MMON WEEDS OF
THE FARM & GARDEN

HAROLD C. LONG

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COMMON WEEDS OF THE
FARM AND GARDEN

COMMON WEEDS OF
THE FARM & GARDEN

BY

HAROLD C. LONG, B.Sc. (£DIN.)

OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES

IN COLLABORATION WITH

JOHN PERCIVAL, M.A , F.L.S.

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL BOTANY
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING

WITH 106 ILLUSTRATIONS

NEW YORK

FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY
PUBLISHERS

^ |3 0> ( .3

ic. Dept

Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & Co.
At the Ballantyne Press, Edinburgh

AS A SMALL TOKEN
OF AFFECTION AND ESTEEM

I DEDICATE
THIS VOLUME TO

MOTHER AND FATHER

206456

That which ye sow ye reap. See yonder fields !

The sesamum fwas sesamum, the corn
Was corn. The Silence and the Darkness knew !

So is a man's fate born.

He cometh, reaper of the things he sowed,
Sesamum, corn, so much cast in past birth ;

And so much weed and poison-stuff, 'which mar
Him and the aching earth.

If he shall labour rightly, rooting these,

And planting wholesome seedlings where they grew,
Fruitful and fair and clean the ground shall be,

And rich the harvest due.

Sir EDWIN ARNOLD, The Light of Asia.

INTRODUCTION

AGRICULTURE has been defined by the Bishop of
Newcastle as "A controversy with weeds." The growth
of weeds certainly constitutes one of the chief troubles
of the tiller of the soil, for weeds are too often
luxuriant where a good cultivated crop is awaited.
The average farmer is quite familiar with the ordinary
tillage operations which conduce to clean farming,
and the gardener is able by intense cultivation to keep
down weeds, but there are many methods which may
be successfully employed in combating a given species
which are not generally known. The agricultural
Press testifies almost daily to the fact that informa-
tion on the best means of eradicating weeds is badly
needed by all concerned in the growth of crops, and
I have long been convinced that the subject was
deserving of special treatment. Careful thought
quickly crystallised into the idea that a volume dealing
with weeds and their destruction, and summarising
under one cover the information scattered in many
volumes published in this and other countries, would
be of practical value. I hope, therefore, that the
following pages will supply a real need, and prove
useful to all engaged in the various branches of
agriculture.

It would be a great pleasure to me should the
critic complain that the use of the word " Common "
in the title of this volume is misplaced, as one of the

vii

viii INTRODUCTION

artists, who experienced some difficulty in obtaining
certain species for illustration, humorously suggested !
The term, however, appears to fit the text. In the
third week of August of the past year, when examining
a field of standing wheat, I spent about ten minutes
collecting such weeds as were most easily found within
an area of perhaps little more than 100 square yards.
In this small plot were quickly gathered the following
twenty-nine species, eighteen of which were already
illustrated for the pages of this book : —

* 'Convolvulus arvemis Senecio vulgar is

*Polygonum Convolvulus *Galium Aparine
*Polygonum Aviculare Vicia sativa

*Rumex sp. * Matricaria inodora

* Tussilago Farfara Plantago major
*Mentha arvensis Lychnis alba
*Sinapis arvensis ^Euphorbia exigua
*Sonchus arvensis *Alopecurus agrestis

* Stellar ia media *Agrostis sp.
Papaver sp. Triticum repens

* Ranunculus arvensis Poa annua

* Viola sp. * Veronica sp.
Potentilla Anserina Myosotis sp.
sEthusa Cynapium Alchemilla arvensis
Scandix Pecten- Veneris

Most of these species are troublesome weeds, and
it may be added that those marked with an asterisk
were abundant.

In a wheat field in which the crop was already cut
were found thirteen species of weeds, several being
serious pests ; and in a field of peas was an almost
overwhelming quantity of Field Bindweed (Convolvulus
arvensis), Black Bindweed (Polygonum Convolvulus), and
Perennial Sow Thistle (Sonchns arvensis), besides many
other weeds.

These notes will serve to show that, unless these

INTRODUCTION ix

cases were purely the result of bad farming, weeds
are still far more plentiful than they ought to be.

An important point should be emphasised. Al-
though, for example, the Creeping Thistle may be
almost or quite eradicated on a given farm by the
methods mentioned at pp. 86 and 180, yet its growth in
the future is unfortunately not prevented, for fresh seed
may blow in from beyond the boundary hedge. For
farms to be kept free from many — I had almost
written all — weeds, farmers must work together. There
is every reason why farmers should combine to
exterminate weeds by tillage and other operations,
including the cutting of weeds on waste land and
roadsides, and also to ensure purity in the supply of
farm seeds. This matter might well be taken up in
their own neighbourhood by the members of chambers
of agriculture, farmers' clubs, and agricultural societies.

In the preparation of this volume the fullest
advantage has been taken of the information con-
tained in a large number of other works, and an
endeavour has been made to give due acknowledg-
ment in every case. In describing the various plants,
Hooker's Student's Flora of the British Islands and Johns'
Flowers of the Field have been especially utilised. The
Bibliography at p. 372 will indicate the extent of the
literature consulted.

I desire to make the fullest acknowledgment of the
assistance of Professor Percival, who not only read the
major portion of the manuscript, but the whole book
in proof, making many useful suggestions for its im-
provement. In addition, Professor Percival has written
the notes at pp. 43—48 on the destruction of weeds by
chemical means; those at pp. 368-371 on the weed
seeds found in commercial samples of clover and grass
seeds, and on purity and germinating capacity ; those

x INTRODUCTION

at pp. 271-275 on the semi-parasites Euphrasia,
Melampyrum, Peiicularis, Bartsia, Lathrcea, and Viscum ;
and Chapter IX. on Weeds in Ponds and Water
Courses. To all those who so kindly responded to
the inquiry, the results of which are summarised in
Chapter VI., and who made many helpful suggestions,
I tender my warmest thanks, as also to many others,
both at home and abroad, who may not be mentioned
personally. In connection with the preparation of
Appendix IV., dealing with legislation enforcing the
destruction of weeds in various countries, I must
express much gratitude for the kind help received from
the Agents-General for the Colonies, and from foreign
departments of agriculture, as well as for information
received through the Colonial Office and Foreign Office
by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries .and kindly
placed at my disposal. I am much indebted to the
artists who have contributed such excellent work for
the improvement of this volume, especially to my wife
(sketches initialled A. S. L.), to Miss B. Reid, Miss M.
Smith, and Mr. J. C. Varty-Smith, all of whom have
taken considerable pains to ensure good illustrations.
The blocks illustrating " Java " beans have been kindly
lent by the editor of The Field. For help in reading
the proofs, and in preparing the notes on legisla-
tion and the index, I am indebted to my colleague
Mr. ]. L. Bryan.

I shall be most happy to receive criticisms and
suggestions for the improvement of any part of this
volume ; and as there are sure to be omissions, I shall
look out with a lively interest for the aid which readers
will be in a position to give.

If this volume helps in but a small degree to
eliminate some of our weeds, the labour of preparing
it will not have been in vain. I hope the critics will

INTRODUCTION xi

be kind, for they should be aware that it is easier to
review or revise a book than to write it ; and I trust
that, in the words of my father, those who read the
book " will find something interesting if not instructive,
or instructive if it be not interesting." If any would
suggest that the ground must bring forth thorns and
thistles, he may be reminded of the promise under a
later dispensation, " Instead of the thorn shall come up
the fir tree, and instead of the brier shall come up the
myrtle tree."

HAROLD C. LONG.

January 1910.

CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

INTRODUCTION . ,. . * . . . vii
I. WHAT WEEDS ARE, AND How THEY AFFECT OUR

CROPS AND STOCK ...... i

II. THE CLASSES OF WEEDS, AND How THEY ARE

SPREAD . . . .... . . 18

III. GENERAL PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES 29

IV. WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND . . *" . . 49
V. WEEDS AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND . 138

VI. WHAT ARE THE WORST WEEDS? OPINIONS OF
AUTHORITIES AS TO THE TWELVE WORST

WEEDS IN VARIOUS DISTRICTS . *•» « . 232

VII. PARASITIC PLANTS 256

VIII. POISONOUS PLANTS . . . . .276

IX. WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, AND DITCHES . .322

X. WEEDS IN LAWNS, DRIVES, ETC 345

XI. PRINCIPLES OF SEED TESTING . . . . 353

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . .' / . . 372

APPENDICES-
APPENDIX 1 378

„ II. .... . . 384

„ III. ... -409

„ iv. . . 429

V. . . 432

INDEX .... 435

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

15. Annual Knawel (Sderanthus annuus L.) .... 76

38. ,, Meadow Grass (Poa annua L.) . . -130

28. „ Sow Thistle (Sonchus oleraceus L.) . . 100

45. Beaked Parsley (Anthriscus sylvestris Hoffm.) . . .169
33. Bindweed, Black (Polygonum Convolvulus L.) . . .117

29. ,, Field (Convolvulus arvensis L.) . . . 103

30. „ Great (C. sepium L.) . . ... . . . 105

i. „ Great, rootstock of 21

73. Broom-rape (Orobanche minor Sutt.) . • . . . . 263

80. Bryony (Bryonia dioica L.) 293

7. " Buco " Hand Cultivator 38

40. Bulbous Buttercup or Crowfoot (Ranunculus bulbosus L.) . 153

47. Burdock (Arctium Lappa L.) 174

51. Butter-bur (Petasites vulgaris Desf.) . . . . .183

95. Canadian Pondweed (Elodea canadensis Michx.) . . 332

53. Cat's-ear (Hypochceris radicata L.) 190

ii. Charlock (Sinapis arvensis L.) -59

21. Cleavers (Galium Aparine L.) 84

22. Coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara L.) . . . . .88

23. „ infested ground 89

57. Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans L.) . . . . 200

64. „ Sedge (Carex vulgaris Fries.) . . . .215

78. Corn Cockle (Agrostemma Githago L.) 284

24. ,, Marigold (Chrysanthemum segetum L.) . . -91

39. Couch Grass (Triticum repens L.) 133

i. „ „ rootstock of . . . . . .21

46. Cow Parsnip, Hogweed (Heradeum Sphondylium L.) . 170

1 6. Crane's-bill, Cut-leaved (Geranium dissectum L.) . . 77

b

xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

8. Creeping Buttercup (Ranunculus repens L.) " . . . 51
9- » „ seedlings . . . . . .52

50. Creeping Thistle (Cnictis arvensis Hoffm.) . . . .181

i. „ „ roots . . . . " . . . 21

98. Curly Pondweed (Potamogeton crispus L.) .... 337

90. Darnel (Lolium temulentum L.) . , «* . ; \ '> . . 320
84. Deadly Nightshade (A tropa Belladonna L.) . . .301

58. Dock, Curled (Rumex crispus L.) . ~ . » . . 202

59. „ seedlings (Rumex sp.) v" . . ' T . . 203
72. Dodder, Clover (Cuscuta Trifolii Bab.) i;. ' .- . . 259
88. Dog's Mercury (Memirialis perennis L.) . - ; . . 310
96. Duckweed, Lesser (Lemna minor L.) . . . .' . 334
42. Dyer's Green-weed (Genista tinctoria L.) . :. i . 160
44. Earth-nut, Common {Conopodium denudatum Koch.) . 168

75. Eyebright (Euphrasia officinalis L.) 271

21. Field Madder (Sherardia arvensis L.) .... 84

31. „ Mint (Mentha arvensis L.) . . . ... in

13. „ Peppervvort {Lepidium campestre Br.) :* • . . 65

98. Floating Pondweed (Potamogeton natans L.) . . : . 337

83. Fool's Parsley (sEthusa Cynapium L.) '. . 5 . . 298

10. Fumitory (Fumaria officinalis L.) 56

86. Garden or Black Nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) . . 304
34. Goosefoot, Fat Hen (Chenopodium album L.) . . .120

35- v » seedlings 121

26. Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris L.) ...... 97

100. Hand-power Machine for Water Weeds .... 342

20. Hedge Parsley (Torilis nodosa L.) 82

81. Hemlock (Conium mactilatum L.) ..... 295

94. Horn wort (Ceratophyllum demersum L.) . . ' « . 331

71. Horse-tail (Equisetum arvense L.) ..... 228

5. Implements for Use In Eradicating Weeds 37

79#. "Java "Beans 291

48. Knapweed, Hardheads (Centaurea nigra L.) . . 176

33. Knot weed (Polygonum Aviculare L.) 117

1 8. Lady's Mantle (Alchemilla arvensis Lamk.) ... 80

76. Lousewort (Pedicularis palustris L.) . . . . . 273

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii

FIG. PAGE

92. Mare's Tail (Hippitris vulgaris L.) . . . • .' . 326

66. Marsh Bent-grass (Agrostis alba L.) . . :; .: . 217

65. Mat-grass (Nardus stricta L.) . "•'. . ;-. : . . 216

6. Mattocks . . , . . . "'. ?V *.-! > " • 38

89. Meadow Saffron (Colchicum autumnale L.) ' '* • ' . . 315

77. Monkshood (Aconituw Napellus L.) . i * '. . > 277

101. Motor Punt Weed-cutter . .' ; .'• . . . 342

41. Mouse-ear Chickweed (Cerastium triviale Link.) . . 157

84. Nightshade, Deadly (Atropa Belladonna L.) . 301
86. ,, Garden {Solamim nigrum L.) . . • . 304

85. „ Woody (Solanum Dulcamara L.) . . '. 303

27. Nipplewort (Lapsana communis L.) . . . * *'• . 98
32. Persicaria or Redshank (Polygonum Persicaria L.) . .115

36. Petty Spurge (Euphorbia Peplus L.) 123

3. Poppy Killer 35

52. Ragwort (Senecio Jacobcea L.) 188

79$. Red Rangoon Beans ........ 291

43. Rest Harrow (Onojiis spinosa L.) 162

55. Ribwort Plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) . . . .197
54. Rough Hawkbit (Leontodon hispidus L.) . . .192
39. Ryegrass, Perennial (Lolium perenne L.) . . . . 133
25. Scentless Mayweed (Matricaria inodora L.) 93

103. Seed-testing Vessel . 366

56. Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris L.) 199

60. Sheep's Sorrel (Rumex Acetosella L.) . . . . . 205
19. Shepherd's Needle (Scandix Pecten-Veneris L.) . . . 81
12. „ Purse (Capsella Bursa-Pastoris DC.) . . 64
17. Silver- weed (Potentilla Anserina L.) 79

37. Slender Foxtail (Alopecurus agrestis L.) . . . .127
69. Soft Brome Grass (Bromus mollis L.) 224

28. Sow Thistle, Annual (Sonchus oleraceus L.) ... 100
49. Spear Thistle (Cnicus lanceolatus Hoffm.) . . . . 179
14. Spurrey (Spergula arvensis L.) 72

61. Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica L.) 207

24. Stinking Mayweed (Anthemis Cotula L.) . . . .91

99. Stonewort (Chara vulgaris L.) 340

xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

I-'IG- PAGE

4. Thistle and Bracken Cutter • .,.':'; 36

87. Thorn Apple (Datura Stramonium L.) . .. > . 306

67. Tufted Hair-grass (Aira cczspitosa L.) .... . : 219
74. Yellow Rattle ( Rhinanthtts Crista-galli L.) . . . 269
70. Wall Barley Grass (Hordeum murinum L.) . ' . . 225

91. Water Crowfoot (Raminculus peltatus Fries.) . . . 324
82. „ Dropwort ((Enanthe crocata L.) ,,,.,. . . . 297
93. „ Milfoil (Myriophyllum verticillatum L.) . . . 327
97. „ Plantain (Alisma Plantago L.) ..,.,; -. . . . 335

92. „ Starwort (Callitriche verna L.) ...._ . . . 326
2. Weed-distributing Area . . . . . . . 22

79^. White Beans . . ...... •-• - . • - , 291

62. Wild Onion (Allimn vineale L.) . ,,.,, . . .. •. 210

63. Wood-rush (Luzula campestris Willd.) . . . . , 212
85. Woody Nightshade (Solanum Dulcamara L.) . . . 303

68. Yorkshire Fog (Holcus lanatus L.) 221

102. Ziemsen's Weed-cutting Saw 343

Plate L— Weed Seeds . . . . . ' . . 379

»» II' 5> » ... 381

» I11' » „ • • • ..... 383

COMMON WEEDS OF THE
FARM AND GARDEN

CHAPTER I

WHAT WEEDS ARE, AND HOW THEY AFFECT
OUR CROPS AND STOCK

" Everything that grows without being sown or planted, among a Crop
that has been sown or planted, is in that Place a Weed. The whole Benefit
of the Tillage was intended for the Crop, and this robs it of a Part."

—THOMAS HALE, The Complcat Body of Husbandly, 1756.

IT is frequently stated that " a weed is a plant out of
place," meaning that it is a plant growing in such a
position and under such conditions that it is interfering
in some way with a cultivated crop, rendering a lawn
or a gravel drive unsightly, or in some other way making
itself objectionable. For our present purpose we may
consider that a weed is any plant, of whatever nature,
which is found growing where the agriculturist or
horticulturist has not placed it and does not desire
it to grow. Thus, from this point of view, just as the
common poppy is a weed in the wheat field, so would
wheat equally be a weed if growing amongst the
gardener's Shirley poppies ; and just as thistles are
weeds among the potato crop, so are potatoes " out of
place " and properly classed as weeds when self-sown
and found flourishing in a bed of carrots. Potatoes,
oats, or turnips may alike be weeds if they interfere
in any way with man's cultivated crops. At the time of

A

2 COMMON WEEDS

writing, indeed, some self-sown oats are flourishing in
full ear in the writer's garden, but on account of their
beauty are left among the flowers in a small group.

i . Uses of Weeds

Weeds are in general regarded as harmful, and in
future chapters will be so considered. It will be well,
however, to point out certain ways in which weeds may
be said to be useful.

(a) Weeds may sometimes be the means of retaining
nitrates in the soil, especially in cases where the soil is
left without a crop for a time, as in bare fallowing.
Without the intervention of weeds nitrates may be
washed out. It is probable that other plant foods are
also similarly retained by weeds, and after these are
ploughed under the valuable constituents in them are
utilised by the next cultivated crop. As we shall see
later, weeds take up considerable amounts of the
essential plant foods. The growth of a green crop,
however, will have the same effect, and is doubtless
more useful than weeds, for, unless great care is exer-
cised, many of the latter will seed before being ploughed
under and ultimately cause trouble ; nothing is more
true than the adage, " One year's seeding is seven years'
weeding."

(b) Another way in which weeds are useful — annual
ones, perhaps, especially — is that they act in the same
way as green manure when ploughed under, and even
such weeds hoed up and left to die on the surface
sooner or later become mixed with the soil and im-
prove it in various ways. During their active growth
they take up carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere,
utilise the carbon, and return the oxygen — both acts
in themselves useful in purifying the air — and, on

USES OF WEEDS 3

decaying, increase the amount of humus in the soil.
The addition of humus to the soil benefits both heavy
soils and those of a light or sandy character, rendering
the former more open and porous, and the latter more
compact and retentive of moisture.

(c) Perhaps the most useful part played by weeds,
however, lies in the fact that by their mere presence
they indirectly promote good tillage, without which
first-class agricultural crops cannot be raised. No
sooner are the root and many other crops through the
surface than the hoe of a good farmer or gardener is
put to work to keep down the weeds, and this act of
tillage, quite apart from the destruction of weeds, is
one of the chief means which conduce to good crops,
since it leads to the production of a fine tilth and mini-
mises the evaporation of moisture by capillary action.
In field cultivation hand hoeing is very materially
assisted by the horse hoe ; in ordinary gardening the
hand hoe alone must be kept hard at it early and late.
It has been well said by a recent writer that " many a
casual gardener owes what success he has largely to
the accidents of weeds. They demand the use of the
hoe ; and the more soils and plants are studied, the
more manifest does it become that a friable, carious,
well-worked surface is the prime secret of cultivation,
even in the case of many things that grow deep." 1

(d) In connection with the uses of weeds, their
manurial value should not be lost sight of in another
direction. If gathered into heaps and mixed with
soil and a little lime they make a valuable com-
post. Placed at the bottom of a good-sized trench,
with garden refuse, such as cabbage leaves and pea
haulm, and then covered in, weeds help to form a first-
rate bed on which marrows and other crops may be

1 The Times, May 25, 1907.

4 COMMON WEEDS

grown. It is generally accepted as sound advice that
all such weeds as Couch, Creeping Thistle, and Bindweed
should be burnt, but the following note from The Times
(May 25, 1907) shows that the advice is not universally
adopted: — "A suggestive example of the difference of
attitude towards weeds is to be seen in the parts of the
country where small cultivators flourish. Some years
ago in a Bedfordshire parish the farmers had been
busy at their normal task of clearing their fields of that
most pestilential weed known as Twitch, and they had
stacked the harvest by the side of the road before
carrying it off to the bonfire. But they were antici-
pated. The small cultivators seized on the heaps in
triumph, buried them deep in their plots, and are now
growing the best of true gardener's stuff from the bed
of this excellent fertiliser." Practical experience of the
same weed has convinced the author that there need
be no hesitation in following this plan, but trenching
must be well done.

(e) It may be recalled here that v all our cultivated
crops have been derived from wild plants, and it is not
unlikely that certain " weeds " of to-day may become
valuable cultivated plants in the future, though they
would still be weeds if found growing in the wrong
place. For example, mangolds and beet have been
derived from the Beta maritima L., a wild plant of the
sea-shore ; and our cauliflowers, broccoli, and Brussels
sprouts are derivatives of the wild Brassica oleracea L.,
certain organs of which have been exaggerated by
cultivation and selection.

Certain plants sometimes spoken of as " weeds " are
useful in various ways. For example, rushes and
sedges, frequently troublesome in damp, low-lying land,
are often used for the manufacture of baskets and mats ;
Chicory (Cichorium Intybus), occasionally classed as a

USES OF WEEDS 5

weed, is extensively cultivated for its roots, which are
dried and ground for use as a partial substitute for
coffee, and its foliage is sometimes fed off with sheep ;
Spurrey is one of our worst weeds in certain districts,
but a form of it is widely grown as a fodder crop in
Belgium and elsewhere ; the Dandelion, a very trouble-
some weed, is gathered for the purpose of making
" dandelion tea" and " dandelion wine," and is fre-
quently cultivated for use in salads ; Watercress, a weed
of shallow streams, is also an important salad through-
out the country ; even Couch, that pest of arable land,
is not without its use, for its white underground stems
are gathered in some places and cooked for food,
chiefly, we believe, in Italy; while Groundsel, than
which no commoner garden weed exists, is an excellent
green food for cage birds.

Deadly Nightshade, Foxglove, Poppy, Meadow Saffron,
Aconite, all poisonous plants, contain certain substances
which are greatly used in medical practice.

Finally, it should never be forgotten by those who
love a garden that many so-called weeds are in them-
selves elegant and delightful to the eye, even if un-
desirable among the crops with which they grow, and
are sufficiently beautiful to lend grace to the most
charming of gardens, while many of the cultivated
flowering plants are derivatives of varieties of wild
forms which in their native land are counted as
" weeds." Various coloured Cornflowers are forms of
the Corn Blue-bottle (Centaurea Cyanus); Shirley Poppies
were derived from the wild red Poppy, and may them-
selves easily become weeds; Meadow Saffron is also
grown in gardens for its beauty, while it is a very
poisonous weed of grass land ; many other similar
examples might be mentioned.

No weed is more attractive in its simplicity and colour

6 COMMON WEEDS

than the little Scarlet Pimpernel or Poor-Man's Weather-
glass (Anagallis arvensis} ; and among other weeds
possessing a beauty of their own may be noted the
small and great Bindweeds (Convolvulus arvensis and
C. septum), Ragwort (Senecio Jacobcea), and Corn Marigold
(Chrysanthemum segetum).

2. Harm done by Weeds

Although, as we have seen, weeds have their uses, it
is generally agreed that they are a nuisance, and, while
they are undoubted incentives to good cultivation, with-
out which the best crops cannot be grown, all good
farmers and gardeners are equally bent on their eradi-
cation. Before considering the principles involved in
their destruction, it will be well to get a clear under-
standing as to the way in which they are harmful to the
farmer or gardener. If we give a little thought to the
matter, it will soon become evident that cultivated crops
are harmed and profit is reduced by weeds in a variety
of ways.

(a) Weeds take up Space which should be occupied by the
Crop. — Both the farmer and the gardener are aware that
their crops require plenty of space to enable each indi-
vidual plant to grow, and this is quite plain when we
observe the space allowed for a turnip, a mangold, an
onion, or a potato root. The principle of space is in-
volved in the idea of " singling " root and other crops
and flowers. Two plants cannot advantageously grow
on the spot of ground intended for one, and if a Char-
lock plant and a wheat plant grow together with their
roots in the same cubic foot of soil, it is certain that the
Charlock will exert an adverse influence on the wheat,
and prevent it from yielding its full crop. A Plantain
growing on a lawn covers quite a large area with its

HARM DONE BY WEEDS 7

broad flat leaves, under which grass does not grow, the
removal of the weed leaving a bare patch. Under ideal
conditions the whole of the cultivated area should be
occupied, even if not covered, by the planted crop.

(b) Weeds rob cultivated Crops of (i) Food; (2) Light,
Air, and Heat; (3) Moisture. When we see a cornfield
crowded with weeds we may be quite sure that these
not only take up much space, but that they also rob the
cultivated crop of food, light, and moisture.

(i) A large crop of weeds not only takes up much
carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere, but needs a
considerable quantity of mineral food, which can only
be obtained from the soil and from the manures applied
for the sown crop. That weeds absorb soluble in-
gredients from the soil in considerable quantity is clearly
shown by analysis. Some analyses made at Konigs-
berg, and lately reported by Professor Stutzer and L.
Seidler,1 show that the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric
acid, potash, and lime which are removed are deserving
of serious consideration. A number of weeds without
their roots were collected from oat fields, the soil of
which was fairly heavy and poor in humus. In the
case of the Wild Radish or White Charlock the plants
had already formed many seed-pods, but the other
weeds were in full bloom. The table on page 8
shows the* percentage of ingredients in the dry matter.
These figures indicate in a general way the amount
of the chief plant foods required by weeds. The nitro-
gen in the Persicaria nearly equalled 20 per cent, and
that in the Sow Thistle nearly 15 per cent of albumi-
noids in the dry matter. Phosphoric acid was chiefly
taken up by Spurrey and Persicaria ; potash by the
Sow Thistle and Spurrey ; and lime by Persicaria,
Yarrow, and Cornflower.

1 Fiihling's Landwirtschaftliche Zeitung, June 15, 1908, p. 429.

COMMON WEEDS

PERCENTAGE CONTENTS OF DRY MATTER

Nitro-
gen.

Phos-

phoric
Acid.

Potash.

Lime.

So-
dium.

Crude

Ash.

Sow Thistle (Sonchus

oleraceus) .

2.39

0.88

4-77

1.94

2.16

H-95

Cornflower (Centaurea

Cyanus)

2.30

0.78 I 1.94

3.13

1.07

8.12

Spurrey (Spergida ar-

vensis)

2.36 i. 08 | 4.21

1.52

1.91

IO.I2

Wild Radish (Raphanus

Raphanistmni) .

I.8S

0.78

1.30

I.8l

0.71

5.22

Persicaria or Redshank

(Polygomini Persicaria)

3-12

1.16

3.12

4-93

2.53

10.58

Yarrow (Achilka Mille-

folium)

2.30

o-93

3-15

3.84

1.17

9.6l

Average of six weeds

2.38

o.93

3.08

2.86

1.59

9.76

Weeds, therefore, take food material which would
have been equally available for the cultivated crop, but
which is thus lost to the farmer, at least for the time
being. Although the weeds may in some way be
utilised, or the food they have taken be in part returned
to the soil, it would be of greater benefit to the farmer
if the food removed by the weeds were immediately
utilised in building up larger and better grain, root, or
fodder crops.

(2) For the most successful growth of any ordinary
crop an unrestricted amount of light is requisite, green
crops being unable to develop the green colouring
matter, or chlorophyll, necessary for their nutrition,
except in the presence of sunlight. This may be clearly
seen when a patch of grass is covered with a board or
a sack, the grass which grows beneath being of a sickly
yellowish-white colour. Further, even if the green colour
is developed, light is necessary in order that the process

HARM DONE BY WEEDS 9

of food-making from the simple substances which the
plant takes in may go on. Some crops can tolerate
the absence of a free supply of light better than others,
but as a general rule the more light the better. A large
crop of weeds tends to restrict the light supply, and has
therefore a bad effect on the cultivated crop. The supply
of heat to the soil and crop is also restricted, and the
free circulation of air is prevented. Ripening corn crops
especially suffer in this way from a profusion of weeds,
both as standing crops and when stocked to dry. Wollny
found that an unweeded soil was colder to a depth of 4
inches than a soil kept free from weeds.

(3) Weeds also absorb from the soil and " transpire,"
or pass off into the atmosphere, large quantities of
moisture which would be of great service to the
growing crop. For example, a maize plant has been
observed to transpire in the 16 weeks between May
22nd and September 4th as much as 36 times its own
weight.1 A large oak tree is also stated to transpire 10
to 20 gallons of water in a day ; while barley, beans,
and clover were found to transpire, during five months
of their growth, over 200 times their dry weight of
water. Experiments conducted at the Agricultural
Experiment Station of Cornell University showed that
during the growth of a 6o-bushel crop of maize the
plants pumped from the soil, and transpired into the
air through the leaves, upwards of 900 tons of water.
A 25-bushel crop of wheat similarly disposed of 500
tons of water. Weeds also transpire, and if the ground
be covered with weeds it is certain that much of the
moisture which would be of value to the crop will be
lost in the manner indicated. Weeds are especially
harmful in this way in a hot summer, and the loss is
most felt by the cultivated crop on light sandy soils.

1 Fream, Elements of Agriculttire, p. 108.

io COMMON WEEDS

(c) Weeds hinder proper and thorough Cultivation. —
When a cultivated crop is infested with a multitude
of weeds, proper and thorough cultivation is largely
hindered. " Singling" of root crops, earthing up of
potatoes, even ploughing, cultivating, and harrowing,
are all rendered more difficult and costly by their
presence.

(d) Weeds harbour injurious Insects and Fungi. — The
harm frequently done by weeds in sheltering insect and
fungoid pests is considerable. Besides merely acting as
hiding-places for insects, they may be intermediate host
plants for both insects and fungi. As examples of these
harmful weeds may be mentioned Charlock (Sinapis
arvensis), Shepherd's Purse (Capsella Bursa-Pastoris), and
Garlic Mustard or Jack-by-the-Hedge (Sisymbrium Alli-
aria), and other Cruciferse, which shelter Flea Beetles
(Haltica spp.), these, in due time, attacking turnips and
causing the infestation known as " fly." Cruciferous
plants also support the larvae of the Diamond-back Moth
(Plutella maculipennis). The Bean Aphis (Aphis rumicis) is
similarly found on Docks and Goosefoot, and the Stem
Eelworm (Tylenchus devastatrix) is largely supported and
spread by many weeds, as also are other species of Eel-
worms. The well-known fungus Ergot of rye (Claviceps
purpurea) occurs on hedgerow and other grasses, and
may thence pass to rye and other cereals ; the Rust of
wheat (Puccinia graminis) passes one stage of its life on
the Barberry ; Finger-and-toe of turnips (Plasmodiophora
brassicce) finds a host in Charlock and other Cruciferous
weeds ; while White Root-rot (Rosellinia necatrix] attacks
a number of weeds. Many other insects and fungi are
similarly sheltered by weeds, not only in the open, but
in corners of fields and gardens, in hedgerows and
ditches, and round buildings.

It may be useful to give a list of a few of the more

HARM DONE BY WEEDS n

common insect and fungoid pests which are spread by
means of weeds acting as host plants : —

WEED " HOST." INSECT.

C Turnip Flea Beetle or " Fly "

Charlock (Sinapis arvensis) andj (Phyllotreta(PIaltica]nemorum\
similar Crucifers . . .1 Cabbage and Turnip Gall Weevil

\ (Ceutnrhvnr.hus sulcicnllis}.

Goosefoot (Chenopodium album)\
Thistles (Cnicus spp.) .
Sow Thistle (Sonchus) . . r
Dandelion (Taraxacum] and ap-
parently Docks (Rumex) .'

(Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis],
Mangold Fly (Pegomyia betce).

Charlock and other Crucifers . ) Diamond-back Moth (Plutella
Prickly Saltwort (Salsola Kali) . \ maculipennis).

Thistles, and the Cotton Thistle

(Onopordon Acanthiuni) .

Hops, Yorkshire Fog, Poa annua,
"' Daisy, Shepherd's Purse, Spur-
rey, Buttercup, Cornflower, Sow 1 Stem Eelworm ( Tylenchus devas-
Thistle, Black Bindweed (Poly- f tatrix} (not an insect).
gonum Convolvulus), and Plan-
tain J

NfehaJeSvS"ban?.'..H5d?f) Colorado Beetle (Dorvthora de-

Shepherd's Purse, Winter Cress, > Cabbage Root Fly (Phorbia bras-
Hedge Mustard . . . $ sicce).

Various Grasses .... Frit Fly (Oscinis frif).

Docks, Thistles, Burdock . . j Gh/^/°jr °Uer M°th

WEED " HOST." FUNGUS.

Charlock and other Crucifers . { Finge5:a"d"tOe, °f ^"Vfr8 (P/aS~

( modtophora brassicce Won). .

„ ,, ,, . Peronosporaparasitica De Bary.

12 COMMON WEEDS

WEED "HOST." FUNGUS.

( White Root-rot (Rosellinia neca-
Many Species . . .. .

( Sclerotium Disease (Sclerotinia
>' >' ' ; * "j sclerotiorum Mass.).

( Blindness in Barley and Oats

Wild Barley (Hordeum murinum} < ( Helininthosporium graminenm

( Erikss.).

Shepherd's Purse and other Cru- ) White Rust of Cabbages (Cysto-
cifers . . . . .) pus candidus Lev.).

f Violet Root-rot (Rhizoctonia vio-
Many Species . . *• . < faceaTul.).

Agrostis canina L., and other ) Reed-mace Fungus (Epichloe ty-
grasses . . . • • ) ^wlHtfTuL).

( Rust of wheat (Puccinia grami-
Barberry \ nis Pers.}<

( Gooseberry-leaf Cluster-cups (Puc-
Sedges (Larex] . . . >\ dnia pr'ingsheimiana Kleb.).

( Peronosbora effusa Rab., on spin-
Goosefoot | acb

, ( Rosellinia radiciperda Mass. A
Docks, Sorrel, and many others | Whhe Root.rot^n New Zealand.

, / TJ. . N (Chrysanthemum Rust (Puccinia

Hawkweed (Hieradum} . . j h]eracii Mart)<

Groundsel, Ragwort, and other ) Pine Cluster-cups (Peridermium
species of Senedo . . . ) pini Wallr.).

., j ^ f Ergot of rye (Claviceps purpurca

Many wild Grasses . . . \ J^.^ x

These few data will make it quite clear that weeds
may frequently be of great importance in connection
with insect and fungous infestations.

(e) Weeds may be Parasitic on certain Crops. — Some
weeds are actually parasites living on the crop under
cultivation, feeding on the juices elaborated by the crop

HARM DONE BY WEEDS 13

for its own uses. Such weeds as these may do great
damage, even killing extensive areas of the crop on
which the farmer may be largely depending. The two
most serious agricultural parasitic weeds are Dodder
and Broom-rape, both of which attack red clover
(Trifolium pratense). Other weeds, as Yellow Rattle
(Rhinanthus Crista-galli), Lousewort (Pedicular is), Eye-
bright (Euphrasia officinalis), and a few others, are semi-
parasitic on the roots of grasses. (See Chap. VII.)

(/) Some Weeds are Poisonous, either to man or to
farm live stock, and, as such, are to be destroyed.
Numerous plants have from time to time been re-
corded as poisonous, and have frequently proved fatal.
(See Chap. VIII.)

In other cases, although not directly harmful to
stock, weeds may taint the milk, and consequently the
butter made from it, of cows which have fed upon
them, thus lowering the market value of the produce or
rendering it distasteful for home consumption. Such
weeds as Garlic (Allium sp.), Garlic Mustard (Alliaria
officinalis), Ivy (Hedera), Ranunculus acris, Chamomile
(Anthemis), and others, are harmful in this way to the
dairy farmer.

(g) Climbing and Binding Weeds drag down the Cultivated
Crop and prevent proper Growth. — This may be well seen
in the case of the Bindweeds (Convolvulus arvensis, C.
septum, and Polygonum Convolvulus), which twine them-
selves round bush fruit-trees, cereals, and many garden
crops. When they once gain a footing they are
difficult to eradicate, and may do much damage.
Wild Vetches, Cleavers, &c., may by sheer weight
break down corn crops. Traveller's Joy (Clematis
Vitalba), Bryony (Bryonia dioica), and Honeysuckle
(Lonicera Periclymenum) are climbing hedge weeds.

(h) The Commercial Value of Agricultural Seeds is much

14 COMMON WEEDS

Reduced by the Presence of Weed Seeds. — The importance
of sowing clean seeds is fairly generally recognised, and
farmers, as a rule, prefer a high-class to a low-class
sample. At the same time it is to be feared that
sufficient care is not always exercised in the selection
of agricultural seeds. The reliable seed merchant is
certain only to offer a low price for samples of grain,
clover, grass, and other seeds badly infested with weed
seeds, for considerable trouble and expense is involved
in cleaning them. The seeds of Melampyrum arvense
darken wheat flour, and are stated to render the latter
dangerous to health. For milling purposes wheat is
much reduced in price if it contains much seed of Corn
Cockle, Black Bindweed, or wild or cultivated Tares ;
and clover samples containing Dodder and other weed
seeds are seriously depreciated in value. The Four-
teenth Annual Report of the Agricultural Experiment
Station of the University of Minnesota (1905-6) quotes
two cases in which wheat samples were respectively
docked 16 Ib. and 23 Ib. per bushel on account of
weed seeds, chiefly Wild Oats. This is perhaps an
extreme example, but it illustrates the serious nature
of weed infestation in certain cases. Agricultural seeds
surfer if weed seeds are present, not only because the
seed merchant must expend time and money in clean-
ing them, but if this be not done thoroughly the farmer
is faced with the introduction of new and harmful weeds
on his farm. (See also Chap. XI.)

(i) Stoppage of Drains. — It must be remembered, too,
that the growth of roots and underground stems is some-
times responsible for the stoppage of drains, and may,
therefore, cause considerable expenditure in correcting
this trouble.

(/) General. — From what we have seen, it will be
gathered that weeds are a source of great loss owing to

HARM DONE BY WEEDS 15

the harm done to cultivated crops. A point to which
attention has not yet been directed is that of harvesting
weeds with corn, hay, and other crops. In such a case,
where weeds are very abundant, reaping or mowing the
crop is much more difficult and prolonged, while drying
or curing is also rendered troublesome. Much oppor-
tunity is thus offered for the spoiling of both grain
and straw by long exposure to the weather, to say
nothing of loss due to birds and animals. Where many
thistles abound hand tying of sheaves is extremely
difficult, while pitching, loading, stacking, and thrashing
are all rendered more troublesome and costly.

Money Losses due to Weeds. — That great losses are due
to the infestation of crops by weeds requires no proof,
yet the exact amount of financial loss due to their
presence among crops has rarely been ascertained. In
those few instances where careful observations have
been made, the extent of the pecuniary loss has been
proved to be greater than the farmer would anticipate.
Percival, in writing of some field observations, says : l
" In many cases the moderately-weeded areas carried
from 40 to 50 per cent more crop than those on which
the weeds were unchecked." Again, according to
Maier-Bode,2 Wollny has placed the annual loss of crops
due to weeds in Bavaria at an average of 30 per cent.
Investigations conducted in Norway by E. Korsmo 3
show that the effect of weeds on the yield and money
value of crops is very serious. Hay, barley, and pota-
toes were each grown on duplicate plots of the same
size, one being clean and the other weed-infested. The
crops were carefully weighed and the yields calculated
per hectare. The results may be given thus in English

1 Jour. Bd. Agric., March, 1904.

2 Fr. Maier-Bode, Die Bekampfung der Acker- Unkrduter.

3 Tidsskr. Norske Landbr. 10 (1903), Nos. 6, pp. 247-280; 7, pp. 295-
330. (Review by F. W. Woll in U.S. Expt. Sta. Record, 1903-4, p. 683.)

i6

COMMON WEEDS

figures (taking 2.2 lb.= i kilogram, and 2.48 acres =
i hectare) : —

Yield ]

uer Acre.

Percentage Loss in

p

Money Value on

Clean Plot.

Weedy Plot.

Weedy Plot compared
with Clean Plot.

Cwt.

Cwt.

Per Cent.

Hay

4Q

a i "? 8 + 23

4.7

Barley-

Grain ....

18

6.6}

Straw ....

30

013.8+19 /

46

Potatoes ....

175

90

49

a Weight of weeds included with hay and straw.

In an instructive experiment carried out in 1907 and
1908 at University College Farm, Reading, it was found
that when mangolds were not weeded after the plants
were singled the yield in the two years averaged 16^
tons per acre, while on a similar plot on which the
weeds were kept down by hand weeding only, without
hoeing, the yield averaged 39 tons. When kept clean
by hoeing the yield was practically the same as with
hand weeding, but with two hoeings only the yield
averaged 37^ tons per acre ; with one hoeing only the
yield was 31 tons. Two points in this experiment stand
out clearly : one hoeing only appears to have almost
doubled the yield ; while hand weeding, and keeping
quite clean by hoeing, had about the same effect
and much more than doubled the yield, the " no
weeding " and " hand weeding " comparing in yield as
100 to 240. (See also Charlock, p. 59.)

Finally, as will be observed at p. 367, the loss in
purchasing agricultural seeds will be 245. in every .£5

HARM DONE BY WEEDS 17

spent if the real value on account of impurity and
poor germinating capacity be only 76 per cent. Were
such a sample sown, however, the loss would probably
be far greater than 245., owing to the large number of
weed seeds which would be sown and obtain a footing
in the crop, causing subsequent' trouble in the ways
already discussed.

The practical thinking farmer or gardener who knows
his business and is thoroughly alive to his own interests
will allow no weeds to grow if he can possibly help it.
Fortunately, when once a farm is clean it is, with due
care, not difficult to maintain it in this condition, and
the first object of a farmer, gardener, or fruit-grower
wrho has land foul with weeds is to exterminate these
as quickly as possible. Eradicating Charlock in the
wheat field, Thistle cutting on both arable and pasture
land, cleaning arable land of Couch or Twitch, cleaning
saved seeds from weed seeds — all these absorb much
time on the part of the farmer, and consequently mean
the loss of much money.

However, the persistent destroyer of weeds will find
that as time goes on his expenditure on this score
becomes less and less, until the weeds are kept down
effectually in the ordinary processes of good cultiva-
tion ; but both preventive and remedial measures must
be closely and faithfully followed, and no slackness or
negligence allowed to creep in : t* One year's seeding
means seven years' weeding " is a motto which should
be well graven in the minds of all cultivators of the
soil.

"It is needless to go about to compute the value of the damage weeds
do, since all experienced husbandmen know it to be very great, and would
unanimously agree to extirpate their whole race as entirely as in England
they have done the wolves, though much more innocent and less rapacious
than weeds."— JETHRO TULL, The Horse Hoeing Husbandry, 1731.

CHAPTER II

THE CLASSES OF WEEDS, AND HOW THEY ARE
SPREAD

" Slack neuer thy weeding, for dearth nor for cheap,
the corne shall reward it, yer euer ye reape."

— THOMAS TUSSER, Five Hundreth Pointes of
Husbandrie^ 1557.

IT will now be our purpose to consider the classes of
weeds and the manner in which they are distributed.
We may usefully regard weeds as divisible into three
classes, Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials, and an un-
derstanding as to what these terms mean and the
principles they involve will be of use in enabling us
the more successfully to combat weeds.

Annuals are plants which grow from seed which is,
in general, produced the year before, and they attain
maturity, produce flowers and seeds, and die the same
season. Among annual weeds may be mentioned
Poppies, Charlock, Corn Cockle, Spurrey, Groundsel,
Clover Dodder, Cleavers. Some plants, such as Chick-
weed and Groundsel, which are capable of producing
several generations in one season, are frequently termed
ephemerals.

Biennials include all plants which grow from seed
and complete their life cycle in two seasons. The
first year they spend in establishing themselves in the
soil, and in the second year produce flowers and seeds
and then die. In any season therefore will be found
plants of one year's and of two years' growth, the
former being immature, while the latter at the right

18

HOW WEEDS ARE SPREAD 19

period will flower and seed. Examples of biennial
weeds are : Marsh Thistle, Burdock, Hemlock, and
Foxglove.

Perennials are those plants which live and continue
to produce flowers and seeds for a number of years in
succession ; they grow from seed, and may be propa-
gated and spread by means of their rootstock and
other organs. Examples are : Couch Grass, Coltsfoot,
Ox-eye Daisy, Creeping Crowfoot, Creeping Thistle,
Knapweed, Yarrow, Bindweed, and Stinging Nettles.

These three classes of weeds may be spread or dis-
tributed in a great variety of ways, the chief of which
are given below.

(a) Weeds are Spread by Natural Seeding and by the
Wind. — In the ordinary course of events weeds pro-
duce seeds at their normal seasons, such seeds being
naturally distributed over a narrow or wide area ac-
cording to certain botanical characters of the plant.
Many seed-vessels are so constructed that on ripening
they split and throw out their seed with considerable
force, projecting it to a distance from the parent plant.

Other seeds bear flight organs or are " winged,"
and are carried through the air for long distances by
the wind (e.g. seeds of Thistles, Groundsel, Dandelion,
Yellow Rattle, and Dock). Some seeds, such as those
of Broom-rape and Poppy, are very small and light, and
are readily scattered by the agency of the wind. (See
Plates I., II., and III., Weed Seeds.)

(b) Weed Seeds are Distributed by Natural Agencies. — In
addition to the transport of seeds by the wind may be
mentioned the conveyance by rivers, streams, heavy
rains, and floods which often wash seeds away from
the parent plants and carry them long distances.

Some seeds, or fruits, bear numerous little hooks
by means of which they become attached to passing

20 COMMON WEEDS

animals, and are rubbed off at a distance from their
source (e.g. Burdock, Cleavers). Others again are
devoured by animals and birds, and, being undigested,
are passed through the alimentary system unharmed,
and deposited in the faeces perhaps miles away from
their original home. Birds frequently carry succulent
fruits and seeds to favourite positions in order to eat
them at leisure, and in various ways leave or lose them.
Squirrels, mice, and other seed- or fruit-eating animals
also aid in the distribution of plants in a similar
manner.

(c) Weeds are Spread by means of Seeds mixed in
Samples of Agricultural Seeds. — Either through careless-
ness or inadvertency weed seeds are introduced into
fields at the time these are seeded for a crop. Most
or all of our agricultural seeds are frequently impure,
containing — as we shall see later — large numbers of
weed seeds ; these are thus sown with the good seed,
after which, in many cases, " the tares and the wheat "
must grow together until the harvest. Although such
distribution of weeds is doubtless generally due to care-
lessness, it is also perhaps frequently to be attributed
— despite the extension of present-day knowledge — to
ignorance on the part of those chiefly concerned.
Perhaps most seedsmen worthy of the name supply
good clean seed, but there come into the market many
samples which have been only very imperfectly cleaned
if at all, and these find their way through irresponsible
dealers to many of the farms of this country. Any
individual or firm found to supply samples of seed
containing more than the minimum of impurity should
be studiously ignored.

Many weeds are introduced from other countries in
the large quantities of clover, grass, and other seeds
which are imported. Dodder especially is introduced

HOW WEEDS ARE SPREAD 21

from abroad in seeds used for agricultural purposes
(see p. 258). In the Colonies some plants have been
introduced from Great Britain, and, having got out of
hand, have become serious pests.

(d) Weeds are Spread in many other Ways. — A few
examples will suffice, (i) Couch or Twitch is spread
by the creeping rootstock
(Fig. i, a), or by small
pieces of this adhering
to farm implements, the
wheels of carts, and the
boots of workmen, these
pieces perhaps falling in
a clean field and starting
to grow. The Creeping
Thistle (Cnicus arvensis)
and Bindweed (Convolvulus
septum) may also be dis-
tributed in this way (Fig.
i, c and b). (2) All sorts
of weeds are occasionally
placed on the dung-heap,
to be taken at a later date
to the fields, where they
may form centres of in- FIG. i.— a. Rootstock of Couch (Triti-

on arrniint of cum reens L>>; b- Rootstock of

aCCOUnt

Qreat Bindweed (CVww/t/K/wj J#*K»*

the seeds they contain. M; c. Roots of Creeping Thistle

J (Cnicus arvensis Hoffm.). All x^.

(3) Hay-loft and other

sweepings are frequently a source of trouble, as they
contain seeds of many undesirable plants. If they
are thrown on the dung-heap, or, as often happens,
are used for seeding bare patches, the weed seeds which
are present will rapidly manifest their presence. (4) A
good example of the manner in which seeds may be
spread is that of the 5-acre site at the end of the

22

COMMON WEEDS

Strand in London, which has for several years been
unoccupied by buildings. It was found during the
summer of 1907, by a botanical representative of the
Graphic? that no less than fifty-five species of plants
had become established since the old buildings had

Photo, 1908.

H. C. Long.

FIG. 2. — A weed-distributing area : showing an abundance of Thistles and other
weeds in flower, and a big crop of leaves of Coltsfoot. Photographed about
June on a suburban building plot.

been removed some years previously. These may
have been brought by the wind, or by birds, or intro-
duced with rubbish, the contents of window-boxes and
horses' nose-bags. (5) A very common source of infes-
tation consists in the seeding of weeds in waste corners
on the farm, round farm buildings, and in the neighbour-

1 Journal of Horticulture, August 8, 1907.

VITALITY OF SEEDS 23

hood of towns upon empty building plots. Such a
weed-distributing area is well shown in the photograph
(Fig. 2). All weeds on such spaces should be cut as
regularly as elsewhere.

SEEDS PRODUCED BY VARIOUS WEEDS

In view of what has been said about the manner in
which weeds are spread, it is interesting to give a few
notes on the number of seeds produced by a single
flower or plant of various weeds. Below (p. 24) is a table,
from which it may be seen at a glance that many weeds
produce a prodigious number of seeds, affording a strik-
ing example of the harm a single plant may do. With
such prolific plants one need no longer wonder at the
rapid increase and distribution of weeds when no care
is taken to keep them within bounds. The number of
seeds largely depends on the size of the plants examined.
The different figures given for the same plant are the
result of separate investigation by different authors.

THE VITALITY OF SEEDS

Prevention of seeding of weeds is especially important
in view of the fact that many seeds possess great
Vitality, and are able to live on in the soil under what
might be considered adverse conditions. One of the
best known cases is that of Charlock (see p. 58), the
seeds of which may lie dormant in the soil for many
years. De Candolle * believed that if seeds are buried
sufficiently deeply in the soil, where they would be
well and continuously protected from the great in-
fluence of moisture and oxygen, their vitality would be

1 Physiologic Vegdtale, tome xi. p. 618. Paris, 1832.

Number of
Flowers
to each
Plant.

Number of
Seeds
to each
Flower.

Total Seeds for
a Single Plant.

Common Groundsel (Senecio vul-

garis)

30

10

3000

Do.

...

20,000^

Do.

130

...

6,500^

Corn Cockle (Agrostemma Giih-

ago}

10

40

40oa

Do.

7

2,59?af

Sow Thistle (Sonchus arvensis)

3,ooo£

Do.

190

...

i9,ooo</

Do.

8,169*

Fool's Parsley (ALthttsaCynapiutn}

300

2

6oo#

Do.

6,ooor

Wild Carrot (Daucus Caro(a)

600

2

1 , 2OOrt

Do.

4,ooo-iio,ooo/-'

Poppy (Papaver Rhceas)

100

...

5o,ooo<af

Do. (P. dulrium)

...

6o,ooof

Charlock (Sinapis arvensis}

400

4,ooo</

Do.

1,192^

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale}

27

2, O

5,400

Do.

3,153^

Ox-eye Daisy ( Chrysanthetmtm

Leucanthenmm}

1.300-26,000^

Do.

1,300-4,000^

Scentless Mayweed (Matricaria

inodora} . . •

310,000^

Do.

...

34,478^

Several

Many

Broom-rape . . . .

...

hundreds.

thousands^

Very large

Dodder . . . . .

4

numbers.

Narrow-leaved Plantain (Plantago

lanceolata} ....

2,500-15,000^

Bindweed (Convolvuhis arvensis}

6ooc

Cleavers (Galium Aparine}.

...

i,iooc

Chick weed (Stellaria media}

5°

500^

Coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara)

5,000^

Corn Marigold (Chrysanthemum

segetum) ....

13,500^

Burdock (Arctium Lappa) .

24,520^

Shepherd's Purse ( CapsellaBursa-

Pastoris) ....

4,500^

Goosefoot, Fat Hen (Chenopo-

dium album) ....

3,123^

a Morton's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, 1856, vol. ii. p. 1116.

b H. Dorph-Petersen, Director, Danish Seed Control Station. See Lands-
mandsblade. No. 47, 1906 ; also Mitt, der Deut. Land. Gesell., December 12,
1906, p. 474.

c Maier-Bode, Die Bekampfung der Acker- Unkrauter, 1908.

d Dr. Fr. Nobbe, Handbuch der Samenkunde^ 1876.

e E. Korsmo, Kampe.n mod Ugrasset^ 1906.

/ P. Sorauer, Pflanzenkrankheiten.

VITALITY OF SEEDS 25

retained for a much longer period than usual. Another
investigator, Giglioli, writing at a much later period,1
says: " There is no reason for denying the possibility
of the retention of vitality in seeds preserved during
many centuries, such as the mummy wheat and seeds
from Pompeii and Herculaneum, provided that these
seeds have been preserved from the beginning in condi-
tions unfavourable to chemical change. . . . The original
dryness of the seeds and their preservation from
moisture or moist air must be the very first conditions
for a latent secular vitality." All attempts to germinate
seeds from Egyptian mummy cases, however, appear
to have failed. Contrary statements have been made,
but these have probably been based on error or on
imperfectly authenticated experiment.

It has been concluded2 that "The average life of
seeds, as of plants, varies greatly with different families,
genera, or species, but there is no relation between the
longevity of plants and the viable period of the seeds
they bear. The seeds of some plants lose their vitality
in a few weeks or months, while others remain viable
for a number of years."

A large number of experiments show that the
longevity of seeds chiefly depends on moisture and
temperature, well-dried seeds maintained in a dry
atmosphere at a temperature not higher than 37° C.
( = 98.6° F.) in general retaining their vitality for con-
siderable periods. Specially dried vegetable seeds put
up in sealed receptacles were taken by Captain Scott in
the steamship Discovery in 1901, and on the return of
the exploring party were found in 1904, after passing
twice through the tropics and being exposed to the low

1 Nature, 1895, pp. 544-5.

2 The Vitality and Germination of Seeds, Bull. No. 58, Bur. Plant Indust.,
U.S. Dept. Agric., 1904.

26 COMMON WEEDS

temperature of 72° F. below freezing-point, still to
possess high germinating powers — radish 92 per cent,
lettuce 85 per cent, turnip 96 per cent, &C.1 All this
suggests that the length of life of many weed seeds may
be considerable.

An interesting case showing the length of time seeds
will lie dormant in the soil and germinate when brought
to the surface occurred in connection with the Yeomanry
manoeuvres in 1901. A large rabbit warren on the
Oxfordshire hills was dug and levelled, no other soil
being used nor seeds of any kind sown. Yet in 1902
the whole surface produced a dense plant of yellow
Charlock. In the following year the Charlock died
down and was succeeded by a mass of White Campion
(Lychnis vespertind). The seeds of both plants must have
been buried in the earth for an unknown period of
years, and the disturbance of the soil enabled them to
germinate.2

The number of weed seeds which may be found in
the soil of a field is also extraordinary. Korsmo found
that in i square metre (1.19 square yard) of a fallow
field the seeds having power of germination, to a depth
of 25 centimetres (9.8 inches), were 10,332. This
was determined by three different weedings. In a
field intended for spring grain, the same crop having
been sown for four successive years, no less than
33,574 such weed seeds were found per square metre.
In a third field, which was fallowed, the seeds found
numbered 1,755.

In a good garden soil which has been well cultivated
for at least three years, few weeds having been allowed
to shed their seed during that time, the author measured
off j square yard and removed all the seedling weeds

1 The Times, 6th December 1904.

2 Lawns, Sutton & Sons, p. 9.

WEEDS INDICATING GOOD LAND 27

by hand on ijth May, 1909. An attempt was made
to count the seedlings and separate them roughly into
species, with the following result : —

Buttercup (? chiefly Ranunculus repens)
Annual Meadow Grass (Poa annua)
Dock (Rumex sp.) ....
Goosefoot (Chenopodium album?} .
Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) .
Shepherd's Purse (Capsella Bursa-Pastoris]
Annual Sow Thistle (Sonchus oleraceus]
Chickweed (Stellaria media} .
Persicaria (Polygonum Persicarid) .
Charlock (Sinapis arvensis)
Creeping Thistle (Cnicusi arvnsis] .
Plantain (Plantago sp.) .
Clover (Tnfoliutn sp.)
Various ......

Total

Number.

654
107
60
26
25
15
M
10

8

5

4

i

i

120

1,050

In addition to these were found two plants of
Shepherd's Purse near the seeding stage, two growing
portions of Couch rhizomes, and one small potato
plant.

WEEDS AS INDICATORS OF GOOD AND POOR LAND

Weeds often afford a very good indication of the
character of the soil on which they grow, and to some
extent the state of fertility or otherwise of the land.
For example, it is well known that Mosses, Horse-tail
(Equisetum), Rushes, Sedges, Silver-weed, and other plants
chiefly grow upon wet, undrained land. Quaking Grass,
Ox-eye Daisy, Yorkshire Fog, Bromus sterilis, and other
plants indicate poor soils. Stinging Nettles, certain
Thistles, Buttercups, Coltsfoot, and others usually occur
on good land. It may perhaps be said as a general

28

COMMON WEEDS

Damp Soils.

Poor Soils.

Rushes

Quaking Grass

Sedges

Yorkshire Fog

Horse-tail

Sterile Brome Grass

Silver-weed

Ox-eye Daisy

Tussock Grass

(Absence of Clover)

Certain Mosses

Dyer's Green-weed

Cowslips

Sheep's Sorrel

Butter-bur

Rest Harrow

Knot-grass

Spurrey

Lady's Smock

Ragwort

Meadow sweet

Ragged Robin

rule that the weeds referred to below indicate damp,
poor, and good soils respectively.

Good Soils.

Buttercups

Certain Thistles

Coltsfoot

Stinging Nettles

Groundsel

Goosefoot or Fat Hen

Cleavers

Dandelion

Chickweed

Sow Thistle

It is, however, not to be taken for granted that a
soil is poor merely because certain of the weeds in-
cluded in the above list are plentiful : the list given is
not arbitrary and absolute, but general and suggestive.
The character of the land is not only indicated in some
sense by the weeds which are present, but largely also
by their manner of growth. Large, strong Thistles, for
example, and large elegant Buttercups and Cowslips,
only grow on good land — on poor land such plants
will generally be much smaller or stunted in growth.

Spurrey, Corn Marigold, Sheep's Sorrel, Cornflower,
and small Bindweed are common on sandy soils ;
Burnet, Bladder Campion, Chicory, Viper's Bugloss, and
others are characteristic of calcareous soils ; while most
of the weeds enumerated above under " good soils "
are common on loamy soils. The soils on which the
various weeds grow will be dealt with in subsequent
chapters.

CHAPTER III

GENERAL PREVENTIVE AND REMEDIAL MEASURES

" I will go root away

The noisome weeds, that without profit suck
The soil's fertility from wholesome flowers."

— SHAKESPEARE, Richard II. , Act iii. sc. 4.

IN considering how to eradicate a particular weed it
is well first of all to discover what is its life history
and how it is distributed, as these conditions will influ-
ence the method adopted in order to suppress it. The
difference between Couch and Charlock, or between
Charlock and Sheep's Sorrel, for example, is very
marked, and upon these differences must be based the
means to check the plants. All weeds should be at-
tacked at their weakest or most vulnerable period,
which can only be determined when their complete life
history is known.

It will be useful to examine the general methods of
combating weeds as a body, and these may be con-
veniently divided into Prevention and Remedy.

PREVENTION

Under this heading may be included such operations
as cultivation, rotations, sowing of clean seed, and
prevention of seeding of weeds.

(a) Good Cultivation. — It should at the outset be
strongly emphasised that good cultivation of the
highest order is not only largely conducive to the

suppression of weeds, annual and perennial alike, but

29

3o COMMON WEEDS

is perhaps of greater importance in the growth of good
crops than any other factor in practical agriculture.
In dealing with insect infestation Professor Somerville
writes : " Using the term in its widest sense, good
cultivation will be found to be the best protection that
the farmer or gardener can offer his crops against the
ravages of insects." This remark applies with equal
force to weeds ; in fact, one of the chief reasons that
good cultivation is valuable in keeping down noxious
insects is that weeds are destroyed, besides which the
soil is rendered friable, open and mellow, and is better
able to grow a healthy crop which will tend to resist
the growth of weeds. Autumn cultivation is especially
valuable, many roots of weeds being then exposed to
frost, arid so destroyed, while seedlings are buried.

(b). Growth of Dense Crops. — The growth of dense
heavy crops, such as vetches, lucerne, sainfoin, and
maize, largely tends to suppress weeds, for once such
crops are well established they choke out weeds. A
good " take" of lucerne is especially useful, since, owing
to its rapid growth, it not only tends to smother weeds,
but as it is cut several times during the summer months
weeds are also cut and seeding is prevented. Maize is
useful on account of the fact that it is well hoed and
cleaned, and provides an abundance of shade.

(c) Prevention of Seeding. — This is one of the chief
means of combating weeds, and is usually most easily
managed by cutting them down just before or at the
time of flowering, or whenever they are of sufficient size
to be readily cut or mown. On grass land the mowing
machine may be run over infested fields without much
trouble two or three times during summer.

A box attachment for reaping machines and binders,
by which seeds shaken out in the process of cutting
cereal crops are caught, is a useful means of reducing

PREVENTIVE MEASURES 31

the number of weed seeds which are shed broadcast in
the harvest field.

The number of seeds produced by various weeds is
dealt with at pp. 23—4. As an example, we may note
here that " a single red Poppy, left undisturbed, may
ripen more than 40,000 seeds, each capable of produc-
ing a successor. In something less than seven years
that one Poppy could produce plants enough to occupy
every inch of the thirty and odd million acres of the
United Kingdom, with red Poppies. The cardinal point
in weeding, then, is to prevent seeding." l

Percival writes that " A single Poppy plant fre-
quently bears more than twenty flowers, and each of
these may produce two or three hundred seeds. Similar
enormous increase is met with in Groundsel, Sow Thistle,
Campion, Charlock, and practically all annuals."

These figures, and the table at p. 24, clearly de-
monstrate that the prevention of seeding is most
important, and deserves the closest attention of all
connected with agriculture.

(d) Sowing Clean Seed. — The manner in which weeds
are introduced through the medium of agricultural
seeds has already been dealt with. It is abundantly
clear that if impure seeds be sown all the preventive
and remedial measures combined will not avail to keep
a farm, garden, or lawn clean and free from weeds.
Too much stress cannot be laid upon this matter,
which is not sufficiently recognised, although more
pains are now taken by seed merchants to supply clean
seed than was formerly the case. But, as Mr. Primrose
M'Connell has said,2 it would be interesting to know
what becomes of all the second and third year old seed.
Agricultural seeds which contain more than a very

1 Vinton's Handbooks of the Farm, "The Crops," p. 136.

2 Diary of a Working Farmer.

32 COMMON WEEDS

small percentage of dead or weak seeds will, if sown,
cover the ground far from completely, and this is
offering a premium on the spread of weeds, which
tend to grow more strongly in the absence of a heavy
cultivated crop. The presence of but i per cent of
Dock seed in a mixture of grass and clover seed means
no less than ten or more Dock plants per square yard 'all over
the field whenever such a sample is sown at the ordi-
nary rate for leys.1

(e) Rotation of Crops. — In the management of a farm
rotations are of very great value for several reasons,
only one of which need be mentioned here. The
change of crops due to rotations affords an oppor-
tunity of cleaning the land. When an area is sown
with wheat in autumn and the crop is not harvested
until the following August it is obvious that little can be
done in the way of suppressing weeds, except in the case
of Thistles, Docks, and one or two other large weeds
which may be removed by hand, or Charlock, which can
be destroyed by spraying. In certain cases, however,
corn crops are hoed when young, while harrowing in
spring to destroy annuals is extremely useful. After
the end of May little can be done, and the crop and
land must be left untouched until the harvest, by
which time many weeds will have shed their seeds.
When, however, wheat land is ploughed up, left to
mellow during winter, well cultivated in spring, and
then used for taking a root crop, an opportunity
occurs for suppressing weeds. During spring and
summer especially, when the previous year's seeds
germinate, hand and horse hoeing are employed to
keep the weeds well in hand, and seeding is almost
entirely prevented. The rotation of crops commonly
followed, by which a root crop is taken once in four

1 Leaflet No. 112, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES 33

years, largely conduces, when thoroughly carried out, to
the destruction of weeds, and results in a clean farm.

(/") Thorough Brushing of Hedges and Ditches is a
valuable preventive measure, many weeds being de-
stroyed which would otherwise distribute their seeds
and harbour insect and fungous pests.

(g) Screenings from Thrashing Machines, Winnowing
Machines, and Mills should be thoroughly ground before
they are fed to live stock. It is well known that weed
seeds may pass through the digestive system unharmed,
and hence they should not be given to stock, whole.
In Korsmo's experiments, two lots of mill screenings,
which contained from 25 to 47 pep cent of weed
seeds, were ground, and the samples then examined
for weed seeds. In 100 grams ( = 3 J ozs.) of the
ground screenings only one weed seed was found
capable of germinating.

Before coming on to a farm a thrashing machine
should always be thoroughly cleaned, and the wise
farmer will insist on this being done, otherwise it
is quite likely that many weed seeds will be brought
on to his land.

REMEDY

From what has already been said under " Preven-
tion " it will be gathered that at many points " Pre-
vention " and "Remedy" are almost identical, since
cultivation, prevention of seeding, brushing of hedges
and ditches, all tend to eradicate weeds as well as
prevent future infestation. No hard and fast line can
be drawn between the two, and a certain amount of
overlapping will of necessity occur in the suggestions
already made and those which follow.

(a) Thorough Cultivation : Ploughing, Harrowing, Hoeing,
&c. — Not only does cultivation in the broadest sense

c

34 COMMON WEEDS

tend to prevent the growth of many seeds, but such
cultivation must frequently be employed without fail
if weeds are to be eradicated. Perhaps the large
majority of weeds are destroyed when ploughed under.
Scarifying and harrowing may drag out Couch, Bind-
weed, and Creeping Thistle, which may then be
drawn together for burning by means of a stout horse-
rake ; harrowing leaves many weeds on the surface
to be scorched by the sun or destroyed by frost ;
hoeing by hand or by horse labour, especially when
the weeds are in the seedling stage, is one of the most
efficient and common means of destroying weeds ;
and all the tillage operations are calculated to
ameliorate the soil and render it more fit to grow
the cultivated crop.

Another efficient remedy consists in surface cultivation
in spring in order to destroy seedlings. The production
of a fine tilth encourages dormant seeds to germinate,
and as soon as these are fairly started the applica-
tion of light harrows, the American Weeder, Poppy
Destroyer, or in gardens the hoe (Fig. 5), effectually
destroys them. By this means very large numbers of
annuals are killed, and many perennials also which are
exposed to late frosts. The process should, if pos-
sible, be repeated two or three times at intervals of
two or three weeks, and may be practised on young
corn crops with great advantage until quite late in
spring. The Poppy Destroyer (Fig. 3) is an example of
an implement specially designed to eradicate a surface-
growing annual.

(b) Fallowing and Fallow Crops. — As a means of de-
stroying weeds bare fallowing is of much value, for owing
to the repeated ploughing, harrowing, and rolling which
the land receives weed seeds successively germinate, but
are prevented from establishing themselves and are

REMEDIAL MEASURES 35

killed. Perennial weeds, such as Couch and Docks,
are dragged to the surface, sun-dried and burned. In
connection with bare fallowing, however, it must be
noted that a covering of annual weeds may be of value
in retaining nitrates in a highly pervious soil, instead of
allowing them to be carried into the subsoil drains and
lost. Care must be taken, in any case, that the weeds
are ploughed under before they have time to seed, and

FIG. 3. — Poppy Killer — used for light surface cultivation. (After a photograph
published by the Board of Agriculture. )

this is accomplished by two or more successive plough-
ings. Bare fallowing, however, is not practised to the
extent it used to be — and rightly so — the introduction
of a fallow or catch crop serving the double purpose
of retaining nitrates in the soil and destroying weeds.
Good farming will, in general, keep land sufficiently
free from weeds as to obviate the necessity of a bare
fallow for the purpose of eradicating them. On very
heavy land, however, bare fallowing is practised on
account of its great value in the general improvement
of the soil, and in wet seasons, on certain land, its
practice may be essential ; and where heavy land is
very weedy, bare fallowing is a certain means of
" cleaning up."

Where lighter land has become very foul with
weeds a catch crop may well replace bare fallow.
Spring ploughing, followed by successive harrowings to
destroy the successive crops of annual weeds, may end

36 COMMON WEEDS

in a final ploughing between mid-May and mid-June,
when the drill may deposit rape and mustard. These
crops grow rapidly, and largely tend to smother weeds,
which can be ploughed under with them later in the
season, thus giving a good green manuring. Or sheep
may be fed on the crop with cake, the plough following,
when many deep-rooted plants may be destroyed. A
heavy crop of winter vetches may then be grown and
be cut, with the contained weeds, in the succeeding
spring, the following crop being late turnips. Some
such procedure will both enrich and improve the soil,
and eradicate or immensely reduce the weeds. Useful
catch crops are lupins, vetches, rape, mustard, serra-
della, green rye, and trifolium.

(c) Mowing, Spudding, &c. — It is a useful practice to
run the mowing machine over grass land where Thistles,

FIG. 4.— Thistle and Bracken Cutter (Allan & Sons).

Knapweed, and other weeds prevail, and this may be
done two or three times during the summer months.
Special machines, e.g. the Thistle Cutter (Fig. 4), are
sold for a similar purpose. Many of these are very
useful, and can be easily managed by a lad.

The spud is extremely useful in many cases, for by

REMEDIAL MEASURES

37

its aid Thistles, Plantains, Dandelions, and other strong-
rooted plants may be cut off clean just below the

FIG. 5. — A group of implements useful in eradicating weeds and preventing them
from seeding, x. Triangular Hoe, useful in seed beds. 2. Ordinary Hce for
general work. 3. Dutch Hoe for " push " work, cutting weeds off well below
the surface, and stirring the soil deeply. 4. Hand-weeding Fork for garden
work — also used with a long handle, or with the broad prongs turned the
other way, not "flat." 5. Ordinary Spud, and 6. Spud with a "hook" —
both useful for cutting off weeds in all sorts of positions. 7. Sickle or Hook
useful for brushing along hedgerows and ditches, cutting down tall weeds
round farm buildings, thistles and other weeds in fields, &c. 8 and 9. Two
forms of Weed Grubs, useful for removing daisies, &c. , from lawns.

surface of the ground. A spud attached to the end of
a stick (see Fig. 5) is a handy tool for cutting down

COMMON WEEDS

weeds met with in the course of daily walks on the

farm. Certain forms of mat-
tock are useful for destroying
weeds, and for earthing up
potatoes (Fig. 6) ; while the
bagging- or fagging-hook is
very handy for cutting
Thistles and other weeds on
small areas of grass land,
trimming round farm build-
ings and along hedgerows
and ditches (Fig. 5).

Hand pulling must fre-
quently be adopted as the
only feasible means of re-
weeds, especially

FIG. 6. — Two types cf implements use-
ful for eradicating weeds : a. a type in the Case of tall Species
of Mattock used in Germany ; b. a . -
more common form of Mattock, m COm and Other crops.

£ Before the introduction of

weeds deeply, and well stirring the copper Sulphate as a Spray

against Charlock the later

crops of this weed were commonly removed by hand,
and we have spent
many a day at such
work. Other tall
weeds,however,must
still be dealt with by
hand when infest-
ing cereals, young
lucerne, and similar
crops.

On lawns and FIG. 7.— The" Buco" Hand Cultivatcr, employed

in the West Indies as hoe, fork or rake. Sold

teiiniS-COUrtS VariOUS by the Barbados Cooperative Cotton Factory.

daisy grubbers and

weed extractors may be very helpful (Fig. 5) ; and in

REMEDIAL MEASURES

39

garden beds the small hand fork is useful (Fig. 5).
An implement found useful in the West Indies for
general hand cultivation is illustrated in Fig. 7.

(d) Special Methods. — In eradicating many weeds special
means are necessary. Draining is often of much value
in the case of Mosses, Horse-tails, Sedges, Rushes, and
other weeds which grow in damp, low-lying situations.

Irrigation. — It has been observed that irrigation may
frequently bring about an improvement in the herbage
of grass land, and where it is possible the question of
its practice should be considered. In a meadow on
the banks of the Churn, near Cirencester, only one-half
of which could be covered with water, observations
were made 1 by Professor Buckman on the effects of
irrigation after two years and four years respectively.
The results are given in the following table : —

Proportions.

Botanical Name.

Common Name.

fij

-*• J^" r*

!'£ •

O *•*

nr^ o

fcT o

$|

!J1

u £ -

S rt rt

Alopecurus pratensis

Meadow Foxtail

i

2

4

Poa pratensis

Field Meadow-grass

2

3

4

,, trivialis

Rough Meadow-grass

I

2

i

Cynosurus cristatus

Dogstail

2

I

Dactylis glomerata

Cocksfoot

I

2

3

Avena flavescens

Yellow Oat-grass

2

3

3

Lolium perenne

Perennial Ryegrass

2

4

6

Tri folium pratense

Broad Clover

I

2

2

,, re pens

Dutch Clover

2

...

*Briza media Quaking Grass

2

...

*Aira caespitosa

Hassock-grass

I

*Agrostis stolonifera

Marsh Bent-grass

I

2

3

*Avena pubescens

Downy Oat-grass i

I I

*Hordeum pratense
*Ranunculus acris

Meadow Barley-grass
Acrid Buttercup

I
I

2

3

2

I

, , bulbosus

Bulbous Buttercup

3

I

*Plantago lanceolata

Ribwort Plantain

3

I

I

,, media

Broad-leaved Plantain 3

*Anthriscus vulgaris

Common Beaked Parsley

i

2

I

1 " The Natural History of British Grasses," Prof. James Buckman : Jour.
Roy. Agric. Soc., 1855.

4o COMMON WEEDS

It will be observed from these figures that a number
of the better grasses were much increased, several being
three or four times as plentiful as before irrigation.
Dutch clover disappeared, but after two years broad
clover was doubled. As regards weeds (marked with
an asterisk), several of the worst had disappeared after
four years, while others were much reduced. In short,
Buckman remarked that the field on which the experi-
ment was made was " trebled in value in four years."

Feeding-off with sheep may occasionally be employed
to suppress weeds, such as Ragwort and Spurrey, but
the operation should always take place before the time
the seeds ripen. It is known that sheep eat certain
plants which cattle reject, such as Ragwort (Senecio
Jacobcea), Knapweed (Centaurea m'gra), and Ox-eye Daisy
(Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum). It may therefore be
useful to run a few sheep with the larger stock on
pastures where these weeds abound.

Spraying with plant poisons is a valuable method of
suppressing weeds ; for example, Charlock in young
corn crops can be destroyed by means of sulphate of
copper, Wild Onion has been largely reduced by the
use of carbolic acid, and Dodder by the use of several
chemical preparations.

The sulphates of copper and iron, salt, carbolic acid,
arsenite of soda, and other materials have all been used
for the destruction of weeds. In an experiment on a
very weedy plot of wheat at the North Dakota Experi-
ment Station1 a 10 per cent solution of copper sulphate
was used on June ist when the wheat was 3 to 5
inches high, " the principal weeds being Charlock, Wild
Barley, Wild Rose, Penny Cress, Shepherd's Purse, Wild
Buckwheat, Lamb's Quarter, and Great Ragweed." On
August 8th " all the weeds except the Wild Rose and the

1 U.S. Dept. Agric., Farmers' Bull. 124.

REMEDIAL MEASURES 41

older plants of Penny Cress were dead." Although
some of the leaf tips of the wheat were slightly burned,
" the yield of grain was considerably larger than from
an equal unsprayed area." The question of destroying
weeds by spraying is more fully discussed at p. 43.

Ploughing weeds under is usually satisfactory where
weeds are getting the upper hand, especially where
annuals are concerned, but this should be before seeding
takes place. In garden cultivation weeds may be deeply
buried when trenching is done ; even Couch, Bindweed,
and Creeping Thistle may be dealt with in this way, as
we have proved, but the work must be well done. It
has been suggested that Couch might well be piled in
large heaps and rotted for manure (see p. 3).

Use of Tarred Paper. — A plan much recommended in
the United States for eradicating patches of perennial
weeds, like Creeping Thistle and Stinging Nettle, is to
cover the whole surface with large sheets of strong
tarred paper in order to exclude light. The paper may
be pegged down and have a few stones placed on the
top. This method is stated to be of great value and
very effective.

" Lawn sands," the basis of which appears generally
to be sand and sulphate of ammonia, are largely used
for the improvement of lawns, the finer grasses being
encouraged, and the weeds suppressed or choked out.
Such treatment occasionally has an almost marvellous
effect.

Manuring is a valuable aid in the war against weeds,
land in high condition enabling the crop to hold its
own. Grass land is rapidly improved by the use of
manures (see Chap. V.), and liming is frequently of
great value, especially in combating Sheep's Sorrel,
Corn Marigold, Spurrey, and some other weeds.

It was shown many years ago by Heinrich's experi-

42

COMMON WEEDS

ments that mineral manures tend to reduce weeds to a
minimum ; nitrogenous manures favoured the growth of
weeds, which attained their most vigorous growth on
undunged land. His results may be given thus:1 —

Undunged

Sulphate of Ammonia
Nitrate of Soda
Sulphate of Magnesia
Common Salt .
Sulphate of Potash
Carbonate of Lime
Quicklime
Superphosphate
Gypsum .

Percentage of Weeds
contained in the Crop.

30.0

26.0

i o.o

7.0

5-5

4-9

4-5

4-4

1-9

Collection of Weeds by School Children. — Dr. Ewart,
Government Botanist, Victoria, called attention last
year2 to a plan for suppressing weeds which is worthy
of consideration. It consists in offering prizes to school
children for collecting certain weeds, and Dr. Ewart
mentions an instance in which, after prizes were offered
by the police magistrate at some (then recent) prose-
cutions under the Thistle Act, 12,000 plants of Ragwort
were brought in during the first four days, and this
number quickly rose to nearly 20,000 plants.

In both preventive and remedial treatment, however,
each case must be taken on its merits, and after con-
sideration of the individual conditions concerned ; at
the same time it must be emphasised that if good results
are to be obtained, perseverance and faithful attention
to the principles involved (not forgetting the life history
of the plant) are essential.

1 Dr. Fr. Nobbe, Handbuch der Samenkunde, 1876, p. 578.

2 Jour. Dept. Agric., Victoria, August 10, 1908.

REMEDIAL MEASURES 43

THE DESTRUCTION OF WEEDS BY MEANS OF
CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

Up to comparatively recent times the methods
adopted by the farmer and gardener for the eradication
of weeds were largely those which aim at removing or
disturbing the latter by mechanical means. The weeds
were ploughed under, harrowed out when young and
allowed to dry in the sun, pulled up by hand, or cut
off with hoes, spuds, scythes, and other similar im-
plements, in the manner already described.

During the last few years, however, attention has
been drawn to the possible destruction of weeds on a
large scale by the application of various chemical sub-
stances, either in solution in the form of a fine spray,
or in a powdered state.

The materials chiefly employed are ammonium sul-
phate, common salt, carbolic acid, sodium arsenite, and
the sulphates of iron and copper. The two latter com-
pounds have proved the most effective for practical
farm purposes, the rest being only applicable in ex-
ceptional cases.

i. Ammonium Sulphate is a well-known fertiliser con-
taining nitrogen, and extensively used in small amounts
up to i or 1 1 cwt. per acre for the manuring of
cereals, root crops, and grass land. In larger doses
it checks the growth of vegetation for a time, or kills it
altogether. When spread in considerable quantities it
prevents the germination of seeds, and when mixed with
sand or brick dust it is much used to destroy Plantains,
Daisies, and other weeds on lawns and small plots of
grass. The weeds are checked or killed, and the grass,
although at first more or less damaged, is stimulated to
such an extent that it soon chokes out the weeds.

WThen placed upon the cut ends of Dandelions,

44 COMMON WEEDS

Docks, and other strong-rooted plants left in the ground
ammonium sulphate tends to destroy them. (See also
p. 346.)

2. Common Salt is a deliquescent substance which
extracts water from damp air and surrounding objects
with which it may be brought into contact. When
applied to succulent plant tissues it draws water from
them and produces an effect similar to drying or
scorching ; leaves to which it is applied are killed,
and look as if they had been burnt. Salt may be used
on a small scale for the destruction of Nettles and
other weeds, and its application has been found bene-
ficial in checking weeds and indirectly improving the
useful herbage of grass land. The semi-parasites
Yellow Rattle (Rhinanthus) and Louse wort (Pedicularis)
are reduced by it.

3. Carbolic Acid, I pint thoroughly mixed with
4 pints of water, has been found a very efficient
weed killer. It is most frequently used on small areas,
at the rate of 8 gallons per square rod. It was found
at the Woburn Experiment Station of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society that Wild Onion (Allium vineale) may
be destroyed by carbolic acid (see pp. 126, 209).

4. Sodium Arsenite. — This substance, or allied com-
pounds of arsenic, is the basis of many of the pro-
prietary weed-killers sold by chemists and nurserymen.
It is one of the most effective of all plant poisons,
but cannot be used for weeds on cultivated ground or
on grain land, because it not only destroys weeds but
kills all other vegetation as well, and prevents crops
from being grown on that soil for a considerable time
afterwards. It may be properly used on paths, gravel
courts, and similar places where vegetation of all kinds
is out of place. Its highly poisonous and dangerous
character, however, precludes it from general use.

REMEDIAL MEASURES 45

5. The Sulphates of Iron and Copper have been very
extensively employed on arable land for the destruction
of weeds among corn and other crops, and these sub-
stances may be regarded as the only materials at
present of practical importance for such purposes.

To be effective they must be applied in solution
and absorbed by the tissues of the plants, and as such
solutions have only a local action and are not dis-
tributed through the body of the plant as materials
absorbed by roots would be, the whole or a great part
of the leaf-surface of the plant must be wetted if the
weeds are to be killed. Moreover, since the only parts
which can be got at are the leaves and stems above
ground, spraying is most effective upon weeds of annual
duration which have no reproductive machinery upon
their roots. Perennials which maintain a store of food
in tubers, and thickened rhizomes and similar struc-
tures in the soil, cannot be readily destroyed by
applications of poisons to their leaves, for after the
latter have been destroyed fresh stems and leaves may
be sent up from buds on the underground parts.

Even when solutions are applied to the sub-aerial
leaves and stems, the result depends not only upon the
nature of the chemical substances and the strength of
the solution used, but also upon the kind of plant, its
habit of growth, the stage of development which it has
reached, and other factors. As a rule, the young grow-
ing points of the stems of plants are enclosed in the
interior of buds, or are protected, as in the grasses, by
the surrounding leaf-sheaths. While the older exposed
leaves may be killed, the weed may still be able to grow
from its protected buds and to perfect its seeds.

Plants with small, narrow, upright leaves are not so
easily destroyed as those with broad, spreading leaves,
for the solution runs off the former more readily than

46 COMMON WEEDS

the latter. In some cases the leaf surfaces of plants
are covered with a greyish waxy excretion or " bloom,"
which prevents the solution from adhering to or wetting
the plants ; the solution collects in drops, which roll
off easily, or are shaken off by the wind.

Copper sulphate is more poisonous to plants, and
can therefore be used in weaker solutions, than iron
sulphate. A 2 or 3 per cent solution of copper
sulphate is about as effective as a 15 per cent solution
of the iron salt. Which of them is the more economical
depends of course upon the relative price at which the
two substances can be purchased. The iron salt is
always much cheaper pound for pound than the copper
compound ; but the market price fluctuates consider-
ably, and which to use must be determined after
obtaining quotations for both.

The amounts generally used are 40 to 50 gallons
per acre of a 2, 3, or 4 per cent solution of copper sulphate
(say on an average 1 2 Ib. in 40 gallons of water per
acre), or 40 to 50 gallons of a 15 per cent solution
of iron sulphate (say 60 Ib. in 40 gallons of water per
acre). Stronger solutions than these are liable to do
permanent damage to crops among which the weeds
are growing.

Hundreds of trials have been made in various parts
of the world, to determine the influence of these solu-
tions upon many kinds of weeds. They have been
found to be most active upon Charlock (Sinapis arvensis)
and Wild Radish (Raphanus Raphanistrum), and it may
be said that it is for these two weeds alone that spray-
ing is generally practised.

On the other hand, it is true that many other weeds
are much damaged by the solutions of copper and iron
sulphates. It was found, for example, in 1899, at the
Holmes Chapel Agricultural and Horticultural College,

REMEDIAL MEASURES 47

that Persicaria or Redshank (Polygomtm Persicarid) was
completely killed by a 4 per cent solution of copper
sulphate, 100 gallons per acre sprayed on clover and
grass seeds sown in May, the clover and grass being
uninjured.

The solutions are partially effective on Docks, Black
Bindweed (Polygonum Convolvulus), Dandelion, Perennial
Sow Thistle (Sonchus arvensis), Poppy (see p. 55),
Spurrey (see p. 74), Groundsel, and Corn Cockle, and
while these are not completely destroyed, seeding is
generally prevented. Spraying with solutions of the
strengths mentioned above has also no permanent effect
on Cornflower (Centaurea Cyanus), Bindweeds (Convol-
vulus sp.), Creeping Thistle (Cnicus arvensis), species
of Anthemis and Matricaria, Couch and Horse-tails.
Although the leaves of these weeds are turned brown
and killed in patches the plants are able to continue
growth, and ultimately produce flowers and ripe seeds.

Species of Chenopodium, Spurges (Euphorbia sp.),
Fumitory, and Sisymbrium Thaliana are protected by
the glaucous bloom on the leaves, and spraying, even
with very much stronger solutions than those men-
tioned, has little or no effect upon them. Knot-grass
(Polygonum Aviculare] and Small Toadflax (Linaria minor)
also resist these solutions.

As spraying is chiefly used against weeds growing
among ordinary farm crops, it is important to deter-
mine to what extent the latter are injured by copper
and iron sulphate solutions. In the strengths given
above it has been found that cereals are not perman-
ently injured by them. The tips of the leaves are
generally killed and sometimes portions of the flat
leaves also, but the growing points are effectively pro-
tected and continue to grow, new leaves are unfolded,
and the crop does not suffer.

48 COMMON WEEDS

The first leaves of red clover, which is generally
sown among the spring cereals barley and oats, turn
black and die after being sprayed, but the growing
central buds of the plants are uninjured and develop
satisfactorily later.

Peas, vetches, and potatoes are, however, seriously
and permanently damaged, so that weeds among these
crops must be dealt with in other ways.

The best time for spraying is in the morning of a
clear day when there is no wind and no likelihood of
rain. A heavy shower or two immediately after spray-
ing or long-continued rain within twenty-four hours
after the solutions have been applied, reduces the value
of the operation or stops its action altogether.

The plants should be young and in a vigorous state
of growth ; seedlings possessing three or four well-
developed leaves are most easily destroyed. Especially
is it essential to deal with the young plants of Wild
Radish (Raphanus), as in the older stages they are more
resistant to the poisonous materials than Charlock. The
latter may be sprayed with success even when the plants
are in flower ; if not too far developed the leaves are
destroyed, and although pods may form, they usually
contain only shrivelled seeds incapable of germination.

The effects of copper and iron sulphates and other
plant poisons when used in weak solutions are not seen
until three to six days or more have elapsed, so that the
value of spraying for weed destruction cannot be deter-
mined immediately after the operation is carried out.

In May get a weedhook, a crotch and a gloue,

and weed out such weeds, as the come doth not loue :
For weeding of winter corne, now it is best,
but June is the better, for weeding the rest."

— THOMAS TUSSER, Five Hundreth Pointes of
Husbandrie, 1 5 5 7 •

CHAPTER IV

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND

" In the later ende of May is tyme to wede thy corne."

— JOHN FITZHERBKRT, Boke of Husbandry, 1523.

A VERY large number of wild plants occur as weeds in
arable land, and it is in such positions that weeds are
generally held to be most troublesome. As has already
been stated (p. 27), the author found no less than 1050
individual young plants on a square yard of good
garden soil after leaving it unhoed for a short time.
Yet, as we shall see in a subsequent chapter, very many
weeds are extremely harmful in grass land, wrhere they
may occur in plenty and sometimes occupy the land
almost to the complete exclusion of good grasses and
clovers.

The small extent to which a cultivated crop can
compete with weeds has been shown at Rothamsted,1
where a plot of wheat which was allowed to shed its
grain and reproduce itself in subsequent years without
any kind of cultivation or help against weeds was
found in the second year to produce only about half
a crop, less the next year, and only two or three
stunted wheat plants in the fourth season, after which
the wheat disappeared entirely — a literal case of a crop
being " smothered by weeds." Instances are known to
every farmer in which a vigorous fight against weeds
has had to be waged in order to raise a successful crop
of corn or roots (see examples, p. 15). We may now

1 A. D. Hall, The Book of Rothamsted Experiments.

49 D

50 COMMON WEEDS

deal with the various weeds of arable land, and the
best means of eradicating them.

RANUNCULACE.E

Mousetail (Myosurus minimus L.) is a small annual of
cornfields, especially on damp land.' It is 3 to 6 inches
high, with erect, fleshy, linear leaves, and flowering
stems, at the end of which are single, minute yellow-
green flowers. Flowering takes place between April
and June. In the fruiting stage the receptacle of the
flower elongates enormously, when the stem and its
achenes superficially resemble a miniature Plantain. It
is not usually so plentiful as to be a serious pest,
and, being an annual, thorough cultivation will keep
it under.

Creeping Buttercup (Ranunculus repens L.) must be
classed as one of the worst weeds of arable land. This
Buttercup (Fig. 8) is a hairy perennial, with leaves
divided into three segments, the segments also being
lobed and toothed ; stems i to 2 feet high, bearing yellow
flowers of nearly i inch in diameter, and extensive
runners which root at the nodes, and quickly cover the
ground with a network of the weed. The flowers
appear between May and August. If not attacked
in good time seeds are plentifully produced and grow
freely, soon completely overrunning the land. As
stated at p. 27, the author found in cultivated garden
soil over 650 seedlings of this weed in a square yard.
It is sometimes introduced to farms in samples of
clovers and ryegrass.

This pest must be attacked by means of vigorous
and frequent cultivation, and the loosened plants must
be collected and burnt. Fallow crops will be most
useful, and if the weed be very plentiful, two root

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 51

crops may be taken in succession with the object of
reducing it. The weed occurs most freely in damp

FlG. 8. — Creeping Buttercup (Ranunculus repens L.), x \.

land, and draining is found to reduce it. In garden
cultivation deep trenching will destroy the growing
plants, but unless this work be done thoroughly it will

52 COMMON WEEDS

be better to fork out the weeds and burn them. Fre-
quent hoeing in spring and summer will destroy
thousands of the young plants (Fig. 9).

Corn or Field Buttercup (Ranunculus arvensis L.) is
an annual which is frequently extremely troublesome
in cornfields on all soils. It appears, however, to favour

Photo, 1909. H. C. Long.

FIG. 9. — Seedlings of Creeping Buttercup (Ranunculus repens L.).

the chalk formation, and is plentiful on the strong and
clayey wolds of North Lincolnshire, few being found
on the light soils ; and it is found in summer fallow
wheat and winter sown barley more than in spring
corn.

The Corn Buttercup or Crowfoot has very variable
segmented and toothed leaves, and solitary stems i to 2
feet high. The flowers, opening between May and
July, are pale yellow, and about J inch across. In other

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 53

Buttercups the fruits are small, hard and dry (achenes),
but in this species they are large, few in number, and
covered with hooked spines. When ripe the fruits are
flat and spiny, and in some districts they are known by
the name of " Watch Wheels."

As this weed is an annual and grows rapidly in the
spring months, it is obvious that spring cultivation and
hoeing will destroy the seedlings. Later, should any
flowering plants be observed they must be hoed out to
prevent seeding. Cereals and unmilled sainfoin should
be examined for the fruits before sowing.

PAPAVERACE.E

Four species of the genus Papaver are met with in
Great Britain — P. Rhceas L., P. dubium L., P. Argemone
L., and P. hybridum L., while a fifth, P. somniferum L.,
the Opium Poppy, occurs occasionally as an escape
from cultivation. The two first are the most important
agriculturally, occurring commonly in cornfields in many
parts of the country. What is a more magnificent
sight than the waving scarlet cloth flung wide over the
fields between June and August in the district around
Cromer aptly named " Poppyland," in parts of Lin-
colnshire, Sussex, Hants, and elsewhere ? The mixed
Poppies and grain crop form indeed a striking and
picturesque spot of colour in the landscape, especially
when seen in undulating country and backed by woods.
Yet all who are acquainted with the harm which an
excess of weeds may cause will appreciate the picture
also from another point of view, for the corn crop is
sometimes ruined by the presence of the crowding
scarlet-capped plants.

The Common Red Poppy (P. Rhceas) and the Long
Smooth-headed Poppy (P. dubium] are erect annual

54 COMMON WEEDS

weeds of. two or more feet in height, with deep tap-
roots, and branched hairy stems and flower stalks ; the
hairs in the former spread outwards from the flower
stalk, but in the latter are pressed close to it. The
stems exude a milky juice when bruised or cut ; the
leaves are pinnatifid or " feathered," bearing segments
arranged on each side of a common midrib ; and the
scarlet flowers are about 3 inches across. In the case
of P. Rhoeas the seed capsule is not much longer than
broad, but in P. dubium it is more than twice as long
as it is broad. Both seed capsules are smooth, and
contain seeds in large numbers, frequently as many as
10,000 to 50,000 on one plant. The seeds are very
small, and on escaping from the capsule are carried
about by the wind ; in addition, they are of an oily
character, and when buried .in the soil may retain their
vitality for some years, germinating and producing new
plants when brought to the surface under favourable
conditions. This fact was recognised over a century
ago : " The seeds remain underground, retaining their
vegetative powers for a long time, and furnishing a
fresh crop of Poppies whenever the earth is turned
over."1 It is therefore clear that if the Poppy is per-
mitted to shed its seeds, these are so easily spread
that it is difficult to keep one farm in a district clean
if other farms are neglected.

These Poppies have received a large number of
common names, of which the following may be men-
tioned : 2 — Corn Poppy, Cornflower, Corn Rose,
Canker Rose, Cock Rose, Cop Rose, Copper Rose,
Blind-eyes, Headache, Red-weed.

P. Rhceas occurs throughout the southern and mid-
land counties of England, and in Ireland and the

1 Smith and Sowerby, English Botany, 1799, vol. viii. p. 645.

2 A. B. Smith, Poisonous Plants of all Countries. 1905.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 55

Channel Islands, but, according to Hooker, is rare
north of the Tay. P. dubium, however, is, according
to the same authority, found in Britain north to the
Shetland Islands. Both species are most commonly
found on light, dry, sandy, and gravelly soils, but
flourish even on heavy wheat land, though not to the
same extent as on the lighter soils, such as barley
land. It is during damp, warm weather in spring,
on a soil in good tilth, that the Poppy seed germi-
nates most freely, the established plants growing most
strongly and rapidly in hot summer weather, when
they may quickly mature and scatter their seed broad-
cast.

Poppies maybe combated in several ways: (i) By
employing pure seeds for sowing. (2) When the seeds
are present in the soil deep ploughing should not be
practised, as the seeds will only be brought to the sur-
face later. Surface cultivation should be the rule, and
after producing a fine tilth in the spring, and en-
couraging the seeds to germinate, thousands of the
young plants may be destroyed later by the use of the
hoe, light harrows, the Poppy Killer (Fig. 3), and
various types of American Weeder. Such a method
should be repeated until the corn crop is too high to
permit of it, when hand weeding may be necessary.
(3) Where Poppies are very plentiful it is useful to take
an extra root crop in the rotation. (4) Spraying with
the sulphates of copper and iron has been found to
injure the Poppy. At the Woburn Experimental Farm
in 1900 and 1901, P. Rhaas was sprayed with a 2 per
cent solution of copper sulphate, and when the solu-
tion was applied to the underside of the leaves as well
as to the upper surface, " the leaves turned brown,
became shrivelled, and to a great extent the plant was
killed, for the seeding was almost entirely prevented,

56 COMMON WEEDS

Photo, 1909. 7. C. Varty-Smith.

FIG. 10. — Fumitory (Fumaria officinalis L.).

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 57

the flower heads withering up." l The height of the
corn crop, however, would forbid spraying by means
of horsed vehicles when the Poppies were nearly at the
flowering stage, but a 3 per cent solution of copper
sulphate (which in the case of Charlock spraying has
been found to do little, if any, injury to the cereal
crop) might be tried when the Poppies are no more
than half grown. If necessary, two applications with
an interval of a few days could be tried. It has been
stated 2 that the common Scarlet Poppy is very sensitive
to a 13 to 20 per cent solution of sulphate of iron, and
since a cereal crop can withstand a 15 per cent solu-
tion (vide Charlock spraying), a solution of such a
strength should be tried. With a solution of either of
the sulphates 40 gallons will suffice for an acre.

(As to the poisonous properties of Poppies, see p.
281.)

FUMARIACE^:

Common Fumitory (Fumaria officinalis L.) is a common
annual of a rather prostrate habit of growth, often
plentiful in cornfields on light, sandy, and loamy soils.
This plant (Fig. 10) is i to ij feet high, with much
divided leaves, and long racemes of many irregular dark
or pale rose-purple flowers, which appear between May
and September. It is occasionally very troublesome,
but, being an annual, can be got rid of by persistent
hoeing and surface cultivation in spring and early
summer.

CRUCIFER^E

Many plants of this order are troublesome weeds,
almost all being pests of arable land ; a number must

1 Jour. R.A.S.E., 1902, p. 360.

2 F. Maier-Bode, Die Bekanipfiing der Acker- Unkrauter 1908.

58 COMMON WEEDS

be considered here. Crucifers should be cut down
and eradicated, both because they are harmful to crops,
and because they harbour insects and fungi injurious to
farm and garden crops.

Hedge Mustard (Sisymbrium officinaleL.) is a common
weed of hedgerows, waste places, and roadsides, in
which latter position " it seems to have a peculiar apti-
tude for collecting and retaining dust " (Johns). It
is an annual i to 2 feet high, with deeply lobed, hairy
leaves, and small yellow flowers ; the downy pods when
ripe are closely pressed to the leafless stem. It can
be kept in check by hoeing and cutting down to pre-
vent seeding.

Garlic Mustard (Sisymbrium Alliaria L.), also known
as Sauce-alone, Jack-by-the-Hedge, is a leafy annual
of 2 to 3 feet high, with rather large stalked leaves,
more or less heart- or kidney-shaped, and coarsely
toothed. The flowers are white, J inch across, and
appear from April to June, while the stiff, rather curved
pods are over 2 inches long. This weed is very
common along hedge banks and similar positions,
especially on the heavier soils. It should be regularly
cut down.

Charlock (Sinapis arvensis L.), so well known as
Kedlock, Skellock, Yellow Weed, and Wild Mustard, is
a ubiquitous weed of arable land, especially cornfields,
and is probably more troublesome on almost all soils
(especially light calcareous loams) than any other
annual. It is a tall, rough, branched weed, with large
ovate or lyrate toothed leaves, yellow flowers of \ inch
or over in diameter, and spreading, angled, rough
pods i to 2 inches long (Fig. n). When pulled by
hand Charlock quickly discolours the skin a dirty
green.

Not only is this pest a strong, rapid grower, but

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 59

it produces an abundance of seed, which ripens quickly,
and has a wonderful vitality which enables it to lie for
many years in the soil uninjured, and later such buried
seed may germinate when brought to the. surface.
Further, the seeds ripen before cereal crops are cut,
and this affords an opportunity for the perpetuation of
the weed, which
is only overcome
with the greatest
difficulty. If land
be laid down to
pasture, Charlock
will disappear,
being exclusively
a weed of culti-
vated land ; but
should an old pas-
ture be ploughed,
Charlock is al-
most certain to
spring up. Ex-
periments con-
ducted by Pro-
fessor Peter at
Got tin gen have
shown l that the
seeds of Charlock

. . ,. FIG. ii. — Charlock (Sinapis arvcnsis L.), x \.

can retain their

vitality or germinative capacity for forty years, espe-
cially when they lie at considerable depths in the
soil.

Losses due to profuse growth of Charlock and allied
species (described below) have been found in Germany
to be very great. The following examples may be

1 Deutsche Landw. Presse, July 24, 1909.

6o

COMMON WEEDS

given, taking 2.5 acres to the hectare, 2.2 Ib. to the
kilogram, and oats at 42 Ib. per bushel : * —

With Charlock,
Bushels per
Acre.

Without Char-
lock, Bushels
per Acre.

Approximate
Loss due to
Charlock,
per Cent.

i. Oats.

45

67

33

2. Oats

24.8

76.5

67.5

There are three chief methods of combating Char-
lock : (i) By preventing the introduction of the seeds
in seeds for sowing, (2) by destroying the seedlings
and older plants by mechanical means, and (3) by
spraying.

The first plan is obvious, and may be said to be
applicable to all weeds, and has been dealt with else-
where.

As regards the second method, this may be carried
out in several ways : by hand hoeing corn crops ;
by bringing about a fine tilth in warm spring weather
to encourage the Charlock seeds to germinate, and then
passing light harrows or the American Weeder over the
young plants ; by hand and horse hoeing root and
pulse crops ; by chopping off the flowering heads by
means of reaping-hooks, scythes, hooks with jagged
teeth, and various specially constructed machines ; and
by hand pulling. The growth of early potatoes, with
the constant tillage they receive, is a valuable means of
destroying Charlock. Root crops generally are more
useful than any other where Charlock abounds, as the
frequent hoeing both aids the roots to grow more

1 Arb. dei- Dent. Land. Gesell. : Ackersenf und Hederich, Gustav Schultz,
1909.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 61

strongly, and destroys immense numbers of seedlings.
Sometimes also the seeds of Charlock may be en-
couraged to germinate in a mild autumn, when the
young plants are destroyed by the first sharp frost.
An important plan, which should be more often
practised, is to use a trough on the harvester or
binder when cereal crops are cut, in order to catch
the Charlock and other seeds which are shed, and
prevent them from reaching the ground (see p. 30).

The third method, spraying, is of great importance,
and may be carried out when the cereal crop and
the Charlock are both young. The narrow, smooth,
erect leaves of the cereal do not retain much of the
solution used, and consequently escape any permanent
injury, while the somewhat broad, rough, horizontal
leaves of Charlock catch and retain the solution, and
are thus permanently damaged. In May and June,
when the Charlock plants are in the " rough leaf," and
not over 3 inches high, and while the cereal is still
comparatively short, the whole may be sprayed with a
2, 3, or 4 per cent solution of copper sulphate (8, 12, or
1 6 Ib. in 40 gallons of water), applying 40 gallons per
acre by means of a machine which generates a fine
spray under air pressure. Soft water should be used
when possible, the copper sulphate should be of 98 per
cent purity, and wooden buckets or tubs should be
employed for mixing.

Sulphate of iron at the rate of 40 gallons per acre of
a 15 per cent solution (60 Ib. in 40 gallons of water)
may be employed in place of copper sulphate.

Such spraying, if well done, results in a large pro-
portion of the young Charlock then growing being
killed (see also p. 45). The seeds of Charlock
contain a considerable amount of oil, and it is stated
by Percival that they are sold by many farmers to oil-

62 COMMON WEEDS

cake manufacturers, finally appearing as impurities in
rape and other " cakes."

Wild Radish, Runch (Raphanus Raphanistrum L.), also
known as White Charlock, or Jointed Charlock, re-
sembles 5. arvensis in habit. It is a stout erect or
spreading annual, somewhat hairy, with large lyrate,
coarsely toothed leaves, white- or straw-coloured flowers
f inch in diameter, and pods i to 3 inches long. This
weed flowers between May and September. It should
be dealt with as described above in the case of Char-
lock, but it is essential to spray the young plants.

"During September (1907) the Board received from
Wolverhampton specimens of two cruciferous weeds
resembling White Charlock (Raphanus Raphanistrum L.).
They were identified as Raphanus microcarpus Willk. and
R. sativus L., var. oleifer DC. The former is not very
common in this country, while the latter is a rare
casual. As they were growing freely amongst corn, the
weeds were sprayed early with strong, pure, copper
sulphate solution, which, however, had no effect on
them whatever. They are not likely to prove very
troublesome, but where they come up thickly the hoe
should be freely used in a root crop, while in corn
crops they should be hoed, or " topped," with a scythe
when the plants are flowering. Some plants are very
bulky, consisting of as many as twenty stems, while
they are from 2 feet to 3 feet high. The introduction
of a potato crop into the rotation two or three years
after a root crop often clears land of Charlock, and this
plan might be tried with the species under considera-
tion. Seeding should be prevented, even if hand pulling
must be resorted to, while any grain sown should be
entirely free from the seeds." 1

Wild forms of Brassica allied to the turnip, rape or

1 Jour. Bd. Agi'ic.) February, 1908.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 63

swede, occur as weeds of cultivated fields on practically
all soils, flowering from June to September. They
should be attacked in the same way as Charlock.

Gold of Pleasure (Camelina sativa L.) is a slender
annual of 2 to 3 feet in height, branched above, with
small yellow flowers of \ inch in diameter, and some-
what egg-shaped inflated pods. Flowers appear in June
and July. This plant is an escape from cultivation,
and occurs sporadically among flax and in cornfields.
It is not troublesome in general agriculture. Hooker
states that the seeds are used for soap-maker's oils, oil-
cake, and for feeding poultry. Where plentiful, it should
be attacked vigorously with the hoe or by hand pulling.

Shepherd's Purse (Capsella Bur sa- Pastor is DC.) is
found in almost all situations and at almost any time
of the year, flowering practically from early March to
early December. It is a branched, upright annual (Fig.
12), which attains nearly 18 inches in height ; the small
white flowers are placed on slender stalks, and are about
j3^ inch in diameter ; the roots are long and tapering.
At the base of the stem a rosette of leaves is spread flat
upon the soil, the plant therefore demanding consider-
able space. Seeds are produced in large numbers, the
seed " pods " being somewhat peculiar in shape, almost
triangular, and much compressed laterally, resembling
a shepherd's " sporran." The flowers and pods easily
distinguish it from other weeds of the order.

Shepherd's Purse is occasionally a troublesome pest,
especially on light land, occurring abundantly both in
field and garden. It grows rapidly and seeds freely in
hidden positions behind larger cultivated plants ; the
soil is often rapidly covered by young plants, which
frequently follow one another as fast as they are hoed
out. In addition, the weed, like other crucifers, serves
as a host for insect pests, and is specially liable to be

64 COMMON WEEDS

infested by the white rust Cystopus candidus, which may

FIG. 12. — Shepherd's Purse (Capsella Bursa-Pastoris DC.), x^.

become distributed to cultivated crucifers, such as wall-
flowers, cabbage, and related plants.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND

As Shepherd's Purse
is a quick-growing
annual, which seeds
freely in many months
of the year, the obvious
remedy is the prevention
of seeding. To this end
the hoe should be kept
vigorously at work when-
ever the pest appears.
In field cultivation also
the seeds may be en-
couraged to germinate,
and then be destroyed
by the use of the harrow,
or in root crops with the
hand or horse hoe.

Field Pepperwort
(Lepidium campestre Br.)
is an annual or biennial
weed, 6 to 1 8 inches
high (Fig. 13) ; it is
slightly branched ; the
leaves on the stems are
almost lanceolate, and
arrow-head shaped at
the base ; the white
flowers are very small,
and the ovate rough flat-
tened pods about J inch
in diameter. Flowering
takes place between May
and August ; last season
(1909) in Lincolnshire
it was practically over

FIG. 13. — Field Pepperwort (Lepidium
campestre Br.), nat. size, with flower
enlarged.

The weed is
E

by mid-July.

66 COMMON WEEDS

occasionally very troublesome in arable land. Only
last summer (1909) a friend wrote to the author from
Lincolnshire : lt I never saw Pepperwort here until a
few years ago ; it appeared in a field on the site of
an old stackyard, now all arable. I hoe it, pull it,
and this year I have mown 50 square yards, corn
and weeds together. It seems to spread awfully,
and is appearing at other points. I am sowing the
field down to four years' ley, and trust it will not come
after."1 The taking of a root crop, or if necessary two
root crops in succession, should reduce it considerably.
As the plant is only produced from seed, seeding must
be prevented by tillage operations or by hand pulling.

Another Pepperwort (Lepidium Draba L.) is occa-
sionally troublesome on land near the sea, as on warp
land, chiefly in the south of England. Although an
" alien " in Britain, it is a common weed of roadsides
and fields on the Continent. It is a perennial, branched,
downy plant, i to 3 feet high. The leaves are oblong, the
lower being stalked, while the upper have an arrow-
headed base which clasps the stem. The flowers are
white, | inch in diameter, in short corymbose clusters.
The pods are nearly heart-shaped, and constricted in
the centre. Flowering occurs from May to June. If
allowed to seed, this weed may spread rapidly and
become a pest. It is therefore necessary to prevent
seeding entirely for a year or two by thorough tillage
operations and the use of hoed crops.

Penny Cress or Mithridate Mustard ( Thlaspi arvense
L.) is an erect annual with simple stem, i to 2 feet high.
The leaves on the stem are somewhat oblong, arrow-
shaped, and toothed ; the white flowers are only \ inch
across, while the round flat pods are two or three times
this diameter, broadly winged, with a deep notch at the

1 W. C. Brown. See p. 241.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 67

top, and borne on slender stalks. The seed-vessels have
been compared in appearance with silver pennies ; they
are easily scattered by the wind. Each pod contains
about a dozen brownish oval seeds, and an average
plant is stated to produce about 20,000 seeds.1 The
flowers appear from May to July or later. The plant
has an unpleasant smell when bruised.

This weed should be persistently hoed out to prevent
seeding, and the growth of root or other hoed crops
will render this possible and easy. Where the weed is
very abundant it should be mown and burnt. Penny
Cress is a noxious weed in the Dominion of Canada,
and is described as a terrible pest of the farmer in
Manitoba and the North-West. It is there known as
Stinkweed, on account of its abominable smell.
" S-t-i-n-k is a small word with a big meaning, easily
understood by any one who has ever handled Stink-
weed, or tasted milk or butter from a cow which has
eaten it." 2

In order to eradicate Penny Cress, great care should
be taken not to plough under plants with ripe seed-
vessels. Where land is infested, an endeavour should
be made to encourage germination by means of surface
cultivation, proceeding generally to harrow the young
plants as described in the case of Charlock (p. 60).
Taking three or four years' ley will largely choke out
the weed, and any plants which may appear the first
year may be cut and destroyed. Should any plants
appear in the next cultivated crop, they must be
attacked with the hoe, by hand pulling, and by general
cultivation.

Bitter Candytuft (Iberis amara L.) is an annual
weed of cornfields, especially on dry chalky soils in the

1 Bull. 128, Ontario Agricultural College.

2 Farm Weeds, Dept. of Agric., Ottawa.

68 COMMON WEEDS

south and east of England. It is under a foot high,
with sessile oblong-lanceolate leaves, white, reddish, or
purplish flowers J inch in diameter, and very small,
broad, flat pods. The flowers appear about July. Where
this weed occurs plentifully, it should be met by sur-
face cultivation and the vigorous use of the hoe.

Wart Cress, Swine's Cress (Senebiera Coronopus
Poiret.) is an annual or biennial weed of cultivated
ground, roadsides, and waste land. It is a small,
smooth, leafy plant, with many slender prostrate
branches. The minute white flowers are in very short
clusters opposite the leaves, and, with the small com-
pressed pods, give the plant the appearance of being
" warty." Flowering takes place between June and
September. This weed must where necessary be
hoed out. It is unlikely to be very troublesome, but
occurs sometimes in cornfields.

VIOLACE.E

Heart's-ease, Corn Pansy (Viola tricolor L. and sub.
sp.) is chiefly a weed of arable and waste land. It is
a very variable annual, with angular branched stem
6 to 1 8 inches high, and well-known, pretty flowers J to
ij inch in diameter. It has a long flowering period,
from May to September, and is perhaps most common
in cornfields. The seeds occur in samples of timothy,
alsike, and other farm seeds. Persistent hoeing of
root crops after corn, with surface cultivation if the
pest is plentiful, will reduce it ; and, as it seeds freely,
it must not be permitted to ripen its seed capsules.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 69

CARYOPHYLLACE^E

Bladder Campion (Silene inflata Sm.) is one of the
commonest weeds of cornfields, and grows on many
kinds of soil. It is a smooth, shiny perennial, i to 2 feet
high, with ovate or oblong pointed leaves and drooping
white flowers f inch in diameter, appearing from June
to August. The calyx is inflated and bladder-like, with
violet veins, and is often picked by children to " pop "
by hitting the open end against the hand. The capsule
is globose.

Red Campion (Lychnis diurna Sibth.) is a softly hairy,
viscid perennial, i to 3 feet high, with slender, branched
rootstock. The leaves are ovate, and the flowers,
which are found in June and July, have reddish-pink
divided petals.

White Campion, Evening Campion (Lychnis vesper-
tina Sibth.) much resembles L. diurna, but the flowers
are white, and fragrant at night. Flowering occurs
between June and September. This plant is perhaps
most common on light, sandy soils.

These three species are all common enough in corn-
fields, leys, and clover crops. Their seeds are often
found as impurities in timothy and clover samples.
Wherever the plants are met with an endeavour should
be made to prevent seeding by hand pulling or other
means. Only pure clover samples and temporary
" seeds " should be sown.

Corn Cockle (Agrostemma Githago L.), a common
plant of cornfields, is dealt with at p. 283.

Mouse-ear Chick weed (Cerastium triviale Link.)
occurs in arable land, and, like the following species,
is sometimes very troublesome. It is also common
in grass land (see p. 156). A closely-allied perennial
species, C. arvense L., occurs in quantity on arable land,

70 COMMON WEEDS

especially on light, sandy soils. It has a hairy stem,
linear-lanceolate leaves somewhat crowded at the base
of the shoots, and clusters (cymes) of many small, white
flowers.

These two species are frequently kept down by the
earlier sown cereals, which soon over-top the low-
growing weeds. They are harmful, however, owing to
their habit of growing closely around the base of the
stems of corn and root crops. Thorough cultivation,
and deep ploughing with the use of the skim coulter,
keeps them in check.

Chickweed (Stellaria media L.) is an annual weed
which is ubiquitous on arable land on most soils, espe-
cially in gardens and on rich, well-tilled land. It is a
low, prostrate weed, much branched, and easily dis-
tinguished by the fact that " a linear whisker runs up
one side of the stem, and when a pair of leaves is
reached the whisker is continued on the opposite side "
(M'Alpine and Wright). " Water poured on the plant
runs down these, and Stahl explains them as adapta-
tions similar to drip-tips (cf. Ficus) for drying the plant
after rain ; Lindman thinks they convey the water to
the leaf-axils, where it is absorbed by the plant." l
The leaves are ovate, the lower ones being stalked and
the upper sessile. Large numbers of small white
flowers in lax clusters are produced from early spring
to late autumn, and the plant exhausts itself in seed
production. Chickweed is a lowly weed which hugs
the soil closely, wrapping the ground in a mantle of
green. It is perhaps more troublesome in gardens than
on the farm ; but it grows and matures so rapidly,
and sheds such an abundant supply of seeds, that
a close watch must be kept upon it. To keep it down a
continual use of the hoe in hot dry weather is neces-

1 Willis, Flowering Plants and Ferns.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 71

sary. In damp weather, especially in garden cultivation,
the hoed-out weeds may with advantage be raked off and
placed on the compost heap or smother fire, or be
deeply buried in the rubbish trench for the growth of
marrows. On the farm, surface cultivation to encourage
the germination of the seeds, followed by harrowing in
hot weather, will destroy large numbers of the seedling
plants. Deep ploughing, with the use of the skim coul-
ter, will also destroy this weed. In root crops, where
the weed presses closely around the base of the plants,
especially on the tops of potato-drills, the hand and
horse hoe must be freely used.

Sandwort (Arenaria tenuifolia L.) is an erect, slender
annual, 3 to 9 inches high, with fine narrow leaves, rather
crowded below and widely separated above. The white
flowers, J inch across, in many -flowered cymose
clusters, appear from June to August. It is not
commonly troublesome, but occurs in sandy fields in
some districts, chiefly in the Eastern counties (Hooker).

Thyme-leaved Sandwort (Arenaria serpyllifolia L.) is
another annual somewhat similar to A. tenuifolia. It is,
however, downy, more or less decumbent, repeatedly
forked, with broader leaves, which are ovate and
pointed, resembling those of thyme, and much smaller
flowers (J inch in diameter), which open between June
and August. This weed is abundant in dry places,
even on walls, and in dry cornfields.

Both species of Sandwort require the vigorous use
of the hoe, and encouragement of the seeds to ger-
minate for subsequent destruction with the harrows
during spring. Owing to their small size they are
unlikely to do much harm in cornfields, unless present
in quantity.

Spurrey (Spergula arvensis L.) is one of the most
troublesome weeds of arable farms on light sandy soils,

i v

Photo, 1909. /. C. Varty- Smith.

FIG. 14. — Spurrey (Spergula arvensis L.).

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 73

and, if not checked, quickly ripens large quantities of
seeds, which are readily shed. This weed (Fig. 14)
is a more or less downy and sticky, branched annual,
6 to 1 8 inches high, with thickened nodes or joints.
The leaves are small and fine, \ to ij inch long, awl-
shaped, with a groove beneath, and arranged in whorls
at the joints of the stem. The flowers, appearing
between June and August, are small (J inch across),
white, on slender stalks in loose terminal clusters
(panicled or sub-umbellate cymes). The seed capsules
are more or less round.

Spurrey invades both corn and root crops, and if
plentiful may quite smother any spring or summer
sown crops. The growth of young turnips may be
seriously impeded by the luxurious growth of Spurrey,
and the thinning of carrots may be an arduous task
completed with the greatest difficulty, while corn
crops may be quite overrun by the pest. " It never
does any injury to corn after lea, but corn after root-
crop is sometimes completely destroyed by it, and the
grazing grasses and clovers sown with the corn may be
entirely smothered." 1

Wherever Spurrey appears, strenuous efforts must
be made to prevent it seeding. If root crops be in-
fested they should be hoed as often as may be necessary
to keep down the weed and prevent the ripening of
seed, while the roots should be hurried on by means
of manures. Should a corn crop be early observed
to contain Spurrey, the weed should be hoed out or
hand pulled ; but if the land be known to contain the
seeds, the surface cultivation recommended for Poppies
(P- 55) should be practised. In the case of fallow
crops also, late quick-growing turnips may be sown ;
this will afford an opportunity for one or more surface

1 M 'Alpine and Wright, H. and Agric. Soc. Trans., 1894.

74 COMMON WEEDS

cultivations at intervals of a fortnight before the turnips
are sown. Large quantities of Spurrey may thus be
destroyed in this manner, and the practice may be
followed by thorough hand and horse hoeings. If
necessary, the next " seeds " may be sown without a
corn crop, and this also will enable the plan of surface
cultivation in spring to be followed, the " seeds " being
sown in June.

It is stated that lime has a good effect in ridding
land of Spurrey, and Hall even says that the presence
of Spurrey on arable land is a pretty sure sign of the
absence of lime. At Woburn, when part of an infested
field was treated with lime, the Spurrey disappeared.
On the other hand, a correspondent of the Mark Lane
Express states1 that "in November 1908 I ploughed
into 4 acres about 13 tons of gas-lime, and this
spring my oats were suffocated with Spurrey." In
an experiment at Capel Curig also, two plots, which
respectively received 10 cwt. and 20 cwt. of ground
lime before the corn was sown, showed no difference
at -harvesting. Where, after the corn and Spurrey had
made some growth, a plot was sprayed with 50 gallons
per acre of a 5 per cent solution of copper sulphate,
the Spurrey was completely destroyed. In another
trial at Bodorgan, where a considerable quantity of
Spurrey appeared, 3, 4, and 5 per cent solutions of
copper sulphate were tried ; all were more or less
effective, only half the Spurrey forming seed on the
plot treated with the 3 per cent solution, and not
more than 20 per cent on the other two plots.2

A form of Spurrey is widely grown as a fodder
crop in Belgium and elsewhere on the Continent, and

1 August 30, 1909.

2 Agric. Dept., Univ. Coll. N. Wales, Bangor, Bull, ix., 1906; Bull.
vii., 1907.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND

75

a crop badly infested with the weed may be fed off
with sheep before the seeds are ripe. The weed is
also occasionally made into hay. Wolff quotes the
following analyses of Spurrey : l —

GREEN.

HAY.

Total.

Digestible.

Total.

Digestible.

Water . . . / .

80.0

16.7

Crude Albumen

2-3

12.0

Crude Fibre

5-3

3-3

22.0

*3-i

Nitrogen-free Extract

9-7

6-5

36.6

2J-7

Fat

0.7

o-3

3-2

i-9

Ash ....

2.O

9-5

Albuminoids and Amides

i-S

7.6

ILLECEBRACE.E

Annual Knawel (Scleranthus annuus L.) is a small
tufted annual (or biennial) under a foot high, with
slender branched prostrate stems, nearly awl-shaped
leaves of about \ inch long, placed opposite one
another in pairs, and small green flowers in clusters
at the end of the stems or singly in the axils lower
down. The flowers open from June to September.
The fruits are one-seeded. This weed (Fig. 15) is
common on arable land, especially on light, sandy
soils, where it may prove troublesome. The seeds
are sometimes found in samples of clover and grass
seeds.

When this weed is at all plentiful it should be hoed
out ; in corn crops, surface cultivation in spring (see p.
34) quickly reduces it. Crops which grow vigorously

1 Farm Foods, pp. 300 and 302.

76 COMMON WEEDS

— e.g. vetches — smother it out. If very plentiful in
young clover, the latter may be cut early for hay.

FIG. 15.— Annual Knawel (Scleranthus annuus L.), nat. size,
with flower magnified.

GERANIACE.E

Three species of Geranium or Crane's-bill commonly
occur as weeds of arable land. All are annual or
biennial weeds, all flower between the months of May
and September, and in all the fruit is extended into

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND

77

a long " beak/' re-
sembling the bill of a
crane, hence the name
Crane's-bill (Geranium is
derived from the Greek
geranos, a crane).

Dove's-foot Crane's-
bill (Geranium molle L.)
is softly hairy, prostrate
in habit, with branches
up to i foot long, leaves
somewhat round, and
seven- to nine-lobed, and
rose-purple or pink
flowers nearly J inch in
diameter. This species
chiefly occurs on light,
sandy, loamy and cal-
careous soils, and the
seeds are commonly
found as an impurity in
samples of white clover.

Cut-leaved Crane's-
bill (G. dissectum L.) is a
hairy weed, with long,
slender, spreading,
branched stems; roundish
leaves divided nearly to
the base into five to
seven lobes, which are
themselves segmented,
and bright red flowers
nearly J inch across.
This weed (Fig. 16) is
found in positions similar to G. mo/le, and its seeds

FIG. 16.- Cut-leaved Crane's-bill (Geranium
dissectum L.), x^, with flower nat. size.

78 COMMON WEEDS

are a frequent impurity in samples of clover and rye-
grass seeds.

Herb Robert (G. Robertianum L.) is a well-known
flower of hedgerows, roadsides, and waste places, but
occurs also in both grass and arable land, especially
on loamy, clayey, and calcareous soils. It is the most
common and generally distributed of the Crane's-bills.
The straggling branched stems are reddish, brittle, and
somewhat hairy ; the leaves are segmented and pinna-
tifid, and in autumn become reddish like the stems ;
the flowers, J inch across, are bright pink, elegantly
veined and streaked with dark and light red. The whole
plant has a strong, but not altogether unpleasant, smell.

Wherever the Crane's-bills occur in cultivated crops
they should be eradicated, more especially when clovers
or grasses are intended for seed. They may be re-
moved by hand from clovers and rotation grasses, and
this should be done early before the seed is ripened.
All are propagated only by seed, and in hoed crops
therefore may easily be destroyed, as they are seldom
very plentiful in such positions. As regards grass land,
see p. 159.

ROSACES

Silver-weed or Goose Grass (Potentilla Anserina L.)
is a perennial weed of prostrate habit, very common by
roadsides, its glossy, silky, silvery-white pinnate leaves,
bright yellow flowers, and long runners making it a
conspicuous object in the summer months (Fig. 17).
It is occasionally a serious pest on arable land, growing
well on almost all soils, especially when these are
damp. Silver-weed is not easily eradicated, as the
runners are readily broken, and, as they root at the
nodes, small pieces form new plants. Where the weed
is a pest it should be given no rest during which it can

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND

79

re-establish itself. Extra deep ploughing, with the use
of a skim coulter, will kill much of it, and in ordinary
tillage operations much may be gathered and burnt
after harrowing. Two fallow crops, such as potatoes
and mangolds, may also" be taken in succession, so as

Photo, 1909.

H. C. Lon?.

FIG. 17. — Silver-weed (Potentilla Anserina L.).

to afford an opportunity for continual cultivating and
hoeing.

It has been recorded1 by Mr. W. E. de Winton,
Pembroke, that wood-pigeons are at certain times partial
to the " sweet and succulent root of the Silver-weed,"
while pheasants also eat it. Some pigeons, indeed,
" seemed to prefer an exclusive diet of this root."

Creeping Cinquefoil (Potentilla reptans L.) is a peren-
nial of similar habit to the last-named species, with
runners rooting at the joints, long stalked leaves divided
into five lobes, and solitary yellow flowers on slender

1 four. Bd. Agric., Feb. 1908, p. 686.

8o

COMMON WEEDS

stalks. The flowers appear from June to August. Like
P. Anserina, it occurs by roadsides, in pastures, and in
arable land, and should be dealt with in the same way.
(See also p. 164.)

Parsley Piert, Field Lady's Mantle (Alchemilla
arvensis Lamk.) is a small annual (Fig. 18) often

' Photo, 1909. H. C. Long.

FlG. 18. — Lady's Mantle (Alchemilla, arvensis Lamk.)

common in cornfields on dry, loamy, and calcareous
soils. It is a hairy plant, 4 to 9 inches high, with

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND

81

small fan-like leaves which appear to clasp the stem
like an inverted mantle, while the dense clusters of
minute green flowers, appearing from May to August,
are crowded in the axils.
Where this weed occurs
in quantity it should be
hoed out ; the growth of
a root crop reduces it.

UMBELLIFER^:

Shepherd's Needle

(Scandix Pecten-Veneris L.),
also known as Needles,
Venus' Comb, and Crow's
Needles, is an annual weed
of cornfields, especially on
light and chalky soils, and
is sometimes very trouble-
some. In North Lincoln-
shire, for example, it
appears to grow, like
Ranunculus arvensis (p. 52),
exclusively on the Chalk
formation, and not on the
Oolite. " Needles seem to
favour the thinner soils on
chalk, and come in any

Corn Crop, autumn Or FIG. _i9.-S_hepherd's Needle (Scandix

spring sown. Not trouble-
some on the strong land,
which runs in some places in valleys or on the edge, of
the chalk " (W. C. B.). Hooker describes the Shepherd's
Needle as " a cornfield weed from Ross southwards."
The Shepherd's Needle (Fig. 19) is a small plant of

F

Pecten- Veneris L. ), x £ , with enlarged
flower.

82

COMMON WEEDS

6 to 1 8 inches high, much branched from the base,
somewhat hairy, with leaves finely cut into slender
segments. The umbels of small white flowers are at
the end and side of the stem, and the fruit is prolonged
into a very slender rough beak, i to 3 inches long,
hence the names of the plant.
Flowering occurs between June
and September.

This weed is perhaps of suffi-
ciently early growth in spring for
much of it to be destroyed by
surface cultivation, but in corn
crops it may be necessary to hand
pull it, although this is too tedious
and expensive an operation on
large areas. Where very plentiful
it is worth while to take two root
crops in succession ; a late sown
turnip crop permits of much of the
weed being destroyed. Seeding
must be prevented.

Hedge Parsley (Torilis nodosa
L.) is a plant which occurs on dry
banks, in hedges, and along the
margins of fields " from Forfar
southwards, rather rare in Scot-
land and Ireland" (Hooker). It
FIG. 20.— Hedge Parsley (To- is common in calcareous corn-

ri Us nodosa L. ). x i, with • r , , , i i_ • i

enlarged flower! fields, and is an annual which

flowers in May to July. Its

stems are 6 to 18 inches high: ''Well distinguished
from all other British umbelliferous plants by its
prostrate stem, its very small, almost globular, simple,
lateral, and nearly sessile umbels of small pinkish-
white flowers, and by the outer fruits in each umbel

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 83

being covered with hooked bristles; while the inner
are warty." 1

This plant (Fig. 20) should be cut down regularly
before seeding takes place, and if this be done it will be
materially reduced in two or three years.

Fool's Parsley (/Ethusa Cynapium L.), described at
p. 298, is an annual weed of gardens and arable land
generally. In North Lincolnshire it appears to be very
annoying on the low clayey peaty alluvium, and is
difficult to eradicate, even a bare fallow in 1908 failing
to reduce it effectively, the wheat crop in 1909 being
full of it. As the weed is an annual, two successive
root crops should materially reduce it, if hoeing be
regularly and faithfully practised. Fool's Parsley is
poisonous, and should be hoed out or hand pulled
wherever it appears.

RUBIACE^E

Cleavers (Galiimi Aparine L.), commonly termed
Goose-grass, Cliver, Hariff, Gliders, Clithe, Grip-grass,
or Catch-weed, is a weak hook-climber which occurs
on all soils on arable land, in hedges and waste places.
This weed (Fig. 2 1) is a straggling annual, often climbing
several feet with sufficient support, and forming tangled
masses amongst other vegetation. The stems are four-
angled, and bear small, stout hooked hairs, by means of
which the weed obtains support on other plants ; the
leaves are narrow and lanceolate, \ to 2 inches long,
and arranged in whorls of six to eight ; the small flowers
appearing in June and July are white, in small clusters,
and grow from the axils of the leaves; the large, roundish,
two-lobed fruits are purplish, very rough, and adhere
closely to the clothes of man or the fur of animals, by

1 Johns, Flowers of the Field.

COMMON WEEDS

FIG. 21.— Left : Cleavers (Galium Aparine L.), with seedling x §, and flower nat
size. Right : Field Madder (Sherardia arvensis L.), x§, and flower nat. size.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 85

whom they are easily distributed. The whole plant is
very rough to the touch ; it is often chopped up and
fed to poultry.

Cleavers is especially troublesome among cereal crops
on light, loamy soils, climbing among the corn, pulling
it down, and rendering harvesting difficult. The fruits
are found in samples of red clover, Italian ryegrass,
and seed corn, and care should be taken that they are
not in this way introduced to the farm. Percival says,
" In some of the worst cases we have seen the weed
was brought to the farm by dung containing the seeds,"
and this source of contamination should be guarded
against. The seedlings (Fig. 21) are much like the
mature plants, and easily recognisable. The pest is
most conveniently eradicated by hoeing during the
spring months, and by surface cultivation generally.

Corn Bedstraw (Galium tricorne With.) closely re-
sembles Cleavers, but is smaller and has more prostrate
stems ; the fruits are large, with no clinging hooks, and
are borne on slender recurved stalks. It is an annual
weed of cornfields, especially on chalk soils, from
Cumberland southwards, but apparently absent from
Scotland and Ireland (Hooker). The flowers appear
from June to October. It should be dealt with in the
same way as Cleavers.

Field Madder (Sherardia arvensis L.) is a small, much-
branched prostrate annual, with stems 6 to 18 inches
long. The narrow, pointed, obovate-lanceolate leaves
are under an inch in length, and in whorls of four to
six ; the small lilac flowers, which open from April to
October, are 1 inch in diameter, in terminal sessile
clusters ; the two-lobed fruits are small and rough,
crowned by the erect, spiny calyx-teeth.

Field Madder (Fig. 21) is often very plentiful in
cultivated fields, and occurs particularly on light sandy,

86 COMMON WEEDS

loamy, and calcareous soils. The fruits are a fairly
common impurity in red clover samples and in samples
of Italian ryegrass. Like other annuals it must be
attacked by means of the hoe and by surface cultivation
from quite early in spring, as it flowers and seeds from
April onwards. Pure farm seeds should be sown.

COMPOSITE

Cornflower, Corn Bluebottle (Centaurea Cyanus L.) is
an annual or biennial i to 2 feet high, with blue flowers,
and is a favourite garden plant, there being several
cultivated varieties of different colours. Flowering takes
place from June to September, and the seeds are easily
scattered by the wind. Although the Cornflower appears
occasionally in grass land, it is, as its name implies,
chiefly a weed of cornfields, and it is said to be a good
index of poor sandy soils. Hoed crops and surface
cultivation during the spring months reduce it ; care
should be taken that samples of red clover, trifolium,
and grass seeds are free from its seeds.

Creeping Thistle (Cnicus arvensis L.) is typically a
weed of arable land, and is, as stated at p. 180, held
by some to be the commonest weed pest of agriculture.

A general account of this Thistle is given with other
species at p. 180, and the harm it does in corn crops
is there noted. The creeping roots often run deeply
into the soil, and are propagated in every direction
horizontally, while the flowers produce an abundance
of seed which is distributed by the wind to great dis-
tances, thus causing neighbouring crops to be infested.
Flowering unfortunately takes place between July and
September, during the time of harvest, and the dis-
tribution of its seeds is ensured during the process of
cutting and carting corn. Where this pest is found in

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 87

corn crops great care should be taken to hoe early and
late in spring, and pull up the Thistle by hand as long
as it is possible to get among the standing corn.

The creeping roots are easily broken by the plough,
cultivator, or harrows, and this renders the pest almost
more difficult to deal with than Couch (Triticum repens)
or Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis).

The only final method of reducing the Creeping
Thistle consists in destroying the rootstocks, and this
can be done by the process of exhaustion — cutting off
all shoots that appear until the reserve of food in the
roots is used up. Faithful, systematic work will in
this way almost certainly have the desired effect, and
it is this principle which is involved in the statement
that " the growth of a couple of root crops in succession
where the weed is very prevalent in arable land is a
sure plan of getting rid of this most troublesome agri-
cultural pest."1 In root crops the hoe must be kept
regularly at work ; it is not enough merely to prevent
seeding : the new shoots must be prevented from at-
taining any size and strength, the end in view being to
encourage the roots to throw up successive batches of
shoots for the hoe and the sun to destroy.

Other species of Thistles which occur in arable land
may be similarly attacked, but except in the case of the
Corn Sow Thistle (p. 101), creeping rootstocks do not
make the process so difficult.

Coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara L.), known also as Foal's-
foot, is undoubtedly one of the most troublesome weeds
of arable land, and questions are frequently asked as
to its eradication. It produces a dense mass of creep-
ing rootstocks, and is one of the few plants, like Butter-
bur, which send up their flower stalks before the leaves.
Thick flowering stalks, 4 to 1 2 inches high, and bearing

1 Leaflet No. 166, Bd. Agric,

88

COMMON WEEDS

many scaly bracts, appear during the months of
February or March and April, and at the summit of
each is a yellow head of flowers, over i inch in
diameter (Fig. 22). In the bud stage the heads are
drooping. In the seeding stage the heads are covered

Photo, 1909.

H. C. Long.

FIG. 22. — Coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara L.), as seen in March, and showing the
extensively creeping rootstock.

with a soft snowy pappus. The flowers are followed
by large stalked leaves (Figs. 2 and 23), often nearly a
foot broad, tf cobwebby " above, and covered with dense
white down beneath ; the leaves continue during
summer to manufacture food material for storage in
the creeping rootstock for the production of flowers in

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 89

the next year. They are somewhat like a foal's foot
in shape, hence the names of the plant.

Coltsfoot is especially a weed of moist or wet stiff
soils, particularly if calcareous, an abundance of lime
appearing to be favourable to it. The weed is very
harmful for two reasons : (a) The extensively creeping
rootstock monopolises the ground to the detriment of
the cultivated crop ; and (b) the large broad leaves
cut off the light supply from the young growing corn

Photo, 1909. H. C. Long.

FIG. 23. — Piece of ground infested with Coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara L.),
showing the leaves beginning to cover the ground after flowering is nearly
over.

or other plants. Several methods of attacking Colts-
foot may be followed: (i) The flowering stems must
be sought and cut early in the year in order to pre-
vent seeding — this operation is of great importance,
for as it is useless to lock the stable after the horse is
stolen, so it is a poor plan to cut the leaves of Coltsfoot
and dig out the rootstocks while seeding is permitted ;
(2) if the leaves appear in the cultivated crop they
must be repeatedly cut off, this procedure tending to
exhaust the reserves of food in the rootstock and pre-

90 COMMON WEEDS

vent the manufacture and storage of fresh material ;
(3) fairly deep draining may be necessary, for Colts-
foot does not flourish on dry soils ; (4) deep plough-
ing and cultivating, during hot weather, with the
removal of the rootstocks, will materially reduce it ;
(5) the amelioration of the soil by the use of sand,
ashes, and long farmyard manure will render the task
of extirpation more easy ; (6) the growth of dense
crops like maize and vetches tends to reduce it, since
it requires a good light supply, which is cut off by
such crops.

Corn Chamomile (Anthemis arvensis L.) is a hairy
annual of arable land, especially of cornfields. It is
i to 2 feet high, " usually erect from a decumbent
base," and much branched. The leaves are much
divided into short linear segments, almost hair-like ;
and the flower heads are on long stalks, the outer
florets being white, and having styles ; the central or
disk florets are yellow. The receptacle of the flower
head of this and following species has small, thin,
membranous bracts upon it among the flowers.
Flowering takes place between June and August.

Stinking Mayweed or Stinking Chamomile (Anthemis
Cotula L.) much resembles the last species, but is a
few inches shorter, with thinner flower stalks. The
leaves are more cut into hair-like segments and dotted
with glands, and the plant has a strong foetid odour.
The white ray florets are usually barren — without
styles. It is an acrid weed, the crushed foliage often
blistering the hands of those who gather it. This weed
(Fig. 24) is often very troublesome in arable land,
especially cornfields. It is annual, and flowers between
June and September.

Wild Chamomile (Matricaria Chaniomilla L.) is also
a common annual weed of cornfields, flowering from

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 91

June to August. The plant is much branched, and in
general appearance resembles A. arvensis and Matricaria
inodora, but is smooth. The leaves are bipinnate, and

FIG. 24. — Left : Corn Marigold (Chrysanthemum segetum L. ), x \,
Right: Stinking Mayweed (Anthemis Cotula L.), x£.

divided into narrow hair-like segments ; the flower
heads, in corymbose clusters, are only \ to f inch in
diameter, with an outer row of white florets, and a
central yellow disk. The receptacle of the flower head

92 COMMON WEEDS

is hollow and conical, and there are no bracts among
the flowers.

Scentless Mayweed (Matricaria inodora L.), also called
Corn Feverfew and Horse Daisy, is a common annual
or biennial weed of arable land and waste ground on
all soils (Fig. 25). The stem is branched and angular,
the leaves much cut and hair-like, and the heads soli-
tary, and larger than in M. Chamomilla, being 2 inches
in diameter. The whole plant is odourless, or nearly
so. Flowering lasts from June to October.

These four weeds may all prove troublesome if
allowed to seed, and, as all are annual or biennial, the
chief method of reducing them consists in preventing
seeding. This may be done by hoeing and surface
cultivation in spring, by pulling up the growing plants
so long as practicable in standing corn, and by the
growth and thorough cultivation of root crops — two
in succession if necessary.

Corn Marigold or Yellow Ox-eye (Chrysanthemum
segetum L.) is a beautiful but destructive annual weed,
i to ii feet high. It (Fig. 24) is smooth, light grey
in appearance, and little branched. The leaves are
somewhat oblong, toothed and lobed, the lower pinnate
and stalked and the upper clasping the stem. The flower
heads are golden-yellow, including the outer or ray-
florets, and nearly 2 inches across ; they open between
June and September, or even October. The " seeds,"
which are produced in large numbers, are very light,
and easily blown from field to field ; they are said
also to lie dormant like the seeds of Charlock ; by
reason of these facts the weed is very difficult to
extirpate completely. Both seeds and flower heads
are stated to be poisonous, and chaff containing many
should be burnt and not given to stock. Thaer states J

1 Landw. Unkrduter.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 93

that the seeds pass through the digestive system of

Photo, 1909. H. C."Long,

FIG. 25. — Scentless Mayweed (Matricaria inodora L.).

the horse and other animals without losing their

94 COMMON WEEDS

vitality, and suggests that where chaff contains only a
few it should be steamed before use.

The Corn Marigold is often very troublesome, especi-
ally on sandy and loamy soils, and in 1907 it was
reported to the Board of Agriculture as doing much
damage at Northallerton. " An attempt had been
made to eradicate it by taking four successive green
crops, but the weed was stated to be as flourishing as
ever. The present year has been very favourable to
its growth, and it has practically destroyed 2 acres
of barley and nearly destroyed a third, the 2 acres
being so bad that harvesting of the crop was not
attempted." ]

This weed was troublesome to farmers a century ago.
"This plant (C. segetum) may still be found in our corn-
fields, although careful farming has greatly diminished
its places of habitation, and shortly it may find the
garden its only place of refuge. It is a very trouble-
some weed to the farmer, particularly in the turnip
fields of Norfolk, on a sandy soil. In Denmark there
is a law to oblige farmers to root it up out of their
fields ; and Threlkeld states, in 1727, that in Britain
" Maunour courts do amerce careless tenants who
do not weed it out before it comes to seed," a
laudable practice worthy of being retained.2

Where the Corn Marigold occurs some trouble will
be necessary to bring about its extermination, or even
a great reduction in its numbers.

As the " seeds " occur in seed corn, and in samples
of red clover, sainfoin, and other grasses, an obvious
means of preventing infestation on clean farms is to
ensure a clean seed supply.

Where the Corn Marigold is a pest, care should

1 Jotir. Bd. Agric., December, 1907.

2 Sowerby's English Botany r, Ed. 3, vol. v. p. <o.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 95

be taken to destroy all seeds in chaff and thrashing
refuse before giving these to stock. Thorough steam-
ing or cooking will suffice for this purpose. All waste
from thrashing which is not given to stock should be
burnt.

Should the weed be present on a farm, the seeds
should be encouraged to germinate in spring, and the
young plants destroyed by hoeing and surface cultiva-
tion. Later, hand pulling should be resorted to in
corn crops ; and since the object is to prevent seeding,
the removed plants should be burnt, for, as Fream says, of
this plant,1 " It is possessed of great vitality, and when
pulled up and thrown aside, does not perish and
decompose, but continues growing and ripens its
seed." As to the effect of lime, see pp. 41, 151.

A good practice is to take two or more root crops
in succession, these enabling free and continued
hoeing, and the consequent destruction of young
plants which may be encouraged to grow by surface
cultivation. As the seeds appear to possess great
vitality it may be needful to combat this weed for
some years in succession, the chief object being always to
prevent seeding of the plants which appear. It would be
well for neighbouring farmers to co-operate in de-
stroying this as well as other weeds.

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) is a strong -scented,
shrubby perennial 2 to 3 feet high. The leaves are alter-
nate on the stem and much divided, the segments
being toothed ; the lower leaves are stalked, but the
upper clasp the stem. The heads are small, ij inch
in diameter, dull yellow in colour, and arranged in
corymbose clusters, somewhat like umbels. The flowers,
which have been described as button-like, appear in
August and September. In arable land this weed may

1 Complete Grazier, p. 858.

96 COMMON WEEDS

usually be kept within bounds by thorough and "clean"
cultivation.

Marsh Cudweed (Gnaphalium uliginosum L.) is a small
branched annual weed of 3 to 6 inches high. It is woolly
or cottony, of a delicate silvery-white colour, and has
small, narrow leaves which reach beyond, or over-top,
the terminal clusters of small sessile heads of flowers,
which open between July and September. This weed
is common in arable land, more especially perhaps in
cornfields, where, being small, it has a better chance of
appearing. It favours damp, light sandy soils, " especi-
ally where water has stood during winter" (Johns).
Although small it may, if very plentiful, do some
damage by crowding the roots of corn and other crops.
It may be reduced by hoeing and thorough cultivation.
(See also p. 187.)

Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris L.) is a weed of almost all
soils, and is especially prolific and plentiful on good
land. It may sometimes occur in gardens and on rich
arable fields in almost incredible quantity, completely
smothering any young crop. As a green food for cage
birds it is almost as well known by townspeople as by
dwellers in the country. Groundsel (Fig. 26) is a succu-
lent branched annual, 6 to 1 5 inches high, with ragged,
coarsely toothed and cut leaves; the small heads of yellow
flowers, i inch in diameter, are placed several together
in clusters, each head on a short stalk. In the fruiting
stage the short pappus hairs give the heads the appear-
ance of silky balls. This weed flowers almost all the
year round, one plant continuing to produce flowers
and seeds for some months. Growth is rapid, and, if
permitted, the plants quickly produce silky ribbed fruits,
which are widely scattered by the wind.

Groundsel must be combated in gardens by the
repeated and vigorous use of the hoe while the plants

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND

97

are still seedlings. In field cultivation both the horse
and hand hoe must be kept busy in root crops.

Photo, 1908. H. C. Long.

FIG. 26. — Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris L.), flowering plant and seedlings,

Nipplewort (Lapsana communis L.) is a common
annual weed of cultivated land, hedgerows, and waste

G

98 COMMON WEEDS

ground, and occurs also on the borders of grass fields.
It appears to grow best on loamy and clayey soils.
Nipplewort (Fig. 27) is a slender, branched weed i to 4
feet in height, and contains a milky juice. The upper
leaves are small, entire, and scattered, while those at
the base contract into the stalk, and are thin and lobed,

FIG. 27. — Nipplewort (Lapsana communis L.), x about \.
i. Floret ; and 2. Achene, x about 2.

the terminal lobe being large. The heads of few yellow
florets are J inch in diameter on slender stalks. The
pale brownish-yellow fruits often occur as an impurity
in clover and grass seeds.

This weed is easily kept within bounds by thorough
cultivation and the free use of the hoe, combined with
hand pulling where it occurs among corn crops or in
young clover or " seeds."

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 99

Wild Chicory (Cichorium Intybus L.) or Succory, the
cultivated form of which is so extensively used for the
manufacture of chicory for admixture with coffee, is a
stout perennial, rather rough, with large tapering fleshy
roots. It occurs on waste ground and roadsides
throughout England, but is " rare, if native, in Scot-
land and Ireland" (Hooker). The stem is i to 3 feet
high, alternately branched, tough, angled and grooved ;
the stem leaves are small, more or less oblong-lanceo-
late and clasping the stem, but the lower leaves are 6
to 8 inches long, and resemble those of the Dandelion ;
and there are many heads, i to ii inch in diameter, of
delicate, bright blue flowers, the individual florets of
which are clearly five-toothed. The flowers appear
between July and October, and usually close about
mid-day. An average plant is stated l to produce about
3,000 seeds.

Chicory may sometimes be found troublesome on
arable land, especially on light sandy or calcareous
soils, and in districts where the plant has been culti-
vated in the past. The seeds occur as an impurity in
samples of clover seeds and Italian ryegrass. It should
be attacked by careful and persistent spudding to pre-
vent seeding or even strong growth above ground ; by
removal of the roots during ploughing and cultivating
operations ; shortening the rotation, taking more root
crops, which should be persistently hoed. It has been
said that " Chicory is not often seen in good farming
districts except as a wayside weed." 2

Annual Sow Thistle (Sonchus oleraceus L.) is fre-
quently very troublesome in arable land, and appears
to grow most freely on medium sandy and calcareous
soils. In gardens, too, it is often much too common,

1 Ont. Agric. Coll., Bull. 128.

2 Farm Weeds, Dept. Agric., Ottawa.

IOO

COMMON WEEDS

This Sow Thistle (Fig. 28) is an erect annual, i to 3 feet
high, with a tubular grooved stem, branched, smooth

and shiny, and
" bleeding " with a
milky juice when
broken. The lower
leaves are stalked
and much lobed, and
the upper ones are
lobed or entire,
angular and toothed,
and clasping the
stem. The crowded
heads of yellow
flowers are smooth
or slightly cottony,
nearly i inch in dia-
meter, and appear
between June and
September. The pale
brown fruits are
attached to a feathery
pappus, by means of
which they are borne
away by the wind
and distributed far
and wide.

Wherever the
Annual Sow Thistle
occurs the chief ob-
ject is to prevent
seeding ; this end
may be attained by

cutting down the young plants with the hoe as fast
as they appear, and pulling out by hand any which

Photo, 1908.

H. C. Long.

FIG. 28.— Annual Sow Thistle (Sonchus
oleraceus L.).

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 101

may escape notice and reach the flowering stage.
The latter may be most easily effected after rain has
softened the ground. Surface cultivation in spring,
so frequently recommended in these pages against
annual weeds, will destroy many seedlings. In root
crops as well as in garden cultivation the regular and
thorough hoeing which is usual suffices to keep down
the weed.

The Perennial or Corn Sow Thistle (Sonchus arvensis
L.) is a much more troublesome weed than the species
mentioned above, since it is propagated both by seeds
and by a creeping rootstock. The stem is 2 to 4 feet
high, but little if at all branched, and tubular and
angular ; the leaves are wavy and toothed, almost
spinous, but very variable ; the heads of the yellow
flowers are somewhat hairy, and i to 2 inches in dia-
meter. This weed is spread by seed as in the case
of S. oleraceits, but it does not bloom so early, not
until August and September, when the annual species
is scattering its seeds. It is a vigorous grower, and
is stated to be one of the most aggressive enemies
of the Canadian farmer.

The Corn Sow Thistle occurs on all soils, and often
causes great loss. It must not only be prevented from
seeding, but the creeping rootstock must be destroyed.
Both may be accomplished as in the case of the
Creeping Thistle (p. 87), but rather more easily,
S. arvensis appearing to be less resistant to tillage
operations than Cnicus arvensis.

A short rotation, with the free use of the hoe in
two or three root crops, kills it, and it is destroyed
by laying down the field to grass for a few years.

In Canada buckwheat appears to be a useful ally
in keeping down this weed, and a writer has lately
described the plan followed in order to keep down the

102 COMMON WEEDS

pest.1 The infested land is " disked," cultivated, and
harrowed when dry, and buckwheat sown afterwards
in June, the resulting crop tending to smother the
perennial Sow Thistle. Seeding is prevented ; autumn
ploughing follows, and any young plants (seedlings)
are prevented from sending out lateral rootstocks.
Following this, a mangold, turnip, or other crop, by
which the growth of rootstocks can be prevented, is
taken. In a lucerne crop the weed is prevented from
seeding by cutting it down at least three times during
summer.

CONVOLVULACE^:

Field Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.), known also
as Small Bindweed, Bearbine or Bethbine, is a beautiful
but very harmful perennial weed, occurring in corn-
fields and waste places on almost all soils, especially
those of a medium or sandy nature. The stem (Fig.
29) is slender, twining, and leafy, the leaves being
rather variable, but always more or less arrow-head
shaped ; the large handsome and fragrant flowers are
solitary or 2 to 3 together, an inch across, funnel-shaped,
usually pink or whitish-pink, rarely white ; the roundish
capsules are two-celled, each cell containing two seeds.
The rootstock is slender and brittle, and creeps ex-
tensively and deeply underground.

This weed trails along the ground over and among
low-growing crops, robbing them of food, moisture,
light and air, or climbs among corn and other tall crops,
pulling them down, preventing the ripening of corn,
and causing a reduced yield. It hampers harvesting
operations, and in unsettled weather may cause much
loss in view of the fact that stacking cannot take place
until the weed is sufficiently dried in the sheaf.

1 Fanners' Advocate, October 7, 1909.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 103

Photo, 1909. H. C. Long.

FIG. 29. — Field Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.).

Great Bindweed or Bearbine (Convolvulus septum L.)
is somewhat similar to the last species, but the climbing
stems are much longer, frequently over-topping hedges.

io4 COMMON WEEDS

The creeping rootstock is stout and fleshy (Fig. i, b),
the leaves are 3 to 5 inches long, arrow-shaped or heart-
shaped, with lobes at the base, and the large flowers,
2 inches in diameter, are usually white and solitary
(Fig. 30). The flowers open in fine weather from
June or July to October, chiefly in the earlier part of
the day ; with other species C. septum is in North
America aptly named " Morning Glory."

This Bindweed or Convolvulus is not so much a pest
of the farm as of the garden, and, while its chaste
beauty is deserving of a place in the " wild garden,"
it is most harmful in hedges and among garden crops,
among which it climbs, strangling and starving them
by the sheer vigour of its growth. Bush fruit trees,
peas, broad beans, and similar crops are often observed
to be covered with Great Bindweed, and in 1909 wre
saw a hedge which was almost hidden, and likely to be
much damaged, by the foliage and climbing stems of
the weed.

The rootstocks of these two pests run deeply in the
soil, spreading in all directions, and breaking easily,
each small piece soon becoming a fresh plant. It is
only by the exhaustion or removal of the rootstocks
that the weeds can be eradicated, and this necessitates
much care, patience, and expense. In field cultivation
the best means of destroying C. arvensis undoubtedly
lie in short rotations with extra root crops, and per-
sistent thorough hoeing to exhaust the root system
and prevent seeding. During tillage operations, with
deep ploughing and cultivating, many of the rootstocks
can be collected by the harrows or by hand, after which
they should be burnt. Small patches may be dug
out with the fork ; no small pieces should be left. The
more the rootstocks can be turned up and sun-dried by
fallowing in summer, the more likely will the pest be

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 105

FIG. 30.— Great Bindweed (Convolvulus sepium L.), x £.

reduced. Only pure seed free from the seeds of Bind-
weed should be sown.

106 COMMON WEEDS

In regard to garden cultivation, although the Creep-
ing Thistle and Couch appear to be killed by deep
trenching, followed by continued good cultivation and
the free use of the hoe, it is advisable to remove all
the rootstocks of C. septum that can be found every
time the garden is dug. Between whiles thorough and
frequent hoeing should be practised, and if the weed
happen to climb a gooseberry bush or a raspberry
cane it should be promptly cut off below before flower-
ing is accomplished and seeds are shed.

BORAGINE.E

Viper's Bugloss (Echium vulgare L.) is a handsome
annual or biennial, sometimes plentiful on arable and
waste land, more especially on calcareous and light
soils. The root is spindle shaped ; the stem is i to 3
feet high, erect, stout, and leafy ; and the leaves at the
base narrow and stalked, those on the stem sessile and
lanceolate or oblong. The flowers, reddish in bud and
bright blue when open in June to August, are f inch
long, tubular or funnel-shaped, with five rounded
spreading lobes ; they are in compound spikes, the
small lateral components of which are curved and
spring from the axils of the leaves. The whole plant
is rough and bristly.

In Britain this plant is not perhaps usually very
troublesome, but it is a " noxious " weed for the
Dominion of Canada, It is easily destroyed by good
cultivation and by hand pulling.

Bugloss (Anchusa arvensis Bieb.) is a rough, bristly
annual, 6 to 18 inches high. The stem is simple and
angular, the lower leaves stalked and somewhat lan-
ceolate, while the upper are sessile, narrow, oblong,
and waved and toothed ; and the small blue flowers,

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 107

opening in June and July, are in terminal curved
clusters. This weed occurs chiefly in cornfields and
waste places, especially on light soils. Should it prove
troublesome, hoeing and hand pulling will reduce it, as
will surface cultivation in spring.

Corn Gromwell (Lithospermum arvense L.), or Grey
Millet, is a small annual i to ij feet high, with a short
stem, narrow, somewhat lanceolate hairy leaves, and
short terminal clusters of small creamy-white flowers,
which open from May to July. L. arvense is most fre-
quent in cornfields and waste places ; it can be reduced
by the use of hoed crops, surface cultivation in spring,
and by drilling spring corn in place of autumn grain.

Field Forget-me-not (Myosotis arvensis Hoffm.), or
Scorpion Grass, is an annual or biennial weed which
grows freely on arable land. It is 6 to 18 inches high,
and rough, with spreading hairs ; the lower leaves are
small, oblong and stalked, and the upper are sessile ;
and the small, pale blue flowers, only \ inch in
diameter, are on long slender stalks in terminal loose
clusters. The flowers may be found from June to
August. This is perhaps the commonest of the Forget-
me-nots.

Parti-coloured Scorpion Grass (Myosotis versicolor
Reich.) is under a foot high, much branched and leafy
below, with linear-oblong sessile leaves and slender
leafless stalks. It bears lengthened clusters of minute
flowers, which are yellow at first and afterwards pale
blue. It is an annual, and flowering occurs from April
to June. It is found on arable land on all soils.

The seeds of the Forget-me-not, especially those of
M. arvensisj occur as an impurity in clover and grass
seed samples. These plants may be eradicated by the
growth of hoed crops, and by surface cultivation in
the spring months.

io8 COMMON WEEDS

SOLANACE;£

Black or Garden Nightshade (Solatium nigrum L.) is
often very plentiful and troublesome in gardens which
have not been well cared for. It grows rapidly from
seed in spring and early summer ; the earliest plants
are in bloom by July, and bear fruit before August ;
flowering is prolonged until October. Seedlings con-
tinue to appear during the summer months. The plant
is an annual, and the only work necessary in regard to
its destruction is to hoe out all seedlings that appear
and prevent seeding for some years, when the weed
will disappear or be reduced so much that good garden-
ing will keep it in abeyance. Corners and shady places
must not be neglected, and rows of peas, runner beans,
and potatoes particularly need well hoeing, as Black
Nightshade grows well in shady positions, an odd plant
here and there becoming very bushy and producing
many seeds if it escapes observation. Should this weed
be plentiful on the farm the growth of well-hoed root
crops, with surface cultivation in the spring and early
summer, will be the best means of reducing it. (See
also p. 304.)

PLANTAGINE^:

Ribwort Plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) and Broad-
leaved Plantain (P. major L.) (see pp. 196-8) are both
common weeds of arable land, especially the latter.
They are perhaps not usually very troublesome on
arable land, though the seedlings of cultivated crops are
liable to be destroyed by them, and in young " seeds,"
or clovers and grasses intended for seed crops, Plan-
tains are often very harmful. Care should be taken
that seed samples are free from the seeds of Plantains,

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 109

and wherever the weeds appear they should be spudded
out. Thorough cultivation of root crops will reduce
them.

SCROPHULARIACE^

Yellow Toadflax (Linaria vulgaris L.) is seldom very
harmful, but occurs occasionally in arable land on
damp loams, and if inclined to grow strongly may be
some trouble, as it not only produces seeds, but is a
perennial with a creeping rootstock. It is an erect
plant i to 2 feet high, with narrow leaves i to 3 inches
long, and rather large tubular, spurred, yellow flowers
like those of the Snapdragon, with the upper and lower
lips lobed. The flowers are in dense spike-like racemes,
and appear from July to October. Yellow Toadflax is
in many localities a common weed by roadsides, and
in hedges and waste places. It should be prevented
from seeding by cutting, hoeing, or hand pulling, and
the creeping rootstocks should be removed during
tillage operations.

Corn Speedwell ( Veronica agrestis L.) is a low, spread-
ing annual, slightly hairy, with very small, stalked, and
somewhat heart-shaped serrated leaves ; its small, pale
blue flowers are borne singly in the axils of the leaves,
and open between April and September.

Ivy-leaved Speedwell (Veronica hedercefolia L.) is of a
similar habit and general appearance to the last species,
but rather larger. The leaves are cordate, with five to
seven large toothed lobes ; the pale blue flowers ap-
pear between March and August.

Veronica Buxbaumii Ten. is a common colonist in
cornfields. It has long hairy stems, stalked cordate-
ovate leaves, and large handsome blue axillary flowers.

These weeds, associated with other species of Speed-
well, commonly occur in arable land, especially corn-

no COMMON WEEDS

fields, crowding round the lower parts of the stems of the
cereals and other crops. The seeds of Veronica are
found as impurities in clover and grass seed samples.
Hoed crops and surface cultivation of corn crops in
spring are perhaps the best means of reducing them ;
clean seed should be sown.

LABIATE

Corn or Field Mint (Mentha arvensis L.) must be
classed as, in some districts, one of the worst weeds
of arable land. It is i to 2 feet high, with square
stems bearing opposite branches ; the leaves are ovate,
more or less serrate, shortly stalked, and opposite one
another in pairs ; the small lilac labiate flowers, which
open in August and September, are in dense whorls or
clusters in the axils of the leaves. The whole plant
(Fig. 31) is downy or hairy, has a strong smell, like
garden mint, when crushed, and is rapidly propagated
by extensively creeping rootstocks.

This weed grows freely in all damp soils, and is too
commonly found in cornfields and arable land generally.
It must be combated by draining ; by deep ploughing
and cultivation, followed by harrowing to gather the
creeping rootstocks, which should be burnt ; by the
growth of two fallow crops — e.g. potatoes and mangolds
—in succession, in order to give increased facilities for
tillage operations and hoeing ; by a short rotation
generally ; by smothering crops like vetches, or a heavy
crop of maize in the southern counties ; and if necessary
by paring and burning the surface soil. Fream says of
this pest,1 " It will always be best conquered by cor-
recting those defects of the soil which encourage its
growth — by draining and paring."

1 Complete Grazier, p. 856.

/

Photo, 1909. /• C. Varty-Smith.

FlG. 31. — Field Mint (Mentha arvensis L.).

H2 COMMON WEEDS

Corn Woundwort (Stachys arvensis L.) is not commonly
harmful, but is an annual found in cornfields and arable
land, and it may occur too plentifully. It is 6 to 1 8
inches high, branched from the base, somewhat hairy,
with small, nearly heart-shaped leaves under i inch long,
the lower ones being stalked and the upper ones sessile,
and small, pale pink flowers, four to six in a whorl, in
terminal spikes. Flowering continues through a long
period, April to November, and this necessitates atten-
tion for some months when the weed is plentiful.
Surface cultivation in spring and early summer, hand
pulling later in corn crops, and thorough hoeing of
root crops should be all that is necessary to cope with
this weed.

Hemp Nettle (Galeopsis Tetrahit L.) is sometimes
plentiful in arable land, chiefly in cornfields, on sandy,
calcareous, and loamy soils. It is an annual herb, i to
3 feet high, stout and hairy, especially at the nodes,
which are thickened. The stem is square, the leaves
i to 4 inches long, ovate-lanceolate and coarsely
toothed, and on longish stalks ; the tubular, lipped
flowers are about i inch long, and usually rosy-purple
and white, but variable. The flowers open between
July and September. Closely allied to this species is
G. versicolor Curt., with yellow flowers having a purple
spot on the lower lip.

Red Dead Nettle (Lamium purpureum L.) occurs on
all soils on cultivated ground. It is 6 to 1 8 inches high,
with a square, often purplish stem, decumbent below
and branched from the base ; the leaves are stalked
and more or less heart-shaped ; and the flowers, which
may be found from April to October, are about \ inch
long, purple in colour, in crowded whorls at the
top of the stem. Like the previous species, it is an
annual.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 113

Henbit or Henbit Dead Nettle (Laniium amplexi-
caule L.) occurs in arable land and waste places,
especially on sandy soils. It is a small, branched
annual, under a foot high, with the lower leaves roundish
on long stalks, the upper kidney-shaped and clasping
the stem — hence the specific name amplcxicaule. The
flowers, which open from May to August, are small,
slender, downy, rosy or crimson, and in rather distant
whorls.

White Dead Nettle (Lamium album L.) is closely
related to the foregoing species, but the leaves are all
stalked, the whole plant is more or less hairy, the
flowers large, about i inch long, white, and in whorls
of six to ten. The rootstock is branched and creeping.
The flowers are found from May to December. This
Dead Nettle is a common weed of arable land and
waste places. It is perennial.

The four species described should all be eradicated
by persistent hoeing, hand pulling, the use of root
crops, and, in the case of Z,. album, the removal and de-
struction of the creeping rootstock. Surface cultivation
will destroy large numbers of the seedlings.

PRIMULACE^:

Scarlet Pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis L.), well known
as the Poor- Man's Weather-glass, from the habit of the
scarlet flowers of closing in dull and opening in fine
weather, is a widely distributed and abundant annual
of arable land, more especially on sandy and calcareous
loams. The small branched plant has stems 6 to 18
inches long, smooth, and more or less prostrate. The
leaves are small, sessile, nearly oval, and dotted beneath ;
the round scarlet flowers, opening in fine weather
between May and October, grow from the axils of

H

ii4 COMMON WEEDS

the leaves on long slender stalks ; the seed capsule is
the size of a small pea, and contains many triangular
blackish or brownish seeds. The ordinary tillage opera-
tions are sufficient to keep this little weed within bounds
on the farm ; if very plentiful, surface cultivation and
one or two well-hoed root crops will reduce it. In
gardens the free use of the hoe will suffice.

POLYGONACE.E

Persicaria, Redshank (Polygonum Persicaria L.) is a
large, freely-seeding annual, often very troublesome,
both in gardens and among cultivated field crops. It
occurs on most soils, especially those in good condition
and fairly moist. Redshank (Fig. 32) is i to 2 feet
high, smooth and shiny, branched, and has much
swollen nodes, the stem being reddish above. The
leaves are lanceolate, almost sessile on the stem, and
frequently have a black blotch in the centre. The very
small reddish or white flowers are in dense clusters or
spikes \ to i^ inch long (Fig. 32, e), and appear between
July and October.

In garden cultivation this weed must be kept under
by the use of the hoe, and by hand pulling any tall
plants which may escape by growing amongst potatoes
and similar crops. The chief thing is to prevent
seeding. In field cultivation well-hoed root crops,
surface cultivation in spring and early summer, com-
bined with hand pulling where necessary, will quickly
materially reduce Persicaria. Care should be taken
that the seeds are not introduced in dung or in clover
and grass seeds. The seeds need little moisture to
enable them to germinate. Persicaria is a nutritious
plant, and has been given to horses and cattle as a
green food. As shown at page 8, it contains a good

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 115

FIG. 32.— Persicaria or Redshank (Polygonum Persicaria L.) ; a. young seedling ;
t. seedling more advanced in growth ; c. and d. flowering plant ; e. raceme
of flowers. All x about \.

proportion of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and
lime. As to spraying, see p. 47.

Knotgrass (Polygonum Aviculare L.) may frequently

n6 COMMON WEEDS

be extremely troublesome among both corn and root
crops on practically all soils, while its seeds are
commonly found in clover and grass seed samples.
It is a smooth, prostrate annual, much branched from
the base, the branches sometimes reaching 3 feet or
so in length. The leaves are J to ij inch long, more
or less lanceolate or oval, sessile or shortly stalked,
with silvery, chaffy stipules at the base. Flowering
continues from May to October, the flowers being
minute, white, greenish, pink or crimson, and clustered
in the axils of the leaves almost the whole length of
the reddish stems.

Knotgrass or Knotweed (Fig. 33), known to farmers
also as Surface Twitch, Red Robin, or Hogweed, seeds
abundantly, and on some of the light sandy soils is
often found in almost incredible quantity, while it
also occurs in great abundance on soils highly manured
by sheep.1 Unless seeding be prevented it will be im-
possible to eradicate the weed. Where this weed is
very plentiful a short rotation should be adopted for a
few years, more frequent root or hoed crops affording
an opportunity to prevent seeding. Two fallow crops
in succession will be even better, and late turnips, or
maize in the south, will especially allow of surface
cultivation in the spring months to encourage the seeds
to germinate for destruction with the harrows. Owing
to the prostrate habit of the weed, hand pulling in
corn is difficult after the month of May.

Black Bindweed or Climbing Buckwheat (Polygonum
Convolvulus L.) is a most mischievous annual, often
confused with the more serious pest Field Bindweed
(Convolvulus arvensis) (see p. 102). The two weeds are
very similar in habit, the species at present under con-
sideration twining round the stems of cereals and other

i Complete Grazier.

FIG. 33. — Left : Knotweed (Polygonum Aviculare L.). Right: Black Bindweed
(P. Convolvulus^,.}. Both x§.

n8 COMMON WEEDS

plants, dragging them down and choking them out.
In root crops also Black Bindweed (Fig. 33) may be
very troublesome.

The slender twining angular stems are i to 4 feet
long; the leaves are somewhat heart- or arrow-shaped,
i to 4 inches long, and shortly stalked, with two thin
stipules where the stalk joins the stem ; and the flowers,
appearing from July to September, are very small,
greenish-white, in four- to ten-flowered loose terminal
or axillary clusters, each flower being on a very short
slender stalk, and giving rise to a rough, black, tri-
angular fruit or " seed." The flowers are quite different
from those of Field Bindweed, and the roots are fibrous,
not creeping as in the latter weed. The seeds are too
frequently found in samples of cereal grain, and as
many of them ripen long before harvest, they are also
plentifully shed in the field and reproduce the weed
in another year. " The seeds have considerable value
as feed for stock, for which reason screenings contain-
ing these and other weed seeds are often carried back
from the elevators by farmers and fed without grinding
or scalding, which is a dangerous practice." *

Black Bindweed may be combated in several ways :
(i) By ensuring a pure seed supply ; (2) by the surface
cultivation of corn crops as long as possible in spring ;
(3) by the use of the seed-catching box (p. 30) on
the reaper or binder at harvest time in order to destroy
as many of the seeds as possible ; (4) by harrowing
the stubble immediately after harvest, some time before
ploughing, in order to encourage the seeds to germinate,
when the young seedlings may be destroyed ; (5) by a
short rotation, the hoeing of root crops destroying
large quantities of the weed.

Docks (Rumex sp.), described at p. 201, are an espe-

1 Farm Weeds, Dept. Agric., Ottawa.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 119

cial bane of the farmer, and much time is required in
many districts to collect and burn the large tap-roots
which are turned up by ploughing and deep cultivation.
The plan of bodily removing the weeds during the
autumn cleaning, as well as during tillage operations in
spring, is perhaps the best that can be carried out. In
growing corn crops " docking," or pulling up the Docks
by hand or by means of the docking iron, must be
practised as long and as late as practicable. A short
rotation, with thorough and regular hoeing of root
crops, will materially reduce Docks, for, while well
grown Docks have great vitality, seedlings (Fig. 59) are
easily destroyed in hot sunny weather when loosened
from the soil. Hoeing is especially necessary late in
the year when seedlings are establishing themselves
before winter ; and Fream remarks that il were the
hoe used in the root crops later in the year — in the
autumn — seedling Docks and seedling Couch, which
become established after that time, would have little
chance of causing trouble." l The use of pure seed,
free from Dock seed, is essential.

Sheep's Sorrel (Rumex Acetosella L.), described at
p. 204, may sometimes be troublesome in arable land.
In such a case thorough tillage in hot weather,% with the
removal of the creeping roots and a good dressing of
lime (2 or 3 tons per acre), will reduce it. Hoeing
should be regularly carried out to prevent seeding and
to weaken the plants.

CHENOPODIACE^:

Goosefoot (Chenopodium album L.), also called Fat
Hen, Lamb's Quarters, or Meld-weed, and in Canada
and in the United States Pig- weed, is an erect branched

1 Complete Grazier.

I 20

COMMON WEEDS

annual i to 3 feet or more high (Fig. 34). The
leaves vary from i to 3 inches in length, and are
somewhat pointed, toothed, and narrow, with long
slender stalks. The very small greenish flowers appear
between July and September, and are borne in spiked

FlG. 34. — Goosefoot, Fat Hen (Chenopodium album L. ), showing young
plant (left), and flowering stem (right). Both x \.

clusters at the end of the branches and in the axils of
the leaves. The black and glossy seeds have been
likened by Percival to a flattened bun. It should be
observed that the whole plant is rather light green or
whitish in colour, having the appearance of being
powdered with a white or pinkish meal, due to small

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND

121

hairs tipped with a round translucent cell. The seed-
lings also are of a silvery-green hue (Fig. 35).

Goosefoot is a gross feeder, and grows most rapidly,
and attains its greatest size and vigour on good, well
manured soils, although it grows quite freely in waste

Photo, 1909. H. C. Long.

FIG. 35. — Seedlings of Goosefoot (Chenopodium album L.).

land. In gardens it is sometimes very plentiful, especi-
ally among potatoes and other root crops, and is liable
to crowd and choke out all kinds of crops unless
checked. In field cultivation root crops are too often
overrun by this weed. An abundance of seed is pro-
duced, and much of it may lie dormant in the soil
and germinate at unexpected times, while the seeds

122 COMMON WEEDS

are also found in samples of many species of clover
and grass seeds.

Spreading Orache (Atrip/ex patula L.) is a variable
mealy annual, occurring on all soils, and generally
found in similar situations to the last species. It may
be only 6 inches or as much as 3 feet high, " often with
the central branch erect and the rest prostrate, appear-
ing as if they had been bent down by force " (Johns) ;
the somewhat triangular leaves have two lobes at the
lower angles, or are entire and lanceolate ; the small
greenish flowers are in slender spikes of separate
clusters, and appear from June to October. The seeds
are very variable in size, the larger being dull, dark
brown and compressed, and the smaller darker, smooth
and shining.

Halberd-leaved Orache (Atriplex hastata L.) is an
annual closely resembling A. patula, of which it is by
some botanists considered a sub-species ; the lower
leaves are more halberd-shaped, and, as in the last
species, there are larger brown rough seeds and
others smaller, black and smooth.

These three species, together with several others
more or less closely resembling them, may largely be
destroyed in corn crops by surface cultivation in
spring, the seedlings being easily loosened from the
soil by harrows. Later, any plants which have escaped
observation should be hand pulled before flowering and
seeding takes place. In root and hoed crops generally
frequent and vigorous hoeing in hot sunny weather
when the plants are small, as in the seedling stage,
will easily destroy them. Pure farm seeds should
always be used.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND

EUPHORBIACE^

I23

Several species of Euphorbia are troublesome either
in field cultivation or in kitchen gardens. All are small
herbs with a milky juice.

A

Photo, 1909. jj. C. Long.

FIG. 36.— Petty Spurge (Euphorbia Peplus L.). Seedling and full-grown plant.

124 COMMON WEEDS

Sun Spurge (Euphorbia Helioscopia L.) occurs chiefly
in cultivated fields on sandy and clayey loams. It is a
smooth annual, 6 to 18 inches high, with simple or three-
branched stem. The leaves are somewhat oval, i to 2
inches long, rounded at the top ; the small flowers,
the male and female separate, are in golden-green,
five-rayed umbels, which are often repeatedly forked.
The seed capsules are three-lobed and three-seeded.
Flowering takes place from June to October.

Petty Spurge (E. Peplus L.) is a small annual, often
very plentiful in gardens or in field cultivation on
loamy soils. This species (Fig. 36) is under a foot
high, smooth, light green, with broadly ovate stalked
or sessile leaves, and repeatedly forked three-rayed
umbels of small greenish flowers, which appear from
July to November.

Caper Spurge (E. Lathyris L.), described at p. 309,
is a biennial which occurs both in garden and field.

Dwarf Spurge (E. exigua L.) commonly occurs in
cornfields. It is an annual of about a foot high, very
much branched from the base, with narrow leaves,
and three- to five-rayed umbels of flowers appearing
from June to October. The plant is very variable.

As regards eradication, it must be noted that all
species are only propagated from seeds, being annual or
biennial. Surface cultivation in spring and the free
use of the hoe will in general keep these weeds in
check, but it is important that seeding be prevented.

URTICACE.E

The Great (Stinging) Nettle (Urtica dioica L.),
dealt with more fully at p. 207, is often troublesome
along the borders of arable fields and in gardens.
It may best be destroyed by removing the extensively

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 125

creeping underground stems as thoroughly as possible
and giving a liberal dressing of salt.

Small (Stinging) Nettle (Urtica urens L.) differs
from the last species in being an annual, much smaller,
and smooth except for the stinging hairs. The leaves
are ovate-oblong and coarsely serrated, and the spikes
of flowers are J to i inch long. This is a common
nettle, and should be attacked by regular cutting to
prevent seeding.

LILTACE.E

Crow Garlic or Wild Onion (Allium vineale L.), de-
scribed at p. 209 as a serious pest in grass land, is quite
as troublesome in arable- land. We have been told
of a stretch of country near Peterborough, miles in
length, on which a variety of soils are badly affected
with this weed, the farmers of the locality having tried
all tillage operations in vain in their efforts to subdue
the pest. Repeated and costly hoeing appeared to be
useless. As will be observed at p. 209, the weed
spreads with great rapidity.

In connection with the eradication of this pest, the
following suggestions may be made: (i) In small
areas the bulbs may be dug out by hand as fast as
they appear — this will in the long run be better than
a great extension of the pest ; (2) two root crops in
succession, say potatoes and mangolds, with both deep
and shallow ploughing in the intervals, will give little
or no rest for the Wild Onion, and thorough and
repeated hoeing of the crops should go far to reduce
it ; (3) the growth of a heavy crop of vetches or maize
would also greatly assist in checking it ; (4) a heavy
dressing of gas-lime worked into the land should be
tried ; (5) the Woburn experiments * showed that spray -

1 Jour. R.A.S.E., 1900, 1901, and 1902.

126 COMMON WEEDS

ing with a 5 per cent solution of pure carbolic acid is
of value, and that Wild Onion on arable land may be
destroyed, or at least largely reduced by treatment with
such a solution, without injury to the soil for a subse-
quent corn crop. Pure carbolic acid (97 per cent)
can be purchased at 2s. to 2S. 6d. per gallon according
to quantity ordered, and if 100 gallons of the solution
be necessary per acre the cost for material would be,
say, 5 gallons of acid at 2s. 3d., or us. 3d.

Before treating a large area it would be well to
experiment on half an acre, using a Charlock spraying
machine to apply the liquid.

Field Garlic (A Ilium oleraceum L.) grows about a
foot high, with slender, solid, semicircular or nearly
flat leaves, and a loose head of pale green or brownish-
pink flowers. This species is reproduced in the same
manner as A. vineale, but is not usually a serious pest,
growing chiefly on the borders of fields. Similar
methods to those suggested for Wild Onion will prob-
ably get rid of it.

GRAMINE^E

Slender or Field Foxtail (Alopecurus agrestis L.), also
known as Black Bent or Hungerweed, is closely related
to the valuable Meadow Foxtail (A. pratensis L.), but is
annual. The spike-like panicle is frequently purplish,
more slender, not softly hairy but rough to the touch,
and each flowering glume bears a longish bent awn.
This grass (Fig. 37) is chiefly a weed of arable land,
especially cornfields on heavy soils, but will grow
strongly on many kinds of land. Fream says: tl Cases
are recorded in which fields of wheat have been quite
destroyed by this pest." It is an annual which flowers
from May to October, ripening its seeds chiefly towards
the end of summer.

Photo, 1909. /. C. Varty-Smith.

FlG. 37. — Slender Foxtail (Atopecurus agrestis L.).

128 COMMON WEEDS

Owing to its slender growth, its long period of
flowering, and the fact that it may occur freely amongst
wheat and other corn crops, Slender Foxtail is some-
what difficult to cope with. Yet much may be done
towards its eradication. Should a slender grass be
found plentifully in a corn crop, it should, even before
flowering, be submitted for examination to a com-
petent botanist, and if found to be Slender Foxtail
should be destroyed by hoeing and hand pulling. At
harvest time many seeds are shed during the operation
of binding or reaping ; this may be guarded against
to some extent by the use of the seed-catching box
referred to at p. 30. In the subsequent root crop
thorough cultivation and hoeing will destroy many of
the young plants which appear ; this is doubtless the
chief means by which this troublesome weed grass
may be reduced. As the seeds of Slender Foxtail not
infrequently occur in samples of grass seeds, the sowing
of such impure seeds should be carefully avoided.

Bent Grasses (Agrostis sp., especially A. slolonifera
Koch, and A. vulgaris With.), described at p. 217, are
often extremely abundant in arable land. The latter
species is in some districts the only " Twitch " which
is troublesome. Where these extensively creeping and
harmful grasses occur, they should be attacked in the
manner recommended in the case of true Couch (p.
132), but not by laying land down to pasture.

Wild Oat Grass or Havers (A vena fatua L.) is a
troublesome annual weed in cornfields, and most
noticeable in barley, as its presence among oats is not
readily observed. It resembles the cultivated oat in
general appearance, but the stem is smooth, with hairy
nodes or joints, and the spikelets, i inch long, contain
two to three flowers, the flowering glume of each bear-
ing a long, stout, bent and twisted awn, the base of

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 129

the awned " seed " being covered with reddish-brown
hairs. In the cultivated oat the spikelet contains two
or three flowers, only the lower of which is awned, and
that not always ; when present, the awn is straight.

Closely resembling this weed is the Bristle-pointed
Oat (A. strigosa Schreb.), the spikelets of which contain
two flowers : its flowering glume is more deeply divided
at the apex, the two segments being shortly awned.
Both the above species flower from June to August.

It is of the utmost importance that only pure seed
grain be sown, and seed corn from a field in which
either of these weeds have occurred should be banned.
Whenever they have been observed the succeeding
root crop should be thoroughly cleaned, and the seeds
which were shed before the corn crop was harvested
encouraged to germinate, after which the young plants
may be destroyed before they produce seed. Pure
seed and thorough cultivation of root crops will exter-
minate these weeds. In a barley crop the Wild Oats
may be removed by hand.

Annual Meadow Grass (Poa annua L.) is useful as a
component of grass land, but is an exceedingly trouble-
some and ubiquitous weed on arable land, in gardens,
and on gravel paths. This little grass (Fig. 38) is an
annual, 6 to 1 2 inches high, with weak spreading stems,
and green or purplish panicles, i to 3 inches long, of
small, almost sessile spikelets. Seed is produced abun-
dantly from April to September, or later. The plants
are often so small, that flowering and seeding goes on
among larger plants without being observed. In field
cultivation, surface tillage encourages the seeds to ger-
minate, after which harrowing -in hot weather will kill
the young plants. Hoeing of root crops usually keeps
the weed within bounds. In gardens the continual use
of the hoe should be practised, and care must be taken

I

130

COMMON WEEDS

to cut out every possible plant — none must be care-
lessly omitted. As to paths, see p. 349.

Photo, 1909. H. C. Long.

FIG. 38. — Annual Meadow Grass (Poa annua L.).

Rye-like Brome Grass (Bromus secaltnus L.) is an
annual or biennial weed grass, troublesome in leys and
corn crops. It is erect, i to 4 feet high, generally

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 131

smooth, with a spreading branched panicle 3 to 5 inches
long, bearing oblong, smooth spikelets } to } inch long,
containing five to ten awned flowers. Flowering and
seeding occur in June to July or August ; the seeds may
lie dormant in the soil for several years, and as they
require considerable moisture to enable them to ger-
minate, they often spring up unexpectedly in damp
seasons. The seed is also present as an impurity in
cereal and grass seed samples ; care should therefore
be taken to sow only pure seed.

The seeds may germinate in spring or autumn, at
which times an opportunity is offered to destroy the
young plants by ploughing under, or by harrowing
them out should dry, hot weather follow.

Smooth Brome Grass (B. racemosus L.) and Field
Brome Grass (B. arvensis L.) may similarly be trouble-
some in corn crops.

Bulbous Oat Grass (Arrhenatherum avenaceum Beauv.,
var. bulbosum Lindl.), also termed Onion Couch, Knot
Oat-grass or Pearl-grass, is a variety of Tall Oat Grass
met with locally in different parts of the country. It
is often extremely harmful in arable land, and especi-
ally in cornfields. The inflorescence is a panicle 6 to 12
inches long, with nearly erect roughish branches, and
pale shining spikelets about the size and appearance of
those of a small oat, the flowering glume bearing a
dark, twisted, bent awn. The rootstock creeps a little,
and is tuberous at the nodes, several " bulbs," " pearls,"
or " knots " occurring together like large beads on a
string, each " bulb " sufficing, if detached, to produce
a new plant. In addition, flowering occurs in June
and July, or later, and the tall stems growing among
corn crops readily scatter an abundance of seed, the
sowing of which it is impossible wholly to prevent.
As the " seeds" may be widely scattered at harvest

132 COMMON WEEDS

time, the precaution may be taken of using on the
binder or reaper the seed-catching box referred to at

P- 30

The chief means of reducing this pest, however, lies
in the removal or destruction of the bulb-like roots.
To accomplish this great care must be taken, as the
individual " bulbs " are readily separated by harrowing
and other tillage operations. All considered, it is per-
haps best, before a corn crop, to pick out the weed by
hand during autumn tillage operations, especial pains
being taken to gather single " bulbs " with the rest.
The same procedure may be adopted, if practicable,
before sowing spring cereals, and with even greater
certainty in the case of root crops. A short rotation,
with extra root crops, may largely reduce this weed,
for frequent stirring of the soil, and exposure of the
" bulbs " in hot weather, or during alternate frost and
thaw, lead to the destruction of much of the pest.
Continued hoeing of root crops as late in summer and
autumn as is possible "will also do it much harm. At
every possible opportunity, however, whether during
tillage operations or when hand hoeing root crops, the
" bulbs " should be hand picked. Should the pest be
so plentiful as to overrun a field, paring and burning
of the surface soil may in the long run prove the least
troublesome and least expensive plan. Odd corners
should not be neglected, or seeding may lead to re-
infestation of a field.

Couch or Twitch (Triticum repens L.), commonly
termed also Squitch, Scutch, Quack, or Whickens, is a
perennial weed grass which is perhaps in most parts
of Britain the worst weed of arable land. It seldom
reaches the flowering stage in arable land, except in
corn crops, but is recognisable by its extensive creeping
rootstock or underground stems (Fig. 39), which bear

FIG. 39.— Couch Grass (Triticum repens L.), showing extensive creeping root-
stock and flowering spike (centre), and for comparison the flowering spike of
Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. ). All x f

134 COMMON WEEDS

fibrous roots at the joints or " nodes," from which
flowering stems and leaves are sent up. Where Couch is
left undisturbed, or not systematically attacked, it may
form a thick mat or "couch" of these underground
stems, which are white in colour, and of the thickness of
coarse string. Such a mat of so-called " roots" may
effectively compete with the sown crop, and even pre-
vent more than a small yield being obtained. The
flowering spikes are constructed like those of a wheat
ear, but the spikelets are not so closely grouped. Unlike
those of ryegrass, the spikelets are placed flat on the
stem, and not sideways (Fig. 39).

Couch may be combated in two or three ways. The
laying down of the land to pasture is the most radical
and effective cure for Couch ; M< Alpine and Wright say
that in three years it will have totally disappeared after
this treatment.1

The general custom on the farm consists in frequent
shallow ploughing, followed by the use of cultivators,
heavy harrows, and chain harrows, in hot weather and
in autumn, in order to bring the plants bodily to the
surface, where they may be gathered together and
burnt. As even very small pieces may take root and
form new centres of infestation, great care should be
taken to collect as much as possible, and carry none on
implements to neighbouring fields. When the land is
dry a heavy roller may be employed to crush the soil
from the rhizomes. On heavy land this process of
ploughing and cultivating should be arrested in wet or
very dry weather, or more harm than good may be done,
owing to the repeated breaking of the creeping stems.

Where Couch or Twitch is very plentiful thorough
cleaning may usefully be followed by taking two root
crops in succession, when the regular hoeing which

1 Trans. H. and Agric. Soc., 1894.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 153

these should receive will help to weaken the young
shoots of Couch which may appear. Fream suggests
that were the hoe used in the root crops in the autumn,
seedling Couch, which becomes established after that
time, would have little chance of causing trouble.

Bare fallowing may in some cases be found necessary.
The growth of heavy crops of vetches, rape, or maize
has a good effect in reducing the weed by cutting off
the supply of light.

In this connection an American farmer states l that
" The great principle to be kept in view in destroying
Quack Grass is shade. Shade during the dry weather of
the late summer and early fall will take the life out of the
roots and leave them to decay and fertilise the soil. . . .
There are other valuable crops that do it, but corn
(maize) is the one which, on the whole, does the best
work. I think about 5 dollars per acre extra labour on
the corn (maize) field will destroy all except a few small
tufts of the Quack in one season. Then to make sure,
follow with corn the next year under somewhat less
rigorous, but still careful cultivation, and the eradication
will be complete."

Seeding of Couch plants in hedgerows should be pre-
vented by regular trimming.

In garden cultivation many advocate that Couch
should be completely forked out and burnt ; but if
thorough and deep trenching be practised, and the
Couch be placed at the bottom of the trench, it may be
effectively smothered, as the writer has proved. The
passage from The Times, quoted at p. 4, adequately
supports this statement.

On extensive farm lands the Couch removed from the
fields need not be burnt, so destroying much valuable
organic matter, but may be built up into stacks and

1 E. M. Barton in The Breeders' Gazette, July 21, 1909.

136 COMMON WEEDS

mixed with a proportion of lime to form a heap of
useful compost.

See also Agrostis sp. (p. 128), and Arrhenatherum
avenaceum, var. bulbosum (p. 131).

EQUISETACE^:

Horse-tail (Equisetum arvense L.) is quite as trouble-
some in arable as in grass land (see p. 228). In arable
land it must be attacked by deep draining if necessary,
followed by a thorough system of cultivation. The
regular and persistent cutting of the young spore-bear-
ing shoots in March before fructification has occurred,
and of the barren green stems later, will have some
effect in reducing it. Deep draining and two heavily
manured root crops, followed if need be by a smother-
ing crop like vetches or maize, is perhaps the most
satisfactory method of dealing with Horse-tail.

Weeds in Orchards on Arable Land. — The question
of destroying weeds in tilled orchards is deserving of
further consideration in particular instances. As a
general principle such orchards in Britain should be
regularly weeded ; but in tropical countries, where alter-
nate influences of baking sun and heavy downpours of
rain are experienced, the economy of thorough weeding
has been questioned.1 Dr. Watts drew attention to the
good effect on the tilth of the land which is brought
about in tropical orchards as the result of allowing the
weeds to grow to a certain height and then cutting
them down, leaving them as a surface mulch. It may
be suggested that a similar practice would not be out of

1 Dr. Francis Watts, "The Treatment of Soils in Orchard Cultivation in
the Tropics " : West Indian Bulletin, vol. ii. p. 96. Also Agricultural Neius,
Barbados, June 12, 1909.

WEEDS OF ARABLE LAND 137

place in Great Britain in certain cases in which the
orchard is situated on a slope and subjected to heavy
rains during the heat of summer. The growth of a crop
of this kind beneath the trees prevents undue " wash-
ing" of the soil and loss of plant food, while it adds
steadily to the amount of humus present, and the roots
open up the soil to atmospheric influences. There
is certainly something to be said for such a procedure
as that here referred to, but we think the orchardist
can do better. Instead of allowing " weeds " to over-
run his ground — and serious pests may arise unless
care be exercised — he may usefully sow the seeds of
rape, lupins, or similar quick-growing crop, which will
serve quite as useful a purpose as the weeds, and if of a
leguminous character, will, when dug or ploughed in,
increase the stores of nitrogen in the soil.

" The face of Nature smiles serenely gay ;
And even the motley race of weeds enhance
Her rural charms : Yet let them not be spared ;
Still as they rise, unconquered, let the hoe
Or ploughshare crush them. In your fields permit
No wild-flower to expand its teeming bloom :
In wood and wild, there let them bud and blow
By haunted streamlet, where the wandering bee,
Humming from cup to bell, collects their sweets."

—JAMES GRAHAME, British Georgics, 1812.

CHAPTER V

WEEDS AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND

IN the case of arable land almost any kind of method
may be practised for the eradication of weeds, either at
the time of ploughing, and during the subsequent till-
age operations, or when the land is carrying a crop.
Where grass land is concerned, however, the chief
tillage operations are barred, and other methods must
be resorted to.

Grass land is commonly termed meadow land or pasture
land according as it is chiefly devoted to haymaking or
grazing, although meadow land may be grazed to some
extent, while in some districts the fields are alternately
grazed and reserved for hay. In general, too, any grass
land which has existed as such for many years comes
under the term permanent pasture.

Composition of the Herbage of Grass Land

The composition of the herbage of any grass land
will vary to a considerable extent, according as to
whether it be meadow, pasture, or hill grazing lands,
and also according to locality, variation in soil, and
aspect. Alterations in the herbage also arise in conse-
quence of good or bad management, and the mere
grazing with one or other of the various classes of live
stock may effect considerable alterations in the char-
acter of the herbage.

138

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 139

A considerable amount of investigation has been made
at various times into the botanical composition of the
herbage of permanent grass land, and it has been
demonstrated that many of Britain's best pastures con-
tain a considerable proportion of so-called weeds.

In an investigation conducted some twenty years ago,1
the late Dr. Fream showed that the species of plants found
growing in old pastures are not numerous. The plants
to which he refers in his paper number 31 grasses,
some of them, such as Holcus lanatus, being weeds,
8 leguminous plants, and 18 miscellaneous species
of weeds not grasses or clovers. In his subsequent
paper 2 he only found it necessary to mention 2 1
grasses, 5 leguminous plants, and 22 miscellaneous
species or weeds. In the complete investigation, which
involved the examination of 80 turves taken from
pastures in 28 English counties, 6 Welsh counties, 8
Scotch counties, and 1 1 Irish counties, the following
plants occurred the stated number of times in the
80 turves: —

Bent Grasses (Agrostis sp.) . . . . .76 times.

Yorkshire Fog (Holcus lanatus] . . . . 63 „

Buttercups {Ranunculus sp.) . . . . . 66 „

Narrow-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed (Cerastium
triviale) ......... 49

Common Sorrel, or Sour Dock (Rwnex Acetosd) . 32
Ribgrass, Ribwort, or Plantain (Plantago lanceolatci) 25

Hawkbits (Leontodon sp.) 19

Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris] 14

Daisy (Bellis perennis) 11

Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium} . . . .10

Excluding Yarrow, which under certain circumstances
is a useful plant, the remaining species include' the
really significant weeds present in the pastures, others

1 Jour. R.A.S.E., 1888, pp. 415-447.

2 Ibid., 1890, pp. 3S9-392-

140 COMMON WEEDS

being in very small quantities and not of such agri-
cultural interest. Many other weeds, however, were
found more than once. The complete list of " miscel-
laneous " species mentioned, comprising " weeds " apart
from grasses and leguminous plants, is as follows, in
alphabetical order : —

Achillea Millefolium L. . . Yarrow or Milfoil.

Bellis perennis L Daisy.

Bunium flexuosum With. . . Earth-nut.

Cardamine pratensis L. . . Cuckoo Flower.

Carduus sp Thistles.

Carex sp Sedge.

Cerastium triviale Link. . . Narrow-leaved Mouse-ear Chick-
weed.

Leontodon autumnalis L. . . Autumnal Hawkbit.

Leontodon hispidus L. . . . Rough Hawkbit.

Luzula campestris L. Field Woodrush.

Plantago lanceolata L. . Ribgrass, Ribwort, or Plantain.

Potentilla Anserina L. . . . Silver-weed or Goose Tongue.

Prunella vulgaris L. Self-heal.

Ranunculus acris L Upright Buttercup.

Ranunculus bulbosus L. . . Bulbous Crowfoot or Buttercup.

Ranunculus repens L. . . . Creeping Crowfoot or Buttercup

Rhinanthus Crista-galli L. . Yellow Rattle.

Rumex Acetosa L Common Sorrel or Sour Dock.

Rutnex crispus L Curled Dock.

Sonchus sp Sow Thistle.

Taraxacum officinale Web. . Dandelion.

Veronica Chamadrys L. . . Germander Speedwell.

The extent to which some of the weeds occurred in
the pastures was also ascertained ; it was found that
13 out of the 80 turves were composed to the ex-
tent of 50 per cent and upwards of "weeds," the
highest being 89 per cent, and the average of the 13
no less than 65 per cent. On the other hand, 28
contained only from o to 5 per cent of " miscel-
laneous " or weed herbage, while the remainder
(39) contained from 5 to 49 per cent. It must, how-
ever, be noted that the turves were growing under
somewhat unnatural conditions, and the weeds often

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 141

tended to become exaggerated, especially in the case of
Rumex Acetosa. In one case, 89 per cent of the
herbage consisted of weeds, but Dr. Fream remarked,
" This turf showed early signs of an abundant growth
of Achillea Millefolium, and at length it became smothered
with this plant to an extent which would never be
possible in continuously grazed land." In several cases
upwards of 70 per cent of the miscellaneous herbage
was Rumex Acetosa. Yet we find it stated that 5 acres
of a pasture in North Staffordshire, from which the turf
examined consisted of 67 per cent " miscellaneous "
herbage, the balance being 32 per cent grasses and i
per cent leguminous, would " fatten four shorthorn
barreners between the middle of May and the beginning
or middle of August in a fairly good season ; they will
afterwards fatten, say, a dozen or fifteen wether sheep."
In well grazed pastures, it appears, the bulky lt miscel-
laneous " herbage is kept down, and " under the normal
treading and grazing of stock, such species as Achillea
Millefoliuni) Leontodon sp., Rumex Acetosa, would never
make the display which characterised several of the
turfs."

In a report of some observations and experiments on
some English pastures1 Mr. William Carruthers (Con-
sulting Botanist to the Royal Agricultural Society)
refers to the examination of some of the pastures from
which Dr. Fream's turves were cut, and although he
did not come to the same general conclusions as Dr.
Fream, he found that weeds constituted in some cases
a large proportion of the herbage. For example, a
Dorset pasture carried 22 per cent of Ribgrass (Plan-
tago lanceolata), 9 per cent of Bugle (Ajuga reptans\ 8
per cent of Buttercup (Ranunculus acris), 4 per cent of

1 Jour. R.A.S.E , 1890, p. 95.

142 COMMON WEEDS

Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium), and 3 per cent of Knap-
weed (Centaurea nigra). In another case a Somerset
pasture carried 63 per cent of Ribgrass and 8 per cent
of other weeds. Mr. Carruthers concluded that of the
fourteen pastures he visited, not one " is so good as it
might easily be made. The extraordinary abundance
of such objectionable grasses as Yorkshire Fog and
Meadow Barley-grass in some of the pastures is sur-
prising." He further says, " A plant of Nature's
sowing on his (the farmer's) farm, where it should not
be, is a weed to be eradicated. ... In laying down
land to pasture, as in sowing fields with wheat or any
other crop, we must try to surpass Nature. We must
bring together the most nutritious perennial plants
which will supply palatable food for stock as far as
possible all the year round, and we must exclude the
weeds and worthless grasses which we have found too
abundant in natural pastures."

A later investigation into the composition of the
herbage of several types of pasture and meadow land,
especially fine old pastures in the Market Harborough
district of Leicester and Northampton, has been made
by Mr. S. F. Armstrong. His conclusions are of con-
siderable interest, and the more important points
deserve notice here. They are as follows : l —

1. That white clover and ryegrass form by far the
greater part of the herbage of the best grazing lands —
both old and recent in the English Midlands — and that
the next most abundant species on these pastures are
usually crested dogstail, fiorin (A. stoloniferd], and rough-
stalked meadow grass.

2. That the herbage of the inferior types of grass land
in the same districts consists very largely of bent grass

1 four. Agric. Sci., December 1907.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 143

(A. vulgaris) and various weeds, while white clover and
ryegrass are present in comparatively small quantities.

3. That the only other species of grasses which are
occasionally abundant in these pastures are cocksfoot
and sheep's fescue in the better fields, Yorkshire fog
and tufted hair-grass in the poorer ones.

4. That the herbage of a pasture varies botanically
to a considerable extent during a season, this variation
being, however, determined very largely by soil, situa-
tion, and weather.

5. That the choicest grazing land is invariably
associated with soil rich in available phosphates.

6. That on soils suitable for permanent pasture,
inferiority of the herbage is generally due either to
(i) a deficiency of available phosphates, or (2) to their
bad mechanical condition.

7. That herbage of the best grazing land may be
twice as rich in nitrogen and phosphate as that of
a poor pasture, and that this large difference appears
to be directly determined chiefly by the proportion of
white clover present, and indirectly by the percentage
of available phosphates in the soil.

8. That from the early part of June onwards the
percentage of nitrogen and phosphate in the herbage of
a pasture gradually decreases, while the proportion of
dry matter rapidly increases.

9. That the quantity of herbage available per acre
for grazing depends much upon the density of the
herbage, and that no plants appear to be more capable of
producing a dense growth of herbage than white clover
and ryegrass, providing the soil is suitable for them.

10. That the number of individual plants per acre
on the best old pastures, and necessary for the pro-
duction of a thick, close turf, is probably very much
less than is usually supposed.

i44 COMMON WEEDS

The Effect of Manures on Grass Land

In laying down land to permanent pasture the greatest
possible care should be taken to ensure a clean pas-
ture to start with, and thereafter much care should be
continued with a view so to manage the pasture that
"weeds" — worthless grasses and other plants — shall
be kept down. Nearly 150 years ago Stillingfleet
wrote : " If a farmer wants to lay down his land to
grass, what does he do ? He either takes his seeds
indiscriminately from his own foul hay-rick or sends to
his neighbour for a supply of a mixture of all sorts of
rubbish. Arguments in support of ancient customs are
never wanted. Some say that if you manure your
ground properly good grasses will come of themselves.
So they will ; but how long may it be, and why be at
the expense of sowing what you must afterwards try to
kill by manuring, as is the case with seeds from the
hay-loft." Stillingfleet's indictment of farmers for sow-
ing bad seed is fortunately not so applicable at the
present day, but his indication of the effect of manuring
is still true. As he suggests, however, it is foolish to
commence with a bad weedy pasture, on which much
labour must be expended to get it into good condition.

Where, however, a permanent grass field is found to
be in a weedy condition, much may usually be done to
remedy matters and to convert it into a creditable field.
Changes in manuring have a very great effect on the
percentage composition of the herbage, and this has
been conclusively demonstrated by experiment, while
many practical farmers have proved it frequently for
themselves.

Rothamsted Experiments. — In the Rothamsted experi-
ments upon grass land mown for hay every year since

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 145

1856 and not grazed since 1874,* it has been observed
that on the unmanured plots " there is no sign of
approaching exhaustion or great falling off in crop
from year to year." Yet there is an impoverishment
which " is more to be seen in the character of the
herbage than in the gross weight of the produce.
Weeds of all descriptions occupy the land, and the
relative proportion they bear to the grasses and
clovers has increased from year to year ; of late years
weeds have formed nearly one-half of the herbage."
The most prominent species among the weeds were
Burnet, Hawkbit, and Black Knapweed.

Where nitrate of soda only was regularly applied,
there appears to have been a gradual increase in the
percentage of weeds present, weeds forming in 1905
40 per cent of the herbage, while leguminous plants
were practically absent, and deep-rooting grasses, like
meadow foxtail and downy oat-grass, were promi-
nent. At the same time, there was a great increase in
the yield of hay compared with the unmanured plots.

With a continual application of ammonium salts alone,
the increase in crop, compared with the unmanured
plots, has been much less than with nitrate of soda. In
addition, shallow-rooted plants have been encouraged
until " the plots receiving only ammonium salts are
almost wholly occupied by Sheep's Fescue and Com-
mon Bent." On one plot Sorrel formed nearly 15 per
cent of the whole herbage ; and on this plot the con-
tinued action of the ammonium salts was so harmful,
that the application was discontinued in 1897 "lest the
turf should be entirely killed."

Three plots received mineral manures only, and where
a supply of phosphoric acid, potash, magnesia, and soda
has been given there has been no sign of declining fer-

1 A. D. Hall, The Book of the Kothamsted Experiments, 1905.

K

146 COMMON WEEDS

tility, no doubt because the freely-growing leguminous
plants (24 per cent of the herbage on the average)
have provided an ample supply of nitrogen. There is,
however, " a rather large proportion of Sorrel/' and
Yarrow is very abundant.

Where potash was omitted the average crop was less
by about one-fourth, and little more than half of that
on the plot to which potash was applied. The legu-
minous plants were much fewer than on the plot last
mentioned, and there was a proportionate increase in
weeds, the characteristic species being the Buttercup,
Black Knapweed, Plantain, and Yarrow.

When superphosphate only was continuously applied
the result has been disastrous, and Mr. Hall even goes
so far as to say that " the aspect of this plot, where the
most abundant grass is Quaking Grass, and where
weeds, chiefly Hawkbit, Burnet, and Plantain, are un-
usually prominent, would seem to indicate that the land
is more exhausted here than on the unmanured plot."
Again, a nitrogenous manure alone is often thought
exhausting, but probably the phosphatic manures used
singly will even more quickly impoverish the soil.

We now come to consider the effect of a complete
artificial manure. Where the complete phosphate-
potash-ammonium manure was given, on two plots the
average yields have been no less than 54 cwt. (ammonium
salts = 86 Ib. of nitrogen) and 65 cwt. (ammonium
salts =129 Ib. of nitrogen) respectively. Yet the hay
was not so good as on the plot receiving a complete
mineral manure, i.e. without nitrogen only, because in
the former case " the large amounts of nitrogen have
so stimulated the development of the grasses that legu-
minous plants have disappeared entirely, and even the
weeds are crowded out." On the plot receiving the
complete artificial manure an excess of the nitrogenous

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 147

manure had been used. The character of the hay
upon it may be judged when it is observed that 45 per
cent of the herbage consisted of Yorkshire Fog, and
52 per cent of False Oat Grass and Meadow Foxtail.

With a phosphate-potash-nitrate of soda manure the
result has been better than with the phosphate-potash-
ammonium manure. Not only were the deeper- rooted
plants encouraged, but the herbage was more varied,
and the percentage of leguminous- plants was higher.
On the plot to which nitrate of soda = 86 Ib. of nitro-
gen was applied, 23 per cent of the herbage consisted
(1903) of Soft Brome Grass, and 10 per cent of
Beaked Parsley.

The effect of lime was striking. On three plots, with
varying artificials, there was a considerable increase in
crop on the average of the first crops for three years.
There was, however, " a great increase in the propor-
tion of leguminous plants," the proportion on the three
plots rising from n, 22, and 3, to 20, 42, and 35 per
cent respectively. The differences in the action of the
lime were found to be due to the previous manuring
of the respective plots. On a plot which had only
received ammonium salts, and the herbage of which, as
already stated, contained 15 per cent of Sorrel, a strip
dressed with chalk in 1883 and 1887 was free .from
Sorrel. All grass land should receive an occasional
dressing of lime, say 10 cwt., every three to five
years.

In changing the artificials from ammonium salts to
minerals, the immediate result* was a great diminution
in weeds and an increase in grasses, followed by a
steady increase in leguminous plants and a correspond-
ing decrease in grasses.

A change from nitrate of soda to mineral fertilisers
had a similar result ; but the change was even more

148 COMMON WEEDS

rapid than in the last case, and the leguminous plants
attained a rather larger proportion.

The practical conclusions drawn from the results of
the Rothamsted experiments are given by Mr. Hall as
follows : —

" i. It is better to lay up the same land for hay each
year, grazing the aftermath only, and, in the same way,
always to graze other land rather than graze and hay
in alternate years. In this way we obtain the fullest
development of those grasses and clovers which are
suited to haying and grazing respectively.

" 2. For the same reason the system of manuring
once adopted should be varied as little as possible, for
even manures as similar as nitrate of soda and sulphate
of ammonia encourage different kinds of grasses.

" 3. On poor land any large expenditure on manures
will be wasted. The character of the herbage must be
slowly reformed. A full manuring is only utilised
when there are plenty of strong and vigorous grasses
or clovers among the vegetation.

" 4. Land which is growing hay requires a manure
which is mainly nitrogenous, whilst pasture requires a
mineral manuring.

"5. On strong loams with a good mixed herbage
a dressing of 10 to 15 tons of farmyard manure should
be given every fifth year. In the other years a winter
manuring (January or February) of 2 cwt. per acre of
superphosphate (basic slag on strong clay soils), and
3 cwt. of kainit, with ij cwt. of nitrate of soda when
the grass begins to grow, will be remunerative.

" 6. On light dry soils, either sandy or chalky, the
nitrogenous manures are the most important. Dung
and cake feeding the aftermath will best build up a
vigorous herbage, and until this is done it will not be
wise to spend much money on artificial manures ;

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 149

i cwt. of nitrate of soda, i cwt. of superphosphate, and
3 cwt. of kainit being about the best proportion in
which to employ them.

"7. On all old grass land an occasional dressing of
ground lime, at the rate of half a ton per acre, applied
in the early winter (best in the year following the dung-
ing), will sweeten the herbage and utilise the reserves of
past manuring."

In the case of some experiments conducted by
Professor Somerville on permanent grass land in
Cumberland,1 nitrate of soda in conjunction with
phosphate had a markedly repressing influence on
species of Agrostis, which are usually numbered
amongst the poorest grasses. Ribwort was also re-
duced, and so were leguminous plants ; but Yorkshire
Fog was greatly increased. Used alone, nitrate of soda
tended to encourage an inferior type of herbage, and
sulphate of ammonia produced more Agrostis and Rib-
wort. Superphosphate was found to reduce the percent-
age of Agrostis and Cocksfoot, but had no general in-
fluence on other plants. Kainit markedly increased the
yield of leguminous plants, and " almost as markedly
repressed the growth of Agrostis." As regards lime,
its application was found consistently to increase the
yield of Ribwort, but considerably to reduce the per-
centage of Agrostis and Yorkshire Fog.

These experiments have been discussed at length on
account of the extreme importance of the whole sub-
ject of the manuring of grass land and the changes
in the character of the herbage which such manuring
brings about.

The foregoing remarks conclusively show that very
much may be done in the way of suppressing weeds in

1 Jour. Bd. Agric., vol. vii. No. 2.

150 COMMON WEEDS

grass land by means of judicious manuring. Indeed,
Mr. Martin ]. Sutton states l that from the Rothamsted
experiments made by Sir J. B. Lawes and Sir ]. H.
Gilbert, and confirmed by his own experiments, " it has
been demonstrated that most of the annual and not
a few Of the perennial weeds can be, for all practical
purposes, eliminated from a pasture by applications of
combined mineral and ammoniacal salts." The stronger
grasses are encouraged and the weeds crowded out.

In general, farmyard manure should be spread on
the meadows, or haying land, rather than on the
pastures, which do not require nitrogen to the same
extent owing to the more extensive feeding of stock
thereon. Further, a judicious use of phosphates to
encourage clovers is especially useful on most heavy
soils, and leguminous plants will of themselves supply
nitrogen for the grasses.

Some weeds, e.g. Ragwort, are freely eaten down in
the young state by sheep, and cake feeding of stock,
even to a moderate extent, will prove of great value in
improving the type of herbage, and the treading of the
stock is in itself of much advantage.

Tall weeds like Thistles and Rushes should be regu-
larly mown or cut down with the thistle cutter, and a
thorough harrowing before manurial treatment is
resorted to is highly beneficial.

To ensure even growth of good herbage it is essential
that all grazing land should be eaten bare at least once
a year, in order to prevent the accumulation of coarse
tufts of unpalatable grasses. The spreading of droppings
should be thoroughly done as soon as possible, or the
development of ugly patches which stock refuse to
touch will certainly occur to the detriment of the
pasture.

1 Permanent and Temporary Pastures, 1908, p. 147.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 151

Certain weeds have already been specified (p. 27)
as indicative of damp soils, and where such weeds are
prevalent it will often be found that draining is neces-
sary before they can be eliminated. On damp, low-
lying pastures and meadows draining is almost certain
to effect an improvement in the herbage, especially in
conjunction with liming and judicious manuring.

Another matter to which attention may be directed
at this point is that many weeds are practically in-
tolerant of lime, which may therefore be effectively
used against them. Among such weeds may be men-
tioned Sheep's Sorrel (Rumex Acetosella), Common Sorrel
(R. Acelosa), Spurrey (Spergula arvensis), Corn Marigold
(Chrysanthemum segetum), Bracken or " Fern " (Pteris
aquilind), Heaths and Ling (Erica sp. and Calluna
vulgaris), and Foxglove (Digitalis purpured). Liming is
also useful in reducing Mosses, Bent Grasses (Agrostis
sp.), Yorkshire Fog (Holcus lanatus), and Wavy Hair
Grass (Air a flexuosd).

The weeds of grass land are dealt with individually
below.

It may be noted at the outset that the Natural Orders
contributing the largest numbers of weeds are the
Ranunculacece, Cruciferce, Caryophyllacece, Rosacece, Umbel-
liferce, and Composite, the last named being especially
prolific in weeds of a harmful character. It is con-
venient to deal with the weeds under their Natural
Orders : the latter are taken consecutively.

RANUNCULACE.E

Traveller's Joy (Clematis Vitalba L.). — This well-known
climbing plant is commonly termed Old Man's Beard,
from the tufted feathery appearance of the fruiting
stage ; it can only be included as a weed because of

152 COMMON WEEDS

its occurrence in hedges to the disadvantage of the
hedge proper. It appears to flourish best on chalky
soils ; the sweet-scented, greenish-white flowers appear
in July and August. It can in general be kept in
hand by cutting it out regularly when the hedges are
trimmed.

Meadow Rue (Thalictrum flavum L.). — Where this
plant occurs plentifully it may be a nuisance, as it not
only bears seeds, but is extended by a creeping root-
stock. It is not commonly a pest, but may become
troublesome in wet meadows and damp places near
ditches, where it is chiefly found. Meadow Rue grows
2 to 4 feet high, has pinnate leaves, and pale yellow
flowers crowded in pyramidal umbels, the flowers
appearing in July and August. The plant is perennial.
It should be exhausted by repeated cutting, and seeding
must be prevented ; at the same time the damp land on
which it occurs should if possible be drained.

Buttercups (Ranunculus sp.). — Four species of Ranun-
culus may be mentioned as occurring freely in pastures
and meadows : Upright Crowfoot or Acrid Buttercup
(R. acris L.), Bulbous Crowfoot or Buttercup (R. bul-
bosus L.), Creeping Crowfoot or Buttercup (R. repens L.),
and Lesser Celandine or Pile wort (R. Ficaria L.). All
have yellow flowers. The first named is a hairy
perennial without runners, with straight fibrous root-
stock, cylindrical flower stalks, and well opened flowers
| inch in diameter. It flowers from April to September,
and occurs on nearly all soils.

R. bulbosus (Fig. 40) is a hairy erect perennial with
a swollen bulb-like stem and no runners, and flowers
J to i inch in diameter, with the sepals reflexed so as
to touch the stem. Flowering takes place in May to
June — neither so early nor so late as R. acris. This
species appears to favour the lighter and more cal-

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND

153

careous soils. The Bulbous and Upright Crowfoots
are the common Buttercups of grass land. R. repens
(see p. 50) is chiefly a pest on arable land, but may
occasionally quite
suppress the ordinary
herbage of grass land.
It is easily distin-
guished from the fore-
going by its rooting
runners, by which it
rapidly spreads (Fig.
8). R. Ficaria differs
essentially from the
three species already
mentioned, in which
the leaves are much
lobed and segmented.
In Lesser Celandine
the leaves are chiefly
heart-shaped, and
largely spring from
the base of the plant
on long stalks. The
golden-yellow star-
like flowers are about
| inch across, and bear
eight to twelve petals
instead of five, as in
the case of the other
three species. The
plant is perennial, and its flowers appear between March
and May. This species is not often troublesome in
grass land. (See also p. 280.)

There is a tradition that Buttercups impart a good
colour to butter. They are, however, weeds, and out of

FIG. 40. — Bulbous Buttercup or Crowfoot
(Ranunculus bulbosus L. ), xj

154 COMMON WEEDS

place in pastures and meadows, especially so in land that
is not mown, for they are but seldom eaten by stock,
and are of an acrid or poisonous character (see p. 278)
in the green state. The milk of cows that eat them in a
fresh state becomes tainted. When dried and included
in hay they are freely taken and quite harmless. The
sowing of their seeds in impure grass and clover seed
mixtures should be avoided, and the tall flowering
stems should be cut down with the mowing machine
before seeding takes place. An attempt should be
made to reduce them by encouraging good grasses
and clovers by manurial treatment, and on heavy land
7 cwt. per acre of basic slag will do good ; on lighter
land superphosphate should be applied. Where R. re-
pens occurs it should be dragged out with harrows, or be
dug out by hand if the patch be small. In the case of
wide-spread infestation by this species the only remedy
is to plough up, clean thoroughly, and re-sow with a
pure mixture of seeds.

Mr. Carruthers not long since 1 referred to the
presence of Buttercups in pastures, remarking that all
the species of Ranunculus, called Buttercups or Spear-
worts, possess acrid properties, and have not the slightest
feeding value. " They are usually rejected by animals,
but young stock not unfrequently eat them to their injury.
Some farmers like to see Buttercups in a field. They
consider them to be the sign of a good pasture. Butter-
cups no doubt show that the soil is fitted to grow plants,
but every Buttercup is a distinct injury to the pasture.
Being rejected by the stock, they flower and seed in
abundance. Their numerous seeds are well protected,
and remain ready to germinate under favourable
conditions. Some of the more acrid increase by
creeping stems that run above the ground or in the

1 Jour. R.A.S.E., 1906.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 155

soil. The pasture becomes more and more filled with
yellow Buttercup, and it loses half its value by the
presence of acrid plants which cause every year injury
to, if not the death of, some animals. It would be
better and more profitable where land is burdened
with Buttercups to plough it, carefully clean it, take at
least one root crop off it, and then sow it with grasses
and clover pure in quality and of good germination.
Properly sown down and generously treated, a good feed-
ing pasture has thus been secured within a year of the
sowing."

Two other species of Buttercups, Lesser Spearwort
(R. Flammula L.) and Celery-leaved Crowfoot (R. scele-
ratus L.), which occur in ditches and wet places, may
also occur in wet meadows, and on account of their
acrid, poisonous properties should be removed. (See
p. 279.)

Hellebores (Helleborus sp.), which sometimes occur in
woods, hedges, and pastures, are poisonous plants, and
should be cut down. (See p. 280.)

Monkshood (Aconitum Napellus L.) may also occasion-
ally be found in grass land in shady places, and being
poisonous, should be eradicated. (See p. 276.)

BERBERIDACE^E

Barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.). — The reason for
including this shrub as a weed is that, occurring in
hedgerows and similar places, it plays a part in the
dissemination of Wheat Rust (Puccinia graminis Pers.),
one stage in the life history of which is passed upon
its leaves. The Barberry is a shrub which attains
4 to 6 feet in height, bearing alternate leaves i to
ij inch in length, and forked spines ; the small yellow
flowers are borne in drooping clusters, and appear

156 COMMON WEEDS

in May and June, giving rise later to orange-red oblong
berries \ inch in length. In wheat-growing districts it
should be cut down and burnt.

CRUCIFER^:

Lady's Smock (Cardamine pratensis L.), known also
as Cuckoo Flower or Bitter Cress, is a common, well-
known flower of damp meadows and pastures. It is
about a foot high, with pinnate leaves ; the conspicuous
flowers are about J inch across, lilac in colour, and, like
other crucifers, the four petals are arranged in the form
of a cross. The flowers appear in April to June.
Perennial.

Should this plant occur in damp land in large
quantity, drainage combined with judicious manuring
to encourage better herbage will diminish it.

CARYOPHYLLACE^

Ragged Robin (Lychnis Flos-cuculi L.) is a well-known
perennial, which flowers in May and June, the rosy
blossoms with deeply-cut petals being especially hand-
some. It occurs freely in moist pastures and hedgerows
and by ditches.

Bladder Campion (Silene inflata Sm.), Red Campion
(Lychnis diurna Sibth.), and White Campion (Lychnis
vespertina Sibth.) (see p. 69) also occur in meadows.

All these plants may be kept within bounds by
regular cutting, sound treatment of the meadow land,
and keeping hedgerows and ditches properly trimmed.

Mouse-ear Chickweed (Cerastium triviale Link.) is a
frequent and prolific weed of meadows and pastures,
and may occur on almost any kind of soil. It has been
already stated (p. 69) that this weed was found forty-

FIG. 41. — Mouse-ear Chickweed (Cerastium triviale Link.),
with flower and seed-vessel enlarged.

158 COMMON WEEDS

nine times in eighty turfs in Dr. Fream's investigations.
It is to be found in plenty on grass land generally,
perhaps more especially upon that which has been
starved and upon poor wastes and commons. It is
usually perennial, and is a slender, straggly, procumbent,
downy plant (Fig. 41), with small oblong-lanceolate
leaves placed opposite each other in pairs on the stem ;
its clusters of small white flowers are arranged on short
stalks, and are open from April to August. This weed
frequently occurs in patches, which should be mown
close with the scythe before seeding takes place, and
better grasses and clovers should be encouraged by
manuring. The seeds of Mouse-ear Chickweed occur
in samples of wrhite clover and alsike seed, and in
samples of many grass seeds.

MALVACEAE

The Common Mallow (Malva sylvestris L.), which in
some places occurs freely on waste spots of ground,
damp meadows, and hedgerows, should be kept within
bounds by the use of scythe and hook. It is a robust
hairy plant of 2 to 3 feet in height, with showy lilac
flowers of over i inch in diameter, opening between
June and September. The soft green, unripe seed-
vessels are well known among country children as
11 cheeses" or " bread and cheese." They are not
unwholesome. The plant is biennial or perennial.

LINAGES

Bitter or Purging Flax (Linum catharticum L.) is a
small annual plant occurring in pastures and meadows,
especially those of a light calcareous nature. It is
smooth and shiny, from 2 to 12 inches in height, very

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 159

slender, with small obovate or lanceolate leaves opposite
each other in pairs, and small white flowers. As the
plant is annual, the first object should be to prevent
seeding by cutting it early in the flowering stage. Such
a plan will, if repeated, have the effect of reducing the
weed.

GERANIACE^

Meadow Crane's-bill (Geranium pratense L.) and
Dove's-foot Crane's-bill (G. molle L.) occur in grass
land, the former chiefly on the moister class of meadow
or pasture, while the latter is principally harmful on
arable land.

Cut-leaved Crane's-bill (G. dissectum L.) and Herb
Robert (G. Robertianum L.) grow freely along hedge-
rows and waste ground. (See p. 77.)

The Meadow Crane's-bill can at once be distinguished
from the other three species by its very large purplish-
blue flowers, which are i to ij inch across, the other
species each having flowers of no more than | inch
across. The species is a perennial, attaining sometimes
3 to 4 feet in height ; it flowers from June to August.
As in other species, the fruit is prolonged into a long
" beak," resembling the bill of a crane. Where this
plant inclines to be plentiful it should be regularly cut
down before flowering.

LEGUMINOS^E

Dyer's Green-weed (Genista tinctoria L.) is in some
cases a serious trouble in grass land, especially clay
pastures. It is a perennial plant of i to 2 feet in height,
branched and shrubby, with smooth spineless branches,
entire ovate-lanceolate leaves | to i inch long, and, for
the size of the plant, rather large yellow flowers, some-

i6o

COMMON WEEDS

FlG. 42. — Dyer's Green-weed (Genista tinctoria L. \
nat. size.

butter and cheese made from it." l

what like those of
Broom or Gorse,
in long racemes.
The flowers ap-
pear in July to
December (Fig.
42). It was for-
merly used as a
yellow dye, and
it is likely that it
was the planta
genista which
formed the badge
of the Planta-
genets.

The weed has
been recorded as
causing much
loss in the Mal-
vern district, and
we know a farm
in Surrey where
it has proved a
nuisance. Stock
do not usually
appear to touch
it, but " cows will
sometimes eat
this plant, and it
communicates an
unpleasant bitter-
ness to their milk,
and even to the
Knapp 2 states that

1 Johnson and Sowerby, Useful Plants of Great Britain, p. 69.
'2 Journal of 'a Naturalist, 1829, p. 76.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 161

this plant " is seldom eaten by cattle except in cases
of great necessity, and remains untouched if other food
be obtainable." It should be regularly cut to pre-
vent seeding, or it may spread very rapidly. A good
dressing of baste slag, 6 to 10 cwt. per acre, has been
found beneficial in checking it.

Gorse, Furze, or Whin (Ulex europceus L.) is a well
known and handsome spiny shrub or bush attaining
several feet in height, and occurring freely on poor
stony moorland, commons, and poor pastures, in the
latter position frequently detracting greatly from the
value of the grass.

Another species of Gorse, U. nanus Forster, occurs
on heaths, commons, and stony pastures from Ayr
southwards, and also in Ireland. It is much smaller
than the last species, being only i to 3 feet high ; and
the flowers, which are more deeply orange in colour,
appear from August to November. A sub-species,
U. Gallii Planchon, grows somewhat larger and more
erect than U. nanus. It occurs in similar positions,
especially in the west from Ayr to Somerset, and in
Ireland.

In order to eradicate Gorse the smaller plants may
be grubbed out, and the larger ones burnt in dry
weather, the roots being subsequently grubbed out,
after which the bare patches should be harrowed over,
sown with a suitable seed mixture, and judiciously
manured later. All young plants which may appear
should be removed at once. Gorse is frequently grown
as a fodder crop on poor land in certain districts.

Broom (Cytisus scoparius Link.) may also be a nuisance
on poor stony or sandy pastures and commons, and
must be dealt with in a similar manner to Gorse. It
has no spines ; the branches are long, slender, and
erect, the leaves small and scattered, and the yellow

L

162

COMMON WEEDS

Photo, 1909. /• C. Varty-Smith.

FlG. 43. — Rest Harrow (Ononis spinosa L.).

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 163

flowers carried on the branches on short stalks. Flower-
ing takes place in May and June.

Rest Harrow or Wild Liquorice (Ononis spinosa L.)
is in some localities a very harmful pest in pastures on
poor heavy land, and some forms of it also on dry,
sandy, and gravelly soils. Rest Harrow is a viscid,
hairy perennial, with erect shrubby stems i to 2 feet
high, narrow, oblong, toothed leaflets, and handsome
rosy-pink, vetch-like flowers, appearing singly in the
axil of the leaves or in leafy racemes (Fig. 43). The
plant is generally spinous, and among hay old dry
plants have been mistaken for seedling gooseberries.
A form or sub-species, O. repens L., possesses runners,
is usually spineless, and has a strong, disagreeable scent.
Rest Harrow is a pest in pastures, and is indicative of
poor soils.

This weed must be attacked if in quantity by manur-
ing, regular cutting, and close depasturing with stock ;
in bad cases it may be necessary to plough up the
pasture, give a thorough cleaning and manuring, and
again lay down to grass in the usual manner.

ROSACES;

Meadow-sweet, Queen of the Meadow (Spircea
Ulmaria L.) is a tall, handsome perennial, attaining to
4 feet in height ; it sometimes occurs very freely in
meadow land and damp places, such as water meadows.
Meadow-sweet is herbaceous, with large leaves upwards
of a foot long from the base of the plant, interruptedly
pinnate, with serrate edges, and white and downy be-
neath. The flowers, which appear between June and
August, are collected in large compound cymes 2 to 6
inches in diameter ; each single flower is small, about
J inch in diameter, white or nearly so, and sweetly

164 COMMON WEEDS

fragrant. Spircea Ulmaria is a favourite plant, and aptly
named Queen of the Meadow.

The only plan of getting rid of an excessive quantity
of this tall, stout plant is to cut it regularly, and by
drainage, liming, and manurial treatment encourage
more useful herbage, when the weed would probably
be much reduced or entirely disappear.

Blackberry, Bramble (Rubus frudicosus L.). — This
rapidly growing plant is one of the most common and
well known ramblers of our hedges, commons, and
waste lands, and needs no description here. It is an
extremely variable plant, and different forms of it grow
freely on all soils ; these are troublesome in hedges,
extending out into the fields and occupying ground
which should be devoted to grass or a cultivated crop.
In some parts of Australasia the Blackberry is a
scheduled weed, and its destruction or restriction
within bounds is enforced. The Bramble can only
be kept down by means of grubbing it out by the roots
or by repeated cutting.

Wood Avens or Herb Benet (Geum urhanum L.) is
a pretty plant, common in hedgerows, on sides of
ditches and borders of fields, and not usually much
trouble. It is a soft, hairy perennial, i to 3 feet high,
with bright yellow flowers which appear in June to
August. The leaves at the base of the stem are pinnate,
those above being small, oblong, and sessile. The heads
of fruits bear hooked awns which enable them to adhere
to passing animals, and so ensure distribution. This
weed is generally cut down and reduced when hedges
and ditches are trimmed.

Creeping Cinquefoil (Potentilla reptans L.) (see p. 79)
may also occur in meadows, in which position it can
only be combated by regular cutting and the encourage-
ment of better herbage.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 165

Tormentil (Potenlilla Tormentilla Sibth.) is a perennial
which occurs in pastures and meadows, especially on
poor, dry soils. It is a slightly hairy plant, from
6 inches to i foot high, with solitary yellow flowers
about \ inch in diameter, bearing usually only four
petals. This plant is checked if a plentiful and close
bottom herbage is produced.

Lady's Mantle (Achemilla vulgaris L.) is occasionally
too common in moist pastures and meadows, and may
occur on any soil, but it is not generally troublesome.
Draining and manuring will tend to reduce it.

Agrimony (Agrimonia Eupatoria L.) is a very common
weed of pastures and borders of fields. It is an erect,
hairy, leafy plant, without branches, i to 2 feet high,
with pinnate, toothed leaves, and shortly stalked, small,
yellow flowers placed in a long, spike-like raceme. The
plant is perennial, and flowering occurs between June
and August.

Salad Burnet (Polerium Sanguisorba L.) is rejected by
stock owing to its hard, woody character when well
grown, and is therefore not desirable in excessive quan-
tities. At the same time it is eaten in the young state
by stock, and its large deep root system makes its
presence in small amounts useful, as it opens up the
soil to aerial influences, and thus promotes a healthy
condition of the root system of other herbage. It is
useful on dry calcareous pastures, where difficulty is
frequently experienced in ensuring the growth of any-
thing better. It is a perennial, flowering in June to
August, is about ij feet high, with slender, much
branched stems. The leaves are pinnate, the five to ten
pairs of leaflets being serrated and stalked. The small
reddish-green flowers, without petals, are grouped in
dense heads.

Greater Burnet (Poterium officinale, Hook, f.) is similar

i66 COMMON WEEDS

in general appearance to the above, but larger. It
grows in damp meadows, where it replaces better
grasses, and should therefore be cut down, and if pos-
sible suppressed.

Dog Rose (Rosa canina L.). — -This favourite and hand-
some hedgerow plant may be as great a nuisance as the
Blackberry (p. 164). Where it is invading land, widen-
ing hedges, and rendering them bushy it must be
grubbed and cut out. We have frequently seen hedges
in which the Blackberry and Dog Rose have broadened
the " hedgerow " by several feet, a wide strip of ground
on either side of the hedge proper being thus rendered
useless.

ONAGRACE^E

The Willow Herbs (Epilobium hirsutum L. and E.
parviflorum Schreb.) are two perennials which occur in
damp fields and by streams and ditches, extending by
both seeds and suckers or runners. The former species,
the Great Willow Herb, known also as Codlins-and-
Cream, has woolly stems which grow to a height of 3 to
5 feet. The leaves are 3 to 5 inches long, and oblong-
lanceolate with incurved teeth, in opposite pairs. It
bears a large number of funnel-shaped, rosy-purple
flowers about \ to f of an inch across. E. parviflorum,
the Small-flowered Hairy Willow Herb, is a smaller
plant, i to 3 feet high, with sessile, lanceolate leaves, i to
2 inches long, and many rosy-purple flowers one-third of
an inch in diameter. Both species flower between July
and August.

In order to reduce these weeds where they occur
abundantly in damp soils, draining may be neces-
sary ; but this is not always feasible, owing to posi-
tion near river or stream. In such a case the plants
should be cut over as fast as they grow, and a good

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 167

bottom herbage encouraged by suitable manurial treat-
ment.

CUCURBITACE^:

Bryony (Bryonia dioica L.) occurs freely in hedges,
and may occasionally, as we have seen during the past
summer, extend by its climbing tendrils well out into
grass fields reserved for hay. In such cases it is
dangerous, and care should be taken to keep it cut
back. (See p. 293.)

UMBELLIFER.E

Marsh Pennywort (Hydrocotyle vulgaris L.), known
also as White-rot, is a plant found, as its name implies,
on marshy, boggy, damp land. It is a small perennial
herb, with slender white creeping stems, with leaves J to
2 inches long at the nodes on long stalks. The umbels
of small pinkish-green flowers grow from the axil of
the leaves on short stalks, and appear in May to August.
Where it occurs in excess this weed may be combated
by draining.

Goutweed (^Egopodium Podagraria L.), also termed
Goat-Weed, Herb Gerard, occurs in damp and waste
places. It has a hollow, grooved, branched stem, i to 2
feet in height ; white, pungent, creeping rootstock ;
large leaves, divided or cut two or three times ; and
small white flowers in terminal umbels, these appear-
ing from June to August. Should it encroach on
any land where it is not wanted it must be cut
down, and the creeping rootstocks preferably grubbed
out.

Earth-nut (Conopodium denudalum Koch.), also given
the names Pig-nut and Arnut, occurs freely in pastures
on gravelly or sandy soils. It is a pretty, slender, little

i68

COMMON WEEDS

plant (Fig. 44), usually i to 2 feet, although it may attain
3 feet in height. The leaves are comparatively few, and
finely divided ; the rootstock or tuber, which lies deeply

beneath the surface of
the ground, is rough,
brown or purplish, often
half the size of a walnut ;
the terminal umbels of
small, white flowers ap-
pear in May and June,
or later. It is almost
impossible to do much
in the case of this weed
except take steps to im-
prove the pasture and
crowd it out. If in quan-
tity, it may be combated
by close grazing with
sheep.

The Beaked Parsleys
or Chervils (Anthriscus
vulgaris Pers. and A. syl-
vestris Hoffm.) are com-
mon weeds on practically
all soils, on hedge banks,
by roadsides, and en-
croaching on grass land
from hedgerows and
waste land. The former
species is an annual, 2
to 3 feet high, branched

Photo, 1909.

H. C. Long.

FIG. 44. — Common Earth-nut (Conopodium
denudatum Koch.).

and leafy, with tripinnate

leaves ; the minute white flowers appear in May to
June, in umbels which grow from the side of the stem,
on rather short stalks opposite the leaves. The small

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 169

fruits bear hooked bristles.
Wild Chervil (A. sylvestris),
on the other hand, is <i
perennial, flowering in
April to June. The um-
bels of white flowers are
terminal (Fig. 45), and
the fruits smooth. Where
these two plants are plenti-
ful they should be regu-
larly cut before seeding
takes place, a plan which
soon materially reduces
them, for both are spread
by seed. As the growth
of A . sylvestris is stated * to
be greatly promoted by
nitrate of soda, the use
of this manure should be
avoided where the plant
occurs. Superphosphate
and kainit promote the
growth of clover and cer-
tain grasses, which help
to choke out the weed ;
2 to 3 cwt. of each may
be applied per acre. If
the weeds occur in
meadows, the hay should
be cut as early as possible.
Cow Parsnip, Hog--
weed (Heracleiini Sphon-

dylium L.)._ This (Fig. 46) FlG. 45._Beaked Parsley (Anihriscus sylvestris
is a Common and well- Hoffm.), x about §. Flower enlarged.

1 Jour. Bd. Agric^ 1907, p. 183.

170

COMMON WEEDS

known perennial weed,
which frequently attains
a large size (3 to 6 feet
in height). It is a rough,
hairy, stout plant, with
hollow stems and large
leaves (i to 3 feet),
much less lobed and
divided than most plants
of the order. The leaves
have large pale sheath-
ing bases. The flowers
are white or pink, the
outer ones of the umbel
irregular, one or more
petals being consider-
ably enlarged. This
plant is not poisonous,
like Hemlock, and cattle
eat it with impunity ;
tame rabbits are regu-
larly fed on it. It is
common on hedge
banks, roadsides, waste
places, and pastures, and
flowers in July. Where
it occurs plentifully it
may be reduced by
regular cutting.

Wild Carrot (Daucus
Carota L.) is a weed
which occurs in both
arable and pasture land,
but is chiefly common

FIG. 46.— Cow Parsnip, Hogweed (Heracleum * r»a1r»ar*»rmc unrl

Sphondylium L.), x about §. Flower enlarged. On Cl Y CalCarCOUS ailQ

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 171

loamy pastures. Its seeds are sometimes found as an
impurity in samples of red clover, alsike, trifolium,
dogstail, and Italian ryegrass seeds. It is either annual
or biennial, with tough, hard tap-root and stem, and
much cut or pinnate leaves, the leaflets being many
and small. The small flowers are white at the outside
of the umbel, and reddish-purple towards the centre;
in the fruiting stage the umbellules are arranged at
different heights, giving the compound umbel the form
of a cup-shaped structure resembling a miniature bird's
nest. Flowering takes place from June to August. The
scent and flavour resemble those of the cultivated
carrot, which was derived from the wild form.

Wherever this plant occurs in meadow or pasture an
endeavour should be made to get rid of it. This may
be done in several ways: (i) By a general improve-
ment in the pasture or meadow ; (2) by cutting the
weed regularly to prevent seeding ; (3) by spudding
the plants before flowering ; and (4) in certain bad
cases, perhaps, by ploughing up and taking a root crop,
a practice which would not be favoured in the United
Kingdom, although it is recommended by the Canadian
Department of Agriculture (" meadow land infested
with Wild Carrot should be broken up and re-
seeded"), by the Ontario Agricultural College ("when
the field becomes badly infested it should be ploughed
and cultivated and treated to a hoed crop "), and by
the United States Department of Agriculture ("grub-
bing in the fall ; cultivation ").

Upright Hedge Parsley (Torilis Anthriscus Gaert.) is
an upright slender annual, i to 3 feet high, with leaves
which are once or twice divided, the leaflets many and
lobed. The umbels are five- to twelve-rayed, and the
minute flowers are white or pink, and appear in July and
August. This weed occurs in hedges and waste places,

172 COMMON WEEDS

and may encroach upon arable fields. It should be
regularly cut down to prevent seeding, and in arable
land should be hoed or hand pulled according to the
stage of growth.

RUBIACE^E

Yellow Bedstraw (Galiutn verum L.) is closely related
to Common Cleavers or Goose Grass (see p. 83). It
attains i to 3 feet in height, and has many slender
angular stems, and rough, small linear leaves, arranged
(8 to 12) in a whorl. The small golden-yellow flowers
appear in June to September, and grow in dense cymes
from the leaf axils and from the end of the stems. The
plant is perennial, and is propagated by seeds and a
stoloniferous rootstock. It occurs plentifully on grass
land on sandy, loamy, and calcareous soils.

Cutting to exhaust the plant and prevent seeding is
recommended, with manurial treatment to improve the
condition of the herbage.

DIPSACE^:

Wild Teazle (Dipsacus sylvestris L.) occurs plenti-
fully in some districts in hedges, by ditches, and in
rough damp meadow land, especially on -clay and
calcareous soils. It is a tall, stout, prickly plant, with
large opposite sessile leaves which are prickly on the
midrib beneath. The lilac flowers, appearing in August
and September, occur in dense, heads, which are large
and conical, covered with straight bristly bracts. (In
the cultivated Fuller's Teazle (Dipsacus Fullonum L.) the
bracts are hooked.) This plant, being a biennial, is
propagated by seeds ; it disappears if regularly cut
down before the flowers mature.

Field Scabious (Scabiosa arvensis L.) is a deep-rooted

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 173

perennial common on calcareous soils, both in grass
and arable land. In grass land it must be combated,
like so many other weeds of pastures, by judicious
manuring.

Devil's Bit (S. succisa L.) is a common weed of
meadows and pastures. The blue or purplish flowers
are arranged in terminal button-shaped heads. The
stems are unbranched, i to 3 feet high, with few or
no leaves upon them. Where this plant is common,
judicious manuring should be practised.

COMPOSITE

This order furnishes a larger number of weeds to
both arable and grass land than any other, perhaps for
the reason that it includes about one-tenth of all known
flowering plants, many of which are spread by wind-
borne, parachute-like " seeds."

The Burdock (Arctium Lappa L.) is an erect branched
biennial, with stout stem, often 3 to 4 feet high, and
large alternate, stalked, heart-shaped and pointed leaves,
usually very cottony beneath, and frequently a foot
long. The roots are strong and deep seated. The
small purple flowers appear in July and August,
grouped together into globose heads each about i
inch in diameter ; the heads have stiff, spiny, hooked
bracts, and readily adhere to the clothes of man or the
fur and hair of animals, thus securing their distribution.
The name Arctium is derived from the Greek arktos, a
bear, from the rough heads or " burs." The plant
grows chiefly in waste places, by hedges and ditches,
and in damp grass land on calcareous and clay soils.

The Burdock (Fig. 47) is a biennial spread by
seeds, and should therefore be attacked by regular
cutting early in the summer as soon as the plants begin

Photo, 1909.

/. C. Vartv-Smith.

FIG. 47. — Burdock (Arctium Lappa L.).

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 175

to show up well, to prevent seeding. Where the pest
is known to occur the first-year plants, which merely
consist of the roots and a large rosette of leaves, should
be thoroughly spudded and grubbed out, cutting them
off well below the crown.

Knapweed (Centaurea nigra L.), known under a
variety of names, as Hardheads, Hardhack, Black-head,
is a too common weed of pastures and meadows, and
occasionally present on lawns, occurring especially on
clays, loams, and calcareous soils, particularly if in poor
condition. It is a perennial plant, with a slender,
grooved, usually branched and upright stem, with
scattered variable hairy leaves, the upper ones narrow
and tapering (Fig. 48). The small purple flowers
appear in June to September, grouped together in
dense globose heads of about i inch in diameter, hard
and black or dark brown. The heads are not prickly,
but roughish.

Knapweed is chiefly harmful on account of the fact
that it is a useless plant in grass land, with tough, hard
stems which are avoided by stock, although the young
leaves are readily eaten by cattle and sheep. If allowed
to seed it spreads and becomes very troublesome,
rendering pastures unsightly, and usurping space which
should be occupied by better herbage.

Where practicable, Hardhead should be combated
by early cutting to prevent seeding, and the plants may
be hand pulled in damp weather, though as the root
system is large and the plant perennial, pieces are
often left in the soil to grow again. The best method
of dealing with it is to manure the land liberally so as
to encourage better vegetation. A good dressing for
this purpose is £ cwt. sulphate of ammonia, 3 to 4
cwt. superphosphate, 2 to 3 cwt. kainit per acre,
which should be applied every year until the grasses

176 COMMON WEEDS

become improved and vigorous, when the Knapweed

Photo, 1909. H. C. Long.

FIG. 48. — Knapweed, Hardheads (Centaurea nigra L. ).

will be choked out. If farmyard manure is available, a
dressing might be given in the second season instead of

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 177

the artificial manures named. On heavy land basic slag
should be employed instead of superphosphate.

Field Scabious (Cenlaurea Scabiosa L.), also known
as Hardheads, Great Knapweed, Matfellon, sometimes
occurs abundantly on dry calcareous pastures. It is
a perennial, with woody rootstock, grooved stem 2 to 3
feet high, and a covering of soft hairs. The leaves are
large, 4 to 10 inches long, deeply cut and lobed ; the
heads of bright purple flowers are ij inch or more in
diameter, rayed, and with more spreading flowers than
those of C. nigra. It flowers between June and Sep-
tember. In general this plant in pastures must be
combated as in the case of C. nigra. It occurs also
on arable land.

Thistles (Cnicus sp.) are among the worst and
commonest weeds of grass land, and when they grow
most luxuriantly are, like many other weeds, held to
be a sign of good land. Thistles are common to both
grass and arable land, and are almost equally trouble-
some in either. Not only do they crowd out the
legitimate crop by taking up space, light, air, heat,
water, and plant food, so reducing the yield of valuable
produce, but they are a great trouble at the time of
hay harvest, harming the mowing machine, pricking the
hands of loaders, irritating horses, and in other ways
objectionable. In corn crops too they are an un-
mitigated nuisance. When corn must be bound by
hand they are a veritable pest ; in the binder they are
troublesome, as also at the time of stooking, carting,
stacking, and thrashing. In these cases the presence of
Thistles, as we know from practical experience, is a
bugbear to master and men alike. Loose barley, for
example, is not the pleasantest material to load when
over-dried, but when full of Thistles it becomes much
worse. In the returns given at p. 233, it will be

M

178 COMMON WEEDS

observed that Thistles are placed at the head of the list
as the worst weeds of grass land.

As all the species of Thistles occur in grass land, it
will be convenient to refer to them here.

The Spear Thistle (Cnicus lanceolatus Hoffm.) is a
large, strong, purple-flowered plant (Fig. 49), blooming
in July and August. The flower-heads are upwards of
an inch in diameter, either single or placed two or
three together, the whole plant being well provided
with short spines. Seeds are plentifully produced, and,
attached to the feathery pappus or down, are borne
away from the parent plant and distributed by the
wind. Percival says that the seeds "germinate very
easily in two or three days when they are placed in
suitable soil. The Spear Thistle, as met with in the
fields, is usually a biennial. I have, however, flowered
seedlings in one season, but such plants did not ripen
seeds satisfactorily, and were destroyed by frost in the
autumn." In the first year the Spear Thistle produces
a compact rosette of leaves, flowers and produces seed
in the second year, and then dies. The root system
is in the form of a deep tap-root.

The Marsh Thistle (Cnicus palustris Hoffm.) is found
chiefly in damp, undrained pastures and meadows. It
is a biennial, and grows in a manner similar to the
Spear Thistle. The root system is much divided, the
stem branched, and the plant very spinous. The
leaves are hairy on both surfaces, the heads are three-
fourths of an inch in diameter in leafy clusters, the
flowers themselves being dark purple. The seeds, says
Percival, " only germinate under the peculiar acid con-
ditions of marshy, damp soil."

The Stemless Thistle (Cnicus acaulis Hoffm.), some-
times termed the Chalk Thistle, is more troublesome
than is commonly recognised. It is a perennial which,

/. ffm Crabtree.
FIG. 49.— Spear Thistle (Cnicus lanceolatus Hoffm.).

i8o COMMON WEEDS

according to Hooker, occurs on gravelly and chalky
pastures in England, from Chester and Lincoln south-
wards. The flat rosette of leaves destroys the patch
of grass upon which it lies. As its name implies, it is
usually stemless, and bears sessile or shortly stalked
heads an inch or more in length. At the same time it
has an extensively creeping rootstock, which makes it
difficult to eradicate.

The Creeping Thistle (Cnicus arvensis Hoffm.) is
undoubtedly the worst of all Thistles, and is by some
held to be the commonest weed pest of agriculture.
Not only is it perennial, but to complicate matters it
spreads rapidly by means of an extensive creeping
root system (Fig. 50) which develops in all directions ;
broken pieces of the rootstock easily take root and
give rise to new plants. Flowering stems are sent up
from buds which are produced at intervals on the
creeping roots, which are whitish or earthy-coloured,
and of the thickness of a small quill. Vast numbers
of plants of this kind of Thistle produce down in the
flower-heads, but no perfectly formed seeds. This has
led many farmers to believe that the seeds of the
Creeping Thistle do not germinate ; such, however, is
not the case, as certain plants produce ripe seeds
wrhich germinate and grow into new plants quite
readily. The Creeping Thistle occurs both in grass
and arable land, and is difficult to eradicate in either.
All four of these species of Thistle flower between July
and September or October.

Where Thistles occur in grass land they must be
attacked with vigour and persistence. Since the Spear
and Marsh Thistles are biennials, they may readily be
reduced in numbers by regular cutting and spudding
to prevent flowering and seeding, and to this end the
spud, sickle, scythe, or thistle cutter (Fig. 4), or in

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 181

some cases an old grass mower, may be brought into
requisition in June and July. Thorough work is neces-
sary, and the ground should be covered a second time

Photo, 1909. H. C. Long,

FIG. 50.— Creeping Thistle (Cnicus arvensis Hoffm.), showing extensively
creeping roots.

after an interval of two or three weeks wherever
possible. The seedlings appear as rosettes of leaves
in the autumn and early spring, at which times the

1 82 COMMON WEEDS

young plants should be thoroughly spudded and re-
moved from their position to make certain that the
roots are severed.

The Stemless Thistle must be combated by regular
spudding as soon as the flower-heads begin to show,
no other mechanical means being practicable ; a pinch
of sulphate of ammonia or sulphate of copper (blue-
stone) may be applied with advantage to the cut sur-
face of each plant spudded, one worker spudding and
a second applying the powdered material. Both the
bluestone and sulphate of ammonia should be applied
carefully, and not dropped on the surrounding grass.
At the same time manuring should be practised to aid
other herbage to crowd out the Thistle.

In the case of the Creeping Thistle one, or even two
cuttings will be insufficient, owing to the extensive
creeping root system, the reserves of food stored there
serving to produce fresh shoots after repeated cutting.
Cutting, therefore, must be repeated from early spring
until late summer, giving this pest no chance to pro-
duce seed, and exhausting it as much as possible.
" Faithful, systematic cutting with the spud or scythe
in meadows and pastures throughout two seasons . . .
is a sure plan of getting rid of this most troublesome
agricultural pest." *

Cotton Thistle (Onopordon Acanthium L.), known also
as the Scotch Thistle, is a stout, tall, hoary, or
" cottony " plant, with branched stem, wavy divided
leaves, and many large, roundish, " cobwebby " heads
of pale purple flowers, which appear in July to Sep-
tember. It is a biennial, and where it occurs should
be dealt with in the same way as the Spear and Marsh
Thistles (p. 180).

Butter-bur (Petasites vulgaris Desf.) is a perennial

1 Leaflet No. 166, Board of Agriculture.

Photo, 1909. /• C. Varty-Smith.

FIG. 51.— Butter-bur (Petasites vulgaris Desf.), in July.

1 84 COMMON WEEDS

plant, with an extensively creeping, fleshy rootstock
(Fig. 51), from which flowering stems are sent up
during the early spring months (February to May)
before the leaves appear. The flowers are pinkish or
dull lilac, in head-like panicles on a short, fleshy stalk.
The male and female flowers are usually in different
heads. As in the case of Coltsfoot, the leaves follow
the flowers ; they are very large — up to 3 feet across
— resembling those of rhubarb, and borne on long
stalks ; they are white and cottony beneath. The
common name is said to have been derived from the
fact that the large leaves were formerly used for the
purpose of wrapping up butter, but there are no
tl burs " on the plant.

The Butter-bur occurs in damp, wet meadows, in
low-lying land near streams and rivers, especially on
sandy and clayey soils, where it is sometimes a serious
pest. It has been described as " the largest, and,
where it abounds, the most pernicious of all the weeds
which this country produces " (Johns).

This weed must be attacked by cutting down the
flowering stems to prevent seeding, and later by per-
sistent cutting of the large leaves to prevent the manu-
facture and storage of food for the future use of the
plants. Cut surfaces after spudding might be treated
with a pinch of sulphate of ammonia, sulphate of iron,
or sulphate of copper (bluestone). Where it can be
carried out, drainage is of use ; very small patches
may be grubbed out, but as the root system is exten-
sive and deep seated, this plan is too costly on large
areas ; spraying with a solution of copper sulphate
might be tried, as the leaves are so large and rough they
would be likely to retain the liquid, but cutting is prob-
ably simpler and quicker. Improvement of the herb-
age by manurial treatment tends to reduce the weed.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 185

Coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara L.) is chiefly a weed of
arable land (see p. 87), but often occurs in pastures
and meadows. Sutton says that pastures on poor, stiff
clays are not infrequently overrun by it. In such
cases the flowering stems should be cut in February
to April, when they appear before the leaves, and later
the half-grown leaves should be cut, thus weakening
the plants. The pest can be gradually reduced and
largely destroyed by the use of nitrogenous manures,
such as nitrate of soda and farmyard manure. As this
weed occurs freely in damp clays, and in damp sandy
soils overlying impervious clays, draining is of great
value.

The Common Daisy (Bellis perennis L.), or " Day's
Eye," is too well known to need description here. It
occurs on almost all soils in poor pastures and meadows
and on lawns, flowering almost all the year round.
The rosettes of leaves lying flat on the ground pre-
vent the growth of grasses and clovers, as may at
once be seen on cutting off a Daisy plant below the
crown and removing it, a bare round patch being left.
When very plentiful in pastures much loss of good
herbage occurs. The best plan of dealing with this
weed is to encourage clovers and better grasses by
manurial treatment, thus smothering it out by taller
and more useful herbage. (As to Daisies on lawns, see
Chap. X.)

Yarrow or Milfoil (Achillea Millefolium L.), although
readily eaten by sheep, is inclined to overrun grass land
on poor soils, and must therefore be included here as
a weed. Its good qualities when kept in check by
grazing has led to its inclusion as a constituent of seed
mixtures for laying down permanent pasture. It must,
however, be utilised in this manner with great care if at
all, as the extensive creeping rootstock enables it to

i86 COMMON WEEDS

spread rapidly. When the produce is to be mown it
should not be included in seed mixtures, as the grown
plants are woody in character, refused by stock, and
of no value in hay.

Yarrow occurs on many soils, but is most abundant
on those of a dry or loamy character. It grows from
i foot to nearly 3 feet in height, with furrowed and leafy
stems. The leaves are 2 to 6 inches long, and very
finely divided. The flowers, which are white or pinkish,
appear between May and September ; they occur in
small heads arranged in corymbs which roughly re-
semble umbels. If it be desired to reduce this plant
where it occurs in meadows, manuring with farmyard
manure, nitrate of soda, or sulphate of ammonia should
be practised.

Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum L.), some-
times called ll Dog Daisy," is an erect perennial
with branched stems bearing large white daisy-like
flowers, i to 2 inches across. It is most common
in grass land in poor condition, especially on clays
and calcareous loams ; it may also occur in arable
land. It flowers from June to August. The free use
of farmyard and other manure to improve the con-
dition of the land has the effect of greatly diminish-
ing the Ox-eye Daisy. The use of salt is also recom-
mended by the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(Farmers Bull. 28). As the seeds of this weed are
a common impurity in grass seeds, it is necessary
again to advise the use of only pure seeds. In Canada
the Ox-eye Daisy is called Poverty Weed, and it
is stated that it " can be got rid of only by break-
ing up the sod." l The Canadian Department of Agri-
culture recommend2 ploughing, and a short rotation

1 Bull. 128, Ont. Agric. Coll.

2 Farm Weeds, Dept. of Agric., Ottawa.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 187

including seeding down to clover at short intervals,
as probably the best method of cleaning land of this
weed. Early cutting of grass for hay may be practised
to prevent seeding.

Marsh Cudweed (Gnaphalium uliginosum L.) is an
annual of damp light soils ; if too plentiful it should
be reduced by preventing seeding, and by encouraging
taller and better herbage. (See also p. 96.)

Ragwort or Ragweed (Senecio Jacobcea L.) is a
perennial of dry pastures and meadows, on light,
medium, and calcareous soils. It is a tall, handsome
plant, 2 to 4 feet high, with a fleshy tap-root, smooth
stem, and irregularly cut leaves which give it a
"ragged" appearance (Fig. 52). The flower heads
are golden-yellow, resembling yellow daisies, about
i inch in diameter, and grouped in dense clusters or
corymbs. Flowering takes place between June and
September. It is closely related to Groundsel (S. vul-
garis), a well-knowTn common weed of gardens and
arable land.

Ragwort is extremely plentiful in some pastures, and
is usually avoided by cattle in this country. In the
young state, however, it is greedily eaten by sheep, so
much so that sheep are held by many to be the chief
means of eradicating it by the process of close de-
pasturing. In the old state, about the time of flowering,
the plant is tough and hard. In Canada this weed has
been shown to be the cause of the Pictou cattle disease,
or hepatic cirrhosis, a curious and fatal disease of the
liver, which has given considerable trouble during the
last few years.1 In New Zealand also the same trouble
has been experienced, and much loss appears to have
been caused by it.2 Sheep were closely pastured on

1 Farm Weeds, Dept. of Agric., Ottawa.

2 Ann. Refts., N. Z. Dept. Agric., 1903 and 1904.

1 88 COMMON WEEDS

an area of about 4000 acres, with the object of eradicat-

Photo, 1909. /. C. Varty-Smith.

FIG. 52. — Ragwort (Senecio Jacobcza L.).

ing it, and at first seemed to do well ; after a year,
however, considerable mortality ensued. Mr. Gilruth,

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 189

Chief Veterinarian, concluded that if Ragwort does not
monopolise the ground sheep may, with few ex-
ceptions, eat it daily without suffering any ill effects,
and prove a decided check upon its growth, if they
do not lead to its almost complete eradication.
Cattle and horses avoided it when possible. In
South Africa, also, the Molteno Cattle Sickness (also
cirrhosis of the liver) has been traced to a weed of
the Ragwort variety (Senecio latifolius), and from speci-
mens examined at the Imperial Institute two new
crystalline alkaloids (senecifoline and senecifolidine)
have been isolated, 1.20 per cent being present in the
plant before flowering, and 0.49 per cent after flower-
ing. No disease of this character appears to have been
observed in the United Kingdom, and, the conditions
being different from those prevailing in Canada and
New Zealand, it is doubtful whether the plant is likely
to prove injurious here. It is, however, a worthless
weed in grass land, replacing better herbage, and should
be eradicated.

The best plan of dealing with Ragwort consists in
feeding it off with sheep in spring and early summer,
thus weakening the plants and preventing seeding.
Where the flowering plants are seen they may be
readily pulled up after rain. In Canada there is good
evidence that where it has been mowed systematically
it has in a short time disappeared. M'Alpine and
Wright state that " the best method is, when cutting
off the heads, to leave a sufficient length of the lower
part of the stem untouched. In the autumn, when the
ground has been softened by rain and the roots have
shrunk and hardened, they may be quite easily pulled
out by hand." "The simplest means of exterminat-
ing the Ragwort is, however, to graze the land with
sheep in the early summer. . . . On land regularly

COMMON WEEDS

FIG. 53. — Cat's-ear (Hypochceris radicata L.),

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 191

stocked with sheep not a single Ragwort can be
seen." 1

Cat's-ear (Hypochceris radicata L.) is a perennial weed
of grass land found on almost all soils. The leaves,
growing from the rootstock, vary in length from 3 or
4 to about 10 inches, are rough and wavy, and, like the
rest of the plant, somewhat rough. The yellow flowers,
which appear in June to September, resemble those of
the Dandelion, and are over i inch in diameter, borne
at the end of a branched stalk nearly a foot high (Fig.
53). The fruits are readily scattered by the wind, and
occur also in many grass seed samples.

Goafs-beard (Tragopogon pratensis L.) is an erect
perennial plant, from i to 2 feet high, with sheath-like
leaves clasping the stem, and contracting from below
upwards until linear near the tip. The flowers are
yellow, and J to 2 inches in diameter, appearing in
June to July. Hooker says that the root is edible, and
the flowers close at noon. It occurs in pastures and
meadows as well as arable land, especially on medium
and heavy soils.

Rough Hawkbit (Leontodon hispidus) has oblong-
lanceolate leaves resembling those of Cat's-ear, about 3
to 5 inches long ; the yellow heads are nearly i \ inch
across, borne on long unbranched stems (Fig. 54).
Flowering takes place in June to September. The
plant is perennial. The whole weed is covered with
rough harsh hairs. It occurs in pastures and meadows
on dry soils.

Autumnal Hawkbit (Leontodon autumnalis L.) in
general resembles L. hispidus , but the leaves are smooth,
and the flowering stalks branched. It occurs in similar
positions to the last species, and is perennial.

The four last-mentioned weeds are all spread by

1 Trans. Highland and Agric. See., 1894.

FlG. 54.— Rough Hawkbit (Leontodon hispidus L.), x§; with floret (left)
and achene (right) enlarged.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 193

seeds scattered by the wind ; seeding should therefore
be prevented as far as possible. Regular and persistent
spudding will reduce them ; at the same time an effort
should be made to encourage clovers and grasses to
choke them out.

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Wigg. or Leontodon
Taraxacum L.) is one of the commonest weeds of grass
land, and needs little description. It possesses very
deep-seated roots, and as the plant is a perennial, this
makes it very difficult to eradicate by the use of the
spud. If a Dandelion plant be examined it will be
observed that the dense mass of leaves lie almost flat
on the ground, cover comparatively a large area, and
tend to smother out good grasses and clovers. The
Dandelion does more harm in this way than is com-
monly believed.

Flowering takes place from early spring until the
autumn, i.e. from March to October, and if the flowers
are allowed to come to maturity large numbers of seeds
are produced and distributed by the wind by means of
the pappus attachment. The author has a record of
a plant bearing twenty-seven flowering heads, one of
which bore 200 seeds, giving a total of 5400 seeds
on a single plant.

The Dandelion should be repeatedly attacked by
means of the spud, by which it should be deeply cut
off. The use at the same time of a complete artificial
manure to encourage a better type of herbage does
tnuch to suppress the weed. A pinch of sulphate of
ammonia placed on the cut surface of each plant
after spudding will kill the roots, but this is too tedious
and expensive a process, except in the case of small
areas, especially lawns. In Dr. Frank's experiments1
it was found that Dandelions, sprayed when full

1 Arb. aus tier Biol. Abth.filr Land, und Fontw., I Band, 1900.

N

194 COMMON WEEDS

grown on June 2oth with a 15 per cent solution
of sulphate of iron (60 Ib. in 40 gallons of water)
became quite black and were killed ; as gramineous
plants are but little damaged by such a solution, this
method might be tried where Dandelions are specially
plentiful. Experiment in both the United States and
Germany, also, has shown that a 5 per cent solution
of copper sulphate applied as a spray at the rate of
1 60 gallons per acre has largely destroyed the leaves
and flowering stems of Dandelions, preventing them
from seeding. A small plot should be treated at first
as an experiment to watch the effect under local con-
ditions. As regards lawns, &c., see p. 345.

Mouse-ear Hawkweed (Hieracium Pilosella L.) is a
softly hairy perennial, with leafless stems about a foot
in height, solitary yellow flower-heads nearly i inch
across, oblong-lanceolate leaves 2 to 4 inches long, and
a stoloniferous or creeping rootstock. Flowering, May
to August.

Orange Hawkweed (H. aurantiacum L.) resembles
the last species, but is larger, very hairy, and the
flowers are orange-red. It is a naturalised per-
ennial, propagated by both seed and creeping root-
stock. This is the Devil's Paint-brush of Canada,
where it is a " noxious " weed for the Dominion.
Flowering, June to August.

Both of these weeds occur in dry pastures, and should
be cut down to prevent seeding, and the pasture im-
proved. It has been found in Canada that the Orange-
Hawkweed may be killed by broad-casting dry salt at
the rate of ij tons per acre.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 195

CAMPANULACE^:

Sheep's Scabious (Jasione montana L.), known also
as Sheep's-bit, is an upright branched weed of dry hilly
pastures on heathy light soils. It grows to a height of
i to ii feet, is somewhat hairy, with few leaves, about
\ to i inch long, and several heads of blue or lilac-blue
flowers over \ inch across, superficially resembling a
scabious. It flowers in June to September. Seeding
should be prevented, and the soil improved by manures.

ERICACEAE

Cross-leaved Heath (Erica Tdralix L.), a common
and well-known Heath, in which the leaves are placed
crosswise, four in a whorl ; the rose-coloured flowers
are in drooping terminal clusters or heads. It grows
i to ij feet high, and flowers in July to September.

Common Heather or Ling (Calluna vulgaris Salisb.)
is also one of our commonest plants in many districts.
It is from i to 2 feet high, woody and branched, with
very small smooth, almost linear leaves. Many small
rose-coloured or white flowers on very short stalks
are produced, persisting long after the fruit is ripe.
Flowering, July to September.

Both of these plants are perennials, which occur on
heathy moorland soils and on upland pastures or
rough grazing land. If it be required to reduce them,
burning, with grubbing or cultivation, is necessary ; an
application of lime checks further growth of all the
Heaths.

GENTIANACE.E

Common Centaury (Erythrcea Centaurium Pers.) is
an erect, smooth, branched plant of i foot or more in
height, with radical, elliptic-oblong leaves \ to 2 inches

196 COMMON WEEDS

long, the upper ones being acute. The pink or reddish
flowers, i to J inch across, are in terminal cymes. The
plant blooms between June and September, and occurs
in dry calcareous and sandy pastures and waste land. It
is a very bitter annual ; regular cutting to prevent
seeding reduces it.

Field Gentian (Gentiana campestris L.), an annual of
6 to 12 inches in height, produces in July to October
panicles of stalked lilac or bluish flowers 1 to 1 inch
in diameter. The leaves are opposite and lanceolate.
This plant is sometimes very common on hilly pastures.
If too plentiful, regular cutting to prevent seeding
will reduce it.

BORAGINE^E

Common Comfrey (Syniphytum officinale L.) is a coarse,
rough perennial herb i to 3 feet in height, with branched,
fleshy, brittle roots, pieces of which will grow when
broken off. The stem is branched and angular, with
ovate-lanceolate leaves 4 to 8 inches long. The flowers
may be white, pink, or purple, and are in drooping
clusters. Flowering, May to June. This plant grows
most freely in damp soils near streams and in gardens.
The root system renders it difficult of eradication, and
in grass land it must be regularly and persistently
mown down and better herbage encouraged. In gar-
dens, good cultivation and careful removal of the roots
must be practised. Horses and other stock are fond of
the plant in a green state.

PLANTAGINE^E

Plantains (Plantago sp.) are well known to most
farmers and gardeners. The following three species
are very troublesome in grass land : —

i. The Ribwort Plantain or Rib-grass (P. lanceolala

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND

197

L.), with long (3 to 12 inches), narrow, ribbed, more
or less lanceolate leaves, tapering rootstock, and short,

Photo, 1909. G. Parkin.

FIG. 55.— Ribwort Plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.).

globose or cylindrical heads at the end of long, angular
stalks (Fig. 55). Flowering takes place between May

198 COMMON WEEDS

and October. This Plantain is known to children
under the name of " Cocks and Hens." The brown,
shining seeds resemble small date stones, and are a
common impurity in many kinds of clover and grass
seeds. In America this species is known as Buckhorn.

2. Broad-leaved Plantain (P. major L.), also termed
Greater Plantain or Way-bread, has broadly-oblong
ribbed leaves on long channelled stalks, and a stout trun-
cate rootstock ; the flowers are in very long, slender
spikes, and when in fruit are often given to cage birds.
Flowering occurs between May and September.

3. Hoary Plantain, Lamb's Tongue (P. media L.) has
downy, sub-sessile, broadly elliptical, ribbed leaves, with
short, flat stalks, the leaves lying very close to the
ground (in the two former species the leaves are rather
ascending) and destroying all vegetation beneath,
leaving a bare patch if the plant be removed. The
rootstock is tapering, and the flowers are packed in a
close cylindrical spike, shorter than in P. major, but on
a longer footstalk or stem. The flowers are fragrant,
and somewhat conspicuous owing to the lilac bracts.
They appear during June to October.

These three Plantains are perennial, and all are com-
mon to grass land on practically all soils, although
P. media is perhaps more frequent on dry calcareous
soils. They are very troublesome in lawns (see p.
345). Where these weeds are very plentiful they may
be spudded out, or removed with the docking iron.
Pure seed, free from the seed of Plantains, should in-
variably be sown for leys and permanent pasture. It
should be remarked here that Rib-grass is frequently
included in grass mixtures, but why so it is difficult to
understand, unless solely because the roots open up the
soil to air, as it certainly replaces a large quantity of
better herbage. As regards arable land, see p. 108.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 199

SCROPHULARIACE.*:

Common or Germander Speedwell ( Veronica Chamce-
drys L.) is a perennial which occurs on practically all
soils in grass land, but is usually little trouble. It has
hairy ascending stems, almost sessile ovate leaves, and
axillary racemes of bright blue roundish flowers | inch
across, which appear in May and June.

Red Bartsia (Bartsia Odontites Huds.) and Yellow or
Viscid Bartsia (B. viscosa L.) sometimes occur abund-
antly in grass land. (They are described at p. 272.)

In order to reduce these two species of Bartsia regu-
lar cutting to prevent seedirg must be practised, and
close grazing with sheep, combined with manuring, will
reduce them. B. Odontites is frequently
found in arable land, where it may
be successfully combated by thorough
cultivation.

LABIATE

Self-heal (Prunella vulgar is L.) is
sometimes very troublesome in pas-
tures and meadows. It is a some-
what hairy perennial, 6 to 12 inches
high, with a square stem, almost
oblong opposite leaves, the lower pairs
of which are stalked and the upper
sessile. The plant has a creeping
rootstock. The small, reddish-purple,
two-lipped flowers occur in whorls in
dense terminal heads (Fig. 56), and
open in July to September. Samples of
clover seeds often contain the almost egg-shaped seeds
of Self-heal as an impurity. The latter may therefore

FlG- s

2OO

COMMON WEEDS

be sown, unless care be taken to ensure pure clover
seed. The plant also occurs naturally in damp grass
land. It is held to indicate poor, sterile land, and in
Scotland is known by the name " Blaw-weary." Close
grazing with sheep receiving cake, or sound judicious
. *' ''\~-\ • manurial treat-

ment, will effect
an improvement
in the herbage
and a reduction
in the weed. On
heavy land basic
slag is useful in
checking it, and
on light soils
superphosphate.

Common Bugle
(Ajuga reptans L.)
is another peren-
nial, somewhat
similar to Self-
heal, the stems
being 6 to 12
inches high, and
the leaves sessile
and ovate. The
blue flowers are
arranged in loose whorls in longish spikes (2 to 8
inches long). They open in May to July. The plant,
which is common by roadsides and in grass land, is
spread by seed and by stolons or runners (Fig. 57).
It may be combated in the same way as Self-heal.

Photo, 1909.

H. C. Long.

FIG. 57. — Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans L.),
in a pasture.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 201

PKIMULACE^E

The Cowslip (Primula veris L.), so well known to all
country people, is a perennial which grows in meadows
and pastures, especially on sticky calcareous loams.
The flowers appear in April and May. Manuring and
close grazing, combined with regular cutting, tend to
reduce it.

POLYGONACE^E

The only members of this order to be considered
here are the Docks and Sorrels, than which few weeds
are more troublesome, both on the farm and in the
garden. All are perennials, and most of them difficult
to eradicate.

The Common or Broad-leaved Dock (Rumex obtusi-
folius L.) is a stout erect plant 2 to 3 feet high, with
a strong tapering root descending deeply into the soil.
The radical leaves are large, often a foot long. They
are oblong-lanceolate, borne on a slender stalk, and
have a somewhat wavy margin. The small flowers, on
slender pedicels, are produced in large numbers on a
narrow panicle, which is leafy towards the base. They
produce brownish, triangular fruits, resembling buck-
wheat, which are enclosed in toothed or serrated sepals.
Flowering takes place in August and September, and
the panicle has a reddish-brown tinge. This Dock is
practically ubiquitous, and is troublesome in both
arable and grass land.

Curled Dock (Rumex crispus L.) may also be de-
scribed as ubiquitous. The stem is branched and i to
3 feet high, and there is a fleshy tap-root. It much
resembles R. obtusifolius, but the leaves are narrower,
lanceolate, and more waved or crisped along the edges.
The small reddish or greenish flowers are in crowded

Photo, 1909.

H. C. Long.

FIG. 58.— Curled Dock (Rumex crispus L.) : note the rootstock, right-hand
portion of which has been broken off.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 203

whorls in erect, branched panicles (Fig. 58), and the
brown, triangular fruit is surrounded by fruiting sepals,
which have entire or only slightly toothed margins.
Flowering is continued longer than in the last species,
namely, from June to October. In connection with

Photo, 1909.

FIG. 59.— Seedlings of Dock (Ruinex sp.).

H. C. Long.

arable land it is important to note the appearance of
the seedling Dock (Fig. 59).

Several other species (R. pratensis L., R. sanguineus
L., and, in damp grass land, R. aquaticus L.) may prove
harmful and a nuisance both on arable and grass land.
Docks are common to almost all soils, and are not
easily got rid of. They are unfortunately able to
produce adventitious buds on almost any part of the
root which may be severed from the crown ; hence if

204 COMMON WEEDS

the flowering stem and crown be removed the part
remaining in the soil will quickly give rise to a new
stem, while the part removed may, if left lying on the
ground, live and produce flowers and seed. The seeds
are too commonly found in grass and clover seed
samples; and Mr. Martin ]. Sutton says1 that "com-
paratively few samples of clover harvested in this
country are entirely free from Dock seed, but it is
true economy to ensure a pure sample."

Wherever Docks occur in grass land they should be
removed with the docking iron when the ground is soft,
although the fleshy roots are so deeply seated that it is
nearly impossible to lift them completely. They may
also be reduced by regular spudding every time they
show signs of renewed vitality ; the operation should
always be carried out before flowering is advanced.
Every portion removed should be burnt, and not care-
lessly thrown in the hedge or ditch as is frequently
done, for such pieces may take root in damp places,
produce adventitious buds, and then flower and seed.
When a Dock has been cut off near or below the crown
a pinch of sulphate of ammonia placed on the cut
surface generally kills the root. (As regards Docks
on arable land, see p. 118.)

Sheep's Sorrel (Rumex Acctosella L.) is a slender
perennial 6 to 20 inches high, with an extensively creep-
ing rootstock (Fig. 60). It has a smooth branched
stem, and hastate or somewhat arrow-head shaped
radical leaves borne on long stalks, the upper or stem
leaves being sessile and narrowly lanceolate or linear.
The small male and female flowers are borne on
separate plants in branched, leafless panicles of several
inches in length, appearing from May to August. In
late summer and autumn Sheep's Sorrel becomes of a

1 Permanent and Temporary Pastures* 1908.

Photo, 1909.

/. C. Varty-Smith.
FIG. 60. — Sheep's Sorrel (Rutnex Acetosella L. ).

206 COMMON WEEDS

beautiful reddish colour. The fruits are triangular and
yellowish-brown, and occur as common impurities in
badly cleaned samples of clover and grass seeds. The
plant has an acid taste, due to acid oxalates, and has
been accused of poisoning live stock. (See p. 308.)

Sheep's Sorrel is an undesirable plant in grass land,
and should be got rid of. It is typically a weed of
poor dry pastures, and is regarded as a sign of sour
land. It is very common in meadows, and occurs
also on arable land. Hall states 1 that in arable land
the presence of this plant is a pretty sure sign of the
absence of lime. The best way to reduce it is by
improving the condition of the land ; to this end
systematic manuring should be practised, and an
application of lime made at the rate of i ton per
acre on light land, or up to 2 tons per acre on heavy
or wet land. On heavy land basic slag will be useful,
both on account of the lime which it contains and the
encouragement it gives to the growth of clovers.

Common Sorrel (Rumex Acetosa L.) is larger than
Sheep's Sorrel. It has a slender, simple stem, i to 2 feet
high, with larger leaves on longer stalks than those of
R. Acetosella ; the rootstock does not creep below
ground as in the latter species, but is a slender tufted
tap-root. The small flowers open in May to August,
the male and female ones being on separate plants in
branched, leafless panicles. This plant is also known
as Sourock or Sour Dock, and the leaves are eaten by
children on account of their pleasantly acid taste : the
practice is not to be recommended. It occurs in most
meadows, sometimes in great quantity, but is of no
value. If in small quantity only it may be spudded
or regularly cut down, but if in quantity it should be
mown early. It was found at Rothamsted (see p. 147)

1 A. D. Hall, Fertilisers and Manures, 1909.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 207

that Sorrel was much decreased by an application of
lime. Dressings of mineral manures weaken Sorrel,
and also encourage better herbage to choke out the
weed. Manurial treatment, however, should be prac-
tised in conjunction with regular cutting.

URTICACE.E

The Great (Stinging) Nettle (Urtica dioica L.) is
frequently a serious pest in certain parts of grass fields,
but usually only in
patches. It is a hairy
perennial, 2 to 4 feet or
more in height, with
large, heart-shaped ser-
rated and pointed leaves
placed opposite one
another in pairs on the
stem, and covered with
stinging hairs. The
flowers are borne in long
clusters or panicles (Fig.
61) in the axils of the
leaves. It quickly in-
vades adjacent soil by
means of its extensively
creeping underground

FIG. 61.— Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica
Stems. It grows O11 most L.), x§, with flower enlarged.

kinds of soil and in al-
most any position, but thrives best on good land, such
as well manured gardens and paddocks.

Nettles may be best destroyed by digging them out
by hand and burning them, but on large areas this is
impracticable, and regular mowing must be resorted
to, the successive cuttings taking place as soon as the

208 COMMON WEEDS

shoots attain 6 inches to a foot in height. A liberal
dressing of salt should be given when the Nettles are
first cut down in spring. The use of tarred paper in
the manner referred to at p. 41 may also be useful on
small areas.

CANNABACE.E

Wild Hop (Humulus Lupulus L.) is a perennial
which occurs in many parts of the country in hedges
and bushy places, and may occasionally cause harm
by climbing among corn crops or grass laid up for
mowing. The stems and leaves are rough, with strong
hooked hairs which enable the plant to cling to a
support, thus aiding the climbing or twining habit.
The seeds are easily distributed by the wind in autumn,
and young plants appear in the next spring. Although
the Hop appears to be indigenous in Britain, many of
the so-called Wild Hops are probably escapes from
cultivation.

Where the Hop is found to be a nuisance much may
be done to prevent trouble in the future by regular
trimming of hedgerows and ditches, so cutting off the
plants at the base and preventing seeding.

OKCHIDACE^:

The Purple Orchis (Orchis masmla L.) and the
Spotted Orchis (O. maculata L.) are frequently very
plentiful in grass land.

The Purple Orchis is a foot or more in height, has
elliptic-lanceolate leaves usually spotted with purple-
black, and somewhat spotted reddish-purple flowers
in lax spikes ; the tubers are ovoid.

The Spotted Orchis is also about a foot high, and
the leaves are narrow oblong-lanceolate, and generally

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 209

bear a number of dark squarish spots. The flowers
are pale purple marked with dark lines and spots,
and in dense, somewhat pyramidal, spikes ; the tuber
has somewhat the shape of a hand. The former
species occurs on many kinds of soil, and especially on
sterile clays (Buckman) ; the latter in damp meadows.
In the case of O. mascula a general improvement in the
herbage will reduce it, while for a reduction of O.
maculata drainage may be necessary.

LILIACE.E

Crow Garlic or Wild Onion (Allium vineale L.) is one
of the most troublesome of weeds, and very difficult to
eradicate. In the young stage from early winter until
late spring it closely resembles a young onion (Fig.
62), with round, hollow, pointed leaves. The globose
heads of reddish flowers are produced in summer.
The flowering heads also produce " bulbils," or small,
fleshy bodies which effectively reproduce the Wild
Onion. Allium vineale is therefore reproduced in three
ways : by seed, by bulbils, and by the " splitting " of
the parent bulbs.

This pest occurs both in arable and grass land. In
the latter position it usurps the place of better herbage,
and is otherwise very harmful on account of the fact
that it taints the milk of cows which may be at pasture,
and also the butter which is produced from such milk.
On a dairy farm, indeed, a pasture may be rendered
almost useless for milking cows owing to the Wild
Onion. It may be reduced by spraying with a 5 per
cent solution of carbolic acid.1 If only in small areas,
the bulbs may be dug up and picked out by hand.
Sutton says that the onion-like leaves appear to be

1 Jour. Roy. Agiic. Soc., 1 900, 1901, and 1902.

O

210

COMMON WEEDS

very tempting to milch cows, and that " persistent
hand pulling of the bulbous roots early in the year is

Photo, 1909.

H. C. Long.

FIG. 62. — Wild Onion (Allium vineale L.), in young state— taken from
wheat in December, 1908.

the only way of ridding pastures of
The Wobtirn experiments showed that '

Crow Garlic."
when the stem

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 211

is thrown up it is almost impossible to pull the stem
and bulb up together. But, as the season advances,
the bulb seems to work up to the surface, and about
June it is quite easy to pull up stem and bulb together."

The presence of the Wild Onion in excessive quantity
over a small area may render it advisable to pare and
burn the surface soil containing the bulbs, and then
re-seed the patches. (See also p. 125.)

Ramsons or Broad-leaved Garlic (Allium ursinum L.)
is a fairly common plant in woods, moist shady places,
and by the sides of streams. It is i to 2 feet high,
with large, flat, broad leaves, resembling those of the
lily-of-the-valley. The stems are triangular, and bear
a flat-topped umbel of white flowers, which appear in
May and June. If crushed, the whole plant emits a
strong characteristic smell of garlic. Ramsons is
chiefly troublesome where milch cows may eat it, as
they frequently do, when the offensive odour and taste
characteristic of the plant is communicated to the milk
and the dairy produce prepared from it. Where cattle
may get at it this weed should be cut down or the
bulbs dug out.

JUNCACE^:

The Common Rushes, Juncus effusus L., J. glaucus
Sibth., /. conglomerates L., and some other species, are
very plentiful in water meadows, damp meadows by
streams and rivers, and similar situations. They are
in general perennial plants, with an extensive and
deep-seated creeping rootstock, erect, simple, pointed
stems containing pith, and leaves which may be slender
and flat or round, resembling the stem. The flowers
are brownish or green, somewhat star-like, and in
axillary or terminal cymes or clusters.

Rushes generally occur in damp soils, and even

212 COMMON WEEDS

when the surface appears fairly dry their presence
indicates a wet subsoil, possibly some feet down.
The only plan for getting rid of Rushes is thorough
drainage, but they may be much reduced by frequent
close mowing. Draining and cutting in conjunction
with liming and manuring will destroy them.

FIG. 63.— Wood-rush (Luzula campestris Willd.), x§.

Wood Rushes. — The genus Luzula includes a
number of species of plants belonging to the order

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 213

Juncacece, spoken of generally as Wood Rushes on
account of their occurring frequently in thickets,
woods, and shady places. Some of them, however,
are found on poor open pastures and heaths. One of
the latter type is Luzula campestris Willd., a small grass-
like plant (Fig. 63), which is common on dry meadows
and pastures on almost all soils. (A tall sub-species of
this plant (L. multiflora Lej.) is common on wet pastures.)
It is a perennial spread by means of both seeds and a
creeping rootstock ; it grows from 4 to 12 inches
high, and has flat, hairy, grass-like leaves — the long
whitish hairs being very prominent — and dense clusters
of small pale or dark star-like" flowers.

Where very plentiful, a general improvement in the
herbage by manuring, or by drainage in the case of Z..
multiflora, is necessary to check Wood Rushes.

CYPERACE^:

Common Cotton Grass (Eriophorum anguslifolium
Roth.) and Hare's-tail Cotton Grass (E. vaginatum L.)
are perennial plants common on moors, bogs, and
water meadows, being sometimes troublesome in the
last-named position. The former species is about
i foot high, and has solitary solid stems and terminal
clusters of flowers, the inner clusters being sessile and
the outer on slender stalks. The flowers appear in
May and June. Hare's-tail Cotton Grass is somewhat
similar, with many tufted stems and solitary terminal
spikelets, which flower in April and May. In both
species the floral envelope is formed of many iong
cottony hairs, the clusters when ripe appearing as a
dense cottony tuft or head, i to 2 inches long and
i inch in diameter. The " cotton " is sometimes
collected and used for stuffing pillows.

2i4 COMMON WEEDS

The Cotton Grasses may be reduced by cutting and
by thorough drainage.

Sedges. — In general, Sedges somewhat resemble
grasses, both in the leaves and spikelets. A large
number of species are known ; they vary widely in
their habitat, some favouring the driest soils and others
the wettest.

Common Sedge (Carex vulgaris Fries.) and other
species of Carex are common, useless plants of damp
meadows and pastures, water meadows, and by the
sides of ditches and rivers. The Common Sedge (Fig.
64) is a perennial, with narrow erect leaves, and a
rough, slender, stiff stem i to 2 feet high. The spike-
lets are sessile, from J to i inch in length, and placed
three to five together on the axis or stem. The root-
stock often creeps extensively.

On wet soils Sedges may be reduced by draining,
regular mowing, and the use of lime and manures.

Sedges of other species (e.g. Carex prcecox Jacq.) occur
on dry pastures and moors, and may have a tufted or
creeping rootstock. They more or less resemble the
foregoing species. Several kinds with bluish -green
leaves, resembling those of the carnation, are termed
" Carnation-grasses " by farmers. On dry pastures
Sedges should be cut with regularity, and the herbage
should be improved by manurial treatment.

GRAMINE^:

A large number of grasses must be regarded as
weeds, many of them, such as Couch, Fine Bent, and
Wild Oat, being directly troublesome in arable farm-
ing ; while a large number are worthless members of
meadows and pastures, replacing better herbage, and
being avoided by stock when richer, more succulent

Photo, 1909.

/. C. V 'arty -Smith.

FIG. 64. — Common Sedge (Carex vulgaris Fries.).

2l6

COMMON WEEDS

food is available. All
such useless or harmful
grasses should, where
possible, be reduced, and
an effort made to im-
prove pastures and
meadows, so that they
yield the maximum of
good herbage.

Mat- weed (Nardus
strida L.), also known
as Mat-grass, is a small
perennial only a few
inches high, with densely
tufted slender leaves and
creeping rootstock, an
erect wiry stem and
solitary spikes, with all
the spikelets on one side
(Fig. 65). Flowering
occurs in June and July.
This grass is common
upon heaths and dry
upland pastures, and on
account of its hard, wiry
character is refused by
sheep.

Floating Foxtail (Alo-
pecurus geniculatiis L.) is
occasionally trouble-
some on damp and wet
meadows and in ditches
and ponds, growing so
freely that shallow
ponds may almost be filled up by it. It is a smooth

FIG. 65. — Mat-grass (Nardus stricta L.),
nat. size, with enlarged spikelet.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 217

perennial, flowering between May and August, i to 2 feet

high, with a procumbent stem, which takes root at the

nodes, thus covering the

ground very rapidly. The

panicle is more slender than

that of common Meadow

Foxtail (A. pratensis L.), one

of the best meadow and

pasture grasses.

Draining will reduce this
grass, and when it en-
croaches upon ponds it may
be necessary to drain off
the water and clear out
the weed, giving one good
dressing of salt, and if need
be a second dressing, killing
out the weed before per-
mitting the pond to refill.

Marsh Bent - grass or
Florin (Agrostis alba L.) is
a very variable perennial
occurring on most soils both
in arable and grass land,
often replacing good grasses
in the latter case. It is i
to 2 feet high, with or with-
out stolons, and the stem
more or less prostrate be-
low. The panicles (Fig. 66),
flowering in July to Sep-
tember, vary considerably FlG' 66'~^Viba
in size, being 2 to 8 inches
long ; the spikelets are very small, and when the seeds
are ripe the branches of the panicle lie close to the

218 COMMON WEEDS

main axis or stem. The stoloniferous plant is often
confounded with true " Couch," and, like A. vulgaris
(below), is commonly included in the term « couch,"
" twitch," or " squitch."

The grass more generally known as Florin is Creep-
ing Bent-grass, a variety named Agrostis stolomfera
Koch, closely resembling A. atba, but with more pro-
nounced stolons, rooting at the nodes of the procumbent
stems and rapidly spreading. On moist soils, wet
meadows, and near rivers, it quickly crowds out other
grasses. This grass is sometimes recommended as a
useful species in moist mountainous districts, especially
on account of its late growth in autumn, but as it may
crowd out other species, and the seed is difficult to
obtain pure, it should in general be avoided. It may
sometimes be useful in a pasture, but is objectionable
in the hay-field.

Fine Bent-grass or Black Couch (Agrostis vulgaris
With.) closely resembles the species already described,
but the branches of the fruiting panicle are spreading.
It is quite as useless as A. alba, and owing to its
creeping stems is nearly as troublesome as true Couch
in arable land. (See p. 132.)

Brown Bent-grass {Agrostis canina L.) grows on
wet peaty soils and heaths. It differs from the three
grasses mentioned above in having an awn on the
flowering glume.

In grass land the Bent-grasses are only reduced by
constant manuring and good management, and the
application of lime (see p. 149). (As regards arable
land, see p. 128.)

Wavy Hair-grass {Air a flexuosa L.) often occurs
abundantly on dry pastures and sandy heaths. It is
an erect, slender perennial of about i to 2 feet high,
with short, narrow, curved leaves. The panicles of

_ d

Photo, 1909. /. C. Varty-Sntith.

FIG. 67. — Tufted Hair-grass (,4mz ccespitosa L.).

220 COMMON WEEDS

shiny brownish-green or purplish spikelets are 2 to 5
inches long, and the branches wavy or flexuous. The
flowering glumes are awned. Flowering takes place
between June and August. The " seeds " were formerly
used to adulterate those of Golden Oat-grass.

Tufted Hair-grass (Aim ccespitosa L.) is a perennial
commonly known as Tussac or Tussock grass, or
Hassock grass, owing to the fact that it grows in dense
close tufts which stand out as hummocks among the
surrounding herbage. This grass (Fig. 67) occurs
chiefly in damp pastures and meadows and in woods.
It grows from 2 to 4 feet high, with erect, stout,
leafy stems, flat rough leaves which cut like razors,
and nodding panicles with flexuous branches of spikelets
resembling those of A. flexuosa, but with a shorter awn
to the flowering glume. It flowers in June and July.
This grass is seldom touched by cattle. In some dis-
tricts the tufts are named "bull faces" or "bull
pates." l

Tufted Hair-grass may be reduced by draining and
manuring. The tufts should be dug up, and left to
wither or be thrown upon the compost heap. More
commonly the hassocks are chopped out with an adze.
This grass is also reduced by the use of lime.

Yorkshire Fog" (Holcus hnatus L.) is one of the most
common and widely distributed of grasses. It is re-
produced freely and rapidly from seed, and occurs
plentifully in meadows and pastures, water meadows
and inferior hay-fields on many soils, perhaps especi-
ally on calcareous loams. Yorkshire Fog (Fig. 68) is
a densely tufted perennial, i to 2 feet high, and covered
with soft woolly down or hairs. The slender stems are
upright and leafy, the leaves flat and soft. The panicle
is branched, 2 to 5 inches long, and in the early stages

1 The Complete Grazier.

Photo, 1909. /. C. Varty-Smith.

FIG. 68.— Yorkshire Fog (Holcus lanatus L.).

222 COMMON WEEDS

somewhat compact, opening widely when in full flower
(June to July) ; the spikelets are much flattened and
two-flowered, the upper flower being male and the lower
bisexual. The colour of the panicles of Yorkshire Fog
is very variable, many shades of green, pink, and purple
being common, the whole blending so characteristically
in infested pastures as to give rise to the name " Fog,"
such pastures being termed " Fogged " or " Foggy."

Yorkshire Fog, like other hairy grasses, is generally
refused by stock. It should be discouraged and re-
duced in favour of better grasses, or its introduction
prevented. This may be carried out : (i) By consistent
manuring, as the pest is less plentiful in rich pastures ;
(2) by preventing seeding, by running the mower over
infested pastures with the knives set high to take off
only the weed, which is generally well above the pasture
grass in June ; and (3) by preventing the introduction
of the tl seeds " in grass mixtures for sowing, either for
leys or permanent pasture. On damp land Yorkshire
Fog is less hairy, and is readily eaten by cattle, which
thrive upon it. Some good pastures in Norfolk and in
Holland consist largely of this grass.

Creeping Soft Grass (Holcus mollis L.) much re-
sembles the last species, but is much less common,
being usually found in hedges, thickets, and shady
places. It is sometimes met with in the open pastures
on poor sandy soils. In contrast with H. lanatus,
which has tufted fibrous roots, the Creeping Soft Grass
has an extensive creeping rootstock ; it is not so hairy,
except at the nodes of the stem.

Quaking Grass (Briza media L.) is one of the best
known perennial grasses, and frequently gathered for
decorative purposes. Its loose spreading panicles of
spikelets, variegated with purple and green, appear to
be always moving or trembling — hence the names

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 223

Quaking, Toddling, or Totter Grass. This grass has
solitary, upright stems i to i^ feet high, creeping
below. Flowering takes place in June. Quaking
Grass is a typical weed of poor pastures and meadows
on light dry soils, and is a useless constituent of the
herbage. Where it is abundant or even moderately
plentiful, good dressings of manure should be applied
to the land.

Soft Brome Grass (Bromus mollis L.) is an annual
or biennial weed, which is frequently very plentiful in
meadows and leys, in water meadows, and by road-
sides, but is not often found in old pastures. It is a
handsome grass (Fig. 69), with beautiful lance-shaped
downy spikelets containing five or more flowers, each
flowering glume being awned. This grass flowers: early,
between May and June, and its seeds, by means of
which it is propagated, are shed in the hay-field by June.
Soft Brome Grass is useless to stock, and replaces better
grasses. In meadows it may be reduced by early
mowing for two or three years to cut it before seeding
takes place, and it is reduced in pastures by a dressing
of mixed nitrogenous and mineral manures.

Sterile or Barren Brome Grass (Bromus sterilis L.)
is an erect annual, about 2 feet high, with narrow
leaves, and very large open nodding panicles with
drooping branches ; the spikelets, at the end of long •
slender pedicels, are about i inch in length, slender
awns adding perhaps another inch. This grass is
common by roadsides, fences and hedges, in fields and
waste places. Cutting before seeding in June and July
will reduce it where troublesome.

Meadow Barley Grass (Hordeum pratense Huds.) is
a perennial with slender stems i to 2 feet high, and
having a general resemblance to a diminutive specimen
of ordinary barley. The spikes are i to 3 inches long,

Photo, 1909. /. C. Varty-Smith.

FIG. 69. — Soft Brome Grass (Bromus mollis L. ).

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 225

nearly half an inch broad, and yellow-green in colour,
and the spikelets rough and awned. The rootstock is

Photo, 1909.

H. C. Long.

FIG. 70. — Wall Barley Grass (Hordeum murinum L. ).

creeping. Meadow Barley Grass occurs in damp
meadows and pastures, but is not often abundant. In
pastures it is sometimes considered useful if not allowed

226 COMMON WEEDS

to flower, but the rough spikes are unpleasant, and may
be injurious to stock, and the grass is therefore objec-
tionable in meadows.

Wall Barley Grass, or Waybent (Hordeum murinum
L.) is an annual with fibrous roots (Fig. 70), and
much resembles H. pratense. It is not generally trouble-
some, but is often plentiful on dry soils by footpaths,
roadsides, and waste places. Cutting before seeding
will reduce it.

FILICES

Bracken or Brake Fern (Pteris aquilina L.), often
simply termed " Fern," is frequently very troublesome
on dry upland pastures and rough grazing land. It is
especially harmful in Scotland, and even attempts to
usurp many good grazings. It is too well known to
need much description here. It is a perennial, which
spreads by means of an extensively creeping rootstock
and also by spores, the latter being scattered in July
and August. Bracken has been found one of the most
difficult pests to extirpate, and has in the past few years
given rise to much discussion. The following means
of reducing it have been suggested : —

(1) "If the surface of the ground admits of it, the
best method of dealing with Bracken on a large scale
is to run chain harrows over the ground at the time the
fronds are making their appearance. If this is done
thoroughly and persisted in, the plants are greatly
weakened." *

(2) Cutting with the scythe as soon as the Bracken
is well grown, say early in June, and repeating the
process for several years, weakens the growth of the
plants, and the Bracken gradually diminishes in num-
bers, but the plan must be persisted in, for " to drive

1 Jour. Bd. Agric., Sept. 1906, p. 378.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 227

this usurper from our hillsides is a hard task, requiring
men, money, time, and patience." It has been stated
that in four years' time Bracken can be reduced to
such an extent that it is not worth cutting. Beating
down the tender young shoots with sticks or canes,
thus severely bruising them rather than cutting them
clean off, has been recommended in place of cutting.
Where Bracken grows in woods a proportion of it is
required for game cover, the rest being cut and largely
used for bedding stock. In such cases there is little or
no diminution in the " fern " year by year, because it
is rarely cut in the same place two years in succession.
In some districts the cutting of the "fern" is jealously
guarded by the keepers, who regulate the cutting to
ensure cover.

(3) Some authorities, especially in Scotland, are of
opinion that close grazing with cattle tends to reduce
Bracken, the animals not only eating it when young,
but trampling it down or lying on it. There is reason
to believe that this method is of value, and cases have
been quoted which appear to justify the belief. On
the other hand, cases to the contrary are also quoted,
in which grazing with cattle has had no appreciable
effect on the Bracken.

(4) In cases where it has been possible to practise
it, irrigation with spring water is said to have been
adopted for clearing ground of Bracken with complete
success, although in some cases it has been a failure.

(5) The growth of Bracken on waste land is perhaps
a certain sign of the absence of lime, and where lime is
to be obtained at a reasonable cost an application of i
to 2 tons per acre to the land after the fern has been cut
will very greatly reduce it, if not destroy it altogether.

(6) Bracken may be eradicated by breaking up the
land and cultivating it.

228

COMMON WEEDS

Bracken forms an excellent litter for cattle, horses,
and pigs, and has been found quite useful on occasion
for fodder. It has also been successfully converted
into silage, and has a high manurial value when used
as a litter, comparing with wheat straw as 150 to

100.

EQUISETACE^:

Horse-tail (Equisetum arvense L.), known also under
the various names Mare's-tail, Cat's-tail, Toad-pipe,

Photo, 1909.

/. C. Varty-Smith.

FIG. 71. — Horse-tail (Equisetum arvense L.), showing barren stems
and creeping rootstock.

Paddock-pipes, is a common and serious pest of both

1 Jour. Bd. Agric., Oct. 1908, p. 487. (See also Jour. Board of Agric.,
Oct. 1908, p. 481 ; and P'eb. 1909, p. 844; M'K. in The Scottish Farmer,
Nov. 14, 1908; Report of a Lecture by Mr. A P. M'Dougall, ibid., Dec. 12,
1908, and subsequent correspondence ; J. S. in The Field, Nov. 16, 1907.)

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 229

arable and grass land, flourishing most on damp land.
The spore-bearing or fructifying stout stems, with club-
shaped heads, resembling young asparagus, appear in
April. These are followed from May onwards by erect
or decumbent barren leafy stems (Fig. 71), with simple
branches in whorls, and ending in a long, naked point.
Horse-tail has extensively creeping, deep-lying rhizomes,
often lying several feet below the surface, quite out
of reach of plough, cultivator, or spade. The plant
is refused by stock. Another species, E. palustre L., is
regarded as being poisonous to cattle. As Horse-tail
favours damp soils, it can only be reduced completely
by draining. Ditches should be kept clean and clear of
weeds to allow of the free passage of water, and the land
should be limed. (See also p. 136.) Both spore-bear-
ing and barren stems should be regularly cut.

Musci

Mosses (Hypmim, Funaria, Sphagnum, &c.) are fre-
quently troublesome in pastures, and are an indication
that the land is damp or in poor condition. The general
methods recommended for the eradication of Mosses
are: (i) drainage, followed by (2) manurial treat-
ment, including an application of lime. Before manures
are applied it is advisable to pass the harrows over the
ground, so as to tear out much of the Moss and loosen
the surface soil and open it up to air, light, moisture,
and manures. Mossy pastures on heavy clay land
should receive 10 cwt. of lime per acre and 6 cwt. of basic
slag, both applied in autumn, and in the following spring
a dressing of i cwt. nitrate of soda per acre in April
or May. Lighter lands maybe given 10 cwt. lime and
2\ cwt. of kainit per acre in autumn, 3 to 5 cwt. good
superphosphate in March, and i cwt. nitrate of soda in
the middle of April. Combined with drainage and the

230 COMMON WEEDS

use of the harrow, such treatment will effect a great
change and get rid of most of the Moss.

Where Moss appears on pastures and meadows which
are known to be well drained, manurial treatment alone
should be resorted to. In the case of temporary pas-
tures, subsoiling will prove a useful measure when the
next arable crop is taken. Moss seldom appears on
arable land, but if so, similar remedial measures must
be followed.

On thin pastures resting on a light loam, with chalk
not many inches below, at the South-Eastern Agricul-
tural College, Wye, Kent, a dense growth of Moss
appeared in winter, though there was no sourness,
deficient aeration, or great poverty of the soil. Experi-
ments made1 to discover the best treatment showed that
in this case chemical treatment had on the whole little
or no effect, though superphosphate seemed to feed the
grass a little and keep the Moss down. On the other
hand, "the effects of the mechanical treatment are,
however, very manifest ; the continual rolling has been
as beneficial as the opening of the soil has been harm-
ful. Clearly, the prevalence of moss on this class of
land is associated with the open texture of the soil, in
which the worms work very freely, and continually lift
the surface ; constant rolling and harrowing, with the
treading of sheep, are the only ways of keeping the
moss down."

Some experiments have been carried out by the West
of Scotland Agricultural College2 on mossy land which,
after being drained, reclaimed, and cropped, had lain for
ten or twelve years under pasture, and the grass was
poor and innutritious. Three plots of over 3 acres each

1 A. D. Hall,/<wr. S.E. Agric. Coll., No. 9, 1900.

2 " Manuring of Moss Land " : Report of a Lecture by Professor R.
Patrick Wright, 1909.

IMPROVEMENT OF GRASS LAND 231

were set aside for experiment, one being untreated, one
receiving 10 cwt. 92 Ib. of basic slag per acre, and the
third the same amount of basic slag and 8 cwt. of
kainit. The manures were applied in the winter of
1903-4, and the experiment has been continued since
that date. Sheep were grazed on the plots for twenty
weeks in summer, and the improvement judged by the
live-weight increase of these ; cattle were grazed when
necessary to eat down the grass left by the sheep on
the manured plots. The general results are as follows :
— The total live-weight increases on the plots in the
five years 1904—8 were 258 Ib. per acre on the
untreated plot, 422 Ib. on the basic slag plot, and
516 Ib. on the basic slag and kainit plot. Even in
the fifth year the manures had a remarkable effect,
and the great increase on the treated plots over the
untreated plots is conclusive evidence as to the im-
provement effected. A calculation of the results in cash
showed that the slag and kainit plot has, in the five
years, given a gross return per acre in excess of the
unmanured plot of -£5, 8s. 6d. per acre, or deducting
£it 1 8s. 6d., the cost of the manures, a net profit of
.£3, i os. per acre in the five years, while the effects of
the manures were evidently not yet exhausted. At the
same time it must be remembered that thirty-two weeks
of the year were not considered, the experiment being
confined to twenty weeks in the summer months, and
this fact makes the result the more important.

FUNGI

Fairy Ring's frequently occur in pastures, and are
both harmful and unsightly. They may be dealt with
as described at p. 347.

CHAPTER VI

WHAT ARE THE WORST WEEDS? OPINIONS OF
AUTHORITIES AS TO THE TWELVE WORST
WEEDS IN VARIOUS DISTRICTS

THE species of weeds which are generally troublesome
differ considerably in various districts, and it was
thought that it might serve a useful purpose if some
attempt were made to ascertain, more or less approxi-
mately, what weeds are found most harmful and difficult
to combat in a series of localities. A number of prac-
tical agriculturists were therefore asked to state what
they considered the six worst weeds of arable and
grass land respectively in their neighbourhood, and
what were the means best suited to cope with them.
The replies are given below in the form of a table, and
are of considerable interest. Most of the common
names are generally known, but in many cases the
specific names have been given. Further informa-
tion on the various species will be found in other
chapters.

In the table the returns have been so arranged that
they commence with the north of Scotland and end at
the south coast of England, this being perhaps a better
plan than that of taking them in alphabetical order.
Ireland is unfortunately not included.

An analysis of the replies shows that in twenty-
nine returns referring to arable land the species in

232

TWELVE WORST WEEDS 233

the following list are mentioned the stated number of
times : —

Couch or Twitch i . ... . . 32

Charlock and Runch . . . . . 28

Docks . . . . . . ... • . 16

Thistles . 16

Coltsfoot 13

Chickweed 9

Bindweeds 8

Spurrey 7

Poppies and Corn Buttercup ("Burrs" or^\ , A
"Scratch Burrs") ) each 6

Wild Oat 5

Knotweed and Fat Hen . . . each 4

Redshank 3

Groundsel, Fumitory, Corn Marigold, A /ofle-\ ^ ^

curus agrestis, Poa attnua, and Nettles )
Self-heal, Herb Gerard, Hemp Nettle^
Wild Mint, Mayweed, Cleavers, Horse-
tail, Speedwell, Broom-rape, Dodder,

Pepperwort, Wild Carrot, Yellow Toad-
flax, Shepherd's Purse, Annual Knawel,
Speedwell ( V. agrestis\ Mugwort, Wart
Cress and Thale Cress

each i

In the case of grass land an analysis shows that the
following species are the worst weeds in the stated
number of instances : —

Thistles 22

Buttercups . . . . . . . 16

Holcus lanatus and H. mollis ... 9

Docks 8

Daisy 7

Plantain ........ 6

Soft Brome 6

Yellow Rattle, Sorrels, Dandelion, Agrostis \ ,

sp- 1 C

Knapweed, Rushes, Nettles . . . each 4
Ragwort, Hassock Grass, Rest Harrow . each 3
Moss, Self-heal, Sedges, Hawkweed(///'mz->v

ciutri), Bracken, Mountain Flax, Scabious, r each 2

Meadow Saffron

1 Including Triticum repens, Agrostis sp., and Arrhenatherum avenacewn,
var. bulbosum, as these are all termed Twitch, Wicks, Wickens, Couch, &c.
Two of these species are, however, given in some returns, and these are
included in the figures quoted.

each i

234 COMMON WEEDS

Sweet Vernal, Rough-stalked Meadow-
grass, Mouse-ear Chickweed, Couch,
Ox-eye Daisy, Pig-nut (Conopodium\
Cow Parsley (Petroselinum}, Meadow
Barley-grass, Cat's-ear, Corn Marigold,
Stinking Mayweed, Wild Carrot, Cow-
slip, Broom, Gorse, Dyer's Green-weed,
Silver- weed.

Many of the weeds only mentioned once or twice
may prove very serious pests, and the fact that only
one or two farmers named in the list have found them
troublesome is sufficient evidence to show that where
they occur an endeavour should be made to keep them
down. It is clear that the methods of attacking a given
weed vary somewhat in different districts, while in some
cases uncertainty exists, or no practical plan of eradi-
cation or prevention is known or suggested. The
practical notes written by the authorities who have
supplied the returns deserve every consideration.

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255

CHAPTER VII

PARASITIC PLANTS

A considerable number of weeds are parasitic or semi-
parasitic in character, subsisting wholly or in part upon
the food material elaborated by the " host " plant for
its own use. One or two of these parasites are serious
pests, and frequently do much damage.

CONVOLVULACE.E

Dodder (Cuscuta sp.) is one of the most troublesome
of weed pests with which the farmer has to contend,
chiefly on account of the damage it does to red clover.
Many species of Dodder are harmful, and some eighty
species are known to science, several occurring in
Britain. These parasites are mostly annuals, growing
from seed sown with farm seeds or self-sown in a
former year, and they subsist on plants of a higher
order.

The various species of Dodder closely resemble one
another in their life history and manner of growth.
The seed contains a simple, thread-like embryo which
is coiled spirally round the fleshy albumen, and the
radicle end is thickened. A damp season appears
most suited to the requirements of the Dodder seed,
and at a proper temperature the seed germinates in
five to eight days. The thread-like coil gradually un-

PARASITIC PLANTS 257

winds and the radicle end takes root in the soil, but
should the lengthening stem not meet with a suitable
host plant the seedling dies. Should the stem reach
a host plant it twines itself round the stem of the
latter, attaching itself firmly by means of suckers or
haustoria. It now loses its connection with the soil,
and, unless checked, extends its thread-like stems to
neighbouring plants, rapidly spreading in all directions
and drawing its food supplies wholly from the host
plant. Large patches may in this way be rapidly
overcome by the Dodder, the host plants becoming
strangled and exhausted.

It may be observed that Dodder possesses no chloro-
plasts, and is unable to take up carbon dioxide from
the air like an ordinary green plant, but, as already
stated, draws its sustenance from the ready-made
products which it absorbs from the host plant by
means of its haustoria, or suckers.

If it be not attacked the Dodder spreads quickly,
produces flowers and seeds, and the soil is re-sown.
Dodder may also be spread by small fragments of the
stems, which are veritable cuttings, and may establish
new centres of infestation by attaching themselves to
new plants. It appears also that, in some cases at
least, Dodder may be spread by means of little
tubercles, which are formed in winter,1 although in
general the pest is spread by seed, and chiefly, perhaps,
as an impurity in agricultural seeds. An idea of the
rapidity with which Dodder spreads may be formed
from M. Marre's statement, that in three months a
single stem may kill all the clover or lucerne plants
on an area of 28 square metres (say, 30 square yards),
and so complete is the destruction that one would say
a fire had passed over the spot.

1 E. Marre, La Lutte contre la Citscitte.

R

258 COMMON WEEDS

The seeds of Dodder (Plate II., Figs. 51 and 52) are in
general quite small, roundish, and angled. Being, with
one or two exceptions, much smaller than the seeds of
red clover, they are easily separated by seed-cleaning
machinery. Although Dodder seeds may be recognised
as such by the farmer, the species can only be identified
by the expert, and then not invariably perhaps. In
1905 no less than n per cent of the clover seed
samples examined by the Consulting Botanist (Mr. W.
Carruthers, F.R.S.) to the Royal Agricultural Society
were found to contain Dodder seeds, two samples con-
taining 6 per cent. In 1908 the same authority called
attention to " the difficulty of securing the seeds of any
variety of red clover this year free from Dodder. Last
year's harvest of seed in Britain had been so short and
unsatisfactory that the market had had to be supplied
by seed imported from the Continent and America, and
it was very difficult to obtain seed free from Dodder.
In many samples that had been examined there had
been as much as 1000 Dodder seeds in a pound of
clover seed." This makes it abundantly clear that the
seeds of Dodder must be very commonly sown with
clover samples in Britain. Dodder is similarly a pest
in the Colonies and in the United States of America,
France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Russia, Chile, and
other countries.

Cuscuta Trifolii Bab., generally termed Clover Dodder,
and according to Hooker a variety of C. Eptthynium, is
the most common species met with on the farm. It
is leafless, but produces numerous clusters of minute
white bell-shaped flowers (Fig. 72). Each flower gives
rise to a two-celled capsule, each cell containing two
minute .seeds, which are roundish, dull in appearance,
and grey, brown, olive-brown, or yellowish-brown in
colour. This species is most commonly found on

PARASITIC PLANTS

259

clover and lucerne in Great Britain, but, according to
Frank and Marre, it has been found on a large num-
ber of other plants — e.g.
vetches, lupines, potatoes,
beet, carrots, fennel, ani-
seed.

C. Epithymum Murr. (C.
minor Lam.), or Lesser
Dodder, occurs in Britain
from Ayr southwards. The
flowers are variable in
colour, £ to | inch in dia-
meter, and open in July
to October. The reddish
stems are very slender.
It is found on furze,
thyme, ling, heaths. The
seeds are round-oval in
shape, and yellowish-
brown in colour.

C. europcea L. is not

common in Britain, but FlG ?2 :_clover Dodder (Cuscuta Tri.
occurs on vetches and
nettles, and on the Con-
tinent on hops, hemp, vetches, potatoes, sugar-beet,
and other plants. The stems are reddish or yellow in
colour and as thick as twine, and the flowers, tinged
with red, appear in the summer months.

C. Epilinum Weihe., or Flax Dodder, chiefly attacks
flax, occurring sporadically in Great Britain and Ireland.
On the Continent it has been found to attack hemp and
camelina. It is paler and more succulent than the last
species, and flowers during summer.

C. Gronovii Willd. appears to have been introduced
into Europe from North America. Although this

folii Bab. ) on Red Clover ( Trifolium
pratense), x|, with flower enlarged.

260 COMMON WEEDS

species probably does not ripen its seeds in Britain,
the seeds germinate when sown, as they may be, with
lucerne seeds. This is an exceptional species, in which
the seeds are larger than usual, about the same size
as those of lucerne, and hence not so readily sepa-
rated from the latter as other species of Dodder seed.
Potatoes, beet, and chicory are stated to be infested by
it, in addition to lucerne and other leguminous plants.

Dodder is a most serious pest, and the utmost pains
should be taken to prevent its entry to the farm in seed
samples for sowing, or to eradicate it if unfortunately
found attacking a crop. Several means may be noted
by which it may be combated : —

1. Pure seed, absolutely free from Dodder, should
be insisted on, and the seed merchant should be asked
for a guarantee to this effect. Should a doubt be
entertained as to seeds already purchased, a sample
should be submitted to an expert botanist for examina-
tion, and if Dodder be found, the only thing to be
done is to sift the seed before use, shaking it thoroughly
in a sieve composed of a 2o-mesh wire screen (No. 32
English gauge round wire). With a wooden frame
12 inches square and 3 inches deep covered by such
a wire screen a man may deal with 5 to 10 bushels
per day, shaking J Ib. at a time vigorously for half a
minute.

2. Should a patch of Dodder be found on a clover
crop it should never be torn out with a rake, as this
only serves to break up the Dodder into small pieces
and distribute it. The best plan is to cut the crop and
Dodder together with a scythe, heap the whole to-
gether in the centre of the patch, cover it with chaff,
straw, or light dry rubbish, and burn it on the spot.
Care should be taken to cut the crop well beyond the
apparent limit of the Dodder, as it is better to sacrifice

PARASITIC PLANTS 261

a portion of the crop than risk infestation another
year. Further, the whole of the area cut over should
be covered several inches deep with chaff and burnt
over.

3. It is recommended by Thaer that infested spots
be surrounded by a small trench beyond the outermost
threads of Dodder, the soil from the trench being used
to cover the patch.

4. A somewhat similar plan is suggested by Frank :
covering the patch with a layer 3 inches deep of chaff,
tan, or gypsum, with an inch or so of fine soil on the
top, the whole being saturated with liquid manure or
sprinkled with powdered quicklime in winter. Such
a method usually allows the clover to break through
the covering, but the Dodder will be unable to do so.

5. A plan which appears to have been successfully
practised l consisted in " removing the surface of the
affected spots with a plate-spade and burning the
material (earth, Dodder, &c.) mixed with old thatch in
the centre of each patch, followed by burning a layer
of waste straw on the top of the cleared patches, taking
care to put it well round the edge, even sacrificing a
portion of the unaffected crop round the edge." The
cost for thus treating twenty-five patches three to six
paces in diameter on an area of 7 acres was perhaps
five shillings.

6. Should an infestation be very extensive it will
probably be best to plough the whole crop under, but
this must be done before the seeds ripen, and if possible
before they are formed.

7. As the seeds may lie dormant in the soil for five
or six years, a field that has been attacked by Dodder
should not again be sown with clover for seven or
eight years.

1 Jour. Bd. Agric., June, 1909, p. 209.

262 COMMON WEEDS

8. Since it has been shown that the seeds of Dodder
may pass through the digestive system unharmed, an
infested crop should not be fed to stock. Frank
records a case in which a field was actually infested
with Dodder by means of manure from young cattle
which were fed on rape and linseed cake containing
Dodder seed which had not been destroyed.

9. It has been found in Germany by Dr. Hiltner,1
Director • of the Agricultural Botanical Institute at
Munich, that spraying with a solution of sulphate of
iron destroys Dodder, but not the clover, although the
leaves of the latter turn black, and it appears as if
ruined at first, sprouting strongly afterwards however.
A 15 per cent solution should be employed, and
applied with a sprayer in such a manner that the
liquid falls with some force on the ground, wetting
both the plants and the surface soil. The solution
should also be applied after rain or when the dew is
on the leaf and in the early stage of the infestation.

10. The use of arsenite of soda has been found
satisfactory for the destruction of Dodder in lucerne
in Cape Colony.2 The solution recommended is 1 Ib.
arsenite of soda to 5 gallons of water. It is stated
that there is no fear of killing the lucerne, and if
sprayed properly one application will suffice.

[See also Jour. Board of Agric., Sept. 1 906 ; Leaflet
No. 1 80, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries ; E.
Marre, La Lutte contre la Cu scute ; A. Thaer, Landw.
Unkrauter; Dr. A. B. Frank, Kampfbuch gegen die
Schadlinge unsere Feldfruchte ; Dr. P. Sorauer, Pflanzen-
krankheitenj\

1 Prak, Blatter fur Pftanzenbau und Pflanzenschutz, April, 1908.
* Agric. Jour, of the Cape of Good Hope, February, 1908.

PARASITIC PLANTS

263

OROBANCHACE^:

The only weeds in this order are those of the genus
Orobanche, known as the
Broom-rapes, or robbers of
Broom, from two Greek words
meaning a vetch and to strangle,
the vetch probably being re-
placed by Broom, which is
commonly infested. The
Broom-rapes, of which there
are about one hundred species,
are not so harmful as Dodder,
but they may sometimes be
very troublesome, especially
on warm, dry, light soils.

Broom-rapes are annual,
leafless, brownish root-para-
sites, containing no chloro-
phyll or green colouring
matter. The stems are 6
inches to 2 feet high, generally
stout and scaly, with a some-
what tuberous base, and occur
singly ; and the flowers, with
certain exceptions, occur in
lax or dense spikes. Finally,
the plant is attached, by
means of suckers or haustoria,
to the roots of the clover or
other plant on which it is
parasitic. It subsists on the
food material manufactured
by the host plant, and if it be very plentiful the clover
crop may be almost or quite ruined.

FlG. 73. — Broom-rape (Orobanche
minor Suit.), nat. size.

264 COMMON WEEDS

O. minor Sutt., or Lesser Broom-rape, is the chief
trouble of the farmer, chiefly attacking clover, and
occasionally doing great damage. This pest (Fig. 73)
is parasitic on a number of plants, however, and is
recorded by Kirchner as occurring on Trifolium pratensey
T. repens, T. hybridum, T. incarnatum, Lotus corniculatus,
and other plants. Sorauer says it is so harmful to
clover in Baden that it has received the name of
" clover devil " (kleeteufel). In Britain it occurs from
the Border counties southwards ; the stem is 6 inches
to 2 feet in height, rather slender compared with some
other species ; and the flowers, appearing from June
to October, are 1 inch long, reddish, brown, violet,
purplish, or yellowish-brown in colour, many being
crowded in a long spike.

O. Rapum-genistce Thuill., or Larger Broom-rape,
occurs from Dumfries southwards, in Ireland, and in
the Channel Islands, and is parasitic on the roots of a
few shrubby leguminous plants, as Gorse and Broom.
It is brownish in colour, with flowers, about i inch
in length, of a yellow and purplish tint. The flowers,
which are in dense spikes, appear between June and
August.

O. ramosa L. infests hemp, and on the Continent
tobacco, while it has been recorded on maize (Nobbe).
It is brownish or pale yellow in colour, with light blue
or white flowers.

Several other species of Broom-rape are found in
Britain, but are of little agricultural importance.

The seeds of Broom-rapes are very minute, almost
dust-like, and are produced in large numbers in two-
valved capsules, and it has been stated that ten million
seeds weigh i gram. Sorauer quotes Wentz as having
seen 70 to 90 seed-capsules, containing on an average
1500 seeds, , on a single plant! These minute, light

PARASITIC PLANTS 265

seeds are readily scattered by the wind, but are easily
separated from clover seed samples.

The life history of Broom-rape is interesting, for the
seeds only germinate on coming into contact with the
roots of a host plant, and some species are parasitic on
but one host, while others attack a number of plants.
In the case of O. minor the seedling on germination
is thread-like, and somewhat resembles that of Dodder.
It attaches itself to the roots of its host by means of a
sucker, develops a fleshy stem which "grows upwards
through the soil, appearing above it like a pale,
brownish-red asparagus shoot from 6 inches to 18
inches in length." The spike of flowers is then pro-
duced.

According to a Leaflet * issued by the Swiss Experi-
ment Station, when the summer is warm and dry the
seedlings grow rapidly in the first year, building up
until autumn an onion-shaped, scaly rootstock with
a large number of roots, which endeavour to attach
themselves to other clover roots. No shoots come
above ground in the first year, but they appear in
the second year, after the clover is cut. (In this case
the Broom-rape would be a biennial.) Owing to the
storing up of food in the clover plants after the clover
is cut, and the extra warmth of the now bare soil,
growth of the Broom-rape is very rapid, and the flowers
appear in a few days. In an extraordinarily short time
the seeds are ripened and distributed by the wind.

As regards prevention and remedy, the following sug-
gestions may be made : —

i. Although the seed of Broom-rape is so easily
separated from clover seed samples, it may sometimes
be found in such ; and Percival quotes a case in which

1 Fliigblatt Nr. j", Schweizerische Samen-Untei sucklings- und Versitchs-
anstalt Zurich.

266 COMMON WEEDS

he observed " the bad effects of sowing impure samples
(of clover seed) purchased without guarantee." On the
other hand, in the Swiss Leaflet already quoted, it is stated
that, " Because foreign red clover is often badly infested
with Broom-rape, one now and then hears the opinion
expressed that the latter is introduced with foreign
clover seed. This is not so. In the many thousand
clover seed samples which have already been examined,
the seeds of Broom-rape have never been found. This
is easily understood. Broom-rape ripens its seeds
much earlier than red clover. By the time the clover
is harvested for seed the last of the parasite has dis-
tributed all its seed. And even if it did get into the
clover seed, it would, on account of its small size, be
completely removed by the clover-cleaning machine.
Where Broom-rape appears, its seeds were certainly already
present in the soil / "

2. When a clover crop is found to be infested the
Broom-rape may easily be pulled up by hand and
burnt. If it be known that clover is infested, the crop
should be cut early in order to prevent the Broom-rape
seeding, and the clover should then be encouraged to
grow thickly and strongly, so that it may smother the
weed. Ground lime and potash manures may be use-
ful in this way if judiciously applied ; and simply
manuring with nitrogen, which in any other case is not
advisable for clover, has been followed with good
results as a preventive.1 The better the land is pre-
pared and manured before sowing the less will the crop
be damaged by the pest. Sorauer remarks that in a
case of widespread infestation the chief means of com-
bating this pest consists in the prevention of seeding,
because spreading by scions or shoots is slow, and
easily preventable by uprooting the plants. The pre-

1 Swiss Leaflet cited.

PARASITIC PLANTS 267

vention of seeding is doubly important, because not
only are large quantities of seeds produced, and easily
scattered by the wind, but they may lie in the soil for
years without losing their vitality. It has been recorded
by Frank that in one case the pest again attacked
clover which was sown seven years after the previous
crop. The later crop was so severely infested that it
had to be ploughed up. On infested land, therefore,
clover crops should be as widely separated in the rota-
tion as possible.

3. The growth of heavy-yielding varieties of red
clover is believed to be valuable on account of the
strong, luxuriant, and rapid growth, well covering the
soil. It is, indeed, known that in Switzerland home-
grown, heavy-yielding red clover is hardly attacked,
while foreign, less robust kinds suffer severely from
Broom-rape attack. Red clover may also be replaced
by lucerne or sainfoin.

4. The Swiss Leaflet recommends the sowing of
Italian ryegrass with the clover, the reason being that
it grows rapidly after the first cut is taken, and prevents
the continuous warming of the soil and keeps the
Broom-rape back. On land on which clover has pre-
viously suffered from Broom-rape pure red clover seed
is therefore not sown, but is mixed with a fair percentage
of Italian ryegrass, not more than about 5 Ib. per acre.

5. It is recommended by Frank that badly infested
fields should be deeply broken up after the first cut of
clover is taken, and before the pest blooms. The land
should then be used for other crops for some years.
Somewhat similar advice is given by Percival, who says
that, " When once established it is difficult to eradicate
before doing considerable injury to the crop, and
nothing short of ploughing up the clover will exter-
minate the pest entirely."

268 COMMON WEEDS

The Dodders and Broom-rapes above described are
wholly parasitic on their host plants. The following
plants are only semi-parasites. Although they possess
green leaves and are able to assimilate the carbon
dioxide of the air, their roots are attached by haustoria
or "suckers" to the roots of grasses and other host
plants, from which they apparently take water and the
mineral food constituents necessary for their nutrition.

Where they occur on pastures and meadows an
application of 4 or 5 cwt. of salt per acre checks their
growth.

SCROPHULARIACE^E

Yellow Rattle (Rhinanthus Crista-galli L.), also known
as Rattles, Rattle-grass, Cock's-comb, or Horse-penny,
is an erect-growing annual, 6 to 18 inches high, with
narrow serrated leaves placed opposite one another in
pairs on the stem, which is quadrangular and branched.
The flowers are numerous and arranged in spikes ; the
corolla is yellow, with the lobes of the upper lip blue ;
the lower lip is shorter than the upper, and three-lobed.
After the corolla has fallen the calyx is tipped with red,
and resembles a Cock's-comb. The flowers appear in
May, June, and July. The seed capsules are roundish,
compressed, and two-valved, and the seeds are roundish,
compressed, and winged, rattling in the capsule when
the plant is shaken — hence several common names of
the weed. The word Rhinanthus is from the Greek
rhinos, the nose, and anthos, a flower, and therefore
means the nose flower.

This weed (Fig. 74) is partially parasitic on the roots
of grasses and other plants, and it was shown sixty years
ago that it cannot be cultivated entirely by itself.1 It
is frequently very plentiful in damp meadows and pas-

1 " Experiments by Prof. Henslow," Card. C/iron., 1848.

PARASITIC PLANTS

269

tures, and in such cases
is very harmful, useful
plants being crowded
out or robbed of their
food supplies. Its pres-
ence in quantity also
reduces the value of
hay. The plant is not
liked by stock, and
some people believe
that it imparts a bad
taste to butter made
from the milk of cows
grazing on infested pas-
tures. When infested
grass land is broken up
Yellow Rattle may ap-
pear in the first arable
crop, and possibly the
seeds may find their
way into the granary
with grain. Henslow
writes 1 : " If the seeds
are ground up with the
corn they impart a
violet-brown colour to
the flour. This is due
to a property called
Rhinanthme" It has
been said that they
similarly give an un-
pleasant taste to the
flour.

Yellow Rattle is usually regarded as a weed of poor

1 Rev. Professor G. Henslow, Poisonous Plants in Field and Garden.

FIG. 74. — Yellow Rattle (Rhinanth^s Crista-
galli L.), nat. size.

270 COMMON WEEDS

meadow land, well managed pastures being seldom in-
fested. Mr. ]. P. Sheldon wrote in ^oy1 "that an
abundant growth of this weed appears to be promoted
by a prevalent low temperature in the period when
grass in meadow is — or ought to be — a little past the
middle of its growth. In a warm and < growing '
state of weather at this period all meadows worth their
salt fill up with bottom grass, and the Yellow Rattle is
not seen." Another authority 2 says that well-drained
meadows seldom suffer, but chiefly poor meadow land
by streams which are fed more by stagnant water than
by drainage waters ; while in 1907 the Board of Agri-
culture received specimens from Sussex, where the
weed was overrunning land on chalk under down
grass.3 It is found in Britain as far north as the
Shetland Isles, and in the Scottish Highlands occurs
as much as 2500 feet above sea-level (Hooker).

Several preventive and remedial measures may be
practised : —

(1) Early mowing before the seeds ripen ; when this
has been followed two years in succession, entirely
satisfactory results have been obtained. Late mowing
with the grass for hay is useless, for many of the
seeds will have ripened and become distributed by the
wind.

(2) A general improvement in the pasture should
be aimed at, and depasturing with sheep in spring,
followed by the application of 6 to 8 cwt. of basic
slag on heavy land in November, or 5 cwt. super-
phosphate on lighter land in February, will be certain
to reduce the weed, and if close grazing is regularly
practised for a time the Yellow Rattle will probably
disappear.

1 Agricultural Gazette, July 8, 1907.

2 A. Thaer, Landw. Unkrduter.

3 Jour. Bd. Agric., May, 1908.

PARASITIC PLANTS

271

(3) Top-dressings of salt have in some instances
proved effective. Grazing with sheep in April, accom-
panied by a dressing of 6 cwt. per acre of salt, is stated
to have had good results, a field infested in 1896 pro-
ducing no Yellow Rattle in 1897, the year in which
treatment took place.1

In some experiments, conducted in 1893 by the
Glasgow Technical College, the weed was found to be
completely destroyed by the application of 6 cwt. of
salt per acre in dry
sunny weather in the
end of April. The salt
burned the surface of
the pastures very badly,
but the grasses re-
covered when rain came,
and gave an increased
produce. The Yellow
Rattle, however, was
completely extermi-
nated.

(4) Where infested
pastures or meadows are
really damp or wet,
they should be drained,
grazed, and manured.

Eyebright (Euphrasia
offidnalis L.) is an erect
annual (Fig. 75) com-
mon in pastures and
meadows on light soils. F'G'

It is a very variable
plant, and some forms are met with on damp peaty
ground. The stems are thin and wiry, from i to 6

1 North British Agriculturist, October, 1897.

272 COMMON WEEDS

inches high, often branched, and bear small sessile,
ovate, or lanceolate leaves with crenate or coarsely
serrate margins.

The flowers are tubular, two-lipped, and white or
lilac with purple veins, the lower lip being yellow ;
they grow singly in the axils of the leaves, and are open
from June to August.

Red Bartsia (Bartsia Odontites Huds., or Euphrasia
Odontites L.) is a frequent weed in fields and waste
places, and by roadsides. It has an erect branched wiry
stem, and in habit and general appearance resembles
a large red Eyebright. The leaves are opposite and
sessile, usually narrowly lanceolate and serrate, though
they vary very much in shape. The flowers are two-
lipped, pink and hairy, and appear in July and August,
arranged on one side of the flowering stem.

Yellow or Viscid Bartsia (B. viscosa L.) is an annual
plant, with stems about a foot high, ovate coarsely
serrate leaves, and yellow two-lipped flowers, which
are open in June to October. The whole plant has
sticky hairs upon it. It sometimes grows abundantly
in grass land.

Lousewort or Red Rattle (Pedicularis sylvatica L.)
occurs on heaths and dampish meadows throughout
the country. It is a perennial, with long smooth
branches which spread over the ground and grow
erect at the ends. The leaves are oblong-pinnatifid,
the flowers two-lipped, about an inch long, and rose-
pink, appearing in May.

Another species (P.palusiris L.), which is annual, grows
in marshes and bogs. It has a stout erect stem, with
few or no branches, and large crimson flowers (Fig. 76).

Cow-wheat (Melampyrum pratense L.) is another
semi-parasitic plant which grows chiefly on the sides
of woods and in thickets, though it is sometimes seen

PARASITIC PLANTS

273

in dry pastures. The branched stem grows from 6 to
1 8 inches high, and bears opposite leaves, which are
usually lanceolate-entire, sometimes resembling broad
grass leaves. The flowers are axillary on one side of

FIG. 76. — Lou^ewort (Pedicular is palustris L.), x about
i. Flower, and 2. Fruit, both enlarged.

the stem ; they have long narrow yellow corollas,
tubular and two-lipped, rather like those of a snap-
dragon, and are seen from June to September.

Toothwort (Lathrcea squamaria L.) is a perennial
parasitic plant which lives on the roots of trees and
shrubs, especially hazels. The whole plant is fleshy,
with stout stems 3 to 8 inches long; the branched root-
stock has thick fleshy scales crowded upon it, and its
roots are attached to those of the " host," from which
it draws its nourishment. The plant is pale yellow or

s

274 COMMON WEEDS

sometimes pinkish, and is practically devoid of chloro-
phyll. The flowers appear in April and May ; they
are dull purple in colour, and are arranged in un-
branched scaly racemes, which are curved downwards
at the tip when young. The corolla is two-lipped and
open.

LORANTHACE/E

Mistletoe (Viscum album L.) This familiar ever-
green parasite is capable of attacking a great variety of
trees, but is perhaps most abundant on poplars and on
apple-trees in orchards, where it does a considerable
amount of damage.

The stems are round, dichotomously branched or
" forked," and yellowish-green, like the opposite fleshy,
obovate-lanceolate leaves. The plant is dioecious, the
small four-petalled male flowers being on one individual,
and the female flowers on another.

The latter have inferior one-celled ovaries, which
develop into round, white, semi-transparent berries, the
contents of which are extremely viscid. Flowering
takes place in March and April, and the berries are
ripe about November and December, at which time they
are distributed by thrushes and other birds ; the seeds
are deposited in excreta or rubbed by the beaks of the
birds on branches of trees.

The seeds begin to germinate about April or May,
when they send out a root which immediately curves
towards and penetrates the bark, dissolving its way by
means of enzymes down to the young wood. In a
year or two the primary root produces green lateral
roots, which grow out from it at right angles and
extend along the branch mostly in the bast. From
the lower side of these lateral rhizome-like rootlets short
roots or " sinkers " are pushed out into the wood, from

PARASITIC PLANTS 275

which they probably absorb water and mineral con-
stituents, which the plant needs for nutrition. From
the upper side of these green root "runners" adventi-
tious buds arise and burst their way out through the
bark, ultimately growing into leafy branches.

Although young Mistletoe plants develop slowly at
first, after a time they grow more vigorously, and
seriously rob their host branches of food. The orchard
trees suffer in consequence, and yield less fruit than they
should do. At the same time canker sometime appears
on the swollen branches attacked by the parasite, and
may spread to healthy trees in the neighbourhood.

Where the pest occurs on orchard trees it is perhaps
best to cut off the affected branches. Where this is
not feasible the parasite may be cut out completely,
roots and all, covering up the wound afterwards with
Stockholm tar. The female plants especially should
be destroyed^ as it is from these only that the parasite
is distributed.

CHAPTER VIII

POISONOUS PLANTS1

IN addition to the weeds of arable and pasture land
already described, there are a considerable number
which are chiefly important on account of their poison-
ous or irritant properties, and their consequent harmful
effects on farm live stock. In cases where such weeds
occur in large quantities they may be unavoidably
harvested with hay or other crops, and thus be later
given to stock ; or they may be eaten in the green
state in the open fields and along hedgerows. There
are also certain poisonous plants which, though not
weeds, may usefully be included here, on account of
the fact that they are occasionally eaten by farm
animals, on which they have an irritant or toxic effect.
Laburnum, Yew, and other noxious plants may be
browsed upon by stock in fields near large gardens ;
others, such as Box, Rhododendron, Poison Ivy, Helle-
bore, and Larkspur, may be obtained in clippings and
other rubbish from gardens and shrubberies.

RANUNCULACE^:

Monkshood (Aconitum Napellus L.) is not commonly
found otherwise than in gardens, but occurs in the
wild state in shady places near streams in Wales

1 The symptoms of poisoning by the various plants and the antidotes or
remedial measures are not in general given. For information on these points
reference must be made to medical or veterinary works, and to the works by
Cornevin, Henslow, and Smith. (See Bibliography.)

276

\

Photo, 1909. /. c. Varty-Smith.

FIG. 77.— Monkshood (Aconitum Napellus L.).

278 COMMON WEEDS

and one or two western counties. It is an upright
perennial 2 feet or so in height, with deeply cut leaves,
and tall spikes of dark blue flowers, about an inch in
diameter, placed on upright downy stalks. The upper
sepal of the blue calyx is in the form of a hood or
cowl, hence the common name. The rootstock is
spindle-shaped. Flowering takes place from July to
September.

Although the whole plant (Fig. 77) is very poisonous,
its virulence depends to some extent upon the age of the
plant and the climate in which it is grown. The leaves
are the least poisonous, the seeds more so, and the
root the most deadly. The toxic principle is the alkaloid
Aconitine. Drying removes a part of the poison, and
boiling removes most of it, as it is soluble in boiling
water (Cornevin). Medical works record many examples
of human poisoning, particularly in cases where its root
has been mistaken for horse-radish ; this mistake should
rarely occur, as the Aconite root is a conical tap-root,
tapering to a point, while that of the horse-radish is
cylindrical, and possesses a characteristic pungent
odour. The plant is generally avoided by live stock,
but poisoning of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs have
been recorded (Cornevin). Linnaeus also says that it
is fatal to cows and goats when they eat it fresh, but
mentions that when dried it does no harm to horses.

Buttercups (Ranunculus sp.). — Several species of
Buttercups are of a poisonous character, containing an
acrid juice. All bear yellow flowers of varying sizes.
The toxic principle, however, is volatile, and easily
destroyed by boiling or drying; in hay, therefore,
Buttercups may be considered harmless, and are readily
eaten by stock, forming a nourishing food. Butter-
cups, however, may well be replaced in pastures by
more useful plants. (See also p. 152.)

POISONOUS PLANTS 279

R. scekratus L., known as Celery-leaved Buttercup, is
an upright annual, about i to 2 feet high, with smooth
leaves divided into three irregular lobes. It occurs in
ditches, ponds, and wet places, flowering from May to
September. The flowers are small, about one-fourth of
an inch across, and the sepals reflexed, or turned sharply
back towards the hollow stem. This species is especially
noxious to farm stock.

R. acris L., Tall Crowfoot or Acrid Buttercup, is a
hairy erect perennial with much divided leaves. It
attains to a height of 3 feet ; the flowers are much larger
than those of R. sceleratus, being about three-quarters of
an inch across. The sepals are spreading, and the flower
stalks cylindrical. Tall Crowfoot is found in meadows
and by roadsides ; flowering takes place between April
and September. Tall Crowfoot has been a frequent
cause of cattle poisoning, and induces intense inflamma-
tion of the digestive organs. (See also p. 152.)

R. bnlbosus L., or Bulbous Buttercup, is another hairy
erect perennial, distinguished from other Buttercups by
the stem, which has a swollen bulb-like base, generally
about the size of a hazel nut. The leaves are divided, and
the flowers, which open from May to June, are J to i inch
across, the sepals being reflexed to touch the flower
stalk. It is similar in its poisonous qualities to R.
acris. (See also p. 152.)

R. Flammula L., the Lesser Spearwort, is a common
species of Ranunculus in wet places, such as water
meadows and marshes. It attains a height of i foot,
and bears long, narrow, pointed leaves, very different
in form from those of the field Buttercups. The
flowers are about half an inch in diameter when fully
open, and appear between June and August. This
species has, according to Henslow, often proved fatal
to horses and cattle which have eaten it ; such accidents

280 COMMON WEEDS

have occurred at the village of Gamlingay, in Cambridge-
shire.

R. Ficaria L., or Lesser Celandine, has also caused
poisoning among cattle. It has heart-shaped leaves,
and grows quite close to the ground, only attaining 4
to 6 inches in height. The solitary "flowers are about
three-fourths of an inch across, with about a dozen
bright yellow petals, and appear from March to May,
being open much earlier than those of the other species
mentioned.

R. repens L. and R. arvensis L., already dealt with
(pp. 50 and 52), are cited by Cornevin as poisonous
plants.

Wood Anemone (Anemone nemorosa L.), the common
Anemone of woods and copses, is sometimes present
in meadows. It is a very acrid perennial herb, which
flowers in April and May. Although cattle have been
poisoned by it, there appear to be no records of fatal
results.

Larkspur (Delphinium Aj'acis Reich.) is not common,
but occurs in cornfields in Cambridgeshire, Sussex, and
some other places. It is an annual, and the blue,
white, or pink flowers open in June and July. They
are about an inch in diameter, and one of the sepals
is prolonged into a characteristic " spur," from which
the plant takes its common name.

The seeds of Larkspurs are said to be especially
poisonous, the toxic principle being Delphine, an
alkaloid. One species, Stavesacre (D. staphisagria), is
used in medicine.

Hellebore (Helleborus fcetidus L. and H. viridis L.)
are by no means common plants, but the former,
Stinking Hellebore, so called on account of its fetid
odour, occurs in thickets and on chalk pastures in
some southern and eastern English counties ; while

POISONOUS PLANTS 281

the latter species, Green Hellebore, is found, also on
chalk, in woods and hedges in many localities.

The flowers, which are many in the case of H.
fcetidus and few with H. viridis, open early in the year
(February to March and March to April respectively).
They have no prominent petals ; what appears to be
the corolla is formed of the sepals, which are five in
number, and in //. viridis green and spreading, but in
H. fcetidus green tipped with dull purple, erect and
overlapping. The leaves are borne on long stalks,
and are divided into irregular palmate lobes. Both
species are perennial. The Christmas Rose (H. niger)
is a much esteemed cultivated species of Helleborus.

Both species are powerful vegetable irritants, being
purgative and cathartic, the toxic principle being the
glucoside Helleborin. Fatal poisoning of human beings
has been recorded. The poison is not removed by
drying or boiling as in the case of Buttercups. Live
stock are unlikely to touch the plant or eat it in
sufficient quantity to cause serious results, yet animals
have been killed by it — "cows have died from eating
the trimmings of the Fetid Hellebore mixed with other
herbage when thrown out from a shrubbery into the
field where they were" (Henslow).

PAPAVERACE^

The Common Poppies (Papaver sp.), which are dealt
with from another standpoint at p. 53, are actively
toxic or narcotic, the worst species being P. somniferum
L. (the Opium Poppy). The common red Poppy
(P. Rhceas L.) is stated by Cornevin to be poisonous
in all its parts, and sufficiently so to occasion accidents
every year. The toxic principle consists of the alka-
loids Morphine and Rhceadine. Poisoning of domestic

282 COMMON WEEDS

animals may occur if they are fed with clovers or
sainfoin which are infested with Poppies, and also when
they ingest the capsules and seeds with other waste
matter from the winnowing or grading of cereals.
Cattle have been occasionally injured by eating unripe
Poppy-heads when the plant was mixed with clover
and sainfoin (Henslow). In the open, however, farm
animals are usually safe where Poppies abound, as the
unpleasant odour and taste of the plants render them
obnoxious.

Cornevin remarks that cattle poisoned by P. Rhceas
exhibit at first symptoms of excitement, shown by
continual movement, by pawing of the soil or litter,
by increased respiration and a more rapid pulse. This
is followed by stoppage of the digestive functions, and
sometimes a little swelling of the eyelids. These
preliminary symptoms are succeeded by a period of
coma, the animal appears to sleep while standing,
remaining motionless, and if forced to move walks in
an unsteady manner. Soon it falls, and, if a fatal
result is likely to occur (which is exceptional), the
animal remains stretched out on the ground ; respira-
tion becomes slower, the temperature falls, and after
a few convulsive movements death supervenes owing
to arrested respiration.

It may be added that the drugs morphine, opium,
and laudanum are prepared from Poppies ; the red
colouring matter of the petals is also extracted and
utilised for certain purposes.

Greater Celandine (Chelidonium majus L.) is an erect
branched perennial which grows in " waste places and
hedgerows in the South of England, probably natura-
lised, elsewhere an escape " (Hooker). It attains to a
height of 2 feet. The leaves are abundant, very thin
and much divided, with toothed and lobed segments.

POISONOUS PLANTS 283

The yellow flowers open between May and August, are
nearly i inch in diameter, and occur " in loose few-
flowered umbels " on slender stalks ; the petals are four
in number. The seed capsules are about ij inch long.
The plant exhales an unpleasant odour, and contains a
yellowish acrid juice.

C. majus is a vegetable irritant, producing nausea and
dysentery, and is a drastic purgative. The toxic
principle is Chelidonine, an alkaloid, and neither drying
nor boiling eliminates the poisonous property. It has
been used by country people as an emetic and purga-
tive, but should be avoided owing to its harmful nature.
Animals refuse the plant.

CRUCIFER^:

Charlock (Sinapis arvensis), which is more fully dealt
with at p. 58, must also be included among poisonous
plants, since the whole plant is an irritant when in
bloom, and the seeds are of a dangerous character,
causing inflammation of the intestine. Cornevin states
that when used in admixture in the manufacture of a
poor quality oil-cake and fed to cattle the cake caused
intestinal inflammation, severe diarrhoea, and great
thirst. The effects are probably due to Oil of
Mustard.

CARYOPHYLLACE^E

Corn Cockle (Agrostemma Githago L.) is a common
plant of cornfields, covered with white hairs, and
attaining 3 or 4 feet in height. It is tall and erect,
with straight, narrow lanceolate leaves up to 5 inches
long placed opposite one another on the stem in pairs.
The flowers (Fig. 78) are borne singly on long stalks
which spring from the axils of the leaves. They are

284

COMMON WEEDS

1 1 to 2 inches in diameter, with five pale purple or
violet-red petals, and appear in June, July, and August.
The five green sepals are much longer and narrower
than the petals. The seed capsule is large, and con-
tains twenty or thirty rough black seeds, which are
nearly the size of grains of wheat, and for this reason

FIG. 78. — Corn Cockle (Agrostemma Githago L.), x about
i. Fruit enlarged.

are separated from the cereal with difficulty. They are
bitter to the taste.

The plant is harmful in three ways. In the first
place, it is a weed in the usual sense — it grows where
it is not required and crowds the cultivated crop.
Secondly, the seeds may be ground up with wheat,
discolouring the flour, and imparting even to bread
when baked a greyish tint and disagreeable odour.
Thirdly, the seeds are of a poisonous character, the

POISONOUS PLANTS 285

toxic principle not being destroyed by heat of an
ordinary oven in baking. Bread containing Corn Cockle
has proved fatal. Although farm live stock are unlikely
to touch the plant when growing, the seed may be
ground up and mixed with feeding stuffs, and Cornevin
states that poisoning has occurred in the case of man
and all domestic animals. In 1874, evidence in a
case at Lyons showed that there were then merchants
sufficiently unscrupulous to add 45 per cent of Corn
Cockle flour to meals intended for the feeding of stock.
Cornevin was unable to state the amount of the flour
necessary to cause death for animals other than calves,
pigs, dogs, and poultry, and for these the amounts
are —

Calf . . . .25 Ib. \

P*> ' ' *10 " I per 100 Ib. live weight.

Fowl . . . .25 " J

Since that date numerous experiments have been
made with Corn Cockle, and a variety of conclusions
have been recorded. We summarise from The United
States Experiment Station Record various notes which have
appeared for many years past, the experiments referred
to being conducted in Germany. In experiments at
the Vienna Experiment Station l bread containing 40
per cent of Cockle seed meal was eaten by both adults
and children, and gave negative results. In 1892
Kornauth and Arche found 2 by feeding trials that Corn
Cockle was not poisonous to pigs, a conclusion which
is contrary to general belief. They found that albumi-
noid metabolism was diminished, but fat production
increased ; with 70 per cent of Corn Cockle in the food
the growth of the animals was diminished, but the

1 Exp. Sta. Rec., vol. iv. p. 91.

2 Ibid., vol. iv. p. 90 ; vol. v. p. 228.

286 COMMON WEEDS

action did not appear to be poisonous. The authors
even concluded that Corn Cockle may be regarded as
a harmless and valuable food for growing pigs, and
refuse containing it is extensively used in Hungary for
fattening pigs.

In 1893 a number of pigs died in Germany when
fed on coarsely ground rye tailings containing 6 per
cent of Cockle, symptoms of acute poisoning being
observed. Forty work-horses, however, were un-
injured when given 3^ Ib. of similar tailings.1 In
another case five cows were supposed to have been
poisoned by Cockle ; 2 and in still another to exert a
poisonous action on pigs (I9O4-5).3 Experiments con-
ducted in 1903-4 showed that Corn Cockle exerted a
more favourable than unfavourable influence on the
total yield of milk of cows, but a very unfavourable
influence on the quality of butter.4 About the same
time 4 experiments with cows, sheep, pigs, and goats
indicated that in the amounts usually found in feed-
ing stuffs, Corn Cockle has no poisonous influence on
domestic animals.

About 1892 Nevinny concluded5 that 6 grams of
Cockle seed consumed in 1200 grams of bread were
beyond doubt poisonous in effect, and that the sale
of grain or flour containing it should be forbidden.
Robert also thought that the sale of feeding stuffs con-
taining the seeds of Corn Cockle should be prohibited
by law.6 Pesch, who made an extensive study of the
question, concluded 7 as follows : " Under certain con-
ditions Corn Cockle is injurious to domestic animals.
The amount of the poisonous substance in the seed
is variable, depending probably upon the season and

1 Exp. Sta. Rec., vol. v. p. 813. z Ibid., vol. xii. p. 394.

3 Ibid., vol. xvi. p. 103. 4 Ibid., vol. xv. p. 1001.

5 Ibid., vol. iv. p. 90. 6 Ibid., vol. iv. p. 92.

7 Ibid., vol. iv. p. 310,

POISONOUS PLANTS 287

the soil. Animals become accustomed to it, so that
amounts of seed which at first cause sickness, later
have no injurious effect. The susceptibility of animals
to the poison varies both with the species and the
individual. Young animals are more readily affected
than older ones. It is believed that rodents and sheep
are not susceptible, and, as far as is known, grown
cattle are only slightly or not at all affected by the
poison. Calves, swine, horses, and especially dogs, are
more or less susceptible. Concerning birds and fowls,
there is some doubt."

Corn Cockle is included by A. B. Smith l as a simple
irritant poison.

The toxic principle is variously stated to be Sapotoxin,
a glucoside, Smilacin, Saponin, or Githagin. Pesch says 2
that the seeds contain a poisonous substance called
Saponin or Githagin, a bitter property which may cause
nervous debility and dysentery. lt The poisonous con-
stituent is very freely soluble in water, and possesses a
sharp burning taste. It has no odour, but when inhaled
in the smallest quantity it produces violent sneezing.
When briskly shaken with water it froths like soap.
The poison is found in nearly all parts of the plant, but
mainly in the kernel of the seed/' 3 The starch grains
of Corn Cockle are only about one-fifteenth the size of
those of wheat, and are easily distinguishable with the
microscope, and by a chemical test with iodine.

The evidence given above is sufficiently conclusive
to show that the ingestion of the seeds of Corn Cockle
should always be avoided, and great care should be
taken that the seeds are completely removed from
cereals before the latter are used for food.

1 Poisonous Plants of all Countries, 1905.

2 Die Hittermittel des Handels, 1906.

3 Farmers' Bull., No. 86, U.S. Dept. Agric.

288 COMMON WEEDS

When Corn Cockle occurs in cornfields it should be
eradicated, and strenuous attempts made to prevent it
reaching the seeding stage. Pure seed corn should
always be used.

CELASTRACE^:

The Spindle Tree (Euonymus europceus L.), the
generic name of which is taken from Euonyme,
" Mother of the Furies," occurs in copses and hedges,
often on chalk, from Roxburgh southwards. It is
stated by Hooker to be rare in Scotland and local in
Ireland. It grows from 5 to 20 feet in height, and is
a smooth and fetid shrub or tree. The leaves are
ovate-lanceolate in shape, 2 to 4 inches long, smooth,
in opposite pairs, with short stalks. The flowers,
which open in May and June, are one-third to one-half
an inch in diameter, and occur in clusters of five to ten
on stalks of an inch or more in length ; they are
greenish-white in colour. The bark is at first bright
green and smooth. The common name is derived
from the fact that the wood was formerly made into
spindles.

This plant is poisonous in all its parts, but the berries
are especially so. Children have suffered from eating
the fruits, which are strongly purgative ; and Cornevin
states that sheep and goats have been injured by eating
the leaves. The poisonous principle is the glucoside
Euonymin.

RHAMNE.E

Common Buckthorn (Rhanmus catharticus L.) is a
shrub of 5 to 10 feet high, much branched, the
branches being opposite and spinous at the ends ; the
leaves are ovate and serrate ; the yellowish -green
flowers, under \ inch in diameter, may be solitary or

POISONOUS PLANTS 289

in crowded cymose clusters on short stalks in the axils
of the leaves ; and the fruits, containing four stones,
are round, black, and strongly cathartic and purgative
in character. The flowers appear from May to July,
and, according to Hooker, the Buckthorn occurs from
Westmorland southwards, chiefly on chalk, and is
perhaps not wild south of Durham, while it is rare
in Ireland. The fruits should not be eaten, as they
may produce dangerous effects : they yield a green
dye.

LEGUMINOS.E

Indian Tares. — Various species of Lathyrus met
with in Spain, Italy, Africa, and other parts of the
world are poisonous, and not unfrequently lead to fatal
results when consumed by animals. In 1894 several
horses belonging to the Bristol Tramways Company
were poisoned by eating so-called Indian Peas (the
seeds of Lathyrus sativus), and other injurious effects
upon farm stock are recorded after eating cakes and
meals containing these seeds. The British species,
L. Aphaca L. (Yellow Vetchling), has caused violent
headaches and vomiting in the case of persons who
have eaten the seeds. This plant occurs in corn-
fields from the Midland counties southwards, and
flowers in June and July. It grows to a height of
i to 3 feet, and bears large leaf-like stipules and long
tendrils. The pale yellow flowers are produced singly
at the nodes. [See also " Lathyrus Poisoning," Veteri-
nary Journal, 1885 and 1886; " Leguminous Plant
Poisoning," Jour. Bot. Soc. Edin.y Dec., 1894, by Dr.
R. S. MacDougall.]

Lupins (Lupinus sp.) are not much cultivated in this
country on the farm, but various kinds are well known
in garden cultivation, where they are highly valued for

T

290 COMMON WEEDS

ornamental purposes. Some species are valuable
forage crops, and useful for reclaiming sandy soils,
being usually ploughed in or folded with sheep. Of
these the Yellow Lupin (L. luteus L.) and Blue Lupin
(L. angustifolius L.) are grown most extensively. The
Yellow Lupin has caused much trouble on the Con-
tinent, especially in Germany. Cornevin states that in
1880 no less than 14,138 out of 240,000 sheep fed
upon it, or 5.89 per cent, died after suffering from a
complaint termed " Lupinose." Sheep were chiefly
affected, because it was to this class of stock that the
crop was principally given, but cattle, goats, and horses
did not escape. Percival states that Lupins " contain
a variable proportion of a bitter alkaloid which makes
them unpalatable to horses and cattle, and sheep at
first appear to dislike the crop. In addition to the
bitter alkaloid, Lupins under certain indefinite con-
ditions of soil, manuring, and storage sometimes
contain a poisonous compound named Lupinotoxme,
which rapidly produces fatal results in sheep when
the latter are fed with even moderate amounts of the
cut green fodder or hay. Of the various methods to
render the Lupin crop perfectly innocuous, heating
with steam under pressure of one or two atmospheres
has proved the most certain."

"Java" Beans (Phaseolus lunatus) are the seeds of a
foreign bean which have been occasionally imported
into this country from the East for feeding purposes,
and owing no doubt to their general similarity to white
haricots and butter beans have found favour with
farmers and others. In the past five years there have
been a number of cases of poisoning by so-called
"Java" Beans (Fig. 790). In March 1906 the Board
of Agriculture and Fisheries published a report of the
poisoning of farm animals at eight centres. At two of

POISONOUS PLANTS

291

them the number of animals were not stated, but at the

other six 133 head of

cattle were involved, and

of these no fewerthan 43

died. The meal on which

the animals were fed was

prepared from the beans

of P. lunatus, of which

several types occur in

cultivation and in the

wild state. These types

exhibit Considerable dif- FlG" 79««.-Java Beans, nat. size.

ferences in colour, some of them being creamy-white,

reddish-brown, brownish with
purple spots and blotches
(Fig. 796), purplish-black, or
black with white stripes.

The toxic principle is Phaseo-
lunatin, a glucoside which,
under certain conditions, gives
rise to prussic acid. The
largest proportion of the
poisonous principle appears
to be contained in the coloured

seed beans ; the white forms (Fig.

79^:) contain much less, or none

at all, and are in general safe

for feeding to stock. Before any

doubtful kinds of beans are used

for feeding purposes their identity

should be ascertained, and they

should be purchased under guaran-
tee. (See the Journal of the Board

of Agriculture for March and April 1906, and March

By courtesy of the Editor of The Field.

FIG. 79*5*. — Red Rangoon Beans,
nat. size.

FIG. 7gc*.— White Beans,
nat. size.

292 COMMON WEEDS

1908 ; the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural
Society, 1907 ; the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1903 ;
and the Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1903.)

Laburnum (Cytisus Laburnum L.) is a decorative tree,
well known throughout the country, the drooping
racemes of yellow flowers appearing in May and June.
It is stated by Henslow to be "certainly one of the
most poisonous of all trees cultivated in gardens " ;
and Cornevin remarks that numerous experimental
researches have proved that the wood, bark, leaves,
flowers, seeds, and roots are poisonous, the seeds espe-
cially so. Smith includes the Laburnum among vege-
table irritants, producing nervous symptoms, abdominal
pain, vomiting, purging, and tetanic spasms. The toxic
principle is Cytisin. A case was recorded T by the Board
of Agriculture in 1908, in which two horses were alleged
to have been poisoned in North Wales by eating Labur-
num seeds, which were found in their stomachs on
post-mortem examination, although in very small
quantity. The symptoms attendant on Laburnum
poisoning in cattle are stated to be trembling, disincli-
nation to move, partial paralysis of the limbs, tympany,
and salivation.

ROSACES

The Cherry Laurel (Prunus laurocerasus L.), so com-
mon in shrubberies, has caused numerous accidents
both to man and the domestic animals on the Con-
tinent, and Gerlach (vide Cornevin) cited a case of the
poisoning of twenty-five sheep. The crushed leaves are
used by entomologists for killing insects. Its toxicity
probably depends to some extent on locality. Henslow
remarks that in England it appears to be much less, if
at all, harmful, and states that his own cows completely

1 Jour. Bd. Agric., March 1908, p. 695.

POISONOUS PLANTS

293

ruined a long laurel hedge, the abnormal food doing
no damage either to the cows or to the milk they
produced.

CUCURBITACE^:

Bryony (Bryonia dioica L.) is a well-known climbing
plant of hedges and thickets in England, not being

Photo, 1909.

H. C. Long.

FIG. 80. — Spray of Bryony (Bryonia dioica L.).

294 COMMON WEEDS

found in Scotland and Ireland (Hooker). The leaves are
five-lobed, light green in colour, and the plant climbs by
means of long thread-like tendrils, which twine round
other plants for support (Fig. 80). The rootstock con-
sists of large fleshy tubers, " sometimes nearly two feet
long, thick as a man's arm, white, succulent, and fleshy,
with an acrid, bitter, and disagreeable taste " (Henslow).
The flowers are quite small and greenish-white, appear-
ing between May and October ; they give rise to red
berries. Bryony has an unpleasant odour, and contains
a milky, nauseous juice. It is a highly irritant plant,
and the tuberous roots have been the cause of the
poisoning of whole families who have eaten them
instead of parsnips and turnips. It has been estimated
that forty berries would cause the death of a man,
and that fifteen would similarly suffice in the case of
children (Cornevin). The toxic principle is a glucoside
called Bryonin.

UMBELLIFER.E

Several members of this order may be exceedingly
harmful either to man or to domestic animals.

Hemlock (Conium maculatum L.), illustrated in Fig.
8 1, a plant which may attain to 5 feet or more. It has
a hollow, smooth stem, somewhat glaucous, and more
or less thickly dotted with purplish spots. The leaves
are large and compound, and the segments are deeply
cut, as in most plants of the order. Hemlock grows on
banks, near hedges, and by roadsides and streams, and
in Yorkshire is found at an altitude of 1000 feet. It is
a biennial, and flowers in June to July, the flowers being
white and in " umbels." The poisonous principle is at
first chiefly contained in the foliage, but later in the
fruit, and, as in certain other plants, is largely dissipated
when the plant is dried, as in hay. Owing perhaps to

POISONOUS PLANTS

295

the fact that the whole
plant possesses a fetid,
disagreeable odour it ap-
pears rarely to be touched
by stock when in the
growing state, although
it is stated that in the
United States, where it
has become naturalised,
many domestic animals
have been killed by it.
Cases of poisoning have
arisen from eating the
seeds for those of anise,
and through using the
leaves for parsley ; the
roots have also been mis-
taken for parsnips with
deleterious results.1 The
plant has been known
from ancient times to be
poisonous, and it was pro-
bably the poison of the
Hemlock which was ad-
ministered to the philoso-
pher Socrates by the
Greeks.

The poisonous prin-
ciple consists of several
alkaloids, the chief of
which is Conine. The
symptoms of poisoning
in cows are described as
" loss of appetite, saliva-
tion, bloating, much body

1 Farmers' Bulletin, No. 86, U.S. Dept. of Agric.

296 COMMON WEEDS

pain, loss of muscular power, and rapid, feeble pulse."
The plant should be avoided as food in any form by
man or animals, and where there is danger of its being
taken in this way it should be eradicated by hand
pulling as fast as it appears, and by digging up the
roots.

Cowbane or Water Hemlock (Cicuta virosa L.) is a
weed which grows in damp, watery places, as by the
edges of ponds, ditches, rivers, &c., from the southern
counties as far north as Dumbarton and Forfar, and
in Mid and North Ireland. It is a perennial plant of
2 to 4 feet in height, with large compound leaves,
the serrated segments of which are long and narrow ;
the white flowers are produced in July to August, and
occur in umbels 3 to 5 inches in diameter. The stem
is stout and furrowed, and the rootstock short, fleshy,
and hollow. It has been mistaken by man for celery
or parsnip with fatal results. Animals appear very
seldom to touch this plant, and sheep and goats are
said to be but little inconvenienced by it. Henslow
remarks that " It is regarded as being the most poison-
ous of the Umbellifers." The fleshy rootstock is the
most toxic part of the plant, the poisonous principle
probably being the same as in Hemlock.

Water Dropwort (CEnanthe crocata L.), also some-
times termed Water Hemlock, is a poisonous plant
which is much more frequently the cause of harm to
live stock than C. virosa. It is a weed of 2 to 5 feet
high, which occurs in marshes, ditches, and other wet
places from Argyll and Elgin southwards. The leaves
are large and compound, with much divided leaflets.
The flowers are white, and appear about July. The
stem is grooved, hollow, and branched, while the root
fibres are fleshy and spindle-shaped. This plant,
illustrated in Fig. 82, is a perennial. All parts are

FIG. 82.— Water Dropwort (CEnanthe crocata L.). i. Root, reduced ; 2. Leaf, x \ ;
3. Inflorescence, x § ; 4. Flower, x abcut 3; 5. Fruit, xf ; 6. Single fru'it,
x about 3.

298

COMMON WEEDS

poisonous, especially the
fleshy roots ; the leaves
have been mistaken by
man for celery, and the
roots for parsnips, with
fatal results. When
ditches are cleaned this
plant is often thrown out
on the banks, and cattle
are not infrequently
poisoned by eating these
clearings. In 1898 cattle
and sheep died on a farm
near Bristol (Journal Royal
Agric. Soc.j 1898) through
eating Water Dropwort.
The poisonous principle is
(Enanthin. Other poison-
ous species of CEnanthe
are met with in Great
Britain . in damp situa-
tions.

' Fool's Parsley (£.thusa
Cynapium L.) is a small
annual weed of gardens
and cultivated fields, at-
taining to a height of 2 feet
(Fig. 83). It occurs from
Elgin southward, and also
in Ireland. The foliage
is compound, and re-
sembles parsley, but is
very dark green in colour.
The flowers are white,
of true parsley being yellow ; they appear in

FIG. 83.— Fool's Parsley (sEthusa Cynapium L.)
x about §, with enlarged flower and fruit.

those

POISONOUS PLANTS 299

July to August, and bear long drooping bracts. The
roots are spindle-shaped, resembling radishes. The
plant emits a nauseous odour when bruised, and is a
virulent poison, all parts being toxic. The foliage and
root have been the cause of death owing to their re-
semblance respectively to parsley and radishes. Animals
appear to refuse it owing to its fetid odour. The toxic
principle is an alkaloid called Cynapine. (See also p. 83.)

ERICACE^

Rhododendrons and Azaleas are both poisonous in
character, some kinds especially so. Cornevin says
that all species of Rhododendron are suspected, but
mentions in particular R. ferrugineum L., R. hirsutum L.,
R. Chrysanthemum L., and R. ponticum L. Both English
and Belgian veterinary surgeons have published records
of poisoning of sheep and goats due to R. pontt'cum,
and Cornevin remarks that farmers will be well advised
to ensure that this plant be always kept out of the
reach of ruminants.

Of the Azaleas, Cornevin takes as a type A. pontica,
which he says is a very poisonous plant.

BORAGINE^E

Hound's Tongue (Cynoglossum officinale L.) is the only
member of the order Boragineae which need be men-
tioned here. It is found in fields and waste places in
parts of Scotland and Ireland, and throughout England
and Wales, but it is not common. Hound's Tongue
grows to a height* of 2 feet, and has broad, downy,
lanceolate leaves, and funnel-shaped reddish-purple or
magenta flowers half an inch in diameter, borne in long
forked clusters or cymes. Flowering takes place in
June and July. The root is tapering and fleshy. The

300 COMMON WEEDS

plant is narcotic and astringent, and " smells like mice "
(Hooker). It is a simple vegetable irritant, causing
nausea and purging (Smith), and should be avoided.

SOLANACE.E

Deadly Nightshade or Dwale (Atropa Belladonna L.)
is not so widely known as is sometimes believed, many
persons confusing it with Solanum Dulcamara L. (p. 302).
It is found in waste places, thickets, and banks, " especi-
ally in chalk and limestone soils, oftenest near ruins,"
according to Hooker, who says that it occurs "from
Westmorland southwards ; also rare and near houses
in Forfar, Argyle, and Ireland." The author has
found it on the coast of Fife. It is a perennial
branched herbaceous plant, which grows from 2 to 5
feet high. The leaves are large, oval, and pointed, up
to 8 inches long, downy, and tl usually in unequal
pairs." The flowers, which appear between June and
August, are bell-shaped or "tubular," and about i inch
in length, purple in colour, sometimes with a greenish
tinge. When ripe the berries are black, two-celled, and
contain many seeds. The fleshy rootstock is stout and
creeping (Fig. 84).

Animals and man suffer in varying degrees from the
effects of Dwale poisoning, but animals are quite un-
likely ever to touch the plant. The root is the most
poisonous part, followed by the leaves, flowers, and
stem, while the berries are least poisonous. The last
are, however, the most likely to be eaten by children,
and care should always be exercised where this plant is
known to occur. Drying the plant does not result in
getting rid of the poison. The toxic principle is the
alkaloid Atropine, and the drug prepared from the plant
is well known and widely used in medicine.

FIG. 84.— Deadly Nightshade (Atropa Belladonna L.), xf.
i. Calyx and pistil enlarged.

302 COMMON WEEDS

Henbane (Hyoscyantus niger L.) is found in parts of
Scotland, in England, and in Wales, and is common in
Ireland. It occurs chiefly in waste, sandy places, fre-
quently near old buildings, and we have found it,
almost side by side with Atropa Belladonna, on the Fife
coast of the Firth of Forth. It is a hairy, sticky plant,
annual or biennial, with a strong unpleasant odour.
It grows to a height of 2 feet ; the leaves are large,
somewhat toothed and oblong. The flowers are funnel-
shaped, upwards of an inch across, yellow in colour,
with violet or purple veins. They appear between
June and August. The seed capsule opens by means
of a lid, and contains many seeds. The root is large
and thick, and has been eaten instead of parsnips and
chicory with dangerous results. The leaves and young
shoots have been used as a vegetable, and children
have eaten the seeds with serious effects.

All parts of Henbane are very poisonous, and the
toxic principle, the alkaloid Hyoscyamine, is not de-
stroyed either by drying or boiling. In general animals
will not eat the plant, but Cornevin records the fact
that it has been given to cows mixed with other fodder.
Owing to the general habitat of the plant, however,
this occurrence must be rare. Nevertheless care should
be taken to avoid the ingestion of any part of Henbane,
either by stock or by man.

Bitter-sweet or Woody Nightshade (Solanum Dul-
camara L.) is a common plant of woods and hedges,
and, although quite different in appearance, is fre-
quently wrongly termed Deadly Nightshade. It is
generally well known as a trailing plant, which climbs
freely over hedges. The leaves are oval and single or
trifoliate, and clusters of small purple flowers on slender
stalks spring from the stem above a leaf. The flowers
at once remind one of a small potato blossom, and, like

POISONOUS PLANTS 303

those of the potato, appear from June to August. The
rootstock is extensively creeping, and the plant is a
perennial. The berries are oval, and red or scarlet in

FIG. 85. — Woody Nightshade (Solanum Dulcamara L.), x£.

colour (Fig. 85). To the taste the stem of the plant
is at first bitter and then sweetish, hence one of the
common names.

304

COMMON WEEDS

The toxic principle is the alkaloid Solanine, which
occurs in the stem, leaves, and berries, and there is

no doubt that it is
poisonous both to
man and to farm
live stock. Al-
though stock rarely
touch the plant it is
occasionally taken,
and may prove
harmful. A case is
quoted in the Jour-
nal of the Royal
Agricultural Society
(1905), in which it
was eaten by a cow
along with Meadow
Saffron with fatal
results.

Black Night-
shade (Solanum nig-
rum L.) is a small
branched annual of
6 inches to 2 feet
in height, with oval
leaves and lateral
clusters of small
white flowers, which
give rise to black
or reddish-black
berries resembling
black currants. The

plant (Fig. 86) has a disagreeable odour. It is fre-
quently a troublesome weed in gardens, especially when
these are not well cared for. The alkaloid Solanine

FIG. 86.— Garden or Black Nightshade (Solanum
nigrum L. ), x^.

POISONOUS PLANTS 305

occurs chiefly in the berries, and to some extent in
the stem and leaves. Gohier, according to Cornevin,
gave 6J Ib. (3 kilos.) in the green state to a horse,
and found it had no serious effects. Children, how-
ever, have been poisoned by the berries, and suffered
from vertigo, dilated pupils, nausea, colic, stertorous
breathing, and convulsions (Henslow).

Mention may be made here of the plant termed the
" Wonderberry," stated to be a hybrid between Solatium
guineense and 5. villosum, which are probably varieties
of S. nigrum. As grown in this country, the " Wonder-
berry " cannot be distinguished from some forms of
Solanum nigrum L., the cosmopolitan weed just
referred to, whose fruits are said to be edible in some
countries and poisonous in others. Fruits of the
" Wonderberry " were found by Dr. Greshoff, of Haar-
lem, to contain more Solanine than the wild English
S. nigrum or the Canadian form known as " Huckle-
berry." The fruits should certainly not be eaten.
See also Card. Chron., 1909, pp. 172, 204, 393, and
291 (October 30).

Thorn Apple (Datura Stramonium L.), a casual weed,
is another poisonous plant of this order. It is an
escape from cultivation, being a North American
annual plant. The illustration (Fig. 87) is from
plants raised in 1909 from seed saved from a specimen
discovered in the author's garden in 1908. The Thorn
Apple, known in America as Jimson Weed, is a smooth,
coarsely growing bushy plant about 2 feet or more
high, with a strong smell, and large, broad, wavy
leaves with toothed margin. The flowers are white,
large and funnel-shaped, on an average about 3 inches
long, and open in June and July. The seed capsules
are large, like a prickly horse-chestnut, and contain
many rough black seeds which are somewhat kidney-

306 COMMON WEEDS

shaped, and very resistant to the usual agents of de-
struction.

All parts of the plant are very poisonous, but especi-
ally the seeds, the toxic principle being stated to be a
mixture of the alkaloids Atropine and Hyoscyamine ; its

Photo, 1909. H. C. Long.

FIG. 87. — Thorn Apple (Datura Stramonium L.), showing tubular flower,
thorny capsule (centre), and root (cut off and crossed behind the stem). The
holes in some of the leaves are due to grubs.

harmful properties are not destroyed either by drying
or boiling. Owing to its disagreeable odour and taste
the Thorn Apple is not likely to be eaten by live stock
even if found, and the accidents which have occurred
have been chiefly among children, who have eaten the

POISONOUS PLANTS 307

half-ripe sweetish seeds; several cases were reported
to the United States Department of Agriculture in the
autumn of 1897. In the United States also one or two
cases are recorded in which catfle were poisoned by
eating the leaves of young plants present in hay.

The Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is a member of
the same order, and contains the alkaloid Solanine in
variable proportions in the green parts, and to some
extent in " greened " tubers. In general, however,
the tubers may be eaten with impunity, and we believe
there is no record of injury to man from the potato
plant. Henslow says that accidents with animals are
not at all uncommon, and cattle have suffered most.
Sir John Macfadyean (Principal, Roy. Vet. College,
London) has shown that old sprouted potatoes, even
after boiling, are a deadly poison to horses. In 1896
eleven horses died from eating in most instances small
quantities of sprouted " chat " potatoes, and two test-
horses fed on the potatoes died. " An affected animal
seems dull, and dies within twelve hours after being
first observed, without evincing any sign of pain." 1
We know, on the other hand, of pigs eating consider-
able quantities of potato haulm without any apparent
ill-effect. It is advisable, however, not to feed the
haulm to stock, but to plough or dig it into the soil,
except when diseased, in which case it should be
burned.

SCROPHULARIACE.E

The Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea L.) is such a well-
known denizen of our copses, woods, banks, and road-
sides, that a description is almost unnecessary. It
grows from 2 to 4 feet high, and is erect and rugged
in appearance. The leaves are sometimes a foot or

1 Prof, R. Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great Britain, 1907, p. 505,

3o8 COMMON WEEDS

more in length, and the large purple, spotted, pendulous
flowers, which open between July and September,
occur in dense racemes. All parts of the plant are
poisonous, but especially the seeds ; the leaves are less
active after the flowering period. A well-known drug,
namely, the glucoside Digiialin, is prepared from the
Foxglove. The toxic principle is not destroyed by
drying the plant. As animals are not known to touch
this plant in the open, it is chiefly of human interest.
It should never be employed as a medicinal herb
except under expert advice, and it should never be
included in grass made into hay or silage.

POLYGONACE.E

Sheep's Sorrel (Rumex Acelosella L.), dealt with at
pp. 119, 204, has also been said to possess poisonous
properties due to acid oxalates (binoxalate of potash,
sold as salts of lemon), and Cornevin states that
veterinary surgeons charge it with poisoning both
horses and sheep.

THYMELACE^:

The Spurge Laurel (Daphne Laureola L.) is an ever-
green shrub, found in copses and banks in stiff soil
from York and Durham southwards. It bears black
berry-like fruits, which are very acrid and poisonous,
and children have been injured by eating them. On
account of its intense bitter flavour the plant is very
rarely touched by animals. Another shrubby species
with pink flowers, which appear in early spring before the
leaves, is Mezereon (D. Mezereum L.). It is found in
copses and woods, and is similarly poisonous.

POISONOUS PLANTS 309

EUPHORBIACE.E

This order contains a number of very poisonous
plants ; of these five may be noticed here.

Dog's Mercury (Mercurialis perennis L.) is a weed of
woods, hedges, and shady places, and is found as far
north as the Highlands. It is a hairy plant 6 inches
to 1 8 inches high, with the upper ovate-lanceolate
leaves 2 or 3 inches long ; the lower ones are smaller.
The flowers are minute and unisexual : the males
and females occur on separate plants (Fig. 88), and
appear in March and April. The stem is erect and
solitary, and the rootstock slender and creeping. The
plant is a perennial.

The juice of Dog's Mercury is stated to be emetic
and the seeds dangerously purgative, but heat usually
destroys the poisonous property (Mercurialine, Oil of
Euphorbia). Owing to this weed having a disagreeable
smell it is rarely touched by animals, but it has proved
fatal to sheep, and to horses fed on herbage containing
it cut from a hedge.

Annual Mercury (Mercurialis annua L.) is somewhat
similar in appearance to the foregoing species, but
annual only. It is a weed found in fields, gardens,
and on waste land in England, and is met with as a
casual weed in Scotland, and occasionally in Ireland.
It resembles M. perennis in its poisonous properties,
but, according to Cornevin, it has been used as a pot
herb in Germany. Both plants should be altogether
avoided, however, for any edible purpose.

Caper Spurge (Euphorbia Lathyris L.) is a common
weed of woods and copses in Great Britain. It is a
biennial herbaceous plant, being short and leafy in the
first year, and 3 feet or more in height in its second
year. The leaves are 2 to 8 inches long, and placed

FIG. 88. — Dog's Mercury (Mercurialis perennis L.). i. Root, x§; 2. Male
plant, x§; 3. Male flower, X2; 4. Female plant, x§; 5. Female flower, xa;
6. Fruit, x about 3.

POISONOUS PLANTS 311

opposite one another on the stem in pairs. Several
male flowers are associated with one female flower in
such a way that they may be mistaken for a single tiny
greenish flower. Flowering takes place in June and
July. The juice of this plant is very acrid, and the
seeds yield a violently purgative oil ; country folk
indeed have employed the seeds as a purge, and have
been victims of their imprudence. When the seed is
taken in overdose it will " inflame the mouth and
stomach, and cause intense diarrhoea and vomiting.
If the dose is sufficient, there will be nervous disorders,
unconsciousness, general collapse, and death." ] In the
United States cattle are said to be " quite resistant to
its influence, but they are sometimes overcome." It
appears only to be taken by young animals, and cases
of poisoning have been reported. The toxic principle
is Eiiphorbin and Oil of Euphorbia.

Box (Buxus sempervirens L.) is a well-known ever-
green shrub or small tree found on the chalk hills of
Kent and Surrey, and much employed in garden
decoration. It flowers in April and May, and may
grow from 3 to 15 feet high. All parts are bitter, and
poisonous both to animals and man. Farm stock may
occasionally browse upon it, but only rarely, and all
clippings should be disposed of in such a way that they
cannot be reached by stock. The disagreeable odour
and bitter taste will usually tend to the safety of
animals. The alkaloids Buxin and Oil of Euphorbia form
the toxic principles in it.

The Castor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis L.) is a
foreign plant, sometimes cultivated in Britain as an
ornamental plant. The seeds are poisonous, and injure
fowls, pigs and sheep, and man. Eighty sheep are
stated by Cornevin to have been killed through eating

1 U.S. Farmers Bull., No. 86.

312 COMMON WEEDS

the refuse from the crushing of the seeds for oil. The
same authority says that the residue has more pro-
nounced properties than the oil itself. It has been
found as an impurity in linseed cake and maize meal
{Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1892).

CONIFERS

The Yew (Taxus baccata L.) is one of our most
poisonous plants, but although the wood, bark, leaves,
and seeds are all injurious, the scarlet mucilaginous
cup enveloping the ripe seed may be eaten with
impunity. The old leaves and shoots are the most
poisonous parts, and as they have no noxious flavour,
cattle and horses readily eat them. Trimmings which
have been carelessly thrown down have also poisoned
animals which have eaten them. Stock are perhaps
more easily tempted to browse on the dark green foliage
in winter, when they get more dry food than usual.

Many cases of fatal human poisoning by Yew
have occurred. In the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society several cases of poisoning of farm stock are
mentioned (a horse in 1885, deer and horses in 1893,
shorthorns in 1893). Many instances, however, have
been recorded in which no fatal result has followed
from eating the leaves, and it appears that the lower
branches of Yew trees in parks and grounds are con-
stantly cropped by cattle without any ill-effects (Trans.
Chem. Soc., 1902 ; Jour. Board Agric., 1903). Some un-
certainty exists as to the nature of the toxic principle,
but the numerous recorded cases of fatal effects from
eating the leaves of the Yew afford sufficient evidence
that, under some circumstances, the tree contains an
active poisonous principle, which is believed by some
authorities to be an alkaloid named Taxine.

POISONOUS PLANTS 313

Cornevin found by experiment with leaves in autumn
and winter that to cause death it would be necessary
to ingest the following weight of leaves : —

Horse . . . . 0.2 Ib. per 100 Ib. live weight.

Ass and Mule. . 0.16 ,, ,, ,,

Cow. . . £ . i.o „ „ ,,

Sheep . . . i.o ,, „ „

Goat . . . . 1.2

.
Rabbit . ./ . . 2.0 „

Clippings from Yew trees should never be thrown
down where they can be eaten by stock, and where
Yew trees overhang hedges near pastures it is advisable
to have them lopped back to a distance out of reach
of grazing stock.

Cupressus poisoning has also been recorded,
two instances coming to the notice of the Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries in 1905 ; the death of cattle
was attributed to the poisonous effects of C. macrocarpa
and C. nootkatensis. In one instance four bullocks died,
and in another three heifers were stated to have
suffered from irritant poison, one of them having died.
The Board had then no information as to the poisonous
properties of the two species of Cupressus referred to,
and stated that no record could be found of any
similar case which would tend to confirm the suspicion
that these trees are poisonous to cattle.

AMENTACE^:

The Oak (Quercus sp.). — The ingestion of acorns has
frequently caused serious losses among young cattle up
to two years old, as in 1808, 1870, 1884, anc* 1900.
Cattle over three years old were seldom affected, while

314 COMMON WEEDS

sheep and pigs did not appear to be susceptible to the
poisonous property of the acorns. Acorn poisoning is
not properly understood, but it is quite distinct from
indigestion due to eating an excessive quantity of
acorns. As the acorns are most likely to be eaten
in long, dry, and hot summers, when herbage on the
pastures is scarce, efforts should in such cases be made
to keep cattle off areas where acorns are abundant.
Sheep and pigs appear to be almost immune to the
poisonous action of acorns. No remedy is known (see
Board of Agriculture Leaflet, No. 13, and Jour. Royal
Agric. Soc., 1871).

Meadow Saffron (Colchicum autumnale L.) is a peren-
nial plant with whitish or pale purple flowers, closely
resembling crocuses (Fig. 89). The long, broad,
lanceolate, dark green leaves are produced in spring,
while the flowers, two or three from a corm, bloom in
succession from August to October, soon dying down.
Curiously enough the seed-vessel remains beneath the
surface until the next spring, when it appears above
ground with the leaves. The bulb-like fleshy under-
ground stems (corms) are about the size of small tulip
bulbs, and lie from 6 to 10 inches deep in the soil.
This plant occurs in meadows from the far north of
England to the south coast, and has been reported to
the author as especially plentiful in Herefordshire and
parts of South Wales. It appears to occur especially
on limestone soils.

C. autumnale has received many names more or less
characteristic of its growth, e.g. Autumn Crocus, Meadow
Crocus, Naked Ladies. It is poisonous in all its parts,
and many cases of poisoning of horses, cattle, and sheep

FIG. 89. — Meadow Saffron (Colchicum autumnale L. ). i. Flowering corm (late
summer and autumn) ; 2. Leaves and seed-vessel (spring) ; 3. Cross section
of seed-vessel. All x§.

316 COMMON WEEDS

have been recorded. Poisoning may occur in spring
owing to the leaves and seed-vessels being eaten in
the open, or when dried in hay, or to the cropping of
the blooms in late summer and autumn. " As the plant
is most injurious to animals and man, it should be de-
stroyed in fields, for cattle will sometimes crop the
leaves in the spring." l Cornevin found by experiment
that the ingestion of 8 to 10 grams of green leaves
per kilogram of live weight, say 3 to 5 Ib. for an
average cow, was sufficient to cause death to ruminants.
It would appear also that if a small quantity be eaten
each day with other food, the effects may accumulate
and lead to fatal results. Further, the poisonous prin-
ciple, Colchicine, is not volatile, and not removed by
drying the plants, hence hay containing the dried
leaves may cause trouble. " It is an irritant poison,
causing violent purging. This plant was the probable
cause of the cows dropping their calves, the farmer
having lost between eighty and ninety calves." 2

It has been stated by Stebler and Schroeter 3 that
Meadow Saffron abounds in meadows in Switzerland,
and is poisonous both in hay and in the field. Cases
of poisoning of animals and human beings are of
yearly occurrence. In general, cattle avoid the plant
both in the meadows and in the stalls, but young animals
are often poisoned, and in early spring, when cattle
stall-fed in winter are turned out to grass, poisoning
frequently occurs. Sheep and goats appear to be more
or less immune and eat the leaves, but pigs are very
sensitive.

Since this plant is so poisonous it should be eradi-
cated wherever found. As the corms are deep-seated
they can only be dug out by hand on small areas, but

1 English Botany, vol. ix. p. 225. 2 Jour. R.A.S.E., 1905.

3 Matten und IVeiden der Schweiz, vol. ix. p. 209.

POISONOUS PLANTS 317

where the patches are large in extent the best plan
appears to be to pull off the leaves as fast as they ap-
pear in spring, while when flowers appear they can be
cut down or similarly pulled off. All parts removed
should be burned. If the leaves be hand pulled for
one or two seasons, says Percival, there is no necessity
to dig up the corms, the plant being readily exter-
minated.

Herb Paris (Paris quadrifolia L.) is found in damp
woods, especially on chalk soils, from Renfrew and Moray
southwards. It grows 6 to 12 inches high, on a stem
which usually bears four somewhat oval leaves arranged
in a whorl. From the centre of the whorl a single
upright flower stalk arises bearing a solitary green
flower, which later produces a black berry. The root-
stock is white and creeping, and the plant perennial.

All parts of Herb Paris are poisonous, it being an
emetic and narcotic ; the rootstock is purgative. The
toxic principle is the glucoside Paradin. Stock are un-
likely to meet with this plant except in fields bordering
open woods or plantations.

Lily-of-the- Valley (Convallaria majalis L.) is uncommon
in the wild state, but occurs in certain woods from
Moray to the southern countries, and is abundant in
some districts. Flowering occurs in May and June.
No description is necessary, the plant being well known.
All parts are poisonous, but the flowers are the most
dangerous. Farm stock are hardly likely to touch this
plant owing to its habitat, but its poisonous character
should be borne in mind in districts where it occurs
wild.

AROIDE^E

Lords and Ladies, or Cuckoo Pint (Arum maculatum
L.), is one of the best known plants of the countryside,

318 COMMON WEEDS

being commonly present in woods, hedge banks, and
along the sides of ditches. It is a great favourite of
children, and is easily recognised by the long-stalked
leaves, shaped like an arrow-head and often spotted
with black, and by its large yellowish-green spathe or
leaf-like bract which encloses the pale purple spadix, at
the base of which appear the crowded scarlet berries
after the flowering period. This plant is of no agri-
cultural importance as a weed in the usual sense of
the word, though it occurs occasionally in meadows ; it
must, however, be mentioned on account of its poisonous
properties. All parts of the plant are deleterious, and
children who have eaten the tempting berries have been
fatally poisoned. The bruised leaves emit a disagree-
able odour, and the plant is not spontaneously eaten by
farm live stock, although pigs have eaten the tuber-like
corms (which are renewed annually at the base of the
stem) and suffered in consequence, though we believe
that no fatal results are recorded.

The poisonous property is destroyed by drying, and
corms have been used for human food for the starch
which they contain ; when ground to a pulp, and baked
and powdered, the material is sometimes known as
Portland arrowroot. Owing also to the fact that it was
used in the reign of Queen Elizabeth for stiffening ruffs
and frills it has been called Starch-wort, and the fol-
lowing quotation from Gerarde's Herbal! is interesting:
"The most pure and white starch is made of the rootes
of the Cuckow-pint ; but most hurtfull for the hands
of the laundresse that hath the handling of it ; for it
choppeth, blistereth, and maketh the hands rough and
rugged, and withall smarting." In his Natural History of
Selborne Gilbert White states that he observed the root
of the Cuckoo-pint to be " frequently scratched out of
the dry banks of hedges, and eaten in severe snowy

POISONOUS PLANTS 319

weather " by thrushes ; he also noticed that pheasants
frequently eat the berries.

GRAMINE^E

Darnel (Loliuni temulentum L.) was formerly a fairly
common plant in cornfields. It is an annual much resem-
bling L. perenne (Ryegrass), but without stolons, and the
spikelets are similarly placed edgeways on the flowering
stem, in this respect differing from Triticum repens
(Couch Grass). The empty outer glume generally
exceeds the spikelet in length, this point effectively dis-
tinguishing it from Z. perenne.. It attains to 2 feet in
height, and flowers from June to August (Fig. 90). The
whole plant is quite suitable as food for stock before
the seeding stage is reached, only the grain being
poisonous, and this not invariably so. It is harmful
both to men and animals, though it has been eaten in
the form of bread with impunity, and Henslow says
that " Though poisonings have been frequent, deaths
have been rare." The poisonous properties are due
to the presence of a small fungus in the seed ; it is said
that the dangerous properties are most conspicuous in
wet seasons. Great care should be taken that the seeds
of Darnel are not ground up with wheat into flour,
while equal care should be observed that none are sown
with seed corn.

FUNGI — ASCOMYCETES

Ergot (Claviceps purpurea Tul.) is a fungus which is
parasitic on rye and various grasses. It has frequently
been accused of causing abortion among cows, which
have ingested it with the plants which it attacks. Some

FIG. 90.— Darnel (Lolium temukntum L.), xf, with spikelet enlarged.

POISONOUS PLANTS 321

authorities consider that there is little ground for such
a belief ; but its poisonous qualities are undoubted, and
"serious poisoning effects, resulting in numbness, para-
lysis, and gangrene of the extremities, are rapidly pro-
duced when animals are fed with considerable quantities
of ergoted hay " (Percival).

" Want ye corn for bread ?
'Twas full of darnel : Do you like the taste ? "

— SHAKESPEARI-:, i Henry VI. , Act iii. sc. 2.

CHAPTER IX

WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, AND DITCHES

MANY plants are specially adapted to live in water,
either (i) floating free and unattached to the soil, in
which case they derive their nourishment entirely from
substances dissolved in the water ; or (2) with their roots
in the mud or soil forming the bed of the river or pond ;
in the latter case the materials necessary for growth are
taken by the roots from the soil, and also in part from
the water by means of the leaves of the plants.

When allowed to grow without interference water
plants become troublesome in rivers, ponds, lakes, and
ditches, and much expense must be incurred in keeping
them down. Some of them choke the small streams
and ditches in which they grow, and prevent the free
drainage of water from adjoining land. Flooding of
low-lying areas may arise through the blocking of water-
courses by this class of weeds, and pasture and arable
land may thus be made less valuable for grazing pur-
poses or the cultivation of cereals and other farm crops.
Canals and navigable rivers are frequently made almost
impassable for traffic by the growth of water plants.
Boating and bathing in lakes, ponds, and rivers may be
rendered difficult and dangerous by them, and their
presence in abundance may ruin the water for angling
purposes. Skating may also be spoilt by floating weeds.

Many plants found by the sides of streams and ditches

322

WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, DITCHES 323

are poisonous and dangerous to stock which have access
to them, and others entail much expense and annoyance
by invading cultivated watercress beds.

Water plants exhibit very striking adaptations to their
environment. Some of them, such as Water Lilies and
certain kinds of Potamogeton and Cham, are only met
with in fairly deep water, while others, such as Rushes,
Reed Grass, Yellow Iris, and Marsh Marigold, are chiefly
found in shallow water by the margins of ponds and
streams. Brooklime and some forms of Water Crow-
foot inhabit running streams ; other plants are adapted
to the stagnant or slow-moving water of ponds and
canals.

A fairly marked succession of zones of vegetation is
frequently observable at the sides of ponds, lakes, and
slow-moving rivers. At the extreme edge, where the
water joins the dry land, the ordinary herbage of the
field is intermingled with plants such as Caltha palustris,
Ranunculus Flammula, Pedicularis palustris, and various
kinds of Juncus and Carex, which can grow freely in
water-logged soil. In somewhat deeper water other
species of Carex, Yellow Iris, Water Mint, and Phrag-
mites communis often predominate. Further in are seen
the Bulrushes (Scirpus lacustris and S. Taberncemontani)
and Equisetum limosum ; the yellow and white Water
Lilies appear usually in from 6 to 12 feet of water,
while many of the Potamogetons are found only where
the water is 12 to 24 feet deep.

Fresh water Algae and species of Chara and Nitella
frequently cover the bed of the pond or lake in the
deepest parts.

In the surface water all over the pond, down to a
depth of 8 or 9 feet, there are often present a vast
number of Diatoms, Desmids, and other very minute
Algae, forming the plankton or free floating vegetation.

324

COMMON WEEDS

The following are some of the more important weeds
of ditches, ponds, and streams : —

RANUNCULACE^E

Water Crowfoot. — Under this name may be grouped
a number of aquatic Rammculi, which from a botanical
point of view are closely related and difficult to dis-

FIG. 91.— Water Crowfoot (Ranunculus peltatus Fries.), nat. size.

tinguish from each other. They have white flowers
with a yellow centre ; most of them have stems many
feet long ; in some species only submerged, finely
divided leaves are present, while others have in addition
leaves with flat-lobed segments which float on the sur-
face of the water.

The following may be noted :—

R. heterophyllus Fries. — Floating leaves, three- to five-
lobed, nearly circular in outline ; submerged leaves,

WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, DITCHES 325

composed of long, thin, branch-like segments which are
weak and collapse into the form of a paint brush when
lifted out of the water.

R. peltatus Fries, resembles this, but the segments of
the submerged leaves are more rigid, and do not close
up when they are taken from the water (Fig. 91).

R. trichophyllus Chaix., found chiefly in stagnant water,
has black, rigid, submerged leaves, with short flower
stalks and few or no floating leaves.

R. fluitans Lamk. has long peduncles to the flowers ;
leaves like the preceding. The plant is found usually
in running water.

Lesser Spearwort (R. Flammula L.). — See pp. 15 5, 279.

Greater Spearwort (R. Lingua L.) is a somewhat rare
species, with flowers like a large yellow buttercup, ij
to 2 inches in diameter ; it is found in marshes and
ditches. The leaves are long and undivided, lanceolate,
with their base partly clasping the hollow, smooth stem.

Celery-leaved Crowfoot (R. sceleratus L.). — See pp.

Marsh Marigold (Caltha palustris L.) is a well-known
inhabitant of marshy places and ditches. The leaves
are roundish or kidney-shaped, and the flowers golden-
yellow, i to 2 inches in diameter.

Yellow Water-lily (Nuphar luteum L.) is common in
lakes and ditches which are from 6 to 12 or 15 feet
deep. It possesses a strong creeping rootstock, which
is buried in the mud below. The leaves are leathery,
circular, and deeply divided at the base ; some of them
are submerged, others float on the surface of the
water. The yellow flowers, over 2 inches across, have
eighteen to twenty petals, and smell like brandy. The

326

COMMON WEEDS

plant is spread by means of its rootstock and by small
seeds, which ripen into a berry above water.

The White Water-lily (Nymphcea alba L.) is also
found in slow-moving streams and in ponds of clear
water. The leaves have very long stalks and floating
leaf-blades, which are circular, with cordate base. It is
propagated by its strong fleshy rootstock, and by the
seeds which are produced in a capsule ripening under
water.

HALORAGE^:

Mare's Tail (Hippuris vulgaris L.) is a common

aquatic perennial at the
edges of ponds and slow-
moving streams. It has a
stout creeping rootstock, and
erect round stems about £
to J of an inch in dia-
meter (Fig. 92). The leaves
are very narrow/ about an
inch long, and arranged in
whorls six to twelve to-
gether at each of the many
joints.

The flowers are green,
very small, with no petals,
and only one stamen.

Water Starwort (Calli-
triche vema L.) is a very
variable species, abundantly

i>. 92. — J-,en : vvaieroiarwomoa^z- . « • /«

triche verna L.), x |. Right: distributed 111 the Water of

Mare's Tail (Hippuris vulgarisL.), nnnriB rUtrhpc onH clnw

x i, with fruit enlarged. ponds, QltCneS, and SlOW

streams throughout the

country, and often found growing on mud by the side
of ponds. Watercress growers frequently complain of

FIG. 92.— Left : Water Starwort

WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, DITCHES 327

it as a pest. The typical form (Fig. 92) has delicate
submerged round stems ; the leaves are opposite ; those
under water are narrow and linear, others, which float
on the surface, being broader, generally spathulate, and
arranged in the form of a characteristic rosette. The
flowers are very small,
unisexual, the males with
a single stamen, the fe-
males with two whitish
bracts and a four-celled
ovary.

C. autumnalis L. is a
species with dark green
submerged leaves only.

Water Milfoil (Myrio-
phyllum alterniflorum DC.)
is a frequent pest in
lakes, ponds, and ditches,
especially in hilly dis-
tricts. It has a creeping
rootstock, and long, thin
floating submerged stems
which bearwhorlsof very
finely divided leaves.

The sexual organs are
usually separated in dif-

r i, 'ii FIG. 93. — Water Milfoil (Myriophyllum

ferent small, axillary 3 verticiiiatumi.\ x|. '

white flowers.

In speaking of the damage by water-weeds to boat-
ing and angling in the Scotch lakes, Sir Herbert
Maxwell says * he would prefer to contend with the
troublesome pest Elodea (see p. 332) than with Myrio-
phyllum. The latter is " rampant every year " after mid-
summer; Elodea only once in six or seven seasons.

1 Scotsman, Oct. 7, 1897.

328 COMMON WEEDS

Myriophyllum verticillatum L. (Fig. 93) is another
common species of Water Milfoil very closely resembling
the one already mentioned, but with stronger stems
and more leaves in a whorl. The flowering spike is
erect when in bud, that of M. alterniflorum being
curved at the tip.

UMBELLIFER.E

Many umbelliferous plants are inhabitants of wet
places, or grow in water at the sides of rivers and
ponds and in ditches. The following are often trouble-
some weeds in such situations :—

Marshwort (Apium nodiflorum Reich.) is a pest with
the habit of watercress, and sometimes found in water-
cress beds. The stem is procumbent, i to 3 feet, with
roots at the joints. The leaves are pinnate or trifoliate,
the leaflets being usually ovate with blunt irregular ser-
rations. The flowers are white, in umbels placed
opposite to the leaves, and open from July to August.

Apium inundatum R. is an allied plant, which grows
generally in deeper water. It has creeping or floating
stems, and most of the leaves are submerged, with fine
linear segments. The leaves at the surface of the
water have pinnate, wedge-shaped leaflets. The flowers
and umbels are very small, appearing from June to

July.

Water Parsnip (Stum angustifolium L.) is a common
ditch plant, with creeping rootstock and erect round
stem, i to 3 feet high. The leaves are 4 to 8 inches
long, pinnate, the leaflets ovate and irregularly lobed.
The umbels of white flowers are lateral, opposite the
leaves, flowering taking place in August.

WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, DITCHES 329

VALERIANACE.E

Valerian or All-heal (Valeriana officinalis L.) is a
frequent inhabitant of ditches and marshy places by
ponds and rivers. It is a tall plant, 2 to 4 feet high,
with pinnate leaves, having four to ten pairs of lanceo-
late and usually serrate leaflets and one terminal leaflet.
The flowers have five-lobed pale pink corollas, and are
arranged in terminal corymbose clusters, opening in
June to July.

COMPOSITES

Hemp-Agrimony (Eupaforium cannabinum L.) is a
widely distributed plant, found on the banks of streams
and in wet ditches. The stems are usually 2 to 4 feet
high, round and woolly ; the leaves consist of three
to five lanceolate-serrated segments. The flowers
are pale reddish -purple in colour, and arranged in
dense terminal corymbs ; they appear from July to
September.

SCROPHULARIACEJi:

Marsh Figwort (Scrophularia aquatica L.) is often
abundant on the edges of ponds, rivers, and ditches,
where it impedes the flow of water and interferes with
angling.

It has a well developed creeping rootstock and erect,
square, winged stems, smooth below, 2 to 4 feet high.
The leaves are opposite, oblong-lanceolate, with cordate
base and crenate-serrate margins. The flower is two-
lipped, green below and dark purple in its upper
portion, the corolla tube bulging.

Knotted Figwort (S. nodosa L.) grows in somewhat
drier situations. It has a tuberous knotted rootstock,
and leaves with doubly serrate margins, the serrations

330 COMMON WEEDS

at the base being much larger than those on the upper
part of the leaves.

Speedwells. — Belonging also to this order are Water
Speedwell (Veronica Anagallis L.) and Brooklime (var.
Beccabunga L.), two weeds frequently found in ditches
and watery places. The former has stout, erect,
smooth stems, which are succulent and hollow, and
i to 2 feet high ; below are creeping stolons. The
leaves are lanceolate-serrate, sessile, and partly clasp-
ing the stem. The flowers have a pale lilac corolla,
and are in long racemes.

Brooklime has procumbent stems, which take root at
the joints, and stalked ovate leaves. The flowers are
smaller than those of the previous species, and are
sometimes bright blue or pink.

LABIATE

Belonging to this order are the Mints, several
species of which are abundant in wet places by rivers
and ponds. They have subterranean creeping rhi-
zomes, and spread very rapidly, often tending to block
up ditches and prevent free movement of water.

Capitate Mint (Mentha aqualica L.) is perhaps the
commonest of such species. It has stems 12 to 18
inches high, with stalked ovate or cordate woolly leaves,
and somewhat dense spikes of lilac labiate flowers.

Skull-cap (Scutellaria galericulala L.) is another Labiate
common on the banks of streams and in ditches. It
grows from 6 to 12 inches high, has oblong-lanceolate
leaves with serrated or crenated margins, and blue
labiate flowers two-thirds of an inch long, placed singly
in the axils of the leaves on opposite sides of the stems.

Marsh Woundwort (Stachys palnstris L.) is very
common in similar situations to the last species. It

WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, DITCHES 331

has spikes of dull purple labiate flowers. The root-
stock creeps extensively, and from it grow upright
stems i^ to 2 feet high, with somewhat narrow ovate-
lanceolate and almost sessile leaves.

POLYGONACEJi

Great Water-dock (Rumex Hydrolapathum Huds.)isa
widely distributed and characteristic river-side plant, and
the largest of the British
Docks. The stems are
stout, branched, and 3
to 5 feet high, with
oblong-lanceolate leaves,
which are cordate at the
base, and sometimes
more than a foot long.
The flowering panicle is
leafless, with crowded
whorls of flowers.

CERATOPHYLLACE^:

Hornwort (Cerato-
phyllum demersum L.) is
a locally distributed
aquatic plant, com-
pletely submerged in
the water of ponds and
ditches. It possesses
long slender stems and
leaves in whorls (Fig.
94). The leaves are
usually dark green, much divided into narrow, toothed
segments, and about an inch long. The flowers are

FIG. 94. — Hornwort (Ceratophyllum
demersum L.), x§.

332

COMMON WEEDS

small and monoecious, with many stamens, and one-
celled ovary.

HYDROCHARIDACE^E

Water-thyme : Canadian Pondweed (Elodea cana-
densis Michx. = Anacharis Alsinastrum
Bab.) is an introduced aquatic weed,
native of North America. The plant
(Fig. 95) is a fresh green colour, is
semi-transparent, and has completely
submerged, slender branched stems,
which bear whorls of three or four
lanceolate-serrated leaves at short inter-
vals. The stems are brittle, and often
3 or 4 feet long ; when broken in pieces
each piece is capable of developing roots
at the joints, so enabling it to attach
itself to the mud at the bottom of the
pond or stream, where it grows very
rapidly into a new branching plant. In
its native country Water-thyme is dioe-
cious, and produces small, one-seeded
capsules. In Britain only male plants
have been found, and these only in one
or two localities. It spreads vegeta-
tively, at an exceedingly rapid rate, by
means of broken pieces of stem when
introduced into ponds and slow-moving
streams.

It appears to have been introduced
into the North of Ireland about 1836,

'pondM and into EnSlanc* about five years later.
dea canadensis From that time to the present it has

Michx.), x$.

made its way into all parts of the
country, and has become a constant source of trouble

WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, DITCHES 333

by blocking up canals and streams. River and canal
navigation is impeded by its presence, and it seriously
interferes with angling in lakes and slow-moving rivers.

In certain seasons it becomes rampant, spreading its
long tangled stems through the water in all directions.
For a period of three or four years afterwards it
frequently dies down, probably owing to exhaustion of
the nutritive materials of the mud and water, and then
is only seen as a green carpet on the bed of the lake
or stream. (See also p. 327.)

It is a nutritious green food for horses and cattle
when fresh.

IRIDACE^E

Flag or Yellow Iris (Iris Pseud-acorns L.). — This well-
known, handsome plant, with its large yellow flowers,
is common in wet ditches and by the margins of
streams and lakes where the water is not more than
12 to 1 8 inches deep. It has stout, creeping root-
stocks on the mud below, and from them are sent up
round stems and sword-shaped leaves. The flowers
appear usually from June to August. The plant is
propagated by means of its rootstock and its flat seeds,
which are produced in numbers in large three-celled
capsules.

TYPHACE.E

Bur-reed (Sparganium ramosum Huds.) is a fre-
quent inhabitant of ditches and the banks of ponds
and rivers. The erect stems rise to a height of about
2 feet, and bear long, narrow leaves (2 to 3 feet long
and about J to i inch broad) three-angled at their
base. The flowering stem is branched, and the uni-
sexual flowers are arranged in round heads, or " burs,"
about an inch in diameter.

334

COMMON WEEDS

S. simplex is another fairly common species resem-
bling the above, but with simple instead of branched
flowering stems, and often having narrow floating
leaves.

Club-rush : "Bulrush," Reed-mace (Typha latifolia L.),
is a common water plant, with dark, rich brown spikes,
in shape somewhat like a lamp brush. The plant, with
its tall stems, is common in ponds and ditches, and on
the margins of lakes and rivers: it needs no further
description.

LEMNACE^:

Duckweed (Lemna minor L.). — This is a familiar
palish green minute plant which is often seen com-
pletely covering
the surface of
small ponds. It
is abundant in
ditches and back-
waters of many
rivers and streams,
and is trouble-
some in watercress
beds. Each plant
floats on the water,
and consists of one

or two flattened scale-like " fronds " an eighth of an inch
or so in diameter (Fig. 96). From the under part a
delicate root about J to i inch long dips into the
water. Very minute unisexual flowers arise on the
" fronds," and these produce seeds which propagate
the plant. Multiplication, however, goes on most
rapidly by vegetative budding off of young fronds,
which become disconnected from the parent and then
carry on an independent life, the process being repeated.

FIG. 96. — Lesser Duckweed (Lemna minor L.),
nat size.

WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, DITCHES 335

Another larger species
(L. trisulca L.), with fronds
\ to | of an inch across,
the young ones of which
grow out at right angles
to the older ones, is com-
mon also in many places
on stagnant water.

A less frequent species
is L. polyrhiza L., with
several roots to each
plant, instead of one.

ALISMACE^:

Water Plantain (Alis-
ma Plantago L.) is a com-
mon inhabitant of ditches
and the edges of streams.
The stems are fleshy, with
a swollen base from which
spring up long-stalked
erect leaves (Fig. 97).
The submerged floating
leaves are linear, those
which come above the
water having long lan-
ceolate blades (6 to 8
inches long) with a cor-
date base. The flowers,
which are seen from June
to August, are pale pink,
with six perianth seg-
ments, and are arranged
in an erect panicle.

FIG. 97.— Water Plantain (Alisma Plantago L.),
x §, with flower enlarged.

336 COMMON WEEDS

Arrow-head (Sagittaria sagiltifolia L.) is another
species of this order less common than Water Plantain,
but met with in similar positions in water. It has
peculiar creeping stoloniferous stems, the branches of
which end in small tubers about half an inch in
diameter. The sub-aerial leaves are characteristically
arrow-shaped, hence the popular name of the plant. The
leaves in the water consist of narrow petioles without
leaf-blades.

The unisexual flowers have white petals, and are
arranged in whorls ; the upper are male, and the
lower female.

NAIADACE^:

Pondweed. — The term "pondweed" is applied in a
restricted sense to representatives of the genus Potamo-
geton. A large number of species are known, some of
them with floating leaves, others with submerged
leaves only. The majority are inhabitants of water
from 12 to 24 feet deep.

The flowers are arranged in terminal or axillary
spikes ; they are small, with four greenish perianth
segments, four stamens, and an ovary of four carpels,
which ripen into small drupes, each containing a single
seed.

The species perhaps most frequently met with
are : —

Potamogeton natans L. (Fig. 98), with floating, leathery,
elliptic or ovate leaf-blades and long alternate petioles,
some of which remain under water and develop no
blade.

P, polygonifolius Pourr. somewhat resembles P. natans,
but has narrower floating leaf-blades, and lanceolate
submerged blades also.

P. heterophyllus Schreb. has flowering stems with

FIG. 98.— Left: Floating Pondweed (Potamogeton natans L.). Right: Curly
Pondweed (P. crispus L.). Both x |.

Y

338 COMMON WEEDS

many barren branches, elliptical floating leaves and
narrow lanceolate submerged leaves. The stem of the
flower spike is thicker in the upper part than in the
lower. The following species have submerged leaves
only : —

P. lucens L. is common in deeper ponds, lakes, and
canals. The leaves are 4 to 10 inches long, ovate or
lanceolate, and translucent.

P. perfoliatus L. is a smaller species, with round stems
and translucent ovate leaves i to 3 inches long, which
clasp round the stems.

P. crispus L. (Fig. 98) has long flattened stems, on
which are arranged, usually in two opposite rows,
somewhat narrow oblong leaves i to 3 inches long, the
margins of which are crisped or wavy.

P. densus L. has opposite elliptic-lanceolate short
leaves, J to i inch long, arranged very closely together
in two rows on the brittle stems. It is sometimes a
nuisance to growers of watercress.

P. pusillus L. is a smaller submerged species, with
thin stems, and very narrow acute leaves.

CYPERACE^:

This order includes a large number of species of
plants, many of which are common inhabitants of river-
banks, lakes, ditches, and marshy places, and usually
spoken of as Rushes and Sedges. One or two only need
be mentioned here.

Bulrush, Club-rush (Scirpus lacustris L.) is often met
with in shallow water on the edges of ponds and slow-
moving streams. It has an extensive creeping root-
stock, tall green stems, usually leafless, 4 to 6 feet high,
and \ to | of an inch thick, with a spongy interior.
Occasionally in running water flat floating leaves are

WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, DITCHES 339

present. The inflorescences are terminal, reddish-
brown clusters or cymes.

S. TaberncemontaniGmzl. is a sub-species of the above,
with glaucous stems.

Sedges. — -Many of these plants are found in marshes
and ditches and on the margins of ponds and rivers.
They much resemble grasses in general appearance, but
the stems are usually triangular in section, and the
leaf-sheaths are entire, not split, as in most grasses.
The flowers are unisexual and in spikes ; the male
flowers have three stamens and no perianth ; the female
flowers have a peculiar bottle-shaped perianth, in which
is the ovary, with its two or three projecting stigmas.
The fruit is a small, three-angled nut.

Common species which may be described as weeds
of the margins of ponds, river-banks, and ditches are
Carex ampullacea Good., C. vesicaria L., C. paludosa
Good., and C. riparia Curt. These grow from i to 3
feet high, with broad, grass-like leaves, and have creep-
ing or tufted rootstocks.

GRAMINE.E

The Reed (Phragmites communis Trin.) is a grass
which occurs in shallow water at the edges of lakes and
streams and in ditches throughout the country. It is
useful for bedding of animals and for thatching. The
rootstock is much branched, often forming a dense,
mat-like growth under water, some of the rhizomes
extending 20 or 30 feet. The erect stems are round,
6 to 10 feet high, with broad flat leaves usually about
an inch wide, and of ashy-green colour beneath. The
panicle is diffuse, 6 to 12 inches long, with purple,
shining, three- to six-flowered spikelets.

340

COMMON WEEDS

EQUISETACE^:

Horse-tails.— All the representatives of this order are
adapted for life in wet places. One species, Equisetum

limosum
monly
about 2

is com-

FIG.

L,

met with in
or 3 feet of
water along the edges
of lakes and in ditches.
The smooth stems grow
from i to 3 feet high,
sometimes with short,
simple branches in
whorls. The terminal
spore-bearing spike or
cone is short and blunt.

CHARACE^E

Various species of
Stoneworts (Cham and
Nitelld) are lowly bo-
tanical forms with a
complicated floral
structure. They may
have simple or
branched stems up to
i foot long, according
to species. Cylindrical
branches in whorls are
produced at the nodes
(Fig. 99). The Stoneworts grow in brackish or fresh
water, and are attached to the mud at the bottom,
frequently covering large areas with vegetation. They
are not usually troublesome.

j. — Stonewort (Chara vulgaris L.), nat. size,
with reproductive organs magnified.

WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, DITCHES 341

DESTRUCTION OF WATER WEEDS

i. The opportunities for the destruction of water
weeds, and the methods which can be employed for
diminishing them, are few compared with those available
in the case of weeds of gardens and fields. When
abundant in ditches they should be cut with the scythe
or hook or pulled up by hand, and their removal should
be arranged and repeated so that at all times of the
year the water has a free passage, and is not forced
back or kept in a stagnant state to the detriment of
adjoining cultivated land or pasture.

Along the margins of ponds, lakes, and rivers also
they are best cut down with the scythe when the water
is low, or from a boat when wading is not feasible.

In dealing with the question of cutting weeds in
rivers and lakes kept for fishing, or for the attraction
of water-fowl, it must be remembered that if weeds are
cleared away completely the natural cover, and to some
extent the spawning beds of fish, are destroyed or
damaged. Water plants provide food and shelter for
thousands of insects and their larvae upon which fish
and water-fowl largely feed, and their reduction involves
much detriment to the sporting value of the water.
Cutting should therefore be carried out with judgment,
patches being left untouched for a time, and cut later
when areas previously mown have somewhat re-
covered.

The operation of cutting weeds in ponds and streams
is managed in various ways. A hand-power machine
for use with a boat or punt is illustrated in Fig. 100,
the weed-cutter consisting of V-shaped scolloped saws
dragged along the bottom at the end of an oscillating
and hinged arm. The same kind of cutter may be
used with motive power in a punt or boat, which may

342

COMMON WEEDS

be of a considerable size and cost a large sum of money.
A motor punt weed-cutter is illustrated in Fig. 101.

FIG. ioo. — Hand-power Machine for fixing to Boats or Punts, which may be
rowed by oars or towed from the bank by ropes. The cutting is performed
by the V-shaped scolloped saws suspended from an oscillating hinged arm.
A similar V-shaped weed-cutter on a long handle is useful for hand work
from the bank, boat or punt. (Saunderson, Bedford.)

Scythe blades may be attached to ropes which can
be dragged through the weeds from a boat, or from

FIG. ioi.— Motor Punt Weed-cutter. (Saunderson, Bedford.)

opposite banks of the river or stream when not too
wide.

An excellent weed-cutting saw is illustrated in Fig.

WEEDS OF PONDS, RIVERS, DITCHES 343

1 02. This is a long flexible blade with saw-like teeth,
which quickly severs the stems of water weeds.

FIG. 102. — Ziemsen's Weed-cutting Saw : A, the saw-like teeth ; B, torpedo-
shaped sinkers ; C, clamp ; D, wire ; E, rope ; F, handle.

In shallow and wide streams weeds are often cut by
men who wade in the water and use hand scythes.

As far as possible the cut weeds should be removed
from the river, and not sent down stream to be a
trouble and annoyance to neighbours below.

2. In addition to cutting weeds by means of different
tools, some of them may be kept down to a certain
extent by swans. These birds nip off the young tops
among water plants, and check their rampant growth,
as in the case of Elodea canadensis (p. 332).

3. For the destruction of floating slimy "scum,"
particularly in fresh-water lakes, copper sulphate has
been used with success. This substance in exceedingly
minute amounts kills Desmids and many microscopic
green and brown slimy algae composing the " scum."
(One part in a million is sufficient to destroy the growth,
and does not harm fish nor prevent the water from
being used for drinking purposes.)

One and a half ounces of copper sulphate dissolved
in two gallons of water and applied as a spray to the
" slime " on the surface of water has been found to
destroy it. A second spraying a week later makes
success more certain.

344 COMMON WEEDS

Ponds and lakes have been cleared of slimy algae also
by placing copper sulphate in a sack and towing it up
and down in the water from the end of a boat. About
i Ib. of the chemical per 125,000 gallons of water in
the pond has been found suitable for the work. The
amount of water in the pond can be calculated with
sufficient accuracy by multiplying the average length,
breadth, and depth in feet together, and multiplying
this product by 6\ (the approximate number of gallons
in a cubic foot).

4. The weeds of watercress beds must be dug out
or constantly pulled up by hand.

" The seeds of most sorts of weeds are so hardy, as to lie sound and uncor-
rupt for many years, or perhaps ages, in the earth ; and are not killed until
they begin to grow or sprout, which very few of them do unless the land be
ploughed, and then enough of them will ripen amongst the sown crop to
propagate and continue their species, by shedding their offspring in the
ground (for it is observed they are generally ripe before the corn), and the
seeds of these do the same in the next sown crop ; and thus perpetuate their
savage, wicked brood, from generation to generation."

— J ET H R o T u LL , The Horse Hoeing Husbandry, 1731.

CHAPTER X

WEEDS IN LAWNS, DRIVES, ETC.

A NUMBER of weeds occur in a variety of positions not
yet considered, and it will be convenient to deal with
these together in a single chapter, although they differ
among themselves both in character and in the harm
they do. Certain weeds which occur on lawns, paths,
and drives are frequently exceedingly troublesome,
while Moss and Lichens growing on trees and stone-
work are equally noxious, and may well be discussed
here. (Moss in pastures has been dealt with in Chap.
V., at p. 229.)

WEEDS IN LAWNS

Lawns are unfortunately often much disfigured by
Plantains, Daisies, Dandelions, and occasionally even
with fungus ft fairy rings." Lawns, bowling-greens,
and cricket pitches, which are weed infested, may be
much improved by dressing them in spring with some
rich, fine soil, in which a small amount of sulphate of
ammonia has been mixed in quantity sufficient to give
about i Ib. to the square rod. This plan tends to the
growth of the finer grasses, and helps to suppress weeds
and clovers.

Lawn Sands. — Weedy lawns may be improved by
the application of what are termed " lawn sands."
These consist chiefly of dry fine sand and sulphate
of ammonia, and have a magical effect in clearing
lawns of Plantains and Daisies. An application of

345

346 COMMON WEEDS

sulphate of ammonia (|-i oz. per square yard) mixed
with fine dry soil acts in a similar manner, and may
with advantage be evenly applied once a month from
April to July.

Removing Weeds by Hand. — A common plan of
ridding lawns of Plantains, Daisies, &c., is to go over
the whole plot carefully and remove them bodily by
means of a knife or spud. They should not be merely
cut off below the surface, as many weeds so treated
will only sprout afresh. Patent weed extractors may
be obtained to remove lawn weeds quickly and well.

Poisoning" of Lawn Weeds. — Other methods for
killing weeds in lawns consist in the use of salt and
acids. A small thimbleful of salt or a pinch of sulphate
of ammonia placed on the crown of a Daisy, Plantain,
or other broad-leaved weed in the lawn will destroy it ;
stout, thick-rooted weeds may with advantage be
stabbed with a knife or skewer before applying the
poison. Sulphuric acid, strong carbolic acid, and
liquid weed killers may also be employed for the same
purpose ; the method of using these is to dip a wooden
skewer into one or other of the liquids and plunge it
into the centre of the plant, so that a drop of the
liquid is left behind. Such a plan will quickly kill
all the larger weeds. Patent stabbers for the use of
weed-killers are also on the market.

In removing weeds by hand, or in destroying them
as described above, bare patches may be left in the
grass where large Plantains or Dandelions have previously
occupied the soil. When this is the case the patches
should be raked over in February, dressed with fine
soil, and sown with grass seeds. Odd places may easily
be treated in this way, or may be filled up with trans-
planted Poa annua (one of the best of lawn grasses), or,
in cases where a good surface is wanted immediately,

WEEDS IN LAWNS, DRIVES, ETC. 347

the lawn may be neatly patched with good turves.
However, lawns which are overrun with large weeds
are best broken up and re-made.

Removal of Moss. — Where Moss occurs on lawns
it may be taken as a sign either that draining is
necessary or that the soil is poor. The measures
necessary to renovate a mossy lawn are: (i) A sound
raking or harrowing, to drag out the Moss and open up
the surface as much as possible ; (2) the application
of a good compost of one part of lime to four of soil,
with the addition of a little Peruvian guano ; (3)
frequent rolling. In bad cases grass seeds should
be sown on the dressing of compost ; the young grass
often rapidly overcomes the Moss present ; (4) water-
ing with a i per cent solution of sulphate of iron
applied through a fine rose, followed by top-dressing
as in (2), and if necessary the sowing of seeds. The
results of experiments conducted by Der Kgl. Gartner-
lehranstalt at Dahlem, and reported in Der Handelsgdrtner
(March 13), indicate that a 5 per cent solution of sul-
phate of iron is effective in ridding lawns of moss.
After the application of the green vitriol solution, the
grass should be sprinkled several times with a weak
(3 per cent) solution of nitrate of soda.1 Should such
remedial measures not prove satisfactory, draining must
be considered.

Fairy Rings in Lawns, &c. — The small fungi which
often appear in ring-like patches on grass land may
appear in lawns and prove very troublesome. These
" fairy rings," as they are termed, expand gradually
from the central point where they started, growing year
by year in diameter. Messrs. Sutton & Sons state 2
that t( One remedy is a dressing of 2 tons of slaked
stone lime per acre. Another is basic slag, at the rate

1 Card. Chron., June 19, 1909. 2 Lawns, p. 36.

348 COMMON WEEDS

of i ton per acre. This is rather slower in its action
than lime, and in many cases it will be considered
objectionable, because it encourages the growth of
clovers. The dressing may be necessary for two
consecutive years. Spring is the best time, especially
when showery weather prevails."

The following note is of considerable interest : —

" A Doncaster correspondent inquires how ' Fairy
Rings ' may be destroyed on grass land. It may be
remarked that in Dr. Gilbert's experience Fairy Rings
grow chiefly on impoverished soil. Infested grass land
therefore, which is at all poor in character, should be
liberally manured, and when the grasses have become
more vigorous the Fairy Rings will probably disappear.
In the case of lawns and special grass plots i ton of
slaked lime might be applied in winter, 3 to 4 cwt. of
superphosphate, 3 cwt. kainit, and J cwt. nitrate of
soda in early spring, and i to 2 cwt. superphosphate
and i cwt. nitrate of soda in late spring — all per acre.
For pastures, 4 cwt. superphosphate and 2 cwt. kainit
may be applied in early spring, and J cwt. nitrate of
soda early in April." 1

In the case of lawns on soils containing lime or
of a damp character, sulphate of ammonia may be
substituted for the nitrate of soda with advantage.

Mr. G. H. Robinson (Assistant Vegetable Pathologist,
Victoria) found that the fairy ring puff-ball Lycoperdon
polymorphum Vitt. could be eradicated by watering with
a solution of sulphate of iron. In his experiments 2
an infested bowling-green was divided into plots of
60 square yards, 8 Ib. of sulphate of iron in 30
gallons of water being put on that area with zinc
watering-cans. The green was well watered over

1 Jour. Bd. Agric., August 1907, p. 296.

2 Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales, August 1907.

WEEDS IN LAWNS, DRIVES, ETC. 349

night, and a further light watering followed the
application of the sulphate solution. " Three additional
treatments were given, four in all, at intervals of a
week, and only two puff-balls were gathered on the
whole green after the second dose, though before the
first it would have been no hard task to collect a
barrowful. Since the third treatment no puff-balls
have been seen on the green, and two whole seasons
have passed with no trace whatever of anything in the
shape of a fairy ring."

In view of the large amount of sulphate of iron used
(over i ton per acre) it was deemed advisable to give a
heavy dressing of lime to reduce any remaining in the
ground to a harmless state, and i ton per acre of
freshly slaked quicklime was evenly applied a week
after the last dose of sulphate solution.

WEEDS ON GRAVEL PATHS AND DRIVES

Many weeds occur on gravel paths and drives, and
are frequently extremely troublesome, Plantains, Dande-
lions, Groundsel, Shepherd's Purse, Poa annua, and other
plants growing freely in such situations if allowed to do
so. The use of the hoe and the knife is very desirable
in certain cases, but the eradication of Dandelions, Plan-
.tains, and Docks is very difficult by such means. There
remain, however, other means of treating paths and
drives, namely, by the application of weed-killers, espe-
cially after the weeds have been hoed out or cut off.

Salt is an effective weed-killer if applied in quantity
sufficient to whiten the surface, especially when used
during hot weather.

Washing soda may also be applied as a solution,
5 Ib. in 10 gallons of water being about the right
strength.

350 COMMON WEEDS

Carbolic acid is another weed destroyer which can be
used with satisfactory results. " Mr. W. Sowerby, of
the Royal Botanic Gardens, Regent's Park, reports that
for killing vegetation and preventing its growth on
gravel walks he found that carbolic acid in very dilute
solutions (one part of No. 5 quality in one hundred
parts water) was the best, retaining its effect longer
than any other."

Copper sulphate (bluestone), used as a 5 to 10 per
cent solution, will quickly kill weeds on drives, paths,
and courtyards.

Sulphate of iron is also an effective weed killer, but
requires to be employed in much stronger solutions
than copper sulphate. Solutions of 15 to 25 per cent
may be used.

Sulphuric acid may also be used for combating weeds
on paths, the most suitable proportions being 4 parts
of crude sulphuric acid to 100 of water. Mixing
should be done in a wooden pail, and the solution
should be passed as quickly as possible through a rose
watering-can, which should be well rinsed out im-
mediately after use. In applying such corroding solu-
tions it is well to cover the ground while walking
backwards.

Hydrochloric acid in the form of a 2 to 4 per cent
solution may replace sulphuric acid.

Patent weed-killers are sold by many firms, and, as
a rule, are very effective when used as directed by
the makers.

Yellow arsenical sheep-dip, made up with water exactly
as for sheep-dipping, has been recommended as a
weed-killer for paths.2

Boiling water freely applied through a rose watering-

1 Horticultural Directory, p. 45.

2 W, M. T. in Farmer and Stock Breeder, August 5, 1907.

WEEDS IN LAWNS, DRIVES, ETC. 351

pot on a sunny day is also stated to do much towards
clearing walks and pavements of weeds.1

WEEDS AND Moss ON STONEWORK, &c.

Weeds are frequently found growing in the inter-
stices between stonework and on brickwork walls,
while Moss and Lichens may similarly disfigure stone
parapets, tombstones, &c. For the larger weeds, salt,
soda, and the other materials just mentioned may be
used as for walks and drives, but acids should never be
used on marble. Moss and Lichen may be removed
from tombstones, stone statuary, and so forth by spirits
of salts (hydrochloric acid), i pint of the acid to i
pint of water. The stone should be painted over with
the liquid, left for a few minutes, and then scrubbed
over with clear water.2

Moss AND LICHEN ON FRUIT TREES

Moss and Lichen on fruit trees are troublesome and
obnoxious, and should not be allowed to cover up the
bark. Winter washing is the most useful means of
dealing with fi weeds " of this class. Lime-wash may
be applied in fine weather from January to March, but
this is not so useful as a caustic soda wash. The latter
(as used at the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm)
is prepared by mixing 6 Ib. of caustic soda, ij Ib. of
soft soap, 2 gallons of paraffin, and 28 gallons of water
in the following manner : — After dissolving the soft soap
in i gallon of boiling water the paraffin should be
added and the mixture thoroughly churned until a
creamy emulsion is obtained. The caustic soda should
then be dissolved in the remaining 27 gallons of water

1 Journal of Horticultiire, October 4, 1906.

2 Jbid,, December 12, 1907.

352 COMMON WEEDS

and poured into the soft soap and paraffin emulsion.
After a thorough churning the mixture should be
applied to the trees at once by means of a spraying
machine. Such a mixture as this effectively removes
the Moss and Lichen from the bark of trees. It should
be applied in fine weather between the middle of Feb-
ruary and the end of March, when the trees are dor-
mant— before the buds burst. This caustic soda wash
not only removes Moss and Lichen, but aids largely in
the suppression of insects and other enemies of fruit
trees.

An improvement of the formula given above has
been recommended by Mr. S. U. Pickering, F.R.S.
(Director of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm),
and the new wash suggested should consist of : Sulphate
of iron, J lb.; caustic soda, 2 lb.; lime, i lb.; paraffin
(solar distillate), 5 pints; and water to make up to 10
gallons. (See Eighth Report, Woburn Experimental
Fruit Farm, 1908, p. 27.)

Care is needed in the application of washes contain-
ing caustic soda and other alkalis, as these substances
have a deleterious or "burning" effect on the skin and
also damage clothes. The hands should be protected
with gloves (preferably made of rubber), and spraying
should take place on a calm day when the " spray "
will not blow on to the face and into the eyes of the
operator. The eyes may be protected with goggles.

Ivy (Hedera Helix L.), which forms such an excel-
lent and beautiful covering for unsightly walls, buildings,
and houses, frequently occurs where it is riot wanted, and
becomes a weed which it is necessary to eradicate. This
must be done by cutting down and removing as much of
the Ivy as possible, grubbing out the roots, and thereafter
regularly removing any new growths that may appear.

CHAPTER XI

PRINCIPLES OF SEED TESTING

OWING to the fact that weed seeds are regularly intro-
duced to farms through the medium of agricultural
seeds, the scientific examination or analysis of the
latter is intimately connected with the eradication of
weeds. The value of such examinations has of late
years been fully recognised by all civilised countries,
most of which now possess official seed-testing stations.
The whole question dates from about 1869, when
much information as to the dishonourable manner in
which seeds were treated and sold was made public
and freely discussed.

Seed-testing Stations. — It may serve a useful purpose
to quote here a page from an article by Professor
Johnson i1—

" Although the credit of starting the first Seed-
testing Station must be given to Nobbe, measures had
been taken as long ago as 1816 in Switzerland to
suppress fraud in the seed trade. Thus an inspector
had the right of entry into a seed shop or warehouse
for inspection of the seeds on sale, punishment follow-
ing detection of fraud. In England in 1869 the
Adulteration of Seeds Act was passed, making it penal
to kill or dye seeds. The Royal Horticultural Society
of England did much to expose the corruption which
had crept into the seed trade. In its second Report

i Science Progress, Jan. 1907: "The Principles of Seed Testing," by T.
Johnson, D.Sc., Professor of Botany in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.

353 Z

354 COMMON WEEDS

(Farmers Magazine, February 1869), the Royal Horti-
cultural Society Committee says : < . . . Everything
is thus thrown upon the honesty of the dealer. He
fixes the prices, regulates the quality, and the purchaser
is kept in the dark, and has no check upon either.
This is a temptation beyond what the average frailty
of human nature ought in fairness to be exposed. . . .
One of the chief functions of the association (of whole-
sale seedsmen) is ... the regulation of prices . . .
and the determination as to what kinds of seeds should
have their average lowered and to what extent it
should be done.' With honourable exceptions, trade
catalogues offered in addition to ' nett ' or pure seed
' trio ' seed, i.e. seed killed for admixture purposes !
The Act of 1869 made the admixture of killed seed an
offence, but did not provide machinery for the detec-
tion of the offence, as is now the case for artificial
manures and feeding stuffs under the Fertilisers and
Feeding Stuffs Act of 1893 (now superseded by the Act of
1906).

" The revelations of fraud and ignorance published
in 1875 by Nobbe in his Handbuch der Samenkunde led
to vigorous action, and Seed -testing Stations were
started in nearly every country in the world, mostly
under Government control. At the present time there
are some 150."

Important Official Seed-testing Stations now exist in
Ireland, Germany, Switzerland, France, Denmark, Hun-
gary, the Netherlands, Belgium, the United States of
America, Canada, New Zealand, the Australian Colonies,
and the South African Colonies. The work done by
these " Control " stations, as they are termed, is of the
utmost importance, and of inestimable value to agri-
culturists, gardeners, and others.

PRINCIPLES OF SEED TESTING 355

A Departmental Committee was appointed by the
Board of Agriculture in 1900 to inquire into the con-
ditions under which agricultural seeds were then sold,
and to report whether any further measures could with
advantage be taken to secure the maintenance of ade-
quate standards of purity and germinating capacity.
The Committee recommended the establishment of one
Central Seed-testing Station under Government auspices,
with a practice and procedure to be laid down and
revised from time to time by a small committee of
experts. It was believed that the fees should be
moderate and so fixed as to encourage seed-merchants
to sell seeds subject to re-testing by the purchaser if
desired. The recommendation was dissented from by
two members of the Committee (Sir W. T. Thisleton
Dyer, then Director of Kew Gardens, and Mr. L. G.
Sutton), who considered that there was no strong case
in favour of the establishment of such a station, while
the results obtained from examination of samples might
possibly be found to differ widely from the bulk, as to
which no guarantee could be given. Both gentlemen
urged strongly that the only satisfactory method of
testing seeds lies in growing crops therefrom. No effect
has been given to the recommendations of the Com-
mittee, and at the present time Great Britain does not
possess a Government station, but seed examination is
undertaken by the larger agricultural societies, farmers'
clubs, agricultural colleges, and agricultural journals.

A Government Station had been established in Ire-
land prior to the appointment of the English Committee,
and some thousands of samples have since been tested.
(See also p. 411.)

In this connection it may be remarked that, accord-
ing to a Board of Agriculture report,1 the Board have

1 Annual Report, Intelligence Division, 1905, p. 36.

356 COMMON WEEDS

no reason for supposing that the present law is inade-
quate to meet such cases of fraud as occur, but they
deemed it advisable to put the following notice in their
Journal : —

" The Board of Agriculture consider it desirable
again to call the attention of purchasers of farm and
garden seeds to the provision of the Adulteration of
Seeds Acts of 1869 and 1878. Under these Acts it
is a criminal offence to sell or cause to be sold any
killed or dyed seed or to kill or dye or to cause to be
killed or dyed any seeds. The term t to kill seeds '
means to destroy by artificial means the vitality or
germinating powers of such seeds. The term ' to dye
seeds ' means to apply to seeds any process of colour-
ing, dyeing, or sulphur smoking. Proceedings under
these Acts against any person in respect of selling or
causing to be sold any killed or dyed seeds must be
commenced within twenty-one days from the time of
the commission of the offence. Seeds for use on farms
and market gardens should always be bought subject
to a guarantee of genuineness and germination, and
their germinating power should be tested to see whether
the seeds come up to the standard guaranteed. The
presence of dye or other colouring matter can mostly
be detected by rubbing the seed in soft white paper
or by washing a small quantity in water."

The subject seemed of so much importance, how-
ever, that a further note was inserted in the Board's
Journal for July 1905, the following being extracted
therefrom : —

" Seeds for use on farms and market gardens should
always be bought subject to a guarantee for purity,

PRINCIPLES OF SEED TESTING 357

genuineness, and high germinating power. Purity
may be taken to mean that the seeds composing the
sample consist of the variety required without admixture
of other seeds, or of sand, dirt, chaff, empty husks, &c.
Impurity is mainly caused by carelessness in separating
weed seeds from the bulk, and from want of care in
cleaning and screening, and is one of the most import-
ant considerations in purchasing seeds, as impure see'd
is the cause not merely of a diminished yield, but is
responsible for the spread of weeds. Farmers not
infrequently make use of the sweepings of hay lofts,
and thus encourage the reproduction of weeds, which,
later in the season, require much labour to be pre-
vented from choking the cultivated crop. . . .

" In addition to a guarantee of purity, a high per-
centage of germination should be demanded, and the
germinating power of the seeds may usefully be tested
to see whether they come up to the standard named."

According to the report of the Seed Control Station at
Zurich for 1908, no less than twenty-four British seeds-
men have their seed scientifically examined at that station
(Appendix V.). A glance at the catalogues of many of
our best seedsmen will convince the purchaser that
the seed sold by such business houses is eminently
satisfactory, since it is sold under guarantee and subject
to analysis by a recognised botanist. One or two
statements by firms may usefully be given here. In
the terms of guarantee of one firm it is stated that
their seeds offered in the list "have been carefully
grown, selected, cleaned, and repeatedly tested under
our personal superintendence. We are therefore able
to guarantee their analytical purity and high germina-
tion, and purchasers are invited to submit them imme-
diately to the analysis of any public botanist, and to

358 COMMON WEEDS

return them to us at once if not approved by him.
But it is impossible for us to undertake any responsi-
bility, expressed or implied, as to description, purity,
productiveness, or any other matter connected with
the crop when the seed has been sown. Unless the
goods are accepted on these terms they should be
returned at once."

In the list of another firm of seed merchants we
find the following statement : — " All the seeds offered
in this catalogue are warranted pure and genuine, and
the percentage of germination of each kind of seed is
stated and guaranteed.

"All seeds are offered and sold subject to the analysis
of the Consulting Botanists to the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, and the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland ; also of Dr. Stebler, Director of
the Swiss Seed Control Station, Zurich.

" The germination of every parcel of seed offered in
this catalogue has been repeatedly tested by the most
perfect methods, and duplicate tests of all important
lots of grasses and clovers have also been made by
Dr. Stebler, of Zurich, whose official reports may be
inspected by anyone interested.

" It will be understood that while all the seeds offered
in this catalogue are absolutely guaranteed to be genuine,
of the purest quality, and to possess the highest standard
of germinating power, yet no guarantee is given beyond
this, as the most perfect seeds may fail when the condi-
tions of season, climate, or culture are unfavourable, and
these matters are not under the control of the seller."

CASES SHOWING THE IMPORTANCE OF SEED-TESTING

In order to show conclusively that seed-testing is qf
immense service to farmers and gardeners, it may be

PRINCIPLES OF SEED TESTING 359

well to quote here a few cases in which expert exami-
nation has clearly demonstrated the worthless character
of the seed concerned : —

1. At the first International Conference on Seed-
testing held at Hamburg in 1906, Dr. Stebler of the
Zurich Control Station quoted l a case which, he
said, would give an idea of the unclean state of a clover
sample. His table shows that in 550 grams (=19.4
ozs.) of the sample, no less than 8478 seeds foreign
to the sample were present. These seeds represented
39 species of plants, the majority being weeds ; there
were in fact 4500 seeds of Plantago lanceolata, 2240 of
Daucus Carota, 1140 of Cichorium Intybus, 160 of Prunella
alba, and 1 5 1 of Cuscuta Trifolii (Clover Dodder).

2. In the year 1906, 4779 samples of seeds were
tested at the Royal Seed Control Station at Vienna,2 and
1273 (=26.6 per cent) were infested with Dodder;
996 out of 2789 samples of red clover (Trifolium pra-
tense), or 35.5 per cent, were infested. The ten year
average shows that 27.4 per cent of the red clover
samples have contained Dodder.

3. Dodder is not so freely found in clover seed in
Britain, but it is still too common. In 1905, for
example, 1 1 per cent of the clover seed samples ex-
amined by the Botanist to the Royal Agricultural
Society3 were condemned owing to the presence of
Dodder seeds, two samples of red clover containing
as much as 6 per cent.

4. " In some samples tested in the United States
one which contained less than i per cent of impurity
had about 3000 weed seeds to the pound ; while in

1 Verdhandlungen der i. inter national en Konferenz fiir Samenpriifung zu
Hamburg vom 10-14 Sept. 1906, p. 15.

2 Organisation und Ewtwicklung der kaiserl. konigl. Samen- Kontrol
Station in Wien vomjahre 1881 bis inkl. 1906, p. 23.

3 four. R.A S.£., 1905, p. 162.

360

COMMON WEEDS

another sample in which 2j per cent was spurious
seed, there were more than 27,600 weed seeds. The
number of weed seeds sown to the acre would be
enormous, and having an equal chance with the crops
among which they grew, might be the cause of con-
siderable loss." l

5. "The Board also communicated with Mr. D. D.
Williams of the Department of Agriculture, Aberystwyth,
who has acted as seed Analyst to County Councils in
South Wales for several years. In order to make a
thorough investigation, he wrote to a very large number
of his past students for samples of seeds. Half the
amount sent him was detained and analysed at the
College, and the other half was sent to the Aynsome
Seed-testing Station, Grange-over-Sands, in order to
obtain independent opinion on the samples sent. Mr.
Remington, the head of that institution, reported on the
first five samples of red clover sent as follows " : 2-

Number.

Germination
per Cent.

Purity per
Cent.

No. of Weed
Families
represented.

Remarks.

!22 per cent is Trefoil seed.

'•

69

52

15

The sample has been oiled.

2.

72

80

26

\ 19 per cent is Trefoil seed.
( This sample is oiled.

3-

62

90

12

} Trefoil present ; also 52 Dod-
{ der seeds in 5 grains.

4-

81

92

12

( This sample is oiled ; 36 Dod-
( der seeds in 5 grains.

5-

85

82

18

Trefoil present, also Dodder.

6. According to the Canadian Farmers Advocate,3 a
chart supplied by the Department of Agriculture showed
that in samples of seeds found on sale in Ontario from

1 Ann. Report. Intel. Div.> Bd. Agric., 1905, p. 37.
" Loc. at., p. 36. 8 February 9, 1905.

PRINCIPLES OF SEED TESTING 361

6000 to 15,000 weed seeds were present in i Ib. of what
was being sold as red clover, and that in samples of
alsike clover as many as 23,556 weed seeds were found
in one case, and 49,830 in another. In the former case
the sample, having only 72 per cent of pure seed, was
priced at $5.25 ( = 2is. lod.) per bushel, or equal to $7.29
(z=3os. 4d.) per bushel for the good red clover seed it
contained. In the latter case the sample priced at
$8.00 ( = 335. 4d.) per bushel, and containing only 48 per
cent of good seed, would really cost $16.66 ( = 693. 5d.)
per bushel for the alsike. " These (says the Advocate)
are startling figures, and though those quoted may be
extreme cases, all will readily agree that if the average
sample is one-twentieth as bad in this respect, the con-
dition is truly alarming."

7. In the United States of America clover seed tail-
ings are sometimes used on the farm, the clean seed
being sent to market. Such tailings have been found
to contain nearly 272,500 weed seeds per pound. A
sample of clover seed offered on the Chicago market
about 1898, for 2 cents a pound, contained about
338,300 weed seeds per pound, or more than 20
millions per bushel.1

8. The Bulletin referred to in the last paragraph
calls attention to a point worthy of earnest attention,
for it is a point frequently overlooked. " Some samples
of seed contain such a small amount (of weed seeds)
that they would be considered practically pure, but
even in these the number of weed seeds in a pound is
surprisingly large. In one sample that contained in all
only one-fifth of i per cent of spurious seeds, the num-
ber of weed seeds per pound averaged about 990. In
a bushel of 60 pounds there were, therefore, more than
59,000 weed seeds." It is quite clear that very small

1 U.S. Dept. Agric., Farmers' Bulletin, No. ill, 1900, p. 9.

362 COMMON WEEDS

percentages of impurity may lead to disastrous con-
sequences for the farmer who sows the seeds.

9. An American sample of lucerne seed was found
to contain 6.8 per cent of weed seeds, or nearly 32,500
per pound, no less than 5490 being Dodder.1

10. A question as to the adulteration of seeds was
asked in the House of Commons in 1904, and was
answered by the President of the Board of Agriculture.
" Mr. Spear, having asked what recent cases of adultera-
tion or misrepresentation in the sale of farm seeds
had been brought to his notice, and whether he had
considered the advisability of some amendment in or
addition to the law as it now stands for the better
protection of agriculturists and honest seed merchants,
Mr. Fellowes replies : ' A case in which certain foreign
seed was sold as English clover was recently brought
under the notice of the Board. Proceedings were
instituted under the Merchandise Marks Acts, and the
vendor was fined £10, with 6s. Court fees and £21
towards the cost of the prosecution. This result goes
to confirm the conclusion arrived at by the Depart-
mental Committee of 1900, who expressed the opinion
that there is no practical difficulty under the existing
law in the way of obtaining thoroughly good and
reliable seeds by those who know how to set about it ;
but we shall be very happy to give full consideration to
any representations or suggestions which may be made
to us on the subject.' " 2

The foregoing examples are but a few of hundreds
which could be cited to indicate the extent to which
farm seeds may be worthless, and the consequent
necessity for seed testing.

1 U.S. Dept. Agric. , Farmers Bulletin, No. 194, 1900, p. 13.

2 The Times, May 19, 1904.

PRINCIPLES OF SEED TESTING 363

SEED TESTING B'OR FARMERS

A scientific account of the whole system of seed
testing cannot be given in a work of this character,
which is intended chiefly for the use of farmers, gar-
deners, and others. It will be sufficient for our present
purpose to indicate the main principles involved in
testing the general quality of farm and garden seeds.

It may be first pointed out that a complete analysis
and test of a seed sample should show : —

1. Whether the seed is true to name.

2. The degree of purity of the seed, i.e. whether it is
nearly all pure seed, or contains a large percentage of
weed seeds, rubbish, or seeds of a species not wanted.

3. The germinating capacity of the seed, or its capa-
city to germinate and produce strong plants under
suitable conditions.

4. The origin of the seed, i.e. whether home grown
or foreign, though it may not always be possible to
ascertain this.

5. Whether the seeds are harbouring injurious fungi
which may produce a diseased crop ; and

6. Whether the seeds are old, and have been oiled
or otherwise treated to give them the appearance of
being good seed.

If seeds are found to contain much impurity, to have
not as high a germinating capacity as is consistent with
the species, or to be otherwise not up to a high standard,
they should be immediately rejected. Only reputable
firms who give some adequate guarantee with their
seeds should be dealt with. Further, farmers and gar-
deners are strongly recommended not to hesitate to pur-
chase the best seed, which is always more economical and
profitable in the long run, even at a much higher price,
than a low-priced seed of doubtful quality, for the latter

364 COMMON WEEDS

entails much trouble, waste of time, and loss of crop.
When any suspicion attaches to the seed under con-
sideration it is the best policy to leave it alone. Firms
who have once been found to seek an unholy profit by
oiling old clover seed, by mixing rape or dead Charlock
seed with turnip seed, or trefoil with lucerne or red
clover, or meadow fescue with ryegrass, &c., or are
guilty of any act of adulteration, should be avoided as
unworthy of further confidence.

Purity and germinating capacity of agricultural seeds
are often closely related to the quantity of weeds which
are found among crops. If the seed samples contain
weed seeds, or if the seed partly fails to germinate, there
will be fewer cultivated plants in the soil, and hence
more room and greater opportunity for weeds to
increase and flourish.

Taking a Sample. — The first thing to be done in test-
ing a quantity of seed is to take a representative sample.
For taking official samples various institutions have
their own rules, and many instruments have been
designed for the purpose of obtaining reliable samples.
In order to indicate the general principle it will suffice
here to give the rules generally adopted.

The seed to be tested should be drawn with a seed
sampler if possible, in order to obtain a sample repre-
sentative of the whole bulk. Small lots should be
taken from the top, middle, and bottom of each bag.

The separate lots must be mixed thoroughly together
and divided into three parts, one of which is retained
by the merchant, while the other two are forwarded to
the Seed-testing Station ; of the latter, one is used for
obtaining the germinating capacity and other points of
the sample, and the other is kept for future reference in
case of dispute.

Samples taken by merchants, as well as those taken

PRINCIPLES OF SEED TESTING 365

by farmers, for analysis by competent botanists, should
if possible be taken in the presence of witnesses. For
the farmer's own tests it is sufficient, however, to
remove a handful from the centre of each of the several
bags purchased, and, after mixing these lots, a small
quantity of the mixture may be taken for the test.

For official samples 2 oz. of the smaller seeds, such
as grasses, clovers, turnip, rape, carrot, flax, and parsley,
will suffice. Of the larger seeds, such as mangel, sain-
foin, hemp, elm, larch, and beech, about 4 oz. samples
should be taken ; while of the cereal grains, vetch, peas,
beans, acorns, &c., double the latter quantity is required.

The Purity Test for Farmers. — It may be said at once
that the average farmer or gardener will only be able to
carry out the purity test very roughly, very few being
able to recognise the different weed seeds found in the
various classes of agricultural seeds. Having obtained
a representative sample, however, it should be carefully
weighed, after which all the seeds which are true to
name should be separated out, for which purpose the
sample may be spread on a large sheet of white paper
and sorted out with the blade of a pocket-knife. This
being done, the balance, consisting of dust, rubbish, and
weed seeds is the impurity. A further weighing will
give its amount, when the percentage of pure seed may
be calculated. For ascertaining the purity a small
chemical or spring balance will be necessary in order
that accurate weighings may be made. The ordinary
" purity " of many seeds is given at p. 371.

The Germinating Test for Farmers. — Having re-
moved the rubbish, weed seeds, and other impurities
from the sample, and ascertained the purity, 200 to
400 of the pure seeds are now taken and separated
into two equal lots. Each of these lots of 100 or 200
is then placed between a folded piece of damp blotting-

366

COMMON WEEDS

paper or flannel (the latter should be washed, and, after
soaking in tepid water, squeezed sharply), and finally
deposited on an unglazed earthenware saucer, stood in
a shallow plate or other vessel of water, and covered
with a similar porous saucer. A useful seed-testing
vessel is that shown in Fig. 103 ; this may be covered

Photo, 1909.

H. C. Long.

FlG. 103. — Seed-testing Vessel, of porous ware, with cover (perforations in cover

not shown).

with a perforated cover or with a glass disc, and is
stood in a shallow saucer of water. Seeds so treated
and placed in a moderately warm room will, if of good
quality, germinate readily. (For the periods necessary
for germination see p. 371.) The seeds must not be
too close together ; saucers of different sizes are used
generally according to the size of the seeds to be
tested. It will be found that thin, apparently empty
seeds do not germinate at all, and very old seed
germinates very irregularly or not at all. With high-
class well-filled seeds, germination is regular and

PRINCIPLES OF SEED TESTING 367

spread over a short period from the day the first
sprouting is observed.

Care must be taken that the " seed-bed " (blotting-
paper or flannel) is kept moist, and each species should
be allowed the times mentioned at p. 371 in which to
germinate. The seeds which germinate strongly may
be removed from day to day and the number noted.
The average of not less than two separate lots of seed
should be obtained. The germinating capacities to be
expected from good samples of farm seeds are given at

P- 371-

True Value of Seed. — It is clear that if the sample
under consideration is very impure the germinating
capacity alone may give but a very inadequate idea of
the value of the seed. It is therefore necessary to
consider the two points together, and ascertain the
combined percentage value of purity and germinating
capacity. This may be done as follows : — Suppose P
is the percentage of purity, G the germinating capacity,
and T the true or real value of the seed. Then

PxG_T

IOO

For example, if the purity be 95 per cent and the
germinating capacity 80 per cent, then we have

IOO

In other words, such a sample would contain no more
than 76 Ib. of good seed in every 100 Ib. purchased ;
or, to put it another way, there will be a loss of 243.
on every .£5 worth of seed. At the same time, if the
5 per cent of impurity consists of weed seeds, great
trouble may be entailed by using the seed on the
farm.

368 COMMON WEEDS

Although the foregoing brief account is given to
enable the farmer or gardener to make rough tests
for his own satisfaction at home, we still believe it will,
in general, be wiser for the average purchaser to
submit samples for expert opinion. There are, how-
ever, a number of well-known firms whose seeds may
be absolutely relied on to be what they profess.

WEED SEEDS IN COMMERCIAL SAMPLES OF CLOVER
AND GRASS SEEDS

As already pointed out, many weeds gain access to
the farm in impurities in commercial samples of red,
white, and alsike clovers, kidney vetch, lucerne, rye-
grass, timothy and other grasses used for sowing down
temporary pastures.

Many farm seeds of this class are harvested from
unclean land, or gathered by hand by women and
children who have no very special incentive to gather
the right kind of seed exclusively. On this account
there is necessity for thorough cleaning operations,
which should be carried out when the sample reaches
the seedsman. Unfortunately farmers do not exercise
all the care which they might in the purchase of their
seeds, and they are not infrequently offered, by irre-
sponsible persons, samples of clovers and ryegrass
which have not been through suitable machinery,
which would clear out all objectionable weed seeds.

The only way to deal with trouble of this kind is
to purchase direct from seedsmen who have properly
equipped establishments in which their wares can be
thoroughly cleaned, and whose reputation for a good
article is worthy of being maintained.

The plants whose seeds are most commonly found
among farm seeds are given below. With proper

PRINCIPLES OF SEED TESTING

369

handling, however, few of them should appear in well-
cleaned samples.

In Samples of Clovers

Ranunculus acris

„ repens

Papaver Rhoeas

„ dubium
Fumaria officinalis
Sisymbrium officinale
Barbarea vulgaris
Thlaspi arvense
Lepidium campestre
Capsella Bursa-Pastoris
Viola tricolor
Reseda lutea
Silene inflata
Arenaria serpyllifolia
Cerastium triviale
Stellaria graminea

„ media
Geranium pusillum

„ dissectum

,, molle
Melilotus officinalis

„ alba
Trifolium arvense

„ procumbens

„ minus
Lotus corniculatus

„ major
Scleranthus annuus
Torilis Anthriscus
Anthriscus sylvestris
Daucus Carota
Sherardia arvensis
Galium Aparine
Knautia arvensis
Anthemis arvensis
Matricaria inodora

Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum

„ segetum

Cnicus arvensis
Centaurea Cyanus
Lapsana communis
Cichorium Intybus
Sonchus oleraceus

„ asper
Crepis virens
Cuscuta Trifolii

„ europaea

„ racemosa

„ chilensis
Echium vulgare
Hyoscyamus niger
Linaria spuria

„ officinalis

„ arvensis
Euphrasia officinalis
Calamintha Acinos
Stachys arvensis
Prunella vulgaris
Anagallis arvensis
Plantago major

,, lanceolata
Chenopodium album
Atriplex patula
Rumex crispus

,, Acetosella

„ Acetosa
Polygonum lapathifolium
„ Persicaria

,, Aviculare

„ Convolvulus

Carex, sp.

It may be noted here that certain of these plants are
not dealt with in this volume.

2 A

37°

COMMON WEEDS

In Samples of Grass Seeds

THE SMALLER SEEDS MOSTLY IN TIMOTHY AND
OTHER SMALL-SEEDED SPECIES

Ranunculus acris

„ repens
Capsella Bursa-Pastoris
Viola tricolor
Lychnis Flos-cuculi
Arenaria serpyllifolia
Stellaria graminea

„ media
Geranium dissectum

„ pusillum
Trifolium procumbens
Scleranthus annuus
Anthriscus sylvestris
Galium Aparine
Knautia arvensis
Anthemis arvensis
Chrysanthemum segetum

,, Leucanthemum

Cnicus arvensis
Centaurea Cyanus
Lapsana communis
Leontodon autumnalis

Hypochaeris radicata
Sonchus oleraceus
Crepis virens
Euphrasia officinalis
Prunella vulgaris
Plantago major

„ lanceolata
Chenopodium album
Rumex crispus

„ Acetosella

„ Acetosa
Polygonum lapathifolium
Carex sp.

Agrostis Spica-venti
Festuca myurus
Molinia casrulea
Bromus secalinus
Triticum repens
Lolium temulentum
Nardus stricta
Aira caryophyllea
flexuosa

It may be noted here that certain of these plants are
not dealt with in this volume.

Illustrations of seventy-six species of weed seeds are
shown in three Plates in Appendix I.

A reference collection of weed seeds embracing over
200 species found in commercial samples of clovers is
issued by Professor J. Percival, M.A., University College,
Reading.

PRINCIPLES OF SEED TESTING 371

Farm Seeds
USUAL PURITY AND GERMINATING CAPACITY

Purity
(per cent).

Germinating
capacity
(per cent).

Aver, time in
which seeds
germinate.*
Days.

Cabbage <

QO— 08

QO— QC

2

Swede Turnip ....

vw y^

55

7 / J

55

55

White „ '.

»

55

55

Black Mustard ....

55

85-90

5>

White „ ....

98

95

55

Lucerne .....

96-93

92-98

3

Yellow Trefoil .

5)

90-95

55

Crimson Clover ....

90-95

90-95

55

Red „ .

98

95-98

55

Alsike „

98

))

55

White „ . .

98

V

55

Kidney Vetch ....

95

»

55

Bird's-foot Clover

98

95

55

Sainfoin .....

98-100

90

4-6

Carrot .....

95

70

6

Parsnip

95

60

55

Mangold (fruits) .

98-100

125

55

Buckwheat .....

))

85

4

Sweet Vernal Grass .

96

60

5

Meadow Foxtail ....

96

75-80

6

Timothy

98

90

4

Golden Oat Grass

98

60-70

5

Tall „ „ ...

98

90

T>

Crested Dogstail

96

80

?»

Cocksfoot

98

80-90

7

Smooth-stalked Meadow-grass .

98

60-70

»

Rough

5J

55

5>

Meadow Fescue ....

98

90-95

5

Hard Fescue ....

96

70-80

7

Sheep's Fescue ....

5»

55

?5

Perennial Ryegrass .

98-100

95

5

Italian „ ...

55

55

55

* These figures refer to "energy of germination," or the speed at which
high-class samples germinate. In order to complete a test of germinating
capacity, however, up to ten days should be allowed in the case of the first
thirteen species in the list, and up to fourteen days for the rest, except Poas,
for which a month should be allowed.

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Verhandlungen der I. internalionalen Konferenz fur Samenpnifung

zu Hamburg, ivom 10-14 September 1906.
Veterinary Journal, " Lathyrus Poisoning," 1885 and 1886.
Victoria, Dept. of Agr., " Illustrated Description of Thistles, &c.,

included within the Provisions of the Thistle Act of 1890."
Victoria, Journal of Agriculture, 1907-9.
Vinton's Hand-Books of the Farm, The Crops.
Wallace, Prof. R., Farm Live Stock of Great Britain, 1907.
Ward, H. Marshall, Grasses (Cambridge Biological Series, 1901).
Watts, Dr. Francis, "The Treatment of Soils in Orchard Cultivation

in the Tropics" (West Indian Bulletin, vol. ii. p. 96).
West Indian Bulletin, vol. ii. p. 96.
White, Rev. Gilbert, Natural History of Selborne.
Willis, J. C., M.A., Flowering Plants and Ferns (2nd edition, 1904,

Cambridge Biological Series).
Wolff, E., Farm Foods.
Wright, R. P., Manuring of Moss Land (1909), Reprint of a

Lecture.

Wright, R. P., and M'Alpine, A. N,, " Weeds and Weeding" (High-
land and A gric. Soc. Trans., 1894).
Wrightson, Prof. J., "Weeds and their Eradication" (Paper read

before the Farmers' Club, April 1902).

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I
ILLUSTRATIONS OF WEED SEEDS. PLATE I.

ALL seeds on this plate, except Nos. 4, 8, 18, and 20,
are shown natural size, and in two positions magnified.
The four specified are shown natural size, and in only
one position magnified.

1. Acrid Buttercup (Ranunculus acris L.).

2. Creeping Buttercup (R. repens L.).

3. Corn or Field Buttercup (R. arvensis L.).

4. Common Scarlet Poppy (Papaver Rh&as L.).

5. Charlock (Sinapts arvensis L.).

6. Shepherd's Purse (Capsella Bursa-Pastoris DC.).

7. Field Pepperwort (Lepidium campestre Br.).

8. Penny Cress (Thlaspi arvense L.).

9. Wild Radish, White Charlock (Raphanus Raphanis-

trum L.).

10. Corn Pansy ( Viola tricolor L.).

11. Bladder Campion (Silene inflata Sm.).

12. White or Evening Campion (Lychnis vespertina Sibth.).

13. Corn Cockle (Agrostemma Githago L.).

14. Mouse-ear Chickweed (Cerastium triviale Link.).

15. Chickweed (Ste I/aria media L.).

16. Spurrey (Spergula arvensis L.).

17. Dove's-foot Crane's-bill (Geranium molle L.).

1 8. Cut-leaved Crane's-bill (G. dissectum L.).

19. Rest Harrow (Ononis spinosa L.).

20. Tufted Vetch (Vicia Cracca L.).

21. Silver- weed (Potentilla Anserina L.).

22. Salad Burnet (Poterium Sanguisorba L.).

23. Wild Carrot (Daucus Carota L.).

24. Cleavers (Galium Aparine L.).

378

• 0

/SL

a I

15

/6

ia

22

PLATE I.— WEED SEEDS.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF WEED SEEDS. PLATE II.

All the seeds on this plate are shown natural size,
and in one or two positions magnified.

25. Field Madder (Sherardia arvensis L.).

26. Field Scabious (Scabiosa arvensis L.).

27. Cudweed (Gnaphalium sylvaticum L.).

28. Stinking Mayweed (Anthemis Cotula L.).

29. Scentless Mayweed (Matricaria inodora L.).

30. Corn Marigold {Chrysanthemum segetum L.).

31. Ox-eye Daisy (C. Leucanthennim L.).

32. Coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara L.).

33. Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris L.).

34. Ragwort (S. Jacobcea L.).

35. Burdock (Arclium Lappa L.).

36. Knapweed (Centaurea nigra L.).

37. Cornflower (C. Cyanus L.).

38. Spear Thistle (Cnicus lanceolatus Hoffm.).

39. Creeping Thistle (C. arvensis Hoffm.).

40. Nipplewort (Lapsana communis L.).

41. Dandelion (Taraxacum offidnale Web.).

42. Cat's-ear (Hypochceris radicata L.).

43. Perennial or Corn Sow Thistle (Sonchus arvensis L.).

44. Chicory (Cichorium Intybus L.).

45. Autumn Hawkbit (Lcontodon autumnalis L.).

46. Scarlet Pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis L.).

47. Viper's Bugloss (Echium vulgare L.).

48. Corn Gromwell (Lithospermum arvense L.).

49. Field Forget-me-not (Myosotis arvensis Hoffm.).

50. Field Convolvulus, Small Bindweed (Convolvulus

arvensis L.).

51. Clover Dodder (Cuscuta Trifolii Bab.).

52. Dodder (C. racemosa Mart.).

380

B.R

PLATE II.— WEED SEEDS.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF WEED SEEDS. PLATE III.

All the seeds on this plate are shown natural size,
and in one or two positions magnified.

53. Ribwort Plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.).

54. Broad-leaved Plantain (P. major L.).

55. Yellow Toadflax (Linaria vulgaris Mill).

56. Eyebright (Euphrasia officinalis L.).

57. (Wall) Speedwell (Veronica arvensis L.).

58. Yellow Rattle (Rhinanthus Crista-galli \..\

59. Broom-rape (Orobanche minor Sutt.).

60. Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris L.).

61. Annual Knawel (Scleranthus annuits L.).

62. Goosefoot, Fat Hen (Chenopodium album L ).

63. Spreading Orache (A triplex patula L.).

64. Knotgrass (Polygonum Aviculare L.).

65. Persicaria, Redshank (P. Persicaria L.).

66. Curled Dock (Rumex crispus L.).

67. Sheep's Sorrel (R. Acetosella L.).

68. Wild Onion (Allium vineale L.).

69. Slender Foxtail (Alopecurus agrestis L.).

70. Fine Bent-grass, Black Couch (Agrostis vulgaris With.).

71. Yorkshire Fog (Holcus lanatus L.).

72. Wild Oat (Avenafatua L.).

73. Soft Brome Grass (Bromus mollis L.).

74. Darnel (Lolium temulentum L.).

75. Tufted Hair-grass (Aira ccespitosa L.).

76. Couch (Triticum repens L.).

382

PLATE III.— WEED SEEDS.

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Curly Pondweed

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Lakes, ditches,
marshes

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meadows
Ditches, river
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APPENDIX III

LEGISLATION ENFORCING THE DESTRUCTION OF

NOXIOUS WEEDS IN THE CHIEF AGRICULTURAL

COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD

LEGISLATION for the prevention of the dissemination of noxious
weeds exists in the majority of the chief agricultural countries of
the world. In the British Empire more or less stringent laws
in this behalf are on the Statute Books of the Australasian and
South African Colonies ; but in the British Islands the only laws
requiring the destruction of weeds refer to Ireland and the
Isle of Man. A summary of these laws, and of those of such
foreign countries for which it has been found possible to obtain
information, is given below.

UNITED KINGDOM

There are no laws or regulations in force in Great Britain
which render compulsory the destruction of weeds ; but it will
be of interest if the provisions of the Adulteration of Seeds Acts,
1869 and 1878, are stated here.

The Adulteration of Seeds Act, 1869, provides that every
person who, with intent to defraud or to enable another person
to defraud, " kills or causes to be killed any seeds ; or, dyes or
causes to be dyed any seeds ; or, sells or causes to be sold any
killed or dyed seeds," shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding
^5 for a first offence, or to a penalty not exceeding ^50 for a
second or subsequent offence. In the case of a second or
subsequent offence the Court is empowered, besides inflicting
the penalty, "to order the offender's name, occupation, place
of abode, and place of business, and particulars of his
punishment under this Act, to be published, at the expense of
such offender, in such newspaper or newspapers, or in such

409

4io APPENDIX III

other manner as the Court may think fit to prescribe." Under
this Act it is not necessary to prove an intent to defraud any
particular person or to enable any particular person to defraud
another particular person, but it is sufficient to prove that the
accused party did the act with an intent to defraud or to enable
some or any other person to defraud. In this Act the term " to
kill seeds " is defined as destroying the vitality or germinating
power of such seeds by artificial means.

The Adulteration of Seeds Act, 1878, defines the term "to
dye seeds" in the Act of 1869 as meaning the application to
seeds of any process of colouring, dyeing or sulphur smoking.

Some indications as to the legal aspect of the subject will be
gathered from the following summaries of cases quoted in
Dixon's Law of the Farm : —

It is a nuisance if a man allows the boughs of his trees so to
grow that they overhang his neighbour's land (Lonsdale (Earl) v.
Nelson, 2 L. J. (O. S.) K. B., 28 ; 2 B. & C., 31 1). The owner of
land so overhung is entitled, without notice, if he does not tres-
pass on his neighbour's land, to cut the branches so far as they
overhang, even though they have done so for more than 20 years
(Lemmon v. Webb, 63 L. S., ch. 570 [1895] A. C). See also,
with regard to poisonous trees, Wilson v. Newberry, 41 L. J.,
Q. B., 31 ; L. R., 7 Q. B., 31. In Crowhurst v. Amersham Burial
Board (48 L. J., Ex., 109 \ 4 Ex. D., 5) a Burial Board was held
liable for the loss of a horse poisoned by eating leaves of a yew
tree planted in the cemetery belonging to the Board, which had
grown through and over their fence and projected on to the
meadow occupied by the plaintiff. Kelly, C.B., said : " We do not
think that the plaintiff was bound to examine all the boundaries
to see that no tree likely to be injurious to his horse was pro-
jecting over the field he had hired." In Ponting v. Noakes (63
L. J.j Q. B., 549; [1894] 2 Q. B., 281) the parties occupied
adjoining fields, separated by a fence and ditch belonging to
defendants. The ditch was on the plaintiff's side, the edge of
the ditch being his boundary. On the defendants' side was a
yew tree, the branches of which extended over the hedge and
partly over the ditch; but no part extended up to or over the
plaintiff's boundary. The defendants were under no liability to
fence against their neighbour's cattle. Plaintiff's horse ate of
the branches extending over the ditch, and died therefrom ; and

APPENDIX III 411

the plaintiff brought an action for damages. The Court held
that there was no liability, inasmuch as there was no duty on
defendants not to grow a poisonous tree on their property,
even though it might be so near the boundary as possibly to be
accessible to the plaintiff's cattle. This case differed from the
Amersham case cited above, because there the tree extended
over the plaintiff's land, and defendants were liable on the prin-
ciple laid down in Rylands v. Fletcher (37 L. J., Ex. 161 ; L. R.,
3, H. L., 330) that the person who, for his own purposes, brings
on his land, and collects and keeps there, anything likely to do
mischief, is liable if it escapes and does mischief.

An interesting decision was given in the case of Giles v.
Walker (59 L. J., Q.B., 416 ; 24 Q. B. D., 656), where it was held
that an occupier of land is under no duty towards his neigh-
bour periodically to cut the thistles naturally growing on his
land, so as to prevent them from seeding ; and if, dwing to his
neglect to cut them, the seeds are blown to his neighbour's land
and do damage he is not liable.

As regards the cleansing of watercourses in England, Section
14 of the Land Drainage Act enacts that where, by the neglect
of an occupier to cleanse and scour, or to join in cleansing and
scouring, the channels of existing drains, streams, or watercourses
in or bounding his lands, injury is caused to other land, the
occupier of that land may serve a notice requiring the offending
occupier to maintain the banks or cleanse and scour the channel,
or in default do it himself and recover a proper proportion of
the cost. (See also Leaflet No. 1 8 1 , Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries.)

IRELAND

A Seed-testing Station has already been established by the
Irish Department of Agriculture, in order that the danger of
using impure seed, and thereby increasing the spread of weeds
and correspondingly decreasing the yield of the crop, may as far
as possible be obviated. The Station furnishes for each sample
a statement of the percentage and nature of the impurity, and
the percentage of germination. Farmers are charged 3d. per
sample, and seedsmen is., for a report on purity, and 2S. if a
germination report be also required.

In 1909 the Weeds and Agricultural Seeds (Ireland) Act,

412 APPENDIX III

1909, was passed to prevent the spread of noxious weeds in
Ireland, and to make provision for the testing of agricultural
seeds. This Act vests in the Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction power, with the consent of the Council
of any county, to declare Ragwort, Charlock, Coltsfoot, Thistle,
and Dock to be noxious weeds throughout the county. It pro-
vides that notices may be served on occupiers of land, ordering
them to destroy, in the manner specified, the noxious weeds
thereon, and defaulters are rendered liable to penalties not
exceeding £$ for a first offence, or £10 for a second or
subsequent offence. The Act empowers the Inspectors of the
Department to enter upon land in order to search for noxious
weeds. The County or District Council is regarded as the
occupier of roads.

The Act further makes provision for taking samples of certain
agricultural seeds, and for their testing for purity and germina-
tion. The names and addresses of the persons upon whose
premises the samples were taken may be published, together
with the results of the tests. This Act came into force on
January i, 1910.

ISLE OF MAN

In the Isle of Man the "Weeds Act, 1900," is designed to
secure the destruction of weeds defined as " thistles, cushags,
and common docks." If weeds growing on any land, including
the half of any public road adjoining thereto (other than roads
usually repaired by the Highway Board), remain uncut on the i st
August in any year, or sooner period when they are developing
flowers, Commissioners of Districts may serve notices upon the
occupiers of such lands requiring the weeds to be cut; and if
the cutting is not carried out within ten days thereafter the
occupier is liable to a penalty not exceeding £10, and to a
further penalty not exceeding £i for each day that the offence
is continued. A Court of Summary Jurisdiction has power to
authorise a person to cut down the weeds, having regard to the
state of cultivation and cropping; and a Justice of the Peace
may, on complaint from the Commissioners or from any person
residing within one mile of the land, authorise a person to enter
the land in order to ascertain whether in fact such weeds are
present thereon.

APPENDIX III 413

CANADA

By the Seed Control Act (4 & 5 Ed. VII., c. 41) the Governor
in Council may make regulations determining the maximum pro-
portion of the seeds of the weeds mentioned below that may
be tolerated in agricultural and other seeds without affecting
their character as being free from the seeds of the said weeds.
The Act gives powers of entry for inspection and taking of
samples. Its provisions do not, however, apply to persons grow-
ing or selling seed for the purpose of food, or selling or storing
seed which is to be cleaned and graded, or which is marked
" not absolutely clean " and held or sold for export only.

The prohibitory clauses of the Act require that no person
shall sell, or offer, expose or have in his possession for sale, for
the purpose of seeding, any seeds of cereals, grasses, clovers or
forage plants, unless they are free from any seeds of the follow-
ing weeds : —

Wild Mustard or Charlock (Brassica Sinapistrum Boiss. = Sinapis

arvensis L.)

Tumbling Mustard (Sisymbrium Sinapistrum Crantz.)
Hare's-ear Mustard (Cortngia orie?italis (L.) Dumort.)
Ball Mustard (Neslia paniculata Desv.)
Field Penny Cress or Stinkweed ( Thlaspi aruense L.)
Wild Oats (Avena fatua L. and A. strigosa Schreb.)
Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.)
Perennial Sow Thistle (Sonchus arvensis L.)
Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisicefolia L.)
Great Ragweed (Ambrosia trifida L.)
Purple Cockle (Lychnis Githago Lam.)
Cow Cockle ( Vaccaria Vaccaria (L.) Britton)
Orange Hawkweed or Paint Brush (Hieracium aurantiacum L.

and Hieracium prcealtum Vill.)
The Sclerotia known as Ergot of Rye (Claviceps purpurea Tul.),

unless each and every receptacle, package, sack, or bag contain-
ing such seeds, or a label securely attached thereto, is marked in
a plain and indelible manner —

(a) with the full name and address of the seller ;

(b) with the name of the kind or kinds of seed ;

(c) with the common name or names of the weeds named,

the seeds of which are present in the seed sold, offered,
or exposed or had in possession for sale.

414 APPENDIX III

Further, no person shall sell, or offer, expose or have in his
possession for sale, any seeds of timothy, red clover, alsike, or
any mixture containing the said seeds, in or from any receptacle,
package, sack, or bag upon which is marked " No. i " or any
other designation which represents such seeds as of first quality,
unless they are free from the seeds of the above-mentioned
weeds, and are also free from the seeds of—

White Cockle (Lychnis vespertina Sibth.).

Night-flowering Catchfly \Silene noctiflora L.).

False Flax (Camelina sativa Crantz.).

Canada Thistle (Cnicus arvensis Hoffm.).

Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum L.).

Curled Dock (Rumex crispus L.).

Blue Weed (Echium vulgare L.).

Ribgrass (Plantago lanceolata L.).

Chicory (Cichorium Intybus L.).

They must also contain not less than 99 per cent of the
seeds represented, or seeds of other useful and harmless grasses
or clovers, of which 99 per cent 90 must be germinable.

No person shall sell, or offer, expose or have in his posses-
sion for sale for the purpose of seeding in Canada, any seeds of
timothy, alsike or red clover, or any mixture containing the said
seeds, if the seeds of the weeds mentioned in the Act are present
in a greater proportion than 5 in 1000 of the seed sold, &c.

Penalties to the extent of 1-25 dollars per bag are levied in
respect of offences against the Act, and the person on whose
behalf the seed is sold, &c., is prima facie liable for the violation
of the Act.

The Act also makes provision for the analysis and testing
of seeds.

The object of the Act is not to induce farmers to purchase
for their own use seeds of a better quality than they desire,
except in so far as noxious weeds are held to be a public
nuisance, but to provide means whereby users of seeds may
protect themselves against the introduction of noxious weeds
on their lands, and to fix a minimum standard alike of purity
and vitality. Specimens of 100 noxious weeds may be obtained
by seed merchants from the Seed Branch of the Department of

APPENDIX III 415

Agriculture, Ottawa, in order to assist them in the identification
of the species.

In the tests for purity the report must state, inter alia, the
number of the seeds of the scheduled weeds found in the
sample, and the number per 1000 seeds; and in the case of
timothy, alsike, or red clover, described as first quality, the
percentage of useless and harmful seeds not named in the Act.

The various Provinces of the Dominion have passed laws on
the subject, which may be briefly summarised as follows : —

In Manitoba the "Noxious Weeds Act" of 1906 schedules,
among other weeds, Common Wild Mustard (Charlock), Canada
(or Creeping) Thistle, Perennial Sow Thistle, Wild Oats, " Stink-
weed" (Penny Cress), and False Flax, and all other noxious
weeds to which the Act may be extended by municipal by-law.
Owners and occupants of land are compelled to cut down or
destroy the above-mentioned weeds in time to prevent seeding,
and this provision extends to railway companies as regards land
in their possession. In default a fine of from 5 to 25 dollars
may be levied, and in addition a fine of 5 dollars for each day
of neglect subsequent to conviction. Powers are given for In-
spectors to enter premises of defaulters and destroy the weeds,
even when they are among growing crops. Powers are also
given for the searching of seed warehouses for traces of seeds of
noxious weeds. Vendors of seeds — whether for seed or fodder
—which are found to contain seeds of noxious weeds are liable
to fines of from 10 to 100 dollars, and to the destruction of
the seed sold; while for exporting cleanings or refuse from
elevators or mills which are found to contain noxious seeds, the
owners are liable to fines ranging from 25 to 100 dollars. The
Lieutenant-Governor in Council has power to make further
regulations if necessary.

In Ontario, Chapter 279 of the Law Book provides that every
occupier must cut down all Canada Thistles, Ox-eye Daisies,
Wild Oats, Ragweed, Burdock, and all other noxious weeds to
which the Act may be extended by municipal by-law so often as to
prevent the ripening of seed, provided, however, that this does not
entail the destruction of the growing grain. Municipalities may,
on the application of thirty ratepayers, suspend the operation of
the Act as regards any waste or unoccupied lands, but they have
power to extend the Act to include any weed or weeds. Penalties

416 APPENDIX III

are attached to neglect to comply with the provisions of the
Act, and Inspectors are empowered to enter the premises of de-
faulting occupiers and to cut down all noxious weeds except on
land sown with grain. Highway overseers must see that the
roads under their control are kept .free from the weeds. Any
person knowingly selling seeds containing the seeds of the
noxious weeds referred to above renders himself liable to a
fine of 5 to 20 dollars.

In the North-West Territories the Noxious Weeds Ordinance
of 1903 schedules, among others, the following species as noxious
weeds : Common Wild Mustard (Charlock), False Flax, Shep-
herd's Purse, Stinkweed (Penny Cress), Canada (or Creeping)
Thistle, Ragweed, and Wild Oats. Occupiers of land must
destroy all these weeds on their premises, and in addition on
the land between the centre of the highway and their boundary,
or in default.be liable to a penalty up to TOO dollars and costs.
An Inspector finding noxious weeds in a corn crop may order
the owner to cut down or plough under such crop, or any part
of it, within a stated time, or to fence off and burn all straw and
screenings from such crop within ten days of thrashing. In-
spectors have power to act in the case of an occupier's default.
No person must sell, dispose of, or offer for sale any grain, grass,
clover, or other seeds for seed in which there is seed of noxious
weeds. No bran, shorts, chopped or crushed grain, or cleanings
containing seeds of noxious weeds may be removed from any
premises until the germinating power of such seeds has been
destroyed. An exception is, however, made in the case of
material from elevators or warehouses which is destined for
sheep feeding or other purposes whereby the complete destruc-
tion of germinative capacity is secured, but the removal must
be made under the authority of Regulations prescribed by the
Lieutenant-Governor. No such seed may be placed outside a
mill until germination has been destroyed. It is further pro-
vided that thrashing-machines shall be thoroughly cleaned before
removal from one place to another.

As regards British Columbia, the Noxious Weeds Prevention
Act of 1888 prescribes that any person who imports and offers
for sale any grain, grass, clover, or other seed, or any seed
grain among which there is seed of Canada Thistle, Ox-eye
Daisy, Wild Oats, Ragweed, Charlock, Sorrel, Burdock, or any

APPENDIX III 417

other foul seeds, or who shall knowingly convey from one farm
to another any of these noxious seeds or grains, either in thrash-
ing-machines or fanning mills, shall for every such offence be
liable to a fine of not less than 20 and not more than 100
dollars.

In Quebec, Article 5556 of the Civil Code ordains that
any person may, by special notice, require any occupier of
any land or common, not actually under seed, to cut and
destroy, between the 2oth June and the ist August, the Daisies,
Wild Endive, Chicory, Celandine, and all other noxious weeds
or plants considered as such, growing on the land or common.
A fine of 40 cents per diem, and costs, is provided in default
of complying with such notice. Any person who scatters, or
causes to be scattered, the seeds of weeds to the prejudice of
another person shall incur a penalty of i to 8 dollars. Any.
person may, after special notice, compel his neighbour to pull
up Wild Mustard, even in a sown field, so soon as it flowers.
Default renders the occupier liable to the above penalty. Such
special notices must be given either in writing or before two
witnesses.

In Saskatchewan the Noxious Weeds Ordinance of 1903
schedules nineteen species of plants as noxious weeds, including
six species of Mustard and three of Thistles. Every occupier
of land is required to use all reasonable means in his power to
destroy all noxious weeds, and in default is liable to a penalty
not exceeding 100 dollars and costs. Occupiers must clear
the land between the centre of the road and their boundary.
Inspectors are empowered on finding weeds in a grain crop to
notify the owner to cut and burn, or plough under, the whole
or part of the crop, or to fence and burn the straw from such
crop within ten days of thrashing. Railway lands and lands
of irrigation companies must also be cleared. No person is
allowed to sell any grain, grass, clover, or other seed in which
there are seeds of noxious weeds, and such seeds must not be
removed from any premises until the power of germination of
the noxious seeds is destroyed. Cleanings must not be, placed
outside a mill until the power of germination of any noxious
weed seeds has been destroyed. Thrashing-machines must be
thoroughly cleaned before removal, and this provision must be
prominently displayed on each machine.

2 D

418 APPENDIX III

In Alberta the Noxious Weeds Act of 1907 (as amended in
1908) schedules twenty-two noxious weeds, and makes their
destruction by all owners or occupiers of land compulsory. It
further provides that all earthworks owned by railway or irriga-
tion companies must be sown with White Clover, Timothy, or
Western Ryegrass. Inspectors have power to order the partial
or complete destruction of grain or hay crops containing noxious
weeds. The sale of seed containing a greater proportion than
5 per 1000 of noxious weed seeds is prohibited, and the ger-
minating power of all weed seeds must be destroyed before
cleanings, &c., can be removed from any premises. Thrashing-
machines must be thoroughly cleaned before removal to another
place, and the thrasher must deliver the grain in such a condi-
tion that it contains not more than 10 per cent of noxious
weed seeds other than Wild Oats.

In Prince Edward Island the Noxious Weeds Act of 1909
schedules seven weeds, and makes their destruction before the
seed ripens compulsory. The provisions of the Act are in
similar terms to those in force in the other Canadian provinces.

AUSTRALASIA

The Federal Quarantine Act, No. 3 of 1908, prohibits the
importation into the Commonwealth of the seeds of no less
than eighty-two species of weeds, among which may be men-
tioned Burdock, Charlock, all Thistles, Corn Marigold, Dodder,
Fumitory, Poppies, Spurrey, Ragwort, Hemlock, Field Bindweed,
Cleavers, Pepperwort (L. Draba and L. campestre), Black Bind-
weed, Sheep's Sorrel, and certain Docks. All seeds imported
into the Commonwealth are required to be " sound, clean and
new," and therefore tests of their viability are sometimes made,
and they are cleared from bond only when the Commonwealth
Inspectors are satisfied that seeds of the eighty-two species of
weeds referred to are not present.

In Victoria^ the Thistle Act of 1890 includes among other
species Cnicus lanceolatus, Onopordon Acanthium, and Cnicus
arvensis as noxious weeds; and the Act of 1891 empowers the
Governor in Council to proclaim any plant to be a Thistle within
the meaning of the Act of 1890. Occupiers of land are com-
pelled to destroy all Thistles thereon, and upon half of any road

APPENDIX III 419

adjacent thereto, within fourteen days after any notice in writing
signed by any Justice, subject to a penalty of from ^5 to £20.
After seven days' default the Justice may order destruction of
the weeds, the cost to be recovered from the occupier. Duly
authorised persons may enter upon land to search for Thistles,
and on complaint being made of the suspected existence of
Thistles, and the existence being confirmed, the Justice may make
an order for eradication. Crown lands are also subject to the
provisions of the Act.

New South Wales. — By the " Prickly Pear Destruction Act
of 1901 " provision is made for the compulsory destruction of
the Prickly Pear.

In New Zealand, Act No. 10 of 1900, " To prevent the spread
of noxious weeds and to enforce the trimming of hedges," pro-
vides that occupiers of land shall clear that part between the
centre of the road and their boundary of all noxious weeds.
No person is allowed to sow, sell, or offer for sale any noxious
seeds (except gorse seed for fodder by permission), or any
seed that has not been thoroughly dressed by a machine or
other sufficient process to remove all noxious seeds. Thrashing-
machines, clover-dressers, and chaff-cutters must be thoroughly
cleaned immediately after use. Occupiers must take the neces-
sary steps each year to clear noxious weeds from their land, and
to clear at least a quarter of a chain each side of internal fences
and watercourses. Powers of inspection and entry are given.
Some thirty plants are scheduled as noxious weeds, and the Act
empowers the Governor to extend the list on the advice of the
Joint Agricultural, Pastoral, and Stock Committee.

In South Australia, Act No. 26 of 1862 provides that the
occupier of land (including the adjacent half of any road)
upon which Bathurst Burr (Xanthium spmosum), Scotch
Thistle, or Variegated Thistle, shall be growing, shall, after
due notice, effectually destroy such plants, or in default be
liable to a penalty not exceeding £10. Powers of entry to
inspect, and to destroy in default of the occupier, are given.
Act 409 of 1887 extended the above Act to include the " Star
Thistle " (Centaurea calcitrapd}, but repealed its provisions
as regards the Scotch and Variegated Thistles, the former of
which was found to be eaten by cattle when in a dry state, and
is therefore regarded as a fodder plant of some value in dry

420 APPENDIX III

seasons when grass is scarce. Further, powers were given by
which any weed could be proclaimed a noxious weed which
must be eradicated. Additional powers were given by Act No.
517 of 1891. At the present time some thirteen species of
weeds are proscribed, having been declared to be "noxious weeds."

There is in South Australia no supervision over the sale of
seeds, and no guarantee is given by seedsmen either as regards
purity or germinating capacity.

In Tasmania, Act No. 17 of 1883 enforces the compulsory
destruction of the Calfornian Thistle and Bathurst Burr before
blooming, and gives powers of entry. Local authorities must
destroy all Thistles growing on roads. It is provided by a later
Act (No. 29 of 1887) that any person removing from land, or
selling or offering for sale any hay, straw, or grass seed or grain
containing Thistle seed, shall be liable to penalties. It is further
enacted that an annual return shall be made to the Chief In-
spector of Sheep, stating the estimated area of land infested
with Thistles. A later Act empowers the Governor to proclaim
any plant as a noxious weed, either generally or in a particular
locality, and the Mona Vale White Weed or Pepperwort (Lepidium
Dmba L.) has been proclaimed accordingly, and the different
municipal councils — fifty in number — take action for its destruc-
tion. No laws exist in the Island controlling the sale of seeds
mixed with weed seeds.

In Western Australia, the Noxious Weeds Act of 1904 provides
that such weeds as from time to time may be proclaimed by
notice in the Government Gazette to be noxious weeds must be
destroyed by occupiers of land after the Inspector has given
notice. In default the occupier is liable to a penalty of £$o.
Powers of entry, and to destroy in default of the occupier, are
given. Local authorities must clear all lands under their control.

Queensland. — Dodder was proclaimed a disease under the
Diseases in Plants Act, 1876.

SOUTH AFRICA

In Cape Colony, Act 40 of 1889 provides that occupiers of
land on which the Bathurst Burr (Xanthium spinosum) exists
shall, after due notice, take steps to eradicate the weed, or in
default be liable to a penalty. The Act empowers the Governor

APPENDIX III 421

to schedule any other weed as noxious, and to exempt any river
bed should he see fit. Later Acts (1905 and 1907) give further
powers for the compulsory destruction of noxious weeds. Act
No. 20 of 1907 empowers the Governor to make regulations
dealing with the furnishing of guarantees as to the purity and
germination of any seed purchased, for preventing the sale of
seeds not of the quality guaranteed, for preventing the sale of
killed or dyed seeds, and for providing for the regular analysis
of seeds intended for sale. It is not incumbent on the vendor
to furnish a guarantee of purity and germination, but the absence
of such guarantee does not exempt him from prosecution in the
event of killed or dyed seeds being found in the seed sold by
him. Other clauses deal with prosecutions under the Act, and
with penalties in case of contravention of the Act or regulations
made thereunder.

In Natal, Law No. 38 of 1874 renders occupiers of land
upon which the Bathurst Burr (Xanthium spinosum] is found
growing and bearing seed liable to a penalty of not more than
-£$. Powers of entry to destroy are given under the Act. Act
No. 20 of 1901 includes two other weeds in the above Act.

In the Orange River Colony, Chapter cxxvi. of the Law Book
orders that every owner, occupier, or user of a farm shall be
bound to exterminate, bury, or burn the weed known as Xanthium
spinosum. The Landdrost has power to do this in default, and to
recover costs. Persons travelling with animals on which seed of
this plant is found are liable to prosecution and penalties. The
Law also applies to the Scotch Thistle, except that on repre-
sentations from twenty-five landowners in a ward its operation
may be withheld,

In the Transvaal, the Minister of Agriculture introduced a
Bill, which received the royal assent on 3oth June 1909, to
make better provision for the eradication of noxious weeds.
Under this term are included Xanthium spinosum, and any
other plant which the Governor may proclaim by notice in the
Gazette, to be a noxious weed either in the whole Colony or
in specified parts. The Governor has power to make regula-
tions compelling the destruction of noxious weeds, and pre-
scribing the manner of destruction, and of empowering officers
to inspect land and to serve notices on occupiers. In default
of action by the occupier the destruction may be carried out,

422 APPENDIX III

and the cost thereof recovered from the occupier. The Governor
may also make regulations prohibiting the introduction into the
Colony or the sale of any plant, seed, or grain which is likely to
propagate or to spread the seed of noxious weeds. Failure to
comply with these regulations renders the offender liable to a
fine not exceeding ^50, or in default of payment to six months'
imprisonment with or without hard labour. The Act came into
operation on 2nd July 1909.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

There are no Federal laws requiring the destruction of weeds
or the sale of pure seeds, but a number of States have passed
laws requiring that certain noxious weeds shall not be allowed
to seed. Various penalties are provided in case these laws are
violated. In several States also there are laws governing the
sale of seeds within the State.

The latest general information available is contained in a
Bulletin (No. 17, Division of Botany) issued by the United States
Department of Agriculture in 1896. At that date twenty-
five States and Territories had made Laws for the suppression
of weeds, and it may be mentioned that twenty-one of these
States had proscribed the Creeping Thistle (Cnicus arvensis
Hoffm.).

The various laws are set forth in extenso in the Bulletin,
but they cannot be referred to individually here.

It will be of interest, however, to indicate by an example
what laws exist as to the inspection of agricultural seeds. In
the State of Iowa it is provided by Law (effective July 4, 1907)
that no person shall sell agricultural seeds containing the seeds
of Wild Mustard or Charlock, Quack Grass (Couch), Canada (or
Creeping) Thistle, Wild Oats, Clover and Lucerne Dodder,1 Field
Dodder,2 and Corn Cockle. The sale of seeds containing not
more than 2 per cent by weight of the following (among other)
weed seeds is not prohibited ; but if more than 2 per cent be
present the approximate percentage of each of such seeds must
be stated : White Cockle (Lychnis vespertina), Curled Dock,
Sheep's Sorrel, certain Plantains, Bindweed (Convolvulus sepium),

1 Cuscuta Epithymum. z C. arvensis.

APPENDIX III

423

Common Chickweed. Sand, dirt, chaff, foreign substances, and
seed not capable of germinating are considered as impurities,
and when present in quantity exceeding the standards of purity
and viability mentioned below, the name and approximate per-
centage must be indicated : —

Standard of Purity and Viability of Agricultural Seeds

/

Per Cent of
Purity.

Per Cent of
Germinable
Seeds.

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) ....

96

80

Barley ........

98

90

Bluegrass, Canadian (Poa compressd) .

90

45

„ Kentucky (P. pratensis) .

80

45

Brome, awnless (Bromus inermis)

90

75

Clover, Alsike (Trifolium hybridum} .

90

75

Buckwheat .......

96

90

Clover, crimson ( /'. incarnatuiri)

98

85

„ red ( T. pratense) ....

92

80

„ white ( T. repens) ....

90

75

Fescue, Meadow ( Festuca pratensis) .

95

85

Flax (Li/iuin usitatissimum)

96

89

Oats

98

90

Oat-grass, tall (Arrhenatherum avenaceum)

72

70

Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata)

70

70

Rape (Brassica rapa) .....

99

90

Red top (Agrostis alba) ....

90

70

Rye

98

90

Ryegrass, perennial (Lolium perenne)

96

90

„ Italian (L. italic um} .

95

80

Timothy (Phleum pratense)

96

85

Wheat .... . .

98

90

The United States Treasury Department periodically directs
Customs Officers that, for specified periods, two-ounce samples of
all importations of 100 pounds or more of grass, clover, and
forage-plant seeds shall be forwarded to the Seed Laboratory,
Department of Agriculture, Washington. The importation of
the consignment, and its entry into commerce, is suspended until
the result of the examination of the sample is made known.

424 APPENDIX III

ARGENTINA

The importation of seeds is regulated by Law No. 4084,
whereby they are subjected to inspection, disinfection, or de-
struction, as the case requires. The Law has been amplified
by decree of August 23, 1902, and it is stipulated that all live
vegetable seeds, or part thereof, on importation into Argentina,
are subject to the jurisdiction of the Department of Agronomy
of the Ministry of Agriculture, and scrupulously examined with
the view of preventing the importation of vegetable or animal
plagues. Seeds in large or small quantities imported into Argen-
tina are subject to inspection or analysis by the Department
of Agronomy if necessary, and every effort is made to prevent
the entry of Dodder. The importation of clover seeds, indeed,
is prohibited unless these are certified as free from Dodder.

FRANCE

The Law of June 21, 1898, provides that the Prefects of
Departments shall prescribe such measures as may be necessary
to arrest or prevent damage to agriculture by Cryptogams and
other harmful plants when such damage assumes, or may assume,
an extensive or dangerous character. Regulations are not made
by the Prefect without the sanction of the General Council of
the Department, except in the case of urgent and temporary
measures. He determines when the measures should be put
into execution, the localities to which they shall apply, and
the special means to be employed. The regulation is only
to be carried into effect after the approval of the Minister for
Agriculture has been received. The execution of the regulation
is in the charge of the Mayors.

Regulations of the character outlined have been made by
various Departments.

The repression of fraud in the sale of seeds is regulated by
the Frauds Law of August i, 1905, and experiment stations have
been instituted to deal with samples of seeds submitted to them
in conformity with that Law/

APPENDIX III 425

ITALY

There are no laws in force in Italy with regard to the destruc-
tion of weeds and the supply of pure seeds of a suitable ger-
minating capacity.

BELGIUM

There are no laws in Belgium with respect to the provision
of pure seeds of good germinating capacity, but the Burgomaster
is required by Art. 50 of the " Code Rural " to see that the
laws and regulations requiring the destruction of Thistles and
other noxious plants are duly executed. A Royal Decree
(May 2, 1887) lays down rules for the destruction of these
plants, the measures for the destruction of Thistles being pre-
scribed by the provincial Governors, and those for other weeds
by the Minister for Agriculture. The destruction of male stalks
of Hops is rendered compulsory by a Ministerial Decree dated
May 3, 1887.

GERMANY

The Government of the German Empire have passed no laws
in connection with the seed trade, neither is the destruction of
weeds rendered compulsory by any Imperial law. Measures
are, however, taken in most of the Federated States against the
spread of certain weeds, e.g. Thistles (Cnicus arvensis), French
Weed (Galinsoga parviflora) , Wild Radish (Raphanus], Meadow
Saffron (Cokhicurn autumnale), Butter-bur (Petasites vulgaris),
Mistletoe (Viscum alburn), Dodder (Cuscuta Trifolii or Epilinum),
Broom-rape (Orobanche minor), Wild Mustard (Sinapis arvensis),
Wucherblume (? Senecio vernalis). These measures are carried
out under police orders, and under penalty of a fine or imprison-
ment in default.

The examination of seeds in respect of purity and germinating
capacity is carried out at experiment and control stations, which
are partly State establishments and partly supported by the
Chambers of Agriculture.

426 APPENDIX III

HUNGARY

The Rural Police Act xii. of 1894 imposes a penalty up to
200 crowns (^8, 6s. 8d.) on any person who offers for sale any
clover or lucerne seed which is not absolutely free from Dodder.
The result of the passing of this law is that seed merchants
prefer to sell seeds which have been examined and bear the
official seal. This seal is affixed to the package after examina-
tion at a Government Seed-testing Station, of which there are
several in the country. The object of these stations is to
exercise control over the trade in seeds and other vegetable
products, and to protect the interests of farmers against fraud
and adulteration ; to make experiments as to germination, &c. ;
and to identify weeds and weed seeds submitted to them. An
Act passed in 1895 imposes penalties to the extent of two
months' imprisonment, or fines up to 600 crowns (^25), on
any one who adulterates agricultural products, or advertises or
sells material for adulterating purposes, or sells adulterated
products, or who sells agricultural products under a false de-
scription. All seeds sold in quantities exceeding 10 kilograms
(22 Ib.) must be sold under a declaration by the seller as to
their real name, variety, and origin, and as to the percentage of
pure seeds and germinating power expressed by one definite
figure. Various regulations govern the " control " or testing of
seeds at the official seed-testing stations.

SWITZERLAND

The Government have established a system whereby firms
of seed merchants, on payment of an annual subscription, can
be registered as maisons controlees. Such firms contract to
deliver to their customers a gratuitous certificate which gives
them the right to have their purchases tested at one of the
Government stations free of charge, and they undertake to
indemnify the purchaser should the seeds fall short of their
description. The guarantee furnished by the " controlled firms "
includes the identity, purity, and germinating capacity of the
seeds, together with absence of adulteration and of the seeds of
noxious weeds. With regard to the latter, the firms especially
guarantee a minimum proportion of authentic and pure seeds

APPENDIX III 427

having a minimum germinating capacity; the absence of Dodder
from seeds of leguminous forage plants, and of Flax Dodder
(Cuscuta Epilinum) from the seeds of flax; and by special
arrangement between the parties the absence of the seeds of
other noxious weeds can be guaranteed. The proportion of
Burnet (Poterium Sanguisorba) in sainfoin seed is also guaran-
teed ; such seed when sold as free from Burnet may be returned
by the purchaser should it contain more than 10 grains of
Burnet per kilogram (2.2 lb.), while the buyer of leguminous seeds
which are found to contain more than 20 grains of Dodder per
kilogram is entitled to an indemnity of 5 per cent on the price.
Similar rules apply to seed found to be adulterated, or to con-
tain seeds of other noxious weeds.

DENMARK

There appear to be no laws in Denmark requiring the destruc-
tion of weeds, but annual grants are made by the State to agri-
cultural societies for the purpose of awarding prizes to members
for weedless fields. Further, the municipal administrations and
the railways are stated to be careful that the roadsides, ditches,
and railway areas are kept free from weeds.

SWEDEN

There is no law in Sweden dealing with the destruction of
weeds, but a Royal Ordinance, dated February 5, 1909, and
taking effect from June i, 1909, provides for the importation
of foreign seeds under certain regulations. The chief point
is that seeds shall, before they are allowed to be imported for
sale, be treated with Eosin ; by this means foreign seeds are
dyed so as to be easily recognisable and distinguishable from
Swedish seeds. (For further information on this Ordinance see
Jour. Bd. Agric., April 1909, p. 53.)

The Government allows an annual sum, for the purpose of
seed inspection and for the supply of pure seeds, to establish-
ments inaugurated and largely maintained by the local bodies.
As long ago as 1876 the Swedish Parliament voted a sum of
.£550 for chemical agricultural stations and offices for the
examination of seeds. At the present time there are some

428 APPENDIX III

twenty-five such offices. In 1887 a similar sum (£$$o) was
contributed for seed offices established by local bodies, not more
than ^55 to be devoted to each office, and regulations were
drawn up for the control of such State-aided stations. In the
last Budget seed offices were granted a similar sum, while a
subsidy of ^1400 was granted to the Swedish Seed Association.

NORWAY

In Norway there appear to be no laws requiring the destruc-
tion of weeds.

NETHERLANDS

There are no laws in the Netherlands requiring the destruc-
tion of weeds. There is, however, a central Government Seed-
testing Station at Wageningen.

SERVIA

Clover seed can only be imported when it has been shown
by expert examination to be pure. Seed grain is inspected
by market committees before sale.

PORTUGAL

No laws requiring the destruction of weeds or the supply of
pure seeds of a suitable germinating capacity are in force in
Portugal.

RUSSIA

There are no laws regarding the destruction of weeds. Seed,
carefully cleaned and sorted, is supplied to agriculturists from
State properties, farms, and institutions, and also from Govern-
ment and " Zemstvo " agricultural stores.

JAPAN
No laws or regulations.

APPENDIX IV

THE VALUE OF BIRDS IN DESTROYING
WEED SEEDS

" You call them thieves and pillagers ; but know

They are the winged wardens of your farms,
Who from the cornfields drive the insidious foe,
And from your harvest keep a hundred harms."

— LONGFELLOW.

THE part played in Nature's economy by " the fowls of the air "
is of a manifold character, although as regards their effect on the
agriculture of the country less is known than may be considered
desirable. In general there are, from the point of view of the
farmer and gardener, birds which are sometimes classed as wholly
harmful, others as distinctly useful, and yet others which lie
between these two extremes. In one way or another, however,
the vast majority of birds may be considered useful, but their
work in destroying weed seeds is the only point which can be
touched on here.

We have already briefly noted the fact (see p. 20) that birds
may be agencies in the distribution of weed seeds, but the harm
done in this way must be inconsiderable when compared with
the useful work done by birds which largely subsist on the seeds
of wild plants. As an example of the aid farmers receive from
birds in this connection, it will be of interest and value to mention
briefly several birds which eat large quantities of weed seeds.

The Chaffinch (Fringilla ccelebs L.) devours innumerable
seeds of weeds, such as Coltsfoot, Groundsel, Chickweed, Char-
lock, Wild Radish, Knotweed, Buttercup. Howard Saunders
says, " Both young and old feed largely on insects and the seeds
of weeds, so that in spite of pilfering of fruit, vegetables, and
newly-sown seeds, the Chaffinch may be considered as one of the
gardener's best friends."

429

430 APPENDIX IV

The Greenfinch (Ligurinus chloris L.) is another seed-
eater, taking large quantities of the seeds of Charlock, Dandelion,
Dock, Corn Mangold, Plantain, Goose Grass, Corn Crowfoot,
Knotweed.

The Bullfinch (Pyrrhula europcea Viel.) also takes the
seeds of many weeds — Self-heal, Mouse-ear Hawkweed, Dock,
Charlock, Great Stinging Nettle, Groundsel, Plantain, Meadow-
sweet, Spear Thistle, Chickweed, Ragwort, Sow Thistle. Of
26 specimens examined by Newstead, " 1 1 contained seeds of
Sycamore; 3, Hawthorn kernels ; i, seeds of Elder; 9, seeds of
Blackberry; 2, seeds of Self-heal; n, seeds of Dock; 3, seeds
of Charlock; 3, seeds of Nettle; 2, Hawkweed; i, fruit buds."
The same authority states that during the months of July, August,
and September this bird subsists very largely on the seeds of
Self-heal, and he has watched it for hours together feeding
exclusively upon the seeds of this noxious weed.

The Linnet (Linota cannabina L.) is a seed-eating bird, and
feeds freely on the seeds of Charlock and other weeds. It is
known to eat the seeds of Self-heal, Dandelion, Dock, and Mouse-
ear Hawkweed. Newstead records an enormous flock of Linnets
feeding on the seeds of Charlock which had practically over-
grown a field of potatoes.

The Goldfinch (Carduelis elegans Stephens) in the mature
state feeds principally on seeds — Thistle, Knapweed, Groundsel,
Dock, and others.

The Skylark (Alauda arvensis L.) eats the seeds of Annual
Meadow Grass, Lychnis sp., Polygonum sp., Chickweed, Plan-
tain, Charlock, and other weeds.

The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus L.) does good
during several months of the year by eating weed seeds, as those
of Charlock, Chickweed, Plantain, Buttercup, Knotgrass, Field
Bindweed, Goosefoot, Dandelion, Dock.

The Yellow- Hammer (Emberiza citrimlla L.) and other
buntings appear to consume many weed seeds, including Knot-
grass, Plantain, Groundsel, Chickweed, Thistle, Dock, and
others.

The Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus L.) does an im-
mense amount of service by eating great quantities of weed
seeds — Charlock, Shepherd's Purse, Corn Crowfoot, Docks,
Goose Grass, Plantain, Knotgrass, Ragweed, Hemlock, and

APPENDIX IV 431

others. It also eats the succulent roots of Silver-weed (see p.
79) and other weeds.

These few birds are merely quoted as examples of those
which devour large quantities of weed seeds. The Pheasant,
Partridge, Corn Crake, Siskin, Red-poll, and Brambling or
Mountain Finch, also do much good in this way. (See also
" The Food of some British Birds," R. Newstead, Jour. Bd.
Agric., Supplement to vol. xv., 1908-9; The Farmer and the
Birds, Edith Carrington, 1898; Manual of British Birds,
Howard Saunders, 1899; anc^ other books on birds.)

APPENDIX V

THE following is a list of British seedsmen who submit samples
to the Zurich Seed Control Station, and have made special
arrangements for the testing of their seeds : —

George G. Bullmore, Newquay, Cornwall.

T. and R. Carlyle, Waterbeck, Ecclefechan.

Samuel MacCausland, Belfast

McClinton & Co., Belfast.

Alex. Cross & Sons, Glasgow.

Dickson & Robinson, Manchester.

John Donaldson & Co., Edinburgh.

William Dods & Son, Haddington.

Durant & Sons, North-Tawton, Devon.

Robert Edgar & Co., Ltd., Edinburgh.

Farmer's Supply Association of Scotland, Leith.

Gordon Woodroffe & Co., London.

James Hunter, Chester.

Peter Lawson & Son, Edinburgh.

W. H. and H. Le May, London.

John Milne & Sons, Montrose.

John Picard & Co., London.

William Power & Co., Waterford.

Raynbird & Co., Basingstoke.

Roughead & Park, Ltd., Haddington.

Fred. Smith & Co., Woodbridge, Suffolk.

Tozer, Kemsley & Fisher, London.

William Watt, Cupar, Fife.

Edward Webb & Sons, Wordsley, Stourbridge.

This list is given solely as showing that many seedsmen
recognise the great importance of seed testing in assisting their

432

APPENDIX V 433

endeavours to supply good, pure seed. Many of the great
merchants are not on this list, for the reason that their seeds
are tested elsewhere, or they are examined by trained men on
the premises. The fact that this list is printed here is not to be
taken to mean that the firms named are recommended before
others, whose seeds may be equally good and have been tested
and approved by competent authorities at other stations.

2 E

INDEX

Achillea Millefolitim, 8, 139. 140, 141,

142, 185, 395
Acidia heraclei, 1 1
Aconite, 5
Aconitine, 278

Acomtum Napelhis, 155, 276, 385
Acrid Buttercup, 39, 152, 279, 385
Adder's Tongue, 408
Adulteration of Seeds Acts (1869 and

1878), 353, 356, 409
^Kgopodium Podagraria, 167, 391
sEthusa Cynapiiim, 24, 83, 298, 392
Agricultural seeds, distribute weed

seeds, 20, 353-362

— value of, reduced by weed seeds,
1 3' 353 -368

Agrimonia Eiipatoria, 165, 391
Agrimony, 165

Agrostemma Githago, 24, 69, 283, 388
Agrostis^., 128, 139, 149, 151,233

— alba, 217, 406
canina, 12, 2 1 8, 406

— Spica-venli 370

stolonifera, 39, 128, 142, 218,

406

— vulgaris, 128, 143, 218, 406
Aira azspitosa, 39, 220, 406
caryophyllea, 370

Jlexuosa, 151, 218, 370, 406

Ajtiga reptans, 141, 200, 400
Alchemiila arvensis, 80, 390

vulgaris, 165, 390

Alga, 323, 343
Alisma Plantago, 335, 403
Alismacecz, 335, 403
All-heal, 329, 392
Alliaria officinalis, 13
A Ilium sp., 13

— oleracenm, 126, 404
ursinum, 211, 404

vineale, 44, 125, 209, 404

Alopecurtis agrestis, 126, 233, 406

Alopecurus genicnlattis, 216, 406

— pratensis, 39, 217
Amenfaceie, 313, 403
American Pond weed, 403

— Weeder, 34, 55
Ammonium salts on grass, 145, 147
Anacharis Alsinastrttm, 332
Anagallis arvensis, 6, 113, 369, 400
Analyses of weeds, 7

Anchitsa arvensis, 106, 397
Anemone nemorosa, 280, 384

— Pulsatilla, 384

Animals distribute weed seeds, 20
Annual Knawel, 75, 233, 388

Meadow Grass, 27, 129, 407

— Mercury, 309, 402

Sow Thistle, 27, 99, 396

Annuals, 2, 18, 31, 35
Anthemis, 13, 47

arvensis, 90, 369, 370, 395

Cotula, 90, 395

Anthriscus sylvestris, 1 68, 369, 370,

392

vulgarts, 39, 168, 392

Aphis rumicis, 10, II
Apium immdatum, 328, 392

nodiflorum, 328, 392

Araliacett, 393

Arctium Lappa, 24, 173, 394

Arenaria serpyllifolia, 71, 369, 370,

388

— tenuifolia, 71, 388
Arnut, 391
Aroidete, 317, 405
Arrhenatherum avenaceum, var. bul-

bosum, 131, 233, 407
Arrow-head, 336, 403
Arsenical sheep-dip as weed killer. 350
Arsenite of soda, spraying with, 40,

44, 262

Arum mactdatum, 173, 405
Ascowycetes, 319

435

436 INDEX

Atriplex hastata^ 122, 401

— patula, 122, 369, 401
Atropa Belladonna, 300, 398
Atropine, 300, 306
Autumn Crocus, 314, 404
Autumnal Hawkbit, 140, 191, 396
Avena fatua, 128, 407

flavescens, 39

pratensis, 407

pubescens, 39, 407

— strigosa, 129
Azalea pontica, 299
Azaleas, 299, 396

BAGGING-HOOK, 38
Bar bar ea vulgaris, 369
Barberry, 10, 12, 155, 385
Barley, blindness of, 12

— grass, meadow, 39, 142, 223, 234,
407

— wild, 12, 40

Bartsia Odontites, 199, 272, 399

— Red, 199, 272, 399

— viscid, 199, 272, 399
viscosa, 199, 272, 399

- Yellow, 199, 272, 399
Beaked Parsley, Common, 39, 147,

168, 392

Bean Aphis, 10, 1 1
Bearbine, 103, 397
Bear's Foot, 385
Bedstraw, Corn, 85, 393

- Water, 393

- Yellow, 172, 393

Bellis perennis, 139, 140, 185, 395
Bent Grass, 128, 139, 142, 151

- Brown, 218, 406

— Common, 145

Creeping, 218

Fine, 218, 406

- Marsh, 39, 217, 406
Bcrberidace&i 155, 385
Berberis vulgaris, I55> 3^5
Beta maritima, 4
Biennials, 18

Bindweed, 4, 6, 13, 24, 34,' 47, 233

Black, n, 14, 47, 116, 401

Field, 102, 397

— Great, 103

- Small, 28, 397
Bishop's Weed, 391

Birds as distributors of weed seeds, 20

— value of, as destroyers of weed
seeds, 429

Bitter Candytuft, 67, 387

Cress, 156, 386

Flax, 158, 388

Bitter-sweet, 302, 398
Black Knapweed, 145, 146

— Nightshade, 108, 304, 398
Blackberry, 164, 390
Blackhead, 175

Bladder Campion, 28, 69, 156, 387

Blue Lupin, 290

Bluestone, 350

Boiling water, to kill weeds on paths,

350

Boraginea, 106, 196, 299, 397
Bowling greens, weeds in, 345
Box, 311, 402

Bracken, 151, 226, 233, 408
Brake Fern, 226, 408
Bramble, 164, 390
Brandy-bottle, 386
Brassica campestris, 386

— oleracea, 4
Rapa, 386

Bristle-pointed Oat, 129
Briza media, 39, 222, 407
Broad Clover, 39
Broad-leaved Dock, 201, 401

- Plantain, 39, 108, 198, 398
Brome Grass, Barren, 223

- Field, 131

- Rye- like, 130, 407

— Smooth, 131

- Soft, 147, 223, 233, 407

— Sterile, 223, 407
Bromus arvensis, 131

— mollis, 223, 407
racemosus, 131

— secalinus, \ 30, 370, 407

— sterilis, 223, 407
Brooklime, 323, 330, 399
Broom, 161, 234, 389
Broom-rape, 13, 24, 233, 263, 264

— Larger, 264

— Lesser, 264, 399
Brushing of hedges and ditches, 33
Bryonia dioica, 13, 167, 293, 391
Bryonin, 294

Bryony, 13, 167,293, 391
Buckthorn, Common, 288, 389
Buckwheat, Climbing, 116, 401
"Buco" hand cultivator, 38
Bugle, 141, 200, 400
Bugloss, 106, 397
Viper's, 106, 397

INDEX

437

Building plots, weeds seeding in, 23

Bulbous Oat-grass, 131

Bulrush, 334, 338, 405

" Bull faces" or " Bull pates," 220

Bunium flexuosum, \ 40

Burdock, II, 24, 173, 394

Burnet, 28, 145, 146

Greater, 165, 391

Salad, 165, 391

Bur-reed, 333, 406
Burrs, 233

Butter tainted by weeds, 209
Butter-bur, 28, 182, 394
Buttercup, II, 27, 28, 139, 141, 146,
152, 233, 278

Acrid, 39, 152, 279, 385

Bulbous, 39, 140, 152, 279, 385

Celery-leaved, 279

Corn, 52, 233, 385

Creeping, 50, 140, 385

Field, 52, 385

Upright, 140

Buxin, 31 1

Buxus sempervirens, 311, 402

CABBAGE ROOT FLY, 1 1
Cake feeding on grass land, 148, 150
Calamintha Acinos, 369
Callitriche autumnalis, 327

verna, 326, 393

Callunavulgaris, 151, 195, 396
Caltha palustris, 323, 325, 385
Camelina saliva, 63, 386
Campanulacea, 195, 396
Campion, Bladder, 28, 69, 156
Evening, 69, 387

Red, 69, 156, 387

White, 26, 69, 156, 387

Canadian Pondweed, 332, 403
Candytuft, Bitter, 67, 387
Cannabacea, 208, 403
Caper Spurge, 124, 309, 402
Capitate Mint, 330, 400

Capsella Btirsa-Pastoris, 10, 24, 27,

63, 369, 370, 387
Carbolic acid, use of, 40, 44, 126,

209, 346, 350

Cardamiite pratensis, 140, 156, 386
Carduus sp., 140
Carex, 12, 140, 323, 369, 370
ampullacea, 339

— paludosa, 339, 405

— pr&cox, 214, 405
riparia, 339

Carex vesicaria, 339

vulgaris, 214, 405

Carnation Grasses, 214
Caryophyllacea, 69, 151,1 56, 283, 387
Castor Oil Plant, 311
Catch crops, 35
Catch-weed, 83
Cat's-ear, 191, 234, 395
Cat's-tail, 228, 408
Celandine, Greater, 282, 385

Lesser, 152, 280, 385

Celastracece, 288, 389
Celery Fly, 1 1

Centaurea Cyanus, 5, 8, 47, 86, 369,
370, 394

nigra, 40, 142, 175, 394

Scabiosa, 177, 394

Cerastium arvense, 69, 388

triviale, 69, 139, 140, 156,

369, 388

Ceratophyllacea, 331, 402
Ceratophyllum denier sum, 331, 402
Cereals, effect of spraying on, 47
Ceutorhynchus sukicollis, 1 1
Chamomile, 13

Corn, 90, 395

Stinking, 90

- Wild, 90, 395
Chara, 323, 340, 408
Characea, 340, 408

Charlock, 10, n, 24, 26, 27,40,46,
58, 233, 283, 386

jointed, 62

losses due to, 59

spraying, 40, 46, 61

vitality of, 59

- White, 7, 62
Chelidonine, 283
Chelidoniiim majus, 282, 385
Chenopodiacece, 119, 401
Chenopodium album, 1 1, 24, 27, 119,

3^9, 370, 401
— sp. 47

Cherry Laurel, 292, 390
Chervil, 168
Chickweed, 24, 27, 28, 70, 233, 388

Narrow-leaved Mouse-ear, 69,

139, 140, 156, 388

Chicory, 4, 28

- Wild, 99, 395
Christmas Rose, 281
Chrysanthemum LcucanthctHUtn, 24,

40, 1 86, 369, 370, 395
rust, 1 2

438 INDEX

Chrysanthemum segetumy 6, 24, 92»

151, 369, 370, 395
Cichorium Intybus, 4, 99, 359, 369,

395

Ctcuta vtrosa, 296, 391
Claviceps purpurea, 10, 12,319, 408
Cleavers, 13, 24, 28, 83, 172, 233,

393

Clematis Vitalba, 13, 151, 384
Gliders, 83

Climbing Buckwheat, 116,401
Clithe, 83
Cliver, 83, 393
Clover, 27, 50

Broad, 39

Dutch, 39

- Red, 48

Clover Dodder, 258, 397
Club-rush, 334, 338, 406
Cnicus sp., n, i 77
acaulis, 178, 394

— arvensts, 27, 47, 86, 180, 369,

370, 394

lanceolatiiS) 178, 394

palustris, 178, 394

"Cocks and Hens," 198

Cock's-comb, 268, 399

Cocksfoot, 39

Codlins and Cream, 166, 391

Colchicine, 316

Colchicum autumnale, 314, 404

Colorado Beetle, 1 1

Coltsfoot, 24, 28, 87, 185, 233, 394

Common Agrimony, 391

- Beaked Parsley, 39, 392

- Bent, 145

— Bugle, 200, 400

- Centaury, 195, 397

— Comfrey, 196, 397

— Cotton Grass, 213, 405
Cow- wheat, 399

— Forget-me-not, 397

— Fumitory, 57, 386

Heather, 195, 396

Lady's Mantle, 165, 390

Mallow, 388

- Poppies, 281, 385

— Rushes, 211, 405
Sedge, 405

Sorrel, 139. 140, 206, 401

— Speedwell, 199 399
Composite, 86, 151, 173, 329, 394
Compost of weeds, 3
Corn/era, 312, 403

Conine, 295

Conium maculatum, 294, 391

Conopodium denudatum, 167, 234,

391

Convallana majahs, 317, 404
Convolvulacecz, 102, 256, 397
Convolvulus sp., 47
arvensis, 6, 13, 24, 102, 116,

397

septtim, 6, 13, 103, 397

Copper sulphate, spraying, 40, 45,

55. 61, 343, 350
Corn Bedstraw, 85, 393
Blue-bottle, 5, 86, 394

— Buttercup, 52, 233

Chamomile, 90, 395

Cockle, 14, 24, 47, 69, 283,

388

— crops suffering from weeds, 9
Feverfew, 395

Cromwell, 107, 397

- Marigold, 6, 24, 28, 41, 92,
151. 233, 234, 395

Mint, 1 10, 400

Pansy, 68, 387

Rose, 385

— Speedwell, 109, 399
Spurrey, 388

- Wound wort, 112, 400
Cornflowers, 5,8, n, 28, 47, 86, 394
Cotton Grass, 213, 405

— Thistle, ii, 179, 394

Couch, 4, 5, 34, 47» *32, 218, 233,
234, 319, 407
Black, 218, 406

Onion, 407

Cow Parsley, 234

Parsnip, 169, 392

Cowbane, 296, 391
Cowslips, 28, 201, 234, 400
Cow-wheat, 272, 399
Crane's-bill, 76

— Cut-leaved, 77, 159, 389

Dove's-foot, 77, 159, 389

Meadow, 159, 389

Crepis taraxacifolia, 396

virens, 363, 370

Creeping Buttercup, 50, 385

— Cinquefoil, 79, 164, 390
rootstocks spread weeds, 21

- Soft Grass, 222, 407
Thistle, 4, 27, 34, 41, 47, 86,

179, 394
Cricket pitches, weeds in, 345

INDEX

439

Crocus, Autumn, 314, 404

Meadow, 314

Crops robbed by weeds of air, food,
heat, light, and moisture, 7

rotation of, 32

Cross-leaved Heath, 195, 396
Crow Garlic, 125, 209, 404
Crowfoot, Bulbous, 140, 152

Celery-leaved, 155, 325, 384

Creeping, 140, 152 .

Tall, 279

Upright, 152

Water, 323, 324, 384, 385

Crow's Needles, 81

Crudferce, IO, 57, 151, 156, 283, 386
Cuckoo Flower, 140, 156, 386

Pint, 317, 405

Cucurbitace^e, 167, 293, 391
Cudweed, Marsh, 96, 187, 395
Cultivation, autumn, 30

hindered by weeds, IO

— prevents weeds, 29

surface, 34

thorough, 33

Cupressus, 313, 403

macrocarpa, 3 1 3

nootkatensis, 313

poisoning, 313

Cuscuta sp., 256, 397

chilensis, 369

Epilinum, 259, 397

Rpithyniuin, 259

— europcea, 259, 369

Gronovii, 259

minor, 259

racemosa, 369

— Trifolii, 258, 359, 369, 397
Cynapine, 299

Cynoglossum officinale, 299. 397
Cynosurus cristatus, 39
Cyperacea, 213, 338, 405
Cypress, 313, 403
Cystopzis candidus, 1 2, 64
Cytisin, 292

Cytisus Laburnum, 292, 389
scoparius, 161, 389

Dactylis glomerata, 39

Daisy, ii; 43, 139, 140, 233, 346

Common, 185, 395

Dog, 1 86

• Grubbers, 38

- Horse, 395
Ox-eye, 24, 28, 40, 186, 234, 395

Dandelion, 5, II, 24, 28, 43, 47, 140,

193, 233, 349? 396
Daphne Laureola, 308, 401

Mezereum, 308, 401

Darnel, 319. 407

Datura Stramonium, 305 5 39&

Daucus Carota, 24, 170, 359, 369,

392

Day Nettle, 400
Deadly Nightshade, 5, 300, 398
Delphine, 280
Delphinium Ajacis, 280, 385

staphisagria, 280

Desmids, 323, 343
Destruction of weeds, 29
Devil's Bit, 173, 393

Paint-brush, 194

Diamond-back Moth, IO, n

Diatoms, 323

Digitalin, 308

Digitalis purptirea, 151, 307, 398

Dipsacece, 172, 393

Dtpsactis Fullonum, 172

sylvestris, 172, 393

Distribution of weeds, 18
Distributors of weed seeds : —

Agricultural seeds, 20

Animals, 20

Birds, 20

Building plots, 23

Creeping rootstocks, 2 1

Dung-heap, 21

Floods, 19

Hay-loft sweepings, 21

Mice, 20

Rain, 19

Rivers, 19

Screenings, 33

Squirrels, 20-

Streams, 19

Waste corners, 22

Wind, 19
Dock, 10. 11, 12, 27, 32, 43, 47, 118,

201,233,349

Bloody-veined, 401

Common or Broad-leaved, 201,

401

— Curled, 140, 201, 401
— Great Water, 401

Sour, 139, 140

Dodder, 13, 14, 24, 40, 233, 256, 359,

362

Clover, 258, 397

Flax, 259, 397

440 INDEX

Dodder, Lesser, 259
Dog Daisy, 186

— Rose, 166, 391
Dog's Mercury, 309, 402
Dogstail, 39

Doryphora decemlineata, 1 1
Downy Oat-grass, 39, 145, 407
Draining, 39, 151

Drains stopped by weeds, 14

Drives, weeds in, 349

Duckweed, 334, 405

Dung-heap as distributor of weeds, 21

Dutch Clover, 39

Dwale, 300, 398

Dwarf Spurge, 124, 402

— Thistle, 394

Dyer's Green-weed, 28, 159, 234,
389

EARTH-NUT, 140, 167, 391
Echium vulgare, 106, 369, 397
Eel worms, 10
Elodea, 327

— canadensis, 332> 4O3
Ephemerals, 18

E pick Ice typhina, 1 2
Epilobitfm hirsutum, 166, 391

parviflorwn, 1 66, 39 *

EqtdsetacecB, 136, 228, 340, 408
Equisetum arvense, 136, 228, 408

— limosuni) 323, 340, 408

— palustre^ 229

Ergot of rye, 10, 12, 319, 408
Erica sp., 151

Tetralix, 195, 396

Eric ace CB, 195, 299, 396
Eriophorum angusftfoliuni, 213, 405

— vaginatum, 213, 405
Erythrcca Centaurium, 195, 397
Euonymin, 288

Euonymus eitropceus, 288, 389
Eupatorium cannabinum, 329, 394
Euphorbia sp., 47

exigua, 124, 402

Helioscopid) 124, 402

— Lathyris, 1 24, 309, 402
Oil of, 309, 311

Pephts, 124, 402

EuphorbiacecB, 123, 309, 402
Euphorbin, 31 1
Euphrasia Odontites, 272

- officinalis, 13, 271, 369, 370,

399.
Experiments on grass, 144, 149

Experiments on pastures, 141
Eyebright, 13, 271, 399

FAGGING-HOOK, 38

Fairy Rings, 231, 345, 347, 408

Fallowing to destroy weeds, 34

False Oat-grass, 147

Farmyard manure on grass land, 148,

ISO
Fat Hen, 10, n, 12, 24, 119, 233,

401

" Fern," 151, 226
Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act,

1893. 354

Festuca my urns, 37°
Field Bindweed, 102, 397

— Brome Grass, 131

- Buttercup, 52, 385

Forget-me-not, 107, 397

Garlic, 126, 404

Gentian, 196, 397

Lady's Mantle, 80, 390

Madder, 85, 393

— Meadow Grass, 39

Mint, 110,400

Pepperwort, 65, 387

- Scabious, 172, 177, 393, 394

— Wood -rush, 140
Figwort, Knotted, 329, 399
— ^- Marsh, 329, 398
Filices, 226, 408
Finger-and-toe, 10, n
Fiorin, 142, 217, 406

Fishing, influence of weeds on, 341

Flag Iris, 333

Flea Beetles. 10

Floating Foxtail, 216, 406

Floods as distributors of weed seeds,

19

— caused by water weeds, 322
Foal's-foot, 87, 394

Fool's Parsley, 24, 83, 298, 392
Forget-me-not, 397

-- Field, 107, 397
Foxglove, 5, 151, 307, 39^
Foxtail, Floating, 216, 406

— Slender or Field, 126, 406
Frit Fly, 11

Frost destroys weeds, 34
Fruit-trees, moss on, 351
Fumaria, 229, 408
F^lmaria officinalis, 57, 369, 386
Ftunariacece, 57» 3^6
Fumitory, 47, 233

INDEX

44

Fumitory, Common, 57, 3^6
Fungi, 231, 319, 408

harboured by weeds, lo

Furze, 161, 389

Galeopsis Tetrahit, 112, 400

versicolor, 1 12

Galittm Aparine, 24, 83, 369, 370,

393

pahistre, 393

tricorne, 85, 393

- verum, 172, 393
Garden Nightshade, 108
Garlic, Broad -leaved, 211, 404

Crow, 125, 209, 404

Field, 126, 404

• sp., 13

Garlic Mustard, TO, 13, 58, 386
Genista tinctoria, 159, 389
Gentiana campestris, 196, 397
Gentianaceez, 195? 397
Geraniacece, 76, 159, 389
Geranium, 76

— dissectum, 77, 1 59, 369, 37O, 389
molle, 77, :59. 369, 389

— pratense, 159, 389

— piissilum, 369, 370

Robertianum, 78, 159, 389

Germander Speedwell, 140, 199, 399

Geum urbanum, 164, 390

Ghost Moth, 1 1

Githagin, 287

Gnaphalium tiliginosum, 96, 187,

395

Goat's-beard, 191, 395
Goat- weed, 167
Gold of Pleasure, 63, 386
Gooseberry-leaf Cluster-cups, 12
Goosefoot, 10, u, 12, 24, 27, 28,

119, 401
Goose Grass, 78, 83, 172, 390, 393

Tongue, 140

Gorse, 161, 234, 389
Goutweed, 167, 391
GraminecB, 126, 214, 319, 339, 406
Grass land, ammonium salts on, 145

— cake feeding on, 148

composition of herbage, 138

drainage of, 151

— experiments on, 139, 149

— farming and manures on, 144,
148

— lime on old, 149

— nitrate of soda on, 145

Grass land, phosphates on, 143
Great Burnet, 165, 391

— Celandine, 282

— Knapweed, 177

— Ragweed, 40

Water-dock, 331, 401

Willow Herb, 166, 391

Green Hellebore, 280, 385

manure, weeds as, 2

manuring, 36

Grey Millet, 107, 397
Grip-grass, 83

Groundsel, 5, 12, 24, 27, 28, 47,96,
233, 349, 395

HAIR GRASS, Tufted, 143, 220, 406

Wavy, 151, 218, 406

Halberd-leaved Orache, 122, 401

Haloragea, 326, 393

Haltica sp., 10

Hand-power machine, 341

Hardback, 175

Hardheads, 175, 394

Hare's-tail Cotton Grass, 213, 405

Hariff, 83, 393

Harrowing, 33

Harvesting hampered by weeds, 1 5

Hassock Grass, 39, 220, 233

Havers, 128

Hawkbit, 139, 145, 146

Autumnal, 140, 191, 396

Rough, 140, 191, 395

Hawk's-beard, 396
Hawkweed, 12, 233
Mouse-ear, 194, 396

Orange, 194, 396

Hay-loft sweepings spread weeds, 21
Heart's-ease, 68, 387
Heaths, 151

Common, 195, 396

Cross-leaved, 195, 396

Hedera Helix, 13, 352, 393
Hedge Mustard, n, 58, 386
Parsley, 82, 392

— Parsley, Upright, 171
Hedges and ditches, brushing of, 33
Hellebores, 155, 280, 281
Helleborin, 281
Hellebortis sp., 155
—fatidus, 280, 385

niger, 281

viridis, 280, 385

Helminthosporium gramineum, 12
Hemlock, 294, 391

442

INDEX

Hemp-Agrimony, 329, 394

Hemp Nettle, 112, 233, 400

Henbane, n, 302, 398

Henbit, 113, 400

Henfoot, 392

Hepatic Cirrhosis caused by Rag-
weed, 187

Hepialus lupuli, 1 1

Her ac leu HI Sphondylium, 169, 392

Herb Benet, 164, 390

Gerard, 167, 233, 391

Paris, 3 1 7, 404

Robert, 78, 159, 389

Hieracium, 12, 233

aurantiacum, 194, 396

— Pilosella, 194, 396

Hippuris vulgaris, 326, 393

Hoeing, 33

Hogweed, 116, 169, 392

Holcus lanatus, 139, 151, 220, 233,
407

mollis, 222, 233, 407

Honeysuckle, 13

Hops, ii, 403

Wild, 208

Hordeum murinum, 12, 226, 407

pratense, 39, 223, 407

Horn wort, 331, 402

Horse Daisy, 395

Horse-penny, 268

Horse-tail, 28, 47, 136, 228, 233,
340, 408

Hound's Tongue, 299, 397

Huckleberry, 305

Humulus LupuluS) 208, 403

HydrocharidacecB, 332, 403

Hydrochloric acid, 350, 351

Hydrocotyle vulgaris, 167, 391

Ilyoscyamine, 302, 306

Hyoscyamus niger, 302, 369, 398

Hypnum, 229, 408

Hypochceris radicata, 191, 370, 395

Iberis amara, 67, 387

IllecebracecB, 75, 388

Implements for destroying weeds, 30,

34, 36-39, ^o, 341-3
Indian Peas, 289

Tares, 289, 390

Insects harboured by weeds, 10

Iridacea, 333, 403

Iris Pseud-acorns, 333, 403

Iron sulphate, use of, 40, 45, 55, 61,

262, 347, 348, 350

Irrigation against Bracken, 227

— against weeds, 39
Ivy, 13, 352, 393
Ivy-leaved Duckweed, 405
Speedwell, 109, 399

JACK-BY-THE-HEDGE, 10, 58, 386
Jasione montana, 195, 396
"Java" Beans, 290, 390
Jimson Weed, 305
Juncacece, 211, 405
Juncus, 323
conglomerates ) 211

— effnsus, 211, 405

— glaucus, 211

KAINIT, 148, 149

Kedlock, 5<, 386

Kex, 392

Knapweed, 40, 142, 145, 146, 175,

233.394

Great, 177

Knautia arvensis, 369, 370
Knawel, Annual, 75, 233, 388
Knot Oat-grass, 1 3 1
Knotgrass, 28, 47, 115, 401
Knotted Figwort, 329, 399
Knotweed, 116, 233

Labiates, no, 199, 330, 400
Laburnum, 292, 389
Lady's iMantle, 80, 165, 390

- Smock, 28, 156, 386
Lamb's Quarter, 40, 119, 401

Tongue, 198, 398

Laniium album, 113, 400

amplexicaule, 113, 400

purpureum, 112, 400

Lapsana communis,?)"], 369, 370, 395
Larkspur, 280, 385
Lathrcea squamaria, 273, 399
Lawn sands, 41, 345

— weeds, 345

poisoning of, 346

Lathy 'rus, 289, 390

Aphaca, 289

sativus, 289

Legislation enforcing destruction of

weeds, &c. : —
Argentina, 424
Australasia, 418

New South Wales, 419
New Zealand, 419
Queensland, 420
S. Australia, 419

INDEX

443

Legislation enforcing destruction of
weeds, &c. (continued] —

Tasmania, 420

Victoria, 418

W. Australia, 419
Belgium, 425
Canada, 413

Alberta, 418

British Columbia, 416

Manitoba, 415

N. W. Territories, 416

Ontario, 415

Prince Edward Island, 418

Quebec, 417

Saskatchewan, 417
Denmark, 427
France, 424
Germany, 425
Hungary, 426
Italy, 425
Japan, 428
Netherlands, 428
Norway, 428
Portugal, 428
Russia, 428
Servia, 428
South Africa, 420

Cape Colony, 420

Natal, 421

Orange River Colony, 421

Transvaal, 421
Sweden, 427
Switzerland, 426
United Kingdom, 409

Ireland, 41 1

Isle of Man, 412
United States of America, 422
Leguminosts, 159, 289, 389
Letnna minor, 334, 405

— polyrhiza, 335, 405

trisulca, 335, 405

LemnacecB, 334, 405
Leontodon sp., 139, 141

— autumnalis, 140, 191, 370, 396

hispidus, 140, 191, 395

Taraxacum , 193

Lepidium campestre, 65, 369, 387

— Draba, 66, 387
Lesser Broom -rape, 264, 399

Celandine, 152, 280

Duckweed, 334, 405

Spearwort, 155, 279, 325, 384

— Willow Herb, 166, 391
Lichen, 351

LiliacecB, 125, 209, 314, 404

Lily-of-the-Valley, 317, 404

Lime, use against weeds, 74, 147,

149, 151, 227, 347, 348
Liming of old grass land, 149
.Linaria arvents, 369

minor, 47

officinalis, 369

spuria, 369

vulgaris, 109, 398

Linece, 158, 388

Ling, 151, 195, 396

Linum catharticum, 158, 388

Lithospermum arvense, 107, 397

Lolium perenne, 39, 319

temulentum, 319, 370, 407

Lonicera Periclymenuw, 13
Loranthacecs, 274, 402
Lords and Ladies, 317, 405
Losses due to weeds : —

Barley, 16

Charlock, 59

Hay, 1 6

Mangold, 16

Money, 15

Potatoes, 1 6
Lotus corniculatus, 369

major, 369

Lousewort, 1 3, 272, 399

Lucerne, growth of, to combat weeds,

30

Lupinotoxine, 290
Lupins, 289, 390
Lupimis, 289. 390

angustifolius •, 290

luteus, 290

Luzula campestris, 140, 213, 405

multijlora, 213

Lychnis diurna, 69, 156, 387

Flos-cuculi, 156/370, 387

vespertina, 26, 69, 156, 387

Lycoperdon polymorphnm, 348, 408

MADDER, Field, 85, 393
Magnesia, 145

Maize, growth of, to combat weeds, 30
Mallow, Common, 158, 388
Malvasylvcstris, 158, 388 '
Malvacece, 158, 388
Mangold Fly, 1 1
Manures, artificial, 146

effect on grass land, 144, 148

nitrogenous, 42

Manorial value of weeds, 3

444

INDEX

Manuring, 41

Mare's-tail, 228, 326, 393, 408
Marsh Bent-grass, 39, 217, 406
Cudweed, 96, 187, 395

- Figwort, 329, 398

- Marigold, 323, 325, 385
Pennywort, 167, 391

— Red Rattle, 399
-Thistle, 178, 394

— Wound wort, 330, 400
Marshwort, 328, 392
Matfellon, 177
Mat-grass, 216
Matricaria Chamomilla, 90, 395

inodora, 24, 92, 369, 395

sp., 47

Mattock, 38

Mat- weed, 216, 406

Mayweed, 233

Scentless, 24, 92, 395

- Stinking, 90, 234, 395
Meadow Barley-grass, 39, 142, 223,
234, 407

— Crane's-bill, 159, 389
Crocus, 314

Grass, Annual, 27, 129, 407

Rue, 152, 384

-Saffron, 5, 233, 314, 404
Meadow-sweet, 28, 163, 390
Melampyrum arvense, 14

pratense, 272, 399

Meld- weed, 119
Melilotus alba, 369

officinalis, 369

Mentha aquatica, 330, 400

arvensiS) 1 10, 400

Merchandise Marks Act, 362
Mercurialine, "309
Mercurialis annua, 309, 402

perennis, 309, 402

Mezereon, 308, 401

Mice distribute weed seeds, 20

Milfoil, 140, 185, 395

Water, 327, 393

Milk tainted by weeds, 13, 154, 209,

211
Mineral manures, use against weeds,

42, 145, 147
Mint, Capitate, 330, 400

— Corn, no, 400

Field, 1 10, 400

Water, 323

-Wild, 233
Mistletoe, 274, 402

Mithridate Mustard, 66, 387
Moisture, loss due to weeds, 7, 9
Molinia ccerttlea, 370
Molteno Cattle Sickness caused by

Senecio, 189

Money losses due to weeds, 1 5
Monkshood, 155, 276, 385
Morning Glory, 104
Morphine, 281
Moss, 28, 151, 229, 233, 347,408

— on fruit-trees, 351
Motor punt weed -cutter, 343
Mountain Flax, 233

Mouse-ear Chickweed, 69, 139, 140,
156, 388

— Hawkweed, 194, 396
Mousetail, 50, 384
Mowing, 36

Mugwort, 233

Mummy wheat, 25

Musci, 229, 408

Mustard, Garlic, 10, 13, 58, 386

Hedge, 11, 58, 386

Mithridate, 66, 387

Wild, 58, 386

Myosotis arvensis, 107, 397

palustris, 397

versicolor, 107, 397

Myosurus minimus, 50, 384
Myriophyllum alterniflorum, 327,339

— verticillatum, 328, 393

NaiadacecB, 33^, 404

Naked Ladies, 314

Nardus strict a, 216, 370, 406

Navew, 386

Needles, 81, 392

Nettle, 233

- Day, 400

- Hemp, 112, 233, 400

- Henbit Dead, 113, 400

Red Dead, 112, 400

Stinging, 28, 41, 44, 207

Great, 124, 207, 402

Small, 125, 402

— White Dead, 113, 400
Nightshade, 1 1

Black or Garden, 108, 304, 398

- Deadly, 5, 300, 398

Woody, 302, 398

Nipplewort, 97, 395
Nitella, 323, 340, 408

Nitrate of soda on grass, 145, 147,
148, 149

INDEX

445

Nitrates, retention of, in soil by I

weeds, 2

Nitrogen in pastures, 143
Nitrogenous manures favour weeds,

42

Nuphar luteum, 325, 386
NymphceacecB, 325, 386
Nymphcea alba, 326, 386

OAK, 313, 403

Oat Grass, Bulbous, 131

Downy, 39, 145, 4°7

False, 147

Narrow-leaved, 407

Wild, 128, 233, 407

— Yellow, 39
Oats, blindness of, 1 2

Bristle-pointed, 129

Wild, 233

CEnanthe crocata, 296, 392
OZnanthin, 298

Oil of Euphorbia, 309, 311

Old Man's Beard, 151, 384

Onagracece, 166, 391

" Onion " Couch, 407

Onion, Wild, 40, 44, 125, 209, 404

Ononis repens, 163

spinosa, 163, 389

Onopordon Acanthium, u, 182, 394 '
Ophioglossum vulgat^lm, 408
Orache, Halberd-leaved, 122,401

Spreading, 122, 401

Orange Hawkweed, 194, 396
Orchards, weeds in, 136
Orchidacece, 208, 403
Orchis macuZata, 208, 403
mascula, 208, 403

— Purple, 208, 403

Spotted, 208, 403

Orobanchacecs , 263, 399
Orobanche, 263, 399

— minor, 264, 399
ramosa, 264

— Rapum-genistcB, 264
Oscinis frit, 1 1

Oxalis Ascetosella, 389

Ox-eye Daisy, 24, 28, 40, 186, 234,

395
Yellow, 92

PADDOCK-PIPES, 228, 408
Papaver Argemone, 53

— dubium, 24, 53, 369, 385

— hybridum, 53

Papaver Rhceas, 24, 53, 281, 369, 385

somniferum, 53, 281

Papaver ace CB, 53, 281, 385
Paper, tarred, use of, 41
Paradin, 317
Parasitic weeds, 12, 256
Paris quadrifolia, 3 1 7, 404
Parsley, Common Beaked, 39, 147,
392

Cow, 234

Fool's, 24, 83, 298, 392

— Hedge, 82, 392

— Upright Hedge, 171
Parsley Piert, 80, 390
Parti-coloured Scorpion Grass, 107
Pasque Flower, 384

Pastures, experiments on, 141

nitrogen in, 143

Paths, weeds in, 349
Pearl-grass, 131
Peas, 48
Pedicularis, 13

— palustris, 272, 323, 399

sylvatica, 272

Pegomyia beta, 1 1
Pepperwort, 66, 233, 387
Field, 65, 387

Penny Cress, 40, 66, 387
Perennial Ryegrass, 39

Sow Thistle, 47, 101, 396

Perennials, 18, 35
Periderniium pini, 12
Peronospora effusa, 12

parasitica, 1 1

Persicaria, 7, 8, 27, 47, 114, 401

Petasites vulgaris, 1 79, 394

Pdroselinum, 234

Petty Spurge, 124, 402

Phaseolunatin, 291

Phaseolus lunatus, 290, 390

Phorbia brassicce, 1 1

Phosphates, influence on grass, 143

Phosphoric acid, 145

Phragmites coinmunis, 323, 339, 407

Phyttotreta (Haltica) nemorum, 1 1

Pictou Cattle Disease caused by

Ragwort, 187
Pig-nut, 234, 391
Pig- weed, 119
Pilewort, 152, 385
Pimpernel, Scarlet, 6, 113, 400
Pine Cluster-cups, 12
Plankton, 323
Plantaginece, 108, 196, 398

446 INDEX

Planlago lanceolata, 24, 39, 108,
139, 140, 141, 196, 359, 369,
370, 398

major i 108, 198, 398

media, 39, 198, 398

sp., 27, 196

Plantain, II, 27, 43, 140, 146, 196,
233, 346, 349

Broad-leaved, 39, 108, 198,

398

Greater, 198, 398

Hoary, 198, 398

Narrow-leaved, 2A

Ribwort, 39, 108^196, 398

-Water, 335, 403

Plasmodiophora brassicce, I o, 1 1

Ploughing, 33, 41

Plutella mactilipennis, 10, n

Poa annua, 11, 27, 129, 233, 346,

349, 407

pratensis, 39

trii'ialis, 39

Poisonous weeds, 13, 276
PolygonacecB, 114, 201, 308, 331,

401
Polygonum Aviculare, 47, 115, 369,

401
Convolvulus, ii, 13, 47, 116,

369, 401

lapathifolium, 369, 370

Persicaria, 8, 27, 114, 369,

401
Pond weed, 336, 403, 404

Canadian, 332, 403

— Curly, 404

Floating, 404

Lucid, 404

Opposite-leaved, 404

• Small, 404

- Various-leaved, 404
Poor- Man's Weather-Glass, 113, 400
Poppies, spraying of, 47
Poppy, 5, 24, 233

Common Red, 53, 281

Scarlet, 385

Destroyer, 3J, 55

Long Smooth-headed, 53, 385

— Opium, 53, 281

Shirley, 5

Potamogeton, 323, 336

crispus, 338, 404

densus, 338, 404

heterophyllus , 336, 404

lucens, 338, 404

Potamogeton natans, 336, 404
perfoliatus •, 338, 404

— polygonifolius, 336, 404

pitsillus, 338, 404

Potash, 145, 146
Potatoes, 48, 307

Potentilla Anserina, 78, 140, 390

— reptans, 79, 164, 390

— Tormentilla, 165, 390
Polerium officinale, 165, 391

Sanguisorba, 165, 391

Poverty weed, 186
Prevention of seeding, 30
of weeds, 29

Prickly Saltwort, n
Prinnda vert's, 201, 400
Primulacece, 113, 201, 400
Prunella alba, 359

— vulgaris, 139, 140, 199, 369,
370, 400

Prunus laurocerasus , 292, 390
Pteris aquilina, 151, 226, 408
Pttccina graminis, 10, 12, 155

hieracii, 12

pringsheimiana, 1 2

Puff-ball, 348
Purging Flax, 158, 388
Purple Orchis, 208, 403

QUACK, 132

Quaking Grass, 28, 39, 146, 222,

407
Quality of soils indicated by weeds,

27

Queen of the Meadow, 163, 390
Quercus, 313

— Kobur, 403

RAGGED ROBIN, 28, 156, 387

Ragweed. See Ragwort

Ragwort, 6, 12, 28,40,42, 150, 187,

189, 23?, 395

Rain as distributor of weed seeds, 19
Ramsons, 211, 404
RanuncnlacecB, 50, 151, 276, 324,

384
Ranunculus acrts, 13, 39, 140, 141,

i52» 279, 369, 370, 385
aqnatilis, 385

- arvensis, 52, 280, 385

bulbosus, 39, 140, 152, 279, 385

— Ficaria, 152, 280, 385
Flammula, 155, 279, 323, 325,

INDEX

447

Ranunculus fli titans, 325, 384

hehrophyllus , 324

Lingua, 325, 384

peltatus, 325, 384

repens, 27, 50, 140, 152,280,

369, 370, 385

sceleratus, 155, 279, 325, 384

sp., 13°, 152

trichophyllus, 325

Raphanus microcarpus, 62, 387

Raphanistrum, 8, 46, 62, 387

sativus, var. oleifer, 62, 387

Rattles or Rattle Grass, 268, 399
Reapers, seed-catching box for, 30
Red Bartsia, 19 \ 272, 399

Campion, 69, 156, 387

Dead Nettle, 112, 400

Rattle, 272

— Robin, 116

Redshank, 8, 47, 114, 233, 401
Reed, 339, 407
Reed fungus, 12

Grass, 323

Reed-mace, 334, 406

Remedial measures, 33

Reseda lutea, 369

Rest Harrow, 28, 163, 233, 389

Rhamnea, 288, 389

Rhamnns catharticus, 288, 389

Rhinanthine, 269

Rhinanthus Crista-galli, 13, 140,

268, 399

Rhizoctonia violacea, 12
Rhododendron, 299, 396

Chrysanthemum, 299

ferrugineiim, 299

hirsutum, 299

ponticiim, 299

Rhoeadine, 281

Ribgrass, 139, 140,141,142, 196,398

Ribwort Plantain, 39, 108, 139, 140,

149, 196, 398
Ricinus comimmis, 311
Rivers distribute weed seeds, 19
Rootstocks creeping, weeds spread

by, 21

Rosa canina, 1 66, 391
Rosacea, 78, 151, 163, 292, 390
Rose, Dog, 1 66, 391
Rosellinia necatrix, 10, 12

— radiciperda, 12
Rotation of crops, 32
Rothamsted Experiments on the

manuring of grass land, 144

Rough Hawkbit, 140, 191, 395

— Meadow Grass, 39
Rubiacece, 83, 172, 393
Rubus fwclicosus, 164, 390
Riimex, ii, 27, 1 1 8, 140

Acetosa, 139, 140, 141, 151,

206, 360, 370, 401
Acetosella, 119, 151, 204, 308,

369, 370,401
aquaticus, 203

— crispus, 201, 369, 370, 401

Hydrolapathum, 331, 401

obtusifolius, 20 1, 401

pratensfs* 203

sanguineus, 203, 401

Runch, 62, 233

Rushes, 4, 28, 150, 211, 233, 323,
405

Wood, 212, 405

Rust of wheat, 10, 12

Ryegrass, 50

Rye-like Brome Grass, 130, 407

SAFFRON, Meadow, 5, 233, 314, 404
Sagiitaria sagiltifolia, 336, 4° 3
Sainfoin, growth of,to combat weeds,

30

Salad Burnet, 165, 391
Salsola Kali, 1 1
Salt, use of, 40, 44, 268, 271, 346,

349
Sandwort, 71, 388

- Thyme-leaved, 71, 388
Saponin, 287
Sapotoxin, 287
Sauce-alone, 58, 386
Scabiosa arvensis, 172, 393

Columbaria, 393

— succisa, 173. 393
Scabious, Devil's-bit, 173, 393
Field, 177, 233, 393, 394

— Sheep's, I95» 233, 396
Small, 393

Scandix Pecten- Veneris, 81, 392
Scarlet Pimpernel, 6, 113, 400
Scentless Mayweed, 24, 92, 395
Scirpus lacustris, 323, 338, 405

Tabernamontani, 323, 339

Scleranthiis annuus, 76, 369, 370,

388

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, 12
Sclerotium disease, 12
Scorpion Grass, Parti-coloured, 107,

397

INDEX

Screenings, weed seeds in, 33
Scrophularia aquatica, 329, 398

nodosa, 329, 399

ScrophulariacecB, 109, 199, 268, 307,

329, 398
Scutch, 132

Scutellaria galericula'a, 330, 400
Sedges, 4, 12, 28, 140, 214, 233, 339,

405
Seed testing, 353

for farmers, 363

germinating test, 365

importance of, 358

purity test, 365

stations, 353

— taking of samples, 364
Seed-catching box for reapers, 30
Seeding, prevention of, 30

Seeds produced by various weeds, 23

sowing of bad, 144

— clean, 31

— true value of, 367
vitality of, 23

Self-heal, 159, 140, 199, 233, 400
Senebiera Coronoptts, 68, 387
Senecio Jacobaa, 6, 40, 187, 395

latifolius, 189

vulgaris, 24, 27, 96, 395

Sheep destroy weeds, 36, 40, 1 50, 189

Sheep-dip as weed killer, 350

Sheep's Bit, 396

Shepherd's Needle, 81, 392

Purse, 10, n, 12, 24, 27, 40,

63. 233, 349, 387
Sherardia arvensis, 85, 369, 393
Shirley Poppies, 5
Silenc inflata, 69, 157, 369, 387
Silver-weed, 28, 78, 140, 234, 390
Sinapis arvensis, 10, II, 24, 27, 58,

283, 386

" Singling" of cultivated crops, 6, 10
Sisymbrium Alliaria, 10, 58, 386
ojficinale, 58, 369, 386

— Thaliana, 47

Shim angustifolium, 328, 391

latifolium, 391

Skellock, 58, 386

Skull-cap, 330, 400

Slender Foxtail, 126, 406

Slime, 343

Small-flowered Hairy Willow Herb,

1 66, 391

Small Toadflax, 47
Smilacin, 287

Smooth Brome Grass, 1 3 1
Soda, for killing weeds, 39, 349
Sodium arsenite, 44, 262
Soft Brome Grass, 147, 223, 233, 407
Soils, quality of, indicated by weeds,
27

— weeds of damp, 28

— good, 28

— poor, 28

Solanacea, io3, 300, 398
Solanine, 304, 307

Solatium Dulcatnai a, 300, 302, 398
guineense, 305

— nigruni, 108, 304, 398
tuberosum, 307

villosum, 305

Sonchus arvensis, 24» 47? 101, 396

— asper, 369

— oleraceus, 8, 1 1, 27, 99, 369, 396

— sp., 140

Sorrel, 12, 146, 147, 233

— Common. 139, 140, 151, 206,
401

Sheep's, 28, 41, 119, 151, 204,

308, 401

- Wood, 389

Sour Dock, 139, 140, 206

Sourock, 206

Sow Thistle, 7, 8, u, 24, 28, 140

— Annual, 27, 99, 396
Corn, 101, 396

- Perennial, 47, 101, 396
Sowing of bad seed, 144

— of clean seed, 31
Space taken up by weeds, 6
Sparganium ramosum, 333,406

— simplex, 334, 406
Spear Thistle, 178, 394
Spearwort, 325, 384
Greater, 325, 384

- Lesser, 155, 279, 325, 384
Speedwell, Corn, 109, 233, 399

— Common or Germander, 140,

iP9> 339
Ivy-leaved, 109, 399

- Water, 330, 399
Spergula arvensis, 8, 71, 151, 388
Sphagnum, 229. 408

Spindle Tree, 288, 389
Spircea Ulmaria, 163, 390
Spotted Orchis, 208, 403
Spraying —

Anthemis sp., 47

Bindweeds, 47

INDEX

449

Spraying (continued} —
. Charlock, 40, 46, 61

Chenopodiiim sp., 47

Corn Cockle, 47

Cornflower, 47

Couch, 47

Creeping Thistle, 47
I Daisies, 43

Dandelion, 47, 193

Docks, 47

Dodder, 40, 262

Effect on cereals, 47

Euphorbia sp., 47

Fumitory, 47

Great Ragweed, 40

Groundsel, 47

Horse-tail, 47

Knotgrass, 47

Lamb's Quarter, 40

Lawns, 43

Lichens, 351

Matricaria, 47

Moss, on fruit-trees, 381

Penny Cress', 40

Perennial Sow Thistle, 47

Plantains, 43

Poppies, 47, 55

Shepherd's Purse, 40

Sisymbriuw Thaliana, 47

Small Toadflax, 47

Spurrey, 47, 74

Wild Barley, 40
— Buckwheat, 40

Onion, 40, 44, 126, 209

- Radish, 46, 62
— • Rose, 40
Spraying with ammonium sulphate,

4ii 43

with arsenite of soda, 40, 44,

262

with carbolic acid, 40, 126, 209

with copper sulphate, 40, 45,

55, 61, 74

with iron sulphate, 40, 45, 55,

61, 262

with salt, 40, 44

Spreading Orache, 122, 401
Spudding, 36
Spurge Laurel, 308, 401
Spurges, 47

Caper, 124, 309, 402

Dwarf, 124, 402

Petty, 124, 402

Sun, 124, 402

Spurrey, 5, 7, 8, u, 28, 41, 47, 71,

i5I,233, 388

Squirrels distribute weed seeds, 20
Squitch, 132, 218
Stachys arvensis, 1 12, 369, 400

palustris, 330, 400

Starch wort, 318

Stellaria graminea, 369, 370

- media, 24, 27, 70, 369, 370, 388
Stem eelworm, 10, II

Stemless Thistle, 178, 394
Sterile Brome Grass, 28, 223, 407
Stinking Chamomile, 90
— Hellebore, 280, 385

- Mayweed, 90, 234, 395
Stinkweed, 67

Stonework, weeds and moss on, 351

Stonewort, 340, 408

Streams distribute weed seeds, 19

Succory, 99

Sulphate of ammonia, 41, 149, 345,

346
of copper, 40, 47, 55, 61, 343,

350
of iron, 40, 47, 55, 61, 347, 348,

350

Sulphuric acid, 346, 350
Sun Spurge, 124, 402
Superphosphate, 146, 148, 149
Surface Twitch, 116
Swans keep down water weeds, 343
Sweepings spread weed seeds, 21
Sweet Vernal, 224
Swine's Cress, 68, 387
Symphytum officinale, 196, 397

Tanacetum vulgare, 95, 395

Tansy, 95, 395

Taraxacum officinale, u, 24, 140,

193, 396
Tares, 14

Tarred paper, use of, 4 1
Taxine, 312

Taxus baccata^ 312, 403
Teazle, Fuller's, 172

Wild, 172, 393

Thale Cress, 233
Thalictrumflavum, 152, 384
Thistle Cutter, 36, 150
Thistle, Cotton, n, 179, 394
Creeping, 4, 27, 34, 41, 86,

179, 394

Dwarf, 394

Marsh, 178, 394

2 F

450

INDEX

Thistle, Sow, 7, 8, n, 24, 27, 28,
140, 396

Spear, 178, 394

Stemless, 178, 394

Thistles, i i, 28, 140, 150, 177, 233

Thlaspi arvense, 66, 369, 387

Thorn Apple, 305, 398

Thrashing machines, cleansing of, 33

Thyinelacea, 308, 401

Thyme-leaved Sandwort, 71, 388

Tillage promoted by weeds, 3

Toadflax, Yellow, 109, 233, 398

Toadpipe, 228

Toothwort, 273, 399

Torilis Anthriscus, 171, 369, 392

— nodosa, 82, 392
Tormentil, 165, 390
Totter Grass, 223
Tragopogon pratensis^ 191, 395
Transpiration by plants, 9
Traveller's Joy, 13, 151, 384
Trenching to kill weeds, 3, 41
Trifolium arvense, 369

— minus, 369

— pratense, 13, 39, 359

procumbent , 369, 370

repens, 39

sp. , 27

Triticnm repens, 132, 233, 319, 370,

407

Tufted Hair-grass, 143, 220, 406
Turnip Flea Beetle or Fly, 1 1
Tussilago Farfara, 24, 87, 185, 394
Tussock Grass, 28, 220, 406
Twitch, 132, 218, 233, 407

Surface, 1 16

Tylenchus devastatrix, 10, II
Typha latifolia, 334, 406
Typhacece, 333, 406

Ulex europatis, 161, 389
- Gal Hi, 161

— nanus, 161

Umbelliferce, 81, 151, 167, 294, 328,

39i

Upright Hedge Parsley, 171
Urtica dioica, 124, 207, 402

iirens, 125, 402

Urticacece, 124, 207, 402
Uses of weeds, 2

VALERIAN, 329, 392

officinalis, 329, 392

Valerianacece, 329, 392

Venus' Comb, 81, 392
Veronica agrestis, 109, 233, 399

Anagallis, 330, 399

Beccabunga, 330, 399

Buxbaiimii, 109

— Chamcsdrys, 140, 199, 399

— hedercefolia, 109, 399
Vetches, effect of spraying on, 48

growth of, to combat Annual

Knawel, 76

— weeds, 30

Viola tricolor, 68, 369, 370, 387
Violacea, 68, 387
Violet Root Rot, 12
Viper's Bugloss, 28, 106, 397
Visctcin album, 274, 402
Vitality of seeds, 23, 59

WALL BARLEY GRASS, 226

Wart Cress, 68, 233, 387

Waste corners, weeds seeding in, 22

"Watch Wheels," 53

Water Bedstraw, 393 .

Cress, 5

— Crowfoot, 323, 324, 384, 385

— Dropwort, 296, 392
Figwort, 398

— fowl, 341

- Hemlock, 296, 391, 392

- Lilies, 323, 325, 326, 386

- Milfoil, 327, 393

- Mint, 323

- Parsnip, 328, 391

— Plantain, 335, 403

- Speedwell, 330, 399

- Starwort, 326, 393

- Thyme, 332, 403

Wavy Hair Grass, 151, 218, 406
Waybent, 226, 407
Waybread, 198, 398
Weed seeds, eaten by birds, 429

grinding of, 33

illustrations of, 378-383

in farm seeds, 368

number in soil, 26

reduce value of agricultural

seeds, 14

— vitality of, 23
Weed-cutter, 341

— r motor punt, 342
Weed cutting saw, 342

— killers, 346, 350

Weevil, Cabbage and Turnip Gall,
il

INDEX

451

Wheat, 14

— " mummy," 25
rust, 10, 12, 155

suppressed by weeds, 49

Whickens, 132
Whin, 161, 389
White Bottle, 387

— Campion, 26, 69, 387
- Charlock, 7, 62, 387

— Dead Nettle, 113, 400

— root rot, 10, 12

— in New Zealand, 1 2

— rot, 391

rust of cabbages, 1 2

Water-lily, 326, 386

Wild Barley, 12, 40

— Buckwheat, 40

— Carrot, 24, 170, 233, 234, 392
Chamomile, 90, 395

— Chervil, 169
Chicory, 99, 395

— Hop, 208

— Liquorice, 163

— Mint, 233

— Mustard, 58, 386
Oat, 233

Oat Grass, 128, 407

— Onion, <O, 44, 125, 209, 404

— Radish, 7, 8, 46, 62, 387
Rose, 40

Teazle, 172, 393

Turnip, 386

Vetches, 13

Willow Herbs, 166, 391

Wind as distributor of weed seeds, 19
Winged seeds, 19
Winter Cress, 1 1

Winter washing of fruit-trees, 351
Wolfsbane, 385
" Wonderberry," 305
Wood Anemone, 280, 384
— Avens, 164, 390

Sorrel, 389

Wood-rush, 212, 405

Field, 140

Woody Nightshade, 302, 398
Woundwort, Corn, 112, 400
Marsh, 330, 400

YARROW, 7, 8, 139, 140, 142, 146,

185, 395
Yellow Bartsia, 199, 272, 399

Bedstraw, 172, 393

Cow-wheat, 399

Flag, 403

Iris, 323, 333

Lupin, 290

Oat Grass, 39

Ox-eye, 92

- Rattle, i.', 140, 233, 268, 399

Toadflax, 109, 233, 398

Vetchling, 289

Water-lily, 325, 386

— Weed, 58
Yew, 312,403

Yorkshire Fog, II, 28, 139, 142, 143,
147, 149, 151, 220, 407

THE END

, HANSON <5r Co.
rgh &•* London