., 4?.
Cockle, 1 9.
Cod, 57.
Coralline, 37«
Cormorant. 4.

Coryne, 77.
Cowry, 15.
Crab, edihle, 112.

green, 111.

hermit, 112.

spider, 114.

swimming, 113.

" Crass," 68.
Crustaceans, 111.
Cuttle, 52.

Dead-man's Fingers, 7(
Delesseria, 38, 39.
Dictyota, 33.
Dog-fish, 58.
Doris, 25.
Dunlin, 9.

Echinodermata, 91,
Ectocarpus, 33.
Enteromorpha, 48.

Fish, 126.
Flustra, 74.
Fucus, 29-.
Furcellaria, 40.

Gannet, 6.
Goby, 127.
Grapes, Sea, 51
Griffittusia, 41.
Guillemot, 7.
Gulls, 1.

130

INDEX.

Holothuria, 91.

Puffin, 8.

Purpura, 16.

Iridgea, 40.

eggs of, 51.

Irish Moss, 40.

Purre, 10.

Jelly-fish, 106.

Razor-shell, 20.

Rhodosperms, 35.

Laminaria, 31.

Laver, 44.

Sabella, 96.

Lepralia, 80.

Sand-skipper, 126. .

Limpet, 14.

Scallop, 23.

Lobster, 118.

Serpula, 97.

Lug- worm, 94.

Sertularia, 76.

Shanny, 128.

Madrepore, 74.

Shells, 13.

Medusa, 109.

Shrimps, 122.

Mermaid's Purse, 58.

Skate, 39.

Mouse, Sea, 99.

Star-fishes, 81.

Mussel, 22.

brittle, 87.

■fiyf1 -fin t^t 81

— — — — — liVlrUUgvli UJ

Nautilus, 53.

mm 8fi

Nereis, 118.

Nitophyllum, 41.

Tansy, 128.

Noctiluca, 110.

Teredo, 22.

Nudibranchs, 25.

Terebella, 95.

Terns, 3.

Oar-weed, 31.

Thread-capsules, 70.

Tides, 28.

Peacock's-tail, 33.

Tops, 17.

Periwinkle, 18.

Pholas, 20.

Ulva, 44.

Plocamium, 39.

Urchins, 87.

Plumularia, 76.

Polysiphonia, 35.

Wentletrap, 19.

Porpesse, 10.

Whelk, 15.

Forphyra, 45.

eggs of, 50.

Ptilota. 41 .

Prawns, 124.

Zostera. 46.

INDEX TO PLATES.

A {Front.)

1. Chylocladia articulata.

2. Ectocarpus siliculosus.

S. Padina pavonia. — (Peacock's-
tail.)

4. Porphyia laciniata.— (Purple La-

ver, or Sloke.)

5. Dictyota dichotoma.

B

1. Trochus ziziphinus. — (Pearly

Top.)

2. Littorina littoralis. — (Peri-

winkle.)

3. Patella vulgaris.— (Limpet.)

Ditto, showing under-side.

4. Purpura lapillus.

5. Scalaria communis. — (Common

Wentletrap.)

6. Cardium edule. — (Common

Cockle.)

7. Solen ensis. — (Razor-shell.)

8. Mytilus edulis.— (Mussel.)

9. Pholas dactvlus.

1. Laminaria digitata.— (Tangle.)

2. Fucus serratus. — (Notched

wrack.)

3. Bryopsis plumosa.

4. Delesseria hypoglossum.

1. Sertularia filicula.

2. Flustra foliacea.

3. Coryne pusilla.

4. Actinia mesemhryanthemum.

5. Ditto.

6. Lepralia ciliata.

7. Cellularia avicularis.

8. Alcyonium digitatum.

9. Bunodes crassicornis.

F

1. Serpula contortuplicata.

2. Tube of Terebella.

3. Teredo navalis.— (Ship-worm.)

4. Aphrodite, or Halithea aculeata.

— (Sea-mouse.)

5. Sabella.

6. Holothuria.— (Sea-cucumber.)

i. Corallina officinalis.— (Common
Coralline.) A portion of frond,
with terminal ceramidium.

2. Cladophora arcta.

3. Enteromorpha compressa.— (Sea

Grass.)

4. Iridaea edulis. — (Dulse, or dil-

losk.)

5. Nitophyllum punctatum.

Dunlin.— See p. 9.

H

1. Egg of Skate.

2. Eggs of Purpura.

3. Egg-cluster of Whelk.

4. Egg of Dog-fish.

5. Egg-cluster of Septa, or Cuttle.

132

INDEX TO PLATES.

1. Fucus nodosus.

2. Zostera marina. — (Grass-wrack

or Alva.)

3. Delesseria sanguinea.

4. Furcellaria fastigiata.

5. Chondni3 crispus. — (Irish, or

Carrageen Moss.)

6. Fucus vesiculosus. — (Bladder-

wrack.)

K

1. Griffith sia setacea. A fruit mag-

nified.

2. Polysiphonia urceolata. A fruit

magnified.

3. Plocamium coccineum. A por-

tion magnified.

4. Rhodymenia bifida.

5. Ptilota plumosa.

6. Ulvalatissima. — (Green Laver, or

Sloke.)

1. Caryophyllia Smithii.— (Common

Madrepore.)

2, Echinus Sphasre. — (Urchin, or

Sea-egg.)

3. Ophiocoma

star.)

4. Uraster rubens.

star.)

5. Solaster papposa.— (3un-star.)

rosula. — (Drittle-
( Five-fin get

M

Pandalus annulicornis. — (iEsop
Prawn.)

Sandskipper.

Maia squinado. — (Spider-crab.)

Portunus puber. — (Velvet swim-
ming Crab, or Velvet Fiddler.)

N

1. iEquorea. — (Medusa, or Jelly-

fish.)

2. Cydippe p ileus.— (Beroe, or Egg

Jelly-fish.)

3. Balanus. — (Acorn-shell, or Acom-

barnacle.)

4. Doris ptilota. — (Naked-gilled

Sea-slug.)

5. Gobius unipunctatus. — (One-

spotted Goby.)

6. Blennius pholis.— (Shanny.)

THE END.

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