THE LIBRARY BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY PROVO, UTAH Q^ UJ < -I U W z o 7*J/f COMPAF' iVE ANATOMY APPLIED TO THE PURPOSES OF THE ARTIST. BY B. WATERHOUSE HAWKINS, F.G.S. of London; Life Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia ; Honorary Member of the Maryland Lyceum of Natural History, Baltimore ; AUTHOR OF "ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF THE HORSE;" "ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF THE DOG AND DEER;" 11 ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF CATTLE AND SHEEP," &C. ; AND RESTORER OF THE EXTINCT ANIMALS AT THE CRYSTAL PALACEr SYDENHAM. With numerous Illustrations by the Author. Edited by GEORGE WALLIS, F.S.A., Keeper of the Art Collection's, South Kensington Museum. ^x% probat arttficem. LONDON: WINSOR & NEWTON, Limited, 38, RATHBONE PLACE. THE LIBRARY BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY PROVO, UTAH LIST OF PLATES. <°LATE PAGE 1. Graphic Index ....... frontispiece 2. Human Figures, European and African, and four Man-like Apes . . . . . . . . -19 3. Six Skeletons of the figures as arranged in Plate II. . . 24 4. Hands, Human and Quadrumana . . . . .29 5. Bones, Fore Arm of Man and Fore Leg of Horse . . 38 6. Feet, Human and Quadrumana ...... 42 7. Human Figures and Bears . . . . . . * . 48 8. African Elephant reclining ....... 54 9. The African Elephant, Front View, whole figure in the flesh 58 10. Hinder View of the Skeleton of Indian Elephant, with Skeleton of Human Figure ...... 62 11. Front View of Skeleton in the Figure of Indian Elephant . 66 12. Skeleton of the African Elephant (couchant) in the Figure 70 13. A Bisection of the Skull of the African Elephant . . 75 14. The Bactrian Camel as in Life, and her (half-orphaned) offspring of a Dromedary Parent 80 15. The Skeleton in the Figure of the Female Bactrian Camel, the Human Figure and Dromedary . . . .85 I ■* INTRODUCTORY NOTE By the Editor. If any apology were needed for my undertaking to edit this little work and assist its Author, it might be found in the fact of a persistent advocacy, forty years ago, of the necessity for the study of constructive anatomy as the basis of the student's power to represent animal life, and as especially necessary in the study of the human figure. It was this which first brought the Author and myself together. In short, I considered the anatomy of the human figure, so far as the bones and muscles are concerned, so essential to its intelligent representation, that rather than attempt to teach it without those elements of construction as a basis, I resigned my post as Head Master of the Government School of Design at Manchester in 1846. It was not until after the formation of the Science and Art Department in 1852-3 that the anatomy of the human figure was made a distinct stage in the course of instruction in our schools of art. From this as a foundation the earnest student has no special difficulty in proceeding to the study of comparative anatomy as a means to the accurate representation of animal 11 INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE EDITOR. life generally. This knowledge is especially needed in designers and modellers for silver and bronze work, pottery, wood and stone carving. It is in this essential point the great superiority of the French designers and modellers has hitherto been so conspicuous, arising entirely out of the systematic study of the osseous and muscular characteristics of animal life. The success and popularity of the art bronzes of Paris have been mainly due to the art-skill shown in the representation of animals, to which few British productions can, in this respect, offer little parallel at present. When to this conviction of the importance of com- parative anatomy to the artist is added a full sympathy with the Author in his graphic illustrations of unity of design and plan in animal creation, I need not excuse myself further in the matter of Editorship, except to bespeak indulgence for so brief a treatment of a very large subject. The student, however, will find lines enough laid down for his guidance, which if he follows out sedulously, by consulting larger works and suitable anatomical preparations, will lead him to an intelligent perception of everything needful for his practice as an artist. G. W. South Kensington : May 1883. PLATE I GRAPHIC INDEX. FRONTISPIECE. 13 FIGURES. Figures 1 and 2 ^ , A, . (Skeletons European and Afncanj Jn figure iA. Human figure in attitude . 3. Chimpanzee 4. Gorilla 5. Orang-Utan 6. Gibbon 7. Brown Bear 7A. Polar Bear. 8. African Elephant 9. Indian Elephant 10. Dromedary 10A. Dromedary animal {-Skeleton. As in life. I Skeletons I in figure. As in life. ^Skeleton in <( figure, head [as in life. As in life. (Skeleton in (figure. Comparative Anatomy, AS APPLIED TO THE PURPOSES OF THE ARTIST. INTRODUCTION. The small HAND-BOOKS on Art published by WlNSOR AND NEWTON, have now continued to hold their place in the estimation of the World's public on both sides of the Atlantic during the last quarter of a century. The subjects which these Hand-books on Art are intended to describe and illustrate are to be found in the innumerable and now overflowing channels for 11 applied art," which, prior to the Great Exhibition of 1 85 1, were mere dry paths, barren and profitless to able and industrious art-workers, but now the fertile source of considerable wealth created annually by invention in design, to which the refinements of the female mind have also been brought to bear by a system 8 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. of art-education unknown little more than a generation ago. This series of Hand-books on Art now contains thirty-three small octavos, each number of which is devoted to one subject ; illustrated by the artist- writer, which insures the unity of thought, and practical power of representation, that can scarcely fail to be acceptable and appreciated even by the well-advanced student, or true artist. These books have not been constructed as teachers' books, but most of them as competent sources of refer- ence to essential principles, and (as in this instance) to the bony frame-work of the figures employed ; as also to details, the precise knowledge of which is necessary to success. The numerous illustrations are not offered as draw- ing copies, but rather as maps, elevations, and plans of old-fashioned work, such as might be suggestive to an architect, engaged on original constructions which may have to be regulated by and adapted to the sur- rounding conditions. Therefore this Hand-book of " Comparative Ana- tomy as applied to the purposes of the Artist " aims to supply a sufficient number of characteristic points and make them so distinctly visible at a glance as to attract observation, and induce the earnest student to make comparisons suggestive of the power, beauty, and utility of the animal kingdom in its relation to the COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 9 Human Race, to whom the Omnipotent Creator gave dominion "over the fish of the sea, and the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth on the earth." Comparative Anatomy implies a standard of supreme structure of beauty and purpose, symmetry, strength and power, with faculties, sight, hearing, and speech. To these may be added as specially human, the moral qualities of judgment, justice, mercy, wisdom, love. All these are human attributes, and well does Shake- speare say, — " What a piece of work is a man ! How noble in reason ! How infinite in faculty, in form and moving how express and admirable, in action how like an angel, in apprehension how like a god ; the beauty of the world, the paragon of animals." Such a definition fulfilled, will ever be the true artist's standard of a supreme structure in the human being ; competent in reason and power to accept the lawful endowment of dominion over every living thing that moveth on the earth : — the man to be reasonably protective, just, merciful, and kind. Observation and comparison are the base lines of all art-work, or any other original production, men- tally worked out. Graphic illustrations must now be brought to the front to identify or contradict degrading theories in support of the fallacy of the Darwinian Paradox, IO COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. by which Mr. Charles Darwin endeavoured to show that the " Descent of Man originated from a Beast." For this repulsive hypothesis and negation of God and his Scriptures there is no immediate remedy but patience, faith, and common sense, with the aid of true artists who can see truly and draw truly that which they can see, with diligent observation and comparison ; which is only another name for Compara- tive Anatomy. We shall find by its aid the power to demonstrate to lovers of truth that the structural frame of those animals known as Birds, Beasts, and Fishes (called Vertebrate Animals) do clearly exhibit a unity of plan and the supernatural power of design in the Creator competent to adapt the perfection of fitness to the purpose of every living creature, from the largest elephant of ancient times to the smallest humming bird of the present period. The main purpose, however, of this little book is not so much to teach anatomy, as to illustrate, for the instruction of the artist, the difference in one sense, and the identity in another, of the several animals which, in the practice of his profession, he may be called upon to represent either pictorially or in the plastic arts, as also to lay the foundation in the mind of the student of art for a full appreciation of the forms in animal life which may present themselves in the course of his preparation for his future practice as an artist. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. II As a basis of illustration it is assumed that the reader or student has a certain amount of knowledge of the anatomy of Man, so far at least as the bones, muscles, and covering integuments are concerned, and which constitute the points of practical value to the artist. Taking Man as the supreme structure in nature, all the other animals which artists are likely to be called upon to represent are brought to this standard for comparison ; and the more complete the acquaintance of the student or the artist with the human figure, the more will he benefit by the comparisons made, and the more readily will he be able to realise the knowledge gained by investigating the similarity and the difference in structure in each and all of the creatures brought under his notice ; and out of those illustrated he will be able to make comparisons for himself with certainty and profit in other directions. The reasoning faculty is thus addressed through the medium of the eyesight, whereby a greater number of impressions can be received in a shorter period of time, and can be retained for a longer term with less fatigue than can be achieved by the other senses. It justly fulfils the title of " Visual Education " or " Object Teaching, n so called by Pestalozzi and his followers, which has proved a prolific source of numerous methods for arresting attention, even of children, from the pastime of the Kindergarten to 12 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. the gigantic combinations of the highest works of art in architecture, sculpture or ornament, as sug- gested by His Royal Highness the late Prince Consort, in his design and plan for the visual education of the million at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, near London. The theme of the text is not the discussion of natural history, but only as a humble effort to aid the artist and the sometimes impatient student, to economise valuable time, by reference to a true figure and brief description of some of those gigantic forms of life which are seldom reduced to miniature, and for which studios are not yet built large enough, or indeed are ever likely to be. The advanced and ever advancing position of the fine arts in the British Islands since the Great Exhibi- tion of 1 85 1 renders it a duty for all who can with pen or pencil facilitate in any degree the generation of true thought, to do so, as the only element of exalted ideas in the artist or his patrons, the people. If these patrons would only encourage such works as would stimulate admiration for the good and beau- tiful, they would increase their own pleasure and abbreviate the difficulties of every true artist. By the true artist is here meant the man or woman who can draw every form the eye can see, or that the systematized comparative memory can place before the conceptive faculty. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 13 Such is the real working artist ! How few — very few comparatively — even in these days of advanced art, realise the singular importance of the individual thus designated, or fully comprehend the great talents possessed, and the surprising amount of hard, unceas- ing, and unflinching work brought to bear on those talents, so largely developed in such gifted men, popularly known as " Our Special Artist," who not unfrequently must compass land and sea, and endure storm, heat and cold, hardships and fatigue, to depict the distant scene of savage life or incidents of peace or strife, of fete, of famine and tempest — in short, all the shifting scenes of this changeful sphere, from the stirring and harrowing events of the world's great battles, to the temper and attitudes of a refractory elephant : thus bringing to our firesides a continuous stream of information, instructive and amusing, as well as valuable. How valuable may be summed up in the simple statement that by no other means could the large amount of interesting and useful ideas be so effectually and so speedily conveyed to the mind, as by the spirited and clever pictures in our illustrated papers, for which we are indebted to the real work- ing artist. For a few pence weekly we are thus instructed through the medium of sight ; but, like many other wonders of civilisation, it is received and ranked among our comforts and necessities as a mere matter 14 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. of course, and more often than not, without one thought to the travel-worn artist whose faithful pencil supplies the demand. Who among us thinks of his forced journeys, now jolting over a rough South African plain in a springless waggon, or hastening on camel back across the burning desert, exposed to scorching wind and driving sand ; now dependant on a mule winding slowly up some steep mountain, in and out among great boulders and rocky points — thankful for any means of locomotion, from the ele- phant to cross an Indian jungle, to freezing in a rein- deer sledge in Lapland, or drenched to the skin in a slow Dutch boat on the foggy canals of Holland ? It is to this valuable member of the Art World, namely, "Our Special Artist," that this little book may be especially dedicated, in the hope that not only may it save his time at some critical juncture of a passing scene, but may perchance do good service when at work in his lonely hut or tent in some outlying camp, where by stretching an arm towards his knapsack, he. can at one glance refresh his memory with the truth- ful delineation of some animal or animals needed for his picture, then in course of execution, which other- wise must be dispensed with, from either want of time or the impossibility of obtaining the living object to sketch from. To the student, likewise, it may be found of value for some comparison of size or form, in school or COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 15 studio, when the eye is uneducated, or when a study from life would be inconvenient or impossible, how- ever near to a zoological collection. DESCRIPTIVE ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATE I, Figures 1, 2, ia. The bipedal figure of the human being is pictured first in its most dignified attitude, standing erect; then as a suppliant bending its knees in the same manner as the elephant ; and a third figure shows the human skeleton in the position of a quadruped. By only glancing at it, we can discern the impossibility for this lord of creation to adapt that motion to his specialised body, the machinery of which has to be governed by his highest developed organ — the brain. Indeed the situation of his organs of sense renders him totally incompetent to the true attitude of animal progression, which is on all fours. He is capable of all actions and animal movements (except that of the bird's wings) ; and this inability alone is a direct contradiction to the theory of development, for it is an absurd paradox to suppose this "paragon of animals" to be incompetent for anything possessed by his predecessors, were he their descendant, and had gradually developed through stages of incompetence and ugliness, and had once, like the baboon and gorilla, been powerless to raise his face upwards. C 16 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. The combination of animals with human figures, in Plate I., is not intended in any sense as an illustration of consanguinity, or of any other relationship, but to attract the artist's attention to the highest feature in the sub-kingdom of vertebrate animals, where he wTill find, by comparison, every possible variation of designed fitness for the perfection of life and being, while the animal is in its natural, habitable place in nature. This combination of animals is meant to convey to the artist such visible material as may lead to the comparison, one with the other, of those animals that may be least familiar to him in their everyday life, and still less so in their harness and decorative trappings, incidental to their mode of life, and their especial work, or to an Imperial pageant with a troop of Indian elephants, — symbolic of power. These are not always majestic in a picture, unless they are rendered without the slouching gait of the menagerie or the appearance of possessing wooden feet without carpus or tarsus. Consequently to both artist and student is now offered, as illustrative of comparative anatomy, the general construction and framework of those animals, the elephants, both Asiatic and African, the camels, the Bactrian camel, the mule and dromedary, so as to recall to the artist's visual memory, when at the easel, those animals now to be found in the COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 1 7 Zoological Gardens in London, Paris, New York, Manchester, &c, which, though still called exotic, are sufficiently reconciled to the climate, even with a crowd of very noisy spectators, to look something less frightened and more natural, and consequently more available for the artist's notes, sketches, and studies, than could have been found anywhere on exhibition some thirty years ago. * For many centuries these animals were almost unknown in Europe until captured by the Roman conquerors of the world, and by them brought back as a species of episode to their battles and conquests, and so add to the excitement of victory and to the amusement of the people wrho had borne the priva- tions at home ; also to cheer the wives and mothers whose husbands and sons had glorified the survivors, and who in exchange for home, loves, and lovers, were to be entertained by the struggles with and slaughter of hecatombs of wild beasts and gladiators in the Colosseum and other theatres in distant cities. The transportation of such vast numbers of wild animals of gigantic size, even overland, must have demanded an amount of intelligence, courage, force, and power, with an administrative faculty quite beyond the experiences of the engineering body at the present date of the world's history. PLATES I. and II. are intended to be interpreted by the eyes of the spectator. i8 PLATE II. HUMAN FIGURES, EUROPEAN AND AFRICAN. AND FOUR MANLIKE APES. Figure i 2 3 4 5 6 European . African Chimpanzee Gorilla. Orang-Utan Gibbon [>As in life. Four (Anthropomor- phous) Manlike Apes, ! as in life. The animals in this plate are presented in their natural clothing as well as in their compulsory attitude for progression, which by the exaggerated length of the front limbs amounts to a special deformity as compared with the symmetrical proportions of the Human figures. '9 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 21 In Plate III. are found the skeletons of the same figures, divested of the muscles and integuments, where the general resemblance of the bony frames affects the comparison, as displaying the unity of plan and the susceptibility for variations necessary for the sustentation and perpetuation of life. There are six figures in each : two human beings and four " manlike apes." Of these, Plate II., the white man is a suggestive figure of the great friend of the negro race — the slave-emancipator, Wilberforce — who is represented as offering the hand of brother- hood to the negro figure, who from long oppression, reciprocates but timidly the friendly action. The four accompanying apes, numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, are placed in juxtaposition with the human figures as the next assumed highest vertebrates. These figures are exhibited with the external form complete, as" offering the advantage for a more ready comparison of the differences between them and the beauties of the human form. Figure 3 represents the chimpanzee, which, while young, has a strong resemblance to a coloured child ; he is more docile and kindly-natured, not to say affectionate, as well as more tractable and teachable than any of the larger apes. His limbs are also more equally proportioned, his arms being less lengthy, alrtiough he fulfils the title of quadrumana by using them for locomotion. 22 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. Figure 4 is the Gorilla. Though the Gorilla attains a larger size, his brain is smaller in proportion than that of either orang- utan or chimpanzee. His disposition appears to be both sullen and savage. PLA TE 111., Figure 4. The two human figures in this plate have already been alluded to. We will pass on to the gorilla (No. 4) on the right of the plate, and which the modern school (or, rather, a section of that school) place in the next rank to man ; he is the largest of the apes, and was known in the time of Hanno the Carthaginian. These animals were described as wild human beings, so fierce and brutal that it was a necessity to kill them and bring home their heads and skins as evidence of their reality. The head of the gorilla is prognathos, the jaws well armed with teeth, which leads us to suppose that he is at times a carnivorous feeder ; the osmalar is large and strong ; the sockets of the eyes are brought so forward, with the super-orbitals, as to produce the effect of a grotesque pair of spec- tacles, which in the centre is joined by a crest ; this crest continues to rise from the super- orbital to the occiput. From the occiput to the seventh vertebra of the neck, the noural spines are so large that the effect is similar to that of the bull's neck : they diminish slightly towards the first dorsal vertebra : the scapulars are broad and large ; 25 PLATE III. SIX SKELETONS OF THE FIGURES AS ARRANGED IN PLATE II. Figure i. 2. European. African. 3- 4- Chimpanzee Gorilla. 5- Orang-Utan 6. Gibbon. The two human figures and the four animals are here divested of artificial and natural clothing, the removal of the muscles and integuments displaying the whole of the skeleton of each figure, which in each case presents so close a resemblance, one to the other, as to diminish the exaggerated differences in proportion such as only to call to mind the unity of plan in the structure which claims the attention of the Art Student to the resemblances rather than to the difference. 26 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. the head of the humerus and clavicle appears larger than it really is from the shallowness of the glenoid cavity : there are thirteen pairs of ribs, and the walls of the ilium form a widely extended pelvis ; the os coccis or tail bones are inconspicuous. The gorilla is sullen and savage looking ; he is about five feet high, if he could stand upright, and though he is the highest specimen of the quadrumana, his hands reach the ground, and as this is absolutely necessary for his progression, it is thus depicted in the Plate II. The fact is, the fore limbs must be employed as crutches for the support of the body, his progression is made by the alternate use of the front and hind limbs diagonally ; and such con- stant service is required from these so-called hands in that action, that the knuckles of the third phalanx are at times covered with a hard substance, which suggests the place of a hoof, so that this use of his hands, as well as the lack of opposition in the small thumb, must entirely prevent its being a serviceable hand in our acceptation of the word, when considering our own five digits with the opposable thumb. The entire thumb of the gorilla is only of the same length as the first phalanx or metacarpal below the wrist; the second is little more than half the length of the first, the third is frequently covered up with the partial callosity just now alluded to, which must involve the fixity of the fourth or nail-bearing joint. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 27 The length of the upper bone of arm from the shoulder to the elbow is seventeen and a half inches, as contrasted with the eleven and a half, or, at the most, twelve of the humerus of the human being, so that this bone must have shortened considerably — a very odd kind of development! The rest of the limb continues in proportion, the ulna and the radius being fourteen and a half inches, while the hand in its extended length is ten and a quarter. The femur or thighbone is fourteen and a half inches in length (this measurement is from the head of that bone, in theascetabulum, to the distal end, where the condyles of the bone rest upon the upper table of the tibia). The next member is the foot or hinder hand, which from its deformed position only adds four inches to the height of the animal. He can only use the foot in walking by resting on its outer margin, which throws out the ancle joint in a manner which gives a bandy appearance to the limb and an effect of lameness to the action. The other figures in this plate, the chimpanzee, the orang-utan, and the gibbon, are of less interest in the preceding pages. PLATE IV. represents the human hand for com- parison with the fore-hand of the gorilla. ia. The human hand in the flesh. ib. Bones of the lower human arm, or distal ends of radius and ulna, and their junction with the wrist or carpal bones of the same, with the four phalanges 28 PLATE IV. HANDS, HUMAN AND QUADRUMANA, FOUR FIGURES. Figure iA. Human Hand. ib. Bones of the Human Hand. 2A. Hand of Gorilla. 2B. Bones of the Hand of Gorilla. PLATE IV. 29 la COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 31 containing the sixteen bones of the hand and fingers, three of the thumb, and eight of the wrist or carpus, making the total number of the bones of the hand proper twenty-seven. The wrist bone carrying the thumb is the trapese. The index finger is attached to the trapezoid. The middle finger is carried by the os-magnum, and the fourth and fifth fingers are attached to the unciformis. The trapese is covered by the scaphoid, the os- magnum by the lunare, whilst the unciformis sustains the cuneiform bearing pisiform attached. Here it may be desirable to remind the student that the true function of this little handbook is to stimulate comparison, not merely with external forms of generic or specific characters, but with those structural si?ni- larities specialised, for a similar use to dissimilar animals, or corresponding structure for dissimilar purposes in equally dissimilar animals. 11 Perhaps, throughout the whole of God's creation, no organs so thoroughly identical in design and plan for uses so utterly different can be found as the forearm and hand of man, and the foreleg and foot of the horse. Each is adapted, in the most perfect manner, to its own special purpose, and, different as they ap- pear to the superficial observer, the actual structure of both is in the most complete correspondence. 11 Take the human arm and hand, and what ade- quate estimate can possibly be made of its uses to 32 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. civilisation, and to almost everything which distin- guishes man from every other creature ? Its delicacy and power, its force and subtlety in action, its abso- lute perfection in application, not only to the wants of man. but to those of the animal creation coming under man's dominion : the artist's power of repre- sentation, the surgeon's skill and dexterity, the engi- neer's accuracy of construction, even the orator's most effective instrument, after the tongue, in persua- sion and denunciation, to say nothing of the countless applications of its use in every- day life, all going to show the perfection of this special organ of the human frame. Yet all this is effected by the invisible influ- ence of the almost dormant wrist. Then take the fore-leg of the horse in its adaptation to locomotion : every part so perfectly constructed for slow or rapid action, and not only so, but with special adaptations for breaking the inevitable concussion in the delicate structure of the knee, as corresponding to the wrist in man, and of the foot, which has to bear not only the weight of the body of the horse, but to carry it along with the rider on its back or the weight behind, stride after stride as the animal moves in walking, trotting, or galloping, and all this with the greatest precision, continued over hours of active operation. "Taking the hand and fore-arm of man first, we find from the elbow to the tips of the fingers 29 bones, *>., 27 in the hand itself, and 2 constituting the fore- COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 33 arm from elbow to wrist — the radius and the ulna. In the hand the total is made up of 8 carpals, 5 meta- carpals, and 14 phalanges. The first difference be- tween the human fore-arm from the elbow to the car- pal bones, and the fore-leg of the horse is in the fact that in man the radius and ulna are distinct. This separation gives greater freedom of action, extended motion, and what may be termed elastic power in the arm in connection with the action of the hand. In the carpal bones of the wrist in man and those of the wrist-like knee in the horse there is a general correspondence, which, however, may be best de- scribed in a detailed description of the fore-leg of the latter. " Commencing with the radius and the nlna) the latter is united to the former and runs down the radius in an elongated wedge-like form, instead of being detached from it as in man. In old horses the small point of the wedge unites with and becomes one with the radius. The bones agreeing with the carpals are seven in number, instead of eight as in man, viz., scaphoid or navicular ; lunar ; cuneiform ; pisiform; trapezoid, the smallest bone of the wrist; magnum, or great round-headed bone of the wrist ; and unciforme, or hook-like bone of the wrist. The trapezium, which makes up the eight in man, and articulates with the metacarpal bone of the thumb in the human skeleton, is not in the horse. 34 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. " The metacarpal bones are only three in the horse, instead of five as in man. The longer one in front corresponds to the middle metacarpal in the human hand,* i.e. of the middle finger. Two splint bones are on the sides of the back of the metacarpal in the horse, and the upper head articulates with the os magnum of the carpus) and the lower or distal with the digit bone. In the horse this is called the great pastern. This bone head is encrusted with a smooth and elastic cartilage, which acts as a cushion to modify or prevent concussion in the joint in the rapid movements of the animal. The upper heads of the splint bones, or incomplete metacarpals running down the sides at the back of the larger bone, arti- culates with the unciformis bone of the carpus. These bones act as a species of bracket to support the unciformis bone of the carpus. The lower head is very small, as the bones corresponding to the little finger in man is wanting, and possess no articulation. " At the back of the articulation of the metacarpus and digit are two bones corresponding to the sesamoid bones in the human skeleton. They serve to throw the binding tendons further from the centre of motion in this joint, and form a proper groove for them to * Some authorities, notably Stubbs and Maclise, hold the theory that the digit or pastern of the horse corresponds to the middle and ring finger in man. — G. W. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 39 the late Mr. E. F. Flower. His intelligent and graphic illustrations of the oppressive cruelty to the horse entitles him to the grateful remembrance of all lovers of that invaluable associate of man. To illustrate the parallel structure, and give a com- parative general view of the bones of the front limbs of man and horse, Plate V. is given, with the fol- lowing reference : — a. Scapula f. Carpus b. Humerus g. Metacarpus c. Olicranon, or h. Digit elbow i. Phalanx d. Radius 2. do. e. Ulna 3. do. Figure 2ay Plate IV. Returning to the gorilla as a further comparison with man. The right fore-hand of the gorilla in the flesh in the act of walking — terminating the strongest and longest limb in that animal's body — differs materially from the human hand, especially as regards the thumb, which reaches only to the first phalanx, thereby rendering it im- possible to grasp either a small or a large branch of a tree with any force, the fore fingers combined merely acting as a hook. This becomes more evident in the uncovered bones of the hand. The diminutive phalanx of the thumb shows itself as being no longer than the first metacarpal of the index finger. The D 40 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. length of the hand extended is about nine and a half inches. Figure 2b, Plate IV. The bones of the right fore- hand of the gorilla, which more distinctly exhibits the dwarf thumb, between which and the fingers neither small nor large objects can be grasped. Bones of human wrist (carpus) : — Trapese (thumb). Lunare. Trapezoid (index finger). Cuneiform. Osmagnum (middle finger). Pisiform. Unciformis (fourth and fifth fingers). Radius. Scaphoid. Ulna. Figure 5, Plate III. The orang-utan of Borneo has a larger and better brain — that is, if vertical quantity in excess of gorilla be better. As he arrives at maturity the face enlarges and expands disc-like, depriving the muscles of all intelligible expression, except, perhaps, that of stolid melancholy. He is a rufus, and the hair of the arms becomes long and ropy. The orang-utan is one of the best known of the manlike (anthropomorphous) apes. In consequence of the presence of the late Rajah Brooke in Borneo with Mr. Wallace and others, the orang-utan has become well-known as an inhabitant of low flat plains, and prefers the most dense and sombre of the forests which extend from the seashore inland. In 42 PLATE VI, 43 PLATE VI. FEET, HUMAN AND QUADRUMANA. FIVE FIGURES. Figure i. Bones of the Human Foot, front view, i A. Bones of the Human Foot, right side. IB. Human Foot in the flesh. 2. The Bones of the Hinder Hand of the Gorilla, exhibiting the large thumb or pollex in great contrast to the small thumb on the fore-hand, Plate IV. 3. Bones of the Hinder Hand of the Orang- utan, showing the small and slender thumb which induces the animal to use the foot in a more plantegrade condition than the Gorilla can do with the same member of that limb, in consequence of the large thumb in contrast with the diminished size of that of the hand or fore limb. Bones of the human foot on the right side, side view (Tarsus), iA. I. Astragulus. 5- Inner Cuneiform. 2. Os-Calcis. 6. Middle Cuneiform. 3- Cuboid. 7- Outer Cuneiform. 4- Navicular. 8. The first Metatarsal. 44 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. such locality the hunter may meet some three or four in a day, and thus obtaining many opportunities to study the living and the dead animals. Thirty years ago there was a small specimen alive in the Zoological Gardens, London, of which there is a small picture in oil from life. This was one of the objects in the Derby collection, painted by the author (Waterhouse Hawkins) : and also a picture life size ; two views of the orang-utan from the living animal at the Aquarium in New York, in May, 1878, painted by the same artist, and presented to the museum by one of the patrons of art in Liverpool. The orang-utan is also well-figured and described in Professor Temminck's large book. Figure 6, Plate III. The gibbon ape is the most to be envied of his compeers, the manlike apes ; he is not more than half the size of the adult gorilla, or of the orang-utan, and his figure is so light and agile, that a learned naturalist has described the appearance of his movements as bearing the nearest resemblance to the flight of a bird. He loves the hillsides, but from his limited size he is not out of place on a slender tree. He at times walks upright, but is always ready to use his lengthy arms — reaching by nature so near the ground — for support, or to balance himself by raising them above his head, much as a rope dancer does his pole. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 45 The three anthropomorphous apes, the chimpanzee, gorilla and orang-utan, always carry the external evidence of a deformity, discordant with the unity of plan and the harmonious arrangement of the limbs or appendages, to facilitate the necessary and natural locomotion, which are found in every other group of vertebrate animals to be strictly in accordance with the nature of the creature so equipped, for sustaining life and its enjoyments while surrounded by its natural circumstances. We have presented the group Quadrumana as a foundation; this wras absolutely necessary to show the paradoxical arguments which have given to them the nearest place in nature to man, and have caused such a turmoil in the study of the science of Natural History. In short, we are called upon to accept a theory of evolution which, taking growth and development as its basis, also gets rid of any organ or portion or any organ which in the opinion of its advocates is not required to fit into the foregone conclusion that each creature is its own creator ! They all present to the logical observer an idea of confusion of plan, and, as compared with man, more or less useless, and without a real place in nature — without the power to contribute in any manner or degree towards their own welfare or to the animal or vegetable life of the world. Wherever they live they are injurious, they are 46 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. neither scavengers nor manurers ; they are hideous in appearance, malicious in action, fitful in nature, dangerous to man and beast. They have no heritable place in nature, but like Macbeth's witches, they " are on the earth but not of it." The above-named four creatures include the nearest relatives to man, according to modern specu- lations, but there are stronger facts and more ancient theories that enable us to see in the plantigrade animals — as illustrated in Plate VI. — an equal resem- blance, without deformity, to that peculiarly human action of walking upright, which the bears, the genus Ursus, can maintain and voluntarily continue for a longer period than other large mammals. Their special structure, which permits such freedom of arms and legs, and which Cuvier described as being among the nearest resemblances to the human figure in action, is in consequence of the formation and the peculiar insertion of the thigh bone. In PLATE VII. } the man and bear, Figures i and 3, as bear-warden and bear, are represented in motion — called dancing. The animal supports him- self with a stick, and mimicking the actions of the bearwarden, lifts his plantigrade feet alternately to the measured time of the pipe and tabret. Figures 2 and 4 in Plate VII. are the skeletons or bony frame-work of the same figures, man and animal as — 1 and 3 — in the same positions, wThere the com- COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 47 parison can be made and used in detail at one glance of the eyes. PLATE /., Figure 7A. The celebrity which arctic voyagers have given to the polar bear — Ursus Arctos — suggests the illustration of the miniature figure in this plate. He has been beautifully depicted by the late Sir Edwin Landseer, in one of his pictures — that in which the polar bears are so intimately associated with the relics of the great explorer Franklin. By the side of the polar bear the well-known brown bear is represented in the erect attitude of walking). In Plate VII. it has been shown that the bears (genus Ursidae) have a claim superior to that of the apes and monkeys for the nearest proximity to human beings, on account of their plantigrade feet and the erect attitude which, as before stated, the bears are able to sustain voluntarily for a length of time. The sole of the foot is naked in the variety whose hind feet are wholly plantigrade. There are several varieties in this group. Out of these some have tuberclous teeth, and are almost vegetarians ; they were to be found in almost every part of Europe, Asia and America. All have five toes to each foot. The formation of the foot also, having a long heel bone, is yet another resemblance to man which enables them to sustain the vertical position. * The want of the great toe in size and activity on 4« PLATE VII. HUMAN FIGURES AND BEARS. FOUR FIGURES. Figure l. Human Figure, Bearwarden . As in life. 01 r , rIn the 2. Skeleton of the same . A n ^figure. 3. Bear as in nature dancing. fin the figure 4. Skeleton of the same . A and in same (^attitude. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 5 1 the inner side, as in the human foot, is the cause of the bear's rocking motion, which also prevents the longer continuance of a vertical progression. The bones of the inner toe of the bear are the same in num- ber and arrangement as in the human foot, but too small to mitigate the rocking motion or the lateral sway- ing of the body when fatigued by bipedal progression. One of our most learned palaeontologists has stated that it has often been fo.und a difficulty to discern the differences between the thigh bone of the large European fossil — Ursus Spelaeus — and that of the human being. AFRICAN AND ASIATIC ELEPHANTS. PLA TE VIII. The African elephant. Two figures in repose, with a view to show the comparison of the limbs and their correspondence with the human form in their several divisions. The strongest marked difference between the African and the Indian elephant is, that the African elephant has a globose head, whereas that of the Asiatic elephant is concave in front. The limbs of the figure of the African elephant, dis- I playing the vast dimensions of the ear, are so adjusted as to show that the posterior limb consists of similar divisions, arranged in sequence like those of the human leg. Hence it is we find that the attitude of the elephant in accommodation to its rider is, for the 52 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. hind limbs, that of kneeling, at the same joint as that of the human figure. The bones of the foot consist of the heel bone and the phalanges of the five toes, arranged somewhat as in the human foot. The leg from the knee to the ankle is supported on the outer side by a secondary bone called the fibula. The front limbs, from the shoulder to the elbow, support the reclining attitude by means of the whole arm from elbow to wrist, resting on the ground. PLATE X. is a back view of the Indian elephant. Plate IX. } a front view of the African elephant in the flesh, shows the effect of the vast extension of the outer ears, sufficiently large to supply the native infants with a substitute for a perambulator. This huge quadruped — Elephas — is the only living type of the family of true Proboscidians, or pachy- dermatous mammifers, with proboscis and tusks. The great size of the alveoli needed for the lodg- ment of the tusks renders the upper jaw extremely high, and shortens the nasal bones, so that in the skeleton the nostrils are towards the upper part of the face, which in the living animal are prolonged into a proboscis, composed — as Cuvier observes — of nearly 40,000 small muscles, having the power of distinct action — hence the most complicated powers of mobility, extension, and contraction in every direction. At the extremity above the partition of the nostrils, 54 LJ h 55 PLATE VIII. THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT RECLINING. SHOWING SIZE OF EARS IN COMPARISON TO THOSE OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. In this plate the character of the wrist, or carpal joint, as in nature, is well displayed, as contrasted with the entirely domesticated Indian Elephant See Plate I. for bones of carpal joint. 56 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. is an elongated process, which may be considered as a finger, and on the under edge there is a sort of tubercle which acts as an opposable joint or thumb. The proboscis is nearly eight feet long, and stout in proportion to the huge size of the animal, and being exquisitely sensitive, it can uproot trees or gather grass, raise a man or pick up a crumb. By its recurvature, food and water are conveyed to the mouth. Its length supplies the place of a neck, which would have been incompatible with the huge head and heavy tusks, which often weigh seventy-two pounds. Cuvier records two tusks, sold at Amster- dam, weighing three hundred and fifty pounds. The African elephant has never been so subjugated by man as to show any signs of having been domesti- cated, as may be seen by the thoroughbred character of its limbs, with the distinct and graceful form of the wrists or carpal joints when compared with the Indian elephant, who has been so long subjected to man's authority, under which he has at times been oppressed with excessive work when not at full growth, whereby the epiphysis of the shaft bones of the legs by depres- sion become clumsy cylinders. The Indian elephant is consequently not the best type of this grand, though not beautiful animal, in the exhibition of his strength and power ; therefore, where the artist has free choice and is not bound to locality it would be better to choose the African elephant as illustrated on Plate IX. 58 PLATE IX. 59 PLATE IX. THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT, FRONT VIEW, WHOLE FIGURE IN THE FLESH. The peculiarities of the African Elephant are fully displayed in this plate. The human figure constitutes a standard of comparison of relative size. Supposing the human figure to be a little under six feet, it gives a just idea of the average size of a full-grown African Elephant which measures eleven feet, and sometimes two or three inches more. The vastness of its head and ears do not appear disproportionate to the size and general proportion of the body. 60 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. His attention might also be directed to the high-bred animal reared in natural circumstances, which not only affects the form of the tusks, but increases their size and weight. Thus the almost exaggerated size of the ears and tusks renders the animal more remarkable than the Indian elephant. The extension of the nose of the elephant into a flexible and dexterous proboscis is a modification of the organ well deserving notice. The proboscis of the elephant is, in fact, an extension of the nostrils, forming a double tube, and fitted to perform the office of a hand or a nose. By it water and food are con- veyed to the mouth, and air to the lungs ; a fibro-ten- dinous membrane lines it throughout, and to this and to the forehead and integuments are attached thou- sands of small muscles, so arranged as to elongate and shorten the instrument in every conceivable manner. A cartilaginous and elastic valvule exists superiorly, so as to cut off, at the will of the animal, all communication between the proboscis and the true nostrils superiorly ; a finger-like appendage termi- nates this remarkable instrument inferiorly. The enormous weight of the head renders a proboscis necessary to the existence of the animal, without which it could neither feed nor drink. The elephants are the only Animals which have a proboscis, but there are others in which the nasal or- gans are prolonged into something analogous, such are 62 PLATE X. 63 PLATE X. HINDER VIEW OF SKELETON OF INDIAN ELEPHANT, WITH SKELETON OF HUMAN FIGURE. ADJUSTED FOR COMPARISON OF LIMBS. 64 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. the tapirs. The desmans, small insectivorous animals allied to the musaraignes, but adapted for swimming with ease, and searching for their food at the bottom of burrows dug in beaches, present a similar elonga- tion of nostril. — " Miln Edward's First Handbook.'' The African elephant has, in the upper jaw, two incisors and four molar teeth ; the Asiatic elephant two incisors and two molars. In the lower jaw there are neither incisors nor canines, and the molar teeth resemble those to which they are opposed. The elephant's height is from seven to ten feet measured from the shoulder, in the same manner as horses are. The Asiatic elephant differs from the African not only in its smaller size and in the character of the skull being concave on the facial aspect and divided in the centre of the forehead, but it has ears of a much smaller size ; it is of a paler brown colour, and has four nails on the hind feet instead of three, wliile the front feet are larger with less indication of the wrist or carpal joint. There are five nails on each of the front feet, eighteen in all. To conclude this brief essay on the interpretation of a subject by the medium of eyesight (which is the most acceptable mode to the artist), the miniature diagrams have been added (Plate I., Frontispiece). They are intended to save time by their not requiring 66 PLATE XI. 67 PLATE XI. FRONT VIEW OF SKELETON IN THE FIGURE OF INDIAN ELEPHANT. 68 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. a lengthy verbal description, but simply reviving the intention of the larger plates, which, to under- stand clearly, it is only necessary to say have been arranged according to the two great divisions discernible in the limbs of the class Mammalia as made by Professor R. Owen, the unequal (Perisso- dactyle and the equal (Artiodactyle) — that is, the equal and unequal number of digits. The reign of Teleology being somewhat restricted in its speculative teachings, now shows that facts are stranger than fictions, and that a higher class of ideas are engendered by the knowledge of facts" proven. The erroneous idea of the size of the elephant's head fifty years ago produced a frightful amount of unintentional but horrid cruelty. A fine full-grown elephant had been some years on exhibition at the menagerie belonging to the late Mr. Cross, then at a building called Exeter 'Change, in the Strand, London, adjoining the Lyceum Theatre. The elephant during exhibition had been long known for gentleness and docility, when in the year 1826 this large animal was seized with irresistible frenzy, which only suggested to the experienced pro- prietor the inevitable necessity for a sure and speedy death, to accomplish which some three or four soldiers from the guard room at Somerset House, in the Strand, with sergeant, corporal, &c, and everything to insure prompt action and secure the most humane, and, as 7° 7« PLATE XII. SKELETON OF THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT (couchant) IN THE FIGURE. This plate shows the attitude natural to the animal, and essentially useful to the traveller in mounting this gentle giant. 72 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. it would now be called, scientific means to insure the instantaneous death of the then truly dangerous victim. Independent of the difficulties in connection with the animal, the situation of his cage presented many obstacles, this being on the first floor above the street, where a large flat window occupied some feet of the eastern end or face of the building. From the street, the ridge of the elephant's back was visible to passers by on the pavement, whose questioning ejacu- lations were, "How did they get him up there ? " 11 How can they get him down ?" The first volley of bullets were delivered with pre- cision into the upper portion of the head, far above the vomer and brain chamber. The agonized and maddened animal — victim of ignorance — reared, screamed, and trumpeted in vain; not one fatal wound \ and yet not one spot insensible to torture, until an intelligent member of the artillery corps, who had seen much service in India, appeared on the scene, and, calculating from the knowledge and experience gained in the East, dispatched the elephant at the second shot, and thus put an end to poor Chunee's tortures. This soldier had no doubt seen on many occasions much of the force and power of the elephant's strength and its peculiar application in aid of the removal of heavy pieces of artillery, with their carriages, which they could push up an inclined plane by the continuous pressure of their foreheads, COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 73 — the manner of which is unknown to any other animal than the elephant — and more competently by the Indian elephant in consequence of the con- cavity of its forehead, in contrast to the convex pro- jection of the African elephant's face. These facts also explain the peculiar value of the cellular fabric surrounding the chambered cavity for the brain, which was probably well known to the soldierly friend who had arrived so opportunely at the crisis of agony. Why did so much frightful anxiety occur — so much cruelty, pain, torture, agony, and death — where life and health were wholly desirable? The worth of the animal alive was not less than a thousand pounds, and the only cause assignable is ignorance. There were then no hand-books on comparative anatomy for artists or elephant-keepers. If Plate XIII. and its statement of facts had been in existence, i( Chunee " might have been dispatched at once without the torture which ensued upon the supposed necessity to kill him. A true knowledge, however, of the proper treatment necessary to health, such as wholesome food (not buns) and suitable exercise, would have saved the creature ; and " Chunee " might have lived to have been a veteran elephant in the Zoological Gardens. 74 PLATE XIII. A BISECTION OF SKULL OF AFRICAN ELEPHANT. Showing the interior of the right side, displaying the chamber of the brain and the large amount of sur- rounding cellular structure above the vomer, acting as a defence and protection to the Brain, which with the uninitiated was supposed to occupy the whole area expressed by the outer view, and therefore to- their mind, accounting for the sagacity and intelli- gence of the wonder-exciting animal. In reality the brain of the Elephant is very small in proportion to the bulk of the creature. PLATE XIII 75 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 77 CAMEL AND DROMEDARY. It is now desirable to consider, and, as far as necessary for the purpose in hand, to describe, another class of creatures eminently useful to man, and as fully under his guidance and control as the horse or the elephant. In fact, in the position in which the Creator has placed the camel, u the ship of the desert," as it has been aptly designated, the animal is indispensable to his master. Again, we find perfect adaptation of structure to this position and the uses of the creature and its own individual wants and necessities. It has to traverse vast deserts of sand in which food and water are scarce and the supply fitfuk Belonging to the order of Ruminants } the camel has, in common with the ox, sheep, deer, &c, the faculty of re-chewing its food bv bringing: it back a second time into the mouth, after having swallowed . it. This ruminating power in the ox and kindred creatures is the result of a peculiar structure of stomach which may be said to be quadruple, three being so disposed in relation to the oesophagus as to allow of either stomach receiving food. The first is the paunchy into which the food passes in a partially masticated state ; the second is called the bonnet, the sides of which are laminated, and resemble the forms of the honey-bee comb. This organ is small and round ; it soaks and compresses 78 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. the herbage into little pellets, which remount to the mouth, and are thus masticated a second time. After this operation it descends direct into the third stomach, and thence to the fourth, which is the true organ of digestion. The gentle character of the ruminants, of which this faculty of re-chewing its food is certainly the most marked characteristic, has undoubtedly helped in no small degree to render them the more easily subjugated by man, alike as beasts of burden as for food ; and, with the excep- tion of the horse and the dog, the ruminants are the creatures most useful to man — "The cattle on a thousand hills. " PL A TE XIV. depicts the camels, of which the chief figure is the Bactrian camel, wThose history is so intimately associated with our late experience in the Afghanistan war, of which " Our Special Artists M secured so many interesting details, both pictorial and written, thus rendering numerous stirring inci- dents perfectly familiar to us. In this plate is a sketch, from life, of the Bactrian camel, which represents the head of the camel in the flesh, with the details of the lips, teeth, eyes and ears of the female now living at the Zoological Gardens, rearing with great care her half-orphaned offspring of a dromedary parent. The small figure, Plate XIV., shows the form of the more rapidly moving parent dromedary, so much 8o 8i PLATE XIV. THE BACTRIAN CAMEL AS IN LIFE, AND HER (half-orphaned) OFFSPRING OF A DRO- MEDARY PARENT. Also showing, for comparison, the Human Limbs with exhumed bones of the camel. FIVE FIGURES. Figure i. Bactrian Camel . . .~1 2. Dromedary Mule . . . }>As in life. I 3. Human Being . . .j 4. Exhumed Skeletons of Man and Camel. 82 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. utilised by Eastern travellers. It is here necessary to call the attention of the student to the earners body, which is subject to a variation of outline consequent on the conditions of food and time. As for example, the hump — one or two, as may be — in Drome- dary or Bactrian camel. In both, the hump acts as a species of reserve,' for when well fed the hump attains its maximum without the inconvenience of adding greatly to the weight on the body : it being of a fatty, light material, which can be gradually absorbed by the animal when in distress for food. The containing power for a reserve of water in connection with the stomach, which in extreme cases has even saved the life of the human traveller, is another remarkable feature in its structure, so wonderfully adapted to its local utility and exis- tence. The callosity of the knees and breast and the large cushioned feet are yet other instances of its perfection of fitness for the deserts. In Plate XIV. the skull of the camel and the whole of the bones are represented in the exhumed skeletons. This is further illustrated in Plate XV. In the bones within the flesh in this plate it will be seen that the head is long, the upper lip cloven, and the nostrils con- sist of two clefts, which the animal has the power to open and close at pleasure, a wise provision for its comfort in the sandy plains of the desert. The eyes project. In repose or sleeping they are nearly closed. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 83 In walking they are dilated, and at full speed still more dilated. The nostrils dilate and contract at short intervals. In Plate XV. the skeletons of both camel and dromedary are given within the flesh. In the lower jaw are six incisors, two canines and ten molars. The neck, as with all vertebrate animals, consists of seven elongated vertebrae which have much free move- ment, more like that of a long-necked bird than the generality of the mammalia. The front limb consists of the humerus, which supports the scapula, or blade bone, and at the distal extremity it is planted upon the ulna and radius, or exterior bone.. The scaphoid and cuboid bones of the tarsus are sepa- rated, and this forms another difference between the camels and other ruminants. The neck and limbs are of great length in proportion. In running, the carriage of the neck is straight, the head thrown forward, a strong tendon attached to the occiput con- tracts and yields at every step forward, producing a nodding motion. The wrist, or carpal joint, is on the superior end of the canon, or metatarsal bone. The pads, or cushions, of the spreading feet con- sist of two toes, which are not externally separated, and instead of the great horny case which envelopes all the lower parts of the ordinary cloven hoof, the camels have but the rudiments of one, adhering only 84 PLATE XV. THE SKELETON IN THE FIGURE OF THE FEMALE BACTRIAN CAMEL, THE HUMAN FIGURE, AND DROMEDARY. THREE FIGURES. Figure i. Bactrian Camel . . ."j Skeletons 2. Dromedary . . . . \- in the 3. Human Figure . . .J figure. > X LLl < COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 87 to the last joint of the toe, and quite symmetrical in form. It is the expansive elasticity of the camel's feet that prevents it from sinking into the sand, and the creature is the living machine by means of which all communication is kept up across the dreary and frightful deserts, and owing to its wonderful organisation and temperate habits, it is able to perform these desolate journeys with com- parative ease. We have by no means exhausted the utility of this most extraordinary animal, wThich, if it cannot be described as beautiful, nevertheless compensates much by its entire fitness for its everyday life and unvarying utility to travellers. The hair is very abundant, and of such varied gradations in quality that the same animal may supply the exquisitely fine material for the shawls and draperies of an Eastern beauty as well as the coarser kinds for the clothes and tent of the Arab, who in addition makes his belt and sandals from the hide, and not unfrequently depends for his food on the flesh and milk. In the camel is found the peculiarly distinct feature — namely, that the humps have no permanent con- nection with the osseous structure of the animal. The head seldom exceeds twenty-four inches. The eyes are large and well sheltered with strong lids 88 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. and long eyelashes. The ears are comparatively short and inconspicuous (see Plate XV.) The camel has thirty-four teeth ; of the sixteen in the upper jaw two are canines, twelve molars, and two incisors. The last have a strong resemblance to canine teeth, being pointed, conical, compressed at the sides, and slightly curved or hooked ; they are most useful in assisting the division of the tough prickly shrubs and dry stunted herbage of the desert. The incisors in the upper jaw are only possessed by the camels and llamas, which are, therefore, excep- tions to the ruminants. The camel moves as a horse canters, that is, it moves the two limbs on the same side together and each side alternately ; they are the only figures given which represent the equal number of toes or artio- dactyle feet. CONCLUDING NOTE By the Editor. After the comparison of the structure of the fore- arm of man and the fore-leg of the horse, each in its perfect adaptation to its special use and correspon- dence of structure, the camel and dromedary must strike the student of comparative anatomy as supply- ing facts of so remarkable a character as to render the paradox of a creature without a Creator — of COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 89 intelligent and perfect adaptation of means to ends, without intelligent direction — as a marvel of incon- sistency which can only be accounted for by an illogical determination to abide by a foregone con- elusion ; accepting probabilities as proved facts in its favour, and ignoring all facts, and certainly all probabilities, which do not fit into that foregone conclusion, viz. : — That creation needed no creator, and that evidence of design and unity of plan is a theological myth ! Let the student carefully consider this as he proceeds to work out the elementary lines laid down in this little book, and then enlarge his knowledge and experience by a careful study of works in which he will find the elements he has mastered elaborated and demonstrated at large. Let him keep in mind how necessary to success in his own efforts, a purpose, a plan of action, a systematic direction of his powers — all combined, are to enable him to realise his own finite ideal. From this to the Infinite is such a tremendous step that man in his limited capacity inevitably fails to grasp it! This alone might well teach him modesty in his deductions, and show him how dangerous it is to himself, and how disastrous to his usefulness to humanity, to assert that " by searching " lie u can find out God." G. W. THE END. Sheppard and St. John, Printers, 6, St. Bride Street, Ludgate Circus, London, E.C. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1851. CLASS II.— CHEMISTRY, No. 28. . This was a Competitive Exhibition. Messrs. Winsor & Newton carried off the ONLY Medal that was awarded to the Competitors, English and Foreign, for "Artists' Colours." INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, I862. CLASS II.— CHEMISTRY. SECTION A. No. 627. The award of a Prize Medal to Messrs. Winsor & Newton for their unequalled display of fine and costly Pigments, was accompanied by the following remarks by the Jurors, viz. : — " For a magnificent display of Artists' Colours, and for their endeavours to substitute PERMANENT COLOURS FOR THE MORE FUGITIVE PIGMENTS USED BY ARTISTS." WINSOR & NEWTON'S Catalogue OF COLOURS AND MATERIALS FOR WATER COLOUR PAINTING, PENCIL, CHALK, ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING, &c. &c. trade HBrTCL^SMe'^L ^. mark &rs probat arttficnn, WINSOR & NEWTON, Limited, Manufacturing Artists' Colourmen by Special Appointment to HER MAJESTY, 3ttfj Zhtix ftogal i^tgfjncsscs tfjc iSxinct anti princess af HUtt, 38, RATHBONE PLACE, LONDON, W. 1883. PRIZE MEDAL OP THE GREAT EXHIBITION of 1851, AWARDED TO WINSOR & NEWTON, (Class II.— Chemistry, No. 28), for Artists' Colours. This was a competitive Exhibition. Messrs. Winsor & Newton carried off the ONLY Medal that was awarded to the competitors (English and Foreign) for Artists' Colours. PEIZE IMIIEID-A-IL, INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION of 1862, AWARDED TO WINSOR & NEWTON, (Class II.— Chemistry. Section A. No. 627). The award of a Prize Medal to Messrs. Winsor & Newton, for their unequalled display of fine and costly Pigments, was accompanied by the following remarks by the Jurors, viz. : "For a magnificent display of Artists' Colours, AND FOR THEIR ENDEAVOURS TO SUBSTITUTE PERMANENT COLOURS FOR THE MORE FUGITIVE PIGMENTS USED BY ARTISTS." WINSOR & NEWTON'S WATER COLOURS. Previous to the establishment of the Firm of WlNSOK & Newton (in 1832), the most beautiful productions of Water Colour Art were inevitably fugitive from the want of permanence incident to the Colours then in ordinary use; complaints were borne out by facts almost incredible to artists of the present day, whose predecessors used Spanish Liquorice, Dutch and Eose Pinks, Red Lead, Orpiment, Verditer, Green Bice, and even washes of tobacco- juice. This condition of so beautiful an art urged Messrs. WiN- sor & Newton to earnest enquiry and research with a view of raising the character of the material employed. The high standard of excellence sought by Messrs. WiN- soe & Newton rendered indispensable the aid of Chemical Science, and entirely set aside all common recipes and pernicious compounds. Perfectly appointed Chemical Works were established by them in 1S44, with steam apparatus and all the appliances necessary to modern Chemical Art. The advantageous results were apparent in the production of colours totally different from those of all the other manufacturing colour houses. The old colours were improved and new ones intro- duced. Madders, Lakes, Carmines, Chinese White, Genuine Ultra- marines, Lemon Yellows, Cadmium Yellows, &c., evidence by their superior qualities the skill bestowed upon their production. The great advantages secured have been: — Increased power and brilliancy ; and the permanency of colours previously defective in this respect. Of Winsok & Newton's Water Colours, therefore, it may be stated that sound chemical knowledge and complete laboratory apparatus and plant — powerful and specially adapted machinery — with the matured experience of fifty years, ensure the purity of Pigments and perfect preparations for the Artist's palette. WINSOB 8f NEWTON, Limited, WINSOR & NEWTON'S PREPARED WATER COLOURS IX WHOLE AND HALF CAKES. SIZE OF WHOLE CAKES. SIZE OF HALF CAKES. Whole Cakes, Is. each. — Half Cakes, 6d. each. Antwerp Blue Bistre Blue Black British Ink Bronze Brown Ochre Brown Pink Burnt Sienna Burnt Umber Chinese White Chrome Yellow Chrome Deep Chrome Orange Cologne Earth Dragon's Blood Emerald Green Flake White Gamboge Hooker's Green, No. 1. Hooker's Green, No. 2. Indian Red Indigo Italian Pink Ivory Black King's Yellow Lamp Black Light Red Naples Yellow Neutral Tint New Blue Olive Green Payne's Grey Prussian Blue Prussian Green Raw Sienna Raw Umber Roman Ochre Sap Green Terre Yerte Yandyke Brown Yenetian Red Yermilion Yellow Lake Yellow Ochre 37, 38 £ 39, RATHBONE PLACE, LONDON, W. 5 Whole Cakes, Is. 6d. each. — Half Cakes, 9c7. each. Black Lead Brown Madder Cerulean Blue Constant White Crimson Lake Mars Yellow Xeutral Orange Purple Lake Roman Sepia Rubens' Madder Scarlet Lake Scarlet Vermilion Sepia Warm Sepia Whole Cakes. 2s. each. — Half Cakes. Is. each. Cobalt Blue Indian Yellow Lemon Yellow Orange Vermilion Violet Carmine Viriclian (or Veronese Green) Whole Cakes, 3s. each. — Half Cakes, Is. 6d. each. Aureolin Burnt Carmine Cadmium Yellow Cadmium Yellow, Pale Cadmium Orange Carmine Field's Orange Vermilion French Blue (or French Ultramarine) Gallstone Indian Purple Intense Blue Mars Orange Oxide of Chromium Pink Madder Pure Scarlet Rose Madder (or Madder Lake) Whole Cakes, 5s. each. — Half Cakes, 2s. 6d. each. Madder Carmine Purple Madder Smalt Ultramarine Ash Whole Cakes, 21s. each. — Half Cakes, 10s. 6<2. each. Quarter Cakes, 5s. 6d. each. Genuine Ultramarine. WINSOB 8f NEWTON, Limited, WINSOR & NEWTON'S FEENCH POLISHED MAHOGANY BOXES FITTED WITH WHOLE CAKE WATER COLOURS. a SLIDING LID" MAHOGANY BOXES Box containing 6 Whole Cake Colours, with Brushes Ditto 12 ditto ditto Ditto 18 ditto ditto Ditto 24 ditto ditto £ s. d. 0 6 0 0 12 0 0 18 0 14 0 "LOCK" MAHOGANY BOXES. Box containing 12 Whole Cake Colours, with Brushes and other tittings ... Ditto 18 ditto ditto Ditto 24 ditto ditto £ s. d. 0 15 0 110 1 10 0 37, 38 tf 39, RATHBONE PLACE, LONDON, W. 7 "LOCK AND DRAWER" MAHOGANY BOXES. Box containing 12 Whole Cake Colours, with Brushes and other tittiugs ... Ditto 18 ditto ditto Ditto 24 ditto ditto £ s. d. 0 18 0 15 0 1 15 0 a COMPLETE" MAHOGANY BOXES. Box containing 12 Whole Cake Colours, with Brushes and £ s. d. fittings complete ... ... ... ... ...II 1 0 Ditto 18 ditto ditto ... 1 11 6 Ditto 24 ditto ditto ... | 2 2 0 WlNSOR 8r NEWTON, Limited, ti CADDY LID" MAHOGANY BOXES. Box containing 12 Whole Cake Colours, with Brushes and superior fittings Ditto 18 ditto ditto Ditto 24 ditto ditto £ s. d. 1 11 6 2 2 0 3 3 0 "SUPERIOR CADDY LID11 MAHOGANY BOXES. Box containing 12 Whole Cake Colours, with Sable Brushes and superior fittings ... Ditto 18 ditto ditto Ditto 24 ditto ditto £ s. d. 2 12 6 3 3 0 4 14 6 37, 38 Sr 39, BATHBONE PLACE, LONDON, W. 9 "HANDSOME CADDY LID" MAHOGANY BOXES. Box containing 12 Whole Cake Colours, with Sable Brushes and first class fittings Ditto 18 ditto ditto Ditto 24 ditto ditto Ditto 36 ditto ditto £ s. d. 3 13 6 4 14 6 6 6 0 9 9 0 N.B. — Boxes manufactured of Spanish Mahogany, Rosewood, Ebony, Walnut, and other choice Woods, in the first style of work- manship, and variously fitted with every requisite for Miniature, Figure, or Landscape Painting, Engineering, 8fc, from £12 to £100. Also Brass-bound Boxes for India, 8fc. 10 WINSOR Sr NEWTON, Limited, WINSOR & NEWTON'S FRENCH POLISHED MAHOGANY BOXES FITTED WITH HALF CAKE WATER COLOURS. i f SLIDING LID" MAHOGANY BOXES. | s. d] Box containing 6 Half Cake Colours, with Brashes ... ! 4 0 Ditto 12 ditto ditto ... i 6 6 Ditto 18 ditto ditto ... I 9 6 Ditto 24 ditto ditto ... I 12 6 i i LOCK" MAHOGANY BOXES. Box containing 12 Half Cake Colours, with Brushes and other fittings Ditto 18 ditto ditto Ditto 24 ditto ditto s. d. 9 0 12 0 18 0 i i LOCK AND DRAWER" MAHOGANY BOXES. Box containing 12 Half Cake Colours, with Brushes and other fittings Ditto 18 ditto ditto Ditto 24 ditto ditto s. d. 12 0 15 0 21 0 i i COMPLETE" MAHOGANY BOXES. Box containing 12 Half Cake Colours, with Brushes and fittings complete Ditto 18 ditto ditto Ditto 24 ditto ditto s. d. 14 0 18 0 25 0 i i CADDY LID" MAHOGANY BOXES. Box containing 12 Half Cake Colours, with Brushes and superior fittings Ditto 18 ditto ditto Ditto 24 ditto ditto s. d. 20 0 25 0 31 6 37, 38 £39, RATHB0NE PLAGE, LONDON, W. 11 WINS0R 4 NEWTON'S MOIST WATER COLOURS IN PORCELAIN PANS. Wixsor & Newton's Moist Water Colours are prepared after peculiar processes, and by a system of treatment known only to them- selves. Their characteristic qualities of easy solubility and prompt readiness for use are retained unimpaired, for an unlimited time ; so that a box of them, which may have been laid aside for two or three years, when required again, will be found as serviceable as when purchased. Temperature does not affect these colours; they remain as "Moist" in Tropical climates as in England; accordingly, they are confidently recommended to persons who are going to India, and to all residents in the East. While having the valuable quality of solubility, they possess another and all important one, of drying perfectly firm on the paper. Their tints, too, are pure and luminous, and their washes clear and even. In Sketching from Xature, and when representing transient and evanescent effects, the superiority of the Moist Colours is at once felt and appreciated. Ever ready for instant application, they enable the desired tint to be produced at once — a result unattainable by the old tedious method of rubbing dry cakes, which not unfre- quently permits the effect, and with it the thought of the artist to vanish, before the material can be obtained. It was this quality which, on their first introduction, secured for Wixsor k Newton's Moist Colours the eminent popularity that they still enjoy with both professional and amateur artists. The Moist Colours are placed in pans of thin porcelain, and are afterwards enclosed in tin-foil for protection ; they are also put up in Collapsible Tubes, in which form they are found con- venient, when a quantity of colour is required. 12 WIN SOB 8f NEWTON, Limited, W1NS0R & NEWTON'S MOIST WATER COLOURS, IN WHOLE AND HALF PANS. AfO/S T ' COL OUR 3$ fiATHBOHC PLACC lO A/ D O /V S £ JP //? SIZE OF WHOLE PANS. SIZE OF HALE PANS. Whole Pans, Is. each. — Half Pans, 6d. each. Antwerp Blue Bistre Blue Black Brown Ochre Brown Pink Burnt Sienna Burnt Umber Chinese White Chrome Yellow Chrome Deep Chrome Orange Cologne Earth Emerald Green Gamboge Hooker's Green, No. 1. Hooker's Green, No. 2. Indian Red Indigo Italian Pink Ivory Black Lamp Black Light Red Mauve Naples Yellow Neutral Tint New Blue Olive Green Payne's Grey Prussian Blue Prussian Green Raw Sienna Raw Umber Roman Ochre Sap Green Terre Verte Vandyke Brown Venetian Red Vermilion Yellow Lake Yellow Ochre 37, 38 8f 39, RATHBONE PLACE, LONDON, W. 13 Whole Pans, Is. 6d. each. — Half Pans, 9d. each. Brown Madder Cerulean Blue Crimson Lake Leitch's Blue (or C yanie Blue) Mars Yellow Neutral Orange Purple Lake Koman Sepia Bubens' Madder Scarlet Lake Scarlet Yermilion Sepia Warm Sepia Whole Pans, 2s. each. — Half Pans, Is. each. Cobalt Blue Indian Yellow Lemon Yellow Orange Vermilion Violet Carmine Viridian (or Veronese Green) Whole Pans, 3s. each. —Half Pans, Is. 6d. each. Aureolin Burnt Carmine Cadmium Yellow Cadmium Yellow, Pale Cadmium Orange Carmine Field's Orange Vermilion French Blue (or French Ultramarine) Gallstone Indian Purple Intense Blue Mars Orange Oxide of Chromium Pink Madder Pure Scarlet Rose Madder (or Madder Lake) Whole Pans, 5s. each. — Half Pans, 2s. 6d. each. Madder Carmine Purple Madder Smalt Ultramarine Ash 14 WINSOB tf NEWTON, Limited, WINSOR & NEWTON'S JAPANNED TIN BOXES, PITTED WITH MOIST WATER COLOURS, IN WHOLE PANS. VTTING. JAPANNED TIN BOX OF MOIST WATER COLOURS. 3 Whole Pan Box, containing Chinese White, New Blue and Sepia ... ... ... 7s. Od. (The Empty Box, Ss. 6d.) 4 Whole Pan Box, containing Raw Sienna, Light Red, Cobalt and Vandyke Brown ... 8s. 6d. (The Empty Box, Ss. 9d.) 6 Whole Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Raw Sienna, Light Red, Crimson Lake, Prussian Blue and Vandyke Brown ... ... ... ... ... 10s. 6d. (The Empty Box, 4>s\) 8 Whole Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Light Red, Crimson Lake, Cobalt, Prussian Blue and Vandyke Brown ... ... 14s. Od. (The Empty Box, 4s. 6d.) 10 Whole Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Light Red, Crimson Lake, Cobalt, Prussian Blue, Vandyke Brown and Brown Pink 16s. $d. (The Empty Box, 5s. 3d.) 37, 38 Sf 39, BATHBONE PLACE, LONDON, W. 15 MOIST WATER COLOURS IN JAPANNED BOXES. (Continued.) 12 Whole Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Light Red, Vermilion (£), Indian Red (£), Crimson Lake, Cobalt, Prussian Blue, Payne's Grey, Vandyke Brown and Brown Pink 19s. Od. (The Empty Box, os. 9cl.) 14 Whole Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Light Red, Vermilion (£), Indian Red (|), Crimson Lake, Brown Madder, Cobalt, Prussian Blue, Payne's Grey, Vandyke Brown, Sepia and Brown Pink £1 2s. 6d. (The Empty Box, 6s. Sd.) 16 Whole Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Lemon Yellow (£), Cadmium Yellow (|), Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Light Red, Vermilion (^), Indian Red (£), Crimson Lake, Rose Madder, Brown Madder, Cobalt, Indigo, Payne's Grey, Vandyke Brown, Emerald Green (^-), Viridian (£) and Brown Pink ' ... £1 8*. 6c?. (The Empty Box, 6s. 9d.) 18 Whole Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Cadmium Yellow, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Light Red, Vermilion (i), Indian Red (i), Crimson Lake, Rose Madder, Brown Madder, Cobalt, Indigo, Payne's Grey, Vandvke Brown, Sepia, Emerald Green (i), Viridian (~), Brown Pink and Lamp Black £1 12s. 6d. (The Empty Box, 7*. 6d.) 20 Whole Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Cadmium Yellow, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Light Red, Vermilion (|), Indian Red (^), Crimson Lake, Rose Madder, Brown Madder, Cerulean Blue, Cobalt, Prussian Blue, Indigo, Payne's Grey, Vandyke Brown, Sepia, Emerald Green (|), Viridian (^), Brown Pink and Lamp Black ... £1 15s. 6d. (The Empty Box, Ss.) 24 Whole Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Lemon Yellow, Cadmium Yellow, Aureolin, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Light Red, Vermilion (-^), Indian Red (i), Crimson Lake, Rose Madder, Brown Madder. Cerulean Blue, Cobalt, Prussian Blue, Indigo, Payne's Grey, Vandyke Brown, Sepia, Emerald Green (i), Oxide Chromium (£), Viridian, Olive Green, Brown Pink and Lamp Black... £2 5s. Od. I The Empty Box, 9*.) 16 W1NS0R Sf NEWTON, Limited, MOIST WATER COLOURS IN JAPANNED BOXES. (Continued.) 30 Whole Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Lemon Yellow, Cadmium Yellow, Aureolin, Yellow Ochre, Brown Ochre, Baw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Mars Orange, Light Red, Orange Vermilion, Vermilion (i), Indian Red (£), Carmine, Crimson Lake, Rose Madder, Burnt Carmine, Purple Madder, Brown Madder, Violet Carmine, Smalt (±), Ultra- marine Ash (|), Cobalt, French Blue, Prussian Blue, Payne's Grey, Vandyke Brown, Sepia, Emerald Green (-|), Oxide Chromium (-£), Viridian, Brown Pink, and Lamp Black... £3 10s. (The Empty Box, lis.) N.B. — Japanned Tin Boxes, with the Patent Flexible Divisions, are supplied, at the same prices as the ordinary Boxes. WINSOR & NEWTON'S JAPANNED TIN BOXES, FITTED WITH MOIST WATER COLOURS, IN HALF PANS. 6 Half Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Light Red, Crimson Lake Prussian Blue and Vandyke Brown .. . ... ... ... ... ... 7s. Od. (The Empty Box, 3s. 9d.) 8 Half Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Burnt Sienna, Light Bed, Crimson Lake, Cobalt, Indigo and Vandyke Brown ... ... ... 9s. Od. (The Empty Box, is. 3d.) 10 Half Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Baw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Light Bed, Crimson Lake, Cobalt, Indigo, Vandyke Brown and Brown Pink ' 10s. 6d, (The Empty Box, 4s.' 9;?.) 12 Half Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Baw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Vermilion, Light Red, Crimson Lake, Brown Madder, Cobalt, Indigo, Vandyke Brown and Brown Pink ... ... ... 12s. Od. (The Empty Box, 5s. 3d.) 37, 38 $• 39, BATHE OXE PLAGE, LONDON, W. 17 MOIST WATER COLOURS IN JAPANNED BOXES, (Continued.) 14 Half Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Bnrnt Sienna, Vermilion, Light Red, Indian Red, Crimson Lake, Cobalt, Indigo, Neutral Tint, Vandyke Brown, Brown Pink and Lamp Black ... 13s. 6d. (The Empty Box, 5*. 9d.) 16 Half Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Cadmium Yellow, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Vermilion, Light Red, Indian Red, Crimson Lake, Brown Madder, Cobalt, Indigo, Neutral Tint, Vandyke Brown, Brown Pink and Lamp Black ... ... ... ... ... 16s. Od. (The Empty Box, 6s.) 18 Half Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Cadmium Yellow, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Vermilion, Light Red, Indian Red, Crimson Lake, Rose Madder, Brown Madder, Cobalt, Indigo, Xeutral Tint, Vandyke Brown, Emerald Green. Brown Pink and Lamp Black ... 18s. 6d. (The Empty Box, &*. 6d.) 20 Half Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Cadmium Yellow, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Vermilion, Light Red, Indian Red, Crimson Lake, Rose Madder, Brown Madder, Cobalt, French Blue, Indigo, Xeutral Tint, Vandyke Brown, Emerald Green, Oxide Chromium, Brown Pink and Lamp Black 22s. Od. (The Empty Box. Is. ) 24 Half Pan Box, containing Gamboge, Lemon Yellow, Cadmium Yellow, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna. Burnt Sienna, Vermilion, Light Red. Indian Red, Crimson Lake, Rose Madder, Purple Madder, Brown Madder, Cobalt, French Blue, Prussian Blue, Indigo, Neutral Tint, Vandyke Brown, Sepia, Emerald Green, Oxide Chromium, Brown Pink and Lamp Black ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 27*. Od. (The Empty Box. 7#. 8 WIXSOR & NEWTON'S MINIATURE JAPANNED TIN BOXES, Fitted with Moist Water Colours. d $. d. Bex containing 6 Colours 4 6 Ditto 8 ditto 5 6 Ditto 10 ditto 6 6 Box containing 12 Colours 7 6 Ditto 14 ditto 8 0 Ditto 16 ditto 9 6 18 WIN BOB 8r NEWTON, Limited, OVAL POCKET-BOX OF MOIST COLOURS. WELL ADAPTED FOR A PRESENT. 37, 38 $■ 39, EATHBONE PLAGE, LONDON, W. 19 WINSOR & NEWTON'S MOIST WATER COLOURS IIST COLLAPSIBLE TUBES. Moist Water Colours in Tubes, though somewhat wasteful, are of assistance as furnishing quickly a quantity of colour, and affording facilities for power of touch and vigor of effect. They should be used within reasonable time, as they do not keep so long, or so well, as the ordinary Moist Colours in porcelain pans. 1*. each Antwerp Blue Bistre Blue Black Brown Ochre Brown Pink Burnt Sienna Burnt Umber Cologne Earth Chrome Yellow Chrome Deep Chrome Orange Emerald Green Garuboge Indian Red Indigo Italian Pink Ivory Black Lamp Black Light Red Naples Yellow Neutral Tint New Blue Olive Green Payne's Grey Prussian Blue Prussian Green Raw Sienna Raw Umber Roman Ochre Terre Yerte Yandyke Brown Yenetian Red Yermilion Yellow Lake Yellow Ochre CHINESE WHITE— Small TYbes, 6c7. each ; Large Tubes. Is. each, Brown Madder Crimson Lake Mars Yellow Cobalt Blue Indian Yellow Is. 6(7. each. Leitch's Blue I Purple Lake (or Cyanine Blue)j Roman Sepia Neutral Orange Scarlet Lake 2s. each. Orange Yermilion Yiolet Carmine Scarlet Yermilion Sepia Warm Sepia Yiridian (or Yeronese Green) Aureolin Burnt Carmine Cadmium Yellow Ditto Pale 3s. each. Cadmium Orange I Carmine French Blue (or Fr. Ultramarine) Field's Orange Yermilion Gallstone Indian Purple Mars Orange Oxide of Chromium Pink Madder Rose Madder Purple Madder os. each. Smalt Ultramarine Ash 20 WINS OB 8f NEWTON, Limited, WINSOR & NEWTON'S Japanned Tin Boxes op MOIST WATER COLOURS IN COLLAPSIBLE TUBES. WINSOR 4NEWTON, 12 Tube Box, containing Gamboge, Raw Sienna, Yellow Ochre, Burnt Sienna, Crimson Lake, Light Red, Vermilion, Cobalt, Indigo, Brown Pink, Vandyke Brown and Payne's Grey £1 2s. Gd. (The Empty Box, 9s.) 15 Tube Box, containing Gamboge, Cadmium Yellow, Raw Sienna, Yellow Ochre, Burnt Sienna, Crimson .Lake, Light Red, Indian Red, Brown Madder, Cobalt, Prussian Blue, Viridian, Brown Pink, Vandyke Brown and Payne's Grey £*1 10s. Gd. (The Empty Box, 10s. Gd.) 20 Tube Box, containing Gamboge, Cadmium Yellow, Raw Sienna, Yellow Ochre, Burnt Sienna, Rose Madder, Crimson Lake, Light Red, Vermilion, Indian Red, Violet Carmine, Brown Madder, Cobalt, Indigo, Emerald Green, Viridian, Brown Pink, Vandvke Brown, Payne's Grey and Sepia £2 2s. Od. (The Empty Box, 13s. Gd.) 24 Tube Box, containing Gamboge, Cadmium Yellow, Raw Sienna, Yellow Ochre, Deep Chrome, Mars Orange, Burnt Sienna, Rose Madder, Crimson Lake, Light Red, Vermilion, Indian Red, Brown Madder, Purple Lake, Cobalt, French Blue, Prussian Blue, Indigo, Emerald Green, Viridian, Brown Pink, Van- dyke Brown, Payne's Grey and Sepia £2 10s. Gd, (The Empty Box, 14s. Gd.) 30 Tube Box, containing Gamboge, Cadmium Yellow, Cadmium Orange, Italian Pink, Raw Sienna, Yellow Ochre, Orange Chrome, Mars Orange. Burnt Sienna, Rose Madder, Crimson Lake, Light Red, Orange Vermilion, Vermilion, Indian Red, Brown Madder, Purple Lake, Cobalt, French Blue, Prussian Blue, Indigo, Emerald Green, Viridian, Olive Green, Terre Verte, Brown Pink, Vandyke Brown, Neutral Tint, Sepia, and Ivory Black. Also bottles of Chinese White, Indelible Brown Ink, and Ox 'Gall ; a copper plated Water Bottle and Japanned Palette £3 12s.6d. (The Empty Box, 19s.) 37, 38 8r 39, BATHBONE BLAGE, LONDON, W. 21 WINSOR & NEWTON'S MOIST WATER COLOURS FOR t j r lUummatum anb JSlissal ^ahttmg. These Moist Water Colours are placed in Glass Pots, and are the same prices as Moist Colours in Whole Pans (pages 12 and 13.) SIZE OF MOIST COLOURS IN GLASS POTS. Bo^s of Illuminating Colours, Fitted with Materials complete. £ s. d. Box containing 8 suitable Colours for illuminating, and the necessary materials... ..11 0 Ditto „ 12 It H » .. 1 11 6 Ditto „ 16 it tt » ..2 2 0 Ditto „ 21 tt it » ..3 3 0 Ditto „ 24 it a » ..5 5 0 22 WIN 80E Sf NEWTON, Limited, BEST NANKIN INDIAN INK. No. 1. No. 2. 37,38 $■ 39, BATHBONE BLAOE, LONDON, W. 23 BEST NANKIN INDIAN INK. No. 1. Extra Large Double Dragon "> Ink J 2. Hexagon Ink . . . 3. Super Super Ink 4. Mandarin Ink 5. Pearl Ink 6. Stork Gilt Ink The illustration* are the exact sizes of the Inks as numbered. (No*. 10, 11, and 12, are not illustrated.) No. 7. Square Gilt Ink 8. Lion's Head Ink 9. Small Double Dragon Ink 10. Small Lion's Head Ink 11. Small Square Gilt Ink 12. Small Square Black Ink Per stick. *.d. 0 0 0 9 9 6 24 WINS OB Sf NEWTON, Limited, ■■"■" — - ' 1 i WINSOR & NEWTON'S PERMANENT CHINESE WHITE IN BOTTLES. A peculiar preparation of White Oxide of Zinc, the only Perfectly Permanent White Pigment for Water Colour Painters, Small or Half Bottles, 6d. Bottles Is It is now half a century since Winsor & Newton turned their attention to remedying a want much felt by the Water Colour Painters, viz. : a White which would combine perfect permanency with good body in working. The invention and introduction of the pigment named by them " Chinese White " was the result, and its superior body and freedom of working immediately attracted the notice of the leading Water Colour Painters. The late Mr. J. D. Harding being very desirous of ascertaining its permanency, submitted it to the examination of one of the greatest Chemists in Europe (the late Mr. Faraday), who satisfied him that it might be employed with perfect safety, and strongly recommended it in preference to all other white pigments. In " Principles and Practice of Art," Mr. Harding wrote: — " When this pigment, which is prepared by Winsok & NewtOX rnder the name of 1 Chmese White,' was first put into my hands, some years ago, I appl'ed to one of my friends, whose name as a chemist and philosopher is amcngst the most distinguished in our country, to analyse it for me, and to tell me if I might rely en its durability; the reply was, that if it would in all other respects answer the purpose I required of it, I had nothing to fear on account of its durability." Ever since the year 1834 Winsor & Newton's Chinese White has been used by all the Eminent Water Colour Artists, and it is a source of great satisfaction that they are able to say, that in no instance has any work of art, in which their White has been used, suffered from its employment, while prior to its introduction the com- plaints of Whites changing were of every-day occurrence. 37, 38 $ 39, BATEBONE BLACE, LONDON, W. 25 WINSOR & NEWTON'S LIQUID WATER COLOURS AND MEDIUMS. (Size of the bottles of Liquid Cjloun.J Indian Ink ... Carmine Sepia ... Indelible Brown Ink Prout's Brown Prussian Blue Lamp Black ... Vermilion Asphaltum ... Ox Gall, colourless . Gum Water ... Gold Ink Silver Ink Chinese White Water Colour Megilp Glass Medium, Xo. 1 Ditto ditto Xo. 2 Opaque body, for illuminating Eaising Preparation for ditto The following are in China Pots- Burnish Gold Size ... Mat Gold Size Ox Gall, Prepared ... Bottles. d. 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 ] Half Bottles. *. d. 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 ao

fc 0 6 26 WINSOR 8f NEWTON, Limited, WINSOR & NEWTON'S BROWN OR RED SABLE BRUSHES (IN QUILLS) For Water Colour Painting. Extra Small Swan. Small Swan. Middle Swan. Large Swan. (The above Illustrations show the sizes of Sable or Siberian Brushes.) Winsor & Newton's Sable Brushes axe made of the finest unadulterated Hair, and are manufactured by their own skilled workmen. 37, 38 & 39, RATHBONE PLACE, LONDON, W. 27 WINSOR & NEWTON'S BROWN SABLE BRUSHES (IN QUILLS). Crow Duck Small Goose Goose Extra Goose s. d each 0 6 »> 0 9 >> 1 0 j> 1 3 jj 1 9 Extra Small Swan Small ,, Middle „ Large See Illustration on opposite page. 9. d. each 4 0 „ 5 6 ,,7 6 „ 10 0 RED SABLE BRUSHES (IN QUILLS). s. d. *. d. Crow ... each 0 6 Extra Small Swan each 4 0 Duck ,, 0 10 Small ,, „ 5 6 Small Goose ... ,, 1 3 Middle ,, ,, 7 6 Goose ,, 1 6 Large „ „ 10 0 Extra Goose ... ,, 2 0 See Illustration t m opposite page. SIBERIAN HAIR BRUSHES (IN QUILLS). Extra quality. *. d. s. Crow ... ... each 0 2 Extra Small Swan each 0 Duck 0 2 Small „ ... „ 1 Goose ,, 0 3 Middle ,, ... „ 1 Large „ ... „ 2 See Illustration on opposite page. 28 WINSOR 8f NEWTON, Limited, WINSOR AND NEWTON'S FINEST BROWN OR RED WATER COLOUR SABLES IN ALBATA FERRULES {FLAT OR ROUND.) m II ml Jul BROWN SABLE HAIR. s. No. 1, Flat or Round, each 1 „ 1 ,, 1 .. 2 » 2 m 2 ,. 3 These Illustrations show Flat Brushes. RED SABLE HAIR. *. o 5Q 73 a o •* o 50 to CO * CO 00 o o © - - M O . • , © • a © id ^3 a © S PI © © O c3 eg cS CO -±3 »5 S3 O < *J © 73 © © 42 bo c3 © co CCS CQ © -+3 © ■+3 © O o 73 © N o Ph o • h £ __, © *H CO o3 $ © 73 Cv> S CS © QQ h4 Tfl ^ 3 1197 00160 9400 DATE DUE «0V M*v °n1fl ftf - ■> "10ft DEC 1 •' ^n02 t nm 2085- u KiiV J 2008 MAR 1 1?019 fEF * n DEMCO 38-297