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Digitized by the Internet Archive In 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation
http://www. archive.org/details/comparativelatinOOallerich
LATIN GRAMMAR.
LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR
BY
JOSEPH H. ALLEN
AND
JAMES B. GREENOUGHL
BOSTON PUBLISHED BY GINN BROTHERS
38 BEACON STREET
1875
60 AYa) 13ยฐ75
BERNARD MOSES
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by J. H. ALLEN AND J. B. GREENOUGH,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
earee o e
ene
CAMBRIDGE: PRESS OF JOHN WILSON AND SON.
PREFACE.
Our aim has been to prepare, within moderate com- pass, a complete Latin grammar, to be used from the beginning of the study of Latin until the end of a college course. The whole has been composed from our own point of view, and is, in all essentials, a new and independent work. But we have used freely the standard authorities, as well those of the older scho- lastic as of the newer critical and scientific schools. In several points, particularly the topical arrangement of the Syntax, we have followed the outline sketched a few years ago by Professor Allen, of the University of Wisconsin.
We have endeavored to adapt the scientific (philo- logical) method of inflection by stem and termination to the system used by the Romans themselves and handed down by general custom to our time. While the five Declensions are retained, with the old distinc- tions on which they are founded, at the same time the true philological difference, that of stems, is fully exhibited as the real basis of noun-forms. In the same way the true distinctions of verb-stems are adapted to the existing four Conjugations. We have preferred this to the โ crude-formโ system, partly because of the practical difficulty that our lexicons do not give
887441
vi a ame EFACE.
stems, but words ;. shietiy, hower er, , fi om the inherent difficulty of a- โ@riide-forn,. โsystem ja, a: language so decayed as the Latin.
In respect to the actual forms of the language, we have not thought it necessary to go back of Neueโs โยขFormenlehre,โโ upon which we have relied, and which teachers will find digested so far as seems to come within the limits of a work like the present.
In the Syntax, our design has been to leave no principle untouched which a student needs during his school and college course. We have attempted to show, as far as possible, the reason and origin of con- structions, for which purpose notes have been inserted where it seemed desirable. Many things in the treat- ment of the Subjunctive, of the Protasis and Apodosis (in which we have followed Professor Goodwinโs analysis), of Temporal particles, of the Infinitive and Participles, and much of the matter of the notes, appear for the first time in a school-book, and are the results of the authorsโ own investigations in Compar- ative Grammar. The Syntax is illustrated by upwards of a thousand examples cited from classical authorities, principally from Cicero; besides nearly as many brief phrases in illustration of minor points, particularly the use of prepositions and cases.
In Prosody and Versification we have taken a little wider range than usual, so as to enable the student to read metrically any poetry he will meet in his college course.
In the typography and mechanical arrangement of the page, we have sought to give every aid that can be rendered in that way to the easy comprehension of the subject. The sub-sections in larger type (num-
PREFACE. Vii
bered 1, 2, 8, &c.) contain of themselves a complete outline, and we think will be found sufficient, with the accompanying paradigms or examples, for a course of elementary study. Details of form or structure, re- quiring to be committed to memory only as they occur in reading, are put in smaller type, marked a, d, c, &e. And the points of philology, or special criticism, which appear to throw valuable side-light upon the subject, interesting chiefly to teachers or special students, are contained in the form of Notes, not interfering at all with the treatment in the text. By paying attention to this subordination of topics, teachers will avoid the serious error of crowding upon the student, prema- turely, a mass of details, which might only perplex and obscure his real understanding of the subject.
CaMBRIDGE, April, 1872.
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ae si Pl Ae lu "Ahyt leak i.
NOTE.
For the convenience of those who may wish to follow out special lines of study in general or comparative grammar, or to consult original sources on the history and development of the Latin, a list of works including the best and. most recent author-โ ities is here subjoined : โ
Bopp: Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, etc. [Indo-European lan-
guages]. 4 vols. 8d Ed. Berlin, 1868-70.
The original standard work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have corrected some erroneous details. English translation (poor), London: 1862. The best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel Brรฉal. Paris: 1866.
CorssEn : Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache. 2 vols. 2d Ed. Leipzig, 1868. The greatest work on Latin-a/one, treating the language in reference to its
own individual development, particularly as to the sounds (Lawtlehre). In the comparative portion, it needs the correction of other investigators.
over G.: Grundziige der Griechischen Etymologie. 8d Ed. Leipsic: 8
Treats of Latin only by comparison; but is one of the most valuable works on the general subject.
Erlรฉuterungen zu meiner Gtriechischen Schul-grammatik. 2d Ed. Prag. 1870. English translation (โ Elucidationsโ), London: 1870. Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of
the doctrine of forms.
DetsricK: Das Conjunctiv und Optativ, im Sanskrit und Griechischen. Halle: 1871.
_ Origin of the Moods treated scientifically; should be read in connection with a notice in N. A. Review, Oct. 1871, and โ Analysis of the Latin Subjunc- tive,โ by J. B. Greenough, Cambridge, 1870.
Ablativ, Localis, Instrumentalis im indischen, etc. Berlin, 1867. Origin of the various Ablative constructions.
FERRAR: Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. Won- don: 1869. Vol. I., including as far as Pronouns. A convenient hand-book in English.
Fick : Vergleichendes Worterbuch der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen. Got- tingen: 1870.
A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo- European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the various
x NOTE.
languages. It can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book
however, is safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and
vowel changes.
Horrmann: Die Construction der Lateinischen Zeitpartikeln. Vienna: 1860 (Pamphlet).
Kunn: See Zeitschrift. LusBert: Die Syntax von Quom. Breslau: 1870.
Neve: Formenlehre der Lateinischen Sprache. 2d Ed. Stuttgart, 1866. Storehouse of all Latin forms, 1200 pages, containing the result of late text-
ual criticism. The standard work.
Prei1LeE: Latin and Greek Etymology. 24d Ed. Macmillan: London and Cambridge, 1872.
- Rosy: A Grammar of the Latin Language, from Plautus to Suetonius. Macmillan: London and New York, 1871. Vol. IL.
A thorough treatment of Latin Etymology on the principles of comparative grammar. Some errors have been pointed out in the N. A. Review, Jan. 1872.
ScHLEICHER: Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo- Germanischen Sprachen. 2d Ed. Weimar, 1866.
ScHWEIZER-S1IpDLER: Elementar- und Formenlehre der Lateinischen Sprache, fiir Schulen. Halle, 1869.
The best summary of the results of comparative grammar as applied to Latin in short compass (137 pages).
Witttams: A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Lanquage. 8d Ed.
Oxford, 1864.
A very convenient Sanskrit grammar, without some knowledge of which it is difficult to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage. Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Sprachforschung. Edited by Dr. A. Kunn.
Vols. I. to XX. Berlin, 1851-1871, and still continued.
The best essays on all disputed points of comparative Philology. Indispen- sable to correct theories of individual investigators. Each volume has am Index ; and there is also a general index to the first ten volumes.
CONTENTS.
PART I.โ ETYMOLOGY.
SECTION 1. Alphabet. . . โ oi ei
1. can detadeaaa 2. asi Hocus: 3. Cinch: 4. Com- binations ; 5. Syllables.
Mer PeOOISIOL, okโ oo tet ete kOe BS. i ear epee 8 DPI 50? CN gc con' icc y fa anc gener ety ue cat git oat Me rs et lt hg} Loe a usa as ce, od pees ne aegis kite g 5. Inflection 1. Definition ; 2. Root ana โStem: Inflected sarts of speech; 4. Particles. Gomerโ ono ee See SO ey Cae ee etn 1. Natural and Geiuris ont: 2. Rules; 3. Common Gender; 4. Epicene. (SEY Be CO ean Aire Al's eine a Peg ace anime sea 8. Declension . . Gere ce 1. Declensions ; 2. Rules: 8. โGasomndiies
Nouns.
9. First Declension . . gmP ices 1. Gender; 2. Case Forms 8. Gieck icuisak 10. Second Declension
1. Nominative; 2. Sie in ro=; 3. Gender 4. Case Forms; 5, 6. Nouns in er; 7. Greek Nouns.
11. Third Declension ..
I. Vowel Stems. โ1. Stems: 2. Noritintiveโ 3. Cand Forms; 4. Greek Nouns.
If. Liquid Stems. . . F
Ill. Mute Stems. โ 1. Labial ; 2. Lingual; 3. Palatal; 4. Peculiar Forms; 6. Greek Nouns
IV. Rules of Gender. โ1. Nominative ee 2. Bichon: %. Classified List .<. 2... Me Sit ah
ONO OH
xli CONTENTS. SECT. 2 BYE LPOIGNSION ods pore ee eae xk yee Uw ele ae"
13. 14.
15.
16.
a ty &
18.
19. 20. 21.
22.
23. 24. 25. 26. 27.
28.
29. 30.
31. 32. 33.
PtH SICCIONSION | coo etic a ses Uae! Hew d โ6 foe hess
Irregular Nouns . . ee gs Cane Tak ee 1. Defective; 2. Wadlabie
Proper Names ys 2 6." a eh tee ee 6 wee:
ADJECTIVES. Inflection . .
1. Of the 1st and od Pecleasian 9. Of 3d ocinasten: 3. Consonant Stems, Gas ara
Comparison .
1. Regular; 2. heciatey? 3. Defective: oy imdeaiha: 5. Signification.
Numeralsโ. oS 42 cline Seats exe aie ine
1. Cardinal and Ordinal ; 2. Distributives; 3. Numeral Adverbs; 4. Multiplicatives.
PRONOUNS. Personal and TOnSRIVe ce oe oe eee is nee. as oe Demonstrative. . . pita? Fa Relative, Interrogative, sa Indefinite Si yey 1. Case-Forms; 2. Compounds. PRGP EVR 5 5g) ag & ROR Ne Pee ce oe
VERBS. TEMES Ste Sig tg hg ug orgs Sule tie = Secon Tap tete SMTA E Coa ie hia) we ket ee ee eee, pe et PN ENS ag Maer oie eR Mea ohh ins Apel Gerund and Supine Tenses .. eee peng 5%
1. Classification ; 2. Aicariae' 8. Perfect and hae fect; 4. Passive Tenses; 5. Stems.
Verb Forms ..
1. Personal Rings: 2. Chanecs of Rises: 3. Verb- Endings.
Hase and its Compounds ยซ...... 0 6:6. s) 2 os. aie Conjugation
1. First Coriugatian 2. Sancti Pauhcgeee : 3. Third Conjugation; 4. Fourth Conjugation; 5. Principal Parts; 6. Special Forms; 7. Parallel Forms.
First Conjugation . GT At \caphay eacla Wt aires Bate 1a Gs 8 Pha
Second Conjugation . Third Conjugation . 1. Regular; 2. Verbs in io; 3, Treats PoniueaGon ,
PAGE.
28 29 30
32
33
38
41
44 45 47
49
50 51 51 52 52
o4
57 60
66 68 70 72
CONTENTS.
SEOT.
34.
35.
36. 37. 38. 39. 40.
41.
42.
43.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
Wourth Compan vars a 6 eee eee Deponent Verbs . .. .- fa Fa es are AR Bertola 1. Conjugation; 2. Semi- rie hansitte:
TRIPE V OFOO = ig | aie a is es a ee ee RESOROIBE VOOR 6g Fr Pe 0 a 8K Se Defective Verbs. esis el ye ee
RISO ADBAL VW CTOS Woe 8 Eee Poripnraginc Forms: 660 ee es ee ee
PARTICLES. BAVOr ee 6s ee pibhe ยฉ 6car wee we 5S so Pan tg โ1. Derivation; 2. Classification : 3. Signification. Prepositions ยฐ โ 1. With Cases; 2. Meaning id Hse: Measles: 8. Hi Compounds. Conjunctions. . . of ak eds eines 1. Classification; 2. Classified int 3. Special Meaning. . Derivation of Words. . . . cee 1. Noun Forms; 2. Derivation of Waiteโ 3. Sounsend Words. PART II.โSYNTAX. Definitions . . . . Seo) wed wt etyteh! ote
1. Sentence; 2. Subject ae Prodicateโ 3. Modification ; 4. Phrase ; 5. Clause; 6. Connectives ; a Agree- ment; 8. Government.
1. SuBJECT AND PREDICATE..
OF NOUNS v.00. ยซ site lh tau a 1. Appositive; 2. Predicate: Nominative: Of Adjectives . . : ane or ak 1. Number; 2. iden 3. โa ae 4. Use of Neu- ter; 5. Possessives ; 6. As Adverbs; 7. Compari- son; 8. Superlatives of Place; 9. ne Of Relatives ... ;
1. Person of Verb; 2. Wahdee: 3. Niltecodont: ig As Connective ; 5. Adverbs.
Verbs: Rules of Agreement . . . . โ 1. Plural with Collectives, &c.; 2. Noutitative Subject.
2. CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. Genitive .
1. Subjective, 114; 2. Partitive, 115: 8. Objective, 117; 4. After Verbs, 119.
82
101
103
105
109
112
113
xiv CONTENTS.
SECT. 51. Dative e e e . e . e e e ry . 1. With Teshittives: 121: 2. With Intransitives, 122; 3. Of Possession, 126 ; 4. Of Agency, 127; 5. Of Service, 128; 6. Of Nearness, tb ee & Of Refer- ence, 129; ; (Ethical Dative, 180). 52. Accusative). . . . , 1. General Use ( Coane Apiusaties, 131): : 2. Two hat cusatives; 3. Adverbial; 4. Special Uses. a OCRLIVO So ee bw 4 fy ow 80 54. Ablative .
1. Of Beuerition; 135; 2. Of Binivee, 136; โ8. Of Cine: 187; 4. Of Agent, 138; 5. Of Comparison, 188; 6. Of Means, 139; 7. Of Quality, 141; 8. Of Price, 141; 9. Of Specification, 142; 10. Locative: Abla- tive Absolute, 142.
55. Time and Place .. . a 1. Time; 2. Space; 3. Place (Locative Form, 145) ; : 4. Way by which. 56. Use of Prepositions: 2ยฐ ls ee ee ee
8. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. _57. Use of Moods. . . . co Sais al
1. Indicative; 2. Sulijunative Hodapandent or Depeul: ent; 38. Hortatory; 4. Optative; 5. Concessive ; 6. Dubitative) ; 7. Imperative; 8. Infinitive (Com- plementary, 154; With Subject-Accusative, 155 ; Historical, 156). ;
58. Use of Tenses. . . ; erecta" ee? ase 1. Indicative; 2. โPresent ( รฉonaive: 157 ; Historical, 158); 8. Imperfect; 4. Future; 5. Perfect ; 6. Plu- perfect; 7. Future-Perfect ; 8. Epistolary Tenses ; 9. Of Subjunctive ; 10. Sequence of Tenses (Primary and Secondary, 162) ; ; 11. Of Infinitive. 59. Conditional Sentences . . : ol eps it 1. Protasis and Apodosis; 2. Partiedlar Me General Con:
ditions; 3. Present and Past Conditions; 4. Future Conditions; 5. General Conditions.
60. Implied Conditions 1. Condition Disguised ; 2. Condition Omitted.
61. Conditional Particles. . . . slp ee SPR EtG ig 1. Comparative ; 2. Concessive ; 8. Provisory ; 4. Mean- ing and Use.
62. Relations of Time
1. Use as in Protasis; 2. xtaohitte tia Relative Time, (Cum temporal, 178 ; causal, 180).
63. Cause or Reason . . โ 1. With Indicative; 2. With Subjunelive:
PAGE.
121
131
134 134
157
166
181
CONTENTS. xV
SECT. PAGE. 64. Purpose (Final Clauses) , . . pew Bht ec eee 1. Relatives or Conjunctions ; 2. Forms. 65. Consequence or Result (Consecutive Clauses). . . . 183 1. Subjunctive with ut (ne); 2. Of Characteristic. 66. Intermediate Clauses . Series eae 1. Subjunctive of Citation ; 2. Dependent Clauses. 67. Indirect Discourse . 187 1. Indirect Narrative (Subject-Accusative, Relative Clau- ses, Conditional Sentences, Questions), 188; 2. In- direct Questions, 190; 3. Indirect Commands, 191. Ge Ny nee Gn. Commanns 602 ois. eae hel pa. ee at ee 69. Relative Clauses (Classification of) . . . . . . . 193 TO.; BuDstATVIVe C nbgee oo ek eee ee oe tee kee 1. Classification; 2. Accusative and Infinitive, 194; 8. Clauses of Purpose, 195; 4. Clauses of Result, 197; 5. Indicative with quod, 199. 71. Questions . ge} 1: Interrogative Particles ; 2, Double Questions ; 3. Ques- tion and Answer. 72. Participles . . 202 1. Distinctions of Tense ; 2. โAdjective use; 3. " Predi- cate use; 4. Future eas ; 5. Gerundive. 73. Gerund and Gerundive . . 206 1. Gerund; 2. Gerundive; 3. Construction of Cases. 74. Supine... Oat aetna ene we asciele ait eee 75. General Rules of ie sence: Ove ayes a ERO oe ame 76. Arrangement . . . 212 1. Normal Order ; 2. fachasix: 3. Sivuctate (Periodic). PART III.โ PROSODY.
RR ge heels, al cone yee nS ety oe Aaa 78. Rules of Quantity. 215 1. General Rules; 2. Final Syllables ; : 3. Penultimate
Syllables (Increment of Nouns and Verbs). Me Obs G8 6 SE RO pa apa gic eer ay eee Be CAD a era pe lelioek Ser ea ve eee CG ik ae Gh ig iat ge Wo a pe RP OE gta Tie Oe ee as FOr OF NCPR ry ee erie sn oe he es ee eee SPORE A TONDO eo ghee a 8 ee hehe et ee eee ee Ue OF PUN 0 ore eae ah elit len Zon Ree OMOTCN OF VAIUGS 6 ea. el a Sele oi eee 8) eee
Lets 2 aU each? ope rt Ma eat ac awe |
EIN ie AS adh hah gg hes Gg oc... ican.
LATIN GRAMMAKL.
PART FIRST.
FORMS OF WORDS (ETYMOLOGY).
1. ALPHABET.
Tue Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, wanting. W.
Norr.โ The letter w is found, however, in many modern Latin words, especially proper names.
1. Classification. โ The letters of the alphabet are
classified as follows : โ
a. VoweELS (litterae vocales, or voice-letters) : a, e, i, 0, u, y. The following are Diphthongs (double-vowels): ae (@), au, eu, oe (ce), ei, ui
b. Consonants (litterae consonantes, i.e., sounding-with the vowels) : โ
Mutss: Labial surd p sonant b spirant fv) nasal m Lingual ,, t dex, oe a {th} uP n Palatal ,, c(%),a 558 5 Dis fi Poy bite Double Consonants, x (ces), z (ds).
Liquips: 1, m, n, r.โ Sreiuants: surd s, sonant z.
The letters i (j) and u (v) at the beginning of a syllable be- fore a vowel, also u in quis, suadeo, &c., are SEMI-VOWELS.
The consonants f, g, p, z, are never used at the end of a word.
Notre.โThe Aspirate (or breathing) h follows in inflection the rule of palatals; and was originally, in many words, a harsh guttural (kh), like the Greek x, or the Spanish j. Its later sound was very slight, and in most languages derived from Latin has quite disappeared.
Sometimes, as in aheneus (= aรฉneus), it seems to be used only to separate two vowels. It is not reckoned as a consonant in Prosody.
ce โฌ โฌ
% ยซ ยฉ ยฉ) ยฉ ยซยฃ โฌ> ,
2 EARLY, FORMS. โ CHANGES. [1: 2, 3 Be we fe cose ; ee ;
2. Early Forms. โThe alphabรฉt in the time of Cicero (N. D. ii. 87) consisted of โone and twenty letters.โ These were, โ
abedefghikimnuinogpgans tu =
y and z were added, in words derived from Greek. _i and u, when used as consonants (โโ semi-vowelsโ), having the sound of y and w, are generally written j and v: as, juvenis for iuuenis.
a. In early use, c was not distinguished in form or sound from g. After the distinction was made, C was still used, convention- ally, as the initial of names (Gaius, Gnaeus) beginning ee with G. It came, in later use, to take the place of k, which was retained only in abbreviations, or as the initial letter of a few words, as Kalendae, Karthago, in which it is followed by a.
b. Till after the age of Augustus, u was never, in good use, preceded in the same ssllable by u or v. In many words, as in volt, servos, o was written where later custom allows u; while ce was regularly used for qu in such words as cum (four quum), ecus (for equus), relicus (for reliquus), locuntur (for lo- quuntur), and the like; also in cotidie (for quotidie), and a few other words. The old forms quom (for cum) and quor (for cur) are also found.
c. At the end of a few words,โas sed, apud, illud, โ t was anciently written instead of a. In words ending in -s, final s was often elided (Cic. Orat. 48), as in qualist (qualis-est) ; plenuโ fidei (Senect. 1).
3. Changes.โ Letters are often changed, according to general laws of inflection (vowel-increase), or to secure an easier or smoother sound (euphonic change); or have been altered or lost through long use (phonetic decay). Of such changes are the following: โ
a. Vowels are strengthened in inflection and derivation (vowel- increase): as, ago, รฉgi (cf. tell, told); disco, ddceo (cf. fall, fell ; si, set); pendo, pondus; persdรฉno, persGna; perfidus, fidus, foedus (cf. bind, band).
Norte. โ The primitive vowel-sound may be assumed to be a, as in father. Starting with this, and gradually contracting the padlate, we form in succession the sound of e (@) and i (ee), leading to the semi-vowel j (y). By contracting the dips, we in like manner form the sound of o and u (00), leading to the semi-vowel v (w). By contracting both palate and lips, we form the French sound of u,โ in Greek v, and in Latin y. This, which is called the Vowel-Scale, is of great service in ss tracing the modifications of vowel-sounds. It . ns may be represented thus :โ See ies Te:
L:ยฐ3.] EUPHONIC CHANGES. 3
b. Vowels are weakened by negligent pronunciation for long periods of time (phonetic decay). โThus, on one side of the scale, a becomes e, then i; or, on the other, becomes o, then u; while u and i meet in the French u (y): as, agmen, agminis; fa&cio, conficio, confectum; sdlio, exsulto; sepรฉlio, sepultus; ebur, eboรฉris; maxtimus, maximus (cf. master, misler, mistress).
c. Two vowels coming together are contracted into a single sound: as, Obit (obiit), cogo (co-ago), nil (nihil), debeo (de- hibeo), coetus (coitus), ingeni (cf. mayhem, maim).
d. The semi-vowels j and v are lost before a vowel, contrac- tion sometimes also taking place: as, Sbicit (Sbjicit), cdnicit (conjicit), cunctus (conjunctus), rursus (reversus), contio (conventio), mo6tum (mรฉvitum).
e. Between two vowels, or before m or n, 8 becomes r: as, genus, generis; maereo, maestus; veternus (vetus-nus), carmen (casmen), dirimo (dis-imo), diribeo (dis-habeo),
f. When two consonants come together by derivation, inflec- tion, or composition, an easier pronunciation is secured thus : โ
1. The first is entirely assimilated to the second. Thus, a liquid, โm, n, or (less frequently) rโ before another liquid is changed to that liquid [but r is not changed to m or n]|: as, collego (con-/leqo), corrtgo (com-rรฉgo), illudo (in-ludo), illtco (in lรฉco), intellรฉgo (inter-/รฉgo), asellus (asin{u|lus). So d before 1: as in lapillus (dapidulus) ; and b (rarely) before a liquid: as, summitto (submitto).
2. The former is assimilated in kind. Thus:โa. A sonant before a -โsurd becomes surd: as, tego, teri (xcs), tectum ; nubo, nupsi, nuptum ; coquo, coxt, coctum. โ b. A surd before a sonant becomes sonant, as in segmentum (seco).โce. A labial nasal before a dentai mute sometimes becomes dental: contendo (com-tendo), jandudum ( jam dudum), quantus (quamtus).โd. A dental nasal before a labial sometimes becomes labial: as, tmpono (in-pono).โe. d and t before t sometimes become s (see 4) : as, equester (equet-ter), est (edt).
3. The former is lost, having probably been first assimilated. Thus :โa. d and t are lost before s, but sometimes only assimilated : as, pedes (pedets), vas (vads, vadis), esse (edse, edo).โb. ยข and g are lost before t and s when I or r precedes: as, sartus (=-sarctus, sar-~ cio), mulsi (=mulgsi, mulgeo), indultus (=indulgtus, indulgeo). โc. ยข and g are sometimes lost before m and mn: as, exdmen (exugmen), luna (luc. na), lumen (luc-men).
4. The second is partially assimilated to the first (as in English wrecked becomes, in pronouncing, reckt); in this case both are often changed. Thus, after n and 1โrarely after other lettersโt be- comes s (the continued sound corresponding to the explosive t): as, mansus (=mantus, maneo), pulsus (pello), casus (cado), passus (=pattus, patior), sparsus (=spargtus, spargo), tensus (tendo, but also tentus), fixus ( figo, but jfictus from jfingo), maximus (for mag-timus), lapsus (labor), passus (pando).
Norr. โ After m, before s or t, p is inserted for euphony: as, sumo, sumpsi, sumptum. So hiemps for hiems.
4 ASSIMILATION. โ VARIATIONS. fe See
g. Especially the final consonant of prepositions was assimilated to the initial consonant of verbs.
Thus, ad is assimilated before ยข, g, p, t; less regularly before 1, r, s, and rarely before m; while before f, n, q,.the form ad is to be preferred ; โab is not assimilated, but may take the form a, au, or abs;โin com (con, co), m is retained before b, p, m; is assimilated before 1, n, r; is changed to n before c, d, f, g, i, q, s, Vv; varies between m and n before p; is sometimes assimilated (otherwise n) before r andl; and loses the final m in conecto, co. niveo, conitor, conubium ;โin usually changes n to m before b, m, p; before 1 the better orthography retains n ;โob and sub are assimilated before ec, f, g, p, and sometimes before m; sub also before r; and, in early Latin, b of these prepositions sometimes becomes p before s or t. The inseparable amb loses b before a consonant, and m is sometimes assimilated ; โ circum loses m before i (often); โs of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before a conso- nant is lost or assimilated ;โthe d of red and sed is generally lost before a consonant.
Norre.โIn most of these cases the later editions prefer the unaltered forms throughout; but the changes given above have good authority. Others, which are corruptions of the middle ages (as assum for adsum), would better be avoided.
h. The combinations ci and ti before a vowel are found inter- changed in many words: as in nuntius or nuncius; contio or con- cio; but in these cases only one.is correct: as, contio, dicio.
Notrrt.โ The substitution of ยข for t is an example of phonetic decay, and belongs to a later period of the language. In Italian, z, and in Spanish, c, has regularly taken the place of t in such combi- nations: as in nazione, nacion. The sound of s (assibilation) or of sh traceable in them led gradually to the adoption of this as the regular sound of c before e or i.
4. The aspirate h is occasionally ysed to indicate the hard sound of c, asin pulcher for pulcer. Many words are written sometimes with and sometimes without an initial h: as, arena or harena, ariolor or hariolor, erus or herus. The combina- tions ph, th, are found only in words taken from the Greek.
k. The following words are variously spelt in different editions, inferior or rejected forms being marked + : โ
Adolescens, adulescens ; ancora, tanchora; annulus, anulus; arctus, arius ; coecus, cecus ; celum, celum; ceruleus, ceruleus ; causa, caussa ; ceespes, cespes ; ceteri, | ceteri ; cena, cena, cena ; condicio, t conditio ; con- junx, tconjux ; contio, t concio; dicio, } ditio; dumtaxat, duntaxat ; epi- stola, epistula ; eumdem, eundem ; exsisto, existo (and other compounds of ex before s); femina, t femina; fenus, feenus, fenus ; heres, t heres ; hedus, t hedus ; hiems(ps), + hyems ; tdcirco, + iccirco ; immo, imo ; inclutus, t inclytus ; intellego, intelligo ; lacrima, + lacryma ; litera, littera; litus, ยข lit- tus ; lubet, libet ; meror, meror; milia, ยข millia ; multa, mulcta ; } ne, ne; nequidquam, nequiquam ; numquam, nunquam; + nuncio, nuntio; paullus, paulus ; quicquid, quidquid ; religio, relligio ; retuli, rettuli; silva, t sylva;
a Bi] ALPHABET. โ PRONUNCIATION. i)
solennis, solemnis ; solers, sollers; sulfur, {sulphur ; tamquam, tanquam; thesaurus, thensaurus; thus, tus; tiro, } tyro; umquam, unquam ; ungo, unguo; verto, vorto; also, the gerund-forms -endus or -wndus; and the superlative -imus or -umus.
Nore. โ Many of the above variations are due to the practice of writing from dictation, or by the ear, by which most MS. copies of the classics were made, โa single reader often dictating to numerous copyists, whose spelling was often corrupt, and without authority.
4. Combinations. โ Two words are often united in writing, and sometimes in sound.
a. Conjunctions or other particles are thus connected: as in etenim, jamdiu, siquis, and siquidem.
So the adverbial combinations quare, quamobrem, &c., as in English nevertheless, notwithstanding.
b.. The verb est, is, is joined with the preceding word, especially in the old poets, or when the two would be united by elision: as, homost, periculumst.
c. Similar contractions are found in vinโ (visne), scinโ (scis- ne), sis (si vis), sodes (si audes), as in English, donโt, wonโt.
5. Syllables. โ In the division of syllables, a single con- sonant between two vowels is to be written with the latter.
a. This rule is usually extended to double consonants, or any combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word: as, ho-spes, ma-gnus, di-xit.
b. In compounds, the parts should be separated: as, ab-est, ob-latus.
Notes. โ Custom allows many other departures from the rule.
c. A syllable preceded by a vowel in the same word is called pure ; when preceded by a consonant, impure. |
d. An initial syllable ending, or a final syllable beginning, with a vowel, is called open; otherwise, it is called close.
2. PRONUNCIATION.
1. Roman. โ The Roman pronunciation of the Vowels was, no doubt, nearly like the Italian; which, with little variation, is that found in most of the continental languages of Europe. That of some of the Consonants is more uncer- tain. In the system of pronunciation founded on ancient
6 PRONUNCIATION. โ QUANTITY. ([2:2. 3:1.
use, the long and short vowels are sounded respectively as follows : โ
a as in father. a as in fast. Og, Hem 6 5, me. I ,, machine. i, piano. Oo ,, Aoly. 6 ,, wholly. i ,, rude (ooinboot), ut ,, full.
Nortrr.โIt is probable that y (also u in maximus, &c.) was simi- lar to the French u; it is usually, however, sounded like i.
a. The final or unaccented open sound of the vowels is nearly as in the last syllable of comma, yesterday, pity, hollow, cuckoo.
b. In Diphthongs, each vowel has its proper sound: thus, ae has nearly the sound of ay, au of ow, oe of oy, ui of we.
c. Of consonants, c and g are always hard, s always sharp; j has the sound of y, v of w, and n before palatals of ng; the combination bs is like ps, ch like k, and ph like f.
Nortr.โ The sound of the vowels and diphthongs, as above given, has been generally adopted in this country. In regard to the conso- nants c, g, j, Vv, there is still considerable difference of usage.
2. Modern. โ Modern custom has generally allowed Latin to be pronounced in each country according to the rules of its own language. What is known as the English Method adopts the following : โ
a. The vowels and consonants have the same sound as in English. But there are no silent letters (except in scanning verse, by the usage called Elision) ; such words as dies, mare, audiere, pauperiรฉi, having each as many syllables as vowels or diphthongs.
6. By American custom, final a is pronounced in the Italian way, as in comma. But in the monosyllables a, da, sta, qua, some persons retain the English sound.
c. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like ee; au like aw; eu like ew; ei and ui like 7 in kite; es and (in plural words) os at the end of a word, as in the English disease, morose.
ad. The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and j) before e, i, y, ae, oe, eu; ch is always hard, as in chasm.
3. QUANTITY.
1. Quantity is the relative time occupied in pronouncing a syllable, โ a long syllable being equal to two short ones.
Xe ee QUANTITY. โ ACCENT. 7
Norr.โThe distinction of Quantity was carefully observed by the ancients, but came to be almost wholly disregarded in later times except in the composition of Latin verse.
2. Some of the most general rules of quantity are the fol- lowing : โ |
a. A vowel before another vowel is short: as in via, nihil.
b. A diphthong is long: as in aedes, foedus.
c. A syllable formed by contraction is long: as, mi (mihi) ; nil (nihil); intrarat (intraverat); nรฉmo (nรฉ hdmo).
Norr. โIn many text-books and old editions, contraction is de- noted by a circumflex : as, mi, intrarat.
d. A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants, or a double consonant, is long: as in rรฉctus, duxit. Sometimes the vowel itself is made long, as before ns in praesรฉns.
รฉ. A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with 1 or r is common, โ that is, it may be long in verse: as, alacris.
REMARK. โ Many final syllables, originally long, are always found short in classic Latin: for example, the stem-vowel a of the first declension.
Norte. โ The sign (~) denotes that a vowel is long; (~) that it is short; (*) that it is common.
For particular rules of Quantity, see ยง 78.
4, AccENT.
I. The accent of Latin words never falls on the final syllable, but is confined to one of the two preceding.
2. The following are general rules of accent : โ
a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first syllable: as, โฌโrant, they were; diรฉs, day.
b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult, if that is long: as, 4miโcus, frivnd ; if it is short or com- mon, then on the Antepenult: as, d6โminus, @โlacris.
Notr.โ The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, the last but two.
c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, dรฉaโque, Amarรฉโve, tibiโne, itaโque, and so, as distinguished from iโtaque, therefore.
8 ACCENT. โ INFLECTION. [5 1, 2
Norr. โ The acute accent (*) is sometimes used to denote stress of voice; the grave (), to mark an adverb or conjunction; the circumflex (*), the ablative in a, the perfect in Gre, ora contracted syllable.
j
5, INFLECTION.
1. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word, to show its grammatical relations. |
a. Changes of inflection sometimes take place in the body of a word, but oftener in its termination: as, VOX, a voice; vOcis, of a voice; vdco, I call; vicat, he calls; vocavit, he has called.
b. Terminations of inflection had originally an independent meaning, and ltl ii nearly to the use of prepositions or per- sonal pronouns in inglish ; thus, in vdcat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; and in vOcis, to the preposition of.
c. Changes of inflection in the body of a verb usually denote relations of time or manner, and correspond to the use of auxiliary
verbs in English: thus, in frangit (root frag-), he breaks or is
breaking, the form of the word indicates Present time or continued action; while in frรฉgit, he broke or has broken, it indicates Past time or Completed action.
2. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the STEM.
a. The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ;
but, in general, it cannot be used without some termination to
express these. Thus the stem vGc- denotes voice ; with -s added it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an action; with -is it becomes vGcis, and signifies of a voice.
6. A still more primitive form, expressing the main idea less definitely, and common also to other words, either in the same or other languages, is called a Root. For example, the root sta is found in the Sanskrit tisthรฉdmi, Greek icrnu, Latin sistere and stare, German stehen, and English stand.
Again, the root of the stem vGc- is vic, which means not to call, or I call, or calling, but merely call; and cannot be used to mean any thing without terminations. With a it becomes vica-, the stem of the present vรฉcamus, we call; with avi- it is the stem of the perfect vรฉcavi, J called; with ato- it becomes the stem of the participle vocatus, called; with ation- it becomes the stem of vocationis, of a calling. With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox, a voice (that by which we call) ; with alis added it means belonging to a voice; with tila, a little voice.
S535 ge Get.) INFLECTION. โ GENDER. 9
Nort. โ Thus, in inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very early time, long before Latin was a distinct language, were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become Words. The process by which they are modified, in the vari- ous forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building.
c. The Stem is sometimes the same with the Root: as in dtic-is, fer-t; but is more frequently formed from the root, either (1) by changing or lengthening its vowel, as in rรฉg-is, duc-o; (2) by the addition or insertion of a consonant, as in tendo, pango; (3) by the addition of a terminal vowel, as in fugis, fuga; or (4) by derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the language.
d. The terminations of inflection are variously modified by combining with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading to the yarious forms of Declension and Conjugation.
Notrt.โ A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open affix; one beginning with a consonant, a close affiz. When a close affix is joined to a consonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic change, as rexi for reg-si, or a vowel appears, as reg-i-bus. But in most cases, what is called a connecting vowel really belongs to the stem, as in voca-mus, regi-mus.
3. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have in- flections of declension, to denote gender, number, and case; and Verbs of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, num-
ber, and person.
4. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called ParTICLEs: these are Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter- jections, with Adverbs of time, place, and manner.
Nore. โ The term Particles is sometimes limited to such words as num, =ne, an (interrogative), non, ne (negative), si (conditional), &c., which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sen- tence. Interjections are not properly to be classed among parts of _ speech, and differ little from inarticulate sounds. For convenience, a list is given of those in most common use, following the conjunc- tions (p. 95).
6. GENDER i. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or gram-
matical.
a. Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted: as, puer, boy ; puelss girl; donum, gift.
10 GENDER. (6:4, 2%
6. Many masculine nouns have a corresponding feminine form: as, servus, serva, slave; cliens, clienta, client; victor, vic- trix, conqueror. Most designations of persons (as, nauta, sailor, miles, soldier), usually though not necessarily male, are masculine.
c. Grammatical gender is a like distinction where no sex exists in the object, and is shown by the form of the adjective joined with it: as, lapis magnus (M.), @ great stone; manus mea (F.), my hand.
_ a. A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belong-
ing to a. class: as, mancipium tuum, your slave. Names of classes or bodies of persons may be of either gender: as, exercitus (M.), acies (r.), and agmen (N.), army; and the feminine operae, workmen, copiae, troops.
Note. โ What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the product of the imagination at a rude age, when language was in the course of growth. Thus a River was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a living creature, violent and strong, and so is masculine; a Month is a guide or divider of tasks, and so is masculine; and the fable of Atlas shows how similar living attributes were ascribed to Mountains, which, in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the Earth, or a country or city, seems the mother of its progeny; the Tree shelters and ripens its fruit, as a brooding bird hernest of eggs ; and, to this day, a Ship is always referred to by a feminine pronoun.
Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and splendor, is masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine ; while, among northern nations, the Sun (perhaps for its comforting warmth) is feminine, and the Moon (the appointer of works and days) masculine. The rules of grammatical gender only repeat and extend these early workings of the fancy.
2. Names of Male beings, together with Rivers, Winds, and Mountains are masculine; names of Female beings, Cities, Countries, Plants, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine.
Notre. โ Most of the above may be recognized by their termina- tions, according to the rules of gender under the several declensions.
a. Names of Rivers are masculine, except a few, chiefly in a.
These are Albula, Allia, Druentia, Duria, Garumna, Matrรฉna, Mo- sella; also Lethe and Styx. Many are variable.
Norse. โ Names of Months are properly Adjectives, the masculine noun mensis being understood.
6. Names of Towns, Islands, and Trees in us are feminine; also, many names of Plants and Gems in us.
c. Indeclinable nouns, Terms or Phrases used as nouns, and โwords quoted merely for their forms, are neuter: as, nihil, nothing ; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowing ; triste vale, a sad fare- well; hoc ipsum diu, this same word diu; hoc totum diserte dicere (De Or. ii. 10), this whole matter of eloquent speaking.
G2 4.'"7.] . GENDER. โ CASE. 11
a 7
3. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, according. to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common GENDER: as, exsul, exile; bos, ox or cow.
Notre. โ When a noun signifying a thing without life is both mas- culine and feminine, โ as, dies, day ; finis, end, โ it is sometimes said to be of Doubtful Gender.
~ 4, A few names of animals are always connected with adjectives of the same gender, either masculine or feminine, independent of sex. They are called Ericens.
Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, for, feminine. To denote a male fox we may say, vulpes mascula; or a jemale hare, lepus femina.
7. CASE.
There are in Latin six Cases, which express the relations of nouns to other words. They are usually put in the following order: 1. Nominative; 2. Gen- itive; 3. Dative; 4. Accusative; 5. Vocative; 6. Ab- lative.
1. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a propo- sition: as, pater meus adest, my father is here.
2. The Genitive (of) is used like the English posses- sive ; also with many adjectives and verbs, especially those of memory or feeling: as, patris ejus amicus miserรฉtur mei, his fatherโs friend pities me.
3. The Dative (ยขo or for) is the case of the Indirect Object, and is used to denote the person whose interest is concerned : as,
dedit mihi cultellum: magno mihi usui erat, he gave me a pocket-knife : ut was of great service to me.
4. The AccusaTIvE (objective) is the case of the Direct Object, and is used after most prepositions: as,
pater me ad se vocavit et in hortum duxit, [my] father called me to him, and led me into the garden.
12 CASE. โ DECLENSION. 7. 83
5. The VocartIvE is used in address: as, huc vรฉni, care mi filidle, come here, my dear litile son.
Notse.โ As the Vocative is independent of the other words ina sentence, it is by some grammarians not reckoned as a Case.
6. The AsiaTive (by, from, with) is used with many verbs and prepositions, especially to denote separation or instrument: as,
in horto ludebamus, et cultello me laesit, we were playing in the garden, and he hurt me with a knife.
Nortr. โ All, excepting the nominative and vocative, are by the ancient grammarians called โโ Oblique Cases.โ
7. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another case (the LocaTIveE), denoting the place where, โ generally the same in form as the dative (ยง 55. 3. ยข.): as,
Romae vel AthGรฉnis esse velim, J should like to be at Rome or Athens. : F
8. DECLENSION.
1. There are five Declensions, or modes of declining nouns. They are distinguished by the termination of the Genitive Singular, and by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem.
Dect. 1. Gen. Sing. ae Characteristic 4 (anciently a)
etaโ ยฎ a2 i (ius) Ge re) =a ยฅ i is m { or a Consonant ae %. Us (uis) ,, ti 99 5. 99 6i 39 รฉ
a. The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by omitting the case-ending; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel.
Notr.โ For the division of vowel and consonant-stems in the Third Declension, see ยง 11.
6b. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns (except in the first declension) is formed from the Stem by adding s.
Nore 1.โ Many, however, end in 0, or in the liquids 1, n, r,โ the original s (sometimes with the final letter also) having been lost through phonetic decay. In some (as in jfilius) the stem-vowel is modified before the final s; and in some, as in ager, a yowel is inserted in the stem.
8: 2, 3] . DECLENSION. : 13
Note 2.โ The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old demonstrative sa, which is found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit personal pronoun, in the Greek article, and in the English she.
2. The following are general Rules of Declension : โ a. The Vocative is always the same with the Nominative, ex- cept in the singular of nouns in us of the second declension,
Norr.โIn the first and second declensions the vocative ends in the (modified) stem-vowel. Most of the words likely to be used in address are of this form; and, in practice, few other words have a vocative.
b. In Neuters, the nominative and accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in @.
c. Except in some neuters, the accusative singular always ends in m, and the accusative plural i in 8.
d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the dative singular ends in i.
e. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.
f. The genitive plural always ends in um.
3. Case-Endings. The original terminations of the Cases, in Latin, were probably the following : โ
Sing. M., F. N. Plur. M., F. N. Nom. s(orlost) m, โ- es a Gen. os (is) um, rum(sum) Dat. i ibus Acc. mem m,- es a Abl. ed tbus
Notr.โ These became so worn by use, and so united with the stem, that they are distinguishable only in consonant-stems. In some instances, one case was substituted for another, or two were merged in one. The combinations are given below as case-endings. The name โstemโ is sometimes, conveniently though incorrectly, given to that part of the word โas serve in servus โ which precedes the case-ending.
DECL. I. II. III. IV. Vv. Sing. N. a รฉ, as, es/US, UM 0S, on eus s - (See p. 23.) tis, G รฉs G. & (ai) es i(ius) o,w e y yos, 6s} Us (uis) 6i (e) D. & (al) 3 (i) ei, โฌ0 ui (a) รฉi (e) A.am an,en jum on ea bie (im) in,yn & um, a em v.a e |6(i) eu (as nom.) %, yยฅ tis, a รฉs Aa รฉ |6 โฌ0 e(i), i yรฉ u e Plur. N. Vv. & I & รฉs, a, ia รฉs} Us, ua รฉs G. drum (um) |6rum (um, 0m) รฉn/um, ium uum รฉrum D. A. Is (a@bus) | is (Obus) ibus ibus(tibus)| รฉ6bus A. as os รฉs (is), a, ia as| is, ua รฉ3
N.B. Rare forms in parenthesis; Greek forms in italics,
-
14 NOUNS. โ FIRST DECLENSION. [9: -1,-2, 3.
NOUNS.
9, First DECLENSION.
The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in a. Latin nouns have the Nominative like the stem.
) SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom. stella, a star. stellae, stars. Gen. _ stellae, of a star. stellarum, of stars, Dat. stellae, to a star. stellis, to stars. Acc. stellam, a@ star. stellas, stars. Voc. _ stell&, thou star! stellae, ye stars!โ Abl. stella with a star. stellis, with stars.
1. Gender. Most nouns of the first declension are Feminine. Nearly all the exceptions are such as are masculine from their sig- nification; as, nauta, sailor. Also, Hadria, the Adriatic.
2. Case Forms.โda. The genitive smgular anciently ended in ai, which is occasionally found in a few authors: as, aulai. The same ending occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong.
_b. There is also an old genitive in 4s, found in the word familias used in certain combinations, as, pater (mater, filius, filia) famil- ias, father of a family, &c.
c. The Locative form for the singular ends in ae, and for the plural in is: as, Romae, Athรฉnis.
d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in um instead. of arum, especially in compounds with -cdla and -gรฉna, signifying dwelling and descent: as, caelicdlum, of the heavenly ones.
รฉ. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, liberta, freed-woman, equa, mare, mula, she-mule, end in an older form -abus. But, except when the two sexes (as in wills, &c.) are mentioned together, the form in is is also used.
3. Greek Nouns.โSome Greek nouns (chiefly proper names) end in 4s, 6s (M.), and 6 (F.) in the nominative, and an or โฌn in the accusative; those in โฌ have the genitive in 6s (stem a or โฌ): as,
comet (M.). laurel (ยฅ.). N. comรฉtes (a) daphnรฉ 4mnรฉas Anchises G@ comรฉtee daphnรฉs (9) Ziinรฉse nchisse D. comรฉte daphnรฉ (#) fiinรฉse nchisse Ac. comรฉten(am) daphnรฉn f@nรฉan (am) nchisรฉn Vv. comets โ daphnรฉ ZEnรฉa (&) nchisรฉ (&) Ab. comรฉta (รฉ) daphneรฉ (4) A4anรฉa Anchisรฉ (a)
10: 1, 2, 3-] SECOND DECLENSION. 15
Norr.โ This form is found only in the singular; the plural is regular: as, comete, arum, &c. It includes (besides proper names) about thirty-five words, several being names of plants; among others the following, those marked ft having also regular forms in a:โ bule, council ; geometres, geometer ; t grammatice, grammar; harpe, sickle; magice, magic; fmusice, music; tode, ode; pandectes, repertory ; { patriarches, patriarch; + prophetes, prophet; sophistes, sophist ; t tetrarches, tetrarch ; thymele, leaderโs-stand ; { tiaras, tiara.
10. Srconp DEcLENsION.
The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in 0 (as of vir, viro-, and of servus, servo-).
Norr.โ This form is an original &-stem, to which the 4-stem of the first declension is the corresponding feminine.
1. The Nominative is formed from the Stem by adding 8 (in neuters m), the characteristic 6 being weakened to tt.
2. In most nouns whose stem ends in ro-, the ยง is not added, but the 0 is lost, e being inserted before r.
Thus ager, field (stem agro=), is the same as the Greek daypรฉs. The exceptions are, hesperus, humerus, juniperus, morus, numerus, uterus.
SINGULAR. Boy. Book. Slave. Gift.
Nom. puรฉr . libรฉr โ serviis (5s) dasnum Gen. ; puรฉri libri servi doni Dat. puรฉrd libro servo dons Acc. puรฉrum librtim servum (om) donum Voc. puรฉr liber servรฉ donum Abl. = puรฉrd libro servG dond
PLURAL. ; Nom. puรฉri libri servi dona Gen. puรฉr6rum _librdrum servorum dondrum Dat. puรฉris libris servis donis Acc. puรฉrds librds - Servds dona Voce. puรฉri libri servi dona Abl. _ puรฉris libris servis donis
Notr:โ The old form os, om (for us, um), is sometimes used after u or V: as, servos, servom (ยง 1. 2. 0.).
3. Gender.โ Nouns ending in us (08), er, ir, are Mascu-
line (exe. on p. 16); those ending in um (on) are Neuter. (But which stems are M. or N. can only be learned from the Dictionary.)
16 SECOND DECLENSION. [10: 4, 5, 6.
a. But names of towns in us (os) are Feminine: as, Corin- thus. Also, arctus (os), the Polar Bear; alvus, belly 5 carba- sus, linen (plural carbasa, sails, N.); cOlus, distaff; htimus, ground; vannus, winnowing-shovel ; with many names of Plants and Gems, -
b. The following are Neuter: pelagus, sea; virus, poison ; vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd, โTheir accusative, as of all neuters, is the same as the nominative.
4&. Case Forms. a. The Locative form for the singular of this declension ends in i: as, humi, un the ground ; Corinthi, ai Corinth. For the plural, is: as, Philippis, a/ Philippi.
b. The genitive of nouns in ius or ium ends by earlier use with a single i: as, fili, of a son; ingรฉni, of genius.
The same contraction occurs with the gen. sing. and the dat. and abl. plur. of nouns in aius and @ius: as, Grais, Pompรฉi.
c. Proper names in ius lose e in the vocative: as, VergT li; also, filius, son, genius, divine guardian ; and the possessive meus, my: as, audi, mi fili, hear, my son.
d. Greek names in ius have the vocative ie; and adjectives derived from proper namesโas Lacedaemonius โalso form the vocative in ie.
e. In the genitive plural, um (or, after v, om) is often found for Srum, especially in poets.
f. Deus, god, has vocative deus; plural, nominative and voc- ative dei or di (dii); dative and ablative deis or dis (diis).
For the genitive plural deorum, divum or divom (from divus) is often used.
%- The following stems in โฌro, in which e belongs to the stem, retain e throughout: puer, boy; gener, son-in-law; socer, father- in-law ; vesper, evening; with compounds in -fer and -ger: as, licifer, -fรฉri, light-bringer ; armiger, -gรฉri, armor-bearer.
a. Vir, man, has the genitive viri; the-adjective satur, sated, has satiiri; vesrer has abl. vespere (loc. vesperi),
b. Liber, a name of Bacchus, also has Lib&ri; so, too, the plir. liberi, children.
6. The following, which insert e, are declined like liber: ager, field; aper, boar; arbiter, judge; auster, sowth-wind; caper, goat; coluber, snake; conger, sea-eel; culter, knife; faber, smith; fiber, beaver ; geometer, geometer ; magister, mas- ter ; minister, servant; oleaster, wild-olive; onager (grus), wild- ass; scomber (brus), mackerel.
po ay โTHIRD DECLENSION. 17
7. Greek Nouns. a. Many Greek names in eus, as Or- pheus (being of the third declension in Greek), have gen. ei or eos, dat. ei; acc, ea; voc. eu; abl. eo.
b. Many in es, belonging to the third declension, have also a gen. in i: as, Thucydidi.
c. Some Greek names in er have a form in us: as, Teucer, Teucrus.
d. About twenty words have the Greek ending 5s (mM. or F.) or 6n (N.): as, mythos, i, 0, on, e, 0; plural i, orum, is, os: parรฉlion, ii (i), io; plural ia, iorum, iis. "
Ath6s and Androgeds (/En. vi. 20.) have a gen. in o.
Argos (N. nom. and acc.) has the plural form Argi, orum, &c,
ll, Turrp DECLENSION.
Nouns of the Third Declension are most conveni- ently classed according to their Stems, whether ending in a vowel, a liquid, or a mute.
I. VoweEt-StTems.
I. Vowel-stems of this declension end ini, Thus that of turris is turri-; and that of mare, mari-.
a. Nouns of this class are parisyllabic; that is, the oblique cases of the singular have no more syllables than the nominative, (For exceptions in al, ar, see 2, c.)
b. A few stems ending in u-, as of grus, sus, were treated as consonant-stems. (See Ill. 4, @.)
2. The Nominative, except in neuters, is formed from the stem by adding s.
a. About thirty nouns (as nubes) change I to @ in the nom- inative (Compare Note, p. 22).
These are acindces, alces, cedes, cautes, clades, compdges, contdges, crates, fames, feles, fides, labes, meles, moles, nubes, proles, propdges, sedes, sepes, sordes, strages, sub0les, sudes, tabes, torques, tudes, vates, vehes, verres.
b. The nominative of a few stems in ri- does not add s, but loses i, inserting e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter.
c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the change of i to 6. But, when i is preceded by al or ar, the e is lost (except in collare, mare, navale, tibiale).
Notre. โ This latter class were originally neuters of adjectives in alis, aris; and, when used as adjectives, retain the e. They are the following : antmal, cervical, cubttal, putรฉal, toral, tribitnal ; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, lactinar, laquear, lumtnar, palear, pulvinar, torciilar, vectigal.
18 THIRD DECLENSION. [11, 1. SINGULAR.
Tower (ยฅ.). Cloud (ยฅ.). Sea (N.). Spur (N.). Nom. turris nubรฉs marรฉ calcar Gen. __ turris nubis maris calcaris Dat. โ turri nubi mari calcari Acc. turrim(em) nubem marรฉ calcar Voc. turris nubรฉs marรฉ calcar Abl. turri @) nubรฉ mari calcari
PLURAL. Nom. turrรฉs nubรฉs maria calcaria Gen. turrium nubium marium calcarium Dat. turribus nubibus maribus calcaribus Ace. turris (6s) nubรฉs maria calcaria Voc. _ turrรฉs nubรฉs maria calcaria Abl. _turribus nubibus maribus calcaribus
3. Case Forms. a. The regular form of the accusative singular, M. and F., is im (as am, um, em of the other vowel- declensions). . But, in most nouns, this was supplanted by the con- sonant-form em; and it is only retained in the following : โ
1. Exclusively (1) in Greek nouns and names of rivers; (2) in buris, cuctimis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis; (8) in adverbs in tim (being acc. of nouns in tis), with partim and amussim ;
2. Along with em in febris, restis, turris, sectiris, sementis, and (in one or two passages) in many other words.
6b. The regular form of the ablative singular is I (as in the other declensions 4, 6, G, 6, with loss of the original d). This was also supplanted by &, and retained only โ
1. Exclusively (1) in those above having accusative in im; also securis, and the following adjectives used as nouns: ยซ@qualis, annalis, aqualis, consularis, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris, tribulis ; (2) in neuters โ (as above): except baccar, jubar, and sometimes (in verse) mare, rete ;
2. Along with e in avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis (always aqud et igni interdict), imber, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigtlis, turris ; and the following adjectives used as nouns: affinis, bipennis, canalis, Jamiliaris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, triremis, vocalis.
3. The ablative of fames, hunger, is always of the Fifth declen- sion. The defective mane, morning, has sometimes abl. mani.
_ 4. Most names of towns in eโas Preneste, Careโand the mountain Soracte, have the ablative in e
11, 11.] THIRD DECLENSION. โ LIQUID STEMS. 19
c. The regular nominative plural would be is, but this is rarely found. The regular accusative is is common, but not exclusively used in any word.
d. The regular genitive plural ium is retained by all except the following : โ
(1) ambdges and volucris (always um) ; (2) vates (commonly um) ; (3) apis, cudes, clades, subdles (rarely um) ; (4) canis, juvรฉnis, mensis, had not originally vowel-stems, and retain um ; but mensis has both.
4. Greek Nouns. โ A few Greek nouns in is have the ace.
im or in, voc. {, abl. L f Many in 6s have forms of the First or Second Declension: as, Achilles, gen. ei or i, dat. i, acc. En, ea, voc. 6, abl. 1
Nore. โ Nouns such as urbs, pars, having the genitive plural ium and the accusative (occasionally) is, were originally vowel-stems.
i. Liquip STEMs.
In nouns whose stem ends in a liquid (1, n, r), the nom- inative has no termination, but is the same as the stem, except when modified as follows: โ
a. Final n of the stem is dropped in masculines and feminines, except some Greek nouns: as, ledn-is, leo; legidn-is, legio.
b. Stems ending in din-, gin- (mostly feminine) retain in the nominative an original o: as, virgo. Those in in- preceded by any other consonant retain an original โฌ: as, carmรฉn, inis, Nn. ; cornicen, inis,M. (Exceptions Lv. 2, b.)
c. Nouns whose stem ends in tr retain in the nominative an original e: as, pater (compare I. 2, b.).
d. In neuters whose stem ends in @r, Sr, tir, the r was originally s, which is retained in the nominative, 6 of the stem being weak- ened into ti: as, opiis, Eris: corpitis, Sris. A few masc. and fem. stems also retain s. (Exceptions Iv. 2, 6.)
โฌ. Stems in ll, rr, lose one of these liquids in the nominative.
f. The following have gen. plur. ium: glis, mas, ren, mus.
Sine. Consul. Pur. Sine. Name. Pwr. Nom. consiil constilรฉs nomรฉn nomina Gen. consilis constilum nominis nominum Dat. consili constilibus nomini nominibus Ace. consilem consiilรฉs nomen nomina Voe. consi consilรฉs nomen nomina
Abl. consile constlibus nomine nominibus
20 THIRD DECLENSION. โ MUTE STEMS. [ 11, 111,
Honor, M. Lion,M. Father,M. Tree, ยฅ. Maiden, ยฅ. Work,N. Sing. : N. v. honor leo pater arbor. virgo โ opus a. honoris lednis patris arbdoris virginis opรฉris D. honori leoni patri arbori virgini operi A. honorem lednem patrem arbGrem virginem Opus A honore leone patre arbore virgine opere Plur, f N. A.V. honรฉres lednes patres arbdres virgines opรฉra G. hondrum lednum patrum arbodrum virginum opรฉrum D. Ab. honoribus leonibus patridus arboribus virginibus operibus
IJ. Mure Srems.
Masculine or feminine nouns whose stem ends in a Mute form the nominative by*adding s, Neuters have for nomina- tive the simple stem.
Norse. โIf the stem ends in two consonants, the genitive plural generally has ium (seelI.4,N.). Some of these, originally i-stems, have also an oid nominative in is: as, trabis, urbis.
1. Labial. If the mute is a labial (b, p), 8 is simply added to the stem.
a. Stems in {ip- retain in the nominative an original e, the vowel having been weakened in the other cases: as, princeps, ipis.
b. Most stems in cip- (M.) are compounds of the root cap (in capio) take: as, auceps (avi-ceps), bird-catcher.
_ In these the stem sometimes has the form cups, as auciipis.
c.. The only noun whose stem ends in m is hiemps, winier. (For the insertion of p, see note, foot of p. 3.)
SING. Cily, F. PLUR. SING. Chief. PLUR. Nom. urbs _ urbes princeps . principes Gen. _urbis urbium principis principum Dat. urbi urbibus principi principibus Acc. urbem urbes principem principes Voc. urbs ยฉ urbes princeps principes Abl. urbe urbibus principe principibus
โ2. Lingual. If the mute is a lingual (d, t), it is sup- pressed before s. a. Stems in it- (M. or F.) retain in the nominative an oricinal โฌ: as, hospรฉs, itis. (In a few, as comes, the e is not original.) > Nore.โThe only nominative in t is caput, tis. b. Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending
in At- (Greek nouns), drop the final lingual in the nominative: as, cor, cordis;- poรฉma, Atis.
11, 111.] THIRD DECENSION.โ MUTE STEMS. 21
SING. Guard. PLUR. sinc. Companion. PLUR. Nom. custds custddes comรฉs comites Gen. custddis custodum coniitis comitum Dat. custddi custddibus comiti comitibus Ace. custodem custddes comitem comites Voce. custds custodes comes comites Abl. custdde custodibus comite comitibus Sing. Age, ยฅ. Heart,N. Stone,M. Family, ยฅ. Head, N. Poem,N. N.V. eetas. cor lapis gens caput poรฉma _ I. sweiatis cordis lapidis gentis capitis poemรฉatis D. setati cordi lapidi genti capiti poemati A. setatem cor lapidem gentem caput poeรฉma 7 . tate (1) corde apide gente capite poemate
ur. N. A.V. states corda lapides gentes capita poemata G.s eetatum (ium) lapidum gentium capitum poemaรฉtum D. Ab. eetatibus cordibus lapidibus gentibus capitibus ies or 1pu8s
c. Case-forms. Some nouns of lingual stems have forms of the vowel-declension.
1. Participles used as nouns, and a few others originally i-stems, occasionally have the ablative in i: as, continenti, etati, parti, sorti.
2. Stems in tat (originally i-stems), nt= (participles used as nouns), d or t preceded by a consonant, โ also dis, lis, and pons,โ regularly have the genitive plural ium.
3. Names denoting birth or abode, with stems in ats, ite (originally adjectives), with penates, optimates, regularly have the gen. plur. ium.
_ ad. Greek neuters (as poรฉma), with nom. sing. in a, frequently end the dat. and abl. plur. in is, and rarely the gen. in Srum.
3. Palatal. If the mute is a palatal (ยข, g), it unites With gs in the nominative, forming x.
a. Stems in ic- (short i) have nom. in ex, and are chiefly mas- culine ; those in ic- (long i) retain i, and are feminine.
_ 6. In nix, nivis, snow, the nom. retains a palatal lost in the other cases (original stem snig-, compare ningit); supellex (-ectilis) is partly a lingual, partly an i-stem.
sinc. Peak, M. PLuR. sinc. Raven, F. PLUR. Nom. apex apices cornix cornices Gen. apicisโ apicum cornicis cornicum Dat. โ apici apicibus cornici cornicibus Ace. apicem apices cornicem cornices Voce. apex apices cornix cornices
Abl. โapice apicibus). cornice cornicibus
}
โA
22 THIRD DECLENSION: MUTE STEMS. [11; 11
Sing. Peace, ยฅ. King, mM. Light, ยฅ. Fruit, ยฅ. . Citadel, ยฅ. Throat. N.V. pax rex lux {frux] arx -โ G. pacis rรฉgis lucis frigis arcis โ_โ D. paci regi luci frugi arci a Ac. pacem rezem lucem frugem arcem โ Ab. pace rege luce fruge arce fauce Piur. โN. A.V. paces reges luces fruges arces fauces โ regum gum arcium faucium
โ u D.Ab. pacibus regibus lucibus frugibus arcibus faucibus
c. Case-forms. A few monosyllables, as faux (def.), arx, have gen. plur. ium; in lux, an abl. luci occurs rarely.
4. Peculiar Forms. In many nouns the stem is yari- ously modified in the nominative.
a. The vowel-stems gru-, su-, simply add s, retaining the original 7; grtis has also a nom. gritis; sus has in pl. subus.
6. In bov- (bou-), the diphthong ou becomes 6 (b6s, bivis); in nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, is); in Jรฉv-(โZeic) the diph- thong becomes @ in Ju-piter (pater), gen. Jรฉvis, &.
c. In itรฉr, itinรฉris (N.), jรฉcur, jecindris (N.), the nom. has been formed from a shorter stem; so that these words show a combination of two distinct forms.
ad. Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (pl. vasa, Orum) retains its proper declension.
Notre. โ Of apparent s-stems, as (assis) is an i-stem; of os, ossis, the original stem is osti- (cf. do0reov and Sanskrit asthi); while the others have either (1) passed into r-stems (changed from s) in most of the cases, as honor, Gris, corpus, Gris (see liquid stems) ; or (2) have broken down into i-stems, as moles (cf. molestus), mubes (Sanskrit nabhas), sedes (cf. os), vis (vires), &c.
Sing. Oz, 0. Snow, F. Old Man,M. Flesh, ยฅ. Bone, N. Force, F. N. V. bos nix sรฉnex caro 6s vis G. bodvis nivis sรฉnis carnis ossis vis D. boรฉvi nivi sรฉni carni Ossi a A. bivem nivem sรฉnem carnem os vim > bdve nivรฉ sรฉnรฉ carne osse vi
ur. N. A.V. bives __ nives sรฉnes carnรฉes ossa vires G. boum โ_โ sรฉnum โ Ossium virium D.A. boous nivibus sรฉnibus carnibus ossibus viribus
%. The Locative form for nouns of the Third declension ends, like the dative, in 1; sometimes, like the ablative, in @: as, ruri, in the country; Karthagini, at Carthage; Tibitire (Hor.), at Tibur ; โ plural in Ybus: as, Trallibus, at Tralles.
6. Greek Nouns. Many nouns, originally Greek, โ mostly proper names, โ retain Greek forms of inflection.
a. Stems in in- (i long) add s in the nominative, omitting n: as, delphis (but also delphin), Salamis. So Phorcys.
11: Il, IV.] THIRD DECLENSION: RULES OF GENDER. 23
b. Most stems in id- (nom. is) often have also the forms of i-stems: as, tigris, Idis (idos) or is; acc. idem (ida) or im; abl. ide or i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have acc. idem (ida), abl. ide,โnot im andi. These follow the forms in Greek, which depend on the place of the accent.
c. Stems in 6n- sometimes retain n: as, Agamemnon (or Agamemno), 6nis, acc. Ona.
d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in Gn: as, horizon, Xend- phon; but a few are occasionally latinized into Gn- (nom. 0): as, Draco, Onis.
e. Stems in ant-, ent-, have nom. in 4s, is: as, adamas, antis; Simois, entis. So a few in unt- (contr. from oent-) have tis: as, Trapรฉzus, untis. Occasionally the Latin form of nom- inative is also found: as, Atlans, elephans.
f. Case-Forms.โMany Greek nouns (especially in the poets) have gen. 6s, acc. 4; plur. nom. 6s, acc. as: as, aรฉr, aethรฉr, cratรฉr, hรฉros (Gis), lampas (Adis or ados), lynx (cis or c63), nais (idos), Orpheus (eos).
gยป A few in ys have acc. yn, voc. y; abl. yรฉ: as, chelys, yn, y; Capys, yos, yn, y, ye.
h. Several feminine names in 6 have gen. sing. tis, all the other cases ending in 6; they may also have regular forms: as, Dido; gen. Diddnis or Didtis; dat. Diddni or Dido, Kc.
IV. Rutes or GENDER.
I. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns of the third declension, classed according to the termination of the nominative.
Notre.โ Rules of gender are mostly only rules of memory, as there is no necessary connection between the form and gender. In fact, most nouns could originally be inflected in all genders.
a. Masculine endings are 0, or, os, er, es (idis, Itis).
b. Feminine endings are as (atis), es (is), is, ys, x, s (follow- ing a consonant); also, do, go, io (abstract and collective), and iis (iidis, itis).
c. Neuter endings are a, e, i, y; ยข, 1, t; men (minis); ar, ur, us (Gris, Gris).
2. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns of the third declension, classed according to their stems.
Norte. โ See the Note above. But the. preference of masc. and fem. (especially fem.) for long vowels cannot be accidental (compare long a of Ist declension). Some afiixes also prefer one or another gender: as, tor (originally tar), masculine; ti, feminine ; men (origi- nally man), neuter.
24 THIRD DECLENSION: RULES OF GENDER. ([Al1: Iv.
a. Vowel Stems. Stems in i, having s in the nominative, are feminine, except those mentioned below (3, a). โhose having nominative in @, or which drop the e, are neuler.
b. Liquid Stems. Stems in 1 are masculine, except sil, fel, mel, and sometimes sal (N). Those in min are neuter, ex- cept homo, nemo, flamen (M.). Others in in are masculine, except pollen, unguen (N.). โThose in โฌn are masculine. Those in din, gin, iรฉn (abstract and collective) are feminine. Others in 6n, with cardo, margo, ordo, unio, senio, quaternio, are masculine. Those in r preceded by a short vowel are neuter, except nearly 30 given below. โThose in r preceded by a long vowel are masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, tellus, Fr.; crus, jus, pus, rus, tus (in which the long vowel is due to contraction), N.
ce. Labial Stems (no neuters). Stems in b and m are feminine, except chalybs. โThose in p are chiefly masculine (exceptions below).
d. Lingual Stems. Stems in ad, รฉd, id, nd, tid, aud, are Jeminine, except dromas, pes, quadrupes, obses, preeses, lapis (M.). Those in at, tit, are feminine, except patrials (as Arpinas), with penates and optimates. Those in 6d, &t, are masculine, except merces and quies with its compounds. โThose in &t, it, are masculine, except abies, merges, seges, teges (Fr.), and those which are common trom signification. Those in at are neuter ; those in nt various (see List) ; those in lt, rt, feminine. (For a few isolated forms, see List.)
e. Palatal Stems. Stems in ec preceded by a consonant or long vowel are feminine, except calx (stone or heel), decunx, phoenix, storax, vervex, M. โThose in c preceded by a short vowel are chiefly masculine (for exceptions, see List); those in g, masculine, except frux, lex, phalanx, syrinx (also nix, nivis).
3. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns of the Third Declension, classed according to their Stems.
a. Vowel-Stems.
รฉs, is:โ about 35 nouns (original s-stems, list p. 17), feminine, except tudes, hammer ; vates, prophet; verres, pig (M.). is, Is: โ about 100 nouns, chiefly feminine.
Exc. โ edilis, edile; amnis, river; anguis, snake; antes (pl.), ranks; assis, a coin; axis, axle; callis (c.), by-path; canalis (c.), canal; canis (c.), dog; caulis, stalk; civis (c.), citizen; clunis (c.), haunch ; collis, hill; crinis (c.), hair; ensis, sword; fascis, fagot ; finis (c.), end; follis, bellows; funis (c.), rope; fustis, club; hostis (C.), enemy; ignis, fire; juvenis (c.), youth; lactes (pl.), entrails ; lares, gods; manes, departed spirits; mensis, month; orbis, circle ; panis, bread; piscis, fish; sentis (c.), brier; testis (c.), witness; torris, brand; unguis, claw; vectis, bar; vepres (c., pl.), bram- bles; vermis, worm (M.).
11: Iv., 3.] THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OF INFLECTION. 25
8, is: โ upwards of 20 nouns, all neuter.
Al, Alis; ar, aris: โ 16, neuter (see list, page 17; and for those in Ar, aris, see Liquid Stems).
รฉr, ris: โimber, shower; linter, boat; uter, bag; venter, stom- ach, โall M. except linter, which is commonly F.
PrcurtarR:โ grus, gruis, crane, F.; rhus, rhois (acc. rhum),
sumach, M.; sus, suis, hog, C.; heros, herdis, hero, M.; misy,
yos, truffle, ยฅ.; oxys, yos, sorrel, F.; cinnibari, vermilion ;
gummi, gum; sinapi, s#ustard (indecl.), N.; chelys, yn, y, F. lyre.
b. Liquid Stems.
1, lis: โ9 nouns, masculine, except sil, ochre, and (sometimes) sal, salt, Nn.
en, nis: โ hymen, marriage ; ren, kidney ; splen (Enis), spleen, M.
รฉn, inis:โ10 nouns, M. except pollen, flour; unguen, oint- ment, N.
mรฉn, minis (verbal): โ about 30 nouns, neuter; but flamen, priest, M. ;
On, Snis (Greek): โ canon, rule; damon, divinity; gnomon, index, M.;โaรฉโฌdon, nightingale; alcyon, kingfisher; ancon, corner ; sindon, fine linen, ยฅ.
o, Snis:โ nearly 60 nouns, all masculine.
io, idnis (material objects, &c.) : โ about 30 nouns, masculine.
io, idnis (abstract and collective) :โ upwards of 50, feminine.
o, inis:โ homo, man ; turbo, whirlwind, M.; nemo, no one, Cc.
do, dinis:โ nearly 50 nouns, feminine excepting cardo, hinge ; ordo, rank, M.
go, ginis: โ about 30 nouns, feminine.
ar, aris :โ baccar, valerian; jubar, sunbeam; nectar, nectar, N.;
lar, household god ; salar, trout, M.
รฉr, ris:โaccipiter, hawk; frater, brother; pater, father, M.; mater, mother.
รฉr, Gris (Greek): โ crater, cup; halter, dumb-bell ; prester, water- spout, M. 3 ver, spring, N.
รฉr, ris: โacipenser, hawk ; aรฉr, air; zther, ether; anser, goose ; asser, stake; aster, star; cancer, crab; carcer, dungeon; later, brick; passer, sparrow, M.;โ mulier, woman, F. ;โ acer, maple ; cadaver, corpse; cicer, vetch ; papaver, poppy; piper, pepper ; tiber, hump ; uber, udder; verber, lash, Nn.
is, โฌris: โ cinis, ashes; cuctimis, cucumber ; pulvis, dust; vomis, ploughshare, M.
Or (6s), Gris: โ nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the agent, formed upon verb-stems), all masculine, except soror, sister ; uxor, wife, 2
26 THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OF INFLECTION. [11: Iv., 3.
dr, Sris: โ castor, beaver; rhetor, rhetorician, M.;โarbor, tree, F.; โador, fine-wheal ; zquor, level ; marmor, marble, n.
5s, Sris :โ flos, flower ; mos, custom ; ros, dew, M, ; โ glos, sisler- in-law, F.;โ OS, mouth, N.
tir, Sris:โebur, ivory; femur, thigh; jecur, liver; robur (or), strength, N.
tir, tris: โ9 masculine; with fulgur, thunderbolt; murmur, mur- mur; sulphur, brimstone, N.
us, ris: โ 13 neuter; also, Venus, F.
us, Sris:โ14 nouns, neuter, except lepus, hare, M.
us, tris: โ mus, mouse, M. ; โ tellus, earth, F.;โcrus, leg ; jus, right; pus, fester ; rus, country; tus, incense, N.
PrecuriarR:โdelphin, inis, dolphin; sanguis (en) Inis, blood ;
senex, senis, old man, M.; caro, carnis, flesh, F.; ws, zris, cop-
per; far, farris, corn; fel, fellis, gall; mel, mellis, honey; iter,
itineris, journey; jecur, jecindris (jec6ris), diver, N.; glis, -iris,
dormouse, M.
c. Labial.
bs, bis: โchalybs, steel, m.;โplebs, people; scrobs, ditch; trabs, beam ; urbs, city, ยฅ. (original i-stems).
ms, mis:โ hiemps, winter, F.
ps, pis: โ 15 nouns, masculine, except forceps, pincers ; merops, bee-eater ; ops, help; stips, gift; stirps, stock, ยฅ.
ad. Lingual.
as, Adis (Greek): โ14 nouns, feminine, except dromas, drome- dary ; vas, surety, M.
รฉs, Eโฌdis:โcupes, epicure; heres, heir; pres, surety, M.;โ merces, pay, F.
รฉs, Edis: โ pes, fool; quadrupes, quadruped, m.;โcompes, fetter, ยฅ.
โฌs, idis: โ obses, hostage; przeses, chief, c.
is, Idis: โ nearly 40 nouns, mostly Greek, feminine, except lapis, stone, M.
Os, Gdis :โ custos, guardian, Cc. [sacerdos, priest, C.
os, Otis: โnepos, grandson, M.; cos, whetstone; dos, dowry,F.;
us, tidis:โยงincus, anvil; palus, marsh; subscus, dovetail; with fraus, fraud ; laus, praise; pectis, tidis, sheep, F.
a, atis (Greek) : โ nearly 20 nouns, neuter.
as, atis: โabout 20 nouns (besides derivatives), feminine; also, anas, Atis, duck.
รฉs, etis:โceles, race-horse; lebes, kettle; magnes, magnet, M. ; โ qules, requies, rest; inquies, unrest, F.
11: Iv., 3.] THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS: OF INFLECTION. 27
es, &tis:โ aries, ram; interpres, interpreter; paries, house-wall, M.;โabies, fir; seges, crop; teges, mat, F.
รฉs, itis: โ about 20 nouns, masculine (or common from significa- tion).
lis, itis: โjuventus, youth; senectus, old age; servitus, slavery ; virtus, virtue; salus, health, ยฅ.
ns, ndis:โ frons, leaf; glans, acorn; juglans, walnut, F.
ns, ntis:โ nearly 20 (besides many participial nouns), common, except dens, tooth ; fons, fountain; mons, mountain; pons, bridge, M.;โfrons, brow; gens, nation; lens, lentile; mens, mind, F.
rs, rtis (originally i-stems):โ ars, art; cohors, cohort; fors, chance; mors, death; sors, lot, F.
ys, ydis; s, ntis (Greek) : โ chlamys, cloak, F.; Atlas, antis.
PECULIAR: โ as, assis, penny, M.;โ lis, litis, lawsuit; nox,
noctis, night; puls, pultis, pottage, ยฅ.;โ caput, itis, head ; cor,
cordis, heart ; hepar, atis, liver; os, ossis, bone; vas, vasis, ves-
sel, N.; also, compounds of -piis, -pddis (m.), Gr. for pes, foot.
e. Palatal.
ax, Acis:โ anthrax, coal ; corax, raven; frax (pl.), dregs 3; pan- ax, panacea; scolopax, woodcock, M.;โ fax, torch; styrax, a gum, F.
ax, acis: โ cnodax, pivot; cordax, a dance; thorax, breastplate, M. ; โ pax, peace, F.
ex, icis: โ upwards of 40 nouns, masculine, except Carex, sedge; forfex, shears; ilex, holm; imbrex, tile; nex (nรฉcis), violent death ; pellex, concubine, F.
ix, icis:โ about 30, with filix, larix, salix, (icis), feminine; besides many in trix, regular feminines of nouns in tor.
ox, Ocis: โ celox, cutter, F.
ux, ticis : โ dux, leader, c. ; โ crux, cross; nux, nut, F.
ux, ticis :โ balux, gold-dust ; lux, light, F.
x, cis : โarx, tower; calx, lime; falx, pruning-knife ; lynx, lynz; merx (def.), ware, F.; โ calyx, cup; Calx, heel, M.
x, gis: โ conjux (nx), spouse; grex, herd; remex, rower; rex, king, M. or C. ;โ frux (def.), fruit; lex, law; phalanx, pha- lanx, ยฅ., with a few rare names of animals.
Other nouns in & are nix, nivis, snow; nox, noctis, night; su- pellex, ectilis, F.;โ onyx, ychis, onyx, M.
Nore.โ Nouns having gen. plural in ium are โ1. All i-stems ;
2. Monosyllables with stem ending in two consonants ; 8 Most nouns
in ns or rs (nom.), with several in as (atis); 4. The following :โ dos, faux, fur, glis, lar, lis, mas, mus, nix, ren, strizx, vis.
1
_..
28 FOURTH DECLENSION. [12:.4; 2,ยฐ3.
12. FourtH DECLENSION.
The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u. (Usually this is weakened to 7 before -bus).
1. Masculine and feminine nouns form the nominative by adding 8; neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but with @ (long).
Notre. โ The u in neuters is lengthened, probably on account of the loss of m.
sinc. Car(M.) PLUR. sinc. Knee(N.) PLUR. Nom. curriis currus gรฉnt genua Gen. __currtis (uis) curruum gent (Us) genuum Dat. currui (i) curribus gent genibus Ace. currum currts gent genua Voc. โcurrtis currtis gent genua Abl. currtl curribus gent genibus
Notr.โ The Genitive singular is contracted from the old form in uis. It is sometimes written with a circumflex: as, curris.
2. Gender.โ ad. Most nouns in us are masculine. The following are feminine : โ cus, needle; Anus, old woman; cdlus, distaff; ddรฉmus, house; idus (pl.), the Ides; manus, hand; nurus, daughter-in-law ; porticus, gallery; quinquatrus, feast of Minerva; socrus, mother-in-law; tribus, tribe; with a few names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, specus.
6b. The only neuters are cornu, horn; genu, knee; pecu (def), catile; veru, spit. (Some others are mentioned by grammarians, and the form ossua, as from ossu, occurs in inscriptions.)
_ 8. Case-Forms.โa. An original genitive in os is some- times found: as, senatuos; and an old (but not original) geni- tive in i is used by some writers.
b. The nominative plural has rarely the form uus. c. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into tim.
d@. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural
in ubus: artus, partus, portus, tribus, veru; with dissyllables in -cus, as lacus.
รฉ. Domus, house, has also the following forms of the second declension: domi (locative; less frequently domui), at home; dative (rarely) dom; ablative domรฉ (rarely domi); plural gen. domorum (rarely domuum); accusative domGs (or domiis).
"18:1, 2.) FIFTH DECLENSION. 29 \
f- Most names of plants, with colus, distaff, have also forms of the second declension.
4. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb- stems, with the suflix -tus: as, cantus, song, from cano.
a. The Supines of verbs are the accusative and ablative (or dative, perhaps both) of these nouns.
b. Many have only the genitive, or the genitive and ablative : as, jussu (meo), by my command; so injussu (populi), without the peopleโs order. Some only the dative, memoratui, divisui.
c. The remaining nouns of this declension are the following : โ
zestus, heat; arcus, bow; artus, joint; coetus, meeting; fetus, pro- duce; ficus, fig; gradus, step ; incestus, incest; lacus, /ake; laurus, laurel ; myrtus, myrtle; penus (def.), provision; pinus, pine; portus, port; rictus, gape; senatus, senate; sinus, fold, bay; situs, dust ; specus, den; tonitrus, thunder; tumultus, tumult.
Nore. โ Several of these are formed upon verb-stems not in use, or obsolete.
13. Firtra DECLENSION.
The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in 6, which appears in all the cases.
1, The nominative is formed from the stem by adding s.
sInG. Thing (ยฅF.) PLUR. sinc. Day (M.) PLUR. Faith (ยฎ.) Nom. rรฉs rรฉs diรฉs diรฉs fides Gen. rรฉi rรฉrum diรฉi diรฉrum fidรฉi Dat. rรฉi rรฉbus diรฉi diรฉbus fidรฉi Ace. rem rรฉs diรฉm diรฉs fidem Voc. res rรฉs diรฉs diรฉs ; fidรฉs Abl. rรฉ rebus diรฉ diรฉbus fidรฉ
Norte. โ The e is shortened in the genitive and dative singular, when not preceded by i; viz., in jides, plebes, spes, res.
2. Gender. All nouns of this declension are feminine, except dies and meridies, m.
Nore. โ Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time, or time in general: as, longa dies, a long time ; constituta die, on the set day; also in the poets: pulcra dies, a fair day.
30 IRREGULAR NOUNS. [13, 14:1.
3. Case-Forms. The genitive singular anciently ended in รฉs (cf. as of first declension); and ei was sometimes contracted into i or e, asin the phrase plebi-scitum, peopleโs decree (Fr. plebiscite). An old dative in i or e also occurs.
4M. Several nouns of the fifth declension have also forms of the first, of which this is only a variety: as, materia, -ies, timber ; saevitia, -ies, cruelty.
Norr.โ Nouns in ies (except dies) are original a-stems. The others are probably (excepting res) corrupted s-stems, like moles, moles-tus ; dies, diurnus ; spes, spero. Requies (รฉtis) has also forms of this declension: with others, as saties (for satietas), &c.
5. The Locative form of this declension is represented by -e, as in hodie, to-day ; perendie, day-after-to-morrow ; die quarti, the fourth day ; pridie, the day before.
6. Of about forty nouns of this declension, the only ones com- plete in all their parts are dies and res. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative, accusative, and voca- tive, in the following: acies, effigies, eluvies, facies, glacies, progenies, series, species, spes.
14, IrreGuLar Novons.
1. Defective. Many nouns are defective in their forms of declension, either from signification or by accident of use.
a. Some are found only in the singular (singularia tantum), chiefly abstract nouns: as, pietas, piety; names of materials and things weighed or measured (not counted): as, aes, copper, far, corn; and proper names, as Cicero.
Abstract nouns in the plural may denote repetitions or instances, as paces:โnames of things measured, &c., kinds or samples, as vina, wines, aera, brazen utensils ; proper names, two or more of the same, as Scipiones. So Galliae, the two Gauls, Castires, Castor and Pollux, nives, snowflakes, soles, days, Joves, images of Jupiter, palatia, the buildings on the hill.
_ 6. Some are found only in the Plural (pluralia tantum): these include (1) many proper names, including those of Festivals and Games; (2) names of classes: as, majores, ancestors; liberi, children; penates, household gods; (3) the following from sig- nification: arma, weapons ; artus, joints ; divitiae, riches ; excu- biae, night-guard; insidiae, ambush ; manes, departed spirits ; minae, threats ; moenia, fortifications, and a few others, which are very rare.
14: 1, 2.] IRREGULAR NOUNS. 31
c. The following are defective in Case : โ
ambage, ยง F.; astus (s. and p.), astu, M.; cassem, e, ยง M.; dapis, i, em, e,ยง F.; dicam, as, F.; dicionis, i, em, e, ยง F.; fauce,ยง F.; foras, is (pl.), F.; fors, forte, F.; frugis, i, em, e,ยง ยฅ.; glos, F.; gratic, as, is, F.; inpetus, um, U, M.; imjitias, F.; jugera, um, ibus, N.; lues, em, e, F.; mane (nom., ace., and abl.), N.; nauci, N.; obice,ยง c.; opis, em, e,ยง F.; pondo (abl. or indec.), N.; precem, e, ยง F.; sentis, em, es, ibus, M.; sordem, e, ยง F. ; spontis, โฌ, F.; suppetias, F.; venui, um, M. (0, N.); vicis, em, e, es, thus, F. The _gen. plur. is also wanting in cor, cos, fax, fex, lux, nex, os (oris), pax, pres, ros, sal, sol, tus, vas, ver; jura, rura, have only nom. and acc. plur. ยง Plural complete.
Many nouns of the fourth declension occur only in the dative, or in the acc. and abl. (supines).
The following neuters are indeclinable: fas, nefas, instar, necesse, nihil, opus, secus. |
Nouns found only in one case are called monoptotes ; in two cases, diptotes ; in three cases, triptotes,
2. Variable. Many nouns vary in their form of declen- sion, their gender, or their signification under different forms.
a. Some have two or more forms of Declension, and are called heteroclites: as,
Balnea or @ ; carbasus (F.), pl.,a (N.); colus (1st and 4th), F.; femur, Oris or tnis; jugerum, 7, or abl. e, pl. a, um, N.; margarita, @ (F.), or um, t(N.); Mulciber, bri or beris ; munus, รฉris, pl. munia (mania), orum ; pubes, eris ; em, e; penus, t, or Oris ; sevitia, @; -ies, tet ; -itudo, inis, F.; sequester, tri, or tris ; with many found in the lst and 5th declensions, and a few other rare forms. 4
b. Some nouns vary in Gender (heterogeneous) : as;
celum (N.), pl. cali (m.), sky; clipeus (m.), or clipeum (N.), shield; frenum (N.), pl. freni (M.), rein.
_ยข. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in the singular or plural: as,
zdes, is (F.), temple; zdes, ium, house.
auxilium (N.), help; auxilia, auxiliaries.
carcer (M.), dungeon; carcรฉres, barriers (of a race-course).
castrum (N.), fort ; castra, camp.
copia (F.), plenty ; copiz, troops.
finis (m.), end; fines, bounds, territories.
forum, market-place ; fori, gang-ways.
gratia (F.), favor; gratia, thanks.
impedimentum (n.), hinderance ; impedimenta, baggage.
littรฉra (r.), letter (of alphabet) ; litterze, epistle.
locus (m.), place [pl. loca (N.)]; loci, passages in books. (In early writers this is the regular plural.)
ludus, sport ; ludi, public games.
opera, task; operz, day-laborers (โ handsโโ).
32 PROPER NAMES. 4, 15.
opis (F. gen.), help; opes, resources, wealth.
pliga (F.), region [plaga, blow]; plage, snares. rostrum, beak of a ship; rostra, speakerโs platform. sal (mM. or N.), salt; sales, witticisms.
tabella, tablet; tabellze, documents.
sestertius (m.) means the sum of 24 asses, = about 5 cents. sestertium (N.) means the sum of 1000 sestertii, = about $50. decies sestertium means the sum of 1000 sestertia, = $50,000.
d. Sometimes a noun in combination with an adjective takes a special signification, both parts being regularly inflected: as, jus- jurandum, jurisjurandi, oath; respublica, reipublicae, com- monwealth.
15. Prorer NAMES.
1. A Roman had regularly three names. Thus, in the name Marcus Tullius Cicero, we have โ
Marcus, the prwnomen, or personal name;
Tullius, the nomen; i.e., name of the Gens, or house, whose original head was Tullus; this name is properly an adjective ;
Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in its origin a nickname, โ in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.
2. A fourth or fifth name, called the agnomen, was sometimes given. |
Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aimilianus; Africanus from his ex- ploits in Africa; 4milianus as adopted from the milian gens.
3. Women had no personal names, but were known only by that of their gens.
Thus the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A younger sister would have been called Tullia seeunda or minor, and so on.
4, The commonest prenomens are thus abbreviated : โ
A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus. C. (G.) Gaius (Caius). M. Marcus. Ser. Servius. Cn. (Gn.) Gnzeus (Cneius), Mโ. Manius. Sex. Sextus. D. Decimus. Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius. K. Keso. N. Numerius. T. Titus.
App. Appius. P. Publius. Ti, Tiberius.
16: 1.] ADJECTIVES : INFLECTION. 33
ADJECTIVES.
16. INFLECTION oF ADJECTIVES.
ADJECTIVES and Participles are in general formed and declined like Nouns, differing from nouns only in . their use. In accordance with their use, they distin- guish gender by different forms in the same word. They are (1) of the first and second declensions, or (2) of the third declension.
Note. โ Latin adjectives and participles are either o-stems with the corresponding feminine a-stems (originally & and 4), or i-stems. Many, however, were originally stems in u or a consonant, which passed over, in all or most of their cases, into the i-declension, for which Latin had a special fondness. (Compare the endings รฉs and is of the Third declension with Greek es and ds; navis (nom.) with the Greek vats; animus with exanimis; cornu with bicornis; lingua with bilinguis ; cor, corde, corda, with discors, -di, -dia, -dium; sudvis with 48vs; ferens, -entia, with dรฉpev, -ovra.) A few, which in other languages are nouns, retain the consonant-form: as, vetus = รฉros, uber = ot0ap. Comparatives also retain the consonant form in most of their cases.
I. Stems in 0 have the feminine 4 (originally 4). They are declined like servus (m.), stella (r.), donum (N.): as,
M. F. Ne Sing. Nom. cariis cara carum, Dear. Gen. cari carae cari Dat. caro carae caro Ace. carum caram carum Voce. carรฉ cara carum Abl. card cara caro Pror. Nom. cari carae cara Gen. carorum cararum car6rum Dat. caris Caris caris Ace. cards caras cara Voce. cari carae cara Abl. caris Caris caris
Notr.โ The masc. gen. of adjectives in ius ends in ii, and the vocative in ie; notin i as in nouns: the voc. masc. of meus is mi, 2*
34 ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. [16: 1.
a. In adjectives of stems ending in ro- preceded by 6 or a consonant (also satur), the masculine nominative is formed like
puer or liber (ยง 10;: as,
Sing. Miser, wretched. Ater, black. N. miser misรฉra misรฉrum ater atra atrum G. miseri miserse miseri atri atree atri D misero misers misero atro atree atro Ac. miserum miseram miserum atrum atram atrum Vv. miser _misera miserum ater atra atrum Ab misero misera misero atro atra atro LUT e 4 N. miseri misers misera atri atree atra G. miserorum miserarum miserorum atrorum atrarum atrorum D. miseris miseris miseris atris atris atris Ac. miseros miseras misera atros atras atra Vv. miseri misers misera atri atree atra Ab. miseris miseris miseris atris atris atris
Stems in 6ro, with morigรฉrus, propรฉrus, postรฉrus, have the regular nominative i us.
Like miser are declined โasper, rough; gibber, hunched; lacer, torn; liber, free; prosper (erus), favoring ; satur (ura, urum), sated ; tener, tender ; with compounds of -fer and -ger; also, usually, dexter, right. In these the e belongs to the stem; but in dexter it is often syncopated.
Like ater are declined โ eger, sick ; creber, close; faber, skilled ; glaber, sleck ; integer, whole; ludicer, sportive; macer, lean; niger, dark; noster, our; piger, sluggish ; ruber, red; sacer, sacred ; sinis- ter, left; teter, foul; vafer, shrewd ; vester, your.
The following feminines lack a masculine singular nominative : โ cetรฉra, infรฉra, postรฉra, supรฉra. โThey are rarely found in the singular except in certain phrases: as, postero die. A feminine ablative in o is found in a few Greek adjectives, as lecitcd octoph6ro ( Verr. vy. 11.).
b. The following (o-stems) with their compounds have the genitive singular in Ius and the dative in i in all the genders: โ alius (N. aliud), other. nullus, none. ullus, any (with negatives). alter, other (of two). solus, alone. nus, one. neuter, -trius, neither. totus, whole. titer,-trius, which (of two).
Norr.โ The. suffix ter, in alter, uter, neuter, is the same as the Greek comparative suffix -repo(s). The stem of aliud appears in early
Latin and in derivatives as ali-, in the forms alis, alid (for aliud), aliter, &c. Regular forms of gen. and dat. are found in early writers.
Of these the singular is thus declined : โ
M. F. N. M. F. N. N. solus sola solum uter ยฉ - utra utrum G. solius solius_ solius utrius utrius utrius D. soli soli soli utri utri utri A. solum solam_ solum utrum utram utrum A. solo sola solo utro utra utro N. alius alia aliud alter altรฉra alterum G. alius alius alius alterius alterius alterius D.. alii alii alii alteri alteri alteri A. alium aliam aliud alterum alteram alterum A. alio alia alia altero altera altero
ยฃ6: 2] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION: 35
Note. โ These words, in Greek and Sanskrit, are treated as pro- nouns; which accords with the pronominal forms of the genitive in ius, the dative in i, and the neuter d in aliud. โThe i in the geni- tive <ius, though long, may be made short in verse; and alterius is generally accented on the antepenult. Instead of altus (gen.), alte- rius is more commonly used. In compounds โas altertiter โ some- times both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter.
2. Stems in iโdistinguished by being parisyllabicโ have properly no form for the feminine, and hence are called adjectives of two terminations. In the neuter,1 is changed to e. They are declined like turris (acc. em) and mare.
Sing. M.,F. Light. N. mM. Keen. F. N. N.V. 1lรฉvis _ Jรฉve acer acris acre
G. lรฉvis lรฉvis acris acris acris D. lรฉvi lรฉvi acri acri ~acri Ac. lรฉvem lรฉve acrem acrem_ acre Bs ae Reale 9.6 VR a | acri acri acri Plur.
N.V. lรฉvรฉs lรฉvia acres acres acria G. jรฉvium lรฉvium ~ acrium aacrium = acrium D. lรฉvibus lรฉvibus acribus acribus acribus Ac. lรฉvรฉs (is) lรฉvia acres (is) acres (is) acria Ab. lรฉvibus lรฉvibus acribus acribus acribus
a. Several stems in ri- form the masc. nom. in er (as acer, compare ยง 11,1. 2, b.). These are the following :โ
acer, keen. . pedester, on foot. alacer, eager. puter, rotten. campester, of the plain. saliiber, wholesome. celeber, famous. silvester, wooded. equester, of horsemen. terrester, of the land. paluster, marshy. voliicer, winged.
Also celer, celรฉris, celรฉre, swift; and, in certain phrases, the names of months in -ber.
Note. โ This formation is not original; and hence, in the poets, and in early Latin, either the masculine or feminine form of these adjectives was used for both genders. In others, as illustris, lugubris, mediOcris, multebris, there is no separate masculine form.
6. Case-Forms. These adjectives, as true i-stems, retain i in the abl. singular, the neut. plural ia, the gen. plur. ium, and often in the acc. plur. is, but never im in the ace. sing. For metri- cal reasons, an abl. in eโฌ sometimes occurs in poetry. When celer is used as an adjective, it has the regular gen. plur. in ium; as a noun, denoting a military rank, it is celรฉrum: as a proper name, it has the abl. in e. 7 ;
36 ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. [16: 3.
3. The remaining adjectives of the third declension have the form of i-stems in the ablative singular 1, the plural neuter ia, and genitive ium. In other cases they follow the rule of consonant-stems.
a. In adjectives of consonant-stems (except comparatives) the nominative singular is alike for all genders: hence they are called
adjectives of one termination. Except of stems in 1 and rf, it is formed from the stem by adding 8: as,
Sing. M.F. Happy. N. M.F. Calling. N.
N.V. felix fรฉlix vocans vocans Gen. felicis felicis vocantis vocantis Dat. __ felici * felici vocanti vocanti Ace. felicem felix vocantem vocans Abl. felice: or. fell ~ vocante or vocanti Plur.
N.V. _ felices felicia vocantes vocantia Gen. _ felicium felicium vocantium vocantium Dat. felicibus felicibus vocantibus vocantibus Acc. _ felices (is) felicia vocantes (is) vocantia Abl. felicibus felicibus vocantibus vocantibus
Other examples are the following : โ
Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N. M. F. N. N.V. iens, going par, equal preeceps, headlong Gen. euntis paris preecipitis
Dat. eunti | pari preecipiti
Acc. euntem iens parem par precipitem preceps Abl. eunte (i) pari preecipite (i)
Plur
N.A.V. euntes euntia pares paria precipites precipitia Gen. euntium parium preecipitium
D. Ab. euntibus paribus preecipitibus
Sing. M. F. N. M. FB. N. M. F. N. N.Y. dives, rich uber, fertile vetus, old
Gen. divitis ubรฉris vetรฉris
Dat. _ Giviti _ ubรฉri vetรฉri
Acc. divitem dives ubรฉrem uber veterem vetus Abl. divite (i) ubere (i) vetere (i)
Plur
N.A.V. divites (ditia) ubรฉres ubรฉra vetรฉres votรฉra Gen divitum ubรฉrum veterum
D. Ab. divitibus uberibus veteribus
Notr.โ The regular feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of cognate languages, would end in ia: this form is found in the abstracts amentia, desidia, socordia, &c., and in proper names, as Forentia (cf. Greek dรฉpovea). The neuter would regularly have the simple stem (as caput, cor, allec, Greek dรฉpov); but in ail except liquid stems, the masc. form in s has forced itseltโ not only upon the neuter nominative, but upon the accusative also, where it is wholly abnormal.
16: 3.] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. 37
A few of these forms, used as nouns, have a feminine in a: as, clienta, hospita, inhospita, with the appellation Juno Sospita.
b. The stem of Comparatives properly ended in 3s, which became or in all cases except the neuter singular (N. A. v.), where s is retained, and 6 is changed to % (compare honor, Oris; cor- pus, dris). Thus they appear to have two terminations.
โSing. M.F. Dearer. N. M.F. More. N. โ N.V. carior carius โ plus Gen. _cariOris cari6ris โโ pliris Dat. โ_cari6ri cariori โ pliri Ace. โcari6rem carius -e plus Abl. cariG6reโ or cariori โ plire Plur.
N.V. caridres cari6ra plires plira (ia) Gen. cari6rum cari6rum plurium plurium Dat. _โcarioribus carioribus pluribus pluribus Ace. CariOres cari6ra plures plura Abl. carioribus _โ_carioribus _ pluribus pluribus
Notre. โ The neut. sing. plus is used only as a noun; the gen. (rarely abl.) as an expression of value; the dative is not found in classic use. Its derivative, complures, several, has sometimes neut. plur. compluria. All other comparatives are declined like carior,
c. Case Forms. 1. The ablative singular of these adjec- tives commonly ends in i; but, when used as nouns, โ as super- stes, survivor, โthey have e. Participles in ns used as such, โ especially in the Ablative Absolute, โ or as nouns, regularly have e; but as adjectives, regularly ii (So adjectives in ns as in the porase, me imprudente.)
In the following, e is the regular form :-โccles, compos, deses, dives, hospes, pauper, particeps, preceps, princeps, superstes, supplex; also in patrials (see ยง 44), with stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes as adjectives.
2. The genitive plural ends commonly in ium, and the accusa- tive often in Is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined to the i-declension.
_ In the following, the gen. plur. ends in um:โalways in dives, compos, inops, preepes, supplex, and compounds of pes ; โ sometimes, in poetry, participles in ns. In vetus (&ris), pubes (Eris), uber (รฉris), which did not become i-stems, the forms e, a, um, are regular; but uber and vetus rarely have the abl. in i.
3. Several are declined in more than one form: as, gracilis (us), hilaris (us), inermis (us). A few are indecl. or defective: as,
damnas (esto, sunto), frugi (dat. of advantage), exspes (only nom.), exlex (nom. and ace.), mactus (nom. and voc.), nequam (indecl.), pernox (pers noctu), potis, pote (indecl. or M. F. potis, N. pote), primoris, seminรฉci, &C
38 ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. 725,
d. Many adjectives, from their signification, are used only in the masculine or feminine, and may be called adjectives of common gender. Such are adolescens, youthful; deses, idis, sloth ful; inops, Spis, poor; sospes, itis, safe. So senex and juvenis may be called masculine adjectives.
e. Many nouns may be also used as adjectives (compare ยง 47, 3): as, pedes, a footman or on foot ; especially nouns in tor (M.) and trix (r.), denoting the agent: as, victor exercitus, the con- quering army; victrix causa, the winning cause.
f. Certain cases of adjectives are regularly used as Adverbs. These are, the acc. and abl. of the neuter singular: as, multum, multo, much;โthe neuter of comparatives (regularly): as, carius, more dearly ; lรฉvius, more lighily ; โ together with those ending in 6 for o-stems, and ter for i-stems: as, carรฉ, dearly ; leviter, lightly ; acerrime, most eagerly.
17. CoMPARISON.
1. Regular Comparison. The Comparative is formed by adding, for the nominative, ior (old stem 10s), neuter ius, and the Superlative by adding iss{mus, a, um (old iss- timus), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel: as,
carus, dear; carior, dearer; carissimus, dearest.
lรฉvis, light ; levior, lighter ; levissimus, lightest.
fรฉlix, happy ; felicior, happier ; felicissimus, happiest.
hebes, dull ; hebetior, duller ; hebetissimus, dullest.
Note. โ The comparative suffix is the same as the Greek fwy, or the Sanskrit iyans. That of the superlative (issimus) is a double form, but what is the combination is not certain; perhaps it stands for
ios-timus (comp. and sup.), or possibly for ist-timus (two superla- tives). Strictly, new stems are thus formed.
a. Adjectives in er form the superlative by adding -rimus to the nominative (comparative regular) : as,
miser, miserior, miserrimus ; acer, acrior, acerrimus.
So vetus, veterrimus (for comparative, vetustior) from the old form veter; and, rarely, maturrimus (for maturissimus).
b. The following in lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its vowel: facilis, easy; difficilis, hard; similis, like; dissimilis, unlike; gracilis, slender ; humilis, low.
Nors. โ The endings -limus and -yimus, the regular superlatives, are formed by assimilation from -timus and -simus.
L7--2, 2.) ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. 39
c. Compounds in -dicus (saying), -ficus (doing), -vdlus (willing), take the forms of corresponding participles in ns, which were anciently used as adjectives: as, โ
maledicus, slanderous, maledicentior, maledicentissimus. malevdlus, spiteful, malevรฉlentior, malevolentissimus.
d. Adjectives in us preceded by a vowel (except u) rarely have forms of comparison, but are compared by the adverbs magis, more; Maxime, most: as,
idoneus, jit; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus.
Most derivatives in -icus, -idus, -alis, -aris, -ilis, -tilus, -undus, -timus, -inus, -Ivus, -Grus, with compounds, as degener, inops, are also thus compared.
e. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : as, patientior, patientissimus; apertior, apertissimus.
Norre.โ Many adjectivesโas aureus, goldenโare from their meaning incapable of comparison; but each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus niger, black, and candidus, white, are compared; but not ater or albus, meaning absolute black or white.
2. Irregular Comparison. Several adjectives are compared from different stems, or contain irregular forms: as,
| bdnus, mรฉlior, optimus, good, better, best.
-\mรฉlus, pรฉjor, pessimus, bad, worse, worst.
magnus, major, maximus, great, greater, greatest. -parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least.
-multum, pliis (N.), plurimum, much, more, most. โmulti, plires, plurimi, many, more, most. nรฉquam (indecl.), nequior, nequissimus, worthless, friigi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissimus, useful, worthy. dexter, dextรฉrior, dextimus, on the right, handy.
3. Defective Comparison. The following are formed from roots or stems not used as adjectives : โ
โeis, citra] citรฉrior, citimus, hither, hithermost. fin, intra] intรฉrior, intimus, inner, inmost. [prae, pro] prior, primus, former, first.
[prope] propior, proximus, nearer, next. [ultra] ulterior, ultimus, farther, farthest.
a. Of the following the positive forms (originally comparative) are rare, except when used as nouns, generally in the plural: โ .
- [extโฌrus] exterior, extrรฉmus (extimus), outer, oulmost. - [infรฉrus] inferior, infimus (imus), lower, lowest. postรฉrus] posterior, postrรฉmus, latter, last. tรฉrus] posterior, p ae th supรฉrus] superior, supremus or summus, higher, highest. Pp P g g The plurals, exteri, foreigners ; posteri, posterity; superi, the heavenly gods ; inferi, those below, are common
40 ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. [A975 4,5.
b. From juvenis, youth, sรฉnex, old man, are formed the com- paratives junior, younger, senior, older. Instead of the superla- tive, the phrase minimus or maximus natu is used (natu being often understood): as,
maximus fratrum, the eldest of the brothers ; but,
senior fratrum, the elder of the [two] brothers.
c. In the following, one of the forms of comparison is want- ing :โ
1. The Positive is wanting in deterior, deterrimus, worse, worst; ocior, ocissimus, swifler, swiftest; potior, potissimus, more and most preferable (irom potis, able].
2. The Comparative is wanting iu bellus, pretty ; caesius, gray ; falsus, false; inclitus (or inclitus), famous; invictus, wnsur- passed ; invitus, reluctant; novus, new (novissimum agmen, rear guard); pius, pious ; sacer, sacred; vetus, old; and most deriva- tives in ilis and bilis.
3. The Superlative is not found in actuOsus, energetic; alacer, eager; arcanus, secret ; diuturnus, long-contimued ; exilis, slender ; ingens, huge; jejinus, sterile; longinquus, distant; opimus, rich ; proclivis, inclined; satur, sated; segnis, sluggish; serus, late; supinus, supine; taciturnus, silent; tempestivus, season- able; vicinus, neighboring ; dives, rich, has generally ditissimus.
4, Adverbs. Adverbs formed from adjectives are com- pared in like manner: as,
carus, dear: carรฉ, carius, carissimรฉ.
miser, wretched: miserรฉ (iter), miserius, miserrimรฉ.
lรฉvis, light: leviter, levius, levissimรฉ.
audax, bold: audacter, audacius, audacissimรฉ.
bG6nus, good: bรฉnรฉ, mรฉlius, optimรฉ.
mialus, bad: malรฉ, pรฉjus, pessimรฉ. Also, diu, long (in time), diutius diutissime ;โpotius, rather, potissimum, chief; โ saepe, often, -ius, -issime ;โsatis, enough, satius, preferable ; โ sรฉcus, otherwise, sรฉcius, worse ; โ multum (multo), magis, maxime, much, more, most.
5. Signification. Besides their regular signification, the forms of comparison are used as follows : โ
a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality: as, brevior, rather short, audacior, too bold. It is used instead of the superlative where only two are spoken of: as, melior imperatorum, where English often has a superlative.
b. The Superlative (of eminence) denotes a very high degree of a quality: as, maximus numerus, a very great number. With quam, it indicates the highest degree: as, quam plurimi, as many as possible; quam maxime potest (quam potest), as much as can be.
27:5. ZB] NUMERALS. 41
c. With quisque, the superlative has a peculiar signification : thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means, all the richest ; primus quisque, all the first (each in his order).
d. A high degree of a quality is denoted by such adverbs as admodum, valde, very; or by per or prae in composition: as, permagnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).
e. A low degree is indicated by sub in composition: as, sub- rusticus, rather countrified; or by minus, not very; minime, not at all; parum, not enough; non satis, not much.
18. NuMERALS.
1. Cardinal and Ordinal. Cardinal Numbers answer to the interrogative quot, how many; Ordinal Numbers to quotus, which in order, or one of how many.
CARDINAL. ORDINAL. ROMAN NUMERALS. I. unus, una, unum, ove, primus, a, um, frst. I. 2. duo, duz, duo, fwo.. secundus (alter), second. 11. 3. tres, tria, three, &c. tertius, third, &c. III, 4. quattuor quartus IV. 5. quinque. uintus v. 6. sex sextus VI. 7. septem septimus VII. 8. octo octavus VIII, 9. novem nonus a, Io. decem- โ decimus x Ir. undรฉcim undecimus XI, 12. duodรฉcim duodecimus XII, 13. tredรฉcim tertius decimus XIII, 14. quattuordรฉcim quartus decimus XIV, 15. quindรฉcim - quintus decfmus_~. XV. 16. sedรฉcim sextus decimus XVI, 17. septรฉndecim _ septimus decimus XVIL. 18. duodeviginti(octodรฉcim) duodevicesimus XVIIL. Ig. undeviginti (novendรฉcim) undevicesimus REx: 20. viginti โ vicesimus (vigesimus) XX, 21. viginti unus ov unus et viginti vicesimus primus, &c. XXtI. 30. triginta eS โ-.tricesimus =~ XSx. 40. quadraginta _ quadragesimus XL, 50. quinquaginta . quinquagesimus Te.OF L. 60. sexaginta sexagesimus LX, 70. septuaginta _ septuagesimus LXX. 80. octoginta . octogesimus LXXX. go. nonaginta nonagesimus XC.
Ioo. centum centesimus fo
42 NUMERALS. [18: 1.
CARDINAL. ORDINAL. ROMAN NUMERALS.
200. ducenti, ยซ, a ducentesimus CC; 300. trecenti trecentesimus ccc, 400. quadringenti quadringentesimus cccc, 500. quingenti quingentesimus ID, or D. 600. sexcenti sexcentesimus DC. 700. septingenti septingentesimus DCC. 800. octingenti octingentesimus DCCC. goo. nongenti nongentesimus DCCCC. 1000. mille millesimus CID, or M. 5000. quinque millia (milia) quinquies millesimus 199. 10,000. decem millia (milia) decies millesimus CCID09. 100,000. centum millia (milia) centies millesimus CCCIO099.
Notr. โ The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus) are formed by means of the same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimus (com- pare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten; primus is a superlative of pro; the forms in -tus (quartus, quintus, sex- tus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -tos and tp@tos, superlative of wpd; nonus is contracted from novimus ; while the others have the regular superlative ending -simus. Of the exceptions, secundus is a participle of seguor ; and alter is a comparative form (compare -tepos in Greek).
_@ Unus, una, unum, one, is declined like solus (ยง 16, 1.), gen. unius and dat. uni in all genders. It often has the mean- ing of same, or only. It is used in the plural in this sense, as also to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning: as, una cCastra, one camp. So uni et alteri, one party and the other.
, 6. Duo, two (also ambo, both), is thus dectined : โ
Nom. duo duae duo Gen. duorum duarum duorum Dat. duobus duabus duobus Acc. duos (duo) duas duo Abl. duobus duabus duobus
Notr.โ This form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages.
c. Tres, tria, three, is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like the plural of levis. The other cardinal numbers, up to centum (100), are indeclinable. The multiples of ten are compounds of the multiple, with a fragment of decem: as, viginti โ dui-ginta.
Norr.โ The forms octodecim (18), novendecim (19), are rare, unde- viginti, duodeviginti, &c., being commonly employed.
d. โThe hundreds, up to 1000, and all the ordinals, are o-stems, and are regularly declined like adjectives of the first and second declension. 7
18ยฐ 2, 3, 4.] NUMERALS. 43
โฌ. Mille, a thousand, is not declined when used as an adjec- tive. Often in the singular, and always in the plural (milia or millia, thousands), it is used as a neuter noun, joined with a geni- tive plural: as, cum mille hominibus (or, mille hominum), with 1000 men; but, cum duobus milibus hominum (or, in poetry, cum bis mille hominibus), with 2000 men.
_ 2. Distributives. Distributive Numerals answer to the interrogative quotรฉni, how many of a sort.
. singuli, ove byone. 12. duodeni 200. duceni
2. bini, wo-and-two. 13. terni deni, &c. 300. treceni
3. terni, trini 20. viceni 400. quadringeni 4. quaterni 30. triceni 500. quingeni
5. quini 40. quadrageni 600. sesceni
- seni 50. quinquageni 700. septingeni 7. septeni 60. sexageni 800. octingeni 8. octoni 70. septuageni goo. nongeni
g- noveni 80. octogeni 1000. milleni 10. deni go. nonageni 2000. bis milleni 11. undeni 100. centeni 10,000. decies milleni
Distributives are used as follows :โ ~ a. In the meaning of so many apiece or on each side: as dat singula singulis, he gives them one apiece.
6. Instead of Cardinals, when the noun is plural in form but singular in meaning: as, bina castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts). ?
c. In multiplication: as, bis bina, twice two; quater septe- nis diebus, i.e., in four weeks.
d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or sets are spoken of: as, bina hastilia, two shafts (each person usually carrying two).
3. Numeral Adverbs. The numeral adverbs answer to the interrogative quotiens (quoties), how often. Those of the higher numbers, including five, have the termination iens (ies) added to the stem of Cardinals. | semel, once. Io. decies 60. sexagies
. bis, ยขwice. II. undecies 70. septuagies
. ter, thrice. ยป 12. duodecies 80. octogies
ยป quater 13. ter et decies, &c. go. nonagies
- quinquies (ens) 20. vicies 100. centies
+ sexies 21. semel et vicies 200. ducenties
. septies 30. tricies 300. ter centies
. octies 40. quadragies 1000. milies
. nonies 50. quinquagies 10,000. decies milies
4. The adjectives simplex (icis), single; duplex, double; triplex, triple; quadriiplex, quintuplex, multiplex, &c., are called mu/tiplicatives. โThey are compounds of plico (as in Eng- lish two fold) ; and are inflected as adjectives of one termination, ยฉ
44. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. (A8 F 322,22.
PRONOUNS.
19. PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE.
i. The Personal Pronouns of the first person are ego, J, nos, we; of the second person, tu, thou, Vos, ye or you.
First PEerson. SECOND PERSON. Nom. ego, I nos, we tu, thou vos, ye or you Gen. mei, of me nostrum(tri), of us tui vestrum (tri) Dat. mihi, fo me nobis, to us tibi vobis Ace. me, me nos, ws te vos Vo. โ tu vos Abl. me, by me _ nobis, by us te vobis
These pronouns are also used reflexively: as, ipse te nimium laudas, you praise yourself too much.
2. The pronouns of the third person โ he, she, tt, they โ are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used.
3. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person (referring to the subject of the sentence or clause, and hence used only in the oblique cases) is the same in the singular and plural: as,
Gen. sui, of himself, herself, themselves.
Dat. sibi, fo m8 + as Ace. se, Sese 9 โ 9 Abl. se, with ,, 99 2
Notre. โ There is an old form of genitive in is: as, mis, tis, sis; also an accusative and ablative med, ted, sed.
a. From these pronouns are formed the Possessive Adjectives meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester (voster), declined as in ยง 16, I. -
b. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are the contracted geni- tive plural of the possessives noster, vester.* (So in early and late Latin we find una vestrarum.) They are used partitively.
c. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are the geni- tive singular of the neuter possessives, meum, &c., meaning my, your, our interest or concern. โThey are used objectively.
d. The reciprocal (each other) is expressed by inter se or alter โalterum: as, inter se amant, they love each other.
e. The. preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative of the pronouns: as, tecum sedet, he sits with you.
20: 1, 2.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 45
f. To the personal (and sometimes to the adjective) pronouns enclitics are joined for emphasis: โ met to all the pronouns; -te to tu; -pte to the abl. sing. of the adjectives, and in early Latin to the others: as, vosmetipsos proditis, you betray your own very selves; suopte pondere, by its own weight.
20. DEMONSTRATIVE.
1. The Demonstrative Pronouns are hic, this; is, ille, iste, that ; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same.
Norse. โ These are combinations of o and i-stems, which are not clearly distinguishable. Hic is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative -ce, which appears in full in early Latin (hice), and when followed by the enclitic -me (hicine). In most of the cases it is shortened to c, and in many lost; but it is appended for empha- sis to those that do not regularly retain it (hujusce). In early Latin c alone is retained in some of these (horunc). Ile and iste are sometimes found with the same enclitic (illic, istuc).
a. Ille is a later form of ollus (olle), which is sometimes used by the poets; a gen. sing. in i, ae, i, occurs in ille and iste.
6b. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, &c., with the entire loss of the first syllable; and the i of ipse and ille is very often found shortened.
c. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for pte, from the same root as potis), meaning self. The first part was originally de- clined, as in reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus occurs. Idem is the demonstrative is with the aflix -dem.,
2. These demonstratives are used either with nouns as Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns; and, from their significa-
tion, cannot (except ipse) have a vocative.
This. That. Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N.
โ Nom. hic haec hoc is ea id Gen. hujus hujus hujus ejus ejus ejus Dat. huic huic huic ei ei 0's Ace. hune hanc hoc eum eam id Abl. hoc hac hoc eo ea eo Plur. These. Those.
Nom. hi hae - haec ii (ei) eae ea Gen. horum harum horum eorum earum eorum Dat. his his his eis or iis (is) Acรฉ. hos has haec eos eas ea
Abl. his his his eis or iis (is)
โ D> >] =I = i) 2 โขM = Hs) > = _โ a ts ee) bs) re) Z ยฐo q Z ea SR, nN ยฐo XN
That Self. SING. M ยฅ. N. M. ยฅ. N. N. ille illa illud ipse ipsa ipsum G. illius illius illius ipsius ipsius ipsius D. illi illi illi ipsi psi ipsi โA. illum illam illud ipsum ipsam ipsum Jf a ipse ipsa ipsum A. illo illa illo ipso ips ipso PLUR Those Selves N. illi illee illa ipsi ips ipsa G illorum illarum illorum ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum D. illis illis s ipsis ipsis ipsis A. illos illas illa ipsos ipsas ipsa Vv. ipsi ipsee ipsa A. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis Dpsis
f The Same.
SING. PLUR. N. idem eidem idem iidem esedem eidem G. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eorundem earundem eorundem D. eidem eidem erdem eisdem or iisdem A. eundem eandem idem eosdem easdem e&dem A. eodem eadem eodem eisdem or iisdem
a. Hic is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, thought, or on the written page) ; hence called the demonstrative of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for โ* the latterโ of two things mentioned.
b. Ile is used of what is remote (in time, &c.) ; hence called the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to mean โโthe formerโ; also (usually following its noun) of what is JSamous or well-known ; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean โ* the following.โ
_ โฌ Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness ; often of the person addressed, โ hence called the demonstrative of the second person; especially of oneโs opponent, frequently imply- ing contempt. It is declined like ille.
d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others, not denoting any special object, but referring to one just mentioned, or to be explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a personal pronoun; and is often merely a correlative to the relative qui: as, eum quem, one whom; eum consulem qui non du- bitet (Cic.), a consul who will not hesitate.
e. Ipse, may be used with a personal pronoun, as nos ipsi (nosmetipsi), we ourselves; or independently (the verb contain- ing the pronoun), as, ipsi adestis, you are yourselves present ; or with a noun, as ipsi fontes (Virg.), the very fountains.
_ Notge.โ In English, the pronouns himself, &c., are used both inten- sively (as, he will come himself ), or reflexively (as, he will kill himselfโ): in Latin the former would be translated ipse; the latter se, or sese.
21: 1, 2.] RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. 47
21, Revative, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE.
1. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite pronouns are the same; viz., qui, quis (who, who? any), with their compounds and derivatives.
Note. โ The stem has two forms, quo- and qui-.. From the latter are formed quis, quid, quem, quibus, qui (abl.), while guz, gue, are prob- ably lengthened forms of quรฉ, quรฉ, made by the addition of the demonstrative particle i.
Sing. M. F. N.
Nom. qui, quis? quae quรฉd, quid? Gen. cljus (whose) citijus cujus
Dat. cui cui cui
Ace. quem (whom) quam quod, quid? Abl. quo _ qua quo
Plur.
Nom. qui quae quae
Gen. quorum gquarum โquorum
Dat. quibus or quis
Ace. quos quas quae
Abl. quibus or quis
Case Forms. a. The Relative has always qui and quod in the nom. sing. The Interrogative and Indefinite have quis, quid substantive, and qui, quod adjective. But quis and qui are sometimes used for each other. (For quis, indef., see 2, d.)
b. Old forms for the gen. and dat. are quoius, quoi. A loca- tive cui occurs only in the form cuicuimรฉdi, of whatever sort.
c. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders; but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any way), and in the combination quicum, as interrogative or in- definite relative.
d. A nom. plur. quรฉs (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. The dat. and abl. quis (stem qu6-) is old, but not infrequent.
e. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the ablative, as with the personal pronouns. 2. The stems quo and qui are variously compounded.
a. The suffix -cunque (-cumque) added to the relative makes an Indefinite-relative, which is declined as the simple word: as,
quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever.
Notre.โ This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative: as, qualiscunque, of whatever sort; quandocunque (quandoque), whenever j ; ubicunque, wherever.
48 RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. [21: 2,
b. The interrogative form doubled also makes an indefinite- relative: as, quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wher- ever). Of quisquis both parts are declined, but the feminine is wanting: as,
Nom. quisquis (quiqui) quidquid (quicquid)
Gen. cujuscujus
Dat. cuicui
Ace. quemquem quidquid (quicquid) Abl. quoquo
Prur. Nom. quiqui Dat., Abl, quibusquibus
This compound is rare, except in the forms quisquis, quicquid, and quoquo. โThe case-form quamquam is used as a conjunc- tion, although (lit. however). Quiqui is an early form.
c. Indefinite Compounds are the following: quispiam, any ; quisquam, any-at-all; quivis, quilibet, any-you-please ; quidam, a, acertain. Of these the first part is inflected like quis, qui, with quid or quod in the neuter.
ad. In aliquis, any, siquis, if any, nequis, lest any, ecquis, numquis, whether any, the-second part is declined like quis, but having qua for quae, except in the nom. plur. feminine. Si quis, ne quis, num quis, are better written separately. The simple form quis is rare except in these combinations; and the com- pounds quispiam, aliquis (si quis, if any one; si aliquis, if some one), are often used in these, being rather more emphatic.
The compounds of quis (indef.) are thus declined: โ
aliquis aliqua aliquid aliqui aliquse aliqua alicujus (or-quod) aliquorum aliquarum aliquorum alicul %. : aliquibus aliquem aliquam aliquid aliquos aliquas aliqua aliquo aliqua aliquo aliquibus Norte. โ Aliquis is compounded with ali-, old stem of alius, but with weakened meaning. Ecquis is compounded with en.
e. The enclitic -que added to the indefinite gives a Universal: as, quisque, every one; ubique, everywhere (so uterque, either of two, or both). Of quisque the first part is declined. In the compound unusquisque, both parts are declined, and sometimes separated by other words.
f. The relative and interrogative have a possessive adjective cujus (stem cujo-), whose; and a patrial cujas (stem cujat-), of what country.
g- Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from the same stem, and are usรฉd as interrogative or relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis. Quam, how, is an accusative of the same stem, corresponding to the case-form tam, so.
h. Quisquam, with ullus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, any- where, are chiefly used in negative, interrogative, or conditional sentences, or after quam, than; sine, without ; vix, scarcely.
?
22.) a CORRELATIVES. 49
22. CORRELATIVES.
Many adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs are found in several corresponding forms, as, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and indefinite. These are called CorreLatives. Their forms are seen in the following Table: โ
DEMONSTR. RELAT. INTERROG. INDEF. REL. INDEF. is, that qui quis? quisquis aliquis tantus, so great quantus quantus ? | aliquantus talis, such qualis qualis ? ยฅ ibi, there ubi ubi ? ubitibi alictibi eo, thither quo - quo? quoquo โ_aliquo ea, that way qua qua? quaqua = aliqua inde, thence unde unde? * alicunde tum, then quum, cum quando? . aliquando tot, so many quot quot? quotquot aliquot toties, so often quoties quoties ? r aliquoties
* Compounds with -cumque.
a. The forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem (originally toti), are indeclinable, and may take any gender, number, or case: as,
per tot annos, tot prceliis, tot imperatores (Cic.), so many commanders, for so many years, in so many battles.
b. The correlative of the second member is often to be ren- dered simply as: thus,
tantum argenti quantum aeris, as much silver as copper.
c. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablatives quo or quanto, by how much; eo or tanto, by so much, used with comparatives (rendered in English the . . the): as,
quo magis conatur, eo minus discit, the more he tries the less โhe learns.
d. Certain adverbs and conjunctions are often used correla-
tively: as, .
et... et, both... and.
ut .. . ita (sic), as (while). . . so (yet).
aut (vel) ... aut (vel), cither.. . or.
sive (seu) ... sive, whether... or.
tam ... quam, so (as)... as.
cum (tum)...tum, both... and; not only... but also.
idem ... qui, the same... as.
Notr.โFor the reciprocal use of alius and alter, see Syntax (ยง 47, 9). :
a0 VERBS: STRUCTURE. [23: 1, 263%
VERBS.
23. STRUCTURE.
a. The forms of a Latin verb are the following : โ
a. Voices: Active and Passive.
b. Moops: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive.
C. PARTICIPLES: Active, Present and Future.
Passive, Perfect and Gerundive. d. VrersaL Nouns: Gerund and Supine. e. Trensres: Present, Imperfect, Future; Perfect, Pluperfect, Future-Perfect.
- f. There are also separate terminations of inflection for each of the three Persons, Singular and Plural (ยง 28).
Nors. โ The Infinitives, Participles, Gerund, and Supine are not strictly parts of the verb, as having no personal terminations, but having the form and (in general) the construction of nouns. They were, however, regarded and used as verbal forms by the Romans.
2. Special forms for the following tenses are wanting in certain parts of the verb: โ
a. In the Subjunctive mood, the future and future-perfect.
Norr.โ These are wanting, because the original meaning and most of the uses of this mood are future. In some cases, the future participle with the corresponding tense of esse is used.
b. In the Passive voice, the perfect, pluperfect, and future-per- fect, which are supplied by corresponding tenses of esse, to be, with the Perfect Participle.
c. In the Imperative mood only two tenses are found, โ present and fulure. In the Infinitive only the present, perfect, and future.
$3. The Active and Passive voices are equivalent to the corresponding English forms, except that the tenses of the passive are used with more exactness. Thus vocatur means, he is [being | called, i.e., some one is now calling him; voca- tus est, he zs called, i.e., the action is now over.
Nore. โ The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning, as, indui- tur vestem, fe puts on his clothes ; and many verbs are active in mean- ing though passive in form. (Sec ยง 35, โโ Deponents.โโ)
24, 25.] - MOODS โ PARTICIPLES. 51
24. Moons.
1. The Indicative is used for direct assertion or interroga- tion.
2. The Subjunctive is used chiefly in commands, condi- tions, and dependent clauses.
Note. โ The Latin Subjunctive is usually translated, in grammars, by the English potential forms, may, might, could, would, &c., to distin- guish it from the Indicative, because the English has no subjunctive in general use. But the subjunctive is used in many cases where we use the indicative ; and we use the potential in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb. Thus J may write (except when it follows ut, in order that) is not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi scri- bere ; / can write is possum scribere; J would write is scribam, scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem) ; J should write, if, &c., scri- berem si ... or (implying duty) oportet me scribere. A few ex- amples of the use of the subjunctive may be seen in the following : โ
eamus, let us go. ne cunctemur, let us not linger.
quid morer, why should I delay ?
si tardior sim iratus sit, 7f J should be too late he would be angry. adsum ut videam, J am here to see [that I may see]. imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write.
nescio quid scribam, J know not what to write.
licet eas, you may go; cave cadas, donโt fall.
vereor ne eat, J fear he will go (vereor ut, J fear he will not). sunt qui putent, there are some who think. si ita esset non manerem, #f it were so I would not stay. quz cum dixisset abiit, when he had said this he went away.
3. The Imperative is used for exhortation or command ; but its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive.
4. The Infinitive is used as an indeclinable noun, as the subject or object of another verb; but often takes the place of one of the other moods.
Nore. โ For the Syntax of the Moods, see ยง 57, e
25. PARTICIPLES.
1. The Present participle has the same meaning as the English participle in -ing: as, vocans, calling; regentes, those ruling. (For its inflection, see ยง 16, 3.)
2, The Future participle is rarely used, except with tenses of esse, to be (see ยง 40), or to express purpose: as, urbs est casura, the city is about to fall; venit auditurus, he came to hear.
o2 GERUND AND SUPINE โ TENSES. [26, 27.
3. The Perfect participle is used to form certain tenses of the passive, and often has simply an adjective meaning: as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called; tectus, sheltered ; acceptus, acceptable ; ictus, having been struck.
Norse. โ There is no perfect active or present passive participle in Latin. The perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally used in an active sense, as secutus, having followed. In other cases some different construction is used: as, cum venisset, having come (when he had come); equitatu praemisso, having sent forward the cav- alry (the cavalry having been sent forward); dum verberatur, while being struck (= tTumrdpevos).
For the Syntax of these participles, see ยง 72.
4. The Gerundive (sometimes called the future passive participle) has, with tenses of esse, the meaning ought or must (see ยง 40): as, audiendus est, he must be heard. But, in the oblique cases, it is oftener to be translated as if it were an active participle, and governed the word it agrees with: as,
ad petendam pacem, to seek peace (ยง 78).
26. GERUND AND SoupPINE.
1. The Gerund is the neuter singular of the Gerundive. It is a verbal noun, corresponding to the English participial noun in -ing: as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking.
2. The Supines are the accusative and ablative (or dative) of a verbal noun of the fourth declension (ยง 12, 4, a). They are generally translated by the English Infinitive of purpose : as, venit spectatum, he came & see; mirabile dictu, wonder- Sul to tell.
Norse. โ The Supine in tum is the regular Infinitive in Sanskrit.
27. TEensEs.
1. The tenses of a Latin verb are of two classes: (1) those denoting incomplete action, the Present, Imperfect, and Future; (2) those denoting completed action, the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect.
- Those of the former class, together with the Perfect, are also used to denote indefinite action.
S79 203, 4:6. TENSES. 53
2. The Present, Future, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect have the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in Eng- lish, but are distinguished more accurately in their use: as, diu aegroto, J have long been [and still am] sick. cum venero scribam, when I come [shall have come] J will write.
3. The Perfect and Imperfect are both used to denote past time, the former usually to tell a simple fact ; the latter, a continued action, or a condition of things. The Imperfect is variously rendered in English: as, dicรฉbat, he said, he was saying, or he used to say; saepe dicรฉbat,
he would often say ; dictitabat, he kept saying. The Perfect has two separate uses, distinguished as definite and historical, corresponding to the English perfect (compound) and preterite (imperfect) : as, | vocavit, he has called (definite), or he called (historical).
Note. โIn Latin, and in the languages derived from Latin (as Italian and French), there are two past tenses, โ the Perfect or Pret- erite (aorist), which merely states that the fact took place ; and the Im- perfect, which is used for description, or to indicate that the action was an progress. In the Northern languages (Germanic or Gothic, includ- ing English), the same tense serves for both: as,
longius prosequi vetuit, quod loci naturam ignorabat, he forbade to follow farther, because he was ignorant of the nature of the ground (B. G. v. 9.).
4, The tenses of completed action are supplied in the Pas- sive voice by adding the corresponding tenses of incomplete
action of esse to the Perfect Participle: as, occisus est, he was slain, or, he has been slain.
5. The tenses of a Latin verb are formed upon three dif- ferent stems, called the present, the perfect, and the supine stems.
_ @ The tenses of incomplete action, both active and passive, are formed upon the Present stem.
b. The tenses of completed action in the active voice are formed upon the Perfect stem.
c. The perfect participle, which is used in the tenses of
completed action in the passive voice, is formed upon the Supine stem.
54. VERB FORMS. +) ZB: -By Be
28. Vers Forms.
1. Personal endings. Verbs have terminations for each of the three persons, both singular and plural, active and passive. โThese terminations are fragments of old pronouns, whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL, i ges mus r mur 2. 8 tis ris mini ae nt tur ntur
a, The present and perfect indicative have lost the m, and end in the modified stem-vowels o and i Except sum, J am, and inquam, J say. (Here o stands for m with a preceding vowel.)
6. The second po of the perfect indicative has for the sin- gular sti, and for the plural stis. The third person plural has an ending of verbal origin, รฉrunt.
c. The Imperative has special terminations :
ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Sing. 2. [lost] Plur. 2. te, tote Sing. 2. re Plur. 2, mini o.. to 3. nto 3. tor 3. ntor
Notr.โ The Passive is a peculiar Latin middle (or reflexive) form, made by adding se to the forms of the active voice, with some abrasion of their endings (the original form of se, sva, was not limited to the third person). Thus amor = amo-se, amaris = amasise, amatur =amatise. โThe above view seems the most probable, in spite of some objections. The ending mini in the second person plural of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek -pEVvoS.
p All Latin words ending in t, except a few in ot, ut, with et, at, sat, are third persons of verbs; all in nt are third persons plural. In dumtaxat, however, licet, although, and the indefinite pronouns in
-libet, the meanings of the verbs are disguised.
2. Changes of Stem. These terminations appear in all the tenses of the verb; but the Stem in many parts is variously modified to receive them, sometimes by changes in its form, and sometimes by additions at the end.
a. The Present indicative and subjunctive, the Imperative, and sometimes the Future, add the personal endings directly to the present stem, with or without change of vowel: as, do, das dat (stem da-) ; vOcem (stem vica-).
28: 2, 3.] -VERB-FORMS. BS
b. The Perfect indicative also sometimes adds them directly ; but to another form of the root called the perfect stem: as, dedi, dedisti, dedit.
Norse. โ The i of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always long (ei, i, e) except before mus, is of doubtful origin. It is treated tor convenience as part of the stem, as it is in dedi, steti, where it takes the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes vi (= fui) and si (= Skr. asa), and in the pertects of consonant-roots, it seems to be, but prob- ably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The s before ti and tis is also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es; but it may be, like the others, of pronominal origin.
c. All other true verbal forms are compounded with a suffix โ originally a verbโwhich contains the personal endings: as, vocav-eram, vocav-รฉro, voca-bo. โThe first person of the Perfect, thus compounded, produces another form of perfect stem: as, voca-vi.
d. The Present Infinitive Active, Present Participle, and Gerundive, add nominal (noun or adjective) suffixes to the present slem: as, vocare, vocans (antis), vocandus.
e. The Perfect infinitive adds an infinitive (esse) already formed to the perfect stem: as, vocavisse (= vocavi-esse).
f. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are formed upon what is called a supine stem, which adds t- either to the Present stem or to the Root: as, vocat-, tect- (root tรฉg-).
Nore. โ Strictly, these have no common stem, but are formed with special suffixes (to-, turo-, tu-). As, however, the form to which they are added is the same for each, and as the suffixes all begin with t, it is convenient to give the name supine stem to the form in t. The participle in to- corresponds to the Greek verbal -ros; that in turo- is a development of the noun of agency ending in -tor (as victor, victurus); that in tu- is an abstract noun of the fourth declension (ยง 12, 4, a).
gq. The Present Infinitive Passive is an anomalous form, made by adding -ri or i to the present stem: as, voco, vocari; tego, tรฉgi. (When i is added, the final vowel of the stem disappears.) It was anciently followed by -รฉr.
h. The Future Infinitive Passive is supplied by the supine in tum with the infinitive passive of eo, to go, used Supereauidey' as, vocatumi iri, to be about to be called.
Notr.โ The construction of this infinitive is different from the others, the form in tum being invariable, and the apparent subject accusative being really the object of the supine taken actively. Few verbs in fact have this form, for which fore ut with the subjunctive is often found.
3. Verb-Endings. The scheme of Verb-Endings, as
they are formed by suffixes or personal endings, is as fol- lows: โ
56 VERB-FORMS. [28: 3. : a. Verbal Forms. ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. PRESENT. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. [o] m (vowel-change) [or] r (vowel-change) s s ris or re ris or re t t tur tur mus mus mur mur tis tis mini mini nt nt ntur ntur IMPERFECT. bam rem bar rer bas res baris (re) rรฉris(re) bat ret batur rรฉtur bamus rรฉmus bamur rรฉmur batis rรฉtis bamini remini bant rent bantur rentur FUTURE. bo, or am (vowel-change) bor, or ar (vowel-change) bis es bรฉris(re) eris(re) bit et bitur รฉtur bimus emus bimur eรฉmur bitis รฉtis bimini emini bunt ent buntur entur PERFECT. i oe Sa A jo sim isti รฉris tum) es sis it รฉrit est sit imap ore ti (tae, fonts penieag istis eritis estis sitis รฉrunt รฉrint ta) sunt sint or 6re PLUPERFECT. รฉram issem รฉram essem รฉras isses rain jer esses รฉrat isset 1) erat esset eramus issรฉmus . eramus essรฉmus eratis issรฉtis | as rai essรฉtis รฉrant issent ta) (erant essent
29: 1.)
รฉro รฉs รฉrit erimus eritis รฉrint
PRESENT. PERFECT.
FuTuURE.
PRESENT. PERFECT.
FUTURE. โSUPINE.
ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 57
Four. Prerrect.
tus (ta, big eris 9m) erit ti (tae, ane eritis | *) erunt IMPERATIVE. โ | re to tor te, tote mini nto ntor
b. Nominal. Forms.
INFINITIVE. : re (Pres. stem) viori(oldrier,ier) sse (Perf. stem) _ tus (a, um) esse turus (a,um) esse tum iri
PaRTICIPLE. ns, ntis
tus, a, um
turus (surus),a,um GERUNDIVE. ndus, a, um tum, tu (Present stem)
Nort. โ The origin and meaning of some of the above verb-end- ings may be given as follows. The suffix bam is an imperfect of BHU, which appears in fui, futurus, fio, the Greek iw, and English be ;โrem (for sem) is an optative or subjunctive imperfect of Es, which appears in sum, eipl, am, &c.;โbo is a future, and Vi a ~ perfect, of BHU ;โsi is a perfect of Es, and is kindred with the aorist-ending oa, though not of the same formation ;โerim is an optative form of ES corresponding to sim ;โero is the future of es
(for es=io).
29. Esse AND ITs COMPOUNDS.
The verb esse, ยขo be, is both irregular and defective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.
Nore. โ The present participle, which should be sens (compare Sanskrit sant), appears in that form in abssens, pree-sens; and as ens (compare @v) in pot-ens. The simple form ens is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, in the forms ens, Being ; entia, thinas which are.
8*
58, ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS, [29: 1,
PrincipaL Parts: Present, sum, J am. Infinitive, esse, to be. Perfect, fui, I was or have been. Future Participle, futtirus, about to be,
PRESENT. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Sine. 1. sum, J am. sim, I am, may be, &c. (see 2. &s, thou art. sis [examples on p. 51). 3. est, he (she, it) is. sit Prior. 1. stimus, we are. simus 2. estis, you are. sitis 3. sunt, they are. sint IMPERFECT. Sina. 1. Sram, J was. essem, was (would or fรฉrem 2. &ras, thou wast. esses, might be, ยงc.). fdres 3. Erat, he was. _ esset fdret Priur. 1. eramus, we were. essรฉmus | 2. eratis, you were. essรฉtis 3. erant, they were. essent fSrent 3 FUTURE. : Stina. 1. Gro, J shall be. 2. Gris, thou wilt be. 3. Grit, he will be. Pur. 1. erimus, we shall be. 2. eritis, you will be. 3. Grunt, they will be. | _ PERFECT. Sine. 1. fui, J was (have been). fuรฉrim, was (have been, may 2. fuisti, thou wast. fuรฉris [have been). 3. fuit, he was. fuรฉrit Prior. 1. fulmus, we were. fuerimus 2. fuistis, you were. fueritis 3. fuรฉrunt, they were. fuรฉrint
or fuรฉre. .
29: 1.] ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 59
PLUPERFECT.
. fuรฉram, J had been. fuissem, had been (might or . fuรฉras, thou hadst been. fuisses [would have been). . fuรฉrat, he had been. fuisset
1 2 3
Prior. 1. fueramus, we had been. fuiss@mus 2. fueratis, you had been. fuissรฉtis 3. fuรฉrant, they had been. fuissent
FuTurE PERFECT.
1. fuรฉro, J shall have been.
2. fuรฉris, thou wilt have been. 3. fuรฉrit, he will have been. 1 2 3
. fuerimus, we shall have been. . fueritis, you will have been. . fuerint, they will have been.
IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. 6s, be thou. este, be ye.
Furure. esto, thou shalt be. estote, ye shall be. esto, he shall be. sunto, they shall be.
INFINITIVE.
PRESENT. esse, fo be.
PerFEcT. fuisse, to have been.
Furure. fdre or futurus esse, to be about to be. Future ParticipLe. futurus, a, um, about to be.
Rare Forms. Fut. Indic. escit, escunt (strictly inchoative pres., ยง 39). Pres. Subj. siem, fuam.
Nore. โ The root of the verb esse is es-, which in the imperfect is changed to er- (ยง 1, 3, e), and in many cases is shortened to s-. Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less distantly related to Latin, may be seen in the following Table ;โ the โIndo-European โ being the primitive or theoretic form, and the form sy@m corresponding to the Latin siem, sim : โ
Ind.- Eur. Sanskrit. Greek. Slavonic. Lithuanian. as=mi as-mi sydm (opt.) ape t yes-mi es-mi as=Si as-i syas รฉoo yes-si -- es-i
- aseti as-ti syat รฉori yes-ti es- ti as=masi Ss-mas sydma รฉopรฉv yes-mu ___es-me as-tasi s-tha sydta รฉorรฉ yes-te es-te as-anti S-anti syus รฉvri Tt s-unti es-ti
+ Old Form.
The Perfect and Supine stems, fui, futu-, are kindred with the Greek
(pv, was), and with the English be,
60 | CONJUGATION. [29, 30.
a. The verb esse is compounded, without any change of its inflection, with many prepositions. In the compound prodesse, to profit, pro retains its original d@ where followed by e: as, prosum, prodes, prodest, prostimus, prodestis, prosunt.
b. Esse is also compounded with the adjective potis or pote, able, in the verb posse. Its inflection, with that of prodesse, is given in the following : โ
PRESENT. | INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. possum, J can. possim prosum prosim potes, thou canst. possis prodes prosis potest, he can. possit prodest prosit posstimus, we can. possimus prostimus prosimus potestis, you can. possitis prodestis prositis possunt, they can. possint prosunt prosint IMPERFECT. potรฉram possem prodรฉram prodessem FUTURE. potรฉro prodรฉro PERFECT. potui potuรฉrim profui profuรฉrim PLUPERFECT. potuรฉram potuissem profuรฉram profuissem FuTURE PERFECT. 7 potuรฉro profuรฉro IMPERATIVE. oe prodes, prodesto, &c. INFINITIVE. Pr. posse Perr. potuisse Pr. prodesse Perr. profuisse PaRTICIPLES. [potens, powerful. ] profuturus, about to help.
30. ConsUGATION.
There are in Latin four principal forms of Present Stems, ending respectively in a, 6, 6,1. With this dif- ference of stem most of the other differences of conju- gation coincide.
Verbs are accordingly classed in four regular conjugations, distinguished by the vowel before re in the Present Infinitive Active, which is the same in each case as those given above.
30: I, 2.] CONJUGATION. 61
Nore. โ This mode of classification was invented by the Roman |
grammarians, and has been generally adopted by the moderns. In
fact, however, the vowels a, e, i (/ong), found in the First, Second, | and Fourth Conjugations, are different corruptions of the form aya, ยฐ
which in the original language was added to roots in one form of
present stems. All other forms of present stems, except a few
unmodified, had originally, or received in Latin, a suffix ending in (or consisting of) a short, which was corrupted to e or i short. These are collected in the Third Conjugation. A few roots -ending in a vowel were drawn โ perhaps by vowel-increase โ into the analogy
;
of the other conjugations; and a few of the fourth conjugation had -
1ยฅA instead of aya.
1. First Conjugation. Most verbs of the first conju- gation retain the stem-vowel (@) throughout, except in the present indicative, which loses it before 0, and the present sub- junctive, where it is changed to 6 (see ยง 28, 1, a).
Nore. โ Dare, to give โ stem originally da โretains a short, ex-
cept in da and das. The Subjunctive with changed vowel (e) corre- sponds to the Greek and Sanskrit Optative, and is formed by the addition of a tense of i, to go, a+-i becoming e.
a. In the Future, the ending -bo, &c., is added to the present stem: as, vocabo.
~ 6. The Perfect stem adds vi to that of the present: as,
vocavi. But | |
1. A few verbs, either always or occasionally, add vi not to the present stem, but to the root, v becoming u: as, sono, sonui (see p. 67). :
2. Two verbs, do, sto, form their perfect stem by reduplication : dรฉdi, stรฉti.
ce. The Supine stem adds t to the present stem; but verbs that add vi to the root add t in like manner, sometimes with a connect- ing vowel: as, seco, sectus; domo, domitus.
2. Second Conjugation. Only a few verbs of the sec- ond conjugation retain โฌ throughout. |
a. The Present Indicative has e before o in the first person ; in the Present. Subjunctive a (originally @) is inserted after e: as, deleo, deleam. |
Note. โ โThe a in the present subjunctive is borrowed from the third conjugation. (See next head, 3, ยข, n.)
6b. The Future (as in the first conjugation) adds -bo, &c., to the present stem: as, delรฉbo.
c. Ina few verbs, the Perfect stem adds vi to the present, as deleo, delรฉvi; but in most this termination is added to the root, as moneo, monui (see p. 69).
62 CONJUGATION. [30: 3.
d. In a few, the root is reduplicated, and in several -si is added to the root, or its vowel is strengthened: as, tondeo, totondi; mAneo, mansi; lugeo, luxi; caveo, cavi.
e. For the Supine stem, those which add -vi to the stem add t also to the stem; those which add vi to the root add t to the root, with the connecting-vowel i; those which form the perfect other- wise add t (or its weakened form s) to the root: as, delรฉtus, monitus, tonsus, mansus, cautus.
3. Third Conjugation. To the third conjugation be- long those verbs which form the present stem in any other way than by adding a long vowel to the root.
a. The Present Stem is formed in eight different ways, in all of which โฌ (original 4), or else a suffix containing it, is added to the Root. Besides this addition, โ
1. The vowel of the root is lengthened (vowel-increase) : as in diico, fido, ntbo (compare diicis, perfidus, prontiba; also Gr. Asizw, root Aim-).
2. The root is reduplicated: as in sisto, bibo, gigno, from the root sta- (in status), pa- (in pdtus), gรฉn- (in gรฉnus; compare yiyvouat, root yev-).
3. The root is strengthened by the insertion of n (m) before its final consonant: as in findo, frango, cumbo (compare think, thought; pavรฉave, root pad-).
4. Final 1 or r of the root is doubled by assimilation of an added consonant: as in fallo, pello (compare o7รฉAAw, root c7รฉA-), verro.
5. The consonant n is added to the root: as in cerno, lino, temno (compare tรฉuvw, root teu-).
6. The root adds se or ise (originally and often still incep- tive): as in disco (= dicsco, root dic), nascor (root gna), nanciscor (root nac, compare $aoKw, etpioxw),
7 The root adds t: as in pecto, plecto, mitto (compare KOnTW).
8 The root-adds i (originally y) in the following: capio, ctipio, -ctitio, facio, fodio, fiigio, jacio, -licio, pario, quatio (-ctitio), rapio, sapio, -spicio.
Norte. โ Verbal stems in u add merely the vowel e, and are of the third conjugation. The u may be radical, as in suo, pluo, fluo; or developed from a palatal, as in loquor, stinguo (cf. oti); or may belong to the noun in denominatives, as statuo (statu-s), acuo (acu-s). Stems in o are lost, as po- (cf. potum); or have become of the first conjugation, as boo, boare.
30: 3.] CONJUGATION. 63
b. The stem-vowel โฌ is weakened to 1 in several forms of the Present indicative and imperative ; is lengthened to โฌ in the Imper- fect ; and undergoes other changes exhibited in the paradigm.
c. The Future is formed (without the suffix bo) by vowel- changes to a and e before the personal endings.
Notre. โ The a (properly long) of the future is borrowed from the present subjunctive ; the forms in e have the same origin as the present subjunctive of the first conjugation, and are properly optative.
ad, The Perfect stem is formed in five different ways : โ
1. The root is reduplicated: as in cado, cecidi; curro, cticurri; disco, didici.
2- The root-vowel is increased, 4 becoming 6, and I, 6, ti being simply lengthened: as in capio, cรฉpi; fdio, fodi; ftigio, figi.
3. The same form appears in the perfect as in the present stem : this is regular with verbs of this conjugation in uo (vo): as, acuo, acui; solvo, solvi.
Nore. โ It is probable that in the last two cases the root was originally reduplicated ; but that the reduplication was retained only where vowel-increase did not take place.
4. The suffix si is added to the root: as in carpo, carpsi; -gรฉro, gessi; stimo, sumpsi; dico, dixi; tรฉgo, texi.
5. The suffix ui (vi) is added to the root: as in cdlo, colui; frรฉmo, fremui; gigno, genui; rapio, rapui. Before this suffix a long vowel of various origin is often found: as in ctipio, cupi- vi; peto, petivi; sperno, sprรฉvi.
Note. โ Both suffixes are combined in the following: necto, nexui; plecto, plexui. A few verbs vary: as, pango, panxi (pegi or pepigi); velio, velli or vuisi.
e. The Present Subjunctive changes โฌ to a: as, vehรฉre, vehas.
Norr. โ This form with a corresponds to the Greek and Sanskrit subjunctive with long vowel, and proceeds from the addition of another a (short): compare &xยฅqs, vahdsi.
f. The Supine stem is formed by adding to the root t-, which in many cases takes euphonically the form s- (ยง 1, 3, f. 4).
Notrr.โA few roots take a connecting vowel before this affix, and some have both forms. When this is the case, the future parti- ciple and derivative verb take the longer form: as, ortus, oriturus ; actus (ago), agito.
g. Some verbs of the third conjugation form the other parts upon the (modified) present stem as a root: as, fingo, finxi, fict- (fig); jungo, junxi, junct- (jtig).
h. In verbs which addito the root in the present stem, this vowel is lost where it would be followed by @ or i (except in the future third person singular): as in capit, capรฉret, capiet.
64 CONJUGATION. [30: 4, 5.
4, Fourth Conjugation. Verbs of the fourth conju- gation retain I throughout (short before another vowel).
_ @ Several forms of the present stem have in addition the final vowels of the third conjugation. In the Imperfect the regular form (retained in ibam, from eo) is often found m early Latin.
b. The Future does not take bo, but has ia and ie (from the third conjugation) before the personal endings. In early Latin the form in bo (retained in Ibo) sometimes occurs.
c. The Perfect stem adds vi to the present stem: as, finio, finivi. A few verbs add it to the root, as aperio, aperui; several add si, as sentio, sensi; and in a few the perfect is the same as the present stem, with or without vowel-increase: as, repรฉrio, repรฉri; vรฉnio, vรฉni.
d. The Supine stem adds t- to the present: as, finio, finitus. โ A few add it to the root: as, salio, saltus; sepรฉlio, sepultus.
5. Principal Parts. The principal parts of a verb, which determine its conjugation throughout, are the follow- ing: 1. Present Indicative (showing the present stem); 2. Present Infinitive (the conjugation) ; 3. Perfect (the perfect stem); 4. Supine (the swpine stem).
_ a. The regular forms of conjugation are seen in the follow- ing: โ
1. vdco, vocare, vocavi, vocatum, call.
2. dรฉleo, delรฉre, delรฉvi, delรฉtum, destroy.
3. carpo, Ccarpรฉre, carpsi, carptum, gather.
4. audio, audire, audivi, auditum, /ear.
In the second conjugation, however, the characteristic โฌ rarely appears in the perfect and supine: thus the type of this conjuga- tion is โ modneo, monรฉre, monui, monitum, warn. b- What is called the Synopsis of a verb consists of the first
person singular of each tense, with infinitive and participles, given in regular order: as, of Amo, I love โ
Present Stem. AcTIvE VOIcr. Perfect Stem.
INDIC. amo, amabam, amabo. amavi, amaveram, amavero SuBJ. amem, amarem. amaverim, amavissem.
Imp. ama, amato. INF. amare, amavisse, amaturus esse. PasstvE Voice. Supine Stem. INpDIC. amor, amabar, amabor. amatus sum, โ eram, โ ero. Suns. amer, amarer.. amatus sim, โ essem. Imp. amare,amator. INr.amari, amatus esse, amatum iri. PaRT. amans,amaturus; amatus, amandus.
30: 6, 7-] -. CONJUGATION. 65
c- In many verbs the principal parts take the form of two or more different conjugations: as,
1,2. ddmo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue.
2,3. augeo, augรฉre, auxi, auctum, increase.
3, 4. pรฉto, petรฉre, petivi, petitum, seek.
4,3. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind. In these the conjugation is said to be denoted by the first or present stem.
d. The compounds of many verbs vary from the forms of the primitive. This variation is seen especially (1) in the change of the vowel of the root, 4 in open syllables becoming i and in close syllables 6, while โฌ becomes I: as, capio, captum, concipio, conceptum; tรฉneo, contineo; (2) in the loss of the reduplica- tion: as, concido, concidi. (This is, however, retained in com- pounds of disco, do, posco, sto, and in some of those of curro),
6. Special Forms. The following special forms are
found in the conjugation of many verbs : โ
a. In tenses formed upon the Perfect stem, v between two vowels is often suppressed, and the second vowel merged in the first
(unless a or e follows i or u): as, amasse โamavisse; flestisโ= ~
flevistis ; audieram โ audiveram ; nosse โ novisse; noramโ ,
noveram. This is especially frequent in verbs of the fourth conju- ยฉ โ
gation, and is regular in the compounds of โฌo: as, abiit for abivit.
b. In many forms s with its vowel is suppressed in like manner when it would be repeated: as, dixti for dixisti.
c Four verbs โ dico, diico, facio, fรฉro โ with several of their compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making dic, diic, fac, fรฉr (but effice, confice). The forms dice, duce, face (never fere) occur in early Latin.
d. For the imperative of scio, the future form scito is always used in the singular, and scitote usually in the plural.
e- The following are ancient forms, rarely found except in poetry :โ
1. In the fourth conjugation -ibam, -ibo for -iebam, -iam (fut.) ;
2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in duim, perduim (7e- tained also in religious formulas) ; [reconciliassere ;
3. In the perf. subj. and fut. perf. -so, -sim: as, faxo, faxim,
4. In the passive infinitive -ier: as, vocarier for vocari.
7. Parallel Forms. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which only one is generaily found in classic use: as,
lavo, lavadre or lavรฉre, to wash. scateo, scatรฉre or scatรฉre, fo gush. ludifico, are or ludificor, ari, to mock.
66
FIRST CONJUGATION.
(31.
31, First CONJUGATION.
PRESENT INFINITIVE
PERFECT SUPINE
Principal Parts: amo, amare, amavi, amatum.
ACTIVE VOICE, INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE,.
Present, J love or am loving.
amo, J love. amem amas, thou lovest. ames amat, he loves. amet amamus, we love. amรฉmus amatis, you love. amรฉtis amant, they love. ament
Imperfect, I loved (used to love).
amabam, J loved. amarem
amabas amares amabat amaret amabamus amarรฉmus amabatis amareรฉtis amabant amarent
Future, J shall love. amabo, I shall love. amabis amabit amabimus amabitis amabunt
Perfect, I loved (have loved).
|
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. I am beloved. amor amer amaris (re) am6ris (re) amatur amรฉtur amamur amรฉmur amamini amemini amantur : amentur I was loved.
amabar amarer amabaris (re) amar6ris (re) amabatur amarรฉtur amabamur amarรฉmur amabamini amaremini amabantur amarentur
T shall be loved. amabor amabรฉโฌris (re) amabitur amabimur amabimini amabuntur
I was (have been) loved.
amavi, / loved. amavรฉrim - amatussum amatus sim amavisti amavรฉris amatus es amatus sis amavit amavรฉrit amatus est amatus sit amavimus amaverimus amatisumus amati simus amavistis amaveritis amati estis amati sitis amavรฉrunt (6re) amavรฉrint amati sunt amati sint Pluperfect, J had loved. I had been loved.
amavรฉram, J had amavissem amavรฉras [loved. amavisses
amavรฉrat amavisset amaveramus
amaveratis
amavรฉrant amavissent
Future Perfect, J shall have loved.
amavรฉro, I shall have loved. amavรฉris
amavรฉrit
amaverimus
amaveritis
amavรฉrint
amavissรฉmus amati eramus amavissรฉtis amati eratis
amatus eram amatus eras amatus erat
amatus essem amatus esses amatus esset amati essรฉmus amati essรฉ@tis amati essent TI shall have been loved. amatus ero
amatus eris
amatus erit
amati erimus
amati eritis
amati erunt
amati erant
eet, 21
ACTIVE. Ama, love thou. amate, love ye.
Pr.
For. amatote, ye shall love. amanto, they shall love.
FIRST CONJUGATION. IMPERATIVE.
[ love. amato, thou shalt (he shall)
67
PASSIVE. amare, be thou loved. amamiini, be ye loved.
amator, he shall be loved.
โโ
amantor, they shall be loved. |
Noun and Adjective Forms.
INFINITIVE. amari, to be loved. amatus esse, to have been loved.
amatum iri, amatus fore, fo be about to be loved,
amare, fo love. amavisse, to have loved.
amatirus esse, to be about to love.
Pres. PERF. Fur.
PARTICIPLES.
PREs. PERF. Fort.
amans, loving. amatus, beloved.
eee
amaturus, about to love.
amandus, a, um, to be loved (lovely). amandum, -di, -do, loving. amatum, amatu, fo love.
GERUNDIVE. GERUND. * SUPINES.
1. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, most of them formed directly upon a noun or adjective-stem, to which they generally give the force and meaning of an active verb: as, armo, to arm (arma); caeco, fo blind (caecus) ; exsulo, to be in exile (exsul). Their conjugation is usually regular, like amo; though of many only a few parts are found in use.
2. Those which form their Perfect and Supine stems differently are the following,โ those marked f having also regular forms; and those preceded by a hyphen being found only in compounds : โ
crepo, crepui, crepit-, resound. plico,-plicui, -plicit-, fold. cubo, cubui, cubit-, le down. poto, potavi, f pot-, drizk. do, dare, dedi, dat-, ove. - geco, secui, sect-, cuz. domo, domui, domit-, suรฉdue. sono, sonui, sonit-, sound. frico, fricui, ยข frict-, rd. sto, steti, stat-, stand.
juvo, juvi, jut-, help. tono, tonui, tonit-, ยขhunder. mico, micui, glitter. veto, vetui, vetit-, forded. neco, f necui, f nect-, ยฃ77.
68 SECOND CONJUGATION. โ4 [am
32. Sreconp CONJUGATION. PRESENT INFINITIVE PERFECT SUPINE
Principal Parts: moneo, monรฉre, monui, montium.
ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE, INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present, [ warn. L am warned.
modneo, / warn. moneam moneor monear mones, you warn. moneas monรฉris (re) monearis (re) monet, ie warns. moneat monetur moneatur monรฉmus moneamus monรฉmur ' moneamur monรฉtis moneatis monemini moneamini monent moneant monentur moneantur Imperfect, J warned (was warning). I was warned. monรฉbam monรฉrem monรฉbar monรฉrer monรฉbas monรฉres monebaris (re) monerรฉ6ris (re) monรฉbat monรฉret monebatur monerรฉtur monebamus monerรฉmus monebamur monerรฉmur monebatis monereรฉtis monebaniini moneremini monรฉbant monรฉrent monebantur monerentur Future, J shall warn. I shall be warned. monรฉbo monรฉbor 3 monรฉbis monebรฉGris (re) moneรฉbit monebitur monebimus monebimur monebitis monebimini monรฉbunt monebuntur Perfect, IZ warned (have warned). I was (have been) warned. monui monuรฉrim monitus sum monitus sim monuisti _ monuรฉris monitus es monitus sis monuit monuรฉrit monitus est monitus sit monuimus monuerimus monitisumus moniti simus monuistis monueritis moniti estis moniti sitis monu6รฉrunt (re) monuerint moniti sunt moniti sint Piuperfect, J had warned. . T had been warned. monuรฉram monuissem monitus eram monitus essem monueras monuisses monitus eras monitus esses monuerat | monuisset monitus erat monitus esset monueramus monuissรฉmus moniti eramus monitiessemus monueratis monuissรฉtis moniti eratis moniti esgetis monuerant monuissent moniti erant moniti essent Fut. Perfect, I shall have warned. _I shall have been warned. monuรฉro monitus ero monuรฉris monitus eris monuโฌrit ; -monitus erit monuerimus moniti erimus monueritis moniti eritis
monuรฉrint | moniti erunt
32: 1, 2.] SECOND CONJUGATION. 69 ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Pr. mone, warn. monรฉte monรฉre monemini F. monรฉto monetote โ monรฉto monento monรฉtor monentor โ INFINITIVE.
Pr. monรฉre Pr. monuisse Pr. monรฉri Pr. monitus esse
I. monittrus esse Iโ. monitum iri (monitus tore) PARTICIPLES. monens moniturus monitus monendus
GER. monendum, di, &c. Sup. monitum monitu
1. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a cor- responding noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive form in -sco: as, caleo, calor, calidus, calesco;
timeo, timor, timIdus.
2. Most verbs of the second conjugation form their per-
fect and supine like moneo. รฉetum: deleo, destroy; fleo, pounds of -pleo, fill.
algeo, alsi, de cold.
ardeo, arsi, ars-, burn.
audeo, ausus sum, dare. augeo, auxi, auct-, 7zcrease. caveo, cavi, caut-, care. censeo, censui, cens-, value. cieo, Civi, cit-, exczze.
doceo, docui, doct-, Zeach. faveo, favi, faut-, favor. ferveo, fervi (ferbui), e7ow. foveo, fovi, fot-, cherish. frigeo, frixi, de cold.
fulgeo, fulsi, sk7ne.
gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice. hereo, hesi, hes-, cling. indulgeo, indulsi, indult-, zz- jubeo, jussi, juss-, order. |dulge. langueo, langui. de faint. liqueo, liqui (licui), med. luceo, luxi, shine.
lugeo, luxi, luct-, mourn. maneo, mansi, mans-, wait. misceo, cui, mixt- (mist-), mzx. mordeo, momordi, mors-, dยขze.
The following have @vi and weep; neo, spin; and com-
The remainder are โ
moveo, movi, mot-, move.
mulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe.
mulgeo, si (xi), muls- (mulct-), milk.
niveo, nivi (nixi), wzzk.
paveo, pavi. fear.
pendeo, pependi, hang. .
prandeo, prandi, prans-, dive.
rideo, risi, ris-, Jaugh.
sedeo, sedi, sess-, szZ.
soleo, solitus sum, de wont.
sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi), suck.
spondeo, spopondi, spons-, fo
strideo, stridi, whzz. [ pledge.
suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge.
teneo, tenul, tent-, 4old.
tergeo, tersi, ters-, wze.
tondeo, totondi, tons-, shear.
torqueo, torsi, tort-, Zw/7st.
torreo, torrui, tost-, voasรฉ.
turgeo, tursi, swedd.
urgeo, ursi, urge.
video, vidi, vis-, see.
Vvoveo, vovi, vot-, vow.
70 THIRD CONJUGATION. [33. 33. TurrpD CONJUGATION. 4 PRESENT INFINITIVE PERFECT SUPINE Principal Parts: rego, regรฉre, rexi, rectum, ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present, J rule. I am ruled. rรฉgo, J rule. regam regor regar regis, thou rulest. regas regรฉris (re) regaris (re) regit, he rules. regat regitur regatur regimus, we rule. regamus regimur | regamur regitis, you rule. regatis regimini regamini regunt, they rule. regant reguntur regantur Imperโect, J ruled (was ruling). I was ruled. regรฉbam, J ruled. reg6rem regรฉbar regรฉrer regรฉbas regรฉres regebaris (re) regerโฌris (re) regรฉbat regรฉret regebatur regerรฉtur recebamus regerรฉmus regebamur regerรฉmur regebatis regerรฉtis regebamini regeremini regรฉbant regรฉrent regebantur regerentur Future, J shall rule. IT shall be ruled. regam, I shall rule. regar reges regรฉris (re) reget regรฉtur regรฉmus regemur regรฉtis regemini regent regentur - Perfect, 7 ruled (have ruled). I was (have been) ruled. rexi, J ruled. rexรฉrim rectus sum rectus sim rexisti | rexรฉris rectus es rectus sis rexit rexรฉrit rectus est rectus sit reximus rexerimus'recti sumus recti simus rexistis rexeritis recti estis recti sitis rexรฉrunt (re) rexรฉrint recti sunt recti sint Pluperfect, J had ruled. I had been ruled.
rexรฉram, J had rexissem rexรฉras [ruled. rexisses rexรฉrat rexisset rexeramus rexissemus rexeratis rexissetis rexรฉrant rexissent
Fut. Perfect, J shall have ruled.
rexรฉro, I shall have ruled. rexรฉris
rexรฉrit
rexerimus
rexeritis
rexรฉrint
rectus eram rectus eras rectus erat recti eramus recti eratis recti erant
rectus ero rectus eris rectus erit recti erfmus recti eritis recti erunt
rectus essem rectus esses rectus esset recti essemus recti essetis recti essent
TI shall have been ruled.
33.] THIRD CONJUGATION. 71 ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE. Sing. Plur. Sing. lur. Pr..2. rege, rule. regite regรฉre regimini F, 2. regito regitote โโ 3. regito regunto regitor reguntor INFINITIVE. Pr. regรฉre Pr. rexisse Pr. regi Pr. rectus esso F. recturus esse ' F. rectum iri (rectus fore) PARTICIPLES. regens recturus rectus regendus
Ger. regendum, di, &c.
Sup. rectum, rectu
Verbs in io (present stem) are inflected as follows: โ
INDICATIVE. | SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present, J take. I am taken. capio, J take. capiam capior capiar capis, thou takest. capias capโฌris (re) capiaris (re) capit, he takes. _capiat capitur capiatur capimus, we take. capiamus capimur capiamur capitis, you take. capiatis capimini capiamini capiunt, they take. capiant capiuntur capiantur Imperfect, I took (was taking). I was taken. capiรฉbam, I took, capรฉrem capiรฉbar capรฉrer capiรฉbas _ capรฉres capiebaris (re) caperรฉris (re) capiรฉbat capรฉret capiebatur caperรฉtur capiebamus caperรฉmus capiebamur caperรฉmur capiebatis caperรฉtis capiebamini caperemini capiรฉbant capรฉrent capiebantur caperentur Future, J shall take. IT shall be taken. capiam capiรฉmus capiar capiโฌรฉmur capies capiรฉtis capiรฉris (re) capiemini capiet capient capiรฉtur capientur Perr. cepi ceperim captus sum captus sim PLup. ceperam cepissem captus eram captus essem F.P. cepero captus ero IMPERATIVE. cape capite capรฉre capimini capito capitote capito capiunto capitor capiuntor INFIN. capรฉre _โ__ cepisse capi captus esse Part. capiens capturus captus capiendus
72 THIRD CONJUGATION. (SSicz, 2,5,
I. The following simple verbs of this conjugation form the perfect and supine stems like rego, by adding s and t to the root. โThose marked ยข take s in the supine :โ
ango, choke; carpo, pluck; cingo, bind; {claudo, shut; clรฉpo, sieal; cdmo, comb; cdquo, cook; dรฉmo, take away; dico, say; diico, guide; {figo, fix; {flecto, bend; frigo, fry; tlaedo, hurt; lingo, lick; {ltido, play; ntibo, marry; t pecto, comb; tplaudo, applaud; plecto, twine; promo, bring out; trado, scrape; rรฉgo, rule; rรฉpo, creep; {r6do, gnaw; sarpo, prune ; scalpo, scrape; scribo, write; serpo, crawl ; stimo, take ; tรฉgo, shelter ; tingo, stain; traho, drag; } triido, thrust; { vado, go; veho, draw; vivo, live.
Nore. โ In these verbs, h and v are treated as palatals, becom- ing x and ct; p takes the place of b, and is inserted euphonically
after m, before s and t; while d and t are omitted: as in scripsi, sumpsi, flexi, plausi; demo, promo, sumo, are old compounds.
- Verbs in io of the third conjugation are ee as sic โ
capio, cepi, capt-, ยขake. -licio, -lexi, -lect-, ex?rce.
cupio, cupivi, cupit-,.desโve. โ_ pario, peperi, part- (pariturus), -cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, skake. bring forth.
facio, feci, fact-, make. quatio, โ, quass-, shake. fodio, fodi, foss-, dg. rapio, rapui, rapt-, sezze.
fugio, fugi, fugit-, fee. sapio, sapivi, or sapui, de wise.
jacio, jeci, jact-, throw (-icio). -spicio, -spexi, -spect-, view.
$โ. Those otherwise conjugated are the following (see
ยง 30, 3, a; b).
ago, egi, act-, drzve. cudo, -cudi, -cus-, forge. [down. alo, alui, alt- (alit-), Saas -cumbo [cus], cubui, cubit-, Ze arcesso, ivi, arcessit-, semmon. curro, cucurri, curs-, run.
bibo, bibi, bibit-, drink. depso, depsui, depst-, Avead. cado, cecidi, cas-, fall. disco [pic], didici(discit-), earn. cdo, cecidi, ces-, cut. divido, divisi, divis-, d/vide. cano, cecini, cant-, svg. -do, -didi, -dit- (as in abdo, &c., capesso, capessivi, wxdertake. with credo, vendo), Aut [DHA] - cedo, cessi, cess-, y7eld. edo, edi, esum, ead (ยง 37, 5).
-cello, -cellui(-culi), -cels-, Azsk. emo, emi, empt-, dzy.
-cendo, -cendi, -cens-, &ivdle. facesso, facessi, facessit-, execufe. cerno, -crevi, -cret-, decree. fallo, fefelli, fals-, decezve.
colo, colui, cult-, dwell, z7dl. -fendo, -fendi, -fens-, ward of. compesco, compescui, restrain. fero, ferre, tuli, lat-, dear (ยง 37, consulo, lui, consult-, covsult. _findo [| F1p], fidi, fiss-, sAdct. [4)- cresco, crevi, cret-, <zcrease. fido, fisus sum, frus?.
33, 3-]
fingo [FIG], finxi, fict-, faskion. fluo, fluxi, flux-, ow. [dreak. frango [FRAG], fregi, fract-, Zo fremo, fremui, fremit-, roar. frendo, -fresi, fress-, gvash. fundo [FuD], fudi, fus-, Jour. furo, furui, rage. gemo, gemui, gemit-, groan. gero, gessi, gest-, carry. gigno [GEN], genui, genit-, dege?. ico, ici, ict-, Azz. incesso, incessivi, attack. [voke. lacesso, lacessivi, lacessit-, Dvo- lambo, lambi, lambit-, /aZ. lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), wask (reg. of Ist conj.). lego, legi(intellexi), lect-, gather. lino [x1], levi (livi), lit-, smear. linquo [xtc], -liqui, -lict-, Zeave. luo, lui, luit-, wash. mando, mandi, mans-, chew. mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge. meto, messui, mess-, reap. mitto, misi, miss-, sezd. molo, molui, molit-, grczd. necto [NEC], nexi (nexui), nex-, weave. nosco[ GNo], novi, not-(cognit-), nuo, nui, nuit-, zod. [ know. occulo, occului, occult-, 4zde. pando, pandi, pans- (pass-), open. โ
pango [PAG], ftpegi (pepigi),
ft pact-, fasten. parco, peperci, parcit-, sAare. pasco, pavi, past-, feed. pello, pepuli, puls-, drzve. pendo, pependi, pens-, wezgh. pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on. peto, petivi, petit-, seek. pingo [Pic], pinxi, pict-, Aasnt. pinso, pinsi, pins-(pinst-, pist-), bruise. pono [pos], posui, posit-, Azz. posco, poposci (posciturus,) de- mand. prehendo, di, prehens-, sezze.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
tendo,
73
premo, pressi, press-, ress.
pungo [PuG}, pupugi, punct-, prick.
quero, quesivi, queesit-, seek.
quiesco, quievi, quiet-, vesz.
rudo, rudivi, rudit-, dray.
rumpo[RUuP], rupi, rupt-, dursรฉ.
ruo, rui, rut- (ruit-), fed/.
scabo, scabi, scratch.
scando, scansi, scans-, climb.
scindo [ScIp], scidi, sciss-, fear.
SCISCO, SCivi, sclIt-, decree.
sero, sevi, sat-, sow.
sero, serul, sert-, exfwine.
sido, sidi (sedi), sess-, seZยข/e.
sino, sivi, sit-, Dermรฉt.
sisto [STA], stiti, stat-, sop.
solvo, solvi, solut-, ay, loose.
spargo, sparsi, spars-, scatter.
sperno, sprevi, spret-, scorz.
sterno, stravi, strat-, strew.
sterto, stertui, szore.
strepo, strepui, strepit-, sound.
-stinguo, -stinxi, -stinct-, guench.
stringo, strinxi, strict-, dzad.
struo, struxi, struct-, duz/d.
suesco, suevi, suet-, de wont.
surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rzse.
tango [TAG], tetigi, tact-, ouch.
tetendi (-tendi), tens- (tent-), stretch.
tergo, tersi, ters-, we.
tero, trivi, trit-, rub.
texo, texui, text-, weave.
tollo [ToL] (sustuli, sublat-),
tremo, tremui, ยขrvemble. [vrazse.
tundo [ Tup], tutudi, tuns-, dea.
uro, ussi, ust-, burn.
vello, velli (vulsi), vuls-, Aluck.
verro, verri, vers-, sweep.
verto, verti, vers-, urn.
vinco [vic], vici, vict-, conquer.
viso [VID], visi, vis-, vzszz.
Vivo, vixi, vict-, dive:
volvo, volvi, volut-, zurz.
vomo, vomui, vomit-, vomit.
Those reduplicated in the perfect areโcado, cedo, cano, curro,
disco, fallo, pango, parco, pello, pendo, posco, pungo, tendo, tundo. The following have only the present stem: clango, claudo (limp), fulgo, glisco, glubo, lingo, and inceptives in -sco, which take the perfect of their primitives (cf. zosco). In all, there are about 200 verbs of this conjugation.
74
34, Fourtu
PRESENT INFINITIVE
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
(34,
CONJUGATION.
F CRFECT SUPINE
Principal Parts: audio, audire, audivi, auditum.
ACTIVE VOICE.
_ INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present, J hear.
audio, J hear. audiam audis, thou hearest.audias audit, he hears. audiat audimus, we hear. audiamus auditis, you hear. audiatis audiunt, they hear. audiant
Imperfect, J heard (was hearing).
audiรฉbam audirem audiรฉbas audires audiรฉbat audiret audiebamus audirรฉmus audiebatis audirรฉtis audiรฉbant audirent
Future, J shall hear. audiam, J shall hear. audies audiet _ audiรฉmus audiรฉtis audient
Perfect, I heard (have heard).
audivi, / heard. audivรฉrim audivisti audivรฉris audivit audivรฉrit audivimus audiverimus audivistis audiveritis audivรฉrunt (re) audivรฉrint
Pluperfect, J had heard.
audivรฉram, J had audivissem audivรฉras [ heard. audivisses
audivรฉrat audivisset audiveramus audivissรฉmus audiveratis audivissรฉtis audivรฉrant audivissent
Fut. Perfect, J shall have heard. audivรฉro, I shall have heard. audivรฉris audivรฉrit audiverimus audiveritis audivรฉrint
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. I am heard. audior audiar audiris (re) audiaris (re) auditur audiatur audimur audiamur audimini audiamini audiuntur audiantur IT was heard. audiรฉbar audirer audiebaris (re) audirรฉris (re) audiebatur audirรฉtur audiebamur audirรฉmur audiebamini audiremini audiebantur audirentur I shall be heard. audiar audiรฉris (re) audiรฉtur audiรฉmur audiemini audientur
I was (have been) heard. auditus sum auditus sim auditus es auditus sis auditus est auditus sit auditisumus auditi simus auditi estis auditi sitis auditi sunt auditi sint
I had been heard. auditus eram auditus essem auditus eras auditus esses auditus erat auditus esset auditieramus auditi essemus auditi eratis auditi essetis auditi erant auditi essent
TI shall have been heard. auditus ero auditus eris auditus erit auditi erimus auditi eritis auditi erunt
34: 1,2; 35.] FOURTH CONJUGATION. 75
ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Pr. 2. audi, hear. audite audire audimini F. 2. audito auditdte
3. audito audiunto auditor audiuntor
INFINITIVE.
Pr. audire Pr. audivisse Pr. audiri Pr. auditus esse F. auditurus esse F. auditum iri (auditus fore) PARTICIPLES. audiens auditurus auditus audiendus
Ger. audiendum, di, &c. Sup. auditum, auditu
1. There areโbesides a few deponents and regular derivatives in -tirio โ about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being descriptive verbs: viz., barrio, roar (as an elephant); crocio, croak; ctictirio, crow; dentio, teethe; ebullio, bubble; effutio, drivel; frigutio, stutter ; fritinnio, twitier; gannio, yelp; glutio, gulp; grunnio, grunt; hinnio, neigh; hirrio, snarl ; ligtirio, lick; lipio, scream (as a hawk); lippio, blink; mugio, bellow; muttio, mutter; pavio, trample; scalptiirio, scratch; scattirio, gush; singultio, hiccup ; tinnio, tinkle; tussio, cough; vagio, cry.
2. Those not conjugated regularly, like audio, are the following (see ยง 30, 4, c) :โ
amicio, amixi (amicui), amict-, reperio, reperi, repert-, fizd. clothe. salio, salui, salt-, Zeap.
aperio, aperul, apert-, ofex. sancio, sanxi, sanct-, sanction.
comperio, peri, compert-, fd. sarcio, sarsi, sart-, Jatch.
farcio, farsi (farct-) (-tum), stuf. sentio, sensi, sens-, feel.
fulcio, fulsi, fult-, Drop. sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, dury,
haurio, hausi, haust-, drazz. โsepio, sepsi, sept-, hedge in.
operio, operui, opert-, cover. venio, veni, vent-, come.
raucio, rausi, raus-, be hoarse. vincio, vinxi, vinct-, dznd.
ferio, strike (only present stem).
35. DePONENT VERBS.
1. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive voice, with an active or reflexive signification: as,
1. miror, mirari, miratus, admire.
2. vรฉreor, verรฉri, veritus, fear.
3. sรฉquor, sequi, seciitus, follow.
4, pdtior, potiri, potitus, possess.
76 DEPONENT VERBS. [35: 1.
The synopsis of these verbs is given as follows: โ
INDICATIVE. PRES. miror vereor sequor potior IMP. mirabar verรฉbar sequรฉbar potiรฉbar Fur. mirabor verรฉbor sequar potiar PERF, mirdtus sum veritus sum secitussum potitus sum PLUP. โA eram = eram โ eram ยป eram Fut. P. nF ero es ero โ ero ยป ero SUBJUNCTIVE. PREs. mirer verear sequar potiar IMP. mirarer _ verรฉrer _ sequรฉrer potirer PERE. miratus sim veritussim secitussim potitus sim PLUP. 5 essem ,, essem โ essem ,, essem IMPERAT. mirare, ator verรฉre, รฉtor sequรฉre, itor potire, itor INFIN. PR. mirari vereri sequi potiri Perr. miratus esse veritus esse sectitus esse potitus esse Fur. -turus esse -turus esse -turus esse -turus esse PART. PR. mirans verens sequens potiens Fur. miraturus veriturus secuturus potiturus PERF. miratus veritus secutus potitus GrER. mirandus verendus sequendus potiendus
. These verbs have the participles of both voices: as, mirans, eta miraturus, about to admire; miratus, having ad- mired ; mirandus, to-be-admired (admirable).
b. The participle in dus (gerundive) has necessarily a passive meaning, and hence is found only i in transitive verbs, or of neuter verbs used impersonally (ยง 39, c): as, potienda est tellus, the land must be won; pugnandum est nobis, we must fight.
ยซ Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in their meaning, bbreihonoige to what in Greek is called the middle voice.
d. More than half of all deponents are of the jirst a a es and all of these are regular.
- About twenty verbs of active signification are found in both aoe and passive forms: as, mereo or mereor, deserve.
f. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive significa- tion: as, criminor, J accuse or I am accused.
_ g- The perfect participle of verbs otherwise deponent is often passive: as, mercatus, bought; adeptus, obtained.
h. The following list contains all the trregular deponents : โ
wo adipiscor, i adeptus, obtain. -miniscor, i, -mentus, ยขhink. expergiscor, i, -perrectus, rouse. metior, iri, mensus, measure. -experior, iri, expertus, ยขry. ~ morior, i (iri), mortuus (mori-
ehkteor eri, fassus, confess. turus, moribundus), de. โ. fruor, i, fructus, evJoy. . MNanciscor, i, nactus (nanctus), fungor, i, functus, fwZfl. find. gradior, i, gressus, sep. ยป Nascor, i, natus, de dorn. irascor, i, iratus, de angry. _ nitor, i, nisus (nixus), sยขr7ve. ~labor, i, lapsus, fe/2. mh obliviscor, i i, oblitus, forget.
loquor, i, locutus, sdeak. opperior, iri, oppertus, awazt.
J
35: 2; 36.] DERIVATIVE VERBS. 77
ordior, iri, orsus, deg/n. [r7se. queror, i, questus, complain. orior, 3d. (iri), ortus (oriturus), reor, reri, ratus, ยขhkink. paciscor, i, pactus, dargain. โ sequor, 1, secutus, follow.
- patior, i, passus, suffer. tueor, eri, tuitus (tutus), defend.
-plector, i, -plexus, clasp. ~ ulciscor, i, ultus, avenge.
. proficiscor, i, profectus, seยข-oufutor, i, usus, use, employ.
2. Semi-Deponents. A few verbs, having no perfect stem, form the tenses of completed action like the passive: these are called semi-deponents or neuter passives. They are
the following :โ
audeo, audรฉre, ausus, dare.
fido, fidรฉre, fisus, trust.
gaudeo, gaudรฉre, gavisus, rejoice. soleo, solรฉre, solitus, be wont.
a. From audeo there is an old subjunctive ausim. The form sddes (for si audes), an thou wilt, is frequent in the dramatists.
b. The active forms vapulare, to be flogged, and venire, to be sold (venum ire, go to sale), having a passive meaning, are sometimes called neutral passives. โTo these may be added fiรฉri (fio), to be made, and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile).
36. DERIVATIVE VERBS.
Several classes of verbs have derivative meanings corre- sponding to their form. (For their formation, see ยง 44.)
a. INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES end in -sco, and denote the beginning of an action: as, calesco, I grow warm (caleo); vesperascit, if is gvtting late (vesper). They are of the third conjugation, and have only the Present stem, though often com- pleted by forms of simple verbs. |
b. INTENSIVES or ITERATIVES end in -to or -ito, and denote a forcible or repeated action: as, jactat, he hurls (jacio); dic- titabat, he kept saying (dico). They are of the first conjugation.
Nore. โ Iteratives (or Frequentatives), though distinct in meaning from Intensives, are not always distinguished from them in form.
ec. Another form of Intensives (sometimes called Mernprta- | TIVES, or verbs of practice) ends in -sso, denoting a certain energy or eagerness of action: as, facessit, he makes haste to do. They are of the third conjugation, with perfect and supine of the fourth: as, lacesso, lacessivi, lacessitum, to provoke. ยฉ
d. Drrtnvutives end in -illo, and denote a feeble or petty action; as, cantillare, to chirp or warble (cano, sing).
78 IRREGULAR VERBS. [e7: 1.
e. DESIDERATIVES end in trio, expressing longing or wish, and are of the fourth conjugation. Only these three are in com- mon use, emptiirio (emo, buy), estirio (โฌdo, eat), parturio (pario, bring forth). Others occur for comic effect in the dramatists.
37. IRREGULAR VERBS. [For esse and its compounds, see ยง 29.] Several verbs retain older forms in the tenses of the present stem, or combine two roots in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs.
The most common verbs of this class are โ 1. Vdlo, velle, volui, to wish (the supine stem appears in vultus, countenance). 2. Nolo (non volo), nolle, nolui, to be unwilling. 3. Malo (mage-volo), malle, malui, to prefer. [For the inflection of volo, nolo, malo, see opposite page.]
4. Fรฉro, ferre, tiili, latum, to bear.
Norre.โ The perfect tuli is for tetuli (which sometimes occurs), from TUL in tollo; the Supine latum for tlatum (cf. tAqT6ยข).
ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. Pres. fรฉro feram feror ferar fers feras ferris feraris (re) fert ferat fertur feratur ferimus feramus ferimur feramur fertis feratis ferimini feramini ferunt ferant feruntur ferantur Imp. ferรฉbam ferrem ferรฉbar ferrer Fut. feram ferar Perr. tii tulerim latus sum i latus sim Piup. tuleram tulissem latus eram latus essem F. Perr. tulero latus ero IMPERATIVE. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Pres. fer ferte ferre ferimini For. ferto fertote ferto ferunto fertor feruntor INFINITIVE. PRES. PERF. PRES. PERF. ferre tulisse ferri latus esse PARTICIPLES. PRES. Fur. PERF. GER. ferens laturus latus ferendus.
37.] VOLO, will. โ INDIC. SUBJ. volo velim vis velis vult velit volโumus_ veliโmus vultis velitis volunt velint volebam vellem volebas velles volebat vellet volebamus vellemus volebatiยฎ velletis volebant vellent volam voles volet volemus voletis volent volui โ -erim voluisti ~eris voluit -erit voluimus -erimus voluistis ~eritis voluerunt -erint volueram -issem volueras -isses voluerat ~isset volueramus -issemus volueratis -issetis voluerant -issent voluero volueris voluerit voluerimus volueritis voluerint PR. Fur, Przs. velle Perr. voluisse PRESENT, GERUND,
INFLECTION OF Volo AND 1Ts Compounpbs.
volens, willing. _volendi, volendo
VOLO, NOLO, MALO. .
NOLO, will not.
INDIC. SUBJ. PRESENT. nolo โ nolim . nonvis nol nonvult nolit nolโโumus noliโmus nonvultis nolitis nolunt noiint IMPERFECT. nolebam nollem . nolebas nolies nolebat noliet nolebamus nollemus nolebatis nolietis nolebant nollent FUTURE. nolam t noles nolet nolemus noletis nolent PERFECT. nolui _ -erim noluisti ~eris noluit -erit noluimus -erimus noluistis -eritis noluerunt -erint PLUPERFECT. nolueram -issem nolueras -isses noluerat -isset nolueramus -issemus nolueratis -issetis noluerant -issent FUTURE PERFECT. noluero nolueris noluerit noluerimus nolueritis noluerint IMPERATIVE. noli,~+ noliโte, do not.
79
MALO, prefer. _ INDIC, SUBJ. malo malim mavis mais mavult malit malumus maliโmus mavultis malitis malunt malint malebam mallem malebas malities malebat mallet malebamus mallemug malebatis malietis malebant malieut malam t males malet malemus maletis malent malui -erim maluisti. -eris maluit ~erit maluimus - -erimus maluistis -eritis maluerunt' -erint malueram -issem malueras -isses maluerat -isset malueramus -issemus malueratis -issetis maluerant = -issent maluero malueris maluerit maluerimus malueritis maluerint
noli'to, - nolitoโte, thou shalt not, ye shail not. noliโto, nolunto, he shall not, they shall not.
INFINITIVE. nolle .- noluisse
PARTICIPLE.
malle maluisse
nolens, unwilling. nolendi
+ Rare.
ยฉ
80 IRREGULAR VERBS. (37: 5, 6,7.
5. Edo, to eat (regular of third conjugation), has also some forms directly from the root without a characteristic vowel: viz.,
Inv. Pres. 6s, est, estis; Susy. Pres. edim, Imperf. essem ; ImMPrratT. 63, esto, este; INKIN. esse; Passive, estur, essรฉtur; and, in compounds, comes, comest, comestum, comรฉsum, exest, exesset, exesse.
6. Eo, ire, ivi, itum, to go (root I, cf. ew; the e stands for ei produced by vowel-increase from i). The forms of eo are found in veneo, to be sold, and in the passive, chiefly impersonal.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. S. e0, is, it (itur, etc.) eam, eas, eat P. imus, itis, eunt eamus, eatis, eant
Imp. ibam, ibas, ibat irem, ires, ireโ
ibamus, ibatis, ibant iremus, iretis, irent Four. ibo, ibis, ibit
ibimus, ibitis, ibunt Perr. _ ivi (ii) (itum est,etc.) iverim (ierim) Piurp. iveram (ieram) _ ivissem (issem)
Fur. P. ivero
ImMPERAT. i, ite; itote, eunto
Inrin. Pr. ire Per. ivisse (isse)
Part. P. iens, euntis F.iturus G. eundum (-eundus)
7% Facio, facรฉre, fรฉci, factum, to make, โ regular, with the peenva forms fut. perf. faxo, perf. subj. faxim, imperat. fac. It as for its passive
fio, fiรฉri, factus sum, fo be made, or become,
of which the tenses of the first stem are regular of the fourth con- jugation, but with subj. imperf. fiรฉrem.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. S. fio, fis, fit fiam, fias, fiat P. fimus, fitis, fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant Imp. fiebam fiรฉrem Fort. fiam, fies, &c. PERF. factus sum , factus sim Pup. factus eram factus essem
Fur. P. factus ero
ImpPerat. fi, fite; fito, fitote, fiunto
Inrin. Pres. fiรฉri P. factus esse Parr. Perr. factus faciendus
33: 1, 2.] DEFECTIVE VERBS. 81
Most compounds of facio with prepositions change 4 to f or e, ind form the passive and imperative regularly: as,
conficio, conficรฉre, confรฉci, confectum, to finish.
Other compounds retain a, and have -fio in the passive: as, bรฉnรฉ-facio (-faโcis), -fรฉci, -factum; pass. benefio, fo benefit. A few isolated forms of -fio occur with prepositions (see ยง 38, h).
38. DEFECTIVE VERBS.
I. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and use only tenses of the Perfect (sometimes with the meaning of the present), in which they are inflected regularly.
a. Coepi (root co-aP as in apiscor), J began. Infin. coep-
isse; Fut. Part. coepturus. <A passive participle coeptus is used with the passive infinitive. For the Present, incipio is used.
b. Odi, I hate (root Sd- in odium) ; with the participles Ssus, hating or hated (perรฉsus, utterly hateful), osurus, likely to hate.
c. Memini, J remember (root MEN, as in mens, reminiscor), with the imperative memento and mementote; part. meminens,
Nore. โOdi and memini, having a Perfect form with a present meaning, are called preteritive verbs.
2. Many verbs have only the Present stem, and in many the simple verb is incomplete, but the parts appear in the compounds. Some occur very commonly, but only in a few forms: as,
a. Aio (root AGH found in adagium and in nego, which has passed into the first conjugation) :
Inv. Pres. Sing. aio, I say. Plur. ais EA AS ait aiunt
ImpPEerF. aiรฉbam (aibam), aiebas, &c. Susy. Pres. aias, aiat, aiant. ImperaT. ai. โ Part. aiens.
b. Inquam, say (used only in quotations, as the English quoth, which is from the same root):
Inv. Pres. Sing. inquam Plur. inquimus inquis inquitis (late) inquit inqueunt
ImperF. inquibat.โ Fur. inquiet. โ Perr. inquisti. IMPERAT. inque, inquito.
82 IMPERSONAL VERBS. [38: 2; 39.
c. Fari, to speak, forms the periphrastic tenses regularly: as, fatus sum, eram, &c. It has also
Inv. Pres. fatur, fantur.โ Fur. fabor, fabitur.
Imperat. fare. โ Invin. fari.โ Parr. fanti (with the com- pound infans, as noun).
GERUND. fandus, to be spoken of (with the compounds infan- dus, nefandus, abominable). โ SuPINe, fatu.
The compounds affamur, affabimur, preefamini, &., occur.
d. Quaeso, I ask, beg (an original form of quaero), has quaeso, quaesiimus, quaesere, quaesens.
e. Ovare, to triumph, has the following: ovat, ovet, ovaret; ovans, ovandi, ovatus, ovaturus.
f. A few are found chiefly in the Imperative: as, salve, salvete, hail! also salvรฉre (from salvus). Ave (or have), avรฉte, avรฉto, hail, or farewell. cรฉdo, cedite (cette), give, tell. apage! begone! (properly a Greek word). g- Queo, J can, nequeo, J cannot, are conjugated like eo. They are rarely used except in the Present. Inp. PrEs. queo, quis, quit, quimus, quitis, queunt. Imp. quibam, quibat, quibant.โ Fur. quibo, quibunt. Perr. quivi, quivit, quiverunt. Susy. Pres. queam, &c.โ Imp. quirem, quiret, quirent. Perr. quiverit. โ PLup. quissent. INFIN. quire, quivisse (quisse). โ Part. quiens, queuntis.
Inp. Pres. nequeo (often non queo), nonquis, nequit, ne- quimus, nequitis, nequeunt. Imp. nequibam, -ibat, -ibant.โ Fur. nequibunt. PERF. nequivi, nequivisti, nequivit, nequiverunt. Susy. Pres. nequeam, &c. โImp. nequirem. PERF. nequiverim. โ PLuP. nequisset. INFIN. nequire, nequivisse.โ Part. nequiens. _ he The following compounds of fio have only the forms confit, at comes to pass; Gefit, it lacks; infit, he begins (to speak).
39. ImpPERSONAL VERBS.
Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third person singular, with the infinitive and gerund. These are called Impersonal Verbs.
Nore.โ With impersonal verbs the word 17 is used in English, having usually no representative in Latin, though id, hoc, illud, are often used nearly in the same way.
39, 40.] PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. 83
Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : โ
a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature: as, pluit, it ein ningit, it snows; grandinat, i hails; fulgurat, 2 lighiens. In these, no subject is distinctly thought of; though sometimes โ the name of a deity is expressed ; and, in poetic use, of other agents also: as, fundae saxa pluunt, the slings rain stones.
b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes the object, as if himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb. Such are, miseret, w grieves; poenitet, it repenis ; piget, it disgusis; pudet, wt shames; taedet, it wearies: as, miseret me, I pity (i distresses me).
Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor, I pity (am moved by pity); and occasionally other parts: as, miseritum est, poeniturus, poenitendus, pudendus.
c- By a similar construction, the passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally: as, pugnatur, there is fighting; dicitur, i is said; parcitur mihi, J am spared.
Nore. โ This use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive )) meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare theโ / French cela se fait).
d. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject: as, libet, i pleases ; licet, it is permitted; certum est, it is resolved ; constat, it is clear; placet, videtur, it seems good; decet, it is becoming ; delectat, juvat, it delights; oportet, necesse est, it is needful; praestat, it is better; interest, refert, it concerns ; vacat, there is leisure; with verbs of happening and the like. Libet, licet, have also the forms libitum (licitum) est, etc.
40, PERIPHRASTIC FORMS.
When the tenses of esse are used with a Participle, this use is called periphrastic conjugation. It is most frequent โ
a. With the participle in urus, to express intention, or simple futurity ; this is sometimes necessary in the subjunctive: as, cum venturus sit, since he is about to come. This form is sometimes called the first periphrastic conjugation; and, when used with sim, the future subjunctive.
b. With the gerundive to denote duty or propriety: as, vera dicenda sunt, the truth must be told. โThis form is sometimes called the second periphrastic conjugation.
c- With the perfect participle, in the regular inflection of the tenses of completed action in passives and deponents.
Norr. โ The participle in tus frequently, and that in ns regularly, is used with esse simply as an adjective: as, sapiens est, he is wise ; acceptus est, he is welcome.
84 PARTICLES. [41: 1,
PARTICLES.
41, ADVERBS.
What are called ParticLes โ that is, all Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions โ are real or extinct case-forms, or else compounds and phrases.
In classification Particles cannot always be distinguished ; many prepositions and conjunctions being also reckoned among adverbs.
1. Derivation. The regular adverbs of manner are formed from Adjectives. [For the comparison of these adverbs, see ยง 17, 4.]
~ @ Adjectives of the first and second declensions change the characteristic vowel of the stem into 6 (originally an ablative in d): as, from carus, dear, carรฉ, dearly. .
So abunde, szpe, prope, from adjectives not in use; as also prod (pro), re= (red=), se=, (sed-).
b. Adjectives of the third declension add -ter to the stem (most being treated as i-stems): as, fortiter, bravely; vigilanter, watchfully. -
Note. โ This suffix is of uncertain origin, probably the same as in the Greek -repos, and in alter, uter; and, if so, these are neuter accusatives.
c. Some adverbs of the former class have both forms: as, dure, duriter; misere, miseriter. (So aliter from alius โ old stem ali-.)
d. The neuler accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an adverb (strictly a cognate accusative, see ยง 52, 1, d): as, multum, much ; actutum, at once; facile, easily; non (โne unum), not; iterum (comparative of is), again.
e. The ablative neuter or (less commonly) feminine is used adverbially: as, falso, falsely; cito, quickly; recta (via), straight (straightway) ; contra, on the other hand; qua (parte), where; qui, how; alioqui, otherwise.
41: 1, 2.] PARTICLES. 85
f. A few adverbs are datives of adjectives and pronouns : as, quo, whither; adeo, so; ultra, beyond; citro, this side; retro, back (compar. of uls, cis, re); illoc (illo-ce, weakened to illuc), thither.
g- Some locative forms are used as adverbs: as, ibi, there; ubi, where, &c.; peregre, abroad; hic, here; interim, mean- while; deinde, then; tamen, yet; and the compounds extrin- secus, outside; perendie, day after to-morrow.
h. Several feminine accusalives are used as adverbs: as, statim, on the spot; saltim, with a leap (generally in the form saltem, at least); palam, openly; perpรฉram, wholly otherwise (i.e., changed for the worse); tam, quam, nam (which may be neuters) ; olim (ollus), of old.
z. Several plural accusatives, neuter and feminine, are used adverbially, as frustra, vainly; alias, otherwise; foras, out of doors.
k. Some adverbs are of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by i): as, penitus, funditus, from the bottom (utterly) ; divinitus, providentially, โ which are ablative in mean- ing; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do (in quan-do, when; do-nec, until), dum, perhaps jam (from the same root with dies, diu, &c.).
ul. Many phrases or clauses have grown into adverbs: as, antea, befure; postmddo, a litile after; Genuo (de ndvo), again; prorsus, utterly; quotannis, every year; quamobrem, wherefore; obviam, in the way; pridem, before the day (i.e., be- Sore this time); forsan, a chance whether ; forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps; scilicet (scire licet), to be sure.
(For Numeral Adverbs, see ยง 18, 3.)
2. Classification. Adverbs, other than those directly formed from adjectives, are classified as follows: โ
a. Adverbs of Place.
ubi, where. quo, whither. unde, whence. qua, by what way.
hic, here. huc, hither. hinc, hence. hac, by this way. ibi, zhere. eo, thither. inde, thence. ea, by that way istic *,, istuc ,, istinc ,, ista oy
hic 5; illuc ,, Hane 5 illa (illac) ,, alicubi, somewhere ; aliquo alicunde aliqua. ibidem, ยขz the same place; eodem indidem eadem. alibi, elsewhere ; alio aliunde alia. ubiubi, wherever ; quoquo undecunque quaqua. ubivis, anywhere ; quovis undique quavis, sicubi, 7f anywhere ; siquo sicunde siqua. necubi, lest anywhere ; nequo necunde nequa.
86 ADVERBS. (41: 2,
nusquam, zowkere ; ultro, beyond (or freely); citro, to this side ; intro, zxwardly; porro, further on.
quorsum (quo versuin), fo what end? horsum, ยขhkis way; pror- sum, forward (prorsus, wtterly); introrsum, zzwardly; retrorsum, dJackward; sursum, upward; deorsum, dowz- ward; seorsum, apart; aliorsum, another way.
b. Adverbs of Time.
quando? when? cum (quom, quum), when (relat.).
nunc, zow ; tunc (tum), ยขken ; mox, presently; jam, already.
primum (primo), frst; deinde (postea), wext after; postremum, (postremo), fizally.
umquam (unquam), ever; numquam, sever; semper, always.
aliquando, some time, at length; quandoque (quandocumque), whenever. ,
quotiens (quoties), how often ; totiens, aliquotiens.
quotidie, every day; in dies, from day to day.
nondum, wot yet; necdum, nor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam primum, as soon as possible.
c. Adverbs of Degree or Cause.
quam, how, as; tam, so; quamvis, however much.
cur, quare, why; quod, quia, decause ; eo, therefore.
ita, sic, so; ut (uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, however. quamquam (quanquam), although ; etiam, quoque, even, also.
d. Interrogative Particles.
an, -ne, anne, utrum, num, whether. nonne, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all; (ecquid intellegis ? have you any tdea ? utrum (num), -ne, whether ;...an (annon, necne), or. wes โ an, -ne โ
Nore.โ The word whether is not now used in English, except in Indirect Questions (See ยง 71).
e. Negative Particles.
non, not in simple denial; haud (hau, haut), or minime, not in contradiction; ne, not in prohibition.
ne, lest; neque, nec, nor; ne... quidem, not even.
non modo...verum (sed) etiam, not only. . . but also.
non modo ...sed ne... quidem, not only NoT... but nol even.
si minus, if not; quo minus, so as not.
quin (relat.), but that; (interrog.) why not? who (what) not?
ne (in compos.), not: as, nescio, J know not; nego (ne-aio), I say no (aio, I say yes); nรฉmo (ne hรฉmo), no one; ne quis, lest any one.
41: 2, 3.] ADVERBS. 87
RemarK.โ Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative: as, nemo non audiet, every one will hear.
This is especially frequent with compounds of non: as, nonnul- lus (= aliquis), some; nonnihil (= aliquid), something; nonnemo (= aliquot), sundry persons; nonnumquam (= aliquotiens), some- times; necnon, also.
On the other hand, nemo non, nulli non, every one; nihil non, every thing; numquam non, always, &c. :
3. Signification. The following adverbs require special explanation : โ
a. Etiam, also, is stronger than qudรฉque, and usually pre- cedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it: as,
terret etiam nos, ac minatur (Rosc. Am. 40), us also he terrifies and threatens. hoc quoque maleficium (id.), #kzs crime too.
b. Nune, now, means definitely the present time; jam, already, โor, with the future, presently ; with negatives, no longer, โ has reference to the past. Tune, then, is a strengthened form of tum, which is correlative with cum, when: as,
nunc jam confiteris, zow at length you confess.
non est jam lenitati locus, there zs no longer room for mercy.
quod jam erat institutum, which had come to be a practice.
nunc quidem deleta est, tunc florebat (Lzl. 4), zow (tis true) she [Greece] zs ruined, then she was in her glory.
tum cum regnabat, at the time he reigned.
c. Certd means certainly; certe (usually), at any rate: as,
certo scio, J know for a certainty. aut jam urgentis aut certe adventantis senectutis (C. M. 1.), of old age, which is already pressing or at least approaching.
d. Primum, first (first in order, or for the first time), is usually followed by deinde, tum, ... denique; primo, at first, by posted (post) or mox, afterwards. (The adjective form is pre- ferred in such phrases as nos primi, we first, &c.) Thus,
primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, tum de impera- tore deligendo (Manil. 2), first of the kind of war, next of its greatness, then of the choice of commander.
โฌ. Quidem, indeed, is emphatic, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, &c. (see above nunc quidem, &c.). With ne... quidem, not even or not either, the emphatic word must stand between: as,
senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 19), az old man has NOT EVEN any thing to hope for. :
ne Jugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), NoR was Fugurtha guiet EITHER. )
88 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 1, 2
42. PREPOSITIONS.
1. Prepositions are not originally distinguished from adverbs in form or meaning. โThey are, however, distin- guished in their use, requiring to be followed by some special case of a noun or pronoun.
a. The following Prepositions require the accusative :โ
ad, to. erga, towards. post, after. adversus, or extra, outside. praeter, beyond. adversum, towards. infra, below. prope, near. ante, before. inter, among. propter, on account of. apud, at, near. intra, inside. secundum, nezt to. circa, or juxta, near. supra, above. circum, around. 5b, on accownt of. _โ_โ trans, across. circiter, about. penes, in the power. ultra, on the further cis, citra, this side. per, through. side. contra, against. pone, behind. versus, towards.
b. The following require the ablative : โ
a, ab, abs, from, by. 6, ex, out of.
absque, but for, without. prae, in comparison with.
cOram, in presence of. pro, in front of, for.
cum, with. sine, without.
dรฉ, from. tenus, up to, or as far as.
c- The following may take either case, but usually with a dif- ference in meaning : โ
in, into, in; sub, under; subter, beneath; super, above.
In and sub, when followed by the Accusative, signify motion to, when by the Ablative, rest in, a place.
(For the Syntax of Prepositions, see ยง 56.)
2. The meaning and use of these prepositions may be seen in the following examples, which include many adverbial phrases : โ
A, ab, away from (opposite of ad): ab eo loco, from that place ; a nobis, from our house; prope ab urbe, wear (not far from) ยขhe city; secundus a rege, next the king; liberare ab, Zo set free from; occisus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy ; a fronte, zz front; ab hac parte, on this stde; a primo, at first; ab re, afterwards; dolet ab animo, he grieves at heart; ab initio ordiri, Zo begin at the beginning; stat ab amicis, ke stands by his friends ; ab hac contione, after this speech; ab re
42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 89
ejus, 20 his advantage ; servus a manu, az amanuensis; a pedi- bus, a footman.
Notre.โab signifies direction from the object, but towards the speaker ; compare de and ex.
Absque, without:โabsque argumento, w7thout argument; absque paucis, except a few; absque me, but for me.
Ad, to, towards, at (place or time) :โeo ad patrem, J go to my father ; ad pedes ejus, af his feet ; ad flumen, xear the river ; ad ripas, ow the banks; ad meridiem, towards the south; ad vesperum, wear evening ; ad tempus, at the (fit) time; adiit ad rempublicam, ke went into public life; ad manus, fo blows; ad petendam pacem, /o seek Jeace; ad communem salutem, for the common safety; nihil ad Cesarem, nothing in comparison with Cesar; ad hunc modum, 7x this way ; quem ad modum, how, as; ad nuptias, for the wedding ; ad auxilium, for aid; ad hos ca- sus, for these emergencies; ad centum, near a hundred; ad pri- mum nuntium, at the first message ; ad hoc, besides ; ad speciem, in respect to form; ad praesens, for the moment; ad verbum, word for word; ad summum, 72 short, at most; ad ultimum, wholly, finally; ad unum, fo a man.
Adversus (ยซsum), oposite, towards, against : โ adversus mon- tem, over against the mountain; te adversum, fo your face; ad- versus eum, 7โ comparison with him; adversus ea, in reply to this; adversus deos, towards the gods.
Ante, iu front, before (place or time) :โante oculos, before his eyes; ante urbem captam, before the city was taken; ante diem quintum (A.D.v.). Kal , the fifth day before the Calends (third day before the end of the month) ; ante quadriennium, four years before or ago; ante alios carissimus, dearest of all; ante tem- pus, Zoo soon; ante omnia, first of all; ante Ciceronem, before Cicero's time.
Apud, az or dy (rarely of places) : โapud forum, 7x the forum; apud populum, รฉdefore the people; apud exercitum, with the army; apud aliquem, az oneโs house; apud se, at home, or in his senses; apud Ciceronem, zz Cicero (in his works); apud antiquos, amoug the ancients.
Circum (acc.), cirea (abl.), circiter (stem as in cireus, czrcle), about, around:โcircum axem vertitur, zยข turns about the axle; circum haec loca, hereabout; circa se habent, they have with them; (of time or number, circa or circiter, not cir- cum) :โ circa eandem horam, about the same hour ; circiter pas- sus mille, about a mile; circa bonas artes (late), zm reference to good arts; loca haec circiter, khereabout.
Cis, citra (abl. of comparative, compare Greek ~-repos), his side of (both motion towards and rest in; opposite to ultra) : โ cis Padum, ยขhis side the Po; citra flumen, ยขhis side the river; citra rustici operam, within the labor of a Jarmer ; citra usum, without regard to use; citra satietatem, not to fulness ; paucos cis dies, within a few days.
90 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2.
Contra (abl. comp. of cum), offoszte, against: โ contra Itali- am, over against Italy ; contra hostem, against the enemy; contra munera, as a set-of to the gifts; haec contra, this in reply; contra autem, duz on the other hand, adv.; quod contra, whereas on the other hand, adv.; non pro me sed contra me, wot for but against me ; contra fas, contrary to right.
Coram, zz presence of (only of persons) :โcoram judicibus, before the judges ; Germanico coram (Tac.), usually an adverb.
Cum, wth (together in place or time) :โcum fratre, with his brother ; abi cum donis, away with your gifts ; cum malo suo, to his own hurt ; cum labore, with toil; cum dis volentibus, wztk favor of the gods; cum decimo, tenfold; confligere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy; cum armis, 7z arms; cum imperio, zz power; cum pallio, 2 a cloak; esse cum telo, to go armed; cum silentio, zz szlence.
De, on away, down from: โ de domo, out of the house ; de sella, down from his seat; unus de plebe, one of the people (the whole, from which a part is taken); emi domum de Crasso, ยฃ bought a house of Crassus (also ab); de tuo (de te), out of your property; qua de re, concerning which thing ; qua de causa, for which reason; de summo genere, of high birth; de improviso, of a sudden; de industria, on EMees ; de integro, anew; de nocte, at night; de tertia vigilia, just at midnight (starting at the third watch); de mense Dec. navigare, Zo sazl in December ; de amicorum sententia, zz accordance with the views of friends ; triumphare de, Zo ยขriumph over ; de schola, of that sect.
Erga, zowards (usually of persons):โerga aedes, opposite the house; benevolentia erga nos, kindness towards us; malus erga me, spzteful towards me (but more generally used of a favor- able inclination).
Ex, e, from (the midst, opposed to in), out of: โex urbe, Srom the city; ex hoc die, from this day forth; statua ex aere, a statue of brass; ex fuga, during flight; ex consulatu. right after his consulshif; ex aere alieno, by reason of debt; ex ejus sententia, after his opinion; ex aequo, justly; ex impro- viso, unexpectedly; ex tua re, to your advantage ; ex voluntate ejus, dy his good will; magnaex parte, 72 a great degree; ex pede Herculem, ยขo know one by a slight token; felix ex misero, bettering oneโs condition; ex Metello consule, beginning with Metellusโs consulship ; ex pedibus laborare, to be lame in the feet ; ex equo pugnare, Zo fight on horseback ; ex usu, expedient.
Extra, outside of (opposed to intra):โextra provinciam, beyond the province; extra causam, beside the case; extra te unum, except you alone (not used of time).
In, zxto (acc. opp. to ex), zz (abl. of time or place) :โin urbem ire, Zo 20 to town ; in mentem venit, z# comes to mind ; amor in (erga or adversus) patrem, love for his father; in aram con- fugit, he fled to the altar (on the steps or merely Zo); in diem, to the set day; in dies, from day to day; vi. pedes in longitudi- nem, six feet long; *. vi. partes fractus, broken in six parts;
42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 91
in hee verba jurare, to swear to these words; in alicujus verba jurare, to take an oath of allegiance to one; in silvam deponere, zo (carry and) Alace in the wood; hunc in modum, 7m this way ; oratio in Catilinam, @ speech against Catiline; in universum (in planum), om the whole; in totum, wholly; in reliquum, for the rest; in perpetuum, for ever; in majus, too much; in pejus, Jor the worse; in quantum, so far as; in magnam partem, zz great part; in utramque partem, on etther side; nos in diem vivimus (Tusc. v. 11), we live from hand to mouth ;โin urbe esse, to be in the city ; in tempore, 7% season ; in scribendo, while writ- ing ; est mihi in animo, J have it in mind; in collo, on the neck ; in arbore, up the tree; in ancoris (Czs.), at anchor; in altera parte, on the other side; in sapientibus, among the wise; in hoc homine, ยข# the case of this man; in bonis artibus (Sall.), zz good behavior.
Infra, delow : โ infra caelum, under the sky; infra nos, beneath us; infra Homerum, later than Homer ; infra iii. pedes, less than three feet.
Inter, detween, also among :โ inter flumen et montem, between the river and hill (so of time); inter noctem, zz the course of the night; inter bibendum, while drinking; interest inter, there is a difference between; inter se amant, they love each other ; inter se loquuntur, they talk together ; inter nos, between ourselves ; inter ceteram planitiem, zz a district elsewhere level.
Intra, w7zthin (surrounded on all sides):โ intra parietes, zz- side the house; (of time), intra v. dies, within five days; intra legem, zuside the law.
Juxta, hard dy (superl. from jungo):โjuxta murum, close to the wall; juxta se, alike with himself; juxta deos, next the gods; juxta vicinitatem (Liv.), dy reason of nearness; juxta quam, zearly as; juxta ac si, about as if.
Ob, towards (in place) :โob Romam (early), towards Rome ; ob oculos, before the eyes; ob eam causam, for that reason; ob rem, fo the purpose ; ob hoc, therefore ; quam ob rem, wherefore.
Penes, with, in possession of (same root as penitus) : โ est penes me, he ts with me (at my house); non est penes me, 7? is not in my power.
Per, through (in any direction) :โ per urbem ire, fo go through the city; licet per me, you may for all me ; juro per leges, J swear by the laws; per literas, by letter; per jocum, 7 jest; per lon- gum tempus, for a long time ; per somnum, during sleep.
Pone, dehind (only in space) :โpone tergum, behind the back.
Post, after (space or time) :โ post iii. dies, after three days; post tergum, behind the back; post me, after me (in time).
Prae, <2 front: โprae se ferre, to carry before him (exhibit or make known): prae gaudio conticuit, ke was silent for joy (used only of an objection or hindrance); prae fratre egens est, he ยขs poor compared to his brother.
92 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2.
Praeter, dy, on the outside: โpraeter spem, beyond hope; praeter hoc, besides this; praeter oculos, before the eyes ; nil prae- ter saxa, nothing but stones.
Pro, โx front (facing the same way) :โ pro populo, zx pres- ence of the people; pro lege, zn defence of the law; argentum pro vino, money for wine ; pro hac vice, for this once; pro con- sule, zz place of consul ; pro viribus, considering his strength.
Prope, zear : โ prope (propius, proxime) urbem, or ab urbe, near the city; prope lucem, towards daybreak.
Propter, zear:โ propter te sedet, he sits next you; propter quos vivit (Mil. 22), through whose means he lives ; propter me- tum, ยขhrough fear; propter frigora (Ces.), dy reason of cold.
Secundum, just behind, following along (part. of sequor) :โ ite secundum me (Plaut.), go behind me; secundum litus, zear the shore; secundum flumen, along the stream ; secundum ludos, after the games ; secundum naturam, according to nature ; secun- dum causam nostram, ยขo the advantage of our cause.
Sine, apart from: โurbs sine regibus, @ city without kings; non sine lacrimis, wth tears; sine sanguine, bloodless.
Sub, wxder: โ sub jugum mittere, Zo send under the yoke ; sub montem succedere, Zo come close to the hill ; sub noctem, towards night; sub lucem, zear daylight; sub hec dicta, at these words; โsub terra, underground ; sub Jove, in the open air; sub monte, at the foot of a hill; sub castris, near the camp; sub terra exi- mere (Plaut.), to take from under ground ; sub profectione (Ces.), during the march; sub eodem tempore, about that time; sub oculis domini, wader the masterโs eye; sub regno, under royal power; sub lege, liable to the law.
Subter (rarely with abl.), dexeath : โsubter fastigia tecti, under the house-roof; subter precordia, close to the heart; subter mu- rum, deneath the wall; subter se, below itself; subter testudine, under the shed (of shields). .
Super, above, over: โ super tumulum, oz the hillock; super ipsum, above him (at table); super Indos, deyond the Hindoos ; super cenain loqui, ยขo talk during supper; super morbum fames etiam, destdes sickness famine also; super omnes, above all; โ super cervice (Hor.), over his head ; super arbore sidunt, hey perch on a tree; nocte super media (Vir.), about midnight ; super tali re, about such an affair; satis superque, more than enough.
Supra, on the top:โsupra terram, above ground; supra caput (Sall.), zmminent; supra Alexandriam, beyond Alexan- dria; supra hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; supra mille, above a thousand; supra morem, more than usual; supra quod, Jdestdes.
Tenus, as far as: โcapulo tenus, uf Zo the hilt; verbo (nom- ine) tenus, 7โ zame, xominally ; aurium tenus, as far as the ears (only); labrorum tenus, along the lips.
Trans, beyond : โ trans mare, over seq ; trans flumen, deyond the river (rest or motion).
42: 3. 43: 1, 2.] CONJUNCTIONS. 93
Ultra, on the further side: โ ultra eum, beyond him; portas ultra, deyoud the gates; ultra pueritiam, dater than childhood ; ultra eum numerum, more than that number ; ultra fidem, zucred- zble; ultra modum, zmmoderate.
Versus, /urned to (Eng. -ward):โTItaliam versus, towards Ztaly (usually with another prep.); modo ad urbem modo in
Galliam versus (Sall.), zow towards the city, now towards Gaul.
3. Prepositions are frequently compounded with verbs, retuining their original meaning as Adverbs: as,
a, ab, away (aufero, dear of); ad, towards (affero, bring); ante, defore; circum, around (urbem circumire = ireโ circum urbem); con (cum), together; de, down; di or dis (insep.), apart; ex, out, completely ; im, in, on, against; inter, between, into, to pieces; ob, towards, in the way of; per, through, thor- oughly ; ve, red (insep.), back, again ; se, sed (insep.), apart ; sub, under, near; super, over, in place of. (For the assimila- tion of the final consonant, see page 4.)
43. CoNJUNCTIONS.
1. Classification. Conjunctions are more numerous, and their use is much more accurately distinguished, in Latin than in English. They are divided into two classes, viz. : โ
a. Co-ordinate:โ these include Copulative (anp), Disjunc- tive (or), Adversative (BuT), Causal (ror), Lllative (THERE- FORE). |
b. Subordinate:โ these are Conditional (1), โ including Comparative (As 1F), Concessive (THOUGH, EVEN IF), โTem- poral (WHEN), Causal (BECAUSE, SINCE), Consecutive (so
THAT), Final (IN ORDER THAT).
othe following list includes most of the conjunctions
and conjunctive phrases in common use.
Note. โ Some of these have been included in the classification of Adverbs, and a list of Interjections has been added. See also list of Correlatives, page 49.
a. Copulative and Disjunctive. et, -que, atque (ac), and. etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quinetiam, itidem (item), also. cum...tum; tum...tum, doth...and; not only... but also. qua... qua, oz one hand, on the other hand. modo... modo, mow... now. aut... aut; vel... vel (-ve), ezther...0โm Sive (seu) .,, sive, whether... or.
94 CONJUNCTIONS. [43: 2.
et...et; et...-que (atque); -que...et; -que...-que (poet.), both ...and.
nec (neque)... nec (neque); neque... nec; nec... neque (rare), neither... nor.
et... neque, doth... and not.
nec (neque) ... -que, wetther... and.
b. Adversative.
sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, Juz.
tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verumtamen, but yet, nevertheless. nihilominus, zone the less.
at vero, enimvero, but (for) in truth.
ceterum, on the other hand, but.
Ce Causal.
nam, namque, enim, etenim, for.
quia, quod, decause.
quoniam, quippe, cum (quom), quando, quandoquidem, siquidem, utpote, sรฉxce, inasmuch as.
d. Illative. ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcirco, proinde, therefore. propterea (... quod), for this reason (. .. that). quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore, whence. e. Comparative.
ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as. tamquam (tanquam), quasi, utsi, acsi, as zf. quam, atque (ac), as, than.
f. Conditional. si, 7f; sin, but zf; nisi (ni), wuless, if not; quod si, but รฉf. modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, ยขf only, provided. dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), Arovided only not.
g. Concessive.
etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, tamenetsi, quamquam, although. quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, however much. licet, ut, cum (quom), ยขhough.
Nortr. โ A concessive is often followed by an adversative : as, tamen- etsi ...tamen nihilominus, though . . . yet none the less.
h. Temporal.
cum (quom), cum primum, ubi, ut, ut primum, postquam, when.
prius ... quam, ante... quam, defore (non ante... quam, zot sis. 5 S6MZEE ).
quando, simulatque (simul ac), simul, as soon as.
dum, usque dum, donec, quoad, un/ii.
a Final.
ut (uti), quo, zโ order that. ne, ut ne, Jest (7x order that not); neve (neu), nor. quin (after negatives), quominus, duยข ยขhat (so as to prevent).
43: 2, 3.] CONJUNCTIONS. 95
k. Interjections.
O, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment). io, evae, evoe (of Joy).
heu, eheu, vae, alas! (of sorrow).
heus, eho, ehodum, ho! (of calling).
eia, euge (of prazse).
proh (of attestation): as, proh pudor, shame!
3. Special Meaning. The following list includes most of the conjunctions whose meaning or use requires special notice : โ
a. Et, and, connects independent words or clauses; -que (enclitic) combines closely into one connected whole; atque (sometimes ac before consonants) adds with emphasis. In the second member, and nol is expressed by neque or nec.
Atque (ac), as, is also used after words of comparison and likeness, as idem, the same, simul, as soun, aliter, otherwise.
6. Sed and vรฉrum or vero (more forcible), but, are used to contradict what precedes, โ always after negatives; at, yel, intro- troduces with emphasis a new point, especially in argument (at enim almost always) alluding to a supposed statement on the other side; autem is used in the same way, especially in tran- sitions, but with less force.
c. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (-ve) gives a choice ; sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions, but is also used with single words, โ especially two names for the same thing. (But of aut and vel the use is not always clearly distinguished.)
d. Nam (namque), for, introduces a sufficient reason; nim, an explanatory circumstance; etenim (for, you see; for, you know), something self-evident, or needing no proof (neg. nec enim).
รฉ. Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved logically; itaque, in proofs from the nature of things; igitur, then (a weak ergo), in passing from one stage of the argument to another, often merely to resume; idcirco, fur this reason, to call attention to a special point.
f- Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact; quod, either a fact or a statement or allegation; quoniam, since, has reference to motives.
g- Quom (cum), when, is always a relative conjunction, often a correlative with tum; quando is also used as interrogative or indefinite (quando? when? si quando, if ever).
he Et...et, means simply both...and; cum (less fre- quently tum) .. . tum has also the meaning not only... but also, emphasizing the second member.
96 DERIVATION OF worps. ([43: 3. 44: I.
i. Autem, enim, vero, always follow one or two words in their clause; the same is generally true of igitur, and often of tamen.
k. Conjunctions are often doubled, for the sake of emphasis, or to bind a sentence more closely to the preceding : as, at vero, itaque ergo (namque, etenim). The same is true of Relatives, which are equivalent to a conjunction and demonstrative combined ; as, qui ubi sit nescio, for where he is I know not.
44, DeERIVATION OF Worpbs.
The Root is a primitive element of speech. All roots are monosyllabic, and have a short vowel. Stems are formed from roots, and are divided into two main groups; viz., noun-stems (including adjec- tives) and verb-stems.
i. Noun Forms. Derivative Nominal forms include (1) nouns of agency, (2) names of actions, (3) active and passive adjectives.
Note. โ Examples of roots are Es, be; 1,g0; STA, stand; cap, take; puc, lead; rac, make; FER, bear; RAP, seize; SED, sit; TEN, stretch (see also pp. 72, 78); Da (AO), give; Dita (OE), put.
a. Roots and Stems. Roots may be used as stems (1) without change, as in diic-is, nรฉc-is; (2) with vowel-increase, as in liic-is, pac-is; (3) with reduplication, as in furfur, marmor; (4) com- pounded, as in judic-is (jus, dico), conjug-is (con-jugo). But Stems are more commonly formed by means of suffixes added to the root (primary), or to a stem (secondary), either with or without the above changes.
b. Primary Suffixes. The simplest suffixes are the vowels a (in Latin 0, a), i, u. Other primary suffixes are ta, ti, tu; na, ni, nu; va, ra, ya, ka, an.
Notre. โ The vowel-suffixes a, i, u, are sometimes regarded as if merely added to the root to fit it for inflection; but they are, in fact, true pronominal roots, and must be regarded as formative suffixes. The first is found in nouns and adjectives of a= and o=stems, as ludus, vagus, scriba, toga (root TEG) ; โi is less common, and in Latin has frequently disappeared, especially in the nominative, as in scobs (scobis, root SCAB) ;โu is disguised in most adjectives by an addi- tional i, as in suavis (for suadvis, cf. 7dvยข), tenuis (root TEN in tendo), and remains alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root aK, sharp, in acer, acies, @kvยข), pecu (root PAK, bind, in paciscor).
44: 1.] DERIVATION OF WORDS. 97
The signification of the other primary suffixes is as follows:โta (in the form to-) makes the regular perfect participle, as tectus, tectum ; sometimes active, as in potus, pransus ; and is found in a few not recog- nized as participles, as putus, altus (alo);โti forms abstracts, rarely nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mens ; โ tu forms abstracts (in- cluding supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as actus, luctus ;โ na, forming perfect participles in other languages, in Latin makes adjectives of like meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus (= mactus, root MAG), plenus, regnum ; โ ni, nouns of agency and adjec- tives, as ignis, segnis ; โโ nu, rare, as in manus, sinus ;โ ma, Various, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma ;โva (commonly wo), of active or passive meaning, as in equus, arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivos (vacuus) ; โra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages), usuaily passive, as in ager, integer, pleri-que (= plenus = -plรฉtus), sella (for sed-/a, ef. dpa) ; โ ya (gerundives in other languages), adjectives and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as eximius, audacia, Florentia, pernicies;โ ka, sometimes primary, as inโ pauci (cf. madpoc), locus (for stlocus, et. Sk. sthara, sthala, Ger. Stelle, Eng. stall) ; โ an (in, on), in nouns of agency and abstracts: as aspergo, meee (nis), gero (dnis).
โhe above, with some compound suffixes given below, belong to the original language, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the literary period. But developed forms of these, with a few other primary suffixes, were used consciously,โ generally as secondary suffixes. โThe old primary suffixes thus used are (along with ta and tu, given above) man, ant, vant, tar, tro, as. (Observe that it is the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix, although the nominative is given for convenience of reference.)
c. Significant Endings. The principal classes of regular derivate nouns and adjectives, as indicated by their nominative- ending, are the following :โ
1. Nouns of Agency (active adjectives or appellatives), end-
ing inโ
tor (lengthened from tar, M.), trix (tric- โ tar -} ic, F.), added to the same form of stem that precedes t of the supine (which for convenience may be called the supine-base), or to noun- stems by analogy: as ductor, victrix, viator. Earlier forma- tions with tar are patรฉr, matรฉr.
es (-itis), descriptive nouns, as miles, comes.
2. Names of Actions (passing into abstracts, instruments, results) : โ or (M.), es, is (F.), us, ur, (N.): as timor, sedes, decus, robur. io (added to pres. stem), tio, tura, tus (to supine base), verbal abstracts: as legio, actio, pictura, cultus (those in tus more concrete). ium (ya) forms neuter abstracts (from verb-stems), as gaudium ; or from nouns meaning offices or groups: as hospilium, servitium, collegium.
a
3
98 DERIVATION OF WORDS. [44: 1.
men (man), mentum (man-+ta), monia, monium (man+ ya), denoting act, means, or result: as flumen, querimonia.
is, tia, tas, tus, tudo, do, go, (F.) abstracts, rarely concrete: as audacia, militia, duritia (ies), bonitas, servitus, altitudo, lanugo.
brum, crum, trum, biilum, ctilum, bra: denoting means, usually from verb-stems: as claustrum, vehiculum, turibulum.
3. Adjective Forms, passing often into Nouns. a. Nominal
tilus (following a vowel, dlus; following s, n, r, ctilus), ellus, illus, DimINUTIVE nouns or adjectives, with endings for gender: as puerculus, puella ( puerula), puellula, asellus (asin- ulus), misellus (miserulus). Rare forms, eculeus, homuncio.
ades (i. as), ides, ides (ยฅr. is, 6is), Gus, Parronymics, denot- ing parentage, &c., as Aineddes, Priamides, Priamรฉis.
anus, 6nus, inus; as (-atis), ensis; ius Gius, icius idcus, acius, denoting belonging to or coming from (often GENTILE).
aris, alis, Elis, ilis, lis (all from ra), with inus, and nus, denoting various ideas of relation or possession: -ile (N. of ilis) denotes place, as ovile; -ale, -are (Nx. of lis, aris) usually losing e, become nouns ; -ina, F., from names of animals, often means their flesh; nus and tinus, form adjectives of time, as vernus.
ter (tris), timus, as campester, marilimus ; ternus, from adverbs of time: as sempiternus, hesternus (from heri, old hesi).
atus, Itus, titus, denote provided with: as galeadtus, auritus, ver- sutus.
eus, Inus, aceus, icius, (esp. from participles), also {cius, denote material or relation, as aureus, novicius, cretaceus.
arius, SGrius (adj.), denote belonging to ; Arium, Grium (N.), place; arius (M.) often of trades. โSo too icus, as bellicus, nauticus.
รฉtum denotes place, as quercetum.
Osus (from vant), Slens, Slentus (root 51) denote full of, or prone to, as fluctuosus, vinolenitus ; bundus, cundus, parti- cipial, but denoting continuance of quality: as tracundus.
b. Verbal.
ax, idus, tilus, vus (uus, ivus), denoting tendency (-ax often faulty or aggressive, Ivus rather passive): as pugnaz, cupidus, bibulus, protervus, nocuus, captivus.
flis, bilis, ius, generally passive: as fragilis, nobilis, eximius.
minus, mnus, mna, (Gr. zevoc), participles, but no longer signi- ficant as such: as terminus, alumnus, autumnus, lamina, erumna, femina.
ndus, the gerund-ending, forming a few active (middle) adjectives : as secundus, rotundus (cf. volvendis mensibus).
44: 2.] DERIVATION OF WORDS. 99
2. Derivation of Verbs. Verbs of the third conju- ยป gation, with irregular verbs and vowel-stems d&, std, are primitive. Most others are either causative or denominative
(formed from nouns).
Notrre.โ The consciousness of roots was lost in Latin, so that in forming the parts of verbs only stems are dealt with. Thus moneo, monui (not menui), from root men, as in mens; ccedo, cecidi (not cecidi), from root (cdd, as in cรฉdo). For modifications of the root in verb-stems, see ยงยง 28,30. The derivative suffix in the regular conjugations is original ya added either to the root, the present stem in a, or the noun-stem. y
a. The following are the regular conjugational forms : โ
1. Verbs of the first conjugation (generally active) may be formed from almost any noun or adjective of the first or second declension, by changing the stem-vowel into the characteristic a. A few add this vowel to the stem, as vigilare, exsulare.
2 A few verbs of the second conjugation are formed in like manner from noun-stems ; but most add the characteristic โฌ to the root, and are intransitive or neuter in their meaning.
3. A few u-stems simply add the characteristic of the third conjugation, becoming either active or intransitive, as acuo, fluo.
4. Most verbs of the fourth conjugation add the characteristic i to the root, as scio, salio; many are formed from i-stems, as sitio, finio, polio (see ยง 34).
b. The following are regular derivative suffixes : โ
sco or isco (ยง 36,1) inchoative, denoting the beginning of an action; they imply a primitive verb-stem, which is sometimes found only in the perfect and supine stems.
asso, esso, denote attempt to do a thing; they are of the third conjugation in the present stem, and of the fourth in the per- fect and supine. Note. โ These are probably denominative, from nouns originally in as (Latin es or us), but seem as if formed upon verb-roots.
to, ito (first conjugation) denote frequent action, being added to the actual supine, or to another form of it, with a connecting vowel i, changing u to the characteristic a of the first con- jugation.
illo (first conjugation) denotes feeble or trifling action like that of some simpler verb, but is formed from some real or supposed diminutive noun.
tirio (fourth conjugation), added to the supine-base, denotes desire to do the act expressed by some simple verb; but is formed from some noun of agency in tor (sor). Viso is a regular inherited desiderative of an earlier formation.
100 DERIVATION OF WORDS. [44: 3.
3. Compound Words. In compound words, either (1) the second part is merely added to the first; (2) the first part modifies the second as an adjective; (3) the first part is governed by the second as a verb; or (4) a verb is modified by a preposition or adverb prefixed. In all, only the second part receives inflection.
Nore. โ The Indo-European family had great power of forming compounds with mere stems. โThis power the Latin for the most part lost, as has English compared with German. Many compounds attempted by poets failed to become established in the language; but there remain many traces of the old usage.
The most usual compounds may be classed as follows :โ a. Meanings added: as suovetaurilia, undecim,
b. Noun with modifying adjective: as latifundium, peninsula, teryeminus.
c. Noun and Verbal: armiger, cornicen, manifestus, carnufex, mantele.
ad. Compound adjectives, in which the last word is a noun, the compound acquiring the meaning of possessed of the property de- noted, as alipes, magnanimus, concors, anceps (having a head at both ends), obvius, multiformis, multiplex.
e. Compounds of facio, with an actual or formerly existing verbal stem in e. These are causative in force, as consuefacio, calefacto. .
f. An Adverb or Noun and a Verb, which have grown together: as benedico, satago, jurgo, ausculto.
g- Verbs with Prepositions, usually having their original ad- verbial sense: as, ab, away; ex, out. In those with circum, praeter, trans, and sometimes ad and per, the compound retains the force of the preposition (ยง 42, 3).
hh. Verbs with the following inseparable Particles, which no longer appear as prepositions in Latin: amb (am, an), around ; dis, di, asunder (in two); por, forward; red, re, back; sed, se, apart.
PART SECOND.
USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX).
45, DeEFINITIONS.
1. Sentence. A SENTENCE is a form of words which contains either a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.
a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a DEcLAR- ATORY SENTENCE: as, puer vรฉnit, the boy came.
b, A sentence in the form of a Question is called an INTER- ROGATIVE SENTENCE: as, venitne puer, did the boy come?
ce. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an EXcLAMATORY SENTENCE: as, quam celeriter venit! how fast he came !
d. A sentence in the form of a Command is called an IMpERA- TIVE SENTENCE: as, vรฉni, puer, ad me, come to me, boy.
2. Subject and Predicate. The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of; the Predicate is that which is stated of the Subject.
a. The Predicate may be either a neuter verb, a noun or adjective with the Copula (esse, fiรฉri, &.), or a Transitive verb with its Object.
b. The verb esse, fo be, when it connects an attribute with its subject, is called the Copula; otherwise, it is called the Sub- stantive Verb.
Thus in the sentence sunt viri fortes, there are brave men,
sunt is a substantive verb; in viri sunt fortes, the men are /
brave, it is a copula.
c. The Object of a verb is that on which its action is exerted: thus in the sentence pater vocat filium, the father calls his son, pater is subject, and filium object, of vocat.
ad. One or more words, essential to the grammatical complete- ness of a sentence, may be unexpressed : this is called ELuipsis, and the sentence is called an elliptical sentence.
f
ยฅ
< c 4 102 C6 ot ยฉ ยฉ oS 6 oc a
pbrinitions. < ยฉ [45: 3,4, 5.
โฌ S ยฐ
3. Modification. The Subject or Predicate of a sentence may be modified by single words, or by a phrase or clause. The modifying word may itself be modified in the same way.
a. A single modifying word is generally either an Adjective, an Adverb, an Appositive (ยง 46), or the oblique case of a Noun. Thus in the sentence puer formosus venit, a handsome boy came, the adjective formosus modifies the subject puer; in the sentence celeriter venit, he came quickly, the adverb celeriter modifies the predicate venit.
b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word to which it belongs: thus in the sentence video pueri patrem, I see the boyโs father, the genitive pueri limits patrem.
4. Phrase. A Phrase is a group of words, without sub4 ject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or Adverb.
Thus in the sentence puer erat eximiae formae, he was a boy of remarkable beauty, the words eximiae formae are used for the adjective formosus (or formosissimus), and are called an ADJECTIVE PHRASE; in the sentence magna celeritate venit, he came with great speed, the words magna celeritate are used for the adverb celeriter (or celerrime), and are called an ADVERBIAL PuHRASE.
5. Clause. A Clause is a group of words forming part of a sentence, and having a subject and predicate of its own.
Thus in the sentence puer qui heri venit formosus erat, the boy who came yesterday was handsome, the words qui heri venit are a RELATIVE CLavUsE; in the sentence puer si cras veniat acceptus sit, if the boy should come to-morrow he would be welcome, the words si cras veniat, are a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE.
_ a. When a Clause is used as the Subject or Object of a verb, it is called a Substantive Clause (see ยง 70).
6. When a clause is used to modify the subject or predicate of a sentence, it is called a Subordinate Clause. Subordinate Clauses are Conditional, Temporal, Causal, Consecutive, and Final, like the conjunctions which introduce them (ยง 43, 1, 6).
c. When two or more clauses in the same sentence are inde- pendent of one another, they are said to be Codรฉrdinate.
d. Any clause introduced by a Relative is called a Relative Clause ; when used simply by way of explanation, and not other- wise connected with the form of the sentence, it is called an Intermediate Clause (ยง 66).
45; 46.] SUBJECT AND PREDICATE: NOUNS. 103
e. A clause expressing the purpose of an action is called a Final Clause; one expressing its result is called a Consecutive Clause (see ยงยง 64, 65).
Notrrt.โIn English, a Consecutive clause is introduced by the phrase so that ; a Final clause by the phrase in order that.
f. A clause containing a condition, introduced by IF or some equivalent (ยง 59), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence modified by a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.
Nore. โ Observe that these classes are not exclusive, but that a single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause may be subordinate, conditional, or intermediate ; and two subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other.
_ 6. Connectives. Sentences or codrdinate clauses are regularly connected by means of Conjunctions; but fre- quently in Latinโ very rarely in English โ sentences are connected by felatives.
In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by a conjunction with a demonstrative: as, quo cum venisset, and when he had come there; quae cum ita sint, but since these things are so (ยง 43, 3, k). 7%. Agreement. A word is said to AGREE with another when it is required to be in the same gender, number, case, or person.
When a word takes the gender or number of some other word implied in that with which it should agree, this use is called SYNESIS, or consiructio ad sensum.
8S. Government. A word is said to GOVERN another, when it requires the latter to be in a particular case.
iS Subject and Predicate. 46. Or Nowns.
A noun used to describe another, and meaning the same thing, agrees with it in Case: as, Servius rex, Servius the king. ad urbem Solos, fo the city Soli. spes nostra Cicero, Cicero our hope. homo nata fuerat, she had been born human.
104 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [46: 1, 2.
1. When the noun thus used is in the same part of the sentence (subject or predicate) it is called an appositive, and the use is called apposition.
2. When the noun is used to form a predicate with esse or any other copulative verb, it is called a predicate-nom- tnative (or accusative as the case may be).
externus timor, maximum concordiz vinculum, jungebat ani- mos (Liv. ii. 39), fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of har- mouy, united hearts. [Here both nouns belong to the sudject.]
quattuor hic, primum omen, equos vidi (/ยฃn. iii. ยง37), Zsaw here four horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate. |
Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit (Liv. i. 32), the people made Ancus Marcius king. (Here regem is called the comfle- mentary accusative. |
consules creantur Cesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. 1), Cesar and Servilius are made consuls. [Here consules is Aredicate-nom#- native after creantur. |
litteras Grecas senex didici (Cat. M. 8), 7 learned Greek when an old man. [Here senex is in apposition with the subject of didici, expressing the ยขรฉme, condition, &c., of the act. ]
Gneus et Publius Scipiones, the Scifios, Cnetus and Publius. [Here the appositive is Jlural, as referring to more than one subject. ]
gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur (Tusc. i. 45). [Here the appositive is introduced by way of comparison. |
a. The appositive will agree in gender when it can; sometimes also in number: as,
Aristzus, olive inventor (N. D. iii. 18), Arรฉsteus, discoverer of the olive.
eae Minerva inventrix (G. i. 18), Minerva, iuventress of the olive.
quia sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Leal. 19), because they follow nature, the best guide.
omnium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 4), Athens, discoverer of all learning.
6. A common noun in apposition with a Jocative is put in the Ablative, with or without the preposition in: as,
Antiochie, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 3), aยข Antioch, once a famous city.
Alb constiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iy. 2), chey halted at Alba, a fortified town.
472 3,:2:] ADJECTIVES. 105
c. The genitive is used in apposition with possessives, taking the gender and number of the implied subject: as, in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 34), amd the tears of us ail.
ex Anniana Milonis domo (Att. iv. 3), out of Annzus Miloโs house.
Norr.โ The proper appositive is sometimes put in the Genitive. See ยง 50,1, # Personal Pronouns follow the rules of Nouns.
47. Or ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. This rule applies also to adjective pronouns and participles.
vir fortis, a brave man.
cum ducentis militibus, with 200 men. consularia munera, the duties of consul. hac lege, by this law.
uno interfecto, one being slain.
Remark.โ The adjective may be either attributive or predi- cate. An attributive adjective simply qualifies the noun without the intervention of a verb; a predicate adjective is connected with its noun by esse, or a verb of similar meaning, expressed or implied. :
An adjective may also be used in apposition like a noun: as,
Hortensium vivum amavi (Off. iii. 18), 7 loved Hortensius when living.
i. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural (also, rarely, when they are connected with cum): as, Nisus et Euryalus primi (4Eยฃn. v. 394), Wisus and Euryalus first. Juba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Fuba and Labienus were taken. 2. When nouns are of different genders, an attributive adjective agrees with the nearest: as,
multz opere ac laboris, of much trouble and toil.
vita moresque mei, my life and character.
si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 7), ยขf any thing, if any man, if any time, was fit.
a. A predicate adjective may follow the same rule if the sub- jects form one connected idea: as,
factus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 15), a zoise of assent was made. 5*
106 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [47: 2, 3.
_ 6b. Generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without life: as, uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and children embraced him. labor (M.) voluptasque (F.) societate quadam inter se naturali
sunt juncta (N.) (id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alliance.
c. Abstract nouns of the same gender may have a neuter adjec- tive: as, stultitia et temeritas et injustitia...sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 11), folly, rashness, and injustice must be shunned. pax et concordia jactata sunt (Tac. Hist. ii. 20), peace and harmony were talked of. d. A masculine or feminine adjective may belong (by Synesis) to a noun of different gender or number, when the existence of per- sons is implied: as, duo milia relicti (Liv. XXXvii. 39), two thousand were left. pars certare parati (Ain. v. 108), @ part ready to contend. magna pars rapte (Liv. i.9), @ large part [of the women] were seized. : colonize aliquot deducte, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), sev- eral colonies were led out [of men] called Old Latins. e. An adjective pronoun agrees in gender with a word in ap- position or a predicate rather than with its antecedent: as, rerum caput hoc erat, hic fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17), this was the head of things, this the source. โฌam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est
consecutus [for id... quod] (Lal. 5), they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained.
f. Occasionally, an adjective takes the gender of a partitive genitive: as, velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin.), the dolphin is the swiftest of creatures. 3. Adjectives are often used as nouns, the masculine to denote men, and the feminine women: as, omnes, all men, or everybody; majores, ancestors; veteres, the ancients ; barbari, barbarians; amicus, a friend.
instinctu purpuratorum (Curt. iii. 9), at the instigation of the courtiers [those clad in purple].
iniquus noster (Planc. 2.), our foe.
didicit jam dives avarus laudare disertos (Juv. vii. 30), ยขke rick miser has now learned to flatter the eloquent.
47: 3, 4.] ADJECTIVES. 107
Notrre.โ The singular of adjectives in this use is more rare; the plural is very frequent, and may be used of any adjective or participle, to denote those in general described by it.
a. This is especially frequent with possessives: as,
nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party.
Sullani, the veterans of Sullaโs army.
suos continebat (B. C.i.15), ke held his men in check.
b. The demonstratives is, ille, &c., used in this way, have nearly the force of personal pronouns. โThey are often thus used in apposition with a noun, or a clause: as,
vincula, eaque sempiterna (Cat. iv. 4), chains, and that for ever.
exspectabam tuas litteras, idque cum multis (Fam. x. 14), JZ, with many others, am expecting your letter.
c- On the other hand, a noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may be qualified by an adverb (compare ยง 16, 3, e): as,
victor exercitus, the victorious army. servum pecus, @ servile troop. admodum puer, guzte a boy.
magis vir, more of a man.
fautor inepte (Hor.), @ stupid admirer.
4. A neuter adjective may be used as a noun โ
aยป In the singular, to denote either a single object or an abstract quality: as,
rapto vivere, Zo live by plunder. in arido, om dry ground. honestum, az honorable act, or honor (as a quality).
b. In the plural, to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence the abstract idea: as,
honesta, hozorable deeds (in general), or honor (in the ab-
stract).
omnium ignarus, ยขgnorant of all.
justis solutis, the due rites being paid.
c- In apposition, or as predicate, to a noun of different gen- der: as,
turpitudo pejus est quam dolor (Tusc. ii. 13), disgrace 7s worse than pain. labor bonum non est (Sen. Ep. 31), foยขl ts no good thing.
d. In agreement with an infinitive or a substantive clause: as,
aliud est errare Cesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri (Lig. 5), tt ts one thing to be unwiliing that Cesar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity.
\
108 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. (47: 655: 7.
Remark. โ The neuter of an adjective is ordinarily used as a noun only in the nominative and accusative: as,
omnia, all things (everything); but, omnium rerum, of ail things (omnium is usually of all persons) ;โloquitur de omnibus rebus, he talks about everything (de omnibus, about everybody).
5. Adjectives denoting source or possession may be used for the genitive: as,
Pompeiana acies, Pompeyโs line. video herilem filium (Ter.), / sAy masterโs son. zs alienum, azotherโs money, 1.e. DEBT.
a. Possessives are thus regularly used for the genitive of the personal pronouns: as,
domus mea, my house; nostra patria, our country.
b. A possessive in any case may have a genitive in apposition (ยง 46, c): as,
mea solius causa, for my sake only. nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.
s #
c. An adjective is occasionally thus used for the objective geni- tive (ยง 50, 3, 5): as,
metus hostilis (Jug. 41), fear of the enemy.
feminca in poena (Virg.), 22 punishing a woman.
periculo invidie mez (Cat. il. 2), at the risk of odium against me.
studiosus cedis ferine (Ov. M. vii. 675), eager to slaughter game.
6. An adjective, with the subject or object, is often used to qualify the act, having the force of an adverb: as,
primus venit, ke came first (was the first to come).
nullus dubito, 7 zo way doubt.
leti audiรฉre, they were glad to hear.
patre invito discessit, ke departed against his fatherโs wishes.
erat Rome frequens (Rosc. Am. 6), ke was often at Rome.
serus in ceelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2), mayโst thou return late to heaven.
7. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives (or adverbs) are in the comparative: as,
longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer than it was broad (or, rather long than broad).
47; 48.] ADJECTIVES: RELATIVES. 109
a. But not where magis is used: as,
clari magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renowned than honor- able.
b. A comparative with a positive, or even two positives, may be thus connected by quam (a rare and less elegant use): as,
vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more zeal than good heed. ,
claris majoribus quam vetustis (Ann. iv. 61), of @ family more Jamous than old.
8. Superlatives denoting order and succession often desig-
nate not what object, but what part of tt, is meant: as,
summus mons, ยขhe top of the hill. in ultima plata, at the end of the avenue. So, prior actio, the earlier part of an action.
Also, medius, midst ; ceterus, other ; reliquus, remaining: as,
reliqui captivi, ยขhke rest of the prisoners. in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), on the middle of the hill. inter ceteram planitiem (Jug. 92), 7โ @ region elsewhere level.
Similarly, sera nocte, late at night; nos omnes, all of us (ยง 50, 2).
9. The expressions alter... alter, alius...alius (as also the adverbs derived from them), may be used recipro- cally; or may imply a change of predicate as well as of subject: as,
hi fratres alter alterum amant, ยขhese brothers love each other.
alius aliud petit, ove man seeks one thing, one another.
alius alid ex navi, out of different ships.
alius alia via civitatem auxerunt (Liv. i. 21), they enlarged the State each in his own way. |
For the use of Adjectives as Adverbs, see ยง 16, 3, f. For the ablative used adverbially with Comparatives, see ยง 54, 6,6
48. Or RELATIVES.
A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in gender and number ; but its case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands: as,
puer qui vรฉnit, the boy who came; liber quem legis, the book you are reading ; via qua ambulat, the way he walks in.
110 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [48: 1, 2, 3.
Notrt.โA Relative is properly an adjective pronoun, of which the proper noun (the Antecedent) is usually omitted. The full construc- tion would require a corresponding demonstrative, to which the relative refers. Hence, relatives serve two uses:โ1. As Nouns in their own clause; 2. As Connectives, and are thus often equivalent to a demon- strative and conjunction combined (see ยง 69). The connective force is not original, but is developed from a demonstrative or indefinite meaning; the relative and the antecedent clause being originally co-ordinate.
1. A Verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the expressed or implied antecedent: as,
adsum qui feci (Ain. ix. 427), here am Iwho did it.
2. A relative generally agrees in gender with a noun (appositive) in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender: as,
mare etiam quem Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 20), the
sea, too, which you said was Neptune.
a. A relative may (rarely) by Attraction agree with its ante- cedent in case: as,
si aliquid agas eorum quorum consuรฉsti (Fam. v. 14), 7 you do something of what you are used to.
b. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied antecedent : -as,
~quartum genus... qui premuntur (Cat. ii. 10), @ fourth class, that are sinking. unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (Jug. 35), one of the number [of those] who were ready. | conjuravรฉre pauci. .. de qua [conjuratione] dicam (Sall. C. 18), a few have conspired... of which [conspiracy] J will speak.
%. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses; usually only in the one that precedes; sometimes it is wholly omitted: thus โ
a. The noun may be repeated in the relative clause: as,
loci natura erat hec quem locum nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
bo. The noun may appear only in the relative clause: as,
quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hic versibus (Arch. 11), ke has touched in verse the things which we did in our consulship.
wrbem-quam statuo vestra est (4En. i. 573), yours is the city which I found. .
48: 3, 4, 5-] RELATIVES. | 111
In such cases the demonstrative is or hic usually stands in the antecedent clause: as,
que pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea
princeps poenas persolvit (B.G. i. 12), that part of the State
which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
Remark. โIn a sentence of this class, the relative clause in Latin usually stands first; but, in translating, the noun should be transferred, in its proper case, to the antecedent clause, as in the example just quoted.
c. The antecedent noun may be omitted: as,
qui decime legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who bore the eagle of the tenth legion. qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21), 4e sent men to reconnoitre. d. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing with the antecedent may stand in the relative clause: as, vasa ea que pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 27), those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. e. The phrase id quod or quae res is used (instead of quod alone) to relate to an idea or group of words before expressed: [obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio? an utrique โ
id quod est verius? (Manil. 19), az affront is offered shall I say to Gabinius or Pompey? orโwhich ts truer โ to both ?
4. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or ยฐ ยฐ ยฐ Ns sentence, where in English a demonstrative must be used : as, )โ
quz cum ita sint, szuce these things are so.
quorum quod simile factum? (Cat. iv. 8), what deed of theirs โ dรฉke thrs ? }
qui illius in te amor fuit (Fam. iv. 5), suck was his love for you.
5. A Relative Adverb is often equivalent to the relative pronoun with a preposition: as, quo (= ad quem), to whom; unde (=a quo), from whom, &e.: as,
apud eos quo se contulit (Verr. iv. 18), among those to whom he resorted.
qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (Rosc. Am. 26), ove who should have slain his own father.
A similar use is found with the demonstratives eo, inde, &c: as,
eo imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them [the beasts] he puts the baggage.
112 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. (49: 1.
49. VERBS.
A Verb agrees with its subject-nominative in num- ber and person: as, ego statuo, J resolve; oratio est habita, the plea was spoken.
Remark. โ The verb in the periphrastic forms sometimes agrees in gender and number with the predicate, or with a noun in apposition: as, .
non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Parad. vi. 3), mot every
error should be called folly.
Corinthus lumen Greciz exstinctum est, Corinth the light of
Greece ts put out.
delicize mez Dicearchus disseruit (Tusc. i. 31), my pet Dicear-
chus discoursed.
1, Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the plural; also, rarely, when one is in the ablative with cum: (compare ยง 47, 1), as,
pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.
dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), ke gen- eral and several chiefs are taken.
a. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb will be in the first person rather than the second, and the second rather than the third: as,
si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), 7f you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well.
6. If the subjects are joined by disjunctives, or if they are con- sidered as a single whole, the verb is singular: as,
neque fides neque jusjurandum neque illum misericordia repres- sit (Ter. Ad.), zot faith nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him.
Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v.8), the Roman Senate and people understand.
c. A collective nounโalso such distributives as quisque, every ; uterque, eachโ may take a plural verb: as,
pars predas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty. suum quisque habeant quod suum est (Plaut. Curc.), deยข every one keep his own.
This is most common in poetry.
49: 1,2. 50.] CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. 113
d. When the action of the verb belongs to the subjects separ- ately, it may agree with one and be understood with the others : as,
intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), Antony and Casstus, tribunes of the people, interpose.
2. The Subject of a finite verb is in the nominative.
Dertn.โA Finite Verb is a verb in any mood except the In- finitive.
a. The personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic: thus, |
loquor, I speak; ego loquor, it is I that speak. b. An indejinite subject is often omitted: as, dicunt (ferunt, perhibent), they say. c. The verb is sometimes omitted in certain phrases: as,
quorsum hec [spectant]? what does this aim at ? ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you will know a lion by his claw.
The indicative and infinitive of esse are most frequently omitted. (For the Historicat INFINITIVE, see ยง 57, 8, h.)
II. Construction of Cases.
Norr. โ The Oblique Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. Originally, the family of languages to which Latin belongs had at least seven cases, besides the vocative, all ex- pressing different relations. Of these the Locative and Instrumental cases were lost, and their functions divided among the others (p. 237).
The names of the cases, except the Ablative, are of Greek origin. The name genitiveโ Gr. yevexn, from yรฉvos โ refers, originally, to the class to which anything belongs. The dativeโSoriky โis the case of giving. The name accusative is a mistranslation of airvariKxh, signi- fying that which is effected or caused (airla).
50. GENITIVE.
A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive.
Norter. โ This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the preposition or. The genitive seems originally to have meant that from which something springs ; hence, that to which it belongs. From this signification most of its others may be deduced.
114 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. | [50: 1.
1. Subjective Genitive. The Genitive is used to denote the Author, Owner, Source, and (with an adjective) Measure or Quality : as,
libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero. Cesaris horti, Cesarโs gardens. culmen tecti, the roof of the house.
a. For the genitive of possession a possessive adjective is often used, โ regularly for that of the personal pronouns: as,
liber meus, my book. aliena pericula, other menโs dangers. Sullana tempora, ยขhe times of Sulla.
b. The noun limited is understood in a few expressions: as,
Castoris [edes], tke [temple] of Castor. Hectoris Andromache, Hectorโs [wife] Andromache.
c. The genitive is often in the predicate, connected with its noun by a verb, like a predicate appositive: as,
hec'domus est patris mei, ยขk7s house ts my fatherโs.
tutele nostre [eos] duximus (Liv.), we held them to be in our protection.
Thrasybuli facta lucri fecit (Nep. viii. 1), ke made profit of the deeds of Thrasybulus.
Tyros mare dicionis sue fecit (Curt. iv. 4), Zyre brought the sea under her sway.
hominum non causarum toti erant (Liv. iii. 36), they belonged wholly to the men, not to the cause.
d. A phrase or clause often stands for the limited-noun ; this is most frequent with the genitive of adjectives or abstract nouns: as,
neque sui judici [erat] decernere (B. C. i. 35), ยข# was not for
his judgment to decide. _ timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 15), ยขยข zs for the coward to
wish for death. __ Remark. โ The genitive of an adjective (especially of the third ~\ declension) is thus used instead of the neuter nominative: as,
sapientis [zoยข sapiens] est pauca loqui, ยขยข ยขs wise [the part of a
wise man] Zo say dittle.
The neuter of possessives is used in the same way: as,
mentiri non est meum, ยขยข 7s not for me to lie.
humanum [ for hominis] est errare, i 7s manโs to err.
e- A genitive may denote the substance of which a thing con-
sists (a modified form of the idea of source): as,
talentum auri, @ falent of gold.
flumina lactis, r7vers of milk.
navis auri (compare Part. Gen.), @ skipload of gold.
50%: 3;.2.] GENITIVE. 115
f. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposition: as, nomen insaniz, the word madness. oppidum Antiochiz, the city of Antiock. g- The genitive is used to denote quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective (usually an indefinite one): as, a
vir summe virtutis, a man of the highest courage. magne est deliberationis, ยขยข 7s an affair of great deliberation. magni formica laboris, ke ant, [a creature] of great toil.
So ejus modi, of that sort. (Compare the Ablative of Quality, ยง 54, 7.)
h. The genitive. (of quality), with numerals, is used to define measures of length, depth, &c.: as,
fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [depth].
murus sedecim pedum, @ wall sixteen feet {high}.
minor nullaerat duim milium amphorim (Fam. xii. 15), zone
held less than 2000 jars. |
4. Certain adjectives of Quantity โas magni, pluris, and the likeโare used in the genitive to express indefinite value. (Also the nouns nihili, flocci, nauci, pili, pensi, terunci, assis, see Ablative of Price, ยง 54, 8.)
Remark.โ The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa, gratia, for the sake of; ergo, because of; and the inde- clinable instar, like. .
R Casey
2. Partitive Genitive. Words denoting a part are fol- lowed by the genitive of the whole to which the part belongs. Partitive words are the following : โ
a- Nouns or Pronouns: as,
pars militum, part of the soldiers.
quis nostrum, which of us ? (but nos omnes, all of us).
nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left.
vastatur agri [id] quod... (Liv. i. 14), so much of the land is wasted as, &c.
6. Numerals, Comparatives, and Superlatives: as, alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls. unus tribunorum, one of the tribunes.
plurimum totius Galliz equitatu valet (B. G. v. 3), ยขs strongest in cavalry of all Gaul.
c- Neuter adjectives and pronouns used as nouns: as,
tantum spati, so much space. aliquid nummorum, @ few pence. id loci (er locorum), ยขhat spot of ground.
116 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 2.
id temporis, af that time. plana urbis, the level farts of the town. quid novi, what news ?
Remark. โ Of adjectives of the third declension the genitive is only rarely used in this way: thus,
nihil novi (gen.), nothing new ; but nihil memorabile (nom.), zothing worth mention.
d. Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place: as,
satis pecuniz, money enough.
parum oti, zot much ease.
ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we ? inde loci, zext in order.
istuc equi bonique, ยขo that degree of equity and goodness. tum temporis, at that point of time.
eo miseriarum (Sall.), 2o that pitch of misery. -
e. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case: as,
sequimur te sancte deorum (En. iv. 576), we follow thee, O holy deity.
nigre lanarum (Plin. H.N. viii. 48), dlack wools.
electi juvenum (Liv. xxx. 9), the choice of the young men.
Remark. โ1. Cardinal numbers, with quidam, a certain one, \ more commonly, other words rarely, take the ablative with e (ex) : or de, instead of the genitive: as,
unus ex tribunis, ove of the tribunes. minumus ex illis (Jug. 11), the youngest of them. medius ex tribus (ib.), ยขhe midst of the three.
2 With nouns uterque generally agrees as an adjective; but with pronouns it always takes a genitive: as,
uterque consul, doth the consuls. uterque nostrum, doth of us.
3. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any- thing โ as omnes, all; quot, how manyโtake a case in agree- ment, and not the partitive genitive: as,
=
nos omnes, all of us.
qui omnes, all of whom.
quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there?
cave inimicos qui multi sunt, Beware of your enemies, of whom
you have many. So when no others are thought of, although such exist: as,
multi milites, many of the soldiers. nemo Romanus, zot one Roman.
50: 3.] GENITIVE. 117
รฉ
4. Rarely two genitives are used with one noun: as,
animi multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 13), the mindโs traversing of many things.
5. The Partitive genitive of the Personal Pronouns is the form in um (nostrum, vestrum); that in i (mei, nostri, &c.) is Objective.
_f 3. Objective Genitive. With many nouns and adjec- ive implying action, the genitive is used to denote the object.
Notr.โ This is an extension of the idea of belonging to; as in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Cesar, the hate in a passive sense belongs to Cesar, though in its active sense he is the object of it.
a. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive of the object: as,
desiderium oti, longing for rest.
vacatio militia, a respite of military service.
gratia benefici, grat:tude for a kindness.
fuga malorum, refuge from disaster.
laudator temporis acti, a pratser of the past.
injuria mulierum Sabinarum (Liv.), the wrong done to the Sabine women.
memoria nostri tua (Fam. xiii. 17), your memory of us.
consensio divinarum humanarumque rerum (Lel. 6), @ har- mony in divine and human things.
vim suorum pro suo periculo defendebant (B.C. iii. 110). zhey parried the attack on their comrades as tf it were their own peril.
Occasionally possessive adjectives are used in the same way (see ยง 47, 5, c).
6. Adjectives requiring an object of reference (relative adjec- tives) govern the genitive.
These areโ1. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, Julness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites; 2. Verbals in ax; 3. Participles in ns when used to denote a disposition and not a particular act, so that they become adjectives: as,
avidus laudis, greedy of praise.
fastidiosus literarum, disdaining letters.
juris peritus, sklled in law.
habetis ducem memorem vestri oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 9), you have a leader who thinks of you and forgets himself.
plena consiliorum inania verborum (De Or. i. 9), fudl of wis- dom, void of words.
rationis et orationis expertes (Off. i. 16), devoid of reason and speech.
virtutis compos (id.), Jossessed of virtue.
paternorum bonorum exheres (De Or. i. 38), ousted from his SJatherโs estate.
rei capitalis affinis (2 Verr. ii. 43), accessory to a capital crime.
justum ac tenacem propositi virum (Hor: Od. iii. 3), @ man_just and steadfast to his purpose.
118 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 3.
si quem tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q. Fr. ix. 1), if you have known any more fond of you.
multitudo insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), @ crowd unused to war.
sitiens sanguinis, ยขhirsting for blood. But,
Tiberius sitiens sanguinem (Tac.), Zberius [then] ยขhirsting for blood.
ยข. Some other adjectives of similar meaning occasionally take the genitive; and the poets and late writers use almost any adjec- tive with a genitive of specification: as,
callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), skรฉlled tn soldtership.
pecuniz liberales (Sall. C. 7), Zavish of money.
virtutum sterile seculum (id. i. 3), @ century barren in virtue.
pauper aquarum (Hor.), scant of water. |
prodigus eris (id.), a spendthrift of wealth.
notus animi, of known bravery.
fessi rerum (Virg.), weary of toil.
lata laborum (id.), glad of work.
modicus voluptatis, moderate in pleasure.
integer vite scelerisque purus (Hor.), upright in life, and clear of guilt.
docilis modorum (id.), zeachable in measures.
Remark. โ Animi (strictly a locative, plural animis), is added to adjectives of feeling: as,
4
zeger animi, sick at heart. confusus animi, disturbed in spirit.
d. A few adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging โ requir- ing the dative as suchโtake the possessive genitive: these are, aequalis, affinis, communis, finitimus, par, propinquus, pro- prius (regularly), similis, vicinus (see p. 129).
Remark. โ One noun limiting another is regularly used in the genitive, and not with a preposition, โ prepositions being origi- nally adverbs, and requiring a verb. Sometimes, however, one noun has another connected with it by a preposition. This hap- pens with nouns of action, feeling, and motion; some relations of place to or in which or from which (including origin); accompani- ment, &c.: as,
odium in Czsarem (or odium Cesaris), hate of Cesar. merita erga me (Cic.), services to me.
auxilium adversus inimicos (id.), Zelp against enemies. reditus in celum (id.), return to heaven.
impetus in me (id.), attack on me.
excessus e vita (id.), departure from life.
e preelio nuntius, @ messenger y the battle.
castra ad Bagradam (Ces.), camp near the Bagrada. invidia ob scelera (Sall.), odium for his crimes. So, domum reditionis spes (B.G.i.5), hope of returning home.
50: 4.] GENITIVE. )! 119
~
) < | 4. Genitive after Verbs. The โgenitive is used as the object of several classes of Verbs. | :
a. Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, and Reminding, take the genitive of the object when they are used of a continued state of mind, but the accusative when used of a single act: as,
pueritia memoriam recordari (Arch.i.), to recall the memory of childhood. ) animus meminit preteritorum (Div. i. 30), the soul remembers the past. venit mihi in mentem illius diei, 7 dethought me of that day. obliviscere cedis atque incendiorum (Cat. i.3), Zurn your mind from slaughter and conflagrations. bona przterita non meminerunt (Fin. ii. 20), they do not re- member past blessings. memineram Paullum (Cat. M. 2), 2 remembered Paulus. memini etiam que nolo (Fin. ii. 33), 2 remember even what I would not. totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 60), ze forgot the whole case. Remark. โ The above distinction is unimportant as to verbs of reminding, which take the genitive except of neuter pronouns: as, hoc te admoneo, / warn you of this. The accusative is always used of a person or thing remembered by an eye-witness. Recordor is almost always construed with an accusative, or with a phrase or clause. /
b. Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting, take the genitive of the charge or penalty: as,
arguit me furti, Ze accuses me of theft.
peculatis damnatus (pecunize publice damnatus) (Flac. 18), condemned for embezzlement.
capitis damnatus, condemned to death.
Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are โ
capitis (damnare capitis, to sentence to death) ;
majestatis, treason (crime against the dignity of the State) ;
repetundarum, eztortion (lit. of an action for claiming back money wrongfully taken) ;
voti (damnatus or reus voti, bound to the payment of oneโs vow, i.e. successful in oneโs effort).
Remark.โ The crime may be expressed by the ablative with de; the punishment by the ablative alone: as,
de vi et majestatis damnati (Phil.i.), condemned of assault and treason.
vitia autem hominum atque fraudes damnis, ignominiis, vin- culis, verberibus, exiliis, morte damnantur (De Or. i 43), but the vices and crimes of men are punished with fines, dis- honor, chains, scourging, exile, death.
But, inter sicarios accusare (defendere), to accuse of murder.
wo
120 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 4.
c. Many verbs of Emotion take the genitive of the object which excites the feeling (Gen. of source). These areโ 1. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseresco: as,
miserescite regis (in. viii. 573), pity the king. miserere animi non digna ferentis (id. ii. 144), Dรฉty a soul that endures unworthy things.
But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative.
| 2 The impersonals miseret, piget, paenitet, pudet, taedet
{' (or pertaesum est), which take also the accusative of the person
&
affected (ยง 39, 2): as,
hos homines infamiz suz neque pudet neque tedet (Verr. i. 12), these men are neither ashamed nor weary of their dis- honor.
Remark. โ An infinitive or clause may be used with these verbs instead of the genitive of a noun: as,
me pznitet hec fecisse, J repent of having done this. Sometimes they are used personally: as, nonne te hec pudent (Ter. Ad.), do not these things shame you ? d. The impersonals interest and rรฉfert, it concerns, take the genitive of the person affected,-โthe subject of the verb being a \ neuter pronoun or a substantive clause: as,
โ Clodi intererat Milonem perire (Mil. 21); it was the interest of
Clodius that Milo should die. Wh MA I Ser Fhe Yi
But instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine: as, quid tua id refert?โ magni (Ter. Ph.), how does that concern you? much. rรฉfert is seldom used in any other way; but it takes, rarely, the dativus commodi (Hor. Sat. i. 1, 49). The object of interest is sometimes in the accusative with ad: as, magni ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), 7 zs of consequence to our honor.
Notre. โ The word interest may be used (1) impersonally with the genitive, as above; (2) personally with the dative: as, interest exer- citui, he is present with the army; (8) with the accusative and pre- positions: as, interest inter exercitum et castra, he is between โor, there is a difference between โ the army and camp.
e- Some verbs of plenty and want govern the genitive (rarely, except egeo and indigeo, need, see ยง 54, I, e): as,
quid est quod defensionis indigeat? (Rosc. Am. 12), what ts there that needs defence ? _satagit rerum suarun, fe has his hands full with his own affairs.
ยง1: 1.] DATIVE. 121
Also, sometimes, potior, get possession of ; as always in the phrase potiri rerum, fo be master of affairs. But these verbs more commonly take the ablative.
Remark. โ The genitive is also used after the adverbs pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far as: ergo, on account of (properly an ablative).
51. DarTive.
The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by the action: this is usually denoted in English by 10 or FOR (Indirect Object).
Nore. โ The dative seems to have the primary meaning of towards, and to be closely akin to the Locative. But this meaning is lost in Latin, except in some adverbial forms (eo, illo, &c.) and in the poets. In most of its derived meanings, it denotes an object not merely (like the Accusative) as passively affected by the action, or caused by it; but as reciprocally sharing in the action, or receiving it actively. Thus, in dedit mihi librum, fe gave me a book, or fecit mihi injuriam, he did mean injury; it is 1 that receive the book or feel the wrong. Hence persons, or objects personified, are most likely to be in the dative. So in the Spanish, the dative is used whenever a Person is the object | of an action: as, yo veo al hombre, J see the man.
As this difference between the accusative and dative (direct and | indirect object) depends on the view taken by the writer, verbs of | similar meaning in different languages, or even in the same, differ in | the case of the object. In English, especially, owing to the loss of its | cases, many verbs are construed as transitive, which in Latin require the dative. Thus believe, which in English originally governed the genitive, has become transitive; while the corresponding verb in Latin, credo (a compound of cred and do (GE), to place confidence in) takes the dative.
1. Dative with Transitives. Transitive verbs, whose meaning permits it, take the dative of the indirect object, with the accusative of the direct.
These are, especially, verbs of Giving, Telling, Sending, and the like: as,
do tibi librum, 7 g?ve you a book.
valetudini tribuamus aliquid (Tusc. i. 118), let us allow some thing to health.
illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. 7), ยขhis J assure you.
Pompeio plurimum debebam (id. i. 9), J owed much to Pompey.
id omne tibi polliceor ac defero (Man. 24), adl this J Promise you and bestow. 6
122 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [S1:ยฐ 1, 2.
commendo tibi ejus omnia negotia (Fam. i.1), J put all his affairs tn your hands.
amico munusculum mittere (id. ix. 12), to send a slight tribute to a friend. eee
illi inimico servum remisit (Deiot. ii.), to kim, his enemy, he returned a slave. ; ss \ od.
dabis profecto misericordiz quod iracundie negavisti (id. 14), you will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath.
Karthagini bellum denuntio (Cat. M. 6)ยง Z aanounce war to Carthage. A : ;
curis gaudia misces (Catull.โ only poet.), thou minglest joy with care.
a. In the passive, such verbs retain the dative of the indirect object (see 2, f) : as, hec nobis nuntiantur, these things are told us.
b. When the idea of motion is distinctly conveyed, a preposi- tion is used (except by poetic use): as, | has litteras ad te mitto, J send you this letter.
c. A few verbs of this classโunder a different view of the actionโ may take the accusative of a person, with an ablative of means.
Such verbs are dono, impertio, induo, exuo, adspergo, inspergo, circumdo, circumfundo, prohibeo, intercludo.
Thus โ
donat coronas suis, ke presents wreaths to his men; or,
donat suos coronis, he presents his men with wreaths.
pomis se induit arbos (G. iv. 143), the tree decks ttself with
rutts. -
oe (dat.) armis exutis (B. G. iii. 6), the forces being stripped of arms.
aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. iii. 36), fo sprinkle the altar with blood.
2. Dative after Intransitives. Intransitive verbs take the dative of the indirect object only: as,
_ cedant arma toge (Phil. i. 8), let arms give way to the gown.
quid homini potest turpius usuvenire (Quinct. 15), what more shameful can befall a man ?
respondi maximis criminibus (Phil. i. 14), 7 have answered the
heaviest charges.
ut ita cuique eveniat (id. 46), that zt may so turn out to each.
manent ingenia senibus (Cat. M. 7), old men keep thetr powers of mind.
vento et fluctibus loqui (Lucr. iv. 491), to talk to wind and Wave.
51: 2.] DATIVE. 123
nec quereris patri (Juv. ii. 131), you complain not to a father. non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17), it ts not every manโs luck to go to Corinth.
a. Most verbs signifying to favor, help, please, serve, trust, and their contraries, โ also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,โtake the Dative in Latin, though transitive in English. ae
These include, among others, the following: adversor, credo, faveo, fido, ignosco, impรฉro, invideo, irascor, noceo, parco, pareo, placeo, servio, studeo, suaddeo (persuadeo): as,
cur mihi invides, why do you envy me ?
civitati serviebat, he served the state.
tibi favemus, we favor you.
mihi parcit atque ignoscit, ke spares and pardons me. .
sontibus opitulari poteram (Fam. iv. 13), 4 was able to help the
wlty.
bernie invident (Sall.), they envy the good.
Catoni resistimus (Fam. 1. 1), we withstand Cato.
non omnibus servio (id. xvi. 13), 7 am not a servant to every man.
cum โceteris tum mihi ipsi displiceo (id. iv. 13), Z dรฉssatisfy other people and myself too.
non parcam opere (id. xvi. 13), 7 will share no pains.
sic mihi persuasi (Cat. M. 21), so J have persuaded myself.
huic legioni Czsar confidebat maxime (B. G. i. 40), z# this legion Cesar had special confidence.
ex quo efficitur hominem nature obedientem homini nocere non posse (Off. iii. 5), whence tt appears that a man while obeying Nature cannot harm a fellow-man.
Remark. โ1. Some verbs of the same meanings take the ac- cusative: as, juvo, adjtivo, help; laedo, injure; jubeo, order; deficio, fail. Pe
2. Some take the dative or accusative indifferently: as, adiilor, flatter; aemiilor, rival; comitor, atfend; despรฉro, despair; praestolor, await; medeor, medicor, heal.
3. Some take the dative or accusative according to their mean- ing: as, 2
parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 25), they consult for a party of the citizens.
cum te consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when I had consulted you.
metuens pueris (Plaut. Am. v. 1), azxtous for the boys.
nec metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. v. 2), they fear not even the gods
~ (so also ยข/meo.) |
ei cavere volo (Fam. iii. 1), 7 will have a care for him.
caveto omnia (id. xi. 21), beware of everything.
124 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 2.
prospicite patriz (Cat. iv. 2), have regard for the state.
prospicere sedem senectuti (Liv. iv. 49), to provide a habita- tion for old age [so also providere |.
nequeo mihi temperare (Plin. xviii. 6), Z cannot control myself.
rempublicam temperare (Tusc. i. 1), 20 govern the state [so also moderor |.
See Lexicon, under convenio, cupio, fido (abl.), insisto, maneo, praesto, praeverto, recipio, renuntio, solvo, succedo.
b. The dative is used after the Impersonals libet, licet; after verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male; together with the following: โgratificor, gratulor, haereo (rarely), jungo, medeor, medicor, misceo (poetic), nubo, permitto, plaudo, probo, studeo, supplico; and the phrases auctor esse, gratias agere (habere), morem gerere (morigeror), supplex (dicto audiens) esse: as,
quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 18), what most pleases me.
Di isti Segulio male faciant (id. xi. 21), may the gods send evil upon that Segulius.
mihi ipsi nunquam satisfacio (id. 17), Z ever satisfy myself.
Pompeio se gratificari putant (id. i. 1), they suppose they are doing Pompey a service.
sed tibi morem gessi (id. ii. 18), but J have deferred to you.
tibi permitto respondere (N. D. iii. 1), J give you leave to answer.
armatus adversario maledixi (Fam. vi. 7), 22 arms J cursed the
0e.
oA iat aurium morigerari (Or. 48), to kumor the lust of the ears.
habeo senectuti maximam gratiam (Cat. M. 14), J owe old age much thanks.
maximas tibi gratias ago, J return you the warmest thanks.
c. Many verbs of the above classes take an accusative of the thing, with a dative of the person: as,
cui cum rex crucem minitaretur (Tusc. i. 43), when the king threatened him with the cross.
invident nobis optimam magistram (id. iii. 2), they grudge us our best of teachers [Nature].
frumento exercitui proviso (B. G. v. 44), when the army was supplied with corn.
puerum [vocare] cui cenam imperaret (Ros. Am. 21), Zo calla boy and order supper of him.
imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts ten talents of the townspeople.
omnia sibi ignoscere (Vell. ii. 30), 2o Jardon one's self every- thing.
a3) DATIVE. 125
d. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super โ and some with circum โ take the dative of the object on account of their acquired meaning (many take also the accusative, being originally transitive): as, ;
neque enim assentior iis (Lzl. 3), for / do not agree with them.
tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), zt 2s a point of skill to yield to the weather. :
omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed prefuit (id. i. 6), he not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.
pueritie adulescentia obrepit (Cat. M.), youth steals upon childhood.
[Archie] antecellere omnibus contigit (Arch. 3), zยข was his good fortune to outvie all.
quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 30), so far as manโs nature ts superior to brutes.
nos ei succedimus (Fam. vii. 31), we succeed him.
criminibus illis pro rege se supponit reum (Deiot. 15), ke takes those charges upon himself in the king's behalf.
nec unquam succumbet inimicis (id. 13), he will never bend before his foes.
illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 13), they put their own name to those papers.
tibi obtempera (F. il. 7), restrazu yourself. .
hibernis Labienum preposuit (Ces.), ke set Labienus over the winter-quarters.
cur mihi te offers, ac meis commodis officis et obstas (Ros. Am. 38), why do you offer yourself to me, and then hinder and withstand my advantage ?
So excello: as, tu longe aliis excellis (De Or. ii. 54), you far excel others.
Remark. โ1. Some of the above compounds acquire a transi- tive meaning, and take the accusative: as, aggredior, approach ; adire, goto; antecedo, anteeo, antegradior, precede (both cases) ; convenio, meet; ineo, enter; obeo, encounter; offendo, hit; oppugno, oppose; subeo, go under (take up): as,
nos oppugnat (Fam. i. 1), ke opposes us. quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi, who would dare encounter a man well-attended ? munus obire (Leal. 2), 4o attend to a duty.
' %
2 The adjective obvius โalso the adverb obviamโwith@ | werb takes the dative: as, Y si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 18), ยขf he was not intend-
ing to get in his way. mihi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16), you came to meet me.
126 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [S1: 2, 3.
e. Many compounds of ab, de, ex, with adimo, take the dative (especially of persons) instead of the ablative of separation, โ the action being more vividly represented as done to the object affected by it (so rarely other verbs by analogy) : as,
vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (C. M. 19), force deprives young men of life. |
_.. nihil enim tibi detraxit senectus (id.1), for age has robbed you of nothing.
nec mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo (id. 23), zor do I wish this error wrested from me.
cum extorta mihi veritas esset (Or. 48), when the truth had
been forced from me (compare furatur, Off. ii. 11).
Remark. โ The distinct idea of place, โ and, in general, names of things, โ require the ablative with a preposition; or both con- structions may be used together: as,
illum ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), ke dragged him out of danger.
victoriam eripi sibi e manibus, ยขhat victory should be wrested Srom his hands.
f. Intransitive verbs governing the dative can be used in the Passive only impersonally: as,
cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 12), who could be spared ?
non modo non invidetur illi etati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 13), that age [youth] ยขs xot only not envied, but ts even favored.
mihi quidem persuaderi nunquam potuit (C. M. 22), Z for my part could never be persuaded.
resistendum senectuti est (id. 11), we must resist old age.
plaudi tibi non solere (Deiot. 12), that you are not wont to be applauded.
tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the time.
g- The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which would strictly require another case with a preposition: as,
differt sermoni (Hor.), differs from prose [a sermone]. tibi certet (Virg.). may vie with you [tecum]. lateri abdidit ensem (id.), burzed the sword in his side [in latere]. solstitium pecori defendite (Ecl. vii. 47), keep the noontide from the flock [a pecore]. Ilere the poets regard the acting as done to the thing affected, for greater vividness of expression.
_ 8. Dative of Possession. The dative is used with esse and similar words to denote the Owner: as,
est mihi liber, J have a book.
51: 3, 4] DATIVE. 127
Remark. โ The Genitive or a possessive with esse emphasizรฉs the possessor; the Dative the fact of possession: as, liber est meus, the book is mine (and no oneโs else); est mihi liber, J have a book (among other things). This is the usual form to denote simple possession ; habeo, J have, generally signifying hold, often with some secondary meaning: as,
legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion which he had with him. , . domitas habere libidines (De Or.), to keep the passions under. a. Compounds of esse take the dative (excepting abesse and posse; for other compounds, see above, 2, d).
_ 6. After nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is usu- ally put in the dative by a kind of apposition with the person: as,
puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), ยขhe doy was called Egerius from his poverty.
cui Africano fuit cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose surname was Africanus.
But the name may be in apposition with nomen; or in the genitive โ(ยง 50, 1,f) > as, cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 52), [a fount] called Arethusa. nomen Mercuri est mihi (Plaut. Am.), my zame ts Mercury. 4. Dative of Agency. The dative is used, after some passive forms, to denote the agent: viz.
a. Regularly with the Gerund or Gerundive, to denote the
person on whom the necessity rests: as, hzc vobis provincia est defendenda (Man. 6), ยขhis province is Jor you to defend [to be defended by you}. mihi est pugnandum, J have to fight [i.e., the need of fighting is mine; compare mzhi est liber].
6. The dative is often used after perfect participles, especially
when used in an adjective sense, โ rarely after other parts of the ;
verb: as,
mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Rull. i. 8), 7 Aave deliber- ated and resolved.
oratori omnia quesita esse debent (De Or. iii. 14), ax orator should search everything.
acceptus mihi, acceptable to me.
c. By the poets and later writers it is used in this way after almost any passive verb: as, โs neque cernitur ulli (/ยฃn. i. 440), and is seen by none.
felix est dicta sorori (Fast. ili.), she was called happy by her sister. | oe
Oy.
128 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [S1: 4, 5, 6.
Remarx.โ The dative is regularly used after the passive of video (usually to be rendered seem) : as, videtur mihi, ยขยข seems (or seems good) to me.
5. Dative of Service. The dative is used to denote the purpose or end; often with another dative of the person or thing affected: as,
reipublice cladi sunt (Jug. 85), ยขhey are ruin to the State.
rati sese dis immortalibus cure esse (id. 75), thinking them- selves to be the special care of the gods.
magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), 2 was of great service to our men.
tertiam aciem nostris subsidio misit (id.), he sent the third line as a reltef to our men.
omnia deerant que ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. 29), a/Z things were wanting which were of use for repairing the ships.
Remark. โ In this use the dative is nearly equivalent to a noun in apposition with the subject or object of the verb. It is common with the words cordi, a delight (lit. to the heart); dono, a gift; emolumento, a gain; usui, an advantage; vitio, a fault. The indeclinable adjective frugi is properly a dative of service.
6. Dative of Nearness, &c. The dative is used after Adjectives and Adverbs, to denote that to which the given quality is directed, or for which it exists.
Such are especially words of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites: as,
nihil est tam nature aptum (Lel. 5), xzothing is so fitted to nature.
carus omnibus exspectatusque venies (F. xvi. 7), you will come loved and longed for by all.
locum divine nature eternitatique contrarium (Cat. M. 21), a point opposed to the divine nature and eternity.
pee difficile amanti puto (Or. 10), / ยขhink nothing hard toa over.
ar quar pugne aptius (id. 13), fitter for a procession than a battle.
consentaneum tempori et persone (id. 22), adapted to the time and the party.
rebus ipsis par et zqualis oratio (id. 36), @ speech egual and level with the subject.
Also, in poetic and colloquial use, idem, the same: as, in eadem arma nobis (Cic.), zo the same arms with us.
a. Adjectives of Usefulness or Fitness take oftener the accusa- tive with ad, but sometimes the dative: as,
51:6,7-] | DATIVE. 129
aptus ad rem militarem, 7 for a soldier's duty.
locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 20), a place fitter for lying-in-
ad amicitiam idoneus (Lel. 17), apt to friendship. | wade.
castris idoneum locum deligit (B. G. vi. 10), he selects a suit- able camping-ground.
b. Adjectives and nouns of inclination may take the accusative with in or erga: as, comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), Aรฉnd to his wife.
divina bonitas erga homines (N.D. ii. 23), ยขhe divine goodness towards men.
ec. The following may take also the possessive genitive: โ aequalis, affinis, amicus, cognatus, communis, consanguin- eus, dispar, familiaris, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, proprius, superstes (see p. 118).
Remark. โ After similis, like, with early writers, the genitive
is more usual ; Cicero uses the genitive of persons, and the genitive or dative of things.
d. The following take the accusative: โpropior, proximus (sometimes), propius, proxime (more commonly) โas if preposi- tions, like prope.
รฉโฌ. Verbal nouns take (rarely) the dative, like the verbs from which they are derived: as, :
invidia consuli (Sall.), 2/-w7ll against the consul. ministri sceleribus (Tac.), servants of crime. obtemperatio legibus (Leg. i. 15), obedience to the laws. sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. ili. 54), az answer to himself.
7. Dative of Reference. The dative is often required not by any particular word, but by the general meaning of the sentence (dativus commodi et incommodi).
Nore.โJIn these cases there may be only one word in the sen- tence; but they are distinguished by the fact that the meaning of the verb is complete without the dative, while in the preceding cases it is required to complete the sense of some particular word.
tibi aras (Pl. Merc. i. 1), you plough for yourself.
non solum nobis divites esse volumus sed liberis (Off. iii. 15), it is not for ourselves alone but for our children that we * would be rich.
res tuas tibi habe (formula of divorce), keep your goods.
laudavit mihi fratrem, se praised my brother [out of regard for me; Jaudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive].
6*
130 _ CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [Si: 7.
a. The dative of reference is often used instead of the posses- Sive genitive to qualify the whole idea rather than a single word :
iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 20), Zo block the march of the Carthaginians even with thetr bodies.
se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. vi. 33), he put himself in sight of the sailors.
versatur mihi ante oculos (id. 47), zยข comes before my eyes.
3 b. The dative of reference is used in relations of direction, answering to the English as you go in (on the right, in the front, &c.): as,
oppidum primum Thessaliz venientibus ab Epiro (B. C. iii. 80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus.
leva parte sinum intrantibus (Liv. xxxvi. 26), on the left as you sail up the gulf.
c. The dative of reference is used, rarely (by a Greek idiom), with the participle of volo or nolo, and similar words: as,
ut quibusque bellum invitis aut volentibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as they might receive the war reluctantly or gladly.
ut militibus labos volentibus esset (Jug. 100), thai the soldiers might assume the task willingly.
d. Ethical Dative. The dative of the personal pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person referred to (dativus ethicus: compare โโTll rhyme you so eight years to- gether.โโ As you Like it.): as,
quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), pray what ts Celsus doing ?
at tibi repente venit mihi Cominius (F. ix. 2), dut, look you, of a sudden comes to me Cominius.
hem tibi talentum argenti (Pl. Trin. v. 1), hark ye, a talent of silver.
quid tibi vis? what would you have?
avaritia senilis quid sibi velit non intelligo (Cat. M. 18), Z do not understand what an old manโs avarice means. 7
Remark.โ To express FoRโ meaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf of โthe ablative with pro must be used, not the dative: as,
pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2), to die for oneโs country.
pro rege, lege, grege (prov.), for king, law, people.
ego ibo pro te (Pl. Most.), 2 will go instead of you.
non pro me sed contra me (De Or. iii. 20), zot for me but against me.
S52: 1.] ACCUSATIVE. 131
โ 52. ACOUSATIVE.
The Accusative denotes that which is immediately affected by the action of a verb (Direct Object).
I. General Use. The Accusative is the case of the direct object of a transitive verb: as,
legationem suscepit, he undertook the embassy. Caesar vicit Pompeium, Cesar conquered Pompey.
Remark. โ The Object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its Subject in the Passive, and is put in the nomi- native: as,
legatio suscipitur, he embassy ts undertaken. Pompeius a Cesare victus est, Pompey was overcome by Cesar.
a. Many verbs which express Feeling, apparently intransitive, may take an accusative in Latin: as,
fidem supplicis erubuit (Virg.), he respected [blushed at] the- faith of a suppliant.
flebat mortuos vivosque, he weft the dead and living.
meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest.69), ยขhkey grieved [at] my calamity and sorrow.
horreo conscientiam (Fin. i. 16), Z shudder at conscience.
Such verbs may accordingly be used in the passive: as,
ridetur ab omni conventu (Hor.), he zs laughed [at] by the whole assembly. b. Cognate Accusative. A neuter verb often takes an ac- cusative of kindred meaning, almost always modified by an adjec- tive, or in some other manner (Accusative of Effect): as,
vivere eam vitam (Cic.), fo live that kind of life.
ztatem tertiam vivebat, ke was living his third age. Similarly, in such phrases as vincere judicium, to gain oneโs case at court, and in poetic use: as,
saltare Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. v. 1), to dance the Cyclops. Bacchanalia vivere (Juv. ii. 2), ยขo deve in revels.
c- Verbs of taste, smell, &c., take an accusative of the qual- ity: as,
vinum redolens (Cic.), smelling of wine. herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), the honey tastes of grass.
132 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [52: 1, 2.
d. Verbs of motion, and a few others, compounded with prep- ositions, especially compounds of circum and trans, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative: as,
mortem obire, zo de. !
consulatum ineunt (Livy iii. 6), โhey assume the consulship.
neminem conveni (Fam. ix. 14), / met no one. i
tectum subire, fo exter [go under] @ place of shelter.
colloquium haud abnuit (Livy xxx. 29), he did not refuse the
interview. :
si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if ke should go to the island.
cives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 8), the citizens who
throng about the senate.
e. Constructio Praegnans. The accusative is used in certain phrases constructively, the real object of the verb being something understood: as,
coire societatem, Zo [go together and] form an alliance. __
ferire foedus, ยขo strike a treaty [i.e. to sanction by striking
down the victim].
mare navigare, Zo sail the sea [i.e. to sail a ship upon the sea].
f. The accusative is used after the Impersonals decet, it be- comes ; delectat, juvat, it delights; oportet, it behooves ; fallit, it deceives ; fugit, praeterit, it escapes: as,
te non preteriit (Fam. i. 8), 7ยข has not escaped your notice.
(For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see ยง 50, 4, ยข.) 2. Two Accusatives. Several classes of verbs, besides { the direct object, take another accusative, either in apposition
โor as a secondary object.
choosing, &c. (See ยง 46.)
i a. The accusative is used in apposition after verbs of naming, b. A second accusative is sometimes used after transitive verbs
Fi compounded with prepositions: as,
Hiberum copias trajecit (Liv. xxi. 23), ke threw his forces across the Ebro.
But with these verbs the preposition is oftener repeated.
c- Verbs of asking and teaching govern two accusatives, either of which may be regarded as the direct object of the action: as,
hoc vos doceo (Cic.), Z teach you this. hoc te vehementer rogo (id.), ยขhis J urgently beg of you.
Remark. โ The accusative of the Thing may remain with the passive of verbs of teaching, also rogo. But generally with verbs of asking, the Thing becomes subject-nom., while the Person asked is put in the ablative with a preposition. The preposition is
52:.ยฐ3, 4.) | ACCUSATIVE. 133
always used, to denote the person after peto, postulo (ab), quaero (ex or de): as,
pacem ab Romanis petere (Czs.), fo beg peace of the Romans. d. The transitive celo, conceal, and the usually neuter lateo, lie hid, take the accusative of the person: as, hoc me celavit, ke hid this from me. latet plerosque (Plin.), zยข zs hid from most. 3. Adverbial Accusative. The accusative is used ad- verbially, or for specification. This is found โ a. With many verbs usually intransitive, which take a neuter pronoun or adjective in the accusative: as,
quid moror, why do J delay ?
pauca milites hortatus (Sall.), having briefly exhorted the men. duloe loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22), sweetly speaking.
acerba tuens (/En. ix. 793), looking cruelly.
torvum clamat (id. vii. 599), 4e cries harshly.
idem gloriari, Zo doast the same thing.
Nore. โ Many of these are cognate accusatives.
6. In a few adverbial phrases, such as id temporis, at that time; meam vicem, on my part; quod si, but (as to which) if.
c- In the so-called synecdochical or Greek accusative, used by the poets to denote the part affected: as,
caput nectentur (Virg.), thetr head shall be bound [they shall
be bound about the head].
The part.is strictly in apposition with the whole, and remains (as above) after the passive.
REmarRK. โ The accusative after passive verbs used reflexively is sometimes wrongly referred to this construction: as,
inutile ferrum cingitur (Virg.), ze girds on the useless steel.
4. Special Uses. Peculiar uses are the following : โ
a. The accusative is used in Exclamations: as,
O fortunatam rempublicam (Cic.), O fortunate republic! O me miserum! Ak wretched me!
6. The subject of the Infinitive Mood is in the accusative. ~ This is especially frequent after words of knowing, thinking, and telling (verba sentiendi et declarandi, ยง 67, 1. In its origin, the accusative is strictly the Object of the leading verb).
c- Time how long, and Distance how far, are in the accusative. (See ยง 55.) For the Accusative with Prepositions, see ยง 56.
134 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [53; 54,
53. VoOcATIVE.
The Vocative is the form of direct Address: as,
Tiberine pater, te sancte precor (Liv. ii. 103), O futher Tiber! thee, holy one, I pray.
Nore. โ The Vocative can hardly be called a case, as it properly has no case termination, and forms no part of the sentence.
a. Sometimes the nominative of a noun is used instead of the vocative, in apposition with the subject of the Imperative: as,
audi tu, populus Albanus (id. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba.
b. Sometimes the vocative of an adjective is used instead of the nominative, where the verb is of the second person: as,
censorem trabeate salutas (Pers.), robed you salute the censor.
So in the phrase,
macte [= magne, root MAG] virtute esto (Hor.), de exlarged in manliness | bravo, well done].
54, ABLATIVE.
The Ablative is used to denote the relations ex- pressed in English by the prepositions from, in, at, with, by.
Notr.โ The Ablative form contains three distinct cases, โthe ablative proper, expressing the relation From; the locative, in; and the instrumental, witH or By. This confusion has arisen partly
' from phonetic decay, by which the cases have become identical in form, and partly from the development by which they have ap- _ proached one another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the like _ forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in e of the fifth declension, and the loss of the original d in the ablative ; and, for the second, the phrases a parte dextra, on the right; quam ob causam, FROM which cause; ad famam, at (in consequence of) the report.
The relation of From includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison; that of 1N or At, place, time, circumstance; that of WITH or BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price. It is probable that, originally, the idea of accompaniment had a separate case, which became confounded with the ixstrumental before the Latin was senarated from the kindred tongues.
4: b) ABLATIVE. 135
1. Ablative of Separation. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, are followed by the ablative: as,
levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 19), we are relieved from superstition, freed from fear of death.
oculis se privavit (id. v. 29), ke deprived himself of eyes.
consilio et auctoritate orbari (Cat. M. 6), zo de bereft of counsel and authority.
legibus solutus, relieved from the obligation of laws. .
ea philosophia quz spoliat nos judicio, privat approbatione, omnibus orbat sensibus (Acad. ii. 19), that philosophy which despoils us of judgment, deprives of approval, bereaves of every sense.
omni Gallia interdicit Romanos (B. G. i. 46), e [Ariovistus | bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul.
ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Vell. Pat. ii. 45), ke ts debarred the use of fire and water.
[cives] calamitate prohibere (Manil. 7), to keep the citizens Srom ruin.
carere febri (Fam. xvi. 16), to be free from fever.
voluptatibus carere (Cat. M. 3), Zo lack enjoyments.
non egeo medicina (Lel. 3), ยฃ want no physic.
magno me metu liberabis (Cat. i. 5), you will relieve me of great fear.
Ephorus calcaribus eget (Quint.), Ephorus needs the spur.
a. Compounds of a, ab, de, ex, take the ablative when used figuratively ; but in their literal meaning, implying motion, they usually follow the rules of place from which (see ยง 55, 3): as,
conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt.
exsolvere se occupationibus (Fam. vii. 1), to get clear of occu- pation.
prius quam ea cura decederet patribus (Liv. ix. 29), before that anxiety left the fathers.
desine communibus locis (Ac. ii. 25), guzt commonplaces.
abire magistratu, Zo leave the office.
abscedere incepto, fo relinguish the undertaking.
abstinere injuria, fo refrain from wrong.
exire ere alieno, fo get out of debt.
b. More rarely, the ablative is used after verbs without a prep- dsition to denote the place from which: as,
cessisset patria (Mil. 25), he would have left his country. loco movere (Liv. i. 35), to move from tts place.
patria pellere, fo drive out of the country.
Gallia arcere (Phil. v. 13), to keep out of Gaul.
manu mittere, Zo emancipate [let go from the hand].
136 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 1, 2.
/\ @ยซ Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the โ โข ablative : as,
liber cura et angore (Fin. i. 15), free from care and anguish. vacuos curis (ib. ii. 14), vod of care.
urbs nuda presidio (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence. immunis militia (Liv. i. 43), free of military service.
plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 3), the Beople deprived of tribunes.
d. Opus and usus signifying need (with esse) are followed by the ablative (often by the ablative of the perfect participle, with or without a noun): as,
magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii.2), ยขhere 7s need of magistrates.
curatore usus est (id. 4,โ chiefly ante-classical), there is need of a manager.
properato opus esset (Mil. 19), ยขhere were need of haste.
ut opuโst facto (Ter. Heaut.), as there is need to do.
RemMarK. โ The nominative is often used with opus in the predicate: as,
os
multi opus sunt boves (Varro R.R.i.18), there 7s need of many cattle.
dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6), we need a chief and adviser.
e. Egeo and indigeo are often followed by the genitive: as,
ne quis auxili egeat (B.G. vi. 11), dest any require aid.
quz ad consolandum majoris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis virtutis indigent (Fam. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for comfort need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage.
Remark. โ With all words of separation and want, the poets frequently, by a Greek idiom, use the genitive (see ยง 50, 4, e): as,
desine mollium tandem querelarum (Hor. Od. ii. 9), cease at length from weak complaints.
abstineto irarum (id. iii. 27), abstain from wrath.
operum solutis (id. 17), free from toils.
2. Ablative of Source. The ablative is used to denote the source from which anything is derived, or the material of which it consists.
\ a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the . ablative. Such participles are natus, satus, editus, genitus, ยฃ ortus: as, Jove natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 22), son of Fupiter and Maza. ortus equestri loco (Leg. Agr. i. 9), born of equestrian rank.
edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. 1), descendant of kings. quo sanguine cretus (En. ii. 74), born of what blood.
54: 2, 3.] ABLATIVE. 137
Remark. โ A spesiosizon (ab, de, ex) is usually expressed with the name of the mother, and with that of distant ancestors.
b. Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative: as,
desideravit C. Felginatem Placentiรฉ, A. Graninm Puteolis (B. C. iii. 71), he lost C. F. of Placentia, A. G. of Puteoli.
ce. The ablative is used with constare and similar verbs, to denote material (but with other verbs a preposition is generally used, except by the poets): as,
animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 8), we consist of soul and body.
Notre.โ The ablative with consistere and contineri is lJocative (see below, 10).
dad. The ablative of material is used with facere, fieri, and similar words: as,
quid hoc homine facias (Verr. ii. 16), What are you going to do with this man? | Or, de hoc homine.]
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), what will become of my dear Tullia ?
quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 64), what will happen to you ?
3. Ablative of Cause. The ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to express the cause.
~
Nore. โ The cause, in the Ablative, is considered as source, as is shown by the use of ab, de, ex; while with ad, ob, the idea of cause arises from nearness. But occasionally it is difficult to distinguish be- tween cause and means (which is instrumental) or circumstance (either locative or instrumental).
_nimio gaudio pzne desipiebam (Fam. i. 13), 7 was almost a fool with excess of joy. negligentia plectimur (Lel. 22), we are chastised for negligence. cecus avaritia (Liv. v. 51), dlind with avarice. ; gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fam. i. 13), ยขke pilot's skill is praised as service not as skill.
a. The ablative is used with the adjectives dignus, indignus, and with the verbs dignor, laboro (also with ex), exsilio, exsulto, triumpho, lacrimo, ardeo.
vir patre, avo, majoribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 10), @ maz most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.
doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), J am sorry that you suffer with other ills.
ex zre alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt.
exsultare letitid ac triumphare gaudio ccepit (Clu. 5), she began to exult in gladness, and triumph in oy.
138 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 3, 4, 5.
b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative alone ; the object exciting the emotion often by ob or propter with the accusative: as,
non ob predam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), sot for
booty or through lust of plunder.
c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used with a genitive preceding, or with a possessive in agreement: as,
eA causA, on account of this; med causa, for my sake.
et ipsorum et reipublice causa (Manil. 2), for their own sake
and the republicโs. sui purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves.
With possessives the use of gratia in this sense is rare.
4. Ablative of Agent. The voluntary agent after a pas- sive verb is put in the ablative with ab (see ยง 56, 4): as, laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. Sat. i. 2), he ts raised by these, blamed by those. ab animo tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc.i. 22), what- ever ts done by your soul is done by yourself. a. This construction is sometimes used after neuter verbs hav- ing a passive sense: as, - perire ab hoste, zo de slain by an enemy.
b. The agent, considered as instrument or means, is expressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or posses- Sive: as, |
per Antiochum (Liv.), dy means of Antiochus. mea vpera (Cic.), dy my means.
So per vim, as well as vi (B. G. i. 14), by force.
5. Ablative of Comparison. The Comparative degree is followed by the ablative (signifying THAN): as,
quis me beatior (Tusc. i. 4), who more blest than I? quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 2), what more burdened than we tuo?
| Note.โ Here the object of comparison is the starting-point from | which we reckon, as itself possessing the quality in some degree. That _ this is the true explanation is shown by the ablative in Sanskrit, and the genitive in Greek. a. Quam with the same case as the adjective may also be used, and must regularly be used when the adjective is not either nomi- native or accusative. But the puets sometimes use the ablative
even then: as,
โ S
x
% }
; SN \
54: 5, 6.] ABLATIVE. 139
pane egeo jam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. i. 10), Zwant bread better than honey-cakes.
ReMarK. โ Quam is never used in this construction with rela- tive pronouns having a definite antecedent.
b. Particularly the idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito, dicto, aequo, credibili, and justo, are used instead of a clause: as,
celerius opinione (Fam. iv. 23), faster than one would think. amnis solito citatior (Liv. xxii. 19), @ stream swifter than its wont.
ยข- Plus, minus, amplius, longius, are often used with words of measure or number without affecting their case (being in a kind of apposition) : as,
plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), move than 700 were taken.
plus tertia parte interfecta (Cxs.), more than a third part being
slain.
spatium non amplius sexcentorum pedum (id.), @ space of not
more than 600 feet.
Nore. โ Alius is used by the poets with the ablative, perhaps in imitation of the Greek ; but the construction is found also in Sanskrit, and is probably original: as, alium sapienti bonoque (Hor. Ep. i. 16). Under comparatives belong the adverbs antea, antidea, postilla, postea, preeterea, earlier than this, &c. (see ยง 56, 3).
[For Ablative of Difference, see below, 6, e.]
6. Ablative of Means. The ablative is used to denote accompaniment, means, or instrument: as,
vultu Milonis perterritus (Mil. 15), scared by the face of Milo.
animum appellat novo nomine (Tusc. i. 10), he calls the mind by a new name.
probabilia conjectura sequens (id. 9), following probabilities by conjecture.
excultus doctrina (id. 2), thoroughly trained in learning.
fidibus canere (id.), ยขo sing to the lyre.
Fauno immolare agna (Hor. Od. i. 4), Zo sacrifice to Faunus with a ewe-lamb.
pol pudere quam pigere przstat totidem literis (Plaut. Trin. 345), dy Pollux better shame than blame, although the letters count the same (lit. with as many letters].
a- The ablative of accompaniment regularly takes cum (except sometimes in military phrases, and a few isolated expressions, especially in the early writers): as,
cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgressi (B. G. ii. 19), having crossed the river with the slingers and archers. subsequebatur omnibus copiis (ib.), Ze followed close with all
his forces. [out. hoc presidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 34), wth this convoy he sit
140 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 6.
RemarK.โ Misceo and jungo, with their compounds, may take the ablative of accompaniment, without cum, or sometimes the dative.
b. Words of contention require cum (but often take the dative in poetry): as, armis cum hoste certare (Cic.), to fight with the enemy tn arms.
est mihi tecum certamen (id.), 7 Aave a controversy with you. solus tibicertat Amyntas (Ecl. v.8), Amyntas alone vies with you.
c- The ablative of means is used with words of filling, abound- ing, and the like: as,
Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Univ. 3), God has filled the world with all good things.
dialecticis imbutus (โTusc. i. 7), ยขรฉnuctured with logic.
circumfusi caligine (id. 19), overspread with darkuess.
opimus preda (Verr. i. 50), rich with spoil.
vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sext. 10), @ life full and crowded with delights.
Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. Sat. i. 5), Forum Appi
crammed with bargemen.
Remark. โ These verbs and adjectives take the genitive in the poets by a Greek idiom: as,
terra scatet ferarum (Lucr. v. 41), the land abounds in wild creatures.
explere ultricis flammez (/En. ii. 586), fll with avenging flame. Compleo, impleo, and plenus, often take the genitive in prose.
_ @. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with sg of their compounds, govern the ablative: as, cs utar vestra benignitate (Cic.), Z will avail myself of your kindness. Numide plerumque lacte et ferinรฉ carne vescebantur (Jug. 88), the Numidians fed mostly on milk and game.
Potior also takes the genitive, as always in the phrase potiri rerum, to get the power. In early Latin, the accusative is sometimes found with these verbs.
e. The ablative is used with comparatives and words implying comparison, to denote the degree of difference: as,
duobus milibus plures, more numerous by 2000. quinque milibus passuum distat (Liv.), zยข 7s five milse distant.
Remark, โ This use is especially frequent with the ablatives โฌo0...quo; quanto... tanto (see ยง 22, ยข): as,
quo minus cupiditatis eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), he less greed the more weight.
54: 7, 8.] | ABLATIVE. 141
% Ablative of Quality. โThe ablative is used, with an adjective or limiting genitive, to denote manner and quality: as,
animo meliore, of better mind.
more hominum, after the manner of men.
non quero quanta memoria fuisse dicatur (Tusce. i. 24), Z do
not ask how great a memory he ts said to have had.
a. The ablative of description (with adjectives) is always used to denote physical characteristics (other qualities may be in the genitive, ยง 50, 1, g) : as,
vultu sereno, of calm face.
capillo sunt promisso (B.G., v. 14), they have long hanging locks.
b. The ablative of manner more commonly takes cum, unless it has a modifying adjective: as,
minus cum cura (Plaut.), less carefully.
hoc onus feram studio et industria (Rosc. Am. 4), Z will bear
this burden with pains and diligence. But words of manner, modo, ratione, via, &c.โwith such ex- pressions as silentio, in silence, injuria, wrongfully โ hardly ever have cum. Verbs of exchanging may take cum.
8. Ablative of Price. The price of a thing (or that which is given in exchange) is put in the ablative: as,
agrum vendidit sestertiim sex milibus, he sold the field for
6000 sesterces.
exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q.C. iii. 8), he exchanged his
native land for exile.
a. Certain genitives of Quantity are used to denote indefinite value. Such genitives are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris: as,
est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 7), zยข 7s worth my while. mea magni interest, zt zs of great consequence to me.
Remark. โ With verbs of buying and selling, the ablative of price (magno, &c.) must be used, except the oeede genitives : tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris.
6. The genitive of certain nouns is used in the same way: as, non flocci faciunt (Pl. Trin.), they care not a straw.
The genitives so used are nihili, nothing ; assis, a farthing; flocci, a lock of wool, and a few others (see ยง 50, 1, 7).
[For the Ablative of Penalty, see ยง 50, 4, b, Rem.]
142 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 9, Io.
_| 9% Ablative of Specification. The ablative denotes f that in respect to which anything is said to be or be done, or C in accordance with which anything happens: as,
virtute precedunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel tu courage.
incluta bello moenia (En. ii. 24), walls famous in war.
claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages.), lame of one foot.
lingua hesitantes, voce absoni (DeOr. i.), hesetating in speech, harsh in voice.
tanta caritas patriz est, ut eam non sensu nostro sed salute ipsius metiamur (Tusc. i. 37), such zs our love of country, that we measure it not by our own feeling, but by her own welfare.
10. Locative Ablative. The ablative: of the place where is retained in many idiomatic expressions: as,
jure peritus, skilled in law [compare Sanskrit usages].
pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 40), we are in suspense of mind.
socius periculis vobiscum adero (Jug. 85), JZ wll be present with you a companion in dangers.
premit altum corde dolorem (in. i. 209), ke keeps down the pain deep in his heart.
confertรฉ legione (B. G. iv. 33), as they were in close order.
pedibus preeliantur (id. 34), they fight on foot.
quibus rebus (id. 35), wader these circumstances.
a. The verbs acquiesco, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, nitor, sto, maneo, fido (confido), consisto, contineor, โ with the verbals fretus, contentus, laetus,โare followed by the ablative (for facio, fio, see 2, d): as,
spe niti (Att. iii. 9), Zo rely on hope.
prudentia fidens (Off. i. 33), ยขrusting in prudence. letari bonis rebus (Lel. 13), Zo rejoice in good things.
Remark. โ The above verbs also take the preposition in.
6. Ablative Absolute. A noun or pronoun, with a parti- ciple, is put in the ablative, to define the time or circumstances of an action (compare ยง 72). An adjective, or another noun, may take the place of the participle.
vocatis ad se undique mercatoribus (B. G. iv. 20), Aaving called to him the traders from all quarters.
exigua parte statis reliqua (id.), when but a small part of the summer was left.
M. Messala et M. Pisone consulibus (id. i. 2), zz the consulship of Messala and Piso.
Nore. โ In this use the noun is รฉquivalent to the Subject, and the participle to the Predicate, of a subordinate clause ; and so they should
54: 10; 55.] TIME AND PLACE. 143
generally be translated. But, as the copula esse has no participle in Latin, a noun or adjective is often found alone as predicate, while the participle is found, in this construction, in Sanskrit and Greek. The noun originally denotes circumstance, considered as place or time (loca- tive); then, being modified by a participle, it becomes fused with it into a single idea, equivalent to that contained in a subordinate clause (compare ab urbe condita, lit. from the city built).
ec. Sometimes a participle or adjective (under the construction of the ablative absolute) is put in agreement with a phrase or clause, or is used adverbially : as,
incerto quid peterent, szuce ยขยขt was uncertain what they sought.
auspicato (Tac. H.i. 84), after taking the auspices | the auspices having been taken].
consulto et cogitato (Off i. 8), on purpose and with reflection [the matter having been deliberated and thought on].
sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), wader a clear sky.
d. The ablative is often used to denote the place where, or the time when (see ยง 55, 1; 3, f).
[For the government of the Ablative by Prepositions, see ยง 56.]
55. Tre AND PLACE.
1. Time. Time when (or within which) is put in the Ablative; time how long in the Accusative: as,
constituta die, onโ the set day.
quota hora? at what o'clock ?
tribus proxumis annis (Jug. 11), wthinu the last three years.
dies continuos triginta, for a month together.
paucis post diebus (or paucos post dies), after a few days. [Here diebus is the ablative of d7ference (ยง 54, 6, e), and post an adverb (ยง 56, 2, dZ).]
Nore. โ The ablative of time is locative ; the accusative is the same as that of extent of spuce (see below, 3, d).
a. The use of a preposition gives greater precision and clear- ness: as,
in diebus proximis decem (Sall.), within the next ten days. ludi per decem dies (Cat. iii. 8), games lasting ten days. b. The ablative is rarely used to express duration of time: as,
milites quinque horis preelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men had sustained the fight five hours. [This use is locative.]
ae i
4S
&
{
144 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [55: 2, 3.
2. Space. Extent of space is put in the Accusative: as,
fossas quindecim pedes latas (B.G. vil. 72), trenches 15 feet broad.
Norse. โ This accusative is the object through or over which the action takes place, and is kindred with the accusative of the end of motion.
a. Measure is often expressed as a quality by the Genitive (ยง 50, 1, A): as, ,
vallo pedum duodecim (B.G. ii. 30), a @ rampart of 12 feel
[in height].
b. Distance is put in the Accusative (as extent of space), or Ablative (as degree of difference): as,
quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), #ยข รฉs distant five daysโ
march.
triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), ยขhirty
miles below that place.
tanto spatio secuti (B. G. iv. 35), Aaving followed over so much
ground.
3. Place. To express relations of Place, prepositions are necessary, except with the names of Towns and small โIslands; except also with domus, rus, and a few other words
in special relations.
Nortr. โ Originally these relations were expressed with all. words
_ by the cases alone, โthe Accusative denoting the end of motion as in a certain sense the object of the action; and the Ablative (in its proper
meaning of separation) denoting the place from which. For the place where there was a special case, the Locative, the form of which was partially retained and partially merged in the Ablative (see Note,
_p. 184). The Shel goat (originally Adverbs) were added to define i
_ more exactly the
rection of the motion, and by long usage at length became necessary, except in the cases given above.
) a. The name of the place from which is in the Ablative: as,
t Roma profectus, having set out from Rome. rure reversus, having returned from the country.
} 6. The name of the place to which is in the Accusative: as,
ev Romam rediit, ke returned to Rome. : rus ibo, J shall go into the country. : Remark. โ The old constructionโขis retained in the phrases exsequias ire, to attend a funeral; infitias ire, to make denial ; pessum ire, fo go to ruin; pessum dare, to undo; venum dare (vendere), to set to sale; venum ire, fo be set to sale; foras, out of doors; and the Supine in um (see ยง 74, 1).
55:3, 4.] TIME AND PLACE. 145
\ ยขโฌ. The name of the place where takes the Locative form, which in the first and second declensions singular is the same as the genitive ; in the plural, and in the third declension, the same as the dative: as, .
Romae, at Rome ; Corinthi, at Corinth ; Lanuvi, at Lanuvium ;
Karthagini, at Carthage; Athenis, at Athens; Curibus, at Cures.
Remark. โIn names of the third declension the ablative is often found, especially where the metre requires it in poetry: as,
Tibure vel Gabiis (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), at Tibur or Gabi.
d. The words domi (rarely domui), at home ; belli, militiae
< (in contrast to domi), abroad in military service; humi, on the
ground ; ruri, in the country; foris, out-of-doors ; terra marique,
by land and sea, are used like names of towns, without a prep- osition; also heri, vesperi, infelici arbori (Liv.).
e. A possessive, or alienus, may be used with domus in this construction ; but when it is modified in any other way, a preposi- tion is generally used: as,
domi sue (Mil. 7), aยข his own house. in M. Lecze domum (Cat. i. 4), to Lecaโs house.
f. The ablative is used without a preposition to denote theโ
place where, in many general wordsโas loco, parte โ regu- larly; frequently with nouns when qualified by adjectives (reg- ularly where totus is used); and in poetry in any case: as,
quibus loco positis (De Or. iii. 38), when these are put tn their places.
qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. 11), on the side where they were beaten.
se oppido tenet (id.), eeps himself within the town.
media urbe (Liv. i. 33), 2 the midst of the city.
tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 23), throughout Sicily.
litore curvo (En. iii. 16), on the bending shore.
Remark.โ To denote the neighborhood of a place (to, from, in the neighborhood), prepositions must be used.
4. The way by which is put in the Ablative (of instru- ment): as,
vid breviore equites premisi (Fam. x. 9), J sent forward the cavalry by a shorter road. ZEgeo mari trajecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way of the Eigean sea. 7
146 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [56: 1.
56. Use or PREPOSITIONS.
1. Prepositions govern either the Accusative or Ablative.
a. The following govern the Accusative : โad, adversus, ad- versum, ante, apud, circa, or circum, circiter, cis, citra, con- tra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, juxta, ob, penes, per, pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, trans, ultra, versus. ,
b. The following govern the Ablative: โa, ab, abs, absque, coram, cum, de, e, ex, prae, pro, sine, tenus.
c. In and sub take the Accusative when they denote motion ; when rest, the Ablative: as,
in contionem venit (Off. iii. 11), ke came into the meeting. dixit in contione (ib.), he said in the meeting.
sub jugum mittere (Czs.), to send under the yoke.
sub monte consedit (id.), he halted below the hill.
Remark. โ The verbs of placing, โ such as pono and its com- pounds (except impono), loco, statuo, &c., โ though implying motion, take in Latin the construction of the place in which: as,
* qui in sede ac domo collocavit (Parad. iii. 2), who put one into his place and home.
d. When it means concerning, super takes the Ablative ; other- wise the Accusative (unless in poetry): as,
hac super re (Cic.), concerning this thing. super culmina tecti (Virg.), above the house-top. | e. After subter, the Accusative is used, except sometimes in poetry: as, subter togam (Liv.), uuzder his mantle. subter litore (Catull.), delow the shore. f. In Dates, the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposi- tion; and the phrase itself may be governed by a preposition: as, is dies erat a.d. quintum kalendas Aprilis (B. G. i. 6), that day was the 5th hetove the calends of April [March 28].
in a.d. v. kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 3), to the 5th day before the calends of November (Oct. 28].
xv. kal. Sextilis, she 15th day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full form, gucuto decimo die ante.}
g.- Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Abla- tive: as,
Tauro tenus (Dej. 13), as far as Taurus. capulo tenus (En. v. 55), up รฉo the hilt.
S63: 3, 2,34; 45] PREPOSITIONS. 147
Remark. โTenus is found especially with the feminine of the adjective pronouns, in an adverbial sense: as,
hactenus, dztherto ; quatenus, so far as, &c.
Sometimes it takes the Genitive: as,
Corcyre tenus (Liv. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra.
2. Many words may be construed either as Prepositions or as Adverbs: thus โ
a. The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, usque โ also (less frequently) the adjectives propior and proximus โ may be followed by the Accusative: as, โ
pridie Nonas Junias (Cic.), tke day before the Nones of Fune (June 4). postridie ludos (id.), #hke day after the games.
b. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may take the Abla- tive: as, 3 palam populo (Liv.), zz the presence of the people. c. The adverb clam may take either case (dat. rare): as, clam matrem suam (Plaut.), wxbeknown to the mother. clam mihi (id.), zz secret from me. clam vobis (Ces.), without your knowledge.
d. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs. This is especially the case with ante and post, in relations of. time; adversus, contra (on the other hand), circiter, prope, and, in general, those ending in 4. Clam and versus are often ex- cluded from the list of Prepositions.
[For the use of prepositions in Composition, see ยง 42, 3.]
3. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply comparison are followed, like comparatives, by quam, โseveral words, or even clauses, sometimes coming between: as, |
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did he let him go until he gave a pledge.
post diem tertium quam dixerat (Man. 16), the third day after he said tt. [So octavo mense quam, Liv. xxi. 15.]
Such words are ante, prius, post, pridie, postridie.
4. The ablative, with a or ab, is regularly used after pas- sive verbs to denote the Agent, if a person, or if spoken of as a person (ยง 54, 4): as,
jussus a patre, didden by his father.
148 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [ST +17, Be
Remark. โ The ablative of the agent (which requires the prep- osition) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which stands by itself: as,
occisus gladio, slain by a sword; but, occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy. 5. The following prepositions sometimes follow their noun : โ ad, citra, circa, contra, inter, penes, propter, ultra, tenus; e, de, juxta.
[For the so-called Dative of the Agent, with the Gerundive, see $$ 51, 4,a. For prepositions connecting Nouns, see ยง 50, 3, R. ]
โ
III. Syntax of the Verb.
57. Use or Moops. (See ยง 24.)
The Moons of a Latin Verb are the Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive.
Norre.โ The Infinitive is not strictly a mood, being only the oblique case of a noun; but it is most conveniently treated along with the moods.
1. Indicative. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or questions ; and is used when no special construc- tion requires one of the others.
2. Subjunctive. The Subjunctive is used in special con- structions, both in dependent and independent clauses, viz. : โ
a. Independent Clauses. 1. In independent clauses, the subjunctive is used to denote an Exhortation or Command (hor- tatory subjunctive); a Wish (optative subjunctive); a Concession (concessive subjunctive); or a Doubtful Question (dubitative subjunctive).
2. It is also used to denote the conclusion of a Conditional sentence (apodosis), which is, grammatically, an independent clause, though logically depending on a condition expressed or implied (see ยงยง 59, 60).
6. Dependent Clauses. In dependent clauses, the subjunc- tive is used to denote a Purpose (ยง 64), or a Result (ยง 65). It
r
SF: 2,3.) USE OF MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 149
is used, idiomatically, in Temporal Clauses (ยง 62), in Indirect Discourse (ยง 67), in Indirect Questions (id.), and in Intermediate Clauses (ยง 66) ; also in Conditions future or contrary to fact.
[For Subjunctive after Particles of Comparison, see ยง 61.] [For the so-called Subjunctive of Cause, see ยง 63.]
Notr.โ The Present Subjunctive contains two distinct forms, โ the Subjunctive and Optative of the โ Indo-Europeanโ tongue. Both these forms had originally a future meaning; and from these future meanings all the uses of this mood in Latin are developed. The subjunctive proper was originally a Present, denoting continued action, which became Future in sense (compare conative present and present. for future, ยง 58, 2, b); and afterwards, in many uses, Imperative (com-. pare future for imperative). The optative contains, in composition, a past tense of the root 1 (whence eo, eit, go); so that it had a futurum an preterito meaning, which developed into a conditional future, and into an expression of wish and command; and, in Latin, lost its connection | with past time.
The other tenses of the Subjunctive are compounds formed (in Latin alone) to remedy the confusion of optative and subjunctive. The Subjunctive has, therefore, the uses of both the optative and subjunctive of the cognate languages. :
3. Hortatory Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used in the Present โless commonly in the Perfect โ to express a command or exhortation: as, |
hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these robbers.
aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 41), let him quaff or quit.
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundie (Off. i. 34), let them shun excess and cherish modesty.
Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 7), let Epicurus look to this.
his quoque de rebus pauca dicantur (Off. i. 35), of this, too, let a few words be said.
Note.โ The Perfect represents an action as complete in the future ; but in most cases it can hardly be distinguished from the Present.
a. The Second Person is used only of an indefinite subject, except in prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry: as,
injurias fortune, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas (Tusc. v. 41), the wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, you will leave behind by flight.
nihil ignoveris (Mur. 31), Aatdon nothing.
amicus populo Romano sis (Liv. xxvi. 50), de a friend to the Roman people. |
150 SYNTAX OF TIIE VERB. (57: 3,4
a b. In prohibitions, the Perfect is more common than the Pres- ent: as, :
hoc facito: hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 61), thou shalt do this: thou shalt not do that.
nec mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 7), do not say that to me.
ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), be not Lerrifed.
c. The hortatory subjunctive is used โ sometimes with modo, modo ne, tantum, tantum ne, or ne aloneโto denote a pro- viso (ยง 61, 3): as,
valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), ยข/ only the health be good.
ne illi sanguinem nostrum largiantur (Sall. Cat. 52), provided they be not lavish of our blood.
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), Arovided only he be not of brutish stock.
tantummodo Gneus noster ne Italiam relinquat (Q. F. iii. 9), if only Pompey will not forsake /taly.
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M.7), old men retain their mind if they only retain thetr zeal and diligence.
ad. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunc- tive denote an obligation in past time, โthe latter more clearly representing the time for the action as past: as,
moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post.), ke should have died you will say.
ne poposcisses (Att. ii. 1), you should not have asked.
potius diceret (Off. iii. 22), he should rather have said.
saltem aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 20), aยข least he should have taken something from the weight.
4. Optative Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used to denote a Wish, โthe Present, a wish conceived as possible ; the Imperfect, an unaccomplished one in the present; the Pluperfect, one unaccomplished in the pasรฉ: as,
ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may J live [as true as I live].
ne vivam si scio (id. iv.16), Zwsk J may not live if L know.
di te perduint (Deiot.), ยขhe gods confound thee!
valeant, valeant, cives mei; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 34), farewell (he says], my fellow-citizens; may they be secure Srom harm.
a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated: as,
male di tibi faxint (Plaut. Curc. 131), may the gods do thee a mischief.
57: 4, 5.] USE OF MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 151
b. The particles uti (ut), utinam, O si, often precede the Subjunctive of wish: as,
falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), Zwisk I may be a false prophet.
ut pereat positum rubigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. 1), may the un- used weapon perish with rust.
utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3), would you had seen me dead.
Note. โ In this use, the particle has no effect on the grammatical construction, except that O si is probably a Protasis.
c. Velim with the present subjunctive, and vellem with the imperfect or pluperfect โ with their compounds โ (strictly, con- ditional sentences with the wish in a dependent clause) are often used instead of a proper optative subjunctive: as,
de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit (Att. iv. 16), about Mendemus I wish it had been true; about the queen I hope tt may be.
nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10), 2 wish the time never had come.
5. Concessive Subjunctive. โThe subjunctive is used to express a concession, either with or without ut, quamvis, quamlibet, and similar words.
Remark. โ In this use, the Present refers to future or indefinite time; the Imperfect to present or past time, โ the concession being impliedly untrue; the Perfect to past time or completed future time; the Pluperfect to completed action in past time (usually untrue): as,
nemo is unquam fuit: ne fuerit (Or. 29), zhere never was such a one you will say: granted.
quamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 25), amzable as he may have been in keeping his friendships.
sit Scipio clarus, ornetur Africanus, erit profecto aliquid loci nostrz gloriz (Cat. iv. 10), be Scipio glorious, and Africanus honored, yet surely there will be some room for our fame.
dixerit hoc idem Epicurus ... non pugnem cum homine (Fin. v. 27), though Epicurus may have said the same, I would not contend with the man.
ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 5), granted that pain is not the greatest evil, at least tt ts an evil.
fuerit aliis: tibi quando esse ccepit (Verr. i. 41), suppose he was [so] to others, when did he begin to be to you ?
152 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 6, 7.
# 6. The Present, and rarely the Perfect Subjunctive, are used in questions implying doubt, indignation, or an impossi- bility of the thing being done (dubitative subjunctive) : as, _ sed quid faciamus (Att. viii. 23), but what can we do?
quid loquar plura (Pis. 32), why should I sav more ?
quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. il. 16), what are you to do with
this fellow ? 2 an ego exspectem dum tabelle diribeantur (Pis. 40), what,
shall I watt till the ballots are counted ? quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal
the flame ? The Imperfect denotes the same idea in past time: as,
an ego non venirem (Phil. ti. 2), what, should I not have come ? quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was I to say?
7% Imperative. The Imperative is used in Commands; also, by early writers and poets, in Prohibitions: as,
consulite vobis, prospicite patriz, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 2), have care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve your-
selves. [ much. nimium ne crede colori (Ecl. ii. 17), ยขrust not complexion over- ad me fac venias (Fam. xiv. 4), do come to me.
| @. Prohibitions are regularly (in classical Latin) expressed by ne with the second person singular of the Perfect Subjunctive ; by ยข noli with the Infinitive ; or by cave (colloquially fac ne) with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive: as, ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), de not frightened. noli putare (Brut. 33), do not suppose. cave faxis (Ter. Heaut. 187), do not do it. fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), pray attend to nothing else.
b. In early Latin, in poetry, and in general prohibitions, the Present Subjunctive is also used: as,
Albi ne doleas (Hor. Od. i. 33), grteve not, Albius. | denique isto bono utare dum adsit: cum absit ne requiras (Cat. "ig M. 10), 22 short, use this good while present ; when wanting, do not regret it.
Remark. โ The third person of the Imperative is antiquated or poetic.
ollis salus populi suprema lex esto (id.), the safety of the people shall be thetr first law.
justa imperia sunto, iisque cives modeste parento (Leg. iii. 3), let the commands be just, and let the citizens strictly obey hem.
57: 7; 8:3 USE OF MOODS: INFINITIVE. 153
c. The Future Imperative is used where there is a distinct reference to the future time: viz.
1. In connection with a future or future-perfect ;
2. With adverbs or other expressions of time ;
3. In general directions, as Precepts, Statutes, Edicts, and Wills: as,
cum valetudini consulueris, tum consulito navigationi (Fam. xvi. 4), when you have attended to your health, then look to your satling.
rei suze ergo ne quis legatus esto (Leg.), zo one shall be ambas- sador in his own affair.
Remark. โ The future form of the imperative is regularly used of scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider): as,
filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), Zearnu that I am blessed with a little boy.
sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro.
de palla memento, amabo (PI. Asin.), pray, dear, remember
the gown.
d. The Future is sometimes used for the imperative ; and quin (why not?) with the present indicative may have the force of an imperative: as,
si quid acciderit novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you well let
me know tf anything new happens. quin accipis? (Ter. Heaut. iv. 7), here, take it.
S$. Infinitive. The Infinitive denotes the action of the verb as an abstract noun, differing, however, from other abstract nouns in the followmg points:โ (1) It admits, in many cases, of the distinction of tense; (2) It is modified by adverbs and not by adjectives; (3) It governs the case of its verb; (4) It is only used in special constructions.
Nore. โ The Infinitive is properly the Dative case of an abstract noun, denoting Purpose, which has developed in Latin, in many cases,
into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. I's Subject is, strictly, the Object of some other verb, which has become
โโ*s eo
attached to it: as, jubeo te valere, lit., 7 command you for being well . (i.e. that you may be well); just as, in Purpose-clauses, the purpose ยฉ
becomes the object of command (compare Purpose Clauses, ยง 64).
a. Infinitive as Subject. The infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used as the Subject of a verb (or in predicate apposition), and, rarely, as the Object: as,
71* ae
154 . SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8.
nihil est aliud [hominem] bene et beate vivere, nisi honeste et recte vivere (Parad. i. 6), 20 live well and happily, is noth- ing else than to live honorably and rightly.
invidere non cadit in sapientem (Tusc. ili. 10), exvy does not belong to a wise man.
est humanitatis vestre...prohibere (Man. 7), ยขยข zs for your
humanity to hold safe, &c. :
nam istuc ipsum zoz esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i.6), for 1 think this very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. .
In this use, the infinitive is found chiefly with esse and impersonal verbs, โrarely with others.
b. The infinitive is used with many Impersonal verbs and ex- pressions, partly as subject and partly as complement (see Note below): as,
te abundare oportet przceptis (Off. i. 1), you must abound in maxims.
id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 7), this may be seen
_ first in poets.
reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Brut. 59), he found what needed to be said.
hec prescripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. i. 26), one who observes these precepts may live nobly.
proponis quam sit turpe me adesse (Att. ix. 2), you make it clear how base it is for me to be present. ,
c. Complementary Infinitive. The infinitive, without: a subject, is used with verbs which require another action of the
_same subject to complete their meaning. Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin,
continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like: as,
hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 10), this J can say.
mitto querere (Rosc. Am ), J omit to ask. [own presence. vereor laudare presentem (N. D.i. 21), 7 fear to praise in one's oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. 1), pray make haste to come.
Notr. โ The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these infinitives is admissible or conceivable; though the same verbs, in other senses, may take an infinitive with a subject.
d. The infinitive is used optionally with many verbs which also take a subjunctive clause (ยง 70): such are those signifying willing- ness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and the like. The subject is usually, though not always, omitted, when it is the same as that of the principal verb: as,
quos tueri debent deserunt (Off. i. 9), they forsake those whom they should protect.
Atticos volo imitari (Brut. 82), Z wish to imitate the Attics.
57: 8.] - USE. OF MOODS: INFINITIVE. 154
student excellere (Off. i. 32), chey aim to excel.
istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rosc. Am. 18), he had it tn mind to deprive him of the inheritance.
cupio me esse clementem [= cupio esse clemens] (Cat. i. 2), Lf desire to be merctful.
Some of these verbs โjubeo and veto regularly โ may take the infinitive with another subject: as,
signa inferri jubet (Liv. xlii. 59), ke orders the standards to be borne forward.
Nore. โ This construction, though in many cases different from the two preceding, shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of the uses is the infinitive strietly Subject or Object; but its meaning is developed from the original one of purpose. Hence the distinction between the uses is not always clearly marked.
รฉ. With Subject Accusative. The infinitive, with subject |
accusative, is regularly used after words of knowing, thinking, telling, and the like (verba sentiendi et declarandi, ยง 67, 1): as,
dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the
hill ts held by the enemy. Note.โ The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a finite verb in direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the eon except number and person (see ยง 67).
Remark. โ1. With verbs which govern the dative, the eee of the action may be in the dative. With licet regularly, and with others rarely, the predicate may also be in the dative: as,
nemini certare cum eo necesse fuit (Liv. xxi. 11), there wasโ
need for none to strive with him. non libet mihi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 23), Z have no desire to bewail life. [ gent. mihi negligenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17), Z must not be negli- -non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 11), ยขยข zs not necessary for all to speak standing. expedit bonas esse vobis (Ter. Heaut. ii. 4), ยขยข zs for your tnterest to be good.
So with the dativus commodi: as,
quid est tam secundum naturam quam senibus emori (Cat. M.
19), what is so according to nature as for old men to die? 2 When the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predi- cate (except after impersonals) takes the case of the main subject:
si esset in iis fides in quibus summa esse debebat (Fam. i. 1), if there were faith in those in whom it ought to be greatest.
So, by a Greek idiom, even in Indirect Discourse: as,
vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. a), a good and wise man says he is prepared, &c.
oe
156. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8.
sensit medios delapsus in hostes (En. ii. 377), he found himself Sallen amongst the foe.
f. In a few cases, the infinitive retains its original meaning of () purpose: viz.
1. With habeo, do, ministro, in isolated passages: as, | tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i.5), so much I have to promise.
2. After the adjectives paratus, suetus, and their compounds. id quod parati sunt facere (Quin. 2), which they are ready to do.
3. In poetry and later writers with any verb or adjective: as,
durus componere versus (Hor. Sat. i. 4), harsh in composing furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15), he rages to find thee. | verse.
cantari dignus (Ecl. v. 54), worthy to be sung. Q
Remark. โ Rarely, in poetry, the infinitive is used to denote result.
g- The infinitive, with subject-accusative, may be used in Ex- clamations (compare ยง 52, 4): as,
mene incepto desistere victam (4ยฃn.i.37), what! I desist beaten Jrom my purpose ?
te in tantas z2rumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), alas! that you should fall into such grief for me.
Norr.โ This construction is elliptical: that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Discourse, though no verb of Saying, &c., appears, or perhaps is thought of (compare the French dire que).
h. Historical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for the tenses of the Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the nominative: as,
tum Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sall. Cat. 21), then Cati- line promised abolition of debts (clean ledgers].
ego instare ut mihi responderet (Verr. ii. 77), J Dressed him to answer.
This usage is most frequent where many verbs are crowded together in rapid narrative: as,
pars cedere, alii insequi; neque signa neque ordines servare;
โ _ ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare;
arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque cives permixti; nihil
consilio neque imperio agi; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51),
a part give way, others press on; they hold netther to stan-
dards nor ranks; where danger overtook, there each would
stand and fight ; weapons, missiles, horses, men, foe and friend,
were mixed; nothing went by counsel or command; chance ruled all.
58: 152.] USE OF TENSES: INDICATIVE. 157
58. User or TENSEs.
. The Tenses are the Present, Imperfect, Future (of incomplete action), and the Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect (of completed action).
1. Tenses of the Indicative. The tenses of the In- dicative denote absolute time ; that is, present, past, or future, in reference to the Speaker.
2. Present. The Present denotes an action or state, as now existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite without reference to time: as,
agitur salus sociorum (Manil. 2), ยขhe safety of our allies is at stake. Senatus hec intellegit, consul videt, hic tamen vivit (Cat. i.1), the Senate knows this, the consul sees, yet this man lives.
nihil est victoria dulcius (Verr. vi. 26), zothing is sweeter than victory.
tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 9), you arrange a@ case, he arrays an army.
a. The present, with expressions of duration of time, denotes an action begun in the past but continuing in the present: as,
patimur jam multos annos (Verr. vi. 48), we suffer now these many Years.
anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 30), zz zs now eight years that this case has-been in hand.
6, Conative Present. The present sometimes denotes an action not completed at all, but only attempted: as,
Quintus frater Tusculanum venditat (Att. i. 14), my brother Quintus is trying to sell the place at Tusculum.
(So the present Infinitive and Participle.)
c. The present, especially in colloquial ecaeges is sometimes used for the future: as,
imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 5), shall we take a seat ?
ecquid me adjuvas? (Clu. 26), won't you give me a little help?
in jus voco te. noneo. non is? (Pl. As. 480), Z summon you to the court. Iwont go. You wont?
si reus condemnatur, desinent homines dicere his judiciis pecu- niam plurimum posse (Verr. i.2), 7f the prisoner ts convicted, men will no longer say that money ts the chief power tn the courts.
(See also under cum, antequam, dum ยง 62.)
158 . SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58:: 253.
d. Historical Present. The present in lively narrative is often used for the historical perfect: as,
affertur nuntius Syracusas; curritur ad pretorium ; Cleomenes, quamquam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet; includit se domi (Verr. vi. 35), the news ts brought to Syra- cuse; they run to head-quarters; Cleomenes, though it was night, does not venture to be abroad; he shuts himself up at home.
e. The present is regularly used with dum, while, though re- ferring to past time: as, hzc dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes jam ad Elori litus per- venerat (id.), while this is going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the coast at Elorum. But when the time referred to is contrasted with some other, the past tenses must be used: as, nec enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. M. 22), for even when I was with you, you did not see my soul. f. The present is regularly used of writers whose works are extant: as, Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusce. ii. 7), duยข Epicurus says such things. apud illum Ulysses lamentatur in vulnere (id. 21), zz him [Sophocles] Ulysses bewails over his wound.
_ &. Imperfect. The Imperfect denotes an action or con- dition continued or repeated in past time: as, hunc audiebant antea (Man. 5), they used to hear him before. - Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 30), Socrates thought so (habitually] and so he spoke [then].
C. Duilium redeuntem a cen4 senem szpe videbam (C.M. 13), 1 would often see Duilius, then old, coming home from dinner.
a. Hence the imperfect is used in descriptions: as,
erant: omnino itinera duo... mons altissimus impendebat (B.G.i 6), there were in all two ways...a very high moun- tain overhung. b. The imperfect is sometimes used in the sense of a pluperfect and imperfect combined (see above, 2, a): as, copias quas diu comparabant (Fam. 1. 13), the forces which they had long been getting ready. - C+ The imperfect sometimes denotes an action merely attempted, but never accomplished (compare conative present, 2, b): as,
โ58: 3,4, 5-] โ USE OF TENSES. 159
in exsilium eiciebam quem jam ingressum esse in bellum vide- bam (Cat. ii. 6), was 1 sending into exile one who I saw had already gone into war ? consules sedabant tumultus (Liv. iii. 15), the consuls busted themselves to calm the tumult. gi licitum esset veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), they were coming if it had been allowed.
d. The imperfect is sometimes used to express a certain sur- prise at the present discovery of a fact already existing: as,
O tu quoque hic aderas, Phormio (Ter. Ph. v. 6), O, you are here too, Phormio.
ehem pater mi, tu hic eras? (Pl. id. v. 7), what, you here, Sather ?
ah miser! quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27), unhappy boy, what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it].
e. The imperfect is often used in narration by the comic poets, where later writers would employ the perfect: as, ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hic suam (Trin. 956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property. presagibat animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (Aul.
222), my mind mistrusted when I went from home that L went in Vain.
f. The imperfect ind. in Apodosis, contrary to fact, regularly refers to present time (see ยง 59, 3, @).
4. Future. The Future denotes an action or condition that will occur hereafter. [For Future instead of the Imperative, see ยง 57, 7, d.]
5. Perfect. The Perfect definite denotes an action as now completed; the Perfect Aistorical, as having taken place indefinitely, in past time: as,
ut ego feci, qui Grecas litteras senex didici (C. M. 8), as J have done, who have learned Greek in my old age.
tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media zstate confecit (Man. 12), so great a war he made ready for at the end of winter, undertook in early spring, and jinished by midsummer.
[For the difference between the Perfect and Imperfect in nar- ration, see Note, page 53. ] |
160 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 5, 6.>
a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that something no longer exists: as,
fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. i.1), there was once such virtue tn this commonwealth.
fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (4Eยฃn. ii. 325), we were Trojans, Ilium did exist.
habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 36), he had, he has no longer.
b. The perfect is sometimes used of indefinite time in connec- tion with a general present: as,
qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 31), they who have always been in fetters of the body, even when released move more slowly.
c. The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially with negations: as,
qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 412), ke who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things.
non eris acervus et auri deduxit corpore febres (id. Ep. i. 2), the pile of brass and gold removes not the fever from the Srame.
d. The perfect is often used in expressions containing or im- plying a negation, where in affirmation the imperfect would be pre- ferred: as,
dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 38), Hortenszus
spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison: compare the use of quisquam, ullus, &c. (foot of p. 48), and the French ne after comparatives and superlatives. }
[For Perfect in apodosis of future conditions, see ยง 59, 4, e; for Perfect after ubi, &., ยง 62, 2, a.]
Remark.โ The Perfect and Pluperfect of a few verbs are equivalent to the Present and Imperfect of kindred verbs: novi, I know ; odi (osus), I hate; memini, I remember; cognoveram, I knew ; venerat (= aderat), he was at hand (see ยง 36, 1): as,
qui dies zstus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which
| day generally makes the highest tides.
cujus splendor obsolevit (Quince. v. 18), whose splendor ts now out of date.
6. Pluperfect. The Pluperfect is used to denote an action completed in time past; sometimes, also, repeated in indefinite time: as,
58: 7-10.] USE OF โTENSES. 161
neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. ili. 7), for when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as already done.
quz si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, tum fert alacritatem (Tusc. iv. 15), ยขf7ยข [desire] ever has gained what it had destred, then tt produces joy.
7%. Future Perfect. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the future: as, ut sementem feceris ita metes (Or. ii. 65), as YOU sow, so shall
you reap.
Remark. โ The Future Perfect is used (as above) with much reater exactness in Latin than in English, and may even be used instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Latins for repre- senting an action as completed: as, quid inventum sit paulo. post videro (Acad. ii. 24), what has been found out I will see presently. ego certe meum officium prestitero se G. iv. 25) I at least shall have done my duty.
8. Epistolary Tenses. In Letters, the perfect (his- torical) or imperfect may be used for the present, and the plu- perfect for past tenses, as if the letter were dated at the time
it is supposed to be received: as,
โneque tamen, cum hec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneri- bus premerere (Fam. v. 12), zor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens you are weighed down.
ad tuas omnes [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10), Z [have] azswered all your letters yesterday.
9. Tenses of the Subjunctive. The tenses of the Sub-
junctive denote Absolute time only in tmdependent clauses.
In these the Present always refers to future time ; the Imper-
fect to either past or present ; the Perfect to either future or โ
past ; the Pluperfect always to past.
In dependent clauses, the tenses of the Subjunctive denote Relative time, not with reference to the speaker, but to the action of some other verb.
10. Sequence of Tenses. The forms which denote absolute time may be used in any connection. But those denoting relative time follow special rules for the Sequence of Tenses. For this purpose, tenses are divided into two classes: Viz.
ยข
162 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. _ [58: to.
i 1. Primary, including the Present, both Futures, and Perfect (definite) ; ff 2. Secondary, including the Imperfect, Perfect (historical), ) < and Pluperfect. Ru.ie.โIn compound sentences, a Primary tense in the leading clause is followed by a Primary tense in the dependent clause ; and a Secondary tense is followed by a Secondary : as,
scribit ut nos moneat, he writes to warn us. scribet ut nos moneat, he will write to warn us. scripsit ut nos moneat, he has written to warn us.
. scribe (scribito) ut nos moneas, write that you may warn us. scripsit ut nos moneret, he wrote to warn us.
' geribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten. scripsit quasi oblitus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten.
Remark. โ The Rule appears in the following Diagram : โ
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. : ; Primary. Secondary. 1. Action not complete (time ert Pensuwe!โ peeeawee.
tively present or future). 2. Action complete (time relatively ' past).
In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, consider (1) ehcihee the leading verb is primary or secondary ; (2) whether the dependent verb is required to denote complete action (i.e. rela- tively past), or incomplete (relatively present or future). By tak- ing the corresponding tense, as given above, the correct usage will generally be found.
Notice that the FururE Prrrect denotes relatively completed action, and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Prr- FECT or PLUPERFECT.
i PERFECT. | PLUPERFECT.
a. The perfect definite is properly a primary tense; but as its action is (at least) commenced in past time, it is more commonly followed by secondary tenses: as,
ut satis esset presidi provisum est (Cat. ii. 12), Arovision has been made that there should be ample guard.
adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis (Verr. i. 1), 2 have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign nations.
b. The perfect subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past action (either as Perfect definite or historical) depending on a verb in a primary tense: as,
53ยฐ 10.) ! USE OF TENSES. 163
ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor (Or. 4), zt may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato.
ce. In clauses of Result, the perfect subjunctive is very often (the present rarely) used after secondary tenses: as,
Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam flagrantius studium viderim (Brut. 88), Hortenstus was so hot with desire of speaking that I never saw a more burning ardor tn any man. ?
Siciliam Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Verr. i. 4), for three years |Verres] so racked and ruined Sicily, that she. can in no way be restored to her former state.
Remark. โ This construction gives more emphasis to the fact stated as a result; while the regular one gives more prominence to the main clause. The perfect, thus used, can stand only for a perfect indicative, not an imperfect ; and, in general, the perfect is vften represented by the perfect subjunctive, contrary to the general rule: as,
Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut illa plurima in sua pa- triad et sacrificia et fana contemneret; ita non timidus ad mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin. il. 20), Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised |con- temnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines tn his country, so little timorous about death that he was killed (interfectus est] in battle, in defence of the state.
Zeno nullo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis inciderit [compare 5, @]; sed contra qui omnia in una virtute poneret (Acad. i. 10), Zeno was noway one to cut the sinews of virtue ; but one, on the contrary, who made everything depend on virtue alone.
dad. A general truth after a past tense follows the connection of tenses in Latin (though not usually in English): as,
ex his que tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q.C. iii. 9), from what she [Fortune] had bestowed on him, he re- flected how tnconstant she ts. ;
ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet, apparu'โt (Liv. xxxiii. 37), here ยซtt appeared what power anger has to goad the mind.
&. The historical present, or the present with dum, may be followed by either primary or secondary tenses, but more com- monly by secondary; as,
rogat ut euret quod dixisset (Quinct. 5), Ze asks him to attend to the thing he had spoken of. area
castella communit quo facilius prohiberi possent (B. G. i. 8), he strengthens the forts that they might be more easily kept off:
164 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 10, 11.
Ff. When the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are used in protasis and apodosis, they may stand after any tense: as,
quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines, &c. (Fin. ii. 15),
because tt is such that even if men were ignorant.
g- The imperfect subjunctive, in protasis or apodosis, even when it refers to present time, is regularly followed by secondary tenses: as,
si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem
exciperes (Tusc. i. 5), ยขf you called only those wretched who must die, you would except no one. h. After the present, when a past tense appears to be in the writerโs thought, secondary tenses sometimes follow by a kind of Synesis: as, . sed tamen ut scires hec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that you may know, 1 write thus (as if Epistolary Imperfect].
cujus precepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed Delphico deo tribueretur (Leg. i. 22), such zs the force of this precept, that it was ascribed not to any man, but to the Del- phic god {the precept was an old one}.
, Al. Infinitive. The tenses of the Infinitive are present, \past, or future, relatively to the time of the verb on which ~{ they depend: as, ' nostros non esse inferiores intellexit (B. G. ii. 8), Ze ascertained that our men were not inferior. quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse (En. i. 15), which Funo, โtis said, cherished above all lands. sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lal. 21), zhey hope they shall receive the greatest advantage. a. The present infinitive, after a verb in the past, must often be rendered by the perfect infinitive in English: as, scire potuit (Milo, 17), Ze might have' known. qui videbatur omnino mori non debuisse (Arch. 8), who seemed [one that] ought not to have died at all. Remark. โ This is most frequent with verbs of necessity, pro- priety, and possibility (potui, debui, oportuit), b. The perfect infinitive represents, in indirect discourse (ยง 67, 1), any past tense of a finite mood. But the imperfect is some- times represented by the present infinitive, โ regularly after memini where the memory recalls the action, but not where it recalls the mere fact (compare G. 203, N. 1): as, quis potest credere senatum putdsse (Mil. 5), who can believe the Senate thought (dir. disc. putabat]? memini Catonem mecum disserere (Lzl. 3), J remember Catoโs discoursing with me (So dicere aiebat, De Or. ii. 3). meministis me ita distribuisse causam (Rosc. Am. 42), you remember that I so laid out the case.
58: 11.] : USE OF TENSES. 165
c. Except in Indirect Discourse the present infinitive only is generally used, with no distinct reference to time: as,
est adulescentis majores natu vereri (Off. i. 34), ยข zs the duty of the young to reverence their elders.
de quibus dicere aggrediar (Off. ii. 1), of which I will under- take to speak.
d. After verbs of wishing, necessity, and the like, the perfect passive infinitive is often used instead of the present: as,
domestica cura te levatum [esse] volo (Q.F. iii. 9), 7 wish you relieved of household care. yee ei
liberis consultum volumus propter ipsos (Fin. iii. 17), we wish regard paid to children on their own account.
quod jampridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 2), which ought to have been done long ago.
Remark. โ In early Latin, and in poetry, the perfect active is also used, and even after other verbs than those of wishing: as,
commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he zs cautious of doing.
edixerunt ne quis quid fuge caus& vendidisse neve emisse vellet (Liv. xxxix. 17), they [the old laws] declared that none should sell or buy to escape obligation.
haud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (id. xxii. ยง9),
IL would not by crushing another exalt myself.
sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), zhere are those who would not touch.
nollem dixisse (Verr. v. 20), Z would not say.
e. The perfect infinitive is used, especially by poets, to denote a completed action after verbs of feeling; also with satis est (habeo), melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases where this distinction is important: as,
quiรฉsse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), 2# w/ll be better to have kept quitt- . Re On) a
non peenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21), ZI was not sorry to have made a respite of writing.
pudet me... non prestitisse (id. xiv. 3), J am ashamed not to
have shown. , Bares
sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse juvat (Hor. Od. i. 1), there are those who delight, &c. ;
majus dedecus est parta amittere quam omnino non paravisse (Jug. 31), et 2s more discredit to have lost oneโs gatus than never to have gained at all. f
nil ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), ยขf 7 go wrong, I cannot have done tt in ignorance.
f. The future infinitive is often expressed by fore or futu- rum esse ut (ยง 70, 4): as,
spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i.), 7 hope that will be our happy lot. [But, sperat se Zosse (Mil. 12). ]
166 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. (59: x.
59. CoNnpDITIONAL SENTENCES.
A Conditional Sentence (or Clause) is one beginning with IF, or some equivalent.
1. Protasis and Apodosis. In a conditional sentence, the clause containing the condition is called the Protasis; and that containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis: as,
si qui exire volunt [PROTASIS], conivere possum [APoposIs] (Cat. ii. 12), tf any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut.
a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particles si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless. But a clause in- troduced by an Indefinite Relative (as quisquis, whoever), a Relative,or Concessive Conjunction (cum, since, quamvis, al- though), a Participle, or an Imperative, is treated as a conditional clause: as,
quzcunque causa vos huc attulisset, letarer (De Or. ii. 4), I should be glad, whatever cause had brought you here [i.e. if any other, as well as the one which did].
_ philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus etatis sine molestia possit degere (Cat. M.1), Dhkilosophy, which iF any one obeys, he will be able to spend his whole life without vexation.
virtutem qui adeptus erit ubicunque erit gentium a nobis dili- getur (N. D. i. 44), 7f any one shall have attained virtue, &c.
[For Implied Conditions, see ยง 60.]
Nortr. โ The Indefinite Relative, whoever, whatever, whenever, may be regarded as a conditional expression, equivalent to if any one, if at any time, &c., as is seen in the analogy of the Greek 6ยข ay, รฉrav, and in the structure of relative as compared with conditional clauses. In the Statutes of Massachusetts, for instance, the phrase โโ Whoever shallโ has been substituted for the old form โโ Ir any person shall,โ &e.
6. The Apodosis, being the main clause, depends in form on the grammatical structure of the sentence, which may require a Participle, Infinitive, or Phrase: as,
quod si przterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum solA decima
_ legione iturum (B. G. i. 40), dut tf no one else would follow, he would go with the tenth legion alone.
si quos adversum prelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id.), if the loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find.
sepulturรฉ quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari jussisset (Q. C. viii. 2), zatending also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered him to be interred.
$9: 2.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 167
2. Particular and General Conditions. The sup- position contained in a Protasis may be either particular or general, -
a. A Particular supposition refers to a definite act (or a definite series of acts) occurring at some definite time: as,
si hzc condicio consulatis data est... feram libenter (Cat. iv. 1), ยขf this condition has been imposed on the consulship, I will bear it willingly.
b. A General supposition refers to any one of a class of acts,
which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time: as,
si vero habet aliquod tamquam pabulum studi atque doctrine, nihil est otiosa senectute jucundius (Cat. M. 14), รฉudeed, if tt have some sustenance (as it were) of study and learning, ' nothing ts more cheerful than an old age of leisure.
Nore. โ These two classes of conditions are distinguished logically ; and in most languages are also distinguished grammatically, โ but only as to Present and Past Conditions. In Latin, in particular conditions, present or past tenses of the Indicative are regularly used in Prota- sis, where no opinion is intimated of its truth or falsity; and the Apodosis may take any form of the verb which can be used in an in- dependent sentence. In general conditions, also, referring to Present or Past time, the Indicative is for the most part used both in Protasis and Apodosis. (Compare Goodwinโs Greek Grammar, ยง 220.) ,
c. Classification. The principal forms of Conditional Sen- tences may be exhibited as follows : โ 1. PrEsENT oR Past ConpiTrIons. (a) โSimple statement
(nothing implied as to fulfilment) :
it is well.
was [then] here, it was well.
_ ( si adesset bene esset, if he were [now] (6) sca il ae here, it would be well. pein faa fulfilled); ) 8! adfuisset bene fuisset, if he had
[then] been here, it would have sae well.
2. par 10 Gee nguassfods AK
(a) ie vivid (prob- { si aderit bene erit, if he is (sal be] ble) : here, it will be well.
(b) fh vivid (improb- | si adsit bene sit, if he should fiiรฉreafter] |
be here, it would be well. 8. GENERAL SUPPOSITIONS.
si hoc dicas b this, (a) Indefinite subject : } tis a | a pty if one says this
cs E si_ hoc. diceret bene erat (rare), if (0) Repeated Action: โ [whenever] he said this, it was. well.
able) :
โ ge
ยฅ ยข> 2 i wh, Ltt
si aderat (adfuit) bene erat, if he.
si adest bene est, if he is [now] ae Z
Vo
168 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. โ (59: 3.
3. Present and Past Conditions, <A present or past condition may be simply stated, implying nothing as to its fulfilment; or it may be stated so as to imply that it 2s not or wus not fulfilled.
a. In the statement of a condition whose falsity is NoT implied, the present and past tenses of the Indicative are used in Protasis ; the apodosis expressing simply what is, was, or will be, the result of the fulfilment (G. 221): as,
si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), ยขf you and the army are well, tt is well.
si justitia vacat, in vitio est (Off. i. 19), ยขf justice be wanting, zt [bravery] zs ยขz fault.
si placet... videamus (Cat. M. 5), zf you please, let us see.
fuerit hoc censoris, si judicabat (Div. i. 16), grant that ยขt was the censorโs duty tf he judged, &c.
quicquid jurarunt ventus et unda rapit (Prop. ii. 28), whatever they have sworn (i.e. if they have sworn anything], the winds and waves sweep away.
b. In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the Im- perfect and Pluperfect subjunctive are used,โthe imperfect referring to present time, the pluperfect to past (G. 222): as,
que si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus (Cat. M. 11), #7 could not [now] follow this [an active life], yet my couch would afford me pleasure.
nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem (id. 4), uzless you had lost tt, I should not have recovered it.
si meum consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres,
- nos liberi essemus, respublica non tot duces et exercitus โamisisset (Phil. ii. 15), 2f my judgment and authority had prevailed (as they did not], you would this day be a beggar, we should be free, and the republic would not have lost so many leaders and armies.
| Nore. โ The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not in-
herent in the Subjunctive; but comes from the transfer of a future _ condition to past time. โThus the time for the happening of the condi- tion has, at the time of writing, already passed; so that, if the con- dition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So forms implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in apodosis in this construction (see e, below).
c. In many cases the imperfect refers to past time, both in pro- tasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist: as,
hic si mentis esset suze, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 21),
if he were of sane mind would he have dared to lead out the army ?
59: 3.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 169
non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris pateret (Verr. ii. 1), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station had been open to our fleets.
d. The past tenses of the indicative in Apodosis (after a sub- junctive in Protasis) may be used to express what ought to have been done, or is intended, or is already begun (see ยง 60, 2, ยข): as,
si Rome privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus (Manil. 17), 7 ke [Pompey] were at this time a private citizen in Rome, yet he ought to be appointed.
quod esse caput debebat, si probari posset (Fin. iv. 9), what ought to be the main point if it could be proved.
si licitum esset matres. veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), ยขhe mothers were coming tf it had been allowed.
in amplexus filiz ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Ann. xvi. 32), he was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors had opposed. :
Remark. โ In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in time to the imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect indicative to the pluperfect subjunctive (the tenses of the subjunc- tive may, however, be used as well; see Note, above) : as,
satius erat (esset), 7ยข were better.
รฉe. This use is regular with all verbs and expressions denoting the necessity, propriety, desirableness, duty, possibility, of an action โ including the two periphrastic conjugations (see page 83)โ where it is implied that what was necessary, &ยข., has not been done. It is sometimes carried still further in poetry: as,
nam nos decebat lugere (Tusc. i. 47), 7# would befit us to mourn. si non alium jactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), ยข# were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor.
Notre.โ Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of Futurity. Compare note. under 8.
f. So the participle in urus with fui is equivalent to a plu- perfect subjunctive. Hence, when the Apodosis is itself a dependent clause, requiring the subjunctive, a pluperfect subjunctive may be represented by the Future Participle with the subjunctive of esse (compare apodosis in Indirect Discourse, ยง 67, 1, ยข): as,
quid enim futurum fuit [= fuisset], si... (Liv. ii. 1), what would have happened, tf, &c.
neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si... (ib.), end no doubt he would have done it, tf, &c. (dir. disc., fecrsset.]
ex quo intellegi potest quam acuti natura sint, qui hec sine doctrina credituri fuerint (Tusc. i. 21), hence 77 may be understood how keen they are by nature, who, without tnstruc- tion, would have believed thโs. {Were the condition is con- tained in the words szxe doctrind. |
170 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. ยฉ [59: 4.
adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, ni incerta noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy, that they would have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the hazards of the night [in the direct discourse, rapuissent ni timuissent |.
4. Future Conditions. A Future condition may either make a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what will be the result; or the supposition may be less distinct and vivid, the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed.
a. If the condition is stated vividly, so as to be conceived as actually about to take place, the Future Indicative is used in both protasis and apodosis (G. 223): as,
sanabimur si volemus (Tuse. iii. 6), we shall be healed if we
wish.
quod si legere aut audire voletis .... reperietis (Cat. M. 6),
if you will read or hear, you will find.
b. The Present subjunctive expresses a future condition less vividly, or as less probable, than when the future indicative is used (G. 224): as,
hee si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat.
i. 8), if thy country should thus speak with thee, ought she not to prevail ?
quod si quis deus mihi largiatur... valde recusem (Cat. M. 23),
but if some god were to grant me this, I should earnestly refuse.
Remark. โ The present subjunctive sometimes stands in prota. sis with the future in apodosis.
c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the apodosis begins, the future perfect is substituted for the future, and the perfect subjunctive for the present: as,
sin, cum potuero, non venero, tum erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2), but if I do not come when I can, he will be unfriendly. si non feceris, ignoscam (Fam. v.19), ยข/ you do not do it, I will excuse you. Remark. โ This is a very common construction in Latin, owing to the tendency of tthe language to represent an action as com- pleted, rather than as in progress.
d. Any form denoting future time may stand in the apodosis of a future condition (so the participles in dus and rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like): as,
non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Verr. v. 41), J cannot accuse him tif I should desire. r
59: 4, 5.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 171
alius finis constituendus est si prius quid maxime reprehendere Scipio solitus sit dixero (Lel. 16), axother limit must be set if I shall first state what Scipio was most wont to blame.
e. Rarely the perfect is used (rhetorically) in apodosis with a present or even future in protasis, representing the conclusion as already accomplished: as,
si hoc. bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), ยขf this is well fixed in your minds, you have conquered.
si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), ยขf you shall have kept the same spirit, we have conquered.
f. Frequently the present subjunctive of a future condition becomes imperfect by the sequence of tenses or some other cause (retaining the same force relatively to past time): as,
non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii. 44), was not able unless he _ wished.
Cesar si peteret... non quicquam proficeret (Hor. Sat. i. 2), if even Cesar were to ask he would gain nothing. (Here the construction is not contrary to fact, but is simply sz petat non proficiat, thrown into past time. }
tumulus apparuit...si luce palam iretur hostis preventurus erat (Liv. xxil. 24), a@ hill appeared...if they should go openly by light the enemy would prevent. |Independent of apparuit, this would be, si eatur, freventurus est, for pre-
veniat. | 5. General Conditions. General conditions are distin- , _ guished in Latin in only two cases: viz.,
~ @- Indefinite Subject. The subjunctive is used in the second person singular, to denote the actโof an indefinite subject (you = any one). Here the present Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis (G. 225): as,
mens prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas conteritur; nisi exer- ceas, rubiginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very like tron: tf you use it, tt wears away; if you donโt use it, it gathers rust.
virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, consequitur (Tuse. i. 38), glory necessarily follows virtue, even tf that ts not oneโs aim.
si prohibita impune transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor est (Ann. iii. 54), 7f you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there ts no fear nor shame any more.
si cederes placabilis (Tac. Ann.), [ke was] easily appeased if one yielded.
b. Repeated Action. In later writers (not in Cicero), the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used in protasis, with the a
o
172 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [60: 1,
imperfect indicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action: as, accusatores, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiebantur (Ann. vi. 30), the accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment. quemcunque lictor prehendisset, tribunus mitti jubebat (Liv. iii. 11), whomever the lictor had seized, the tribune ordered to be let go.
c- In all other cases, General Suppositions โ including those introduced by Indefinite Relatives โ take the indicative.
60. Impttep ConpITIONs.
In many sentences properly conditional, the sub- ordinate member is not expressed as a conditional clause ; but is stated in some other form of words, or is implied in the nature of the thought.
1. Condition Disguised. The condition is often con- tained in some other form of words than a regular Protasis, in the same clause or sentence.
a- The condition may be contained in a relative, participial, or
other qualifying clause: as, :
facile me patererโ vel ipso querente, vel apud Cassianos judices โ pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rosc. Am. 30), 7 would readily allow myself to speak for Roscius, 1F he, &c.
non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 42), zt would not have come into my mind, unless [I had been] admonished [= nisi admonitus essem].
nulla alia gens tantรฉ mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), there ts no other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of disaster (i.e. IF it had been any other people].
Soka eee sine magnA spe immortalitatis, se pro patria offerret ad mortem (Tusce. i. 15), โo one, without great hope of immortality, would ever expose himself to death for his country.
quid hunc paucorum annorum accessio juvare potuisset (Lal. 3), what good could the addition of a few years have done him ? [if he had had them. ]
b. The condition may be contained in a wish, or expressed as a command, by the imperative or hortatory subjunctive: as,
utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), f wish I had been [chief]: he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had been].
f
60: 1, 2.] IMPLIED CONDITIONS. 173
roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 25), for ask Aristo, and he would deny.
tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusce. i. 13), remove this notion, and you will have done away grief.
naturam expellas furcaรฉ, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep i. 10), drive out nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return.
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M. 7), old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and diligence.
Notrr.โ This usage is probably the origin of the use of the sub-
junctive in Protasis; the subjunctive being used first, as in ยง 57, 3, /
while the conditional particle is a form of an indefinite pronoun. c. Rarely, the condition is stated in an independent clause: as,
rides: majore cachinno concutitur (Juv. iii. 100), you laugh: he shakes with louder laughter.
de paupertate agitur: multi patientes pauperes commemor- antur (Tusc. iii. 24), we speak of poverty: many patient poor are mentioned.
2. Condition Omitted. The condition is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument.
Remark. โ Under this head belong all the apparently inde- pendent uses of the subjunctive not mentioned in ยง 57,2. In this use the perfect subjunctive is especially common, in the same sense as the present, referring to the immediate future; the imperfect to past time (not to present, as in ยง 57, 3).
a. Potential Subjunctive. The present and perfect sub- junctive (often with forsitan or the like) are used to denote an action as possible; also, the second person singular of all the tenses, denoting an indefinite subject: as,
hic querat quispiam (N. D. ii. 53), ere some one may ask.
ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Off. iii.6), as one may perhaps say.
forsitan hec illi mirentur (Verr. v. 56), they may perchance
marvel at these things.
tum in lecto quoque videres susurros (Hor. Sat. ii. 8), ยขhen on
each couch you might see whisperings.
6. The subjunctive is used m cautious, modest, or hypothetical statement (conjunctivus modestie): as,
pace tua dixerim (Mil. 38), Z would say by your leave.
haud sciam an (De Or. i. 60), J should incline to think.
tu velim sic existimes (Fam. xii.6), 7 would like you to think so.
vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phii. i. 7), 7 wish Anthony were
here (here vellem implies an impossible wish in present time}.
hac erant fere que tibi nota esse vellem (Fam. xii. 5), this zs
about what I want you to know [here vellem is simply velim transferred to past time on account of erat, by connection of tenses, and does not imply an impossible wish].
โ โข
Nactong.,
174 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. (60:2. 6L
c. The Indicative of verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either future or contrary to fact: as,
longum est [sit] ea dicere, sed... (in Pison. 10), ยข# would be tedious to tell, &c.
illud erat aptius, zquum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. 1), 2# would be more fitting to yield each one his rights.
ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 40), would it have been a great matter to watt for himself ?
quanto melius fuerat (Off. ili. 25), ow much better it would have been.
quod contra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M. whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt him. . :
nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus (Tusc. i. 48), for zt were fitting to mourn the house where a man has been born [but we do not].
nunc est bibendum... nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvinar deorum tempus erat dapibus sodales (Hor. Od. i. 37), i.e. #ยข would be time [if it were for us to do it, but it is a public act].
Remark. โ Notice that, in this construction, the imperfect in- dicative refers to present time; the pluperfect to simply past time, like the perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not.
d. The omission of the protasis often gives rise to mixed con- structions: as,
peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Sat. ii. 1), may I perish if it would not be better. [Here the protasis and apodosis come under ยง 59, 3, d. Optimum erat is itself an apodosis with the protasis omitted. }
quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphera quidem eosdem motus Archimedes sine divino ingenio potu- isset imitari (Tusc. i. 25). [Here the protasis of Jotudsset is in sine divino ingenio. |
61, ConpDITIONAL PARTICLES.
Certain Particles implying a Condition are fol- lowed by the Subjunctive, but upon several different principles. โ |
1. Comparative Particles. The particles of compari- sonโtamquam, quasi, guam si, acsi, utsi, velutsi, veluti, and poetic ceuโ introduce conditional clauses, of
61: 1, 2, 3.) CONDITIONAL PARTICLES. 175:
which the conclusion is omitted or implied; and take the _ subjunctive.
Remark.โContrary to the English idiom, the present and perfect subjunctive are regularly used with these particles, except where the connection of tenses requires secondary tenses: as,
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia was closed. tamquam si claudus sim (Plaut. Asin. 2), just as if 1 were lame. quasi vero non specie visa judicentur (Acad. ii. 18), as ยขf for- sooth visible things were not judged by their appearance. velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as ยขf he were there present. similiter facis ac si me roges (N.S. iii. 3), you do exactly as if you asked me. * gque ac Si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), as much as tf it were my own business. ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (/En. il. 438), as if there were no fighting elsewhere. Magis quam si domi-esses (Att. vi. 4), more than tf you were at home. ac si ampullam perdidisset (Fin. iv. 12), as if he had lost the bottle.
2. Concessive Particles. The particles of concession . โ although, granting that โ sometimes take the subjunctive, ( but under various constructions: viz.,
Quamvis and ut (except in later writers) take the hortatory subjunctive (ยง 57, 3); licet is a verb, and is followed by an object-clause (ยง 70, 3); etsi has the same constructions as si (ยง 59); cum has a special construction ($ 62, 1); quanquam takes the indicative (59, 3, a): as,
quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen... (Or. 23), however incaf- able themselves of speaking, yet, &c.
ut neminem alium... rogasset (Mil. 17), even if he had asked no other.
licet omnes in me terrores periculaque impendeant (Rosc. Am. 11), though all terrors and perils should menace me.
etsi abest maturitas (Fam. vi. 18), though ripeness of age ts wanting.
etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis (Sull. 32), even if you had taken away nothing else.
3. A Proviso, introduced by modo, dum, dummod6, - re- quires the Subjunctive: as,
valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), provided the health ts good. modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided [inplea- sure] he be not one of the herd of cattle.
176 โSYNTAX OF THE VERB. [61: 4. 62.
oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 28), let them hate, tf only they fear.
dum de patris morte quereretur (Rosc. Am. 41), let the inquiry only be of a fatherโs death.
dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. 5), provided only the city wall is between us.
Nore. โ The Subjunctive with modo is a hortatory Subjunctive ; with dum and dummodo, a development from the Subjunctive in temporal clauses.
4. The use of some of the more common Conditional Particles may be stated as follows:โ
a- Si is used for affirmative, nisi and si non for negative con- ditions. With nisi, the negative belongs rather to the Apodosis, โi.e. the conclusion is true except in the case supposed; with si non, the Protasis is negative, โi.e. the conclusion is limiled to the case supposed. (The difference is often only one of emphasis.) Wisi is never used if the clause has a concessive force. Ni is an old form, reappearing in poets and later writers, and in a few con- ventional phrases. Sometimes nisi si occurs.
6. Nisi vero and nisi forte โ sometimes nisi alone โ regu- - larly introduce an objection, or exception, ironically, and take the Indicative. :
c. Sive...sive (seu) introduce conditions in the form of an alternative. They have no peculiar construction, but may be used with any kind of condition, or with different kinds in the two branches, often also without a verb.
d. Of the concessive particles, the compounds of si are used in all the forms of protasis ; quanquam regularly introduces only conceded facts, and hence takes the Indicative; quamvis, quan- tum vis, quamlibet, ut, cum, and libet, take idiomatic construc- tions corresponding to their original meaning. Later writers, however, frequently use all these particles like the compounds of si, connecting them with the Indicative or Subjunctive according to the nature of the condition. Even Cicero occasionally uses quanquam with the Subjunctive.
62. Retations or TIME.
Temporal clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of relative origin; and are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have developed into special constructions.
62: 1, 2.] RELATIONS OF TIME. 177
Temporal Particles are the following : โubi, ut (ut primum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac or simul alone), cum (quom), antequam, priusquam, postquam (postedquam), dum, donec, quoad, quamdiu, quando.
I. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone or compounded with -cunque, are used as indefinite rela- tives, and have the constructions of Protasis (ยง 59): as,
cum rosam viderat, tum incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 10), whenever he had seen a rose, he thought Spring was begun [general condition].
cum id malum esse negas (Tusc. ii. 12), whew you [the indi- vidual disputant] dexy zt to be an evil.
cum videas eos... dolore non frangi (id. 27), when you see [indefinite subject] ยขkaz those are not broken by pain, &c.
quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem (Phil. v. 18), which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled me [supposition contrary to fact].
id ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum emittebat (Liv. i. 32), when he had satd this, he {used to] cast the spear into their territories [repeated action].
Remark. โSo est cum, fuit cum, &c., are used in general expressions like est qui, sunt qui (ยง 65, 2, a).
2. Temporal clauses of absolute time take the Indicative ; those of relative time, the Subjunctive.
(For the definition of absolute and relative time, see ยง 58, I, 9.)
Note. โ This distinction is not made in other languages, but it may be made clear in the two following expressions: 1. When was the great fire in London? Ans. When Charles II. was king (absolute time). 2. When Charles II. was king (relutive time), a great fire broke out in London. In the first case the reign of Charles is referred to as an absolute fixed dute, known to the hearer; while in the second the time is not so fixed, but is given as relative to the event narrated by the main verb, which alone denotes absolute time. In this construction, the Subjunctive describes the time by its characteristics (as in ยง 65, 2), and thus is a branch of the Subjunctive of result. Hence this qualitative character of the temporal clause often reappears and occasions the Subjunctive, where the idea of relative time would not naturally be expected: as, tum, cum HABERET hec respublica Luscinos, &c.... et tum, cum ERANT Catones, &c. Here the former clause describes the char- acter of the age by its men (at a time when there were such men); in the latter, the individual men are present to the mind (at the time of the Catos, &c. Leg. Agr., ii. 24).
a. The particles postquam (postedquam), ubi, ut (ut primum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac or simul alone), introduce clauses of absolute time, and take the Indicative (usually d
the narrative tenses, the perfect and the historical present): as, g*
178 ~ SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2.
milites postquam victoriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis fecรฉre (Sall. Cat. 11), when the armies had won the victory, they left nothing to the vanquished.
Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit (B. C. lll. 94), when Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the army.
Remark.โ1. Those particles may also take the imperfect, denoting a continued state of things, and the pluperfect, denoting the result of an action completed, in the Indicative: as,
postquam instructi utrimque stabant, duces in medium pro- cedunt (Liv. i. 23), when they stood in array on both sides, the generals advance into the midst.
P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Div. in Cc. 21), when Africanus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been| ยขwzce consul and censor.
postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perficiendi dabatur, ad Pompeium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hard, and no means of effecting it were given, they passed over to Pompey.
post diem quintum quam barbari iterum male pugnaverant (= victi sunt), legati a Boccho veniunt (Jug. 110), the fifth day after the barbarians were beaten the second time, envoys came from Bocchus.
2 Rarely these particles denote relativรฉ time, and take the Subjunctive: as, posteaquam maximas edificAsset ornAssetque classes (Manil. 4), having built and equipped mighty fleets.
6. Cum (quom), TEMPORAL, meaning when, mtredueesโboth= } i j takes either mood, โ the Indica- * tive of the present and perfect, the Subjunctive of the imperfect - and pluperfect: as, cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servi (Rosc. Am. 61), when Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. nempe eo [lituo] regiones direxit tum cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 17), he traced with it the quarters (of the sky] at the time he founded the city. cum servili bello premeretur (Manil. 11), when she [Italy] was . under the load of the Servile war. inde cum se in Italiam recepisset (id. 12), when he had returned thence to Italy. โ cum incendisses cupiditatem meam ... tum discedis a nobis (Fam. xv. 21), while you had inflamed my eagerness, yet you withdrew from us.
Note. โ The Present takes the Indicative because present time is generally, from its very nature, defined in the mind; and it is only when the circumstances are described as causal or adversative (see below, ยง 65, 2, e) that the Subjunctive is used. The Perfect takes the Indicative as the tense of narrative, as with postquam, &c. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are, from their nature, fitter to denote rela- tive time.
62: 2.] RELATIONS OF TIME. 179
Remark.โ1. But the imperfect and pluperfect may denote absolute time, and then are in the Indicative: as,
res cum hec scribebam erat in extremum adducta discrimen (Fam. xii. 6), at the time I write [epistolary] the affair was brought into great hazard.
quem quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo (Cat. iii. 7), when I was about forcing him |conative im- perfect] from the city, I looked forward to this.
fulgentes gladios hostium videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum irruebant (Tusc. ii. 24), the Decii saw the flashing swords of the enemy when they rushed upon their line.
tum cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 7), at that time, when many had lost great fortunes in Asia.
2. When the clauses are inverted, so that the real temporal clause becomes the main clause, and vice versa, the Indicative must be used: as,
dies nondur decem intercesserant, cum ille alter filius infans
necatur (Clu. 9), tex days had not yet passed, when the other infant son was killed. |
hoc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familiz repente in
publicum procurrerunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing to do this by night, when the women suddenly ran out into the streets.
3. With Future tenses, there is no distinction of absolute or relative time; and hence the Indicative is used: as,
non dubitabo dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode
facere potero (Fam. xiii. 1), 7 shall not hesitate to take pains to see you, when I can do tt conveniently.
longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), zhat long time
when I shall be no more.
In the other tenses, the distinction is of late origin: hence in Plautus quom always takes the Indicative except where the Sub- junctive is used for other reasons.
ยข. In narration antequam and priusquam โ also, in late writ- ers, dum and donecโ have the same construction as cum: as,
antequam tuas legi litteras (Att. ii. 7), before I read your letter.
nec ante finis fuit quam concessรฉre (Liv. viii. 13), there was no end until they yielded [regular with non ante quam, &c.}.
antequam homines nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedoniam perrexi (Planc. 41), before those evil men could learn of my coming, 1 arrived in Macedonia.
nec obstitit falsis donec tempore ac spatio vanescerent (Tac. Ann. 1i.82), nor did he contradict the falsehoods till they died out through lapse of time.
Remark. โ In reference to future time, these particles take the present and future perfect indicative; rarely the future indica- tive and present subjunctive: as,
180 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2,
prius quam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitid pauca dicam (Phil. ii. 1), before L reply to the rest, { will say a little of friendship.
non defatigabor ante quam illorum ancipites vias percepero (De Or. iui. 36), J shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways.
In a few cases the subjunctive of protasis seems to be used: as,
priusquam incipias consulto et ubi consulueris mature facto opus est (Sall. Cat. 1), before beginning you need reflection, and after reflecting, prompt action.
tempestas minatur antequam surgat (Sen. Ep. 103), the storm threatens before tt rises. [Compare ยง 59, 5, a.]
d. Dum, donec, and quoad, implying purpose, take the sub- ยข junctive (ยง 64); otherwise, except in later writers, the indica- tive. Dum and dummodo, provided, take the subjunctive: as,
|
dum hec geruntur (B.G. i. 46), whkรฉle this was going on.
donec rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31), there was silence until he returned. โ
dum res maneant, verba fingant (Fin. v. 29), so long as the facts remain, let them fashion words.
hoc feci dum licuit, intermisi quoad non licuit (Phil. iii. 13), I did this so long as tt was allowed, I discontinued so long as zt was not.
dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum elegans (Brut. 82), dro- vided it be polished, refined, elegant.
Remark. โ With all temporal particles, the Subjunctive is often found, depending on other principles of construction.
e- Cum CAUSAL or CONCESSIVE (since, while, though) takes i the subjunctive (often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, prae- sertim): as,
cum solitudo...insidiarum et metfis plena sit (Fin. i. 20), since solitude is full of treachery and fear.
cum primi ordines...concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqui resistebant (B.G. vii. 62), though the first ranks had fallen,
still the others resisted vigorously.
nec reprehendo: quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionem non fugerim (Act. x. 3), 2 do not blame it: since I myself did not escape that blame.
But frequently in the sense of quod, on the ground that, it takes the Indicative: as,
gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. xi. 14), 1 congratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella.
_ Notr.โ This causal relation is merely a variation of the idea of time, where the attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause.
63: 1, 2.] CAUSE OR REASON. 181
f- Cum... tum, signifying both ...and, usually take the Indicative ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, it may have the Subjunctive: as,
cum multa non probo, tum illud in primis (Fin. i. 6), whzle there are many things I do not approve, there ts this in chief.
cum res tota ficta sit pueriliter, tum ne efficit quidem quod vult (ib.), while the whole thing ts childishly got up, he does not even make his point.
63. Cause or REASON.
Causal clauses may take the Indicative or Subjunc- tive according to their construction ; the idea of Cause being contained not in the mood itself, but in the form of the argument, or the connecting particles. al Particl
PUT Tit ts โ
I. The Caus rne.in-early:
es quod, quia, quoniam, quand
/yโ take the Indicative: as,
<a SY > ae a .
quia postrema edificata est (Verr. iv. 53), because it was built last. utinam illum diem videam, cum tibi agam gratias quod me vivere coรฉgisti (Att. iii. 3), O that J may see the day when I may thank you that you have forced me to live. uoniam de utilitate jam diximus, de efficiendi ratione dicamus (Or. Part. 26), stuce we have now spoken of [its] advantage, let us speak of the method of effecting tt. quando ita vis di bene vortant (Trin. 573), sรฉzce you so wish, may the gods bless the undertaking. quom tua res distrahitur utinam te redisse salvam videam (id. 617), sรฉnce your property ts torn in pieces, oh, that I may see you returned safely !
2. Clauses introduced by these particles, like any other dependent clause, take the Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse
(see ยง 67, 1).
3. A relative clause of characteristic, with its verb, in the sub- junctive, may have the force of a causal sentence (see ยง 65, 2).
4. The particle cum, when used in a causal sense, idiomatically takes the Subjunctive (ยง 62, 2, ยข).
182 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [64: 1.
64, Purpose.
A. Finat Causes, or those expressing purpose, take the Subjunctive after relatives (qui = ut is), or the conjunction ut (uti), ix order that (negatively ut ne or ne, lest): as,
ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 4), they brought Cincinnatus from the plough, that he might be dictator.
scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 56), ke wrote speeches for other men to deliver.
huic ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum reliquisti (Quinct. 22), you have left him no ground even to make a stand against you.
nihil habeo quod scribam, J have nothing to write.
habebam quo confugerem (Fam. iv. 6), Z had [a retreat] whither I might flee.
ut ne sit impune (Mil. 12), ยขhat ct be not with impunity.
ne qua ejus adventis procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that no sign of his arrival may be made at a distance.
Remark. โ Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correl- ative in the main clause: as,
legum idcirco omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus (Clu. 53), for this reason we are subject to the laws, that we may be free.
eA causa...ne, for this reason, lest, &c.
Note. โ As ut (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut is the same as that of relatives. That with ne is perhaps, in origin, a hortatory subjunctive.
a- The ablative quo (= ut eo) is used as a conjunction in final clauses, especially with comparatives: as, )
libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 3), se availed himself of liberty, that he might bluster with more impunity.
Compare quominus (= ut eo minus), after verbs of hinder- ing (ยง 65, I, a).
6. The Principal clause, upon which a final clause depends, is often to be supplied from the context: as,
ac ne longum sit... jussimus (Cat. iii. 5), and, not to be tedious, we ordered, &c. (strictly, โโ not to be tedious, I say.โโ]
sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus, ... (Tusc. v.22), but to return to Dionysius, &c.
satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 5), z# was the act of one rash enough, not to say daring.
64:2. 65.] CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT. 183
Remark. โ To this principle belongs nedum, still less, not to mention that, with which the verb itself is often omitted: as,
nedum ... salvi esse possimus (Clu. 35), much less could we be safe.
nedum isti... non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et flagitii (Leg. Ag. ii. 35), far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal.
nedum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), stzll less is tt easy at sea, and on a journey.
c- Final clauses easily become the object of verbs of wishing, commanding, &c. (see ยง 70, 3).
2. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various ways; but never (except rarely in poetry) by the simple Infinitive, as in English. The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be rendered โ
(1) venerunt ut pacem peterent... [final clause with ut];
(2) a qui pacem peterent [final clause with Relative]; : en ad petendum pacem (rare) [gerund with ad}; (4) 5, .._ ad petendam pacem [gerundive with ad]; (5) โ pacem petendi causa* [gerund with causa]; (6) ey pacis petendz causa [gerundive with causa]; (7) is pacem petituri [future participle (not in Cicero) ]; (8) โ pacem petitum [former supine].
* Or gratia.
65. CoNSEQUENCE OR RESULT.
1. Consecutive Causes, or those expressing result, take the Subjunctive after relatives or the conjunction ut, so that (negatively, ut non): as,
nemo est tam senex, qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat. M. 7), #o one ts so old as not to think he can live a year.
nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quz noceat nemini (Tusce. iii. 8), for innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one.
sunt aliz causz que plane efficiant (Top. 15), there are other causes, such as to bring to pass.
Remark. โA negative result is expressed by ut non. Some- times, when the result implies an effect intended (not a simple pur- pose), ut ne or ne is used: as,
[librum] ita corrigas ne mihi noceat (Fam. vi. 7); correct the buok so that it may not hurt me.
>.
184 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [65: 1, 2.
hoc est ita utile ut ne plane illudamur ab accusatoribus (Rose. Am. 20), this ts so useful, that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers [7.e., only on this condition}. a The subjunctive with quaominus (โ ut eo minus) may be used, to express a result, after words of hindering : as, \ nec ztas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat.
M. 17), zor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the ground.
6. A clause of result is introduced by quin after general negatives, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae, quod) non; also after clauses denoting hindrance, resistance, doubt, and sus- pension of effort (when these clauses are also negative): as,
non dubito quin, 7 do not doubt that [dubito an, / doubt whether).
zgre (vix) abstinui quin, / hardly refrained from, &c.
nihil impedit quin ..., there ts nothing to prevent, โฌc.
abesse non potest quin (Or. 70), 7ยข cannot be but that.
nihil est illorum quin [=quod non] ego illi dixerim (Plaut.
Bac. iil. 9), there ts nothing of this that I have not told him.
Remark. โ The above clauses of resull easily pass into Substan- tive Clauses, for which see ยง 70, 4, g.
2. A relative clause of Result is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, even where the idea of result can be no longer perceived. โThis is especially common where the antecedent is otherwise undefined: as,
neque enim tu is es, qui qui sis nescias (Fam. v. 12), for you are not such a one, as not to know who you are.
multa dicunt que vix intelligant (Fin. iv. 1), ยขhey say many things suck as they hardly understand.
paci que nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est consulen- dum (Off i. 11), we must always aim ata peace which shall have no plots.
unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 15), there was nothing left, from which an embankment could be put together.
Norte. โ These cases of result are to be distinguished from the In- definite Relative in protasis (ยง 59,1).
Such relative clauses of characteristie are used in several idiomatic constructions: viz.,โ
} a After general expressions of existence and non-existence, including questions implying a negative: as,
erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. xvi. 29), โhere were some who pitted Helvidius.
65: 2. 66.] INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 185
quis est qui id non maximis efferat laudibus (Lel. 7), who 7s there that does not extol tt with the highest praises ?
sunt aliz cause que plane efliciant (Top. 15), there are other causes which clearly effect, &c.
* }. After unus and solus: as,
nil admirari prope res est una solaque que possit facere et servare beatum (Hor. Ep.i.6), to wonder at nothing ts almost the sole and only thing that can make and keep one happy.
ยป ยฉ After comparatives followed by quam: as,
majores arbores cedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. xxviii. 5), they cut larger trees than what a soldier could carry.
Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 18), ยขhe statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature.
d. In expressions of restriction or proviso, introduced by
Relatives: as,
quod sciam, so far as I know.
Catonis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 17), she speeches of Cato, at least such as 1 have discovered.
servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servitutis (Cat. iv. 8), there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable con- dition of slavery.
~ @. When the quality indicated is connected with the action of the main clause, either as Cause on account of which (since), or as Hindrance in spite of which (although ; compare ยง 62, 2, e): as,
O virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 69), of, guzleless man, who hides nothing from us! [so with ut, utpote, guipfe |.
egomet qui sero Grecas litteras attigissem tamen complures Athenis dies sum commoratus (De Or. 18), Z myself, though I began Greek literature late, yet, &c. (lit., a man who].
ยฅ f- Dignus, indignus, aptus, idoneus, take a clause of result with a relative (rarely with ut); in the poets the Infinitive: as,
idoneus qui impetret (Manil. 19), fiz to obtain. dignum notari (Hor. Sat. i. 3), worthy to be stigmatized.
66. INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES.
A Relative or other subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive, when it expresses the thought of some other person than the speaker or writer, or when. it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalept Infinitive.
186 _ ยงYNTAX OF THE VERB. | [66: 1, 2.
i. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses to express the thought of some other person โ a. In subordinate clauses in Indirect Discourse (see ยง 67, 1, b).
b. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a command, or a question expressed indirectly, though not indirect discourse proper: as, animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 6), az animal feels what tt ts that ts fit. hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet ac pungat, ut evellatis postulat (Rosc. Am. 2), ke begs you to pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day and night. (Here the relative clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in evedllatzs, but is an assertion made by the subject of Jostulat.] c- When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of saying, or some modifier of it: as, nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer lis minatur (Verr. iii. 67), he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main clause, โโ that he will inflict punishment,โ is contained in mzxatur.] prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni (id. iv. 14), the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the bargain. d. With a reason or an explanatory fact introduced by a rela- tive or by quod (rarely quia): as, Favonius mihi quod defendissem leviter succensuit (Att. iii. 1), Favonius gently chided me for my defence. Petus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (id.), Petus presented me all the books his father had left. Remark. โ Under this head, even what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the subjunctive. So also with quod, even the verb of saying may take the subjunctive. To this use also belong non quia, non quod, introducing a reason expressly to deny it. Non quo, non quin, introduce a result clause, but with nearly the same meaning as non quod: as, pugiles ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia... (Tusc. ii. 23), doxers groan not with pain, but, &c. non quia philosophia... percipi non posset (id. i. 1), zot that philosophy cannot be found, &c. | non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Verr. ii. 9), wot that this is necessary. Nore. โ This usage probably originates in apodosis, the condition being the supposed truth of the speaker, the main subject.
2. A clause depending upon another subjunctive clause (or equivalent Infinitive) will also take the subjunctive if it is regarded as an integral part of that clause: as,
66:2. 67.] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 187
non pugnabo quominus utrum velis eligas (Div. C. 18), Z will not oppose your taking which you will.
imperat, dum res adjudicetur, hominem ut asservent: cum judicatum sit, ad se adducant (Verr. iv. 22), he orders them while the affair is under judgment, to keep the man; when he ts judged, to bring him to him.
etenim quis tam dissoluto animo est, qui hzc cum videat, tacere ac neglegere possit (Rosc. Am. 11), for who is so reck- less of spirit, that when he sees these things, he can keep silent and pass them by ?
si tibi hoc Siculi dicerent, nonne id dicerent quod cuivis pro- bare deberent (Div. C. 6), ยขf the Sicilians said this to you, would they not say a thing which they must prove to everybody ?
mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in preeliis interfecti (Or. 44), zt zs the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who have been slain in battle.
Nore. โ The subjunctive in this use is either a Protasis or Apodosis, and partakes of the nature of the clause on which it depends,โor | at least of its original nature. In all cases except purpose and result, this is clearly seen. In these, the case is undoubtedly the same; as the Purpose has, of course, a future sense, and the Result is a branch of apodosis. (See โ Essay on the Latin Subjunctive,โ page 27.)
It is often difficult to distinguish between this construction and the preceding. Thus, in imperat ut ea fiant que opus essent, essent may stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse (under 1, 6); or it may stand for erunt, and will then be Protasis (under 2).
67. InpirEcT Discourse. ..._/ โ
A Direct Quotation is one which gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer. An Indirect Quotation is one which adapts the original words to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted.
Remark. โ The term Inptrect Discourses (oratio obliqua) | is used to designate all clauses โ even single clauses in a sentence A ,, of different construction โ which indirectly express the word or thought of any person other than the speaker or writer, or even his own under other circumstances. But it is more strictly used to include those cases only in which the form of Indirect Quotation is given to some complete proposition or citation, which may be extended to a narrative or address of any length, โ as found in the Speeches of Cesar and Livy, โthe form being dependent on some word of saying, &c., with which it is introduced.
The term Direct Discoursk (oratio recta) includes all other forms of expression, whether narration, question, exclamation, or command,
188 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: I.
1. Indirect Narrative. Ina Declaratory Sentence in indirect discourse, the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and its subject in the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive: as,
esse nonnullos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B.G.i.17), there are some, whose influence most prevails. (In direct dis- course, sunt nonnulli... valet.)
nisi jurdsset, scelus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. i. 47), he thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath (direct, nist juravero. faciam). |
Stoici negant quidquam esse bonum, nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. 21), the Stotcs assert that nothing ts good but what zs right. [The verb nego is used in preference to dico with a negative. |
a. Subject-Accusative. The subject of the infinitive in Indirect Discourse must regularly be expressed, even though it is wanting in the Direct (See ยง70, 2, d): as,
orator sum, J am an orator ; [dicit] se esse oratorem, [he says] he ts an orator (see ยง 70, 2, d).
But rarely, it is omitted, when it would be easily understood: as,
ignoscere imprudentiz dixit (B.G. iv. 27), he said he Jardoned their rashness.
rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum: dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv. 12), ยฃ asked whether they {the curtains] kad come to Agri- gentum: he answered that they had,
Remark. โ After a relative, or quam (than), where the verb would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative: as,
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat. M.1), J susfect that you are disturbed by the same things as I.
6. Relative Clauses. A subordinate clause merely erplana- tory, and containing statements which are regarded as true inde- pendently of the quotation, takes the Indicative. It often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he will use the in- dicative or subjunctive: as,
quis neget hzec omnia quz videmus deorum potestate admin- istrari (Cat. iii. 9), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power of the gods ?
cujus ingenio putabat ea que gesserat posse celebrari (Arch.g), by whose gentus he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated. {Here the fact expressed by gue gesserat, though not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard te the quotation: gue gessisseยข would mean, what Marius thought he had done. |
67: 1.] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 189
RemMirk.โSome clauses introduced by relatives are really independent, and take the accusative and infinitive. Rarely, also, subordinate clauses take this construction. The infinitive con- struction is regularly continued after a comparative with quam: as,
Marcellus requisivisse dicitur Archimedem illum, quem cum audisset interfectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 58), Mar- cellus is said to have sought for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly distressed.
unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse par- tem, ex quo [= et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. 19), the philosophers say that each one of us is a part of the unt- verse, from which thts naturally follows.
quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habi- turum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not given up he will consider the treaty as broken, so tf given up he will return her unharmed to her friends.
addit se prius occisum iri ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii. 20), he adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured.
The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see ยง 70, 4, d).
c. Conditional Sentences. In a conditional sentence, the Indicative in Apoposis is in any case represented by the corre- sponding tense of the Infinitive. The Subjunctive is represented by the Future Participle with fuisse for the pluperfect, and the Future Infinitive for the other tenses (compare the use of the par- ticiple in urus with fui for the pluperfect subj. p. 169). The Prorasis, as a dependent clause, is in all cases Subjunctive: as,
se non defuturum [esse] pollicetur, si audacter dicere velint (B. C.i. 1), he promtses not to fail, if they will speak their minds boldly {non deรฉro si voletis].
Notre. โ The future infinitive, representing the imperfect subjunc- tive in Protasis, is for some reason very rare, and only four or five examples occur in classic authors. On the contrary, the form with fuisse is quite common.
d, Questions. A Question coming immediately after a verb of asking or the like is treated as an Indirect Question (see below, 2); but questionsโ generally rhetorical โ coming in course of a long indirect discourse are treated like Declaratory Sentences: as,
num etiam recentium injuriarum memoriam [se] deponere posse (B. G. i. 14], could he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs ? [num possum ?]
quem signum daturum fugientibus? quem ausurum Alexandro succedere (Q.C. iii. 5), who will give the signal on the re- treat ? who will dare to succeed Alexander ?
190 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: 2.
Remark. โGenerally real questions, expecting an answer (chietly in the second person), take the subjunctive. Questions asked by the dubitative subjunctive must retain the subjunctive (see 2, b): as,
quid sibi vellent (B. G. i. 44), what did they want? [quid vultis ?] 2. Indirect Questions. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive: as, quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 6), Z will explain what I think (direct, guid sentio}. id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 7), ke consulted whether it could be done (direct, fotestue}. ; quam sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rosc. Am. 31), all could understand how bold you are. doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 12), #7 ยขs of no account whether I suffer or not. incerti quidnam esset (Jug. 49), uncertain what it was.
Remark. โ An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause, introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, or particle), depending immediately on a verb, or on any expression implying uncertainty or doubt.
In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin- guished from interrogative, as in the third example given above.
a- The Future Indicative is represented in indirect questions by the participle in urus with the subjunctive of esse, โ rarely by the simple subjunctive: as,
prospicio qui concursus futuri sint (Div. in Cec.), Z foresee what throngs there will be [erunt]. ~
quid sit futurum cras, fuge querere (Hor. Od. i. 9), forbear to ask what will be on the morrow ([erit, or futurum est].
6. The Dubitative Subjunctive referring to future time remains
unchanged except in tense: as,
[queritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, an Carthaginiensibus reddatur (De Inv. i. 12), [the question is] shall Carthage be destroyed, or restored to the Carthaginians.
nec quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Liv. xxii. 7), or zs any one assured what he shall hope or fear. (Here the participle with sit could not be used. ]
incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), sรฉzce zt was doubtful (abl. abs.] what they should seek or shun.
c. The Subject of an indirect question is often, in colloquial usage and in poetry, attracted into the main clause as Object (accusative of anticipation): as,
nรฉsti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. vili. 10), you know how slow Marcellus is.โIn like manner,
67:2, 3) INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 191
potestne igitur earum rerum quare futurz sint ulla esse pre- sensio (Div. ii. 5), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they will occur ?
Remark. โIn some cases the Object becomes Subject by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and inter- rogative construction is the result: as,
quidam szpe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves (Lel. 17), รฉt ts often seen, in a trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some people are.
quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Ag. i. 2), tยข has been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey.
d. In early Latin and poetry, questions which elsewhere would have the Subjunctive as indirect often have the Indicative: as,
non reputat quid laboris est (Amph. 172), ke does not consider what a task it ts.
vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato R.R 6), in what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.
Nore. โ These cases are usually considered Direct questions ; but they occur (as above) where the question cannot be translated as direct without distortion of the meaning.
e. A few expressions properly interrogative are used idiomati- cally as indefinites, and do not take a subjunctive: such are nescio quis, &c., mirum (or nimirum) quam or quantum, immane quantum, &c.: as,
qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusce.
ili. 6), who greatly extol that painlessness (whatever it ts). mirum quantum profuit (Liv. il. 1), ยขยข Aelped marvellously.
f. Occasionally, a virtual indirect question is introduced by si in the sense of whether (like if in English) : as,
circumfunduntur hostes, si quem aditum reperire possent (B. G. vi. 37), the enemy pour round [to see] tf they can find entrance.
visam si domi est (Heaut. 118), J will go see tf he is at home.
3. Indirect Commands. All Imperative forms of syeech take the Subjunctive in indirect discourse: as, ten
reminisceretur veteris incommodi populi Romani (B. G. 13),/ ยข remember [said he] the ancient disaster, &c. [reminiscere }. ne committeret ut (ib.), do not [said he] dring tt about [ne commiseris ]. ers jars faciat (id. 20), leยข him make an end of entreaty ac].
192
SYNTAX OF THE VERB.
(6s.
The following example may serve to illustrate some of the fore- going principles in a connected address : โ
Indirect Discourse.
Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam partem zturos atque ibi futuros Helvetios, ubi eos Cesar con- stitutsset atque esse voluisset: sin bello persequi Jerseveraret, reminisceretur et veteris incom- modi populi Romani, et pris- tine virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod improviso unum pagum ador- tus essef, cum ii qui flumen transissent suis auxilium ferre 10n Jossent, ne ob eam rem aut sue magno opere virtuti ยขr7bue- ret, aut tAsos despiceret: se ita a patribus majoribusque szds didictsse, ut magis virtute quam dolo coutenderent, aut insidiis niterentur. Quare ne commit- teret, ut zs locus ubi coustitissent ex calamitate populi Romani et internecione exercitfiis nomen caperet, aut memoriam fro- deret. โ B.G. i. 13.
Direct Discourse.
Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faczet, in eam partem zbunt atque ibi erunt flelvetiz, ubi eos Cesar constit- erit atque esse voluerit: sin bello persequi jerseveradit, remintiscere finquit) et veteris incommodi populi Romani, et pristine virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod improviso unum pagum adortus es, cum ii qui flumen transterant suis auxilium ferre non Jossent, ne ob eam rem aut โuw magno opere virtuti tribuerts, aut nos despexeris: nos ita a patribus majoribusque nostris didictmus, ut magis vir- tute quam dolo contendamus, aut insidiis wztamur. Quare, ne commiser?s, ut hic locus ubi constitimus ex calamitate populi Romani et internecione exerci- tis nomen cafzat, aut memo-
riam prodat.
68. WisHes AND COMMANDS.
WisHes are expressed by the Subjunctive, often strengthened by the particles ut, utinam, 0 si (early Latin), qui; the primary tenses being used in reference to future time, the secondary to express a hopeless wish, โ the imper- fect in present time, the pluperfect in past (see ยง 57, 4).
Remark.โA periphrasis with velim, vellem, &c., is some- times used (57, 4, c).
2. ComMaANDs are expressed by the Imperative or Sub- junctive (ยง 57, 3, 7); Pronreitions by the Subjunctive, or by a periphrasis with noli or cave (ยง 57, 7, a). The object of the command is given in a purpose-clause (ยง 70, 3) with ut or ne, except after jubeo and veto (ยง 70, 2).
Indirectly quoted, all these forms of speech take the Subjunctive (see ยง 67, 3).
69. 70.] CLAUSES. 193
69. Revative CLAUSES.
1. A simple relative, merely introducing a descriptive fact, takes the Indicative.
2. The Subjunctive appears more or less frequently in many relative clauses (which have been already treated). These relatives always eitherโ(1) are general relatives of Protasis ; or (2) express some logical connection between the relative and antecedent, or (3) have no effect at all upon the construction. These constructions are โ
1. General or Future Conditions in Protasis ($$ 59, 60, 61). 2 ad Final Clauses (ยง 64). 6. Consecutive Clauses (ยง 65). c- Relatives of Characteristic (ยง 65, 2). d. Relatives implying Cause or Hindrance (ยง 65, 2, e). รฉโฌ.- Temporal Clauses of relative time (62, 2). 3. a. Intermediate Clauses (ยง 66). 6. Clauses in Indirect Discourse (ยง 67).
70. SwuBsTANTIVE CLAUSEs.
A Substantive Clause is one which, like a noun, is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition with a subject or object. |
Remark. โ The Infinitive with the Accusative, though not strictly a Clause, is equivalent to one, and may be treated as such.
When a substantive clause is used as Subject, the verb to which it is subject is called Impersonal (ยง 39), and its sign, in English, is IT; when it is used as Object, it generally follows some verb of knowing, &c. (ยง 67, 1) or of wishing or effecting, and its sign, in English, is THAT, or TO (Infinitive).
1. Classification. Substantive Clauses are of four kinds: โ1. The Accusative with the Infinitive, denoting an idea as thought or spoken (ยง 67, 1); 2. Indirect Questions (67, 2); 8. The Subjunctive with ut, ne, quo, quin, or
9
194 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 1, 2.
quominus, denoting purpose or result; 4. The Indicative with quod, denoting a fact. But the Infinitive alone may take the place of either 1 or 3,
2. Accusative and Infinitive. The Accusative with ยป the Infinitive is used as the SussEer chiefly of esse or im- personal verbs (ยง 57, 8, b); and as the Ossectrโ1, Of all verbs and expressions of knowing, thinking, and telling (In- direct Discourse, ยง 67,1); 2. Of jubeo and veto, and rarely of other verbs of commanding, requesting, admonishing, and the like; 3. Sometimes of verbs of wishing: as,
omnis homines summa ope niti decet (Sall. Cat. 1), ct is it- ting that all men strive with utmost effort.
Labienum jugum montis adscendere jubet (id. 21), he orders Labienus to ascend the ridge of the hill.
judicem esse me non doctorem volo (Or. 33), Z wish to be a judge, not a teacher.
negat ullos patere portus (Liv. xxviii. 43), 4e says that no ports are open.
a. After Passives. If the main verb is changed to the pas- sive, either (1) the Subject of the infinitive (like other objects of active verbs) becomes nominative, and the infinitive is retained ; or (2) the passive is used impersonally, and the clause retained as its subject. With verbs of saying, &c., the former construction is more common, especially in the tenses of incomplete action; with jubeo and veto it is always used: as,
primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 13), they first are related to have joined words with a certain skill.
jussus es renuntiari consul (Phil. ii. 32), you were under orders to be declared consul.
in lautumias Syracusanas deduci imperantur (Verr. v. 27), they are ordered to be taken to the stone-pits of Syracuse.
hic accusare non est situs (Sest. 44), Ze was not allowed to accuse.
ceterz Illyrici legiones secutura@ sperabantur (Tac. Hist. ii. 74), the rest of the legions of Lllyricum were expected to follow.
voluntaria morte interisse creditus est (Tac. H. iv. 67), ke was thought to have perished by voluntary death.
nuntiatur piratarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 24), zt รฉs told that the ships of the pirates are in port.
b. The poets extend the use of the passive to verbs which are not properly verba sentiendi: as,
colligor domine placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), 7ยข zs gathered [from this memorial] ยขhat / pleased my mistress.
70#27ยฐ3) SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. SG
c. Such indirect discourse may depend on any word implying speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of saying, &c.: as,
eos redire jubet: se in tempore adfuturum esse (Liv. xxiv. 13),
he orders them to return | promising | that he will be at hand in season.
orantes ut urbibus saltem โjam enim agros deploratos esse โ
opem senatus ferret (id. xvi. 6), Jraying that the senate would bring aid to the cities โfor the fields [they said] were already given up as lost.
d. Verbs of promising, expecting, threatening, swearing, and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, contrary to the English idiom (ยง 67, I, a); but sometimes a simple complementary infinitive: as,
me spero liberatum [esse] metu (Tusce. ii. 27), Z ยขrust I have
been freed from fear. minatur sese abire (Asin. iii. 3), ke threatens to go away. [Direct, abeo, J am going away. |
ex quibus sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lzl. 21), Jrom which they hope to gain the utmost advantage.
quem inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondeo (Mur. 41), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies.
dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusce. v. 27), azn threatens to wear down fortitude. pollicentur obsides dare (B.G. iv. 21), they promise to give hos- tages [compare Greek aorist infinitive atter similar verbs. ] 3. Clauses of Purpose. The clause with ut (nega-_~... tive ne), developed from PpuRPOSE, is used as the Object of all verbs denoting an action directed towards the future. Such are โ
a. Verbs of commanding, asking, admonishing, urging, and, in general those denoting an influence upon some one (ยง 64). > ~ These verbs rarely take the Infinitive (except jubeo and veto, which take it regularly): as,
his uti conquirerent imperavit (B.G. i. 28), ke ordered them to
search. : monet ut omnes suspiciones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to
avoid all suspicton.
b. Verbs of wishing and the like. These take also the simple ~~ (nfinitive ; more commonly when the subject remains the same, less commonly when it is different (see 2, above): as,
cupio ut impetret (Capt. i. 2), wish he may get it.
cum nostri perspici cuperent (B. G. iii. 21), when our men
wished it to be seen
196 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 3.
mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 6), 7 would rather you Seared Cerberus.
quos non tam ulcisci studeo quam sanare (Cat. ii. 8), whom I do not care so much to punish as to cure.
c. Verbs of permission, concession, and necessity. These take also the Infinitive: as,
permisit ut partes faceret (De Or. ii. 90), permitted him to make divisions.
vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be imported.
nullo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), ke suffered him- self to be tangled in no business.
sint enim oportet si miseri sunt (Tusc. i. 6), they must exist, tf they are wretched. (Here the clause is subject of ofortet.].
RreMarRK.โ The clause with licet (usually without ut) is regularly used to express a concession in the sense of although.
d. Verbs of determining, resolving, bargaining, which also take the Infinitive. Those of decreeing often take the participle in dus, on the principle of indirect discourse: as,
edicto ne quis injussu pugnaret (Liv. v.19), having commanded that none should fight without orders.
pacto ut victorem res sequeretur (id. xxviii. 21), having bar- gained that the property should belong to the victor.
Regulus captivos reddendos non censuit (Off. i. 13), Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [i.e. in giv- ing his opinion, captivi non reddendi sunt. |
e. Verbs of caution and effort. Those denoting an effort to hinder may also take quominus or ne: as,
cura et provide ut nequid ei desit (Att. ii. 3), zake care and see that he lacks nothing.
non deterret sapientem mors quominus... (Tusc. i. 38), death does not deter the wise man from, &c.
ne facerem impedivit (Fat. i. 1), Arevented me from doing.
f. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with ne affirmative and ne non or ut negative: as, ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), ke feared he . should offend the mind, &c. vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 9), 7 fear J cannot grant you. , haud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet
(Tusc. v. 40), there ts no danger of his not thinking death desirable.
Remark. โ The particle ut or ne is often omitted, โ generally after verbs of wishing, necessity, permission ; with cave, dic, fac; and in indirect discourse, frequently after verbs of commanding and the like.
70: 4.] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 197
g- With any verbs of the above classes, the poets may use the Infinitive: as, hortamur fari (4En. ii. 74), we exhort [him] Zo speak.
4. Clauses of Result. The clause with ut (negative โa ut non, &c.), developed from RESULT, is used as the Object of verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort: as,
commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), he made it possible that supplies could be brought. (Lit., he effected that, &c. ]
a. The substantive clause becomes the Subject of such verbs ~~ in the passive; and hence is further used as the subject of verbs denoting it happens, it remains, it follows, and the like; and even of the simple esse in the same sense, and other phrases: as,
sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 32), the next thing is to show, &c.
accidit ut esset plena luna (B. G. iv. 29), zt chanced to be full
moon.
accedit ut conturber (Deiot. 1), besides this I am troubled.
reliquum est quarta virtus ut sit ipsa frugalitas (id.), zt remains
that the fourth virtue ts thrift. _ quando fuit ut quod licet, non liceret (Cel. 20), when was it that what ts now allowed was not allowed ?
6. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam, after a comparative: as,
_ perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusce. i. 22), he endured all, rather than betray, dc.
ec. A result clause with ut is often used elliptically, in ex- clamations, with or without -ne (compare ยง 57, 8, g): as, quanquam quid loquor? te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. 9), yet
why do Task? that anything should bend you? egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 18), what, J interrupt you ?
Remark โ The infinitive, in exclamations, usually refers to something actually occurring; the subjunctive to something con- templated.
d. The phrase tantum abest, if is so far [from being the case], besides a subject-clause (substantive) with ut, regularly takes another ut-clause (of result) depending on tantum: as,
tantum abest ut mostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac mor- osi simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 29), so far from admiring our own matters, we are difficult and captious to that degree, that not Demosthenes himself satisfies us. {Here the first ut-clause depends directly on abest ; the second on ยขantum; and the third on usgue eo. |
198 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 4.
e. The expressions facere ut, committere ut, often form a periphrasis for the simple verb (compare fore ut for the future infinitive) : as,
invitus feci ut Flamininum e senatu eicerem (Cat. M. 12), z# was with reluctance that I expelled, &c.
f. Rarely, a thought or idea is considered as a result, and takes the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infini- tive (in this case a demonstrative usually precedes) : as,
altera est res, ut... (Off. i. 20), the second point its that, &c.
preclarum illud est, ut eos... amemus (Tusc. iii. 29), ยขhรฉs zs a noble thing, that we should love, &c.
que est igitur amentia, ut... what folly is there then in de- manding, &c.
g- Verbs and other expressions which imply hindering and the like, may take quin when the main verb is negative, formally or virtually ($ 65, 1, 6): as,
facere non possum quin... (Att. xii. 27), 7 cannot avoid, &c.
nihil pretermisi quin scribam...(Q. F. iii. 3), Z have left nothing undone to write.
ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2), that I might be hin- dered by nothing from, &c.
non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin (Sall. Ep. Mith. 17), no human or divine laws prevent, but that, &c.
Remark. โ This usage is found especially with the phrase non dubito and similar expressions making a kind of indirect dis- course: as,
non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2), ke did not doubt that we believed him.
illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20), do of doubt that I will do all.
quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 27), who ts ignorant that, &c. ?
neque ambigitur quin Brutus pessimo publico id facturus fue- rit si priorum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Livy, ii. 1), nor is there any question that Brutus, if he had wrested the kingdom from any one of the former kings, would have done it with the worst results to the state (direct discourse, fecรฉsset].
h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of saying or as words of commanding, effecting and the like, and may be construed accordingly: as,
sequitur illico esse causas immutabiles (Fat. 12), 7# follows directly that there are unalterable causes. [The regular construction with segzor used of a logical sequence. }
laudem sapientiz statuo esse maximam (Div. v. 13), J hold that the glory of wisdom is the greatest.
BOSโ Goda. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 199
statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittantur (B. G. xii. 21), they resolve that 10,000 men shall be sent.
res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself warned that it was time [monere ut, warn to do something.
fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. 1. 27), suppose that Lam per- suaded of that [facere ut, accomplish that).
hoc volunt persuadere non interire animos (B. G. vi. 13), they wish to convince that souls do not perish.
huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. iii. 18), Jersuades him to pass over to the enemy.
Nore. โ The infinitive, with a subject, in this construction is in- direct discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these verbs.
5. Indicative with quod. The clause in the Indicative with quod is used (more commonly as Subject) when the statement is regarded as a fact: as,
alterum est. vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. i. 6), zยข 7s another fault, that some bestow too much zeal, &c. [Here ut with the subjunctive could be used, meaning that they should, or the accusative and infin- itive, meaning Zo more abstractly; quod makes it a fact that men do, Xc. |
inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal. agit aliquid (Ac. ii. 12), ยขhere ts this chief difference, &c., that an animal has an aim.
quod rediit nobis mirabile videtur (Off. iii. 21), that he [Reg- ulus|-veturned seems wonderful tous. [Redisse would mean he should have returned. |
a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod appears as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English WHEREAS: as,
- quod de domo scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of the house.
quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis
preclaris operibus letari (Att. i. ยง), as to your congratulat-
ing me on our condition, no wonder you are pleased with your own noble works.
b. Verbs of feeling and its expression take either quod (quia) or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : as, quod scribis... gaudeo(Q. F.iii.1). Zam glad that you write. quz perfecta esse vehementer letor (Rosc. Am. 47), 7 greatly rejoice that this ts finished. facio libenter quod eam non possum preterire (Leg. i. 24). JZ am glad that I cannot pass tt by. Remark. โ Rarely, an apparent substantive clause, with miror and similar expressions, is introduced by si (really a Protasis) : as, -miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lel. 15), J skould wonder tf he could ever have a friend.
200 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. T7474, 2:
71. QUESTIONS.
Questions are introduced by Interrogative Pronouns, Adverbs, or Particles, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in English.
The Interrogative Particles are, an, utrum, num, and the enclitic -ne (see page 86). For other interrogative words, see list, page 49.
i. Interrogative Particles. The enclitic -ne is used in questions asked for information merely ; nonne, when the answer yes, aud num when the answer no, is expected or im- plied: as,
meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. i. 3), do you remember
my saying tn the senate ?
nonne animadvertis quam multi salvi pervenerint (N. D. iii.
37), do you not observe how many have come through safe ? num dubium est (Rosc. Am. 37), there zs no doubt, is there?
Remark. โ The interrogative particle is sometimes omitted: as,
patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that your plans are manifest ?
a. In Indirect Questions, num loses its peculiar force: as,
quero num aliter evenirent (Fat. 3). I ask whether they would turn out differently.
b. The form of Indirect questions is the same as that of Direct; the difference being only in the verb, which regularly takes the subjunctive (ยง 67, 2).
Remark. โIn English, indirect questions are introduced by interrogatives, or by the particle whether.
c. The enclitic -ne is often added to interrogative words when not required: as, utrumne, numne, anne.
d. The expressions nescio an, dubito an, and the like, incline to the Affirmative, โ I donโt know but.
2. Double Questions. In Double or Alternative Ques- tions, utrum or -ne, whether, stands in the first member; an, anne, or; annon, necne, or not, in the second: as,
-utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), donโt you know ? or do you think nothing of it?
92:ยฐ3,ยฐ 3) QUESTIONS. 201
quero servosne an liberos (Rosc. Am. 27). JZ ask whether slaves or free. (Here servos aut liberos would mean, were there azy, either slaves or free. |
Remark.โIn direct questions, annon is more frequently found in the alternative; in indirect, necne.
a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem- ber; when -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second: as,
Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio (Manil. 19), shall J say to Ga-
bintus or to Pompey ?
sunt hxc tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 18), ave these your words
or not?
6. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied; and an (anne) alone asks a questionโ usually with indignation or sur- prise: as,
an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 7), what! do you think those
men wretched ?
ce. The second member may be omitted, when utrum asks a question to which there is no alternative: as,
utrum in clarissimis est civibus is quem.... (Flacc. 19), zs he
among the noblest citizens, whom, &c. d. The following exhibits the various forms of alternative questions : โ utrum...an Se ees an (anne) -ne ve. @2 ee eee -ne
3. Question and Answer. As there is no word in Latin meaning simply yes or no, in answering a question the verb is generally repeated : as,
valetne, ยขs ke well ? valet, yes (he 7s well).
eratne tecum, was he with you ? non erat, no (he was not).
a. An intensive or negative particle is sometimes used in answer to a direct question: thus immo (nay but), vero (in truth), or etiam (even so) may have the meaning of yes; and non (not), or minime (least-of-all), of no.
6. In the answer to an alternative question, one member of the alternative must be repeated: as,
tune an frater erat, was it you or your brother ? ego [eram], ยขยข was J.
Qx*
202 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: 1.
72, PARTICIPLES.
The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an adjective; but has a partial distinction of tense, and generally governs the case of its verb.
1. Distinctions of Tense. The Present participle de- notes the action as not completed; the Perfect as completed ; the Future as still to take place.
a. Present. The Present participle has several of the irregu- lar uses of the present indicative (compare ยง 58, 2): as,
querenti mihi jamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. 13), though 1 had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind (cf. ib. @).
C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 4), ke resisted Flaminius while attempting to divide, &c. (ct. b). iens in Pompeianum bene mane hec scripsi (Att. iv. 9), Z write this when about going to my place at Pompei? (cf. c).
Hence it is used in late writers to denote purpose.
6. Perfect. The Perfect participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, fisus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers: as,
cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed, &c.
iratus dixisti (Mur. 30), you spoke in a passion.
oblitus auspicia (Phil. i. 13), forgetting the auspices.
insidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing ambuscade.
imperio potitus (Liv. xxi. 2), holding the command...
ad pugnam congressi (id. iv. 10), meeting in fight.
rem incredibilem rati (Sall. C. 48), thinking it incredible.
c. The present participle, wanting in the Passive, is usually supplied by a clause with dum or cum; rarely by the participle in dus: as,
Dic, hospes, Spartz, nos te hic vidisse jacentes, Dum sanctis patrie legibus obsequimur.
Tell tt. stranger, at Sparta, that we lie here obedient to our countryโs sacred laws. [Here dum obseguimur is a transla- tion of the Greek srecO6uevot. |
crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set on fire [compare note under ยง 73}.
72: 2,3.) PARTICIPLES. 203
2. Adjective use. The present and perfect participles are used sometimes as attributes, nearly like adjectives: as,
cum antiquissimam sententiam tum comprobatam (Div. i. 5), a view at once most ancient and approved. signa nunquam fere ementientia (id. 9), sigus hardly ever
deceitful. auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. 15), ยขhey use forced auspices.
a. โThus they are used, like adjectives, as nouns: as,
sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Leg. i. 13), the self- indulgent, and slaves to the body.
recte facta paria esse debent (Par. iii. 1), right deeds ought to be like in value.
male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 27), 27 got, ll spent.
consuetudo valentis (De Or. ii. 44), the habit of a man in health.
b. So, also, they are connected with nouns by esse and simi- lar verbs: as,
videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens (Cat. M. 8), you see how busy old age ts, always aiming and trying at something.
Gallia est omnis divisa (B. G. i. 1), all Gaul ts divided.
locus qui nunc septus est (Liv.i. 8), the place which ts now enclosed.
ยข. From this adjective use arise the compound tenses of the passive, โthe participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea of past time: as,
interfectus est, ke was (or has been) killed, lit., he ts having- been-killed (i.e., already slain].
d. In the best writers (as Cicero) this participle, when used with the tenses of completed action, retains its proper force; but in later writers the two sets of tenses (as, amatus sum or fui) are often used indiscriminately: as,
[leges] cum que late sunt tum vero que promulgate fuerunt (Sest. 25), the laws, both those which were proposed, and | those which were published. [The proposal ot the laws was a single act: hence /aยข@ sunt is a pure perfect. The Audlish- ing, or posting, was a continued state, which is indicated by promulgate, and fuerunt is the pure perfect. ]
arma que fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. i. 34), the arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground. [Compare occupati sunt et fuerunt (Off. i. 17): the difference between this and the preceding is, that occupatus can be used only as an adjective. ]
3. Predicate use. The Present and Perfect participles are often used as a predicate, where in English a clause
204 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: 3.
would be used to express time, cause, occasion, condition, concession, characteristic, manner, circumstance: as,
vereor ne turpe sit dicere incipientem (Mil. 1), 7 fear tt may be a dishonor |to me] when beginning to speak.
salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 7), you have restored a safety which we did not hope.
nemo ei neganti non credidisset (Mil. 19), zo one would have dishbelieved him when he denied.
Remark. โ This use is especially frequent in the Ablative Ab- solute (see ยง 54, 10, b and Note). A co-ordinate clause is some- times compressed into a perfect participle; and a participle with a negative expresses the same idea which in English is given by without: as,
imprudentibus nostris (B. G. v.15), while our men were not
looking.
miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 5), ยขยข 2s wretched
to vex oneโs self without effecting anything.
instructos ordines in locum zquum deducit (Sall. C. 59), se
draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground.
ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), that he might carry
them over and put them to death.
a. A noun and passive participle are often so united that the participle and not the noun contains the main idea (compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek: G. 280): as,
ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), defore the city was built or building.
illi libertatem civium Romanorum imminutam non tulerunt; vos vitam ereptam negligetis (Manil. 5), key did not endure the infringement of the citizensโ liberty; will you disregard the destruction of their life?
So with opus: as,
opus est viatico facto (Plaut. Trin.), there is need of laying in provision.
maturato opus est (Livy viii. 13), there zs no need of haste. [Here there is no noun, as the verb is used impersonally. ]
6. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs)
is almost the same in meaning as a perfect active: as,
fidem quem habent spectatam jam et diu cognitam (Div. C. 4), my fidelity, which they have proved and long known.
(Hence the perfect with have in modern languages.)
ce. The perfect participle, with verbs of effecting, effort, or the like (also with volo where esse may be understood, cf. ยง 70, 3, 6), expresses more forcibly the idea of the verb: as,
_preefectos suos multi missos fecerunt (Verr. iv. 58), many dis- charged thetr officers.
72: 4, 5.] | PARTICIPLES, 2U5
hic transactum reddet omne (Capt. 345), ke will get it all done.
me excusatum volo (Verr. i. 40), Z wish to be excused.
d. The present participle is sometimes nearly equivalent to an infinitive, but expresses the action more vividly (after facio, in- duco, and the like, used of authors, and after verbs of sense): as,
Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. 11), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing.
4. Future Participle. The Future Participle (except futurus and venturus) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by later writers.
a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse in a peri- phrastic conjugation (see ยง 40, a): as,
morere, Diagora, non enim in czelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. 46), die, for you are not likely to go to heaven.
conclave illud ubi erat mansurus si... (Div. i. 15), chat cham- ber where he would have staid tf, &c.
sperat adolescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 19), ke young man hopes to live long (ยง 67, 1).
neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 20), and seemed unltkely ever to seek the consulship.
By later writers it is also used in simple agreement to express likelihood or purpose, or even an apodosis: as,
cum leo regem invasurus incurreret (Q. C. viii. 1), when a lion rushed on to attack the king.
rediit belli casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. xvii. 62), he re- turned to try the chances of war anew.
ausus est rem plus fame habituram (Liv. ii. 10), ke dared a thing which would have more repute.
[See also examples in ยง 59, 1, b.]
b. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (ยง 59, 3, e).
5. Gerundive. The Gerundive, in its participial or ad- jective use, denotes necessity or propriety.
a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and per- fect participles, in simple agreement with a noun: as,
fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 38), a drave man, and ยฐ
worthy to be preserved.
b. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with esse in a
second periphrastic conjugation (ยง 40, b): as,
non agitanda res erit (Verr. vi. 70), will not the thing have to be agitated ?
ry
206 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [73: 1, 2.
Remark. โ The gerundive in this construction is passive in meaning. But in early Latin, and occasionally elsewhere, it is used impersonally, governing the accusative ; and it is regularly so used with utor, fruor, &c., governing the ablative (sometimes called the nominative of the gerund): as,
via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 2), the way we
have to enter.
agitandumst vigilias (Trin. 869), Z have got to stand guard.
[Compare Greek verbal in -rรฉoc, G, 281.] c- It is also used to denote purpose after verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand: as,
redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 21), the contractor who had undertaken to make that column [the regular construction with this class of verbs].
zedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 50), ke had the temple of Castor to take care of.
naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. vi. 56), he took care that the ships and cargoes should be kept.
For the Gerundive after verbs of decreeing, see ยง 70, 3, d.
For the ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE, see ยง 54, Io, b.
73. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
1. Gerund. The Gerund is a verbal noun, retaining the government of the verb, and modified by adverbs, but in grammatical construction following the same rules as nouns.
Remark. โ The use of the Gerund, in the oblique cases, cor- responds to the use of the Infinitive as Subject (ยง 57, 8, a), its nominative form being found only in the impersonal use of the participle in dus: as,
ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa dijudicandi (De Or. ii. 38),
the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and false. (Here the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguish- ing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitive dzsserere and dijudicare. |
juveni parandum, seni utendum est (Sen. Ep. 36), ยขยข 7s for the
young to get, for the old to enjoy (compare ยง 51, 3, 4).
2. Gerundive, When the gerund would have an object in the accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead, agreeing with the noun, and in the case which the gerund
would have had: as,
paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), reader to undergo all dangers. (Here subeunda agrees with fericula, which is itself governed by ad: the construction with the gerund would be, ad subeundum, &c.; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative Zericula.]
73: 2, 3.) GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 207
exercende memorize gratia (Off. i. 15), for the sake of training the memory. |Here the gerund construction would be, exer- cendi memoriam. |
Remark.โ The verbs utor, fruor, &. (ยง 54, 6, d), are โtreated like verbs governing the Accusative, as they do in early Latin: as,
expetuntur divitiz ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 8), riches are sought for che enjoyment of pleasure.
Nore. โ The gerundive construction is probably the original one. The Participle in dus seems to have had a present passive force as in secundus (trom sequor), rotundus, volvenda dies (Virg.), fluiamandi (โT'ac.), from which the idea of necessity was developed through that of futurity, as in the development of the subjunctive. Consilium urbis delende would thus have meant a plan of a city being destroyed [in process of destruction], then about to be destroyed, then to be de- stroyed, then a plan of destroying the city, the two words becoming fused together as in ub urbe condita. The gerund is simply an imper- sonal use of the participle, in its original present sense, retaining the case of its verb, as in agitandum est vigilias ; quid opus est fucto?
3. Construction. The Gerund (if of transitive verbs. with a noun in government) and the Gerundive (with a noun in agreement) are used, in the oblique cases, in the construc- tions of nouns, as follows: โ
a. Genitive. The Genitive is used after nouns or adjectives in the constructions of the objective genitive (ยง 50, 3); more rarely in the predicate after esse, or as a genitive of quality: as.
neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms [objective genitive after sfatio|.
ne conservandz quidem patriz causa (Off. i. 45), sot even in order to save the country.
vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 20), zt zs the best end of life.
non tam commutandarum rerum quam evertendarum cupidos (id. ii. 1), destrous not so much of changing as of desiroyingโ the state.
que res evertendz reipublice solent esse (Verr. iii. 53), which things generally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth.
cognoscende antiquitatis (Ann. ii. 59), to study old times. [Here gratia is, by a rare construction, omitted. |
The genitive of the Gerund is, in a few cases, used (like a noun) with the genitive of an object agreeing neither in gender nor number: as,
ejus videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec.), eager fo see her. reiciendi trium judicum potestas (Inv. ii. 2), tke ower of challenging three jurors. Remark. โ In the genitive, the construction of the gerund and gerundive are about equally common.
208 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. (73: 3.
b. Dative. The Dative is used after the adjectives (and rarely nouns) which are followed by the dative of nouns (ยง 51, 6) ; also, in a few expressions after verbs: as,
przesse agro colendo (Rosc. Am. 18), to take charge of tillage.
esse solvendo, ยขo be able to pay.
genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a
sort of armor suited to the defence of the body.
reliqua tempora demetiendis fructibus et percipiendis accom-
modata sunt (Cat. M. 19), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest.
diem prestituit operi faciendo (Verr. ii. 56), ke appointed a day
for doing the work. It is also used in certain phrases belonging to the civil law, after nouns meaning Officers, offices, elections, &c.: as,
comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 17), elections for nomin-
ating consuls.
triumvirum coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), @ ยขriumvir for
leading out colonies.
c. Accusative. โThe Accusative is used after the prepositions ad, inter, circa, ob (rarely in and ante); most frequently after ad, denoting purpose (compare ยง 72, 4): as,
vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam
(Cat. i. 2), you live, not to put off, but to confirm your daring.
inter agendum (Ecl. ix. 24), while driving.
me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 10), you call me to write.
d. Ablative. The Ablative is used to express means or in- strument ; also manner (often by later writers, in a sense equiv- alent to the present participle) ; after comparatives ; and after the prepositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro and cum: as,
multa pollicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), ke fersuades by large
promises. โ
his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 7), dy reading these very things.
nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off.
i. 15), 20 duty ts more important than gratitude.
in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 6), to be employed in affairs.
Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 34), egual to any man in
speaking Latin.
nullis virtutis praeceptis tradendis (Off. i. 2), without giving
any precepts of virtue.
obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv.
i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude.
Remark. โ The gerund is occasionally found in apposition with a noun: as,
ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Livy, xxi.
3), for the most widely different things obeying and com- manding.
Nore. โ From the ablative of manner comes the Italian and Spanish form of the participle, the true participle form becoming an adjective.
74: 1, 2.] a SUPINE. 209
74, SupiIne.
The Supine is a verbal noun, having no distinction of tense or person, and is limited to two uses.
Norr. โ The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension. The form in um is the accusative of the end of motion. โThe form in u is probably dative of purpose, though possibly ablative.
1. Former Supine. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion to express the purpose of the motion; it governs the case of its verb, and is modified by adverbs: as,
quid est, imusne sessum? etsi admonitum venimus te, non flagitatum (De Or. iii. 5), 4ow now, shall we be seated? though we have come to remind not to entreat you.
nuptum collocasse (B. G. i. 18), fo establish in marriage.
venerunt questum injurias (Liv. iii. 25), ยขkey came to complain of wrongs.
Remark. โ The supine in um is used especially after eo; and with the passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive (see ยง 55, 3, b, Rem.): as,
fuรฉre cives qui rempublicam perditum irent (Sall. C. 36), ยขhere were citizens who went about to ruin the republic. ~ non Graiis servitum matribus ibo (n. ii. 786), Z shall not go in slavery to the Grecian dames. si scisset se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 9) he. [Pompey] kad known that he was going to be murdered.
2. Latter Supine. The Supine in w is used only after a few adjectives, and the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to de- note that in respect to which the quality is asserted: as,
O rem non modo visu foedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 25), a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of!
quezrunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 27), they ask what ts best to do.
humanum factu aut inceptu (Andr. 236), a human thing to do or undertake.
si hoc fas est dictu (Tuse. v. 13), ยขf this ts lawful to say.
So rarely with verbs: as, pudet dictu (Agric. 32), zt 7s shame ยขo tell.
Remark.โ The supine in u is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, difficilis, jucundus, the construction of ad with the gerund is more common. โThe Infinitive is often used in the same significa- tion, by the poets, with all these adjectives.
โL-
210 GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. [75.
1.
oor AN fF WN
FE 9
R
~ @
bh Or
16.
a7.
18.
19.
20.
21. 22.
23.
24. 25.
75. GENERAL RULES oF SYNTAX.
Nouns meaning the same thing agree in case: (ยง 46).
. Adjectives agree with Nouns in gender, number, and case (47). . Possessive Adjectives are used for the genitive, and in any
case may have a genitive in agreement (47, 5).
Relatives agree with their antecedents in gender and number ; their case depending on the construction of their clause (48).
. A Verb agrees with its Subject in number and person (49).
Two or more singular subjects โalso collective nouns, with quisque and uterqueโmay take a plural verb (49, 1).
. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (49, 2).
A Noun used to limit or define another is in the Genit1ve (50).
. The Genitive is used to denote the author, owner, source, and
(with adjectives) measure or quality (50, 1).
. Words denoting a part are followed by the genitive of the
whole to which the part belongs (50, 2).
Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the genitive to express indefinite Value (50, 1, 7).
Many words of memory and feeling, knowledge or ignorance, fulness and want, โ also verbals and participles used as ad- jectives, โ govern the genitive (50, 3).
. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the gen-
itive of the charge or penalty (50, 4, 6). The Dartrvr is the case of the Indirect Object (51).
. Words of likeness, fitness, nearness, service, or help are fol-
lowed by the dative (51, 5, 6).
Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, serve, trust, and their contraries, โ also to believe, persuade, command, obey, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, โ govern the dative (51, 2, a).
The Dative is used after esse, to be, to denote the Owner (51, 3).
Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, pre, pro, sub, super, govern the dative (51, 2, d).
Verbs of giving, telling, sending, and the likeโand some- times of comparing and taking away โ govern the accu- sative and dative (51, 1).
The dative is used to denote the purpose or end; often with another dative of the person or thing affected (51, 5).
The AccusaTIVE is the case of the Direct Object (52).
The subject of the Infinitive mood is in the accusative (52, 4, 0). Time how long and Distance how far are in the accusative. The accusative is used adverbially, or for specification (52, 3).
Verbs of naming, choosing, asking, and teaching govern two accusatives (52, 2). :
75.] GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 211
26. The ABLATIVE is used of cause, manner, means, instrument, quality, specification, and price (54).
27. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is in the ablative with ab (54, 4).
28. Words denoting separation and plenty or wantโalso opus and usus signifying need โ govern the ablative (54, 1).
29. Participles denoting birth or origin govern the ablative (54, 2, a):
30. The adjectives dignus, indignus,โ with many verbals, as
_contentus, fretus, letus, preeditus,โ govern the abla-
tive (54, 3, @; 10, a).
31. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds, govern the ablative (54, 6, d).
32. Comparatives may take the ablative instead of quam, than.
33. Degree of Difference is put in the ablative (54, 6, e).
34. Time at or within which is put in the ablative (55, 1).
35. Ablative Absolute. A Subject and Predicate in the ablative are used to define the time or circumstances of an action.
36. The name of the Town where is in form like the Genitive of singular names in us, a, um, otherwise Dative or Ablative ; that whither in the Accusative, and whence in the Ablative.
So of domus, rus (also humi, belli, militia), and many names of Islands.
37. With other words (including names of Countries) Prepositions are used to denote where, whither, or whence.
38. The Infinitive is used like a neuter noun, as the Subject or Object, or to complete the action of a ver (57, 8, a).
39. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative, is regularly used after words of knowing, thinking, telling, and the like (57, 8, e).
40. Yistorical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for tenses of the indicative in narration (57, 8, x).
41. The Gerund, governing the case of its verb, or the Gerundive in agreement with a noun, has the construction of a verbal noun.
42. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion; the Supine in u after adjectives.
43. The Subjunctive is used independently to denote a wish, com- mand, or concession (57, 2), also in doubtful questions.
44. Relatives or Conjunctions implying purpose or result, โ also of relative time or characteristic, โ require the Subjunctive.
45. Indirect Questions take a verb in the subjunctive (67, 2).
46. The Subjunctive present and perfect are used in future condi- tions; the imperfect and pluperfect in those contrary to fact.
47, Dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse, or in a subjunctive construction, take the subjunctive.
48. In the sequence of Tenses, primary tenses are followed by primary, and secondary by secondary (58, Io).
212 3 ARRANGEMENT. [76: 1, 2.
76. ARRANGEMENT.
In Latin the words do not follow the order of con- struction, yet they have a regular arrangement. This, however, is constantly modified for emphasis, harmony, and clearness.
1. Normal Order. Regularly the subject stands first, followed by its modifiers ; the verb dast, preceded by the words which depend upon it: as,
civis Romanus sum (zoยข sum Romanus Civis).
voluptates blandissimz dominz majores partes animi a vir- tute detorquent (Off. ii. 10).
a. A predicate nominative, as the most important part of the predicate, is often placed after the copula: as,
qui Athenis est mortuus (id. 24). hec ad judicandum sunt facillima (id. iii. 6).
b. The forms of esse meaning there is, &c., often come first in the sentence: as,
sunt quedam officia que aliis magis quam aliis debeantur
(Off. i. 18).
c. A numeral adjective, or one essential to the meaning of the phrase, goes before its noun; one simply descriptive commonly follows: as,
omnes homines decet.
est viri magni rebus agitatis punire sontes (Off. i. 24).
omnis actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentia (id. 29).
cum aliqua perturbatione (id. i. 38).
Lelius et sapiens et amicitie gloria excellens (Lzl. 1).
d. A Demonstrative pronoun precedes the noun, Relatives stand first in their sentence or clause, Adverbs stand directly before the word they qualify.
2. Emphasis. Inversion of the above order gives em- phasis. a. Particularly the verb comes first and the subject last. This mikes either or both emphatic: as, dicebat idem C. Curio (Off. ii. 17). b. Any word closely connected with the preceding sentence comes first, and with the following last: as,
ac a as iis personis quas supra dixi tertia adjungitur (Off. i. 32).
716: 2531 ARRANGEMENT. 213
objecit [Cato] ut probrum M. Nobiliori quod is in provinciam poรฉtas duxisset; duxerat autem consul ille in 4Etoliam ut scimus Ennium (Tusc. i. 2). maxime perturbantur officia in amicitiis; quibus et non tri- buere quod recte possis, et tribuere quod non sit equum, contra officium est (Off. iii. 10). c.- A word or phrase inserted between the parts of compound tenses becomes emphatic: as, ille reprehensus a multis est (N. D. ii. 38). d. A modifier of a noun and adjective or participle is often placed between them. So in the gerundive construction: as,
de communi hominum memoria (Tuse. i. 24). de uno imperatore contra predones constituendo (Manil. 17).
e. Sometimes a noun and its attribute are separated as far as possible, so as to include less important words: as,
objurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessarie (Off.
1. 38).
f. One pair of ideas is set off against another, either in the same order or in exactly the opposite order. The latter, which is very common, is called chiasmus from the Greek X on account of the cross arrangement. Thus,
rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. ili. 3, 31).
pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur (B. G. vi. 16).
leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos (Fin. iii. 3).
non igitur utilitatem amicitia, sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta est (Lzl. 14). [Here the arrangement of cases only is chiastic, that of ideas is regular.]
g- Different forms of the same word are often placed together,
also words from the same root.
h. A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the other. This is often joined with chiasmus: as,
et superjecto pavide natarunt equore dame (H. Od. i. 2, 11). arma nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus (id. ii. I, 5).
3. Special Rules.
a. Prepositions regularly precede their nouns (except tenus and versus), but they are often placed between a noun and ad- jective: as,
quem ad modum; quam ob rem; magno cum metu; omnibus
cum copiis; nulla in re.
214 ARRANGEMENT. (762 374.
b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence, or clause; enim, autem, vero, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second word is emphatic; quidem never first, but after the emphatic word: ne... quidem include the emphatic word or words.
c. Inquam, inquit, &., credo, opinor, quaeso, used par- enthetically, always follow one or more words.
d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it belongs to no one word, it begins the sentence.
4. Structure. Latin expresses the relation of words to each other by inflection, rather than by position, like modern languages. Hence its structure not only admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favor- able to that form of sentence which is called a Period. Ina period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word, which usually expresses the main action or motive.
An English sentence does not often admit this form of structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the early writers of English prose; but its effect is better seen in poetry, in such a passage as the following : โ
โโโ High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat.*โ Paradise Lost, Book II. 1-5.
PART THIRD.
RULES OF VERSE (PROSODY).
77. Detieue
1. The Poetry of the ancients was not composed, like modern poetry, according to accent and rhyme; but was measured, like music, by the length of the syllables, or vowel sounds. โThe measured flow of verse is called Rhythm.
2. Each syllable is considered as either long or short, โ in Quantity or length (not in Quality or sound, as we speak of the long or short vowel-sounds in English) ; a long syllable being reckoned in length equal to two short ones (see p. 3).
Remark. โ The quantity of radical or stem-syllablesโas of short a in pater or of long a in mater โ can be learned only by observation or practice, unless determined by the general rules of Quantity. Most of the rules of Prosody are only arbitrary rules for the purposes of memory; the syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced them so. In those cases which cannot be conveniently grouped, the quantity is shown by the actual practice of the ancients, and is said to be determined by the authority of the Poets, โthe principal means we have of learn- ing it. In some inscriptions, however, the long vowels are distin- guished in various ways, by marks over the letters, or by doubling.
Owing to the practice of Roman poets of borrowing very largely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accord- ance with the Greek and not the Latin laws of quantity. Where these vary in any important point, they will be noticed in the rules given below. .
78. RuLes oF QUANTITY. 1. General Rules.
a. A vowel before another vowel is short: as, via, traho.
Remark. โ The aspirate h, as in the example above, is not reckoned as a Consonant in the rules of prosody (See ยง 1, 1, Note).
216 PROSODY. [78: 1, 2.
Exceptions. โ1. In the genitive form ius (ยง 16, 1, 6), i is long. It is, however, sometimes made short in verse.
2. In the fifth declension (genitive and dative singular), e is long between two vowels: as, diรฉi; but is short after a consonant, as in fidรฉi.
3. In fio (ยง 37, 4), i is long except when followed by er: as, fio, fiebam, fiam, fieri, fierem.
4. In the terminations ius and 6ius, a and e are long: as in Caius, Pompรฉius; also in the verb @io, and genitives in ai.
5. In many Greek proper names, the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel or diphthong, and is consequently long: as, Trdรฉs, Thalia, hรฉrdas. But many Greek words are more or less Latin- ized in this respect as Academia, chorรฉa.
6. A Diphthong is long: as, foรฉdus, cil, caรฉlum, dรฉinde.
ExcrpTion. โ The preposition prae in compounds is generally short before a vowel (as in preeustis, Ain. vii. 524).
c. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long: as i in nil (for nihil); currtis (genitive for curriiis). But not where the vowels are united by syneresis, as in pariรฉtibus ( par-yetibus).
d. A syllable in which a short vowel comes before two con- sonants or a double consonant โ also before the letter j โ is long: as, magnus, rรฉx, pรฉjor, 6t vรฉntis, gaza, (but Aadhuc). But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r, the syllable is common, โthat is, it may be either long or short in verse: as, alacris, patribus, rรฉfluo.
Remark. โ Sometimes the y or v resulting from syneresis has the effect of a consonant: as, fliividriim rรฉx (G. i. 482).
รฉ. In early Latin s at the end of words was not sounded, and hence does not make position with another consonant. In many other cases in the comic poets two consonants do not make posi- tion, especially in pronouns and particles: as, fille, iste, nรฉmpe.
Remark. โ A short syllable, made long under this rule, is said to be long by Position: as, in docรฉtne. In docรฉsne, the same
syllable is long by the general rule (2, k, below). The rules of Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels.
2. Final Syllables.
a. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long: as, mรฉ, tii, hi, nรฉ.
The attached particles -nรฉ, -quรฉ, -vรฉ, -cรฉ, ptรฉ, and rรฉ- (rรฉd-) are short; se- is long: as, s@cedit, exercitumquรฉ rรฉducit.
78: 2.] RULES OF QUANTITY. 217
b. Nouns of one syllable are long: as, 861, Ss (Gris), bos, vis. Exceptions. โc6r, fl, mรฉl, Ss (ossis), vir, vis (gen.).
c. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension; in all other words it is long: as, ea stellA (nominative), cum ea stella; frustra, voca (imperative), posted, triginta; also, qua (plural).
EXCEPTIONS. โ eid, ita, quia, puta (suppose); and, in late use, triginta, &c.
d. Final e is short, except (1) in nouns of the fifth declen- sion; (2) in adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declension, with others of like form; (3) in the impera- tive singular of the second conjugation: as, nubรฉ, ducitรฉ, fidรฉ, famรฉ (ยง 11,i. 3.4*)quarรฉ (qua rรฉ), hddiรฉ (hoc die), monรฉ, monรฉtรฉ, saepรฉ, saepissime.
Exceptions. โbenรฉ, malรฉ; ferรฉ, fermรฉ; also (rarely), cavรฉ, habรฉ, tacรฉ, valรฉ, vidรฉ; infernรฉ, supernรฉ.
รฉe. Final i is long: as in turri, fili, audi. But it is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi; and short in nisi, quasi, citi (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives, as Alexi.
f- Final o is common; but long in datives and ablatives; also, usually, in verbs.
EXCEPTIONS. โ citd, modรฉ, ilicd, profectd, dummodd, imm6, egd, dud, octd.
g- Final u is long; final y is short.
h. Final as, es, os, are Jong; final is, us, ys are short: as, nefas, rupรฉs, serv6s, honds; hostis, amiciis, Tethys.
ExcrpTions.โas is short in Greek plural accusatives, as lampadas; and in anas.
es is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) increasing short: as milรฉs (itis), obsรฉs (idis),โ-except abiรฉs, ariรฉs, pariรฉs, pรฉs; in the present of esse (โฌs, ad&s); in the preposition penรฉs; and in the plural of Greek nouns.
os is short in compos, impos; in some Greek endings, as barbitds; also o for later u in the second declension, as servds (nominative).
is in plural cases is long, as in bonis, omnis (accusative plural) ; in sis, vis, velis, malis, nolis; in gratis, foris (prop- erly plurals) ; in the second person singular of the fourth conjuga- tion, as audis (where it is the stem-vowel) ; and sometimes in the forms in -eris (perfect subjunctive), where it was originally
long. 10
218 PROSODY. [78s 254.
us is long in the genitive singular and nominative and accusa- tive plural of the fourth declension; and in nouns of the third declension having @ long in the stem: as virtiis (itis), inciis (fidis).
4. Of other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except c, are short: as, ad, ac, istiic, amat, amatiir.
Exceptions. โ donรฉc, fac, nรฉc, sometimes hic; โฌn, n6n, quin, sin; cras, pltis; clr, par.
3. Penultimate Syllables.
a. Increment. A Noun is said to increase, when in any case it has more syllables than in the nominative singular.
Thus stella is said to increase Jong in stellarum; and corpus to increase short in corpGris.
Notre. โ The rules of increment are purely arbitrary, as the syllables are long or short according to the proper quantity of the stem or the formative terminations. The quantity of noun stems appears in the schedule of the third declension (ยง II, iv. 3), and that of terminations, under the various inflections where it is better to learn them.
A Verb is said to increase, when in any part it has more syllables than in the stem (inclusive of the final vowel).
Thus amo is said to increase long in amatis; and rego to increase short in regitis.
The final syllable of an inflected word is called the termi- nation ; that immediately preceding is called the tmerement.
' Thus, in the examples given above, the penultimate syllable is called the increment. In itinรฉribus, amavรฉritis, the syllables marked are called the first, second, and third increments of the noun or verb.
b. Nouns. In the increment of Nouns and Adjectives, a and o are generally long; e, i, u, y, generally short (see list, pp. 25-27): as, aetatis, honGris, servGrum; opรฉris, carminis, murmiiris, pectidis, chlamydis. Exceptions are :โ
a:โbaccar (aris), hepar (atis), jubar (aris), lar (laris), mas (m4ris), nectar (Aris), par (paris), sal (sdlis), vas (vadis), daps (dapis), fax, anthrax (acis).
6:โneuters of third declension (except 6s, ris) ; arbor (6ris), scrobs (scroรฉbis), ops (Opis).
78: 3.] RULES OF QUANTITY. 219
@:โZincrements of fifth declension; heres (รฉโฌdis), lex (lโฌgis), locuples (รฉtis), merces (โฌdis), plebs (plebis), quies (โฌtis), rex (rรฉgis), ver (vรฉris).
i:โ most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, fรฉlicis, radicis : except filix, larix, salix (icis), nix (nivis), strix (strigis) ; also, dis _(ditis), glis (gliris), lis (litis), vis (vires), Quirites, Samnites.
tii: โforms from nouns in tis: as, palidis, telliris, virtiitis ; also lux (licis), frux (frigis).
c. Verbs. In the increment of Verbs (see Tables of Inflec- tion, pp. 66-74), the characteristic vowels are as follows : โ
Of the first conjugation 4: as, amare, amatur.
Of the second conjugation @: as, monรฉre, monรฉtur.
Of the third conjugation 6, I: as, regรฉre, regitur.
Of the fourth conjugation i: as, audire, auditur.
Exc. โdo and its compounds have &: as, dare, circumdabat. In other increments โ
a is always long: as, monearis, regamus.
รฉ is long in tense-endings: as, regรฉbam, audiรฉbar. But it is short before ram, rim, ro; in the future personal endings -bรฉris, bรฉre; and sometimes in the perfect -รฉrunt (as stรฉtรฉruntque comae, fin. ii. 774).
i is long in forms after the analogy of the fourth conjugation: as, petivi, lacessitus (in others short: as, monitus); also in the subjunctive present of esse and velle, and (rarely) in the endings -rimus, -ritis; but short in the future forms amabitis, &c.
6 is found only in imperatives, and is always long.
ti is short in stimus, voliimus, quaesiimus; in the supine and its derivatives it is long: as, solittrus.
d. Perfects and supines of two syllables lengthen the stem- syllable: as, jiivo, jiivi, jitum; video, vidi, visum; fiigio, fugi.
Exceptions. โ bibi, dรฉdi (do), fidi (findo), scifdi (scindo), stรฉti (sto), stiti (sisto), tiili (fero);โ citum (cieo), datum (do), itum (eo), litum (lino), quitum (queo), ratum (reor), riitum (ruo), satum (sero), situm (sino), statum (sto or
sisto). In some compounds of sto, statum is found long, as prostatum.
e. Reduplicated perfects shorten both syllables: as, c&cidi (cado), didici (disco), cรฉcini (cano); but cรฉcidi from caedo, pepรฉdi from pรฉdo.
220 PROSODY. [78. 79.
f. Forms from the same Stem retain the original quantity: as, amo, Aamavisti, gรฉnus, gรฉneris. Exceptions. โ1. b6s, lar, mas, par, pรฉs, sal, vas โalso
arbo6s (not arbdr) โ have a long vowel in the nominative from short stems.
2. Nouns in or, genitive Gris, have the vowel shortened before the final r: as, hondr. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in Plautus and some inscriptions these nominatives are oiten found long.)
3. Many verb-forms with original long vowel shorten it before final t: as, amรฉt, dicerรฉt (compare amรฉmus), audit, fit. (The final syllable in t of the perfect seems to have been originally long, but to have been shortened under this rule.)
g- Forms from the same Roor often vary in quantity from vowel-increase (see ยงยง 1, 3, a; 5,2; 44, 1, a); as, dico (cf. mal- edicus), diico (diicis), fido (perfidus), vGcis (vico), lรฉgio (1รฉgo).
h. Compounps retain the quantity of the words which com- pose them: as, occido (c&jo), occido (caedo), iniquus (aequus). Greek words compounded with zpo have o short, as prรฉph6รฉta, prdldgus. Some Latin compounds of pro have o short, as prdficiscor, prdfiteor. Compounds with ne vary: as, nรฉfas, nรฉgo, nรฉqueo, nรฉquis, nequam. So dejรฉro and pejรฉro from juro.
[For the quantity of Penultimate Syllables in regular Deriva- tives, see ยง 44, pages 97-99.]
79. FEetT.
1. The most natural division of musical time is into inter- vals, consisting of either two or three equal parts, making what is called double or triple time; but the ancients also distinguished five equal parts. These intervals are in music called Measures; in prosody, they are called Feet.
2. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse con- sist either of two or three syllables; and may be represented by musical notation, as follows: โ
79.] FEET. Nd 221
a. Or Two SYLuABLEs.
1? 2 | oy | Pyrrhic (~~): as, bbntis. 2. 3 | f ยฅ | Trochee or Choree (" ~): as, cartis. 3. 3 | Ef | Iambus (~ ~): as, b6nGs. 4, 2 | if f | Spondee (" ~): as, car6s. 6. Or Turee SYLLABLES. 1. 2 1ยฐ99 | Dactyt(- ~~): as, astute 2. 2 | ยฅ , 4 | Anapest (" ~ ~): as, d6min6s. 3. 4 | โae C | Amphibrach (~ ~~): as, Amictis. 4, 3 | 696 | Tribrach (~~~): as, hdmints. 5. 3 | p if r | Molossus (โ ~~): as, figรฉrtint (rare).
Of three syllables, but more than three units of time. 6. | if ยฅ if | Amphimacer or Cretic (~~ ~): as, โฌgรฉrant. ts | f f if | Bacchius (~ ~~): as, rรฉgรฉbant.
c. Or Four SyYLLABLEs.
1. Choriambus (trochee, iambus) : as, dรฉttilรฉrant.
2. Greater Ionic (spondee, pyrrhic): as, dรฉjรฉcรฉrat.
8. Lesser Ionic (pyrrhic, spondee): as, rรฉtiilissรฉnt.
4. The first, second, third, or fourth Epitritus has a short syllable in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three long syllables.
5. The first, second, third, or fourth Peon has a long syllable in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three short syllables.
6. The Proceleusmatic consists of four short syllables, as Spรฉr- ibis.
Note. โ Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or chant; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or music, often to be accompanied by measured movements or dance. But in read-
ing, it is not usual, though it is better, to keep the strict measure of time ; and ofien accent is substituted for rhythm, as in English poetry.
222 PROSODY. [79: 2-5. 80: 1.
d. In general, feet of the same time can be substituted for each other, and two short syllables may stand for a long one. In the latter case, the long syllable is said to be resolved.
Thus the Spondee may take the place of the dactyl or anapest, the Tribrach of the trochee or iambus; the Proceleusmatic, or a Dactyl standing for an anapest, is the resolution of a spondee.
When a long syllable having the ictus is resolved, the ictus properly belongs to both the short syllables; but the accent to mdicate it is placed on the first: as,
Nunc experiar | s{tne aceto | tibi cor acre in | pรฉctore. i Baccu. 405.
3. Arsis and Thesis. The accented syllable of each
foot is called the Arsis; and the unaccented part the Thesis.
Note.โ The name Arsis meant originally the raising of the foot in beating time (โโupward beatโ), and Thesis the putting down (โdownward beatโโ); but these terms came, in later use, to signify respectively the raising and depression of the voice. (See Mar. Vict. Chap. ix.)
4. Ictus. Accent, in prosody, is called Ictus, โ that is,
the beat of the foot, as in a dance or march.
5. Caesura. The end of a word interrupting a foot is called Czesura; and when this coincides with a rhetorical break in the sense, it is called the Ceesura of the verse.
Notrre.โ The position of the principal Cesura is important, as affecting the melody or rhythm. See description of verses below.
80. ScANNING.
1. Verse. <A single line in poetry, or a series of feet set in metrical order, is called a Verse (i.e. a turning back).
To divide the verse, in reading, into its appropriate feet, according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called Scanning or Scansion (i.e. climbing, or- advance by steps).
A verse lacking a syllable at the beginning is called Acephalous (headless) ; lacking a syllable at the end, it is called Catalectic (stopped) ; complete, Acatalectic. Sometimes a verse appears to have a superfluous syllable, and is then called Hypercatalectic.
The word Verse (versus, a turning) is opposed to Prose (pror- sus or pro-versus, straight ahead).
80: 2-5. 81.] SCANNING: METRE. 223
2. Elision. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an interjection) โ sometimes even at the end of a verse โis dropped, when the next word begins with a vowel or with h. โThis is called Synaleepha (smearing), or Elision (druising); or, at the end of a verse, Synapheia (binding).
A final m, with the preceding vowel, is dropped in like manner: this is called Ecthlipsis. (Hence a final syllable in m is said to have no quantity of its own; its vowel, in any case, being either elided, or else made long by position.) Thus in the verse : โ
Monstrum horrendwm informe ingens-cui lumen ademptum. โEN. iii. 658.
Note.โ The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is sometimes adopted in English, particularly in the older poets: as, |
Tโ inveigle and invite thโ unwary sense. โ Comus, 538.
In early Latin poetry, a syllable ending in s was often elided, even before a consonant: as,
Senio confectuโ quiescit. โ Zxzzius (quoted in Cat. M. 5).
%. Hiatus. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This is called Hiatus (gaping).
4. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes length- ened before a pause: it is then said to be long by Cesura. (This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears being caused by the retention of an original long quantity.)
Nostrorwvm obruimir, oriturque miserrima czdes.โยฃ%. ii. 411.
~ ยง. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short (except in some forms of Anapzstic and Ionic verse).
81. MeETRE.
41. Metre is the regular combination of feet in verse, and is named from its most frequent and ruling foot: as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapzstic, Choriambic.
224 PROSODY. [8l. 82: 1
Notrre.โ The ruling foot, so called, always consists of a combina- tion of long and short syllables, and is therefore never a pyrrhic or spondee.
The shorter feet (Iambus, Trochee) are counted not by single feet, but by pairs (dipodies), so that six lambi make a trimeter, &c.
2. A Verse consists of a given number of feet arranged metrically. It is named from the number of feet (or pairs) it contains, as Hexameter, Trimeter.
3. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of verses ranged in a fixed order. It is often called from the name of some poet, as Sapphic, Alcaic, Horatian.
82. Forms or VERSE.
1. Dactylic. The most common forms of dactylic verse are the Hexameter and Pentameter.
a. Hexameter. The Hexameter, called also Heroic verse, is used in narrative and pastoral poetry. It consists of six feet, of which the last is always incomplete (a trochee or spondee), the fifth generally a dactyle, and the rest indifferently dactyles or spondees. The fifth foot is rarely a spondee, in which case the verse is called spondaic. The principal Cesura falls after the arsis (sometimes in the thesis) of the third foot or after the arsis of the fourth. In the last case there should be another in the third.
The introductory verses of the Aineid, divided according to the foregoing rules, will be as follows, the principal Cesura in each verse being marked by double lines : โ
arma vilriimque ca|n6 || Trd|jz qui | primiis 4b | Gris Italijam fa|to prdfti|giis || La|vinziquรฉ | vรฉnit litรฉra, | miiltz ille | รฉt tรฉr|ris || jac|tatiis รฉt | alto
โ vi stipรฉ{riim sz|vze || mรฉmd|rรฉm Jii|ndnis Sb | iram; milta quรฉ|que รฉt bรฉl{16 pas|siis || dim | cdndรฉrรฉt | irbem, infรฉr|rรฉtquรฉ dรฉ|ds Latijo, |] gรฉniis | indรฉ Latinum, Alba|niquรฉ pa|trรฉs, || at|que alte | moenid | Rome.
Another form of czesura is seen in the following : โ
Dis gรฉni|ti potiljรฉre: || tรฉjnรฉnt mรฉdij@ Omnia | silvae. fin. VI. 181.
82: 1, 2.] FORMS OF VERSE. 225
The Hexameter verse has been illustrated in English thus: โ
โโ* Strongly it | bears us allong, || in | swelling and | limitless | billows, Nothing be|fore and | nothing be|hind, || but the | sky and the | ocean.โ
b. Pentameter. The Pentameter consists of five feet, and is used alternately with the hexameter to form the Elegiac stanza. It must be scanned as two half-verses, of which the latter always has two dactyls, and each ends in a long syllable or half-foot. There is no czsura; but the first half-verse must always end with a word: as,
ciim siibit | illijiis tris|tissima | noctis Ij{mago qua mihi | siprรฉjmim || tรฉmpiis In | irbรฉ fulit, ciim rรฉpรฉ|td ndcitรฉm qua | tot mihi | cara rรฉ|liqui, labitir | รฉx dcii|lis || niinc quรฉquรฉ | gutta mรฉ|is. jam propรฉ | lax A4dรฉjrat, qua | mรฉ dis|cรฉdรฉrรฉ | Caesar finibis | รฉxtrรฉ|mz || jiissรฉrat | Ausdni|z. Ov. Trist. I. Ex. 3, 1-6.
The Elegiac Stanza has been illustrated thus : โ
โยขIn the hex|ameter | rises the | fountainโs | silvery | column, In the pent|ameter | aye || falling in | melody | back.โ
c. Rarely, other dactylic verses, or half-verses, combined with trochees or iambs, are used by the lyric poets: viz., โ
Dactylic penthemim (five half-feet) : arboรฉri|bisquรฉ cd|mze. โ Hor. Op. IV. 7.
Dactylic tetrameter : cras in|gรฉns {tรฉ|rabimiis | equรฉr.โ Op. I. 7.
Archilochian heptameter : solvitur | acris hiJรฉmps, gra|ta vicรฉ | vรฉris | รฉt Fa|voni. Op. I. 4.
2. Iambic. The most common forms of Iambic verse are the Trimeter (Senarius), and Tetrameter (Septenarius or Octonartus).
a. Trimeter. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double iambus. In the first half-measure (odd places), the Spondee or its equivalents (anapmwst or dactyl) may be regularly
10*
226 PROSODY. [82: 2,
substituted. In the comic poets, these substitutions may be made in any foot except the last: as, O licis al|mรฉ rรฉctor |] รฉt | cdeli dรฉciis! qui altรฉrna ciirjrii spatia || flam|mifรฉro ambiens, illistrรฉ 14รฉ|tis || Exsรฉris | tรฉrris caput. Herc. Four. 592-94. hdm6 swam: hiima|ni || nihil 4 me 4]ijรฉnim pits. vรฉl mรฉ monรฉlre hoc || vรฉl pรฉrcdn|tari pita. HEAUT. 77, 78. Remark. โ The choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last Iambus: as,
sรฉd non vidรฉ|miis mantice | quรฉd in tรฉrgo รฉst. CaATULL. XXII. 21.
6. Tetrameter. The Iambic Tetrameter catalectic (Septen- arius) consists of seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions as the above. It is used in more lively dialogue: as, nam idcirco arcรฉs|s6r, niptias | quod mz adparal|ri sรฉnsit. quibiis quidรฉm quam faci|lรฉ pdtiรฉrat | quiรฉsci si hic | quiรฉsset!
ANDRIA, 690-91.
The iambic tetrameter acatalectic (Octonarius) consists of eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions. It is also used in lively dialogue: as, hรฉcinรฉsthima|niim facts aiit in|cรฉpta? hdcinรฉst of|fictiim patris ? quid illiid รฉst? pro | dรฉim fidรฉm, | quid รฉst, s7 hdc nรฉn cรฉn|-
tiimรฉliast ? ANDRIA, 236-7.
c. Dimeter. The Iambic Dimeter consists of either four (acatalectic) or three and a half (catalectic) iambic feet. The former is used in combination with a longer verse, and the latter only in choruses: as,
bรฉatiis ilj]รฉ qui prdcil | nรฉgotiis, iit prisca gรฉns | mortaliim, ~
patรฉrna rii|ra bibiis รฉx|รฉrcรฉt sitis, sdlitiis 6m|ni fendrรฉ ;
nรฉque รฉxcita|tir classicรฉ | milรฉs triici, nรฉque horrรฉt ijratiim marรฉ ;
foriimquรฉ vi|tat, รฉt siipรฉr ba civiim potรฉntid|rim limind.
| Hor. Epon. II. 1-8.
OF: SE 5.5: FORMS OF VERSE. 227
quonam criiรฉn|ta Mznas, preecรฉps amojrรฉ sevo, rapitir quod im|potรฉnti faciniis parat | firorรฉ ? MEDEA, 850-53.
3. Trochaic. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetrameter catalectic (Septenarius), consisting of seven complete feet with an additional syllable. Strictly, the spon- dee and its resolutions can be substituted only in the even places; but the comic poets allow the substitution in every foot but the last: as,
Itidem habรฉt pรฉta|sw Ac vรฉstitiim: | tam cons{mflist | atque โฌgo. sira, pรฉs, sta tira, tonsiis, | dciili, nasiim, | vรฉl labra, male, mรฉntiim, | barba, cdlliis: | tottis! quid vรฉr|bis Spist ? si tรฉrgiim ci|catricdsiim, | nzhil hรฉc similist | similfts. AMPHITR. 443-46.
4. Anapestic. Anapestic verses of various lengths are found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleus- matic may be substituted for the anapest: as,
| hic homรฉst | 6mnizvs hoรฉmi{|nim pre|ciptids voliipta|tibtis gaii|dzisque an|tรฉpdtรฉns. {ta cOm|mรฉda que | ciipio รฉ|vรฉniint, quod 4go | subit, ad sรฉctiรฉ | sโฌquitir: ita gaii|dzis gaii|ditim sup|pรฉditat. TRIN. 1115-19. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines: as, non รฉbiir nรฉ!que aiirรฉim [dimeter] mรฉa rรฉnijdรฉt in dรฉm6 | laciinar. Hor. Op. II. 18.
5. Bacchic. The Bacchius occurs in dramatic poets either in verses of two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetram- eter). The long syllables may be resolved into short ones, and the molossus substituted: as,
miltas rรฉs | s{mitz in | mรฉd cor dรฉ vorsG, miiltum in cd|gitando | dรฉlorem in|dipiscor,
228 PROSODY. | [82: 6, 7.
Eodmรฉet mรฉ | cdquo รฉt malcรฉro รฉt dรฉ|fEtigs : magistรฉr | mihi รฉxรฉr|citรฉr ani|miis niinc รฉst, TRIN. 223-26. 6. Cretic. Cretic feet (Amphimacer) occur in the same manner as the Bacchius, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete: as, Amor Ami|ciis mihi | nรฉ fiias | inquam. his รฉg6 | de artibiis | gratiam | facio. nil รฉgo is|t6s m6ror | faeecรฉds | mGrรฉs. TRIN. 267, 293, 297. 7. Choriambic. Choriambic feet are regularly preceded by a spondee or trochee, called a basis, and are followed by a close, consisting of one or more syllables (see below).
a. The First or Lesser Asclepiadic verse consists of two choriambs preceded by a trochee (in Horace a spondee), and fol- lowed by an iambus (8, d).
b. The Second or Greater Asclepiadic has three choriambs with the same basis and close (8, A): as,
nรฉc fac|ta impia fal|lacum hรฉminiim | caรฉlicdlis | placรฉnt. CATULL. XXX. 4.
c. The Glyconic consists of one choriambus, with the same basis and close (8, e).
d. The Pherecratic consists of one choriambus, with the same basis, and one long syllable for close (8, g).
e. The Greater Sapphic consists of two choriambs, preceded by a trochaic dipody (epitritus secundus), and followed by a bacchius (8, c): as,
Sepรฉ trans filnรฉm jaciil6 | nobilis Ex pรฉdito. Hor. Op. I. 8.
f. The Lesser Sapphic consists of one choriambus, with the same basis and close (8, 6): as,
intรฉr auda|cรฉs lipiis รฉr|rat Aagnds. Hor. Op. III. 18, 13.
g- The Adonic consists of one choriambus, followed by a long syllable (8, b).
82: 8.] FORMS OF VERSE. 229
hh. The Phalecian consists of a basis, a choriambus, an iambus, and bacchius: as, disรฉr|tissimรฉ R6|mili | nรฉpdtum quot siint | quรฉtquรฉ fuรฉ|rรฉ Mar|cรฉ Tulli. CaTuL. XLIX. 1, 2.
i. The lesser Ionic verse consists of pairs of the foot of the same name.
k. Rarely other forms of choriamBic verse occur: as, for example โ Aristophanic : | tรฉmpรฉrat 6|ra frรฉnis.
Hor. Op. I. 8, 7. Tetrameter : obstipuit ; | pรฉctdrรฉ nil | sistรฉrรฉ cdn|sili quit. ADELPHI, 613.
8. Stanzas. The principal forms of lyric stanza, or
strophe, are the following :โ
a. Atcaic STROPHE, consisting of four verses: the first two (greater Alcaic) having each a spondee (or trochee), bacchius and two dactyls; the third a spondee, bacchius, and two trochees, and the fourth into two dactyls and two trochees: as,
justwa ac | tรฉnacรฉm | propdsi|ti virim non cilvivw ardor | prava ju|bรฉntitim, non viljtis instan|tis ty|ranni, mรฉntรฉ qua|tit sdlij|da nรฉ|que aistรฉr. Hor. Op. III. 3.
b&. LessER SAPPHIC, consisting of three Lesser Sapphic verses,
and one Adonic (see above, 7, f, g): as, jam satis tรฉrjris nivis at;quรฉ dirze grandinis mi|sit patรฉr รฉt | rubรฉntรฉ dรฉxtรฉra sa|cras jactla|tiis arcรฉs tรฉrrtiit tir|bem. Id. Op. I. 2, 1-4.
c. GREATER SAPPHIC, consisting of a choriambic dimeter
(7, %), and a greater Sapphic (7, e): as, Lydia dic | pรฉr Omnรฉs tรฉ dรฉds 6|r6 Sybarin | cir prdpรฉras | Amando. Hor. Op. I. 8
230 PROSODY. [82: 8.
d. Lesser ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of single lines (mono- strophon), of lesser asclepiadics (7, a): as,
Mecรฉ|nas atavis | รฉditรฉ rรฉ|gibiis O รฉt | presidium รฉt | dulcรฉ dรฉciis | mรฉiim. Id. I. 1.
e. SeconpD ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of one Glyconic (7, c), and one lesser Asclepiadic: as, Rรฉme | principis ir|bitim digna|tir sttbolรฉs | intรฉr 4ma|bilรฉs vatim | ponรฉrรฉ mรฉ | chรฉros ; รฉt jam | dรฉntรฉ minis | mordรฉor in| vido. Id. Op. IV. 3, 13-16. f. Turrp ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of three lesser Asclepia- dics and one Glyconic: as, . audis | quo strรฉpfti | jantia quรฉ | nรฉmiis intรฉr | pulchra satim | tรฉcta rรฉmi|giat vรฉntis | รฉt pdsitas | at glaciรฉt | nivรฉs puro | niminรฉ Ju|pitรฉr. Id. Op. III. 10, 5-8. g. Fourta ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of two lesser Asclepia- dics, one Pherecratic (7, d), and one Glyconic: as,
hic bรฉl'liim lacrim6|swm# hic mfsรฉram | famรฉm pรฉstรฉm|que a popilo รฉt | principรฉ Cz|sare in _ Pรฉrsas | Atquรฉ Britan'nds vรฉstra | motiis 4gรฉt | prรฉcรฉ. Id. Op. I. 21, 13-16. h. GREATER ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of single lines of greater asclepiadics: as, tii nรฉ | quesfรฉris | scirรฉ nรฉfas | quรฉm mihf quรฉm | tibf. Op. I. 11, 18; IV. 10.
4. The above forms include upwards of a hundred of the Odes of Horace. In the eighteen not included in these, are ten different kinds of stanzas, most of which are combinations of the verses already given. They may be briefly indicated as fol- lows : โ
1. Hexameter, followed by the last four feet of an hexame- ter. โ Op. I. 7, 28; Epon. 12.
82: 8.] FORMS OF VERSE. | 231
. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Dimeter. โ Epon. 14, 15. . lambie Trimeter alone. โ Epon. 17. . Hexameter, followed by Iambic Trimeter. โ Epon. 16. . Verse of four Lesser lonics. โ Op. III. 12. . Hexameter with Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) : diffti|gรฉrรฉ nijvรฉs rรฉdรฉ ; int jam | gramina | campis arbori|biisquรฉ c6|ma. โ Op. IV. 7.
So Or hm Co bo
7. Tambic Trimeter; Dactylic Penthemim; Iambic Dimeter.โ Epop. 11.
8. Hlexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim. โEp. 13. 9. Archilochian Heptameter ; Iambic Trimeter catalectic: as, solvitir | acris hijรฉms gra|ta vicรฉ | vรฉris | รฉt Fa|voni
trahiint/quรฉ sic|cas ma chine | carijnas. โ Op. I. 4. 10. Trochaic Dimeter and Iambic Trimeter, each imperfect: as, non | รฉbir | nรฉque aujrรฉum mรฉa | rรฉni|dรฉt in | dรฉmd | laciijnar.โOp. II. 18. k. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above- mentioned verses. 1. Four Glyconies with one Pherecratic: as, Dia|nz siimiis in | fidรฉ pueljle รฉt ptiรฉrz injtรฉgri: _ Diainam, piiรฉrz in|tรฉgri puรฉl|laquรฉ cana|mus.โCaTutt. 34. 2. Sapphics, in series of single lines, closing with an Adonic: as, An magis diri tremuรฉre Manes Herculem? et visum canis inferorum fugit abruptis trepidus catenis ? fallimur: late venit, ecce, vultu, quem tulit Poeas ; humerisque tela gestat, et notas populis pharetras Herculis heres. Herc. CEr. 1600-6. 8. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number (Herc. Fur. 830-874, 875-894).
232 PROSODY. | 83.
83. Earty Prosopy.
The prosody of the earlier Latin poets differs in several respects from that of the later.
Nore. โ Before the language was used in literature, it had become very much changed by the loss of final consonants and shortening of final syllables under the influence of accent, which was originally free in its position, but in Latin became limited to the penult and ante-penult. โThis tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early poets.
a. At the end of words s was only feebly sounded, so that it does not make positicn with a following consonant, and is some- times cut off before a vowel. (This usage continues in all poets till Ciceroโs time: see ยง$ 1, 2, 6; 80, 2, note.)
6. The last syllable of any word of two syllables may be made short if the first is short. (This effect remained in a few words like puta, cavรฉ, valรฉ, vidรฉ.) Thus: โ
Abรฉst (Cist. ii.1, 12); Apiid tรฉst (Trin. 196); sdrdr dictast (Enn. 157); bรฉnas (Stich. 99) ; d6mi dรฉzque (Pseud. 37) ; dรฉmi (Mil. 194).
c. The same effect is produced when a short monosyllable pre- cedes a long syllable: as,
id st profecto (Mere. 372), rit et tYb? Exoptatum (Mil. 1orr), si quidem hรฉrcle (Asin. 414), quid โฌst sz hdc (Andria, 237).
d. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. Such are, lle, iste, Inde, tinde, nรฉmpe, รฉsse (?). (Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle in this irregularity, or its extent.)
Thus : โ รฉcquis his in edibust (Bacch. 581).
e- In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preced-
ing it in a word of more than three syllables: as in senรฉctiiti, Syracusae.
f- At the beginning of a verse, many syllables long by position stand for short ones: as, {dnรฉ tu (Pseud. 442); Estne consimilis (Epid. v. 1. 18).
g. The original long quantity of many final syllables is re- tained. Thus:โ
83. 84.] RECKONING OF TIME. 233
1. Final a of the first declension is often long: as, ne epistula quidez ulla sit in aรฉdibus (Asin. 762). Pol hรฉdie alterd jam bis detdรฉnsa certost.
2. Final a of the neuter plural is sometimes long (though there seems no etymological reason for it): as,
Ntinc et amico prdsperabo et gรฉnid med multa bona faciam (Pers. 263).
3. So also nouns in -or with long stem, either with original r or original s: as,
mdรฉddo quom dicta in me fngerebas ddium non uxor eram (Asin. 927).
{ta mz in pectore dtque corde facit amor incรฉndium (Mere. 590).
atque quanto nox fuisti lรฉngidr hoc prรฉxuma (Amph. 548).
4. So in nouns with vowel lengthened originally by loss of a consonant: as, milรฉs, superstitรฉs.
5. So all verb-endings in r and t, where the vowel is elsewhere long in inflection: as,
rรฉgredior audisse mรฉ (Capt. 1023); Atque ut qui fueris et qui nunc (Capt. 248); me nรฉminat hec (Epid. iv. 1, 8); faciat ut sem- per (Poen. ii. 42); fnfuscabat, amabo (Cretics, Cist. i. 1, 21); quf amรฉt (Merc. 1021); ut fit in bello capitur alter filius (Capt. 25) ; tibi sit ad me revisas (Truc. ii. 4, 79).
h. The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially at a pause in the sense, or when there is a change of the speaker. (The extent of this license is still a question among scholars, but in the present state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.)
84. RecKonrne or Time.
I. Date of Year. The year was dated, in earlier times, by the names of the Consuls; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City (ab urbe conditd, or anno urbis condite), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period corresponding with B.c. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce - Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the city ts to be subtracted from 754: e.g. A.v.c: 691 (the year of Ciceroโs consulship) = B.c. 638.
254 RECKONING OF TIME. [84.
2. The Roman Year. Before Cexsarโs reform of the Calendar (B.c. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days: March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31 days, February having 28, and each of the remainder 29; with an Intercalary month, on alternate years, inserted after February 23, at the discretion of the Pontifices. The โJu- lian year,โ by the reformed calendar, had 365 days, divided as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month: hence the year was called Lissextilis. The month Quintilis received the name Julius (July), in honor of Julius Cesar ; and Sextilis of Augustus (August), in honor of his successor.
The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adop- tion of the Gregorian Calendar (4.p. 1582), which omits leap-year once in every century.
3. The Month. Dates, according to the Roman Calen- dar, are reckoned as follows :โ
a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends), from calare, to call,โthat being the day on which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata, which they did, originally, from actual observation.
6. Sixteen days before the Calends, โ that is, on the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the other months, โ were the Idus (Jdes), the day of Full Moon.
c. Eight days (the ninth by the Roman reckoning) before the Ides, โ that is, on the seventh day of March, May, July, and Octo- ber, but the fifth of the other months, โ were the Nonae (Nones, or ninths). '
d. From the three points thus determined the days of the month were reckoned backwards (the point of departure being, by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning), giving the following rule for determining the date: โ
If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in the month preceding, โif Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall,โand from the number thus ascer- tained subtract the given date : โ thus, viii. Kal. Feb. (83โ8) = Jan. 25;โiv. Non. Mar. (8โ4)โMar. 4;โiv. Id. Sept. (144โ4) =Sept. 10.
84. 85.] MEASURES OF VALUE. 235
e- The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus ascertained, are given in the following Table : โ
' Fanuary. February. March. A pril.
x. Kav. JAN. Kat. Fes. Kart. MARTL& Kav. APRILES 2. 1v. Non. Jan. iv. Non. Feb. vi. Non. Mart. 1v. Non. Apr. 3. Ml. 99 โ III. 95 โ Vv; โ โ III. 59 โ 4 prid. ,, โ rid. ,, โ IV. 59 โ rid ,, โ s5- Non. JAN. on. FEB. III. yy Se ON. APRILES. 6. vit. Id. Jan. vin. Id. Feb. rid. ,, % vir. Id. Apr. Pe WUT gg sy. a | meek Same ON. MARTLE Ws es ey Soe Vie. gp oes vit Id. Mart. Wis aan ae
9. V- a) v- โยป Vile yy V- Pe) IO. IV. 55 โ IV. โ โ VI. โ โ IV. โ 9 Ir. Ile 55 99 III. 53 99 Vv. ry) โ Tl. 53 9 12. prid. โยป ยปยป rid. 55.ยป IV. โ 39 prid. ,, โ 13. Ipus JAN. pus FEs. ; Ul. 5. op Ipus APRILEs. 14. xIx. Kal. Feb. xvi. Kal. Martias prid. ,,__,, xvi. Kal. Maias Bie MVE ee Ma ey a Ipus MARTI& 3) eee 96 EUs soy, 56 ae xvii. Kal. Aprilis xvi. oem, alge 17- XVI- 59 89 XIII. 35 29 XVI. rw XV. eS) 18. XV. 45 โ XII. 59 โ XV. a XIV. > 19- XIV- 53 โ xi. โ โ XIV. 53g XIII. โยป OG SME ig Be a โ Be oS XII. 0 2 ae 21. XII. 99 โ IX. โ โ XII. โ xi. > ยป SP MB ee. gg, VR 5 YA XI. ea Sita x. ae be 23- X- โ โ VII. 59 โ x. โยป 99 IX. ยป ยป 24 IX. โ โ vi. โ โ IX. โยป 9ยป VIIt. โยป 9 S85 WE oes + ag oe ~ โ fei) are ee Vil. wat ilies 26. VII. 4 โ Iv. โ โ Vil. r,t VI. 99 ) 27- VI. โ 99 Ill. โ . VI. โ โ V- 9 9 28. v. โ 9 rid. ths ae Vv. 2 โ Iv. 99 โ an Se eee prid. Kal. Mart. IV. Ee III. aa ances 30. III. 4, 4, in leap-year, the Ill. Robin a) eee 31. prid. ,, 4, vi- Kal. (24th) being prid. ,, 45 June, Sept., Nov. (So Aug., Dec.) counted twice.] (So May, July, Oct.)
Nore. โ Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (s.c. 45) is to be found not by the above, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the number of days in the month.
: 85. MEASURES OF VALUE.
1. The Money of the Romans was in early times wholly of copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound, but actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into twelve unciae. In the third century B.c. the As was reduced by degrees to one-twelfth of its original value. At the same time silver coins were introduced; the Denariusโ=10 Asses, and the Sestertius or sesterce (semis-tertius, or half-third, represented by IIS or HS = duo et semis) = 2} Asses.
2. The Sestertius, being probably introduced at a time when it was equal in value to the original as, came to be used as the unit of value: hence nummus, coin, was used as equivalent to Sester- tius. Afterwards, by the reductions in the standard, four asses became equal to a sesterce. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 100 sesterces.
236 MEASURES OF VALUE. [85.
The value of these coins is seen in the following Table : โ
24 asses =1 sestertius or nummus (HS), value about 5 cents.
IO asses or 4 sestertii=โ1denarius... ,, ge tee 1000 sestertiiโ1 sestertium....... ยฅ: te 9ยป $50.00.
3. The Sestertium (probably the genitive plural of sestertius) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected regularly as a neuter noun: thus, tria sestertiaโ$120.00. When com- bined with a numeral adverb, hundreds of thousands (centena milia) are to be understood: thus decies sestertium (decies HS) = $50,000. In the statement of large sums the noun is often omitted: thus sexagies (Rosc. Am. ii.) signifies, sexagies [centena milia] sestertium (6,000,000 sesterces) = $300,000.
4. In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above the number indicates thousands; lines at the sides also, hundred- thousands. Thus us. pc. = 600 sestertii ; โ Hs. Dc. = 600,000 ses- tertii, or 600 sestertia;โus. |pc| = 60,000,000 sestertii.
5. MEASURES OF LENGTH.
12 unciz (zzches) =1 Roman Foot ( Zes, 11.65 English inches). 14 Feet =1 Cubit. โ24 Feet =1 Degree or Step (,gradus). 5 Feet=1 Pace (passus).โ 1000 Paces (mille fassuum) =1 Mile.
The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The Ju- gerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) feet long and 120 broad; a little less than ? of an English acre.
6 MEASURES OF WEIGHT.
12 unciz (ounces) = one pound (dra, about ยง lb. avoirdupois).
For fractional parts of the pound, see Lexicon, art. as. The Talent was a Greek weight = 60 libre.
7 MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
12 cyathi=1r1 sextarius (nearly a pint).
16 sextarii=1 modius (peck).
6 sextariiโ=1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure). 8 congii=1 amphora (6 gallons).
SUPPLEMENT.
โ
OUTLINE OF SYNTAX.
I. Sussect AND PREDICATE.
46. Nouns. โ A Noun used to describe another, and meaning the same thing, agrees with it in Case (p. 103).
1. When in the same part of the sentence (subject or predi- eate), it is called an appositive, and the use is called apposition.
2. When used to form a predicate, with a copulative verb, it is called predicate nominative (or other case, as it may be).
a. Agreement in gender and number; 6. with /ocative; c. genitive in agreement with possessives.
47, ADJECTIVES agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case (p. 105).
1. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural.
2. When nouns are of different genders, an attributive adjec- tive agrees with the nearest.
a. Of predicate adjectives; 6. masculine or neuter; c. abstracts with neuter adjectives; d, agreement by synesis; โฌ. with appositive or predicate; 7. with partitive genitive.
3. Adjectives are often used as nouns, the masculines to de- note men, and the feminine women (chiefly plural). a. Possessives; 6. Demonstratives; c. Nouns as adjectives.
4. A neuter adjective may be used as a noun :โ
a. Use in the singular ; 6. in the plural; ยข. as appositive or predi- cate; d. in agreement with a clause or infinitive.
5. Adjectives denoting source or possession may be used for the genitive.
a. For genitive of personal pronouns; 6. genitive in apposition ; c. for objective genitive (rarely).
6. An adjective is often used to qualify an act, having the force of an Adverb.
7. When two qualities are compared, both adjectives are in the comparative, connected by quam. a. Not with magiss 0. Positives with quam.
8. Superlatives denoting order and succession often designate what part of an object is meant (so medius, ceterus, &c.).
9. Alius ...alius, &c., may be used reciprocally, or may imply a change of predicate as well as of subject.
238 SUPPLEMENT.
48. Revatives.โA Relative agrees with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case depends on the construc- tion of the clause in which it stands (p. 109).
1. A verb takes the person of the antecedent.
2. A relative generally agrees in gender with the appositive.
a. Agreement in case by attraction; 6. with implied antecedent.
3. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses ; usually only in the former ; sometimes it is wholly omitted.
a. When repeated; 6. a relative clause (is or hic, antecedent; R., order of clauses); c. antecedent omitted; d. predicate adjective (superlatives); โฌ id quod or quae res.
4. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or sentence, where in English a demonstrative must be used.
5. An Adverb is often equivalent to the pronoun (relative or demonstrative) with a preposition.
49, Verss.โ A verb agrees with its subject-nominative in number and person (p. 112).
1. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the plural.
a. Rule for persons; 6. with disjunctives; ยข. collective nouns, &c.; d. action belonging to the subjects separately.
2. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative.
a. Omission of personal pronoun; 0. of indefinite subject; ยข. of verb in certain phrases (especially of the copula).
II. ConstTrucTIon oF CASES.
50. Genitive.โ A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive (p. 113).
1. Subjective. The Genitive is used to denote the author, owner, source, and (with an adjective) measure or quality.
a. Use of possessives; 6. omission of limited noun; ยข. genitive in predicate ; d. with phrase or clause (instead of neuter nominative) ; so neuter of possessives; @. of substance; 7. instead of appositive;
- of quality (with adjectives); #. of measure (with numerals) ; @ of quantity, to express value; k. with causa, &c.
2. Partitive. Words denoting a part are followed by the genitive of the whole to which the part belongs.
a. Nouns or pronouns; B, Numerals, &c.; ยข. Neuter adjectives; ad. Adverbs; e. Poetic use. โ Remark 1. Ablative with preposition ; 2. uterque; 3. Words meaning a whole; 4. Doubled genitive.
3. Objective. With many nouns and adjectives implying action, the genitive is used to denote the object.
a. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling; 6. Adjectives requiring an object of reference (1. desire, &c., 2. verbals, 8. participials) ;
OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 239
c. Adjectives with genitive of specification; d@. of likeness. Use of prepositions in connecting nouns.
4. After Verbs. The genitive is used as the object of several classes of Verbs: โ
a. Of remembering, forgetting, and reminding; 0. of accusing, con- demning, and acquitting ; (peculiar genitives; abl. with de); ยข. of emo- tion (1. pity, &c., 2. impersonals; use of infinitive); @. refert and interest; e. of plenty and want (potior) ; 2. Genitive with Adverbs.
51. Dative.โ The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by the action of a verb (p. 121).
1. Of Indirect Object: with Transitives. Transitive verbs, whose meaning permits it, take the dative of the indirect object, with the accusative of the direct (as of giving, telling, sending).
a. With passive; 6. Motion with Prepositions; d. dono, &c.
2. after Intransitives. Intransitive verbs take the da- tive of the indirect object only.
a. Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, serve, trust, and their con- traries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, envy, threaten, resist, pardon, and spare; (1. juvo, &c., with accus.; 2. dat. or ace. with adulor, &c.; 38. dat. or acc. according to their meaning); 0. libet, &c.; c. with accus. of remote; d. Compounds with ad, ante, cen, ke. {transitive compounds; obvius); @โฌ. Compounds with ab, de, ex; jf. Impersonal use in the passive; g. Poetic use of dative.
3. Of Possession. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote the Owner.
Rem. โ Use of habeo; a@. Compounds of esse; 6. nomen est.
4. Of Agency. The Dative is used after some passive forms to denote the Agent.
a. Gerund or gerundive; 0. perfect participle; ยข, poetic use.
5. Of Service. The Dative is used to denote the purpose or end; often with another dative of the person or thing affected.
6. Of Nearness. The Dative is used after words of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites.
a. Accusative with ad; }. Accusative with in or erga; Cc. pos- sessive genitive; d@. propior, &c. with acc.; รฉโฌ. dat. with verbals.
7. Of Reference. The Dative is often required not by any particular word, but by the general meaning of the sentence.
a. Instead of possessive genitive; 0. relations of direction; Cc. of volens, nolens; d. Ethical Dative (ablative with pro).
52. Accusative. โ The Accusative denotes that which is immediately affected by the action of the verb.
1. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object. a. With verbs of feeling; 6. Cognate Accusative; ยข. with verbs
of sensation; d. of motion (compounds); @. Constructio pragnans ; F. Impersonals, decet, &c.
, 240 SUPPLEMENT.
2. Two Accusatives. Several verbs take a second accusa- tive, either in apposition or as a secondary object.
a. Verbs of naming, choosing, &c.; 6. Compounds with preposi- tions; c. Verbs of asking and teaching (passive use); d. celo, lateo.
3. Adverbial Accusative. The accusative is used adver- bially, or for specification.
b. Accusative of neuter pronoun or adjective; 6, Adverbial phrases; c. Greek accusative: passive used reflexively.
4. Special Uses :โ
a. Exclamations; 6. as subject of Infinitive; c. Duration of Time and extent of Space.
53. Vocative. โ The Vocative is the form of direct Address (p. 134).
a. Nominative with Imperative; 6. Vocative of adjective.
54, ABLATIVE. โ The Ablative is used to denote the rela- tions expressed in English by the prepositions from, 1n, at, with, by (p. 134).
1. Separation. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, are followed by the ablative.
a. Compounds, used figuratively; 0. ablative of place from; c. adjectives of freedom and want; d. opus and usus; egeo and indigeo with genitive (so other words of separation and want).
2. Source. The ablative is used to denote source or material.
a. Participles of birth and origin; Bb. place of birth; c. of mate- rial, with constare ; d. with facere, &c.
3. Cause. The ablative is used to express cause.
a. dignus, indignus, and certain verbs; 0. motive expressed with ob or propter; C. causa, gratia.
4. Agent. The voluntary agent after a passive verb is put in the ablative with ab.
a. So with neuters; 6. agent as instrument with per or opera.
5. Comparison. The comparative degree is followed by the ablative, signifying than.
a. Use of quam; b. idiomatic ablatives, opinione, &c.; ยข. con- struction of plus, amplius, &c.
_ 6. Means. The ablative is used to denote accompaniment, means, instrument.
_@. Accompaniment with cum (misceo, jungo); B. contention with cum; c. with words of fulness; d. utor, &c.; e, abl. of degree of difference (eo, quo, &c
_ 7. Quality. The ablative is used (with an adjective or limit ing genitive) to denote manner and quality. a. Physical characteristics; 0. manner with cum; modo, &c.
OUTLINE OF SYNTAX, 241
8. Price. The price of a thing is put in the ablative. a. Certain genitives of quantity are used to denote indefinite value ; b. so of certain nouns.
9. Specification. The ablative denotes that in respect to which any thing is or is done, or in accordance with which any thing happens.
10. Locative. The ablative of the place where is retained in many idiomatic expressions.
a. Verbs and Verbals.
b. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE: A noun or pronoun, with a participle [form- ing the subject and predicate of a subordinate clause] may be put in the ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action; c. Ablative of neuter adjective; d. Ablative of place where and time when.
55. TIME AND PLACE. โ1. Time. Time when (or within which) is put in the ablative; time how long in the accusative.
a. Use of preposition; 0. Ablative of duration.
2. Space. Extent of space is put in the accusative.
a. Genitive of measure; 8. Distance in accusative or ablative.
3. Place. To express relations of place, prepositions are necessary, except with the names of towns and small islands.
a. The name of the place from which is in the ablative.
b. The name of the place to which is in the accusative (so certain phrases ; aiso the former supine).
c. The name of the place where takes the locative form, which in the Ist and 2d declensions singular is the same as the genitive ; in the plural and in the 8d declension, the same as the dative (or ablative).
ad. domi, belli, militiz, humi, ruri, &c.; โฌ. possessives with domus; 7. special phrases.
4. Way. The way by which is put in the ablative.
56. Prepositions. โ1. Prepositions govern the accusative or ablative (p. 146).
a. Those governing accus.; 0. those governing abl.; c. in, sub (pono, statuo, &c.); d. super; e. subter; 7. Dates; g. tenus.
2. Many words may be construed either as prepositions or as adverbs.
a. pridie, propius, &c., with accus.; 6. palam, &c., with abl.; c. clam; d. Prepos. as adverbs (ante, &c).
3. Prepositions or adverbs implying comparison are followed by quam.
4. The ablative with a or ab is regularly used after passive verbs to denote the agent (if a person).
5. Many prepositions sometimes follow their nouns.
242 SUPPLEMENT.
Til. Syntrax oF THE VERB.
57. Moops. โ The Moods of a Latin verb are the Indica- tive, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive (p. 148).
1. Indicative. โThe Indicative is the mood of direct asser- tions or questions.
2. Sunyunctive. The Subjunctive is used in special con- structions, both in dependent and independent clauses.
a. INDEPENDENT: hortatory, optative, concessive, dubitative; also in apodosis; 0. DEPENDENT: purpose or result, temporal clauses, indirect discourse, intermediate clauses.
3. Hortatory. The Subjunctive is used (present or perfect) to express a command or exhortation.
a. Second person of indefinite subj.; 6. perfect in prohibitions ; Cc. proviso; d. past obligation.
4. Optative. The subj. is used to denote a wish: primary tenses when conceived as possible; secondary, as unaccomplished. a. Old use of perfect; 6. ut, utinam, O si; velim, vellem.
5. Concessive: the subjunctive is used to express a conces- sion (with or without ut, quamvis, quamlibet, &c.).
6. Dubitative: the subjunctive is used in questions imply- ~ ing doubt, indignation, or an impossibility of the thing being done.
7. IMPERATIVE. The Imperative is used in commands; also, by early writers and poets, in prohibitions.
a. Prohibitions (perf. subj., noli, cave, fac ne); 0. use of pres. subj.; ยข. future imperative; d. future for imperative.
8. InrinitrveE. The Infinitive denotes the action of the verb as an abstract noun. :
a. As subject or object (esse and impersonals); 0. with imperso- nals as subj. or complement; ยข. Complementary Infinitive; d. used optionally ; @. with subj.-accus., after words of knowing, thinking, and telling; f. Purpose; g. Exclamations; hf. Historical Infinitive.
58. Tenses.โ The Tenses are the Present, Imperfect, Future of incomplete action, and the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect of completed action (p. 157).
1. The tenses of the INDICATIVE denote absolute time.
2. Present. The Present denotes an action or state as now existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite.
a. Action continuing; 6. Conative Present; ยข. Present for future ; ad. Historical Present; e. with dum; f. of extant writers.
3. Imperfect. The imperfect denotes an action or condition continued or repeated in past time.
a. Descriptions ; }. action continuing; ยข. conative; d. surprise; รฉ. in narrative (comic),
OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 243
4. Future. The Future denotes an action or condition that will occur hereafter. .
5. Perfect. The perfect definite denotes an action as now completed; the perfect historical, as having taken place indefi- nitely in past time.
a. As no longer existing; 0. of indefinite time; c. of general truth (gnomic), especially negations; d- in negations preferred to imperfect.
6. Pluperfect. The Pluperfect is used to denote an action com- pleted in time past; sometimes also repeated in indefinite time.
7. Future Perfect. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the future.
8. Epistolary Tenses. In Letters, the perfect or imperfect may be used for the present, and the pluperfect for past tenses.
9. SussuncTivE. In Independent clauses, the Present Sub- junctive always refers to future time, the Imperfect to either past or present; the Perfect to either future or past; the Pluperfect always to past.
In Dependent clauses, the tenses of the subjunctive denote relative time, not with reference to the speaker, but to the action of some other verb.
10. Sequence of Tenses. In compound sentences, a pri- mary tense in the leading clause is followed by a primary tense in the dependent clause ; and a secondary tense is followed by a secondary (p. 162).
a. Perfect definite; 6. Perfect subjunctive; c. Perfect in clauses of result (compared with imperf.); ad. general truths; e. historical present; 7. Protasis and Apodosis; g. imperfect subjunctive in lead- ing clauses; J. secondary tenses by synesis.
11. Inrinitrve. The tenses of the Infinitive are present, past, or future relatively to the time of the verb on which they depend.
a. Present, following verb in past tense; 0. Perfect (memini) ; c. Present, without reference to time; @. Perf. with verbs of wishing, &c.; รฉ Perf. with verbs of feeling (poetic); 7. Future (fore ut).
59. ConpITIONAL SENTENCES. โ A conditional sentence (or clause) is one beginning with 1F or some equivalent.
1. Protasis and Apodosis. The clause containing the con- dition (1F) is called the Protasis; that containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis.
a. Protasis: 1F or indef. relative; 6. Apodosis the main clause.
2. Particular and General Conditions: โ
a. A particular supposition refers to a definite act (or series of
acts) occurring at some definite time.
b. A general supposition refers to any one of a class of acts which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time.
c. Classification of conditional sentences (p. 167).
244 SUPPLEMENT.
3. Present and Past Conditions .โ
a. In the statement of a condition whose falsity is not implied, the tenses of the Indicative are used.
6. In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the imper- fect and pluperfect subjunctive are used.
c. Impert. subj. referring to past; d. Indic. in apodosis; @โฌ. ex- pressions of necessity, duty, &c.; fs Fut. part. with fui = plup. subj.
4. Future Conditions :โ
a. Use of future indic.; &- of present subj.; c. of future perf. d. Form of Apodosis; ยข- Perfect indic. in apodosis ; f- Amperf. (or plupert.) subj. by sequence of tenses.
5. General Conditions : โ
a. Indefinite subject (2d person singular); 6. repeated action (im- perfect subj. and indic.); ยข in other cases, indicative.
60. ImpLicp ConpiTions.โIn many sentences, the con- dition is stated in some other form than a conditional clause, or is implied in the nature of the thought (p. 172).
1. Condition Disguised : โ
a. In a relative or participial clause; 0. in a wish or command; Cc. in an independent clause.
2. Condition Omitted : โ
a. Potential Subjunctive; 6. Subjunctive of modesty; ยข. Indic- ative of necessity, duty, &c.; ad. mixed constructions.
61. ConpDITIONAL Particies. Certain particles implying a condition are followed by the subjunctive (p. 174).
1. Comparative: โtamquam, &c. (with pres. or perf. subj.).
2. Concessive: โ quamvis, ut, licet, etsi.
3. Proviso: โmodo, dum, dummodo.
4. Use of the Conditional Particles: โ
a. si, nisi; b. nisi vero (objection); c. sive (alternative) ; d. con- cessive particles.
62. ReLatTions oF Time. Temporal clauses are introduced โby particles which are almost all of relative origin; and are usually construed like other relative clauses (p. 176).
1. Temporal particles are used as indefinite relatives. 2. Temporal clauses of absolute time take the Indicative ; those of relative time, the Subjunctive.
a. postquam, ut, ubi; 0. cum temporal; c. antequam, priue quam; d. dum, donec, quoad ; รฉ. cum causal; 7. cum...tum.
63. CAUSE OR REAson. Causal Clauses may take the Indica- tive or Subjunctive according to their construction (p. 181):โ
1. Indicative in direct construction; 2. Subjunctive of indirect discourse. a. Relative clause of characteristic; 0B. cum causal.
OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 245
64. PurrosE.โ1. Final clauses take the Subjunctive after relatives, or the conjunction ut, -ne (p. 182).
a. Use of quo; 6. Suppression of principal clause.
2. Purpose is expressed in various ways; but never (except
rarely in poetry) by the simple Infinitive (p. 183). โ 65. CoNnSEQUENCE or Resu.t. โ1. Consecutive Clauses take
the Subjunctive after relatives or the conj. ut, ut non (p. 183). a. quominus; 6. quin (substantive clause).
2. A relative clause of Result is often used to indicate a char- acteristic of the antecedent.
a. General expressions of existence, &c.; 6. unus and solus; c. Comparatives with quam; dd. restriction or proviso; โฌ cause or hinderance; f. dignus, aptus, idoneus.
66. INTERMEDIATE CLavses. A subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the speaker or writer; or when it is an integral part of a subjunctive clause or an equivalent infinitive (p. 185).
1. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses to express the thought of some other person.
a. Indirect discourse; 6. depending on implied wish, command, &c.; C. main clause merged in a verb of saying; d. reason with quod (non quod, non quin).
2. A clause depending on another subjunctive clause (or equiv- alent infinitive) will also take the subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause.
67%. Inprrect Discoursre.โA Direct Quotation is one
which gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer. An Indirect Quotation is one which adapts the original words to the structure of the sentence in which they are quoted.
1. Indirect Narrative. In a declaratory sentence in indirect discourse, the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and its subject in the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive.
a. Subject-accusative; 6. Relative clauses; ยข. Conditional Sen- tences; ad. Questions: indirect or rhetorical.
2. Indirect Questions. An indirect question takes its verb in the Subjunctive.
a. Future participle; 6. Dubitative Subjunctive; ยข. Accusative of anticipation; d. Early use of indicative; e@. Indefinites (nescio quis); f. clauses with si (whether).
3. Indirect Commands. All imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in indirect discourse.
68. WisHes AND ComMANDs.โ1. Wishes are expressed by the Subjunctive : the primary tenses in reference to future time, the secondary to express a hopeless wish (p. 192).
s
246 SUPPLEMENT.
2. Commands are expressed by the Imperative or Subjunc- tive; Prohibitions by the subjunctive or a periphrasis with noli, cave. The Object of a command is given in a purpose-clause.
3. Indirectly quoted, all these forms take the Subjunctive.
69. ReLtativeE CiLAusEs. โ1. A simple relative, merely in- troducing a descriptive fact, takes the Indicative.
2. In relative clauses with the Subjunctive, the relative is either in protasis, or expresses some logical connection, or has no effect on the construction (as in indirect discourse).
70. Susstantive CLauses.โ A Substantive Clause is one which is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition with a subject or object (p. 193).
1. Classification: 1. Infinitive Clauses; 2. Indirect Ques- tions; 3. Clauses of purpose or result (ut); 4. Indicative of fact (quod).
2. The Infinitive (with accusative) is used as the Subject chiefly of esse and impersonal verbs; as the Object, 1. of verbs and expressions of knowing, thinking, and telling; 2. jubeo, veto, &e.; 3. of verbs of wishing.
a. After passives; 0. poetic extension; c. verb of saying im- plied; d. verbs of promising, &c.
3. Clauses of Purpose are used as the object of all verbs de- noting an action directed towards the future.
a. Verbs of commanding, &c.; 6. of wishing, &c.; Ce of permission, &ec.; d. of determining, &c. (decreeing, with part. in dus); e. of cau- tion and effort; f. of fearing (ne, ut); gy. poetic use of infinitive.
4. Clauses of Result are used as the object of verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort.
a. Verbs of happening, &c.; 6. following quam; c. in exclama- tions (elliptically); @. tantum abest; e, facere ut; f. instead of accus. and infin. ; gy. hindering (quin; non dubito) ; #2. Use optional.
5. The Indicative with quod is used (more commonly as sub- ject) when the statement is regarded as a fact.
a. As accus. of specification; &. with verbs of feeling (miror si).
71, QuEsTIONS. โ Questions are introduced by interroga- tive pronouns, adverbs, or particles, and are not distinguished by the order of words (p. 200). )
1. Interrogative Particles : โ
a. num in indirect questions; 0. form of indirect questions; c. enclitic ยซne; d. nescio an, &e.
2. Double Questions (utrum ...an):โ
a. Omission of former particle; 0. of first member; ยข. of sec- ond member; d. forms of alternative.
3. Question and Answer. In answering a question, the verb is generally repeated.
a
OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 247
72, ParticiepLes.โ The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an adjective (p. 202).
1. Distinctions of Tense:โ โ a. Present; 0. Perfect (deponent) ; c. Pres. passive (dum, =dus). 2. Adjective Use, attributive :โ
a. As nouns; 0. as predicate with esse; c. periphrastic perfect; d. two forms of perfect passive.
3. Predicate Use. The present and perfect participles are often used to express time, cause, occasion, condition, conces- sion, characteristic, manner, circumstance (especially in the Ablative Absolute).
a. Passive part. containing the main idea; Bยฎ. Perfect part. with habeo; c. with volo; Present part. for infin. (with facio, &c.).
4. Future Participle :โ
a. Periphrastic conjugation; 6. with fui, &c., for pluperf. subj.
5. Gerundive (denoting necessity and propriety): โ
a. in simple agreement; 8. periphrastic conjugation (impersonal use); โฌ with verbs of undertuking, demanding, &c.
73. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.โ1. The Gerund, in gram- matical construction, follows the same rules as nouns (p. 206).
2. Gerundive. When the Gerund would have an object in the accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead, agree- ing with the noun, in the case which the gerund would have had.
3. Construction. The Gerund and Gerundive are used in the oblique cases in the constructions of nouns :โ
a. The Genitive is used as objective genitive after nouns or adjec- tives, as a predicate with esse, or as a genitive of quality.
6. The Dative is used after the adjectives (rarely nouns) which are followed by the dative of nouns ; sometimes also after verbs.
ec. The Accusative is used after several prepositions; most fre- quently after ad denoting purpose.
ad. The Ablative is used to express means, instrument, or manner, after comparatives, and after several prepositions.
e. The Gerund is occasionally found in apposition with a noun.
74. Supine.โ1. The Former Supine is used after verbs of motion, to express the purpose of the motion (p. 209).
2. The Latter Supine is used only after a few adjectives and nouns, to denote that in respect to which the quality is asserted.
248 SUPPLEMENT.
SYNOPSIS OF CONSTRUCTIONS. [The figures refer to pages.]
I. SuspsecT AND PREDICATE.
oe of abl. with loรฉative, 104. 1. Apposition of gen. with possessive, 105. 2. Predicate Agreement, 104. with nearest noun, 105. by synests, 106
Noun: agreement in case
re Agreement ttributive โ : . masc. or fem., of persons, 106. ADJECTIVE: Fe pee } 28 Noun peer as object, quality, ke., 107.
Ppe Possessive, as genitive (subj. or obj.), 108. (as Adverb, qualiiying the act, 108.
with appositive, 110.
Agreement in case by. attraction, 110.
in either or both clauses, 110. Antecedent noun omitted, 110.
RELATIVE:
II. ConsTrRuCTION OF CASES.
NoMINATIVE: as Subject of a Finite Verb, 112.
1. Subjective (source, possession, quality), 114. 2. Partitive (with numerals, superlatives, &c.), 115. Ze ith nouns and adjectives 4 agency, eer 3. Objective ยข _. of memory and feeling, 119 lo ai โvarte of charge and penalty, 119.
GENITIVE:
: 4 with transitives, 121. - Of Indirect Object with intransitives, 122. โ with esse, 126. - Of Possession with nomen est, 127.
with gerundive, 127.
- Of Agency with other passive forms, 127. . Of Service (denoting purpose or end), 128. Of Nearness, fitness, likeness, &c., 128. . Of Reference (dativus commodi), 129. . Of Direct Object (including cognate accusative), 131. Of Apposition or Secondary object, 132 . Adverbial ( ati accusative of specification), 133. . Of Exclamation, 133. . As subject of Infinitive, 133.
VocaTIveE: of Direct Address.
, eis ~~
DATIVE: +
ACCUSATIVE:
TP OLE Horm co po
of separation and want, 135. 1. Original | of source, 136. โ Ablative { of cause, 137. (FROM) | of agent (with ad), 138. of comparison (than), 138.
of means and accompaniment, 189. ABLATIVE: { 2. Instrumental | of quality (with adjectives), 141. (WITH) of price, 141. of specification, 142. Place where, 145. 3. Locative |} Time at or within which, 143. (IN, AT) j; Idiomatic use, 142. { Circumstance (ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE), 142.
SYNOPSIS OF CONSTRUCTIONS. 249
Ill, Synrax or THE VERB.
INDICATIVE: Direct assertion or question; Absolute Time, 148. { Hortatory, opelre Concessive, Dubitative, 148. f Purpose or Result, 181, 183. 177. Chaiacteristic, 184; Relative Time, SUBJUNCTIVE: { Dependent } Indirect Discourse egos 188, Peo : ndir. Quest. 190. Coadtiions Future, 170. ; Contrary to fact, 168. IMPERATIVE: Commands, Prohibitions, 152. ; as Subject or Object; Comp'ementary, 154.โ INFINITIVE: jet Indirect Discourse (subject-accusative), 188. of Purpose; Exclamation; Historical, 156.
simple condition (indic.), 168. contrary ie re (subj ), 168. more vivid (fut. indic.), 170. Expressed eieste less vivid (pres. subj.), 170. Goneral j indef. subject (2d person), 171. { repeated action, 171. by qualifying clause, 172. Disguised by wish, command, &c., 172. independent clause, 173. Implied - povenser: subjunctive, 173. โ
: subjunctive of modesty, 173. Omitted (indic. of necessity, &c., 174.) โ mixed constructions, 174. Principal clause: Accus. and Infin., 188.
Narrati Relative, 188. arration \ Subordinate clauses, Subj.: 4 Conditional, 188. INDIRECT Imperative, 191. DiscouRsE: | . { Interrog. phrase, 190. Question (Subjunctive) Accus. of anticipation, 190. ; nescio quis, mirum si, 191. | Intermediate Clauses (Subjunctive), 186. f Meena. and tnan. (ยฐยฐ Subject (esse and impers. ), 153. (or Infin. alone) ) as Object pee yi if 195 SUBSTANTIVE | Purpnes (cunmaasd with, ar. 16 7 7 j 9 โ โ . CuausEs: | Subjunctive with ur Result (happen, effect, hinder), 197. Indicative with Quon: fact, specification, feeling, 199. | Indirect Questions, 190. p Simple predicate, 203. Periphrastic perfect, 203. Present and Perfect { Predicate of circumstance, 204. ; (Ablative Absolute), 204. ; Present, descriptive (indir. dise.), 205. PARTICIPLES: Fut Periphrastic with esse, 205. fp ee + With fui = pluperf. subj., 169. as descriptive adjective, 205. Gerundive { periphrastic with esse, 205. of purpose, with certain verbs, 206. : Genitive: as objective gen., 207. Gerrunp? (like Infinitive) and | Dative: with adjectives, &c., 208.
GERUNDIVE (in agreement; Accusative: with prepositions, 208. with noun): Ablative: ยง 0f, manner and instrum., 208. * | with prepositions, 208.
s Former Supine: with verbs of motion, 209. oe Latter Supine: with adjectives, nouns, verbs, 209.
Present or Past
CONDITIONS: ;
.
250
SUPPLEMENT.
PECULIAR AND EXCEPTIONAL Noun-FOorRMS.
First and Second Declensions.
Sing. N. dea deus filius Gaius studium vir G. des dei fili(ii) Gai studi (ii) viri D. dese deo filio Gaio studio viro A. deam deum filium Gaium & virum Vv. dea deus fili Gai vir A. dea deo filio Gaio viro Plur. N.V. dese dei(dii, di) filii Gai studia viri G. dearum deorum c. Gaio &e. virorum D Ab.deabus deis (diis, dis) Gais viris Acc. deas deos Gaios viros Third Declension (Greek).
Sing. NW. aer (M.) heros(M.) lampas(r.) basis tigris
aรฉris (Os) herois lampa&dos baseos (is) tigris (idos) D. = aeri heroi ampadi basi tigri [ida Ac. aera heroa lampada basin (im) tigrin (im, Ab. aere heroe lampade basi tigri (ide) Plur. . = V. herdรฉs lampadรฉs basรฉs ' tigres
heroum lampadum basium tigrium >. Ab. lampadibus basibus tigribus Acc. heroa&s lampa basรฉs (eis) tigris (id&s) Fourth and Fifth Declensions. Sing. Plur. N. domus(F.) domus senatus plebes G. domus domorum (uum) senatus (i, uos) plebei (i) D. domui (0) domibus senatu plebei (i) Ac. domum domos senatum plebem Ab. domo (u) domibus senatu plebe [Loc. domi.] Proper Names-(Greek).
N Atrides Phcebe Athรฉs(o) Delds Orpheus G. Atridse Phoebes Atho (i) Deli Orphei (eos) D. Atridee Phoebse Atho Delo Orpheo (ei) A Atriden(em) Phceben Atho(on) Delon(um) Ft heum (ea) Vv. Atrida Phoebe Orpheu A. Atrida Phoebe Atho Delo Orpheo N. Achilles Socrates Thales To (Ion) Juppiter G Achillis (eos, Socratis (i) ยฐ Thali (etis) Las (onts) Jovis D. Achilli |ei, i) Socrati Thali(eti) lo (oni) ovi A. Achil len (ea) Socraten (em) Thalen(eta) Io (ona) Jovem V. Achi Socrate Thales Io Juppiter A. chille Socrate Thale โete) Io ove N Atlas(ans} aocoon Simois Capy Argos (N.) G. Atlantis Laocoontis Simoentis Capyos (is) Nom. +e Ace. D Atlanti Laocoonti Simoenti Capyi Piur A. Atlanta Laocoonta Simoenta Capyn(ym) Argi V. Atlas (Atla) ILaocoon Simois Capys Argorum A. Atlante Laocoonte Simoente Capye . Argis, &c.
Note. โThe regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above.
APPENDIX. -
Latin was originally the language of the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, the first territory occupied and governed by the Romans... This language, together with the Greek, Sanskrit, Zend (old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic, are shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common stock, a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the in- terior of Asia, whence the different branches, by successive gar tions, peopled Europe and Southern Asia.
The name Indo-European (or Aryan) is given to the whole group of languages, as well as to the original language from which . the branches sprang. By an extended comparison of the cor- responding roots, stems, and forms, as they appear in the different branches, the original (โ Indo-Europeanโ) root, stem, or form can in very many cases be determined; and this is used as a model, or type, to which the variations may be referred. A few of these forms are given in the grammar for comparison (see, especially, p. 59). A few are here added for further illustration :
1. Case Forms (Stem VAK, voice).
Indo-Eur. Sanskr. Greek. Latin. Sina. Nom. vaks vaks by vox Gen. vakas vachas รฉmรฉs vocis Dat. vakai vache รฉl voci Ace. vakam vacham ora vocem Abl. vakat vachas (gen. or dat.) voce(d) Loc. vaki vachi .) (dat.) Instr. vaka vacha (dat.) (abl.) Piur. Nom. vikas vachas drres voces Gen. vakam . vacham or Ov yvocum | Dat. vakbhyams vagbhyas yl vocibus Ace. vakams vachas bras voces Abl. vakbhyams (as dat.) (gen. or dat.) vocibus Loc. vaksvas vaksu (dat.) Instr. vakbhis vagbhis (dat (abl.)
(For Verb-Forms, see p. 59.)
252
APPENDIX,
2. Cardinal Numbers.
Indo-Eur. Sanskr. Greek. Latin, ~ยฐ 13 [eka] [els] oe 2 dva dva dvo uo 5 en Ov | tri Tpcts tres 4 kvatvar chatur [rรฉcoapes] _ quattuor 5 kvankva panchan WwEVTE quinque 6 ksvaks shash & sex 7 saptam saptan รฉrrd septem 8 aktam ashtun OxT aw octo 9 navam navan รฉvvรฉa novem 10 dakam dasan dรฉxa decem 12 dvadakam dva-dasan dwdexa duodecim 13 tridakam trayo-dasan tpicxaldexa _โ_ tredecim 20 dvidakanta vinsati elkoor viginti 30 tridakanta trinsati TpidKovTa triginta 100 kantam catam รฉxarรฉv centum 3. Familiar and Household Words. bad Indo-Eur. Sanskr. Greek. Latin. Father. patar- pitri- warip pater Mother. matar- matri- harp mater Father-in-law. svakura- evacura- รฉxupds socer Daughter-in-law, snusha- snusha- vuds nurus Brother. bhratar- bhratri- ยขpdrnp* frater Sister. svasar- (?) โ svasar- [addekp7H] โssoror Master. pati- ti- mbots potis House dama- ama- d5puos domus Seat. sadas- sadas- &5os sedes Year. vatas- vatsa- eros vetus (old) Field. agra- ajra- aypรฉs ager Ox, Cow. u- go- Bois bos Sheep (Ewe). avi- avi- dis ovis Swine (Sow). si- sii- bs, ovs sus Yoke. yuga- yuga- guyรฉv jugum Wagon. rata- rata- [duata] rota (wheel) Middle, madhya- madhya- pรฉsos medius Sweet. svadu- svadu- 70s suavis
The immigrants who peopled the Italian peninsula also divided into several branches, and the language of each branch had its own development, until they were finally crowded out by the dominant Latin. Fragments of some of these dialects have been preserved, in monumental remains, or as cited by Roman antiquarians, though no literature now exists in them; and other fragments were prob- ably incorporated in that popular or rustic dialect which formed the basis of the modern Italian. The most important of these ancient languages of Italy โ not including Etruscan, which was
* Clansman.
APPENDIX. 253
of uncertain originโ were the Oscan of Campania, and the Um- brian of the northern districts. Some of their forms as compared with the Latin may be seen in the following:
Latin. Oscan. Umbrian, Latin. Oscan. Umbrian accinere arkane neque nep alteri (loc.) alttrei per perum argento aragetud portet portaia avibus โ aveis quadrupedibus _ peturpursus censor censtur quatuor petora petur censebit censazet quingue pomtis contra, F. contrud,N. qui, quis pis pis cornicem curnaco quid pid dextra destru quod pod pod dicere deicum (cf. venum-do) | cui piei dixerit dicust quom pone, pune duodecim desenduf __| rectori regaturei extra ehtrad | siquis svepis facito factud stet stai*t(stai*et) fecerit fefacust subvoco subocau fertote fertuta sum sum fratribus fratrus est i*st ibi ip sit set imperator embratur fuerit fust fust inter anter anter fuerunt fufans liceto licitud fuat fuid fuia magistro mestru tertium tertim medius mefa_ ubi puf mugiatur mugatu uterque puturus pid multare moltaum utrique putereiยฎ putrespe
Fragments of early Latin are preserved in inscriptions dating back to the third century before the Christian era; and some Laws are attributed to a much earlier date, โ to Romulus (8. oc. 750) and Numa (8. c. 700); and especially to the Decemvirs (Twelve Tables, B. 0. 450); but i their present form no authentic dates can be as- signed to them. Some of these are usually given in a supplement to the Lexicon. (See also Cic. de Legibus, especially ii. 8, iii. 3, 4.)
Latin did not exist as a literary language, in any compositions known to us, until about B. c. 200. At that time it was already strongly influenced by the writings of the Greeks, which were the chief objects of literary study and admiration. The most popular plays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations from . Greek, introducing freely, however, the popular dialect and the slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners they belong as much to Athens as to Rome. And the natural growth of a genuine Roman literature seems to have been thus
254 APPENDIX.
very considerably checked or suppressed. rations, rhetorical works, letters, and histories, โ dealing with the practical affairs and passions of politics, โ seem to be nearly all that sprang direct from the native soil. The Latin poรฉts of the Empire were mostly court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious class; satires and epistles alone keep the flavor of Roman manners, and exhibit the familiar features of Italian life.
In its use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part of Europe; as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philos- ophers during the Middle Age, and in some countries to a much later period; as the official language of the Church and Court of Rome, down to the present day; as, until recently, the common language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of com- munication among many learned classes and societies; and as the universal language of Science, especially of the descriptive sciences, so that many hundreds of Latin terms, or derivative forms, must be known familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of the facts of the natural world, or be able to recount them intelli- gibly to men of science. In some of these uses it may still be regarded as a living language; while, conventionally, it retains its place as the foundation of a liberal education. ,
During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not only in its literary or urban form, but in several local dialects, known by the collective name of lingua rustica, far simpler in the forms of inflection than the classic Latin. This, it is probable, was the basis of modern Italian, which has preserved many of the ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection, as orto (hortus), gente (gens). In the colonies longest occupied by the Romans, Latin โ often in its ruder and more popular form โ grew into the language of the common people. Hence the modern languages called โRomanceโ or โ Romanicโ; viz., Italian, Spanish, Portu- guese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern Spain, the Provengal or Troubadour language of the South of France, the โ Roumanโ or Walachian of the lower Danube (Rou- mania), and the โ Roumanschโ of some districts of Switzerland.
A comparison of words in several of these tongues with Latin will serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which reference has been made in the body of this Grammar, as well as.
APPENDIX. 255 the degree in which the substance of the language has remained unchanged. Thus, in the verb รฉo be the general tense-system has been preserved from the: Latin in all these languages, together with both of the stems on which it is built, and the personal endings, somewhat abraded, which can be traced throughout. The following exhibit the verb-forms with considerably less alteration
than is found in the other Romanic tongues: โ
Latin. Italian. Spanish. Portuguese. French. Provencal. sum sono soy sou suis son (sui) es sei eres รฉs es ses (est) est es hรฉ est es (ez) sumus siamo somos somos sommes sem (em) estis siete sois sdis รฉtes etz (es) sunt sono son sad sont _ sont (son) eram era era era รฉtais era
eras eri eras eras รฉtais eras
erat era era era รฉtait era eramus eravamo รฉramos รฉramos รฉtions eram eratis eravate erais. รฉreis _ รฉtiez eratz erant รฉrano eran รฉrad รฉtaient eran
fui fui, fui fui fus fui fuisti -fosti fuiste fรฉste fus fust
fuit fi fue - foi fut fo (fon) fuimus fummo fuimos fomes fiimes fom fuistis foste fuisteis fdstos faites fotz fuerunt furono fueron forad furent foren sim sia sea seja, sois sia
sis sli seas sejas sois โข sias
sit sia sea seja soit sia simus siamo seamos sejdmos soyons siam sitis siate seais sejais soyez siatz sint siano sean scjad solent sian fuissem fossi fuese fdsse fusse fos fuisses fossi fueses fisses fusses fosses fuisset fosse . fuese fdsse fat fossa (fos) fuissemus fdssimo fuรฉsemos fdssemos fussions fossem fuissetis foste. fueseis fรฉsseis fussiez fossetz fuissent fรฉssero fuesen fossem fussent fossen
es sii se sรฉ sois sias
esto sia sea seja soit sia
este siate sed sรฉde soyez siatz sunto siano ' sean sรฉjad soient sian
esse รฉssere ser ser รฉtre esser [sens] essendo _โ_siendo sรฉndo รฉtant essent
256 ) APPENDIX.
PRINCIPAL ROMAN WRITERS.
B.C.
ยฅ T. Maccius Plautus, Comedies .. ยฐ ยฉ ยซ 254-184 Q. Ennius, Annals, Satires, &c. (Fragments) ยฉ ยซ ยซ ~ 239-169 M. Porcius Cato, Husbandry, Antiquities, dc. . + ยซ 234-149 M. Pacuvius, Zvagedies (Fragments)... .. ยซ 220-130 P. Terentius Afer (Terence), Cometthes. iss 656 14ih8 195-159 L. Attius, Zragedies (Fragments) . -ยซ ... ยซ0 ยซ 170-75 C. Lucilius, Saยขzres (Fragments) . ee 148-103 M. Terentius Varro, Husbandr Antiquities, hee 116-28
wM. Tullius Cicero, Oratious, Latters. Dialogues .. 106-43
C. Julius Cesar, Commentaries . . eve ICO-44
- T. Lucretius Carus, Poem โโ De Rerum Naturaโ . . 95-52 - C. Valerius Catullus, M//scellaneous Poems . .. . 87-47 C. Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Histories . qit 86-34 vy Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders . .
Lv P. Vergilius Maro, Eclogues, Georgics, ineid R 7O-19 LQ. Horatius F laccus, Satires, Odes, Epistles . . . 65-8 Albius Tibullus, Blegtes . . ne he part tee ta 54-18 Sex. Aurelius Propertius, Elegies test ae os 51-15
T. Livius Patavinus (Livy), Roman History . SQ-A. D. 17
. P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid), ene are Fasti, ke. รฉ ; ยป 43-A. D. 18 Phedrus, ables. 2. 3s. 2 .. ahhtitan ates
Valerius Maximus, Azecdotes, โLe. a je SG ee og 3 -31 C. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History . . . ยซ ยซ 19-31 Pomponius Mela, Husbandry & Geogreg e * Gee pak -50 A. Persius Flaccus, Satires . - A.D. 34-62 โL. Anneus Seneca, Philos. Letters, dc. . T ragedies : 6 ~M. Anneus Lucanus, Historical Poem โ Pharsaliaโ . 39-65 Q. Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander. . . ยซ . i C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny), Mat. Hist.. dc. . . . 23-79 C. Valerius Flaccus, Herozc Poem, * Argonauticaโ . -88 P. Papinius Statius, Heroic Poems, ** bein. anole &c. ยป 61-96 C. Silius Italicus, Herote Poem, โโ*Punicaโ . 6โ i 25-100 VD. Junius Juvenalis (Juvenal), Satires . . . s . 40-120 L. Annezus Florus, Hist. Abridgment. . . . ; -120
M. Valerius Martialis (Martial), E~zgrams. . . . 43-104 VM. Fabius Quintilianus, Rhetoric . . ee at os 40-118 \โC. Cornelius Tacitus, Aunals, History, bc. ; 60-118
C. Plinius Cecilius Secundus (Pliny Junior) Letters 61-115
C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Biographies . . . : 70-
Apuleius, Philos. Writings, โโ Metamorphoses โ &e. . 110-
A. Gellius, Miscellanies, โโ Noctes Atticeโ . . + +ยป about ~-180 + Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Afologis# . . 160-240 + M. Minucius Felix, Afol. Dialogue . . . . + ยซabout -250 t Firmianus Lactantius, Theology . . . ยซ ยซยฉ ยซ + . 250-325 +D. Magnus Ausonius, Miscellaneous Poems . + + โ400 Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History. ยซ+ ยซ * โ400 Claudius Claudianus, Poems, Panegyrics, &c. F -410 + Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems. . 348-410 t Aurelius Augustinus, Confessions, Discourses, dc. . 3547430 Anicius Manlius Boรฉthius, P&:los. Dialogues . + . 470-520
t Christian writers.
INDEX.
ee
a
rf =
ae ha a
oO lee
ae ra
i wr ay ee seen lag ag Le (Gach oes ยข ee eatin. ยฐ o 7 * โ
ey Ts ee x Pi Ete : Somme
INDEX.
Notre.โThe Figures refer to pages; the Letters a, b, c, to the upper, middle, or
lower part of the page. A.
A or ab, preposition, 88; after peto or postulo, 133 a; after participles of origin, 187 a; with abl. of agent after passives, 138 b, 147 c.
Abbreviations of Pranomens, 32.
ABLATIVE, 12 a; ending, 13 b; in abus, 14c; ini, 18 b, 35 c, 37 ยข; in is (3d decl.), 21 b; in ubus, 28cยข; neuter as Adverb, 84c; eo, quo,
. &e., 49 c; after Prepositions, 88 ; with ab or de for part. gen., 116 b; of crime or penalty, 119 c; with dono, &c., 122 b ; with pro for de- fence, &c., 130 c.โ Syntax, 134- 143; signification, 134 c; of Sep- aration, 135 a; with compounds, b; of place whence, c; after adjectives of freedom and want, 1386 a; of Source after natus, &c., c; of Ma-
_terial, 1387 b; of Cause (with ad- jectives and verbs), c; of Agent, 138 b ; after Comparatives, c; after plus, &c., 1389 a; of Means, b; of Accompaniment, c; after utor, &e., 140 c; of Quality, 141 a; of Manner or Description, id.; of Price, b; of Specification, 142 a; Locative, 142 b, 148 b; Ablative Absolute, 142 c; used adverbially, 143 a; of description, 204; of Time when, 143 b; how long, c; of Distance, 144 a; place whence, 144.c; for Locative, 145 a; place where, ec; way by which, ce; with Prepositions, 146 a; with ab for Agent, 147 ยข; (distinguished from abl. of instrument, 148 a); of Ge- rundive, 208 ec.
Absolute and Relative Time, 177.
absque, 89 a.
Abstract nouns in plural, 80 c; with
neuter adjective, 106 a; expressed by neuter adjective, 107 c.
ac, see atque; ac si, 174 c.
Acatalectic verse, 222 c.
Accent, Rules of, 7 c; marks of, 8 a.
Accompaniment, ablative of, with cum, 139 c.
AccusATIVE, 11 ยข; endings, 13 a; in im, 18 b, 85 c; in is, 19 a, 37 ยข; neuter as Adverb, 84 c (fem. 85 a); after Prepositions, 88, 145 a. with verbs of remembering, &c.., 119 a; with Impersonals, 120 a, 182 b; with juvo, medeor, &c. 123 c; with dative after verbs, 124 c; after compounds with ante &e., 125 c; with ad for dative. 128 c; after propior, &c., 129 b.โ Syntax, 181-1383; as Direct Ob. ject, 181 a; with verbs of Feeling and Taste, b,c; Cognate, c; after compounds of circum and trans 132 a; constructive use ( Constructic Pregnans), b ; after Impersonals, b; Two Accusatives, c (passive use, Rem.) ; Adverbial, 183a; synecdo- chical, b; of Exclamation, c; as subject of Infinitive, c, 155 b, 194 a; distance and place whither 133 c, 144 a; of Subject in Indi. rect Discourse, 188 a; of anticipa-. tion (in indir. questions), 190 c: in Substantive Clauses, 194 a; after verbs of Promising, &c., 195 a; of Gerundive, 208 b. |
Accusing and Acquitting, verbs of 119 b.
Acephalous verse, 222.
-aceus, adjective ending, 98 b.
Achilles, infl., 250.
Action, nouns of, 96 b, 97 ยขc; fol. lowed by genitive, 117 a.
-ad, prepos. governing acc., 88 b.
260
-ades, patronymic, 98 b.
adimo, construction of, 126 a.
AvJectTives, 33-41; of lst and 2d declensions, 38; of 3d declension, 35; of two or three terminations, 85; of one termination, 36; infl. of comparatives, 37; of common
gender, 388 a; cases of, used as Adverbs, 38 a, 84; derivation, 96 b, 98 a; compound, 100 b; as mod- ifiers, 102.a; adjective phrase, b; Rule of Agreement, 105; as appo- sitive, b; rule of Gender, 106 a; agreement by synesis, b; agreeing with appositive or predicate, a; partitive, b, c; used as nouns, c; demonstratives as pronouns, 107 a; neuter adj. as noun, b ; Possessive, used as genitive, 108 a, 114 a; qualifying act (primus venit), 108 c ; medius, reliquus, &c., 109; pred. in relative clause, 111 b; compar. or neuter as partitive, 115 c; relative adj. governing genitive, 117 b; of feeling with animi, b; of Likeness, &c., with gen. or dat., 118 c, 129 b; of Fitness with dat. or ad and acc., 128 c (propior with acc., 129 b) ; of freedom and want with abl., 136 a; dignus, &c., with abl., 137 c; with rel. clause, 185 c.
admodum, 41 a.
Adonic verse, 228 c.
ADVERBS, 9 c, 84-87; comparison, 40 b; numeral, 43 c; correlative, 49; derivative, 84; classification, 85 c; signification, 87; in com- pounds, 100 c, 124 b; as modifiers, 102 a (phrase, b); qualifving a noun, 107 b; relative or demonstr. = pronoun with prepos., 111 c; as partitives, 116 a; hactenus, 147 a; pridie, &c., with accus., b ; palam, &ec., with abl., b; ante.. quam, c.
Advyerbial phrase, 102 b; id tempo- ris, meam vicem, quod si, 133 b; in abl. absolute, 148 a.
Adversative conjunctions, 94 a.
adversus, 89 b; as adverb, 147 b.
aer, infl., 250.
Affix, close and open, 9 b.
Agency, nouns of, 96 b, 97 c; gov- erning genitive, 117 a.
Agent, abl. of with ab, 188 b, 147 c.
Agnomen, 82 b.
INDEX.
AGREEMENT, Rules of, 103-113; of
Nouns, c; appos. and predicate, โ
104 a; of Adjectives, 105; of omnes, quot, &c., instead of part. genitive, 116 c.
aio, 81 c.
al, ar, neuters of 8d decl. (list), 17 ยข.
Alcaic Strophe, 229.
ali-, stem of alius, 48 b.
alienus as possessive, 145 b.
aliquis, inflected, 48 b.
-alis, -aris, adjective ending, 98 b.
โโโโ ee rl ee
alius, inflected, 34 c; with abl. (po-
etic), 189 b; alius.. alius, 109 c.
Alphabet, classification, 1 b; earl forms, changes, 2; assimilation, 4.
ambo, inflection of, 42 b.
amplius, construed without quam, 139 a.
an, anne, annon, interrogative par- ticles, 200.
Anapestic verse, 227.
animi (locative), 118 b.
ante, 89 b; omitted in dates, 146 c; as adverb, 147 b; followed by quam, c, 179 c.
ante diem, 146 c.
Antecedent of relative, 110 a; im- plied, b; in both clauses, or in relative clause only, c; omitted, lll a.
Antepenult, 7 c.
antequam, 179 c.
Aorist (historical perfect), 53 b.
apage, 82 b.
Apodosis, defined, 166 a; form of, c; past tenses of indicative for potential, 169 a, 174 a.
Apposition, 102 a, 104; rule of gen- der, 104 a; locative and abl., c; of possessive and gen., 105 a; of ad- jectives, b; neuter in, 107 c ; agree- ment of verb, 112 a; expressed by gen., 115 a; with nomen est (in dative), 127 a; after verbs of nam- ing, &c. (accus.), 182 c.
apud, 89 c.
aptus, with ad and acc., 128 c; with relative clause of result, 185 b.
Argos, inflected, 250.
Arsis and Thesis, 222 b.
As, unit of value, 235.
Asclepiadic verse, 228; forms of, 230.
Asking, verbs of (two accus.), 182 ยข; passive construction id. (Rem.).
INDEX.
Aspirate, 1 c, 215.
Assibilation of c before e or i, 4 b.
Assimilation of consonants, 3 b; in prepositions, 4 a.
at, 95 b; at vero, 96 a.
Athos, inflection of, 17 a, 250.
Atlas, infl., 250.
atque (or ac), with words of like- ness, &c., 95 a.
Atrides, infli., 250.
Attraction of relative, 110.
Attributive adjective, gender, 105 c.
-atus, adjective ending, 98 b.
audeo, 77 a; ausim, b; ausus (as present), 222 b.
aut, 95 b; in questions, 201 c.
autem, position, 96 a.
Authority in prosody, 215 c.
ave, 82 b.
-ax, adj. ending, 98 c ; adjectives in, with gen., 117 c.
B..
Bacchic verse, 227 c.
Bargaining, verbs of, 196 b; with part. in dus, 206 a.
basis, infl., 250.
belli (locative), 145 a.
-ber, names of months in, 35 ยข.
-bilis (passive verbal), 98 b.
Birth, place of, in ablative, 187 a.
bos, declined, 22 b.
C.
C=โG, 2a; for qu, b; interchanged with t, 4b; pronunciation, 6 a.
Cesura, 222 b.
Calendar, 235.
Cardinal numbers, 41; declined, 42; comparative forms, 252.
Capitis, with verbs of accusing and condemning, 119 a.
caro, declined, 22.
Capys, infl., 250.
Cases, 11 b; endings, 18; forms (see Declensions); meaning of their names, 113 b; Construction of, 113-148; comparative forms, 251.
Catalectic verse, 222 c.
causa, with genitive, 115 b, 138 a.
Causal conjunctions, 94 b; clauses, 102 ยข; construction of do., 181 b.
261
Causative verbs, 99 a.
Cause, clauses of, 181; implied (sub- junctive clause), 185 b.
Caution and Effort, verbs of, with substantive clause, 196 b.
cave in prohibitions, 152 b, 196 c.
-ce, enclitic (hic, etc.), 45 b.
cedo (defective), 82 b.
celo, with 2 acc., 133 a.
certe, certo, 87 b.
ceu, 174 ยข.
ch, hard sound of, 6 c.
Characteristic, clause of, 184 b.
Chiasmus, 213 b.
Choliambic verse, 226 b.
Choriambic verse, 228 b.
ci or ti before a vowel, 4 b.
-cip (stem-ending), 20 b.
circa, circiter, circum, cis, 89 c.
circiter, as adverb, 147 b.
Cities, names of, gender, 10 ce.
citra, 89 c; following noun, 148 a.
clam, as preposition, 147 b.
Criauses, classification of, 102; used as adverbs, 85 b; with a neuter in appos., 107 c; limited by genitive of abstract nouns, 114 b; with peenitet, etc., 120 a; dependent, in sequence of tenses, 162 a; Con- ditional, 166-176; Temporal, 176- 181; Causal, 181; Final, 182; Con- secutive, 183; Intermediate, 185; Subordinate (in indir. discourse), 188; Relative (classified), 198 ; Substantive, 193-199 (see these titles).
clienta, 37 a.
Close syllables, 5 c; affixes, 9 b; in compounds, 65 a.
coepi, 81 b.
Cognate Accusative, 131 b.
Cognomen, 32 b.
onnete noun with plural verb, 112 ยข.
Commands, imperative, 51 b, 152 b; hort. subjunctive, 149 c, 192c; in indirect discourse, 191 c.
Commanding, verbs of, with pur- pose-clause, 195 c; with result- clause, 198 c.
committere ut, 198 a.
Common gender, 11 a; of adjectives, 38 a.
Comparative conjunctions (as if), 94 b, 174 c; with appos., 104 b; with primary tenses, 175 a.
262
Comparatives, declension, 87 a; use, 40 c; as partitives, 115 cยข.
Comparison of Adjectives, forms,
- 83 b; irregular, 39 b; defective, c; of Adverbs, 40 b ; of qualities (two comparatives), 108; by magis, 389 a, 109 a.
Complementary accusative, 104 b; infinitive, 154 b.
Completed action, tenses of, 58 ยข, 159 c; idiomatic use, 170 ยข.
CompounpDs, prepositions in, 4 a; of verbs, 65 a; of esse, 60; of facio and fio, 81 a; of non, 87 a; of
- circum and trans, 132 a, c; of ab, de, ex, 135 b; quantity of, 220.
Conative present, 157; imperfect, 158,
Concession, verbs of (with clause or infin.), 196 a.
Concessive subjunctive, 151; parti- cles, 94 c, 175 b.
Condemning, verbs of, 119 b.
Conditional conjunctions, 94 b, 176; Sentences, 166-174; Clauses, 102 b, 103 a, 166; classified, 167.
ConpitTions, particular and general, 167; simple, 168 a; contrary to fact, b; (how developed, Note ;)
' imperfect of continued state, c; use of indicative, 169; (part. in urus, c;) forms of future cond., 170 (imperf. by sequence of tenses, 171); general cond. (indef. sub- ject or repeated action), 171 c; implied, 172 (in intermed. clause, 187 Note); omitted, 173; in indi- rect discourse, 189.
confit, 82 b.
Conjugation, 9 b, 60; the four regu- lar forms, 60-65; paradigms of, 66-75.
Conjunctions, 93-95 ; correlative, 49; classification, 93; meaning, 95.
Connectives (relatives used as), 103 b.
Consecutive clause defined, 103 a; syntax (subj. with ut), 183-185.
Consonants, classification, 1 b; con- sonant stems, 12 c, 36 a.
constare (consist), 137.
Constructio pregnans, 132 b.
Constructions of Cases, 113-148 ; Synopsis of, 248, 249.
contra, 90 a; as adverb, 147 b; fol- lowing noun, 148 a.
Contraction, 3 a, 7b; shown by cir- cumflex, 8 a. :
INDEX.
Contracting, &c., verbs of, with ge- rundive, 206 a.
Co-ordinate clauses, 102 c.
Copula, 101 ยขc.
cordi, 128 b.
Correlatives, 49.
Countries, names of, gender, 10 c.
credo (parenthetic), 214 a.
Cretic verse, 228.
Crime or charge, gen. of, 119 b; ex- pressed by abl., c.
cum (prep.), 90 a; as enclitic, with pronoun and relative, 44 c, 47 ยข; with abl. of accompaniment, 139 c; contention, 140 c ; manner, 141 b.
cum (conj.), its orthography, 2 b; meaning, 95 c; as indef. relative, 177 a; temporal (imperf. or plup. subj.), 178 b; causal or concessive (since, though), 180 c, 181 a, c; like quod, with indic., 180 c; in clause, for pres. participle, 202 c.
cum... tum, 49 c, 95 c, 181a.
-cundus, adj. ending, 98 b.
D.
D, final, changed to t, 2 b.
Dactylic verse, 224 b.
Dative, 11 c; endings, 18 b; in -abus, 14 ยข; in is (8d decl.), 21 b; -ubus, 28 c; in i (unus, &c.), 34 ยข. โ Syntax, 121-1380; of Indirect Object, 121; after transitives, c; af- ter verbs of motion (poetic), 122 b; with ace. or abl. after dono, &c., id.; after intransitives, c, 123 (use of acc., c, 124 c) ; after impersonals, 124 b; after compounds (ad, ante, &e.), 125; (ab, de, ex,) 126 a; poetic use, c; of Possession (with esse), id.; after compounds of esse, 127 a; as pred. with nomen est, id.; of Agency, with gerund- ive, b; after participles and pas- sives, id.; of Service, 128 a; of Nearness, Fitness, &c., b; after nouns or adjectives, 129 b ; of Ref- erence, c; for poss. gen., 180 a; for direction, id.; of volens, &c., b; Ethical, id.; with infin. (for acc.), 155 b; of gerundive, 208 a.
dea, 14 b, 250.
Declaratory Sentence, 101 a.
Declension, 12; general rules, 18 a;
INDEX.
of Nouns, i. 14, ii. 15, iii. 17-27, iv. 28, v. 29; of Adjectives, i. ii. 33, ili. 35. Defective nouns, 31; adjectives, 37 c; - comparison, 39 ; tenses, 50 ; verbs, 81
Definitions of Syntax, 101-103; of Prosody, 215, 221-228.
defit, 82 ec.
deinde, denique, 87 c.
Delos, infl., 250.
-dem, affix, 45 b.
Denominative verbs, 99 a,c; (com- pare 67 b).
Deponent verbs, 75-77; reflexive signif., 76 b; list of irregulars, c ; semi-deponents, 77a.
Derivation of Words, 96-100.
Derivative verbs, 77 b, 99:
Desideratives (in urio), 78 a, 99 c.
deus, 16 b, 250.
dic (imperative), 65 c.
Dido, infl., 23 b.
dies, gender of, 29 c (form dii, 30 a). difficilis, see facilis.
diznus, with abl., 137 c; with clause of characteristic, 185 c.
Dimeter Iambic verse, 226.
Diminutives: nouns, 98 a; verbs, i7c, 99 ยข.
Diphthongs, 1 b; sound of, 6 b; quantity, 7 a, 216 b.
Diptotes, 31 a.
Direct Discourse, 187 ec.
pire a (ace.}, 183 ยข; (ace. or abl.),
a.
Distributive Numerals, 43 b.
divum (divom), for deorum, 16 b.
-do, -go, feminine endings, 23 c, 93 a.
domi (locative), 28 c, 145 a.
domus, inflection of, 250 b.
donee, 17) cยข; withsubj., 180 b.
dono (dat. of service), 128 b; (verb, constr. of ), 122 b.
Doubtful gender, 11 a.
Dual forms, 42 b.
Dubitative Subjunctive, 152 a.
dubito an, 200 c; non... quin, 184 b, 198 b,
duc (imperative), 65 c.
dum, with present indic., 158 a; fol- lowed by secondary tenses, 163 ยข ; with subj. (provided), 175 ยข; (untz/), 180 b; with clause for present participle, 202 c.
263
dummodo, 175 c, 180 b. duo, declined, 42 b. dus, participle in; see Gerundive.
E,
E (preposition), see ex.
Ear.y Forms of alphabet, 2; Pros- ody, 282.
Ecthlipsis, 223 a.~
edo, 80a. <.
egeo, with gen., 120 ยข, 136 b.
ejus modi, 115 a.
Elision, 223 a.
Ellipsis, 101 c.
Emphasis, as affected by Arrange- ment, 212 ec.
Enclitics, 7 c (quantity, 216 ยข); -cum, 44 c; -te, -pte, -met, -ce, 45 a.
English method of Pronunciation, 6
b.
enim, 95 b, 96a.
eo (irreg. verb), 80 b; eo..quo, 49 ec, 140 ec. ;
Epicene nouns, 11 a.
Epistolary tenses, 161 b.
-er (nom. ending), Nouns of 2d decl., 16 c; 3d decl., 17 c; Adjectives, 34, 35.
ergo, 95 c; with gen., 115 b, 121 a.
escit, 59 c.
esse, and its compounds, 57-60; comparative forms, 59; (in mod- ern languages, 255;) as copula or substantive verb, 101 ยขc; omitted by ellipsis, 113 b ; compounds, with dat., 127 a. โ est, there is, 212 b.
et..et, 49 c, 95.
etenim, 95 b.
etiam, 87 a; in answers, 201 c.
etsi, 175 b.
-etum (noun-ending), 98 b.
Erymo.oey, 1-100.
Euphonic changes (vowels), 2 c; (consonants), 3 b.
ex (prep.), 90 c; following its noun, 148 a; compounds of, with dat., 126 a.
Exclamations, accus., 183 c; with infin., 156 b.
Exclamatory sentences, 101 b; ace. and infin., 156 b.
Expecting, hoping, &c., constr. with reflexive and infin., 195 b.
264
F.
facilis, comparison, 38 c; construed with ad and gerund, 2U9 c.
fac (imperative), 65 c.
facio, 80 c; compounds, 81 a, 100c; facio ut, 198 a.
fames (abl.), 18 c.
fari (def. verb), 82 a,
fas, with supine, 209 c.
faxo, 80 ยข.
Fearing, verbs of (ne or ut), 196 c.
Feeling, nouns of, with gen., 117 a; verbs of, with gen. of object, 120 a; with acc. of cause, 181 b; with quod clause, 199 c.
Feminine, general rule of gender, 10 c; adjectives, lacking masc., 84 b; abl. in o, id.; adj. in a from masc. of 3d decl., 37 a; abl. as ad- verb, 85 a.
fer (imperative), 65 c.
Festivals, plur. names of, 80 c.
fero, 78 b; fido, 77 a.
filius, 16 b, 250.
es verbs of, with gen. or abl.,
Vb.
Final Clauses, 102 c, 108 a, 182; as object-clauses, 183 a; 195-197. Final vowels, quantity of, 217; not affected by Position, 216 c. โFinite verb (subject-nom.), 113 a.
fio, 80; (defit, &c., 82 c).
First Conjugation, 66; verbs of, 67.
fisus (as pres. part.), 202 b.
Foot in Prosody, 220 c; (classif. of feet, 221).
fore ut, 55 c, 165 c, 198 a.
foris (loc. form), 145 a.
forsitan (-fors sit an), 85 b, 173 c.
Fourth conjugation, 74, 76.
Frequentative verbs, 77 c, 99 c.
frugi, comparison of, 89 b; dat. of service, 128 b.
fruor, fungor, with abl., 140 b.
fuam, 59 c.
fugit, as impers., 132 b.
Future tense, 53 a; endings, 54 ec, 61 b, c; periphrastic, 83 cยข (see fore ut); passive with iri, 55 c, 209 b; as imperative, 153 b; Syn-
_ tax, 159 b; has no relative time, 179 b; participle, 205 a.
Future Perfect, 53a; Syntax, 161 a; for simple fut. id., repres. in indir. disc., 162 b; in protasis, 170 c.
INDEX.
G.
G (in early use), same with c, 2 a.
Gaius, infl., 250.
Games, plur. names of, 30 c.
gaudeo, 77 a.
Gender, 9 c; grammatical, 10 a; general rules of, c; in 8d declen- sion, 23 C; of appositive, 104 c; of adjective (nearest noun), 105 e.
General truth in secondary tenses (by seq. of tenses), 1638 c.
GENiTive, 11 c; plural in um, 13 b; of Ist decl. in ai and as, 14 b; in ium, 19 a, c, 20 a, 21 b, 27 c; in ius, 84 b; in appos. with Posses- sive, 105 a, 108 b. โSynrax, 113- 121; Subjective, 114 a; in pre- dicate, 8; limiting phrase, id.; of adj. for neut. nom. (sapientis), 114 c; of substance, id.; for appos- itive, 115 a; of quality and meas- ure, id. ; with causa, id.; of value, b, 141 c; Partitive (with noun or adjective), 115 b; (with adverbs), 116 a; (sancte deorum, b) ; doubled, 117 a; Objective, with Nouns (of agency) and Adjectives (of reference), 117; of specifica- tion, 118 a; (animi, b), with words of likeness, &c., c; (the usual construc. with nouns, id.); with Verbs of memory, 119 a; of ac- cusing, &c.. b; of emotion, 120 a; (impersonals, id.); of plenty and want, c; 186 b, 140 b; with po- tior, 121 a, 127 a, 140 c; of Price, 141 c; measure, 144; of Ge- rundive, 207.
Gentile names, 98 b.
Gerund, 50 a, 52 b; Syntax, 206-208.
Gerundive, 52 a; stem, 55 b; peri- phrastic use, 83 c; with dat of agent, 127 c; after verbs of de- creeing, &c., 196 b; predicate use, 205 ce; with verbs implying pur- pose, 206 b; origin of this form, 207 a.
Glyconic verse, 228 b.
Government, 103 c.
gratia, with gen., 115 b, 188 a.
Greek nouns, i. 14 ยข, ii. 17 a, iii. 19 a, 22 c, 23; adjectives, 34 b; rules of quantity, 215 ec, 216 a, 220 b; forms compared, 1 ยข, 15 b, 383 b, 35 a, 386 c, 88 c, 42 a, 52 a, 54 b,
INDEX.
57 c, 59 c (esse), 63 c, 96 b, 97 a, 113 ec, 148 a, 149 a, 166 b, 167 b, 251, 252.
H.
H (aspirate), 1c; ch, 4c; omitted, id.; not reckoned in position, 215 ยข.
habeo, imperat., 153 b; with infin., 156 a; with perf. part., 204 c.
hactenus, 147 a.
Hadria, gender of, 14 b.
Heteroclite nouns, 31 b; adjectives, 37 ยข.
Heterogeneous nouns, 31 ยขc,
Hexameter verse, 224.
Hiatus, 223 b, 233-ยข.
hic, 45, 46.
hiemps, 3 c, 20 b.
Hindrance, implied in relat. clause,
, 185 ยข; verbs of, with quominus, 196 c; negative with quin, 198 b.
Historical Infinitive, 156 c; Present, 158 a; sequence of tenses with, 163 ยข.
Hoping, verbs of (with acc. of pers. or refl. pronoun), 195 b.
Horace, metres of, 230, 231.
hospita, 37 a.
humi (locative), 145 c.
Hortatory Subjuntive, 149.
I.
I, suppressed in obit, conicio, &c., 3a; in abl. of 3d declension, 18 b; adjectives and participles, 27 b; in perfect, 55 a; added to root, 62ยข; lost in forms of capio, &e., 63 ยข; as root or suffix, 96 b, c; in optative, 149 a.
TIambic verse, 225.
Ictus, 222.
id quod, 111 b.
idcirco, 95 c; as correlative, 182 b.
idem, 46 ; derivation, 45 b.
idoneus qui, 185 c.
id temporis, 133 b.
Ides, 23 b, 234.
-ier in infin. passive, 65 ec.
igitur, 95 c; position, 96 a.
-ilis, adjective ending, 98 c.
ille, 45, 46.
-illo, verb-ending, 77 c, 99 ยข.
265
-im, accus. in 3d declension, 18 b; in present subjunctive, 65 c.
immane quam, 1ยฅ1 b.
immo, 201 ยข.
Imperative, 51 b; personal endings, 54 b, 63 a; (dic, &., 65 b); of scio, &c. (fut. form), id., 153 a; (imperat. sentence, 101 a;) Syn- tax, 152; as equivalent to condi- tion, 172 c.
Imperfect tense, 53 a; compared with Pertect, b ; lengthens vowel, 63 a; of hortat. subjunctive, 150 b; of opt. subj., ยข; of concess. subj., 151 c. โ Syntax, 158; in descrip- tions, c; for plup., id.; conative, id. ; of surprise, 159 a; for perf., b; epistolary, 161 b; subj. in condi- tions contrary to fact, 168 b; (in- dicative, 169, 174;) of fut. condi- tion transferred to past, 171 b; in temporal clauses, 178 a, 179 a.
Impersonal verbs, 82, 83; passive of intransitives, 83 b, 126b ; miseret, &e., with ace. and gen., 120 a; libet, licet, with dat., 124 b; de- cet, &c., with accus., 132 b; with
infinitive as subject, 154 b; with clause as subject (1T), 193 c.
Impure syllable, 5 c.
in, ate: of, 88 b, 146 b ; phrases, 90 ec.
Inceptive forms, 62 ยข; verbs (Incho- ative), 77 b, 99 c.
Incomplete action, tenses of, 53 c.
Increment of nouns, 218; of verbs, 219.
Indeclinable nouns, 81 a; gender, 10 c; adjectives, 37 c.
Indefinite Pronouns, 47 ce, 48; con- ditional expression, 166 a.
Indefinite subject omitted, 113 a; ex- pressed by 2d person, 149 ยข, 171 ce.
InpIcATIVE Moop, 51 a; forms of, 61-63.โSyntax, 148; tenses, 157- 161; in cond. clauses, 167 b, 1684; in apod. for subj., 169 a, 174 a; future, in cond. clause, 170 a; of absolute time, 157 a, 177 b; with cum, 178 c; in inverted clauses, 179 b; with cum = quod, 180 c; in causal clauses, 181 b; with quod in subst. clause, 199.
indigeo, with genitive, 120 c, 136 b.
indignus, with abl., 1387 c; with relative clause, 185 b.
266
InprrREcT Discourse, 187-192; de- fined, 187 c; Indirect Narrative, 188 ; subject-accus., b (omitted, 155 c); use of quam, b, 189 a; relative clause, 188 ยข; conditional sentence in, 189 b; questions, c; Indirect Questions, 19U; future, b ; dubit. subj., c; accus. of anticipa- tion, id. ; early use of indic., 191 b; nescio quis, etc., id. ; si (whether), c; Indirect Commands, id. ; exam- ple of Indirect Discourse, 192.
induo, double constr. of, 122 b.
Inrinitive Moon, 651 b; endings, 55 b; of fut. passive, c; passive in -ier, 65 e.โSynrax, 153-156; form and meaning, 153 c; as Sub- ject, ยข; of impersonals, 154 b; complementary, id. ; for subjunct. clause, c; with jubeo and veto, 155 a; with subject-acc., b; sub- ject omitted, c; of purpose and result, 156 a; in exclamations, b; (cf. 197. ยข ;) historical, 156; Tenses of, 164; the present only com- monly used, except in indir. disc., 165 a, or passive, b, or in poetry, c; with accus. in subst. clauses, 194 a; after passives, b; after verbs of Wishing, 195 c; of Permission, 196 a; of Determining, b; poetic use, 197 a; future passive, iri
. with supine, 55 c, 209 b.
infit, 82 c.
Influence, verbs of with purpose- clause, 195 ce.
Inflection defined, 8 a; of declension and conjugation, 9 b; unusual forms, 250.
inquam, 81 ยข; position, 214 a.
instar, with genitive, 115 b.
Intensive verbs, 77 ยขc, 99 c.
inter, reciprocal use of, 44 c, 91 b; with words of accusing, &c., 119 c.
interest, constr. of, 120 b.
Interjections, 9 c, 95 a. |
Interlocked order of words, 213 c.
Intermediate Clauses, 102, c; Syntax of, 185-187.
Interrogative Particles, 9 c, 86 b, 200; Sentences, 101 b.
injussu, 29 b.
Io, declined, 250.
-io, -ium, noun-endings, 97 c; verb- ending of 8d conj., 62 c, 72 b.
iri in fut. infin. passive, 55 c, 209 b.
INDEX,
Tonic verse, 229.
ipse (ipsus), 45, 46 c.
Irregular nouns, 30 b; verbs, 78.
is, 45, 46 c; as correlative, 111 a.
Islands, names of, gender, 10 c; loca- tive use, 144 b.
iste, 45, 46.
Ir as sign of impersonals, 82 c, 193 ce.
Italian dialects, 252.
itaque, 95; comp. with ergo, 96 a; position, 214 a.
iter, declined, 22 b.
Iterative verbs, 77 c.
ium, gen. plur. of 3d decl. (vowel- stems), 19 a; (mute-stems), 20 b, 21 b; (adjectives), 35, 36.
J.
Jam, 87 b.
jecur, declined, 226.
jubeo, constr. of, 123 c, 155 a, 194 a. jucundus, with ad and ger., 209 ยข. jungo, with abl., 140 a
Juppiter, declined, 22 b, 250. jussu, 29 b.
juvo, with accus., 123 ยข.
juxta, 91 b; following noun, 148 a.
K. K, supplanted by c, 2 a. Kalends, 284.
L.
L, doubled (in fallo, &c.), 62 b. Labial stems (3d decl.), 20 b, 24 b, 26 โ
b. Laocoon, decl., 250. lateo, with accus., 133 a. Latin Language, origin and compar. forms, 251-253; earliest forms, 253
libet (impers.), 83 b; with dative, 124 b
-libet (indefinite), 48 a.
licet (impers.), 83 b; with dative, 124 b; with dat. pred., 155 b; with subjunctive, 175 b, 176 ยข; meaning although, 196 a.
Limit, 102 a.
โ Liquid stems (8d decl.), 19 b, 24, 26.
INDEX.
Locative Ablative, 142 b, 145.
| Locative form, 12 b; decl.,i. 14 ยข, ii.
- 16 a, iii. 22 ยข, iv. 28 c, v. 80 b; as adverb, 85 a; in appos. with abl., 104 ยข; comp. with dative, 121 b; of names of towns, &c., 145 a.
loco, without preposition, 145 c.
longius, constr. without quam, 130 a.
M.
M final, elision of, 223 a.
magis in comparisons, 39 a, 109 a.
magni, gen. of value, 115 b, 141 ยขc.
majestatis, with words of secusing, 119 ยข.
malo, infl. of, 79 c.
Masculine adjectives, 38 a.
Material, genitive of, 114 c; ablative, 137 b
maxime in comparisons, 39 a.
May (potential), how expressed, 51 b
Means, ablative of, 139 b.
Measure, genitive of, 115 a, 144 a.
Measures of Value, 235, 236.
medeor, medicor, with dat. or acc., 123 ยข.
Meditative verbs (in -sso), 77 c, 99c.
medius (middle part of), 109 b.
memini, 81 b; imperat. form, 153 b; with pres. infin., 164 c.
-met (enclitic), 45 a.
Metre, 223 c.
meus (voc. mi), 16 b, 33 c.
militicz (loc.), 145 a.
mille, decl. and constr., 48 a.
minime, 41 a; in answer (no), 201 c.
minoris (gen. of value), 141 c.
minus, 41 a; constr. without quam, 139 a.
miror si, 199 c.
mirum quam, 191 b.
misceo, with abl. or dat., 140 a
misereor, with gen., 120 a.
miseret, 83 a; with accus. and gen., 120 a.
Modern pronunciation of Latin, 6 b; languages, compared with do., 255.
Modification of subject or predicate, 102 a.
modo, dummodo (proviso), with
_ hortat. subjunctive, 150 a, 175 c.
Monoptotes, 31 a.
267
Months, gender of, 10 c; names in -ber, 385 c; construction, 146 ยข; divisions of, 284.
Moops, 50 a, 51; 156.
Motion expressed with prepositions, 122 b, 185 c, 144 b; indicated by compounds, 132 a.
Motive, with ob or propter, 138 a.
Mountains, names of, gender, 10 c.
87 c.
Multiplication by Distributives, 43 b.
Multiplicatives, 43 ec.
Mute stems (8d decl.), 20 a.
Syntax of, 148-
N.
N final, in leon-, &c., 19 b; inserted in 3d conj. (frango, &c.), 62 b.
nam, namque, 35 b, 95 b, 96 a.
Names of men and women, 382.
natus, &c., with abl., 136 c.
-ne (enclitic), in questions, 200; with hic, &c., 45 b.
ne, with hortat. subjunct., 150 a; in prohibitions, 152 b ; in final clauses, 182 a; in consec., 183 c; with verbs of caution, 196 b; of fearing, Cc; 3 omitted, id.
nec enim, 95 b.
Necessity, verbs of, 196 a.
necne, 200 c.
nedum, 183 a.
nefas, with supine, 209 c.
Negative particles, 9 c, 86 c, 87 a (non nemo, nemo non).
nego, preferred to dico..non, 188 a.
neque, 94 a, 95 a.
nequeo, 82 b.
e... quidem, 87 c, 214 a.
nescio an, 200 c; nescio quis, 191 b.
Neuter passives, 77 a.
Neuter Nouns, like cases in, 13 a; 3d decl. in al and ar, 17 c; of adjec- tive in s, 36 c, 37 a; accus. as ad- verb, 84 c; of adj. with abstr. nouns, 106 a, id. as noun, 107 b; partitive use, 115 c.
Neuter Verbs, with agent (perire ab), 138 b
Neutral passives, 77 b.
ni, nisi, 166 b, 176 b.
nimirum, 191 b.
ningit, 21 c, 83 a.
268
nix, root, 21 c; inflection, 22 c.
nolo, 79 b; noli, 1ยฅ2 ec.
nomen, 32 b; nomen est, with dat., 127 a.
Nominative, 11 b; formative from stem, 12 c; in adjectives, 36 a. โ SynTax: predicate after esse, &c., 104 a; as subject of verb, lld a; used for voc., 184 a; with opus as pred., 136 b.
non in answers, 201 ec.
non dubito quin, 198 c.
Nones, 234.
nonne, 200; non quod, โquia, โquin, -โquo, 186 c.,
Nouns, inflection of, 14-82; used as adjectives, 38 a, 107 b; verbal (ge- rund and supine), 50a; irregular and defective, 30-32; derivation of, 96-98 ; compound, 100 b; agree ment, 103; in relative clause, 110 c; understood with gen. (Castoris), 114 a; (est sapientis), c; of agency, with obj. gen., 117 b; ver- bal, with dat., 129 c.
ns as adjective ending, 36.
num, 200 a; in indir. questions, b.
Number, rule of, with appositive, 104 ยข; adjective, 105 b; verb, 112.
Numerals, 41-48 ; cardinal and ordi- nal, 41; distributive, 43 b; num. adverbs, ยข; as partitives, 115 c; with de or ex, instead of part. gen., 116 b.
nunc, 87 b. |
0.
O for u, after u or v,2 b; as stem- vowel of 2d decl., 15 b; in verb- stems, 62 e.
O si, with subjunctive of wish, 151 a.
ob or propter, to denote object of feeling, 1388 a; force of ob in com- pounds, 93 a.
Object defined, 101 ยข; indirect, 121 b; direct, 131 a.
Oblique cases, 12 a.
obvius, with dat., 125 c.
odi, 81 b.
omnes nos (instead of gen.), 116 c.
Open syllables, 5 c; pronunciation, 6 a; affix, 9 b; in compounds a becomes I, 68 a.
opera, with gen. of agent, 188 b. |
opinione (celerius opin.), 139 a.
โ
INDEX.
oportebat (virtual present), 174 b. oportet, 83 b, 182 b. ; Optative, derivation and compariso with subjunctive, 149 b; sulj., 15 opus and usus, with abl., 136 a (Opus as pred., b;) with perf part., 204 ยฉ; with supine, 209 c. Oratio Obliqua, see Indirect Di course. Order of Words, 212-214. Ordinal numbers, 41 b ; how forme 42b; declined, ec. ! Orpheus, declined, 250. Orthography, various, 4 c. os for us, in 2d decl., 15 ยข. os, ossis, infl., 22 c; (ossua, 28 b). Oscan forms, comp. with Latin, -osus, adjective ending, 98 b. ovat, &c., 82 a.
Pi P, inserted euphonically, 3 c, 20 72b
pzenitet, 83 b, 120 a. palam, 147 b. Palatal, 1 b; stems of 3d decl., 21 ยขe gender, 24 b; forms, 27 b; ver 62 ec. Parallel verb-forms, 65 c. Parisyllabic nouns, 17 b; adjectives, 35 a. | parte (loc.), without prepos., 145 c. Participial clause, as condition, 172 b, Participies, 60 a, 51 ยข; (abl. ini 21 b, 37 b; compared, 39 a); fu ture, of purpose, 51 c, 188 b, 205 b. perfect, as adj., 52 a, 88 c; (with habeo, 204 c;) periphrastic use. 83 c; formation, 55 b; present, o: esse, 57 c; of deponents, 76 b. 202 b; in ns, with gen., 117 ยข; in dus or tus, with dat. of agent. 127 c; of source (natus, &c.), wit) abl., 186 c; in urus with fui=โ plup. subj., 169 c, 189 b, 205 ยข; i dus or rus, in fut. apod., 170 ยข. โ- Syntax, 202-206; perf. in pre: use, 202 b; adjective and predicat. use, 203; in tenses of complete | action, c; containing the mai. idea, 204 b; with opus, habeo, volo, c; with facio (in indiโ. disc.), 205 a; future, use of, 2051 ;
- (part. in dus, see Gerundive).
Partictes, 9 c; forms and classifi- cation, 84-96; in compounds, 100;
_ negative, 86 c, 87 a; conditional, 174 ยข; interrogative, 200.
Partitives, with genitive, 115 b.
parum, 41 a.
Passive Voice, forms wanting in, 50 b; reflexive use, c, 83 b; (with acc., 183 b); terminations, 54 b; infin. in -ier, 65 c; participles of deponents, 76 c; impersonal (of intrans. verbs), 88 b; with dat., 122 a; dat. of agent, 127 c; sub- ject, 131 a; of verbs of feeling, b; of asking, &c., with acc., 1382 c; of verbs of saying, &c., with acc. and infin., 194 b.
Patronymics (-ades, -ides, &c.), 98 b.
Peculiar forms of 3d decl., 22 a. elagus (neut.), 16 a. enes, 91 c; following noun, 148 a. enult, 7c; quantity of, 218-220. er, 91 c; in compos., 41 a; for agent, 138 a. erfect Tense, meaning, 53 b; end- ings, 54 b, 55 a; formed in 3d conj., 63 b; syncopated, 65 b; of subjunct. in prohibition, 150 a, 152 b; (of optat. subj., antiquated, 159 c;) of concess. .subj., 151 c; of dubit. subj., 152 a; Syntax, 159 c; implies action ceased, 160 a; in negations, b; for present in epist. style, 161 b; followed by second- ary tenses, 162 c; following pri- mary tenses, id.; in result, 163 a;
_ with a fut. protasis, 171 a; (Infin.) for present, 165 a; after verbs of
_ feeling, 165c; Participle in passive tenses, 52 a; of deponents, id., 202 b. eriod, 214 b. eriphrastic Conjugations, 83 c. ermission, verbs of, 196 a. ersonal endings, 54, 56. ersons of Verbs, 54a; 112b; with relatives, 110 b; 2d (in subj.) of indefinite subject, 149 c, 171 ยข; 3d of imperat., antiquated, 152 c. ertzesum est, 120 a. to with ab, 133 a. halecian verse, 229. herecratie verse, 228. heebe, decl., 25 c. honetic decay, 2 c, 3 a; phonetic value of Roman alphabet, 6 a.
INDEX.
269
Phrases, neuter gender, 10 c; as ad- verb, 85 b; moditying, 102 b; limited by gen., 114 b.
piget, 88 b, 120 a.
Place, relations of (names of towns, &e.), 144 b; abl. of, 142 b, 148 b; whence, 144 cยข; whither, id. ; where, 145; verbs of, how con- structed, 146 b.
Plants, names of, gender, 10 c; in 8d and 4th decl., 2y a.
Plautus, use of quom with indic., 179 b; prosodiai forms, 23 b.
plebes, infl., 250; plebi (gen.),
30 a.
-plex, numeral adjectives, 43 c.
pluit, 83 a (used also personally, id.).
Plupertect, 53 a; of hortat. subj., 150 b; of opt. subj. (wishes), ec, 192 ยข; of concess. subj., 151 c; of preteritive verbs, 160 c; general use, id.; in epist. style, 161 b; (subj.) in conditions, 168 b; (subj.) expressed by -urus fui, 169 ยข, 189 b; in temporal clauses, 178 a, 179 a.
Plural accus. as adverb, 85 b; of neuter adjectives, 107 c,
Pluralia tantum, 30 ยข; with distribu- tive numerals, 43 b.
pluris, gen. of value, 115 b, 141 e.
plus, inflected, 37 b; without quam, 1389 a.
poenitet (see pzenitet), 83 b, 120 a.
pone, 91 c.
Position in prosody (does not affect final vowel), 216 c.
Possessives in appos. with gen., 105a, 108 a; as nouns, 107 a; for gen., 108 b, 114 a; neuter of. c; abl. fem. with refert, &c., 188 a; with domi (loc.), 145 b. ~
possum, 60 b; posse as fut. infin., 165 ec.
post, 91 c; with quam, 147 ec.
postquam in temp. clause, 177 c.
postulo ab, 158 a.
postridie with gen., 121 a; with ace., 147 b; with quam, c.
Potential Mood, how expressed in Latin, 51 a; potential subjunctive, 1738 c.
potior, with gen., 121 a; with abl.,
~ 140 c.
pre, in compos., 41 a. Prenomen, 32 b.
270
preesertim with cum, 180 c.
preter, 92 a.
Predicate, 101 ยข; nominative, 104 a; adjective, 105 b; gender, 106 a; in relative clause, 111 b; after infin., 155 ยข.
Prepositions, assimilation of, 4 a; classification and meaning (list), 88-3 ; in compounds, ยฅ3 a, 100 c; do. with dat. (ad, ante, &c.), 125, 126; with ace. (ad, ante), 125 c; (circum, trans), 132a; with verbs ot asking (ab, de, ex), 133 a; after words of origin (id.), 137 a; of time, 143 c; of place, 142 c, 144 b; for neighborhood (ad, apud), 145 c; Syntax, 146-148; as ad- verbs, 147 b; followed by quam (ante, post), 147 c; following the noun, 148 a.
Present stem, 538 ยข; how formed from root (8d conj.), 62; (see list, pp. 72, 73).
Present Tense, 53 a; endings, 54 c; vowel changes, 61,62; of subjunc- tive, 150-152; Syntax, 157; of continuing action, 157 b ; conative, c; for future, id. ; historical, 158 a; with dum, id.; used of extant writers, b ; followed by secondary tenses, 163 c; infin. after verb in past (potui), 164 b; (memini), c; Participle, 202 a ; how supplied in passive, 52 a, 202 c.
Preteritive verbs, 81 b; 160.
Price, abl. or gen. 141 c.
pridie, with gen., 121 a; with acc., 147 b; with quam, c.
Primary Suffixes (a, i, u, ta, na, &c.), 96 c; Tenses, 162.
primo and primum, 87 c.
Principal parts of verb, 64 b, 65 a.
prius .. quam, 147 c, 179 c; in rela- tive clauses, id.
pro, 92 a, 130 ยข. rocul with abl., 147 b. rohibitions (perf. subj. with ne), 149 c, 152 b, 192 ยข.
Promising, &ยข., verbs of, 195 b.
Pronouns, 44-48; Personal, 44 a; old forms, b; gen. in i or um, c; (omitted as subject, 113 a;) Re-
_ flexive, 44 b, 46 c; Possessive, 44 b, 47 b, 105 a, 114 a; (cujus, 48 c;) reciprocal with inter, 44c; Dem- onstrative, 45, 46; used as nouns,
INDEX.
107 a; as antecedent, 111 a; in- tensive (ipse), 46ยข; Relative, 47; Syntax, 109-111; agreement wit appos., 110 b; as connective, 111 Interrog. and Indefinite, 47, 48.
Pronunciation, 5, 6.
prope, 92 a; with acc., 147b; asa verb, id. .
Proper Names, 32; in plural, 30 c.
propter, 92; following noun, 148 a,
Prosopy, 215-231; early peculi ties, 232.
prosum, 60 a.
Protasis, 166 a (see Conditions).
Proviso, 175 c, 180 b.
-pte, -pse (enclitic), 45 a.
pudet, 83 b, 120 a.
pugnatur, 83 b.
Punishment, abl. of, 119 c.
Pure syllable, 5c.
Purpose, infin. of, 156 a; clause o 182; ways of expressing, 183.
Q.
Que res (or id quod), 111 b.
queeso, 82 a.
Quality, genitive of, 115 a.
quam with superl., 40 c; in com- parisons, 108 c, 109 a, 188 c; after prepos., 147 c; followed by rel. clause, 185 a; (in indir. dise.), by infin., 188 b, 189 a; by result clause, 197 b.
quam si, 174 c.
quamlibet, quamquam, quamvis, 48 a, 151 b, 175 b, 176 ยซ.
quando, interrog., 49a, 95 c; indef. 177 a; causal (since), 181 b.
quanti, gen. of value, 141 c.
Quantity, rules of, 215-220; (0! Greek words, 215 c).
quantum vis, 176 c.
quasi, 174 c. |
-que (enclitic), forming universals. 48 c.
queo, 82 b.
ques (nom. plur.), 47 ยข.
Questions, 200, 201; Indirect, 190), (indic. in, 191 b), 200 b; in Indi. Disce., 189 ec.
qui (relative), inflected, 47; qui (adverbial), 47 b.
quia, 95 c, 181 b, 186 b. |
- quidem, 87 c, 214 a. |
-INDEX.
quin, 184 a; non quin, 186 c; non... quin, 1938 b. quippe cum, 180 c; quippe qui,
os iam 47 a; quis (abl. plur.), c.
quisquam, 48 ec.
quisque, 43 c; with superl., 41 a; with plur. verb, ll2cยข.
quisquis, 48 a.
quo, in final clauses, 182 b; non quo, 186 ยข
quo..eo, 49 c.โ quoad, 180 b.
quod with indic., 181 b; in inter- med. clause, 186 b; in substantive clause, 199 b; as accus. of specifi- cation (whereas), id.; with verbs ot feeling, c
quod si, 133 b.
quom, 2 b, 95 c, 178 b, 179 b (see cum).
quominus, 182 c, 184; with verbs of caution and hindrance, 196 b.
quoniam, 95 c, 181 b.
quoque, 27 a.
quot, 116 c. โquum, see cum.
R.
R, double in noun-stems, 19 c; in verb-stems, 62 b.
Radical syllables, quantity of, 96 b, 215 b, 220 b.
ratus (as pres. part.), 202 b.
reapse, 45.
recordor, with acc., 119 b.
Reduplication, 61 b, 62 a, b, 63 b; in perfects of 3d conj., 73 c; lost in compounds, 65 a; of roots, 96 b; rule of quantity, 219 c.
rรฉfert, with gen. or poss., 120 b.
Reflexive Pronouns, 44 b; Verbs (deponent), 76 b; use of passive, 50 c; with object-accusative, 133 b.
Relative Adverb=โPronoun with pre- pos., lll c; as connective, 96 a.
Relative Clause, 102 b; classified, 193; equiv. to condition, 166 c, 172 b; of purpose, 182, 195; of result, 183 c, 197; of characteristic, 184 b.
Relative Pronouns, 47; as connec- tives, 103 b, 111 c; rule of agree- ment, 109 ยข ; person of verb, 110 a; agreement with appositive, 110 b.
Relative Time, 177.
repetundarum, 119 c.
271
Resolution of syllables in prosody, โ222 a.
Resolving, eche of, 196 b.
respublica, 32 a.
Result, infin. of (use), 156 b; in perf. or imperf. subj., 163 a; clauses of, 183 c; subst., clause of, lyยฅ7 a; used elliptically, 197 b; following quam, id.
Rhythm, 215.
Rivers, names of, gender, 10 c.
rogo, constr. of, 182 ยข.
Roman Writers, 256.
Romance (or Romanic) languages, 254; comparative forms, 205.
Roor, 8c, 9 b; of esse and fui, 59 c; of verbs of 3d conj., 62 b (list, 72, 73) ; ni developed into Stem, 8 c, 9a, 9
ruri, ate 145 a.
rus, constr. of, 144 b.
S.
S elided, 2 b, 232 a; for t, 3 c; be- comes r, 3 a, 19 b; as nomin. end- ing, 12 c, 13 a; in perf. stem., 62 a, 63 b, 64 b; syncopated (dixti= dixisti), 65 b.
salve, 82 b.
Sanskrit forms, 13 a, 22 b, 38 c, 59 ยข, 61 a, 63 c, 96 b, 97 a, 148 a.
Sapphic verse, 228 (strophe), 229.
satis, non satis, 41 a.
satis est, with perf. infin., 165 c.
sc added to verb-root, 62 c.
scin (scisne), 5 b.
scito, imperat. form, 65 c, 153 b.
-SCO (inceptive), 77 c, 99 c.
Second Conjugation, 61 c, 68; verbs of, 69.
Secondary Tenses, 162; (by synesis, 164 b ;) following histor. present, 163 c.
secundum, 92 b.
secundus (participial), 98 c, 207 a.
oar gg (as pres. part.), 202 b.
sed, 95
ie ded 77 a.
Semi-vowels, 1c; j, v (i, u), 2 a.
senati, senatuos (gen.), 28 c.
senex, infl., 22 c; compared, 40 a.
Sentences, classif. of, 101 b.
Separation, with dat. (adimo, &c.), 126 a; abl. of, 135 a.
Sequence of Tenses, 161 c.
272
sera nocte, 109 b.
sestertium, sestertius, 32, 235, 236.
seu, see sive.
si, 166 b; (whether), 191 c; si non, 176 b; miror si, 199 c.
siem, 59 c.
Significant endings, 97 b.
Signs of Quantity, 7b; of Accent, 8c.
-sim, in perf. subjunctive, 65 c.
similis, with genitive, 118 c; with dative, 129 b.
Simois, infl., 250.
simul, with ablative, 147 b.
simul atque (ac), 177 c.
sin, 166 b.
Singularia tantum, 30 ce.
sis (โsi vis), 5 b.
sive, 95 b, 176 b.
-sO, in future perfect, 65 c.
sodes (si audes), 5 b, 77 b.
soleo, 77 a.
solitus (as present part.), 202 c.
solus, declined, 34 ยข; with qui, in subjunctive clause, 185 a.
Space, accusative of, 183 c, 144 a.
Special verb-forms, 65 c.
Specification, accusative of, 183 a; ablative of, 142 a.
Spelling, various, 4 c.
Stanza or Strophe, 229.
Srem defined, 8 b; formation of, 9 a, 96 b; (incorrect defin., 18 c;) of Nouns (see Declensions), 12 ยขc (in 3d decl., 23-27, see list); of Ad- jectives, 33 b ; of verb-tenses, 53 c, 64 b; changes in, 54 c, 62 b; stem- vowel, 61, 64; present, of 3d conj., 62; (u-stems, c;) perfect, 63 ; quan- tity of, 220 a.
Stem-building, 9 a; (see 96-99).
sub, in compounds, 41 a; constr. of, 87 b, 146 a.
Subject, 101 b; of verb (nom.), 113 a; indef. (omitted), 118 b; (2d per- son), 149 c, 171 ยข; of passive, 131 a; of infin. (ace.), 183 ยข, 155 b.
SusyuncTIvE Moop, tenses wanting in, 50 b; how used, 51 a; present (vowel-change), 61 a, c, 63 ยข.โ Syntax, 148-152; original form and meaning, 149 a; Hortatory, b (2d pers. indef., c), 171 ยข; in pro- hibition, 150 a, 152 b; proviso (with modo), 150 b; past tenses, id. ; as condition, 172 ยขc; Optative, 150 c; Concessive, 151 b, 175 b;
INDEX.
Dubitative, 152 a; Tenses of, 161- 164; rule of Sequence, 162; in
Conditions, 164, 163; fut. cond., โ
170; (past, by seq. of tenses, 171 b) ; 2d person for indef. sulj., 171 c; of repeated action, id. ; Potential, 173 b; of caution, ยข; with cond. and compar. particles, 174 c; of Relative Time, 177 b;
after cum (temporal), 178; (cau-โ
sal), 180; antequam, &c., 180 a; dum, b; of Cause, 181 b, 185 c; in Indirect Discourse (subord. clause), 181 c, 186 a, 188 ยข; in
Final Clauses, 182; after nedum, โ
188 a; of Result, c; after quin and quominus, 184 a; of Charac- teristic, b; with unus (solus) qui, 185 a; quam, id.; of re- striction and proviso, b; with
dignus, &c.. ยข; in Intermediate โ Clause, id., 186; in Indirect Dis- โ
course, with relative, 188 ยขc; con- ditional, 189 b; question, c; (In- direct Question, 190, 200); com- mands, 191 ยข; with ut, in Sub- stantive Clauses of Purpose, 195; of Result, 197 ; with verbs of com- manding, &c., 195 c; of fearing, 196 c; happening, &c., 197 a; after quam, b; in exclamations, c.
Subordinate clauses, 102 ยข; in indir. dise., 186, 188-191.
SupstanTIVE Ciausss defined, 102; Syntax, 198-199; acc. and infin., 194 a; (passive constr., b;) of pur- pose, 195; of result, 197 ; indic. with quod, 199; (Indirect Ques- tions, 196).
Suffixes, primary (a,i, u, ta, na, &c.), 96; significant, 97-99.
sum, 58 (see esse).
summus (fop of), 109 b.
sunt qui, 177 b, 184 ยข.
super, supra, 92 a.
Superlative endings, 88 a; of emi- nence, 40 c; with quam, id. ; with quisque, 41 a; of a part, 100 b; with relative, 111 b; used as par- titive, 115 c.
Supine, 29 a, 50 a, 52 b; stem, 53 ยข, 55 b; in 8d conj., 63 c; accus. of direction, 144 a; Syntax, 209.
sus (subus), 22 b.
Syllables, 5 b; pure, open, &c., Cc.
Synalepha, 223 a.
INDEX,
Synesis, 103 b; of adjectives, 106 b; of relative, 110 b; of verb, 112 c; of secondary tenses, 166 a.
Synopsis of tenses, 64 c; of Con- structions of Syntax, 248, 249.
Synrax, 101-214; Subject and Pre- dicate, 103-113; Construction of Cases, 113-148; Syntax of the Verb, 148-209; General Rules, 210, 211; Outline of, 237-247.
es
T for d (set, aput), 2 b; inter- changed with c, 4 b; as personal ending, 54 c; in Supine stem, 61b, 62 a; in verb-stem, 62 c.
teedet, 83 b, 120 a.
tamen (position); 96 a.
tamquam, 174 c.
tanti, gen. of value, 141 ยขc.
_tantum, as correl., 49 b; with hor- tat. subjunctive, 150 a.
tantum abest ut, 197 c.
-tas, -tia, noun endings, 98 a.
-te (enclitic), 45 a.
Teaching, verbs of (2 acc.), 183 cยข.
Temporal particles, 94 c; clauses, 102 c, 176-181.
-ter (in alter, &c.), 34 c; as adjec- tive-ending, 35 b, 98 b.
Tenses, 50 a; of continued action in passive, c; of incomplete or completed action, 52 c, 203 ยข; use of perf. and imperf., 53 b; classif. of by stems, c; tense-endings, 54โ 57 ; derivation of do., 57 ce. โ Syn- Tax, 157-165; of indiec., 157-161; of subj., 161-164; of infin., 164; Rule of Sequence, 162.
tenus, 92 c, 146 ยขc, 148 a.
terra marique, 145 a.
Tetrameter lambic, 226.
Thales, infl., 250.
Third Deciension (nouns), 17-27; Conjugation (verbs), 62, 63, 70-73 (list, 72, 73).
tigris, infl., 23 a, 250.
-tio, -tura, -tus (-tutis), noun-end- ings, 97 c.
Time, absolute and relative, 157, 161; how long (acc.), 133 c, 143 b; when (abl.), id.
-tor, -trix, nouns of agency, 97 c; (used as adjectives, 38 a).
273
totus, abl. used without prepos., 145 ยข.
Towns, names of, gender, 10 ยข; in us, fem., 16 a; in e, neut., 18 ยขc; Construction of, 144.
trans, 92 ; comp. of, with acc., 132 a.
Trees, names of, gender, 10 c.
tres, 42 c.
โTrimeter Iambic, 225.
Triptotes, 31 a.
Trochaic verse, 227 a.
-tudo, -tus, noun-endings, 98 a.
tuli (tetuli), 78 b.
tum, 87 b; with cum, 95c, 181 a.
U.
U, when semi-vowel becomes v, 2 a; not allowed to follow u or v, id.
u stems of verbs, 62 c, 64 a, 96 ยขc.
ubi in temporal clauses, 177 a, c.
-ubus in 4th decl., 23 c.
ullus, infl., 34 ยข; use, 48 c.
ultra, 93 a, 148 a.
um for arum, 14 c; for orum, 16 b.
Umbrian forms compared with the Latin, 253.
umquam (unquam), 48 c.
Undertaking, verbs of (with ge- rundive), 206 a.
unus, infl., 34.c; in plural, 43 b.
unus qui, with subj., 185 a.
-urio (desiderative), 78 a, 99 c.
-urus, part. in, 51 ยข; with fui, 169 ยข, 189 b; use, 205.
usquam, 48 c.
usque, with acc., 147 b.
usus, with abl., 136 a; (usui, dat. of service, 128 b).
ut, with concess. subj., 151 a, 175 b, 176 c; as indef. relat. 177 a; ut cum, 180 c; in final clauses, 182; consec. do., 183; subst. do., 195, 197; with verbs of Fearing, 196 c; omitted, id.; ut non, 183 c, 197.
ut, utpote, quippe, with relative and subjunctive, 180 c, 185 b.
uter, infl., 34 e.
uterque, 48 c ; with plur. verb, 112 ยข; with nouns and pronouns, 116 ce.
uti, utinam, with subj. of wish, 151 a, 192 ยข.
utor, with abl., 140 c.
ut si, 174 ec.
utrum..an, 200.
274
We
V (for u), 2a,6 a,15ยข; syncopated in perfect stem, 65 b.
valde, 41 a.
Value, genitive of, 115 b, 141 ยข; measures of, 235, 2386.
vapulo, 77 b.
Variable nouns, 31 b; adjectives, 87 c.
-ve, vel, 95 b.
velim, vellem, 151 a.
veluti, velutsi, 174 c.
veneo (venum ยขโฌ0), 77 b, 80 a.
Verss, 50-83; forms, 54, 56; end- ings, 55-57; special and parallel forms, 65 b; Regular, 66-75; De- ponent, 75-77; Irregular, 78-80; Defective, 81; Impersonal, 82; Derivation of, 99; compound, 100 b. โ Syntrax, 112, 113, 148- 209; omitted, 118 b; of remem- bering, &c., 119 a; of accusing, &e., b; of emotion, 120 a; of plenty, &c., c; of relating, &c., 194; of commanding, promising, asking, wishing, 195; of permit- ting, resolving, caution, effort, fear, 196 ; of happening, &c., 197.
Verba sentiendi et declarandi, 155 b.
Verbals in ax, 98 b; with gen., 117 ยข.
veritus (as present), 202 b.
vero, 96 c; in answers. 201 a.
Verse, 222 c; forms of, 224-231.
verum or vero, 95 b.
vescor, with abl., 140 b.
vesperi (loc.), 16 c, 145 b.
veto, constr. of, 155 a, 194 a, 195 ยข.
vetus, infl., 36 ยข ; comparison, 38 ec.
-vi in perfect, 61 b, c, 68 b, 64 b, 65.
INDEX.
vicem (adverbial), 133 b.
videor, with dative, 128 a.
vin (visne), 5 b.
vis, infl., 22 e.
vitio (dat. of service), 128 b.
Vocative, 12 a, 18 a; of nouns in ius, 16 b; Syntax, 184; (of adj. for nom., b); Greek in i, 217 b.
Voices, 50 a.
volo, infl., 78, 79; with infin., 194 b, 195 ยข; with perf. part., 204 c.
voti (damnare), 119 c.
Vowels, 1 b; Italian sound, 5 Cc; strengthened (see Vowel increase);. weakened, 3 a, 63 a.
Vowel change in verbs, 56 a, 66 b; in present subjunctive, 63 ยข; in compounds, 66 a.
Vowel-increase, 2 c, 61 a, 62 b, 63 b.
Vowel scale,2c. +
Vowel stems, 12 c, 17 b, 19 a, 20a; gender and forms, 24.
W.
W, the letter not found in Latin, 1 a.
Way by which (abl.), 145 e.
Wishes and Commands, 192.
Wishing, verbs of, constr., 151 ec, 173 c, 195 e.
Wonen, names of, 82 c.
โ &
Y in words of Greek origin, 2 a; noun-stems in, 23 b; in verb-stem, 62 ยข.
ya, primary suffix, 96 c, 97, 98 a.
Year, date of, 233; months, 234.
AUTHORS AND
Ceesar: Bell. Civ. de Fato. Bell. Gall. de Finibus. Bell. Afric. ro Flacco.
Cicero: Academica. zelius. pro Archia. de Legibus. ad Atticum, Leg. Agraria. Brutus. pro Ligario.
in Catilinam. pro Manilio.
ro Cluentio. ro Murena. ato Major. e Nat. Deorum. De Inventione. de Officiis. pro Deiotaro. Orator. de Oratore. Paradoxa,. de Divinatione. Philippics. Div. in Cecil. pro Plancio. ad Familiares. in Pisonem.
WORKS CITED.
ad Q. Fratrem. Plautus. pro Rabirio. Amphitruo. ro Rose. Amer. Asinaria. ull (Leg. Agr.). Captivi. ro Sestio. Trinummus. opica. Pliny. Tusc. Quest. Sallust: Catil. in Verrem. Jugurtha. Q. Curtius. Seneca: Epist. Horace Tacitus: Agricola. Juvenal Annales. Livy. Historiz. Lucretius. Terence: Heaut. Nepos. Virgil: Aยฎneid. Ovid. Ecloge. Persius Georgica.
aunouncements,
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9. VIRGIL: Six Books of the Aneid and the Bucolies. With Introduction, Notes, and Grammatical References to Allen & Greenoughโs and Gildersleeveโs Latin Grammars. The text is founded on that of Ribbeck, vari- ations from that and from Heyne being given in the margin.
For No. 2 of the above may be substituted LEIGHTONโS LATIN LESSONS, adapted to Allen &
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The following will be published in single volumes : โ
1. Course No. I. Fuil Preparatory Course of Latin Prose (with- out Vocabulary), containing four books of Ceesarโs Gallic War, Sallustโs Catiline, eight Orations of Cicero, and the Cato Major.
2. Course No. II. Second Preparatory Course of Latin Prose (with Vocabulary), containing four books of Ceesarโs Gallic War and eight Orations of Cicero.
N. B. โ Course No. I. is identical with the First Course prescribed for admis- sion to Harvard College. Course No. II. contains the usual amount required at other colleges.
REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS. By H. H. Morean. This is essentially a repertorium, and can be made equally useful as a work of reference and as a companion to any manual of literature, or as a guide in any course of reading. It presents the representative authors of England and America, โ their mode of presenting their subjects, the literary forms which they employ, their representative works, their characterization by critics of established reputation. The classification is at once simple and exhaustive, and meets a want not hitherto provided for.
THE FIFTH, or HIGH SCHOOL MUSIC READER FOR MIXED VOICES. By Juttus ErcusperG, General Supervisor of Musical Instruction of Boston Public Schools.
Containing a full Course of Advanced Solfeggios for One and Two Voices, and a carefully selected number of easy Four-Part Songs taken from the works of the best composers. This work has been especially compiled to meet the growing wants of our High Schools for a higher grade of music than is contained in works now used in such schools.
N. B. โThe Tenor Part in many of the songs may be either omitted or sung by the altos (boys).
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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE RHYTHMIC AND METRIC OF THE CLASSICAL LANGUAGES. By Dr. J. H. Hemrica Scamipt. To which will be added the Text of the Lyrical Parts of some of the more generally read of the Greek Dramas, with Rhythmical Schemes and Commentary. Edited from the German by JoHN Wituams Wairs, A M., and C. H. RigMENSCHNEIDER, Ph. D., Professor of the Ancient Languages ia German Wallace College.
Dr. Schmidtโs * Leitfaden in der Rhythmik und Metrik der Classischen Sprachen โ is a compend of his larger work, brought out in four volumes, 8vo. in 1868 - 72, entitled *โ Die Kunstformen der griechischen Poesie und ihre Bedeutung,โ and is designed as a manual for classes in the Greek and Latin poets. The author has re- vised the present translation and made important additions. Many illustrations from English poets have been introduced, and the work has been otherwise adapted to the use of English-speaking students. With a full Index. (Nearly Ready.)
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PLATOโS APOLOGY OF SOCRATES AND CRITO. _ Edited, for the Use of Schools, by Joun Wituiams Wuirs, A. M.
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FIRST LESSONS IN GREEK, Prepared to accompany Goodwinโs Greek Grammar, and designed as an Introduction to his Greek Reader. By JoHN WILLIAMS WHITE, A.M., Tutor in Greek in Harvard Col- lege.
A series of eighty lessons with progressive Greek-English and English-Greek exercises. Followed by selected passages from the first two books of Xenophonโs
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THE MEDEA OF EURIPIDES. Edited, with Notes
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NEW EDITION OF LIDDELL AND SCOTTโS ABRIDGED GREEK LEXICON. With an Appendix containing Proper and Geographical Names carefully prepared by J. M. Wurron.
SELECT ORATIONS OF LYSIAS. HUDSONโS TEXT-BOOK OF POETRY. For use in
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REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS. By H. H. Morgan.
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SEARLEโS OUTLINES OF ASTRONOMY. By me
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THE FIFTH, or HIGH SCHOOL MUSIC READER FOR MIXED VOICES. Containing a full Course of Advanced Solfeggios for One and Two Voices, anda carefully selected number of easy Four-Part Songs, taken from the works of the best composers. This work has been especially compiled to meet the growing wants of our High Schools for a higher grade of music than is contained in works now used in such schools. ยฎ
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GOODWINโS GREEK READER, Consisting of Extracts from Xenophon, Plato, Herodotus, and Thucydides ; being a full equivalent for the seven books of the Anabasis, now required for admission at Harvard. With Maps, Notes, References to GOOD WINโS GREEK GRAMMAR, and parallel Ref- erences to CROSBYโS and HADLEYโS GRAMMARS. Edited by PrRoressor W. W. Goopwin, of Harvard College, and J. H. Atten, Cambridge. Haif mo- oo Re ae fee . a es 00" 2.00
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