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■*"-■' . .

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND

MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

BIOLOGr

THE COMPLETE

MODERN FARRIER

A COMPENDIUM OF

VETERINARY SCIENCE AND PRACTICE

Showing the Best and most Successful Methods for the Prevention of

all Diseases to which Farm Live-Stock are liable^ and showing

also the Best and most Successful Methods for the

Curative Treatment of these Diseases^ the

Subjects dealt with including

THE BREEDING, MANAGEMENT, AND VETERINARY TREATMENT
OF HORSES FOR DRAUGHT, DRIVING, AND RACING

THE RULES OF THE JOCKEY CLUB

THE BREEDING, MANAGEMENT, AND VETERINARY TREATMENT
OF DAIRY AND FEEDING CATTLE, WITH FULL INSTRUC-
TIONS AS TO THE PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS,
ABORTION, MILK-FEVER, AND OTHER
BOVINE DISEASES

THE BREEDING, MANAGEMENT, AND VETERINARY TREATMENT
OF SHEEP, DOGS, Etc.

By THOMAS BROWN, M.P.S.

LATE PRESIDKNT OF THE ROYAL PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

WITH FOURTEEN FULL-PAGE COLOURED PLATES

THIRTY-SECOND EDITION

Thoroughly Revised, and in large part Re-written, so as to embody all the

most Up-to-date Facts and Methods of Prevention and

Treatment known to Veterinary Scientists

EDINBURGH: JOHN GRANT

LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL & CO., LTD.
1904

BiOLOC.

4 r^n p^i^a^

PREFACE

On account of the remarkable degree of public favour
with which the former editions of this work has been
received, this new edition has been thoroughly revised
and brought fully up to date, so as to embody all the
latest discoveries in Veterinary Science and Practice.
In recent years great advances has been made in
Veterinary Science, and the researches of Pasteur,
Koch, and other eminent investigators in different
fields of science have thrown a flood of light on the
origin and nature of the diseases to which farm live-
stock are liable, and have also shown how in the case
of many maladies the cause of the disease may be
easily removed, so that in that way the disease may be
prevented. The results of these researches made by
eminent scientists, and confirmed by the practice of
eminent veterinary surgeons, have been embodied in
this new edition, which thus contains a great deal of
valuable matter that was not to be found in the older
editions. In the section relating to cattle, several
new chapters have been added. The dire disease of
tuberculosis — i.e., consumption — which is the burning
question of the day to cattle-breeders and dairy-
farmers, and which has been specially investigated

wi3703l6

IV PREFACE

by no fewer than three Royal Commissions within the
last fifteen years, has been fully dealt with, and the
means by which this scourge may be most effectively
combated have been duly set forth in the following
pages. Abortion, which is another source of disastrous
loss to cattle-breeders, has also been dealt with, and
full directions are given as to the best methods of
preventing this plague. New chapters on Milk Fever,
Diseases of the Udder, etc., have also been added.
The sections relating to Horses, Sheep, Pigs, and
Dogs have also been most carefully revised in the
light of the most recent discoveries of Veterinary
Science and Practice. The book has all along
been designed to be a popular manual of Veterinary
Practice, and is as free as possible from scientific
technicalities, the author's expositions and instruc-
tions being expressed in language that can be
easily understood by any intelligent stock-owner.

CONTENTS

PAGB

Introduction ........ i

SECTION I
OF THE HORSE, ITS DISEASES AND STRUCTURE

CHAP.

I. Diseases of the Head, including the Brain, Ears,

Mouth, Nostrils, Eyes, Etc. .... 5

Megrims — The Staggers, or Apoplexy — Mad Staggers — Rabies,
or Madness — Tetanus, or Locked-Jaw — Epilepsy, or Fits —
Palsy — Glanders — Farcy — Nasal Gleet — Polypus — Lampas
— Strangles — Canker and Wounds in the Mouth — Diseases of
the Tongue ; Tongue Bladders ; Bitten Tongue ; Vives, or
Swellings in the Submaxillary Glands ; Barbs, or Paps; Gigs
— Diseases of the Teeth — Diseases of the Lips — Diseases of
the Eye; Common Inflammation of the Eye; Ophthalmia;
The Haw ; Eruption on the Eyelids ; Warts ; Gutta Serena ;
General Blindness and Imperfect Vision — Fracture of the
Skull.

II. Diseases of the Neck and Contiguous Parts . . 40

Poll-Evil — Roaring — Obstruction of the Gullet — Inflammation
of the Jugular Vein.

III. Diseases of the Chest and its Contents . . .46

Inflammation of the Lungs — Pleurisy — Fever — Stomach-Stag-
gers— Catarrh, or Common Cold — Bronchitis — Thick Wind
— Broken Wind — Chronic Cough — Influenza, Epidemic
Catarrh, Distemper — Fistulous Withers — Warbles, Saddle-
Galls, Etc.

IV. Diseases of the Abdomen and Intestines . . . 68

Inflammation of the Liver — The Jaundice, or Yellows — Hernia,
or Rupture — Inflammation of the Kidneys — Inflammation of
the Bladder — Stone in the Bladder — Diabetes — Staling of
Blood — Inflammation of the Bowels ; Inflammation of the
Mucous Membrane ; Spasmodic Colic ; Entanglement of the
Bowels ; Stones in the Intestines ; Intussusception of the
Intestines — Intestinal Worms — The Bots.

V. Disorders of the External Parts of a Horse . . 84

The Fore Legs — Sprain of the Shoulder — Complaints and
Injuries of the Arm ; Fracture of the Elbow ; Enlargement
of the Elbow — Complaints and Injuries of the Knee ; Broken
Knees — Splent, or Splint — Speedy Cut — Knee-tied — Sprain
of the Back Sinews — Wind-Galls — Rupture of the Suspen-
sory Ligament — Grogginess — Sprain of the Fetlock — Cutting
of the Fetlock — Sprain of the Coffin-Joint — Ringbone —
Ossification of the Back Sinew.

VI CONTENTS

CHAP, PAGE

VI. The Haunch and other Portions of the Hind Legs . 107

Fracture of the Tuberosities of the Haunch — Sprain of the
Round Bone — Sprain of the Stifle-Joint — Thoroughpin —
Capped Hocks — Mallenders and Sallenders — Enlargement
of the Hock — Curb — String Halt — Bone-Spavin — Bog-
Spavin — Of Swelled Legs generally ; Swelling of the Cel-
lular Substance ; Swelling from Inactivity ; Swellings after
Grass — Grease.

VII. Diseases of the Foot ...... 129

Acute Founder — Chronic Founder — Contraction — Sand-Crack
— The Navicular-Joint Disease — False Quarter — Tread, or
Overreach — Quittor — Prick, or Wound in the Sole or Crust
— Corns — Canker — Thrush — Ossification of the Cartilages —
Weakness of the Foot.

VIII. The Anatomical STRUCTtjRE of the Horse . . .161

Different Bones of the Skeleton of the Horse — Bones of the
Head — Side View of the Cranium — Section exhibiting the
Internal Anatomy of the Head — Representation of the
Palate and Teeth — External Anatomy of the Horse's Head —
Muscles and Parts connected with the Ej'e — The Eye and its
Visual Structure — The Teeth and their Development — Dental
Indications of the Age of a Horse.

IX. Principal Muscles of the Limbs, Etc. . . .202

Muscles of the Outside of the Shoulder — Muscles on the Inside
of the Shoulder — Muscles of the Outside of the Thigh —
Chief Muscles of the Inside of the Thigh — Structure of the
Hock Joint — Bones of the Foot — Front View of the Pastern
— Nerve, Vein, and Artery of the Pastern and Foot — Illus-
trations of Defects of the Fore-Leg — Attachments in Front of
the Pastern Bones, etc, — Situation of Diseases of the Hind
Leg — The Pastern and Foot, with their Bones and Integu-
ments— External Parts of the Foot ; The Crust or Wall of
the Hoof — Cartilages of the Foot.

X. Sketch of the Internal Organisation of the Horse . 230

The Lungs — The Heart — The Pulse ; Quick Pulse ; Slow
Pulse ; Hard Pulse ; Small Pulse ; A Weak Pulse ;
Oppressed Pulse — The Abdomen and its Contents — The
Peritoneum — The Diaphragm — The Stomach — The Liver —
The Omentum, or Caul — The Spleen — The Pancreas — The
Diaphragm, or Midriff — The Kidneys — The Bladder — The
Intestines.

XI. Of the Skin and its Diseases . . . .261

The Cuticle — The Cutis — The Rete Mucosum — Pores of the
Skin — Of the Hair — Clipping — Singeing — Colour of the Hair
-i-Hide-bound — Surfeit — Mange — Warts.

XI F. Operations . . . . . . . 282

Bleeding — Blistering — Firing — Neurotomy, or Cutting the
Nerve— Setons — Docking — Nicking.

XIII. Of Breeding, Feeding, and Training Horses . . 304

Section I., Breeding. Section II., Feeding; Of Drink.
Section III., Training.

CONTENTS Vll

CHAP. PACK

XIV. Of Stabling, Exercise, Clothing, Etc. . . .328

The Stable— Management of the Feet— Light— Exercise-
Grooming — Clothing.

XV. Vices and Dangerous Habits of the Horse . . 34°

Restiveness— Rearing— Backing, or Gibbing— Kicking— Biting
Seizing the Cheek of the Bit — Running Away — Shying —
Restiveness, and Resisting being Mounted — Vicious while
Cleaning — Restiveness while Shoeing — Crib-Biting — Wind-
Sucking — Not lying down — Slipping the Collar — Pawing —
Rolling — Weaving — Tripping.

XVI. Of Shoeing ... ... 361

Preparation of the Foot for Shoeing — The Putting On of the
Shoe — The Concave-seated Shoe — The Seated Shoe — The
Expanding Shoe — The Hunting Shoe— The Racing Shoe —
The Bar Shoe— Clips— The Hinder Shoe— Tips— Patent
Safety Shoe— Water and Poultice Boots ; Water-Boot— Felt,
or Leather Soles.

XVII. How TO Buy a Horse . . . . . .376

XVIII. General History of the Horse, with an Account of

Different Breeds ..... 388

Section I., Of British Horses : The English Race-Horse — The
Hunter — The Hackney, or Roadster — The Charger — The
Coach-Horse — The Cleveland Bays — The Draught-Horse —
The Suffolk Punch-Horse. Section II., Of Asiatic Horses:
The Arabian — The Persian Horse — The Tartar Horse — The
Toorkoman Horse — The Turkish Horse. Section III., Of
African Horses : The Barb — The Egyptian Horse — The
Nubian and Dongola Horses. Section IV., American
Horses.

XIX. The Ass and Mule ...•., 416

SECTION II

DISEASES OF CATTLE

Introduction . . . . . . , .421

I. Diseases of the Head and Neck of Neat Cattle . 426

Inflammation of the Brain — Choking — Locked-Jaw — Sore
Throat — Snores.

II. Diseases of the Chest . . . . . .432

Inflammation of the Lungs (Pneumonia) — Contagious Pleuro-
pneumonia— Inflammation of the Stomach — Inflammation of
the Liver — Fog-Sickness, or Hoven — Catarrh, or Cold —
Cough — Hoose, or Husk — Stomach, or Grass Staggers —
Jaundice, or Yellows.

III. Diseases of the Abdomen . . . .' -449

Inflammation of the Bowels — Inflammation of the Kidneys
— Inflammation of the Bladder — Inflammation of the "W^omb—
Red Water — Gripes — Diarrhoea, or Looseness — Dysentery
— Fardel-Bound, or Excessive Costiveness — Mortification,

Vill CONTENT^

CHAP. »AGtt

IV. Of Febrile Diseases ...... 467

Splenic Apoplexy — Anthrax — Symptoms and Post-Mortem Ap-
pearances of Anthrax — Procedure — Disposal of Carcases —
Cleansing and Disinfection — " Black Leg," " Black Quarter,"
Parturient Apoplexy, or Milk Fever.

V. Diseases, Etc., of the External Parts of Cattle . 479

Scurf; Scab— Cow-Pox— The Fouls— The Gad-Fly, Wurbles,
or Wormals — Lice — Strains and Bruises — Wounds.

VL Of Gestation, Parturition, Etc. . . . .492

Gestation — Swelling of the Udder — Diseases of the Mammary
Gland or Udder ; Physiological Congestion or Engorgement
of the Mammae; Mammitis, or Mastitis; Catarrhal Mammitis;
Interstitial or Parenchymatous Mammitis — Agalactia — Ul-
cerated Teats ; Chaps — Abortion — Falling Down of the Calf
Bed — Parturition, or Calving — Rearing of Calves — Denti-
tion of Cattle.

VII. Management and Feeding, Etc., of Cattle . . 516

Cow-Houses — The Feeding Cow-House.

VIII. The Various Breeds of Horned Cattle . . .521

The Short-Horned, or Holstein Breed — The Kyloes, or High-
land Cattle — The Long-Horned Cattle — The Galloway Breed
— Milch Cows — Tuberculosis.

SECTION III
DISEASES OF SHEEP

Introduction ........ 531

I. Diseases of the Head, Etc. . . . . .533

Staggers — Blindness— Catarrh.

II. Diseases of the Chest ...... 538

Fluke, or Liver Rot — Inflammation of the Lungs — Grass-Ill —
Milk-Ill— -Jaundice, or Yellows.

III. Diseases of the Abdomen . . . . .542

The Resp, or Red Water— The Red Water Blibes— The Braxy,
or Sickness — Diarrhoea, or Looseness — Dysentery — Colic —
Pinding.

IV. Diseases of the External Parts, Etc. . . -549

Scab, or Itch— Pelt-Rot— Erysipelas, or W^ild-Fire— Cramp of
the Legs, or Wood-Evil— Leg-Evil — Foot-Rot— Vermin —
Wounds— Fractures— Of Bleeding— On the Age of Sheep as
indicated by the Teeth.

V. Gestation, Parturition, Etc. . . . . .565

The Ram— Leaping— The Ewe— Lambing— Weaning Lambs-
Castrating Lambs— Inflamed Udder, Etc.

CONTENTS IX

CHAP. PAGE

VI. Management, Feeding, Etc., of Sheep . . .573

Shelter — Drifting Snow — Effects of Rain — Heat and Flies —
Washing — Shearing — Food — Fattening.

VII. Different Breeds of Sheep . . . . 580

SECTION IV

DISEASES OF SWINE

Introduction ........ 581

I. Internal Complaints ...... 583

Inflammation of the Lungs — Quinsy — Blood-Striking.

II. Gargut, or Distended Udder . . . . -585

III. Breeding, Gestation, Parturition . . . .586

SECTION V

DISEASES OF DOGS

Introduction ........ 591

I. Diseases of the Head and Chest . . . -593

Swelling in the Throat — Internal Ulceration of the Ear —
Coughs — Inflammation of the Lungs — Asthma — The Dis-
temper— Rabies, or Hydrophobia — Bites of Vipers — Poison —
Blindness.

II. Diseases of the Abdomen, Etc. .... 614

Inflammation of the Bowels — Inflammation of the Bladder —
Worms : Intestinal Parasites ; Tape- Worms ; Round-Worms;
Sucking- Worms — Dropsy — Costiveness — Colic — Diarrhoea,
or Looseness — Blend Water, or Bloody Urine — Piles — Fits.

III. Diseases of the External Parts, Etc. . . .626

Diseases of the Eye — External Ulcer of the Ear — Canker in the
Ear — The Common Mange — The Red Mange — Foul Coats
— Sore Feet — Wounds — Sprains and Bruises — Scalds-
Rickets — Thorns — Fleas and Ticks, etc.

IV. Operations ....... 637

Blood-Letting — Method of giving a Bolus or Pill — Worming —
Fractures — Cropping.

V. Gestation, Parturition, Etc. ..... 640

On Breeding Generally — Parturition, or Pupping.

VI. Feeding, Management, Training, Etc. . . .647

Greyhounds — Of Training Fox-Hounds — Training of Pointers
and Setters — Vocabulary — Maxims — Retrievers — Water-
Dogs — Greyhounds — The Kennel.

M

CONTENTS

VII. Different Dogs used in Field Sports and for Domestic
Purposes, Watch-Dogs, Etc. ....

Section I., Dogs of the Chase. The Stag-Hound — The Fox-
Hound— The Harrier— The Beagle— The Terrier— The
Otter-Hound — The Greyhound — The Scottish Highland
Greyhound, or Wolf-Dog. Section XL, Dogs used in Shoot-
ing. The English Pointer — The English Setter — The
Springer — The Cocker — The Smaller Spaniel, or King
Charles's Cocker — The Large Water-Spaniel — The Small
Water-Spaniel, or Poodle. Section III., Watch- Dogs, The
MastifiF— The Bull-Dog— The Bull-Terrier— The Newfound-
land Dog — The Shepherd's Dog — The Coach-Dog, or Dal-
matian.

Appendix— Rules of Racing ......

Index ..... . . . .

672

717

758

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

rtATB VAGE

I. The Horse ....... Frontispiece

II. Bones of the Skeleton of a Horse .

III. External and Internal Anatomy of a Horse's Head

IV. Teeth of the Horse from a Week to Six Years .
V. „ „ „ Seven to Fifteen Years

VI. Muscles of the Fore Legs ....

VII. „ „ Hind Legs ....

VIII. Bones of the Hock ; the Cranium ; the Stomach ; th
Intestines .......

IX. Contents of the Chest ; the Abdomen ; Veins ; Arteries
AND Nerves of the Hind Legs

X. Parasites, etc. ......

XI. Various Kinds of Shoes, Water-'Boots, etc. .

XII. „ „ Shoes, Nails, Knives, etc.

XIII. Ear of a Horse.; Stomach of a Ruminating Animal

XIV. Head of a Sheep .,,,..

i6r
i68
192
200
206
224

238

257
302
368

374

422

544

MANUAL

OF

MODERN FARRIERY.

INTRODUCTION.

The term Farriery has been in use for a very long
period, and embraced the Medical and Surgical treat-
ment of the Horse, as well as Shoeing, and fitting
him for taking the road and the field.

The persons employed in the manual labour of
constructing and fitting the shoes of horses were
originally termed Ferrers, or Ferriers, from the Latin
vjord ferrum, iron, and their practice y^rrzVr^, which
has, in the course of time, been changed into the word
Farrier, and now universally adopted.

In most country situations the blacksmith who
shoes horses is called the farrier, because he is
generally the only person, in many localities, who
practises the art of horse and cattle doctor. Not only
is this the case in Great Britain, but also in every
country of Europe.

It is to be lamented that more attention is not
devoted to the useful practice of the cure of domestic
animals, more especially when we consider not only
their great value, but also their commercial importance.
As well may the medical care of man be intrusted to
shoemakers and tailors, as the care of horses, cattle,
swine, dogs, and other domestic animals be left to
the tender mercies of an untutored blacksmith, who,
although by practice he may be extremely competent

2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

to shoe or bleed a horse, is, nevertheless, most unlikely
to be able to administer relief to animals whose
physical constitutions are subject to as many and
complicated diseases as humanity itself.

In France and Italy the importance of the cure of
the diseases of horses and cattle was first manifested
upwards of two centuries ago ; and professorships
established for the art of farriery as a medical and
surgical science, and gradually the persons who pro-
fessionally studied and practised this art assumed the
names of Veterinary Surgeons. This term, although
but recently adopted, is of great antiquity, having
been in general use among the Latins.

It is, however, surprising that in Great Britain,
where our domestic animals are of such vast impor-
tance, it is only very lately that schools and professor-
ships for the study of the Veterinary art have been
established ; and not much more than half a century
ago, the surgeons of our cavalry regiments adminis-
tered medicine to horses as well as to the soldiers.
But the study of Comparative Anatomy soon rendered
it manifest that a totally different course of study
became necessary for the treatment of animals whose
internal organisation was so different from that of the
human being ; and now every horse regiment has its
Veterinary Surgeon. All great towns, and many small
ones also, possess medical and surgical practitioners,
whose sole attention is devoted to the cure of domestic
animals ; these gentlemen having attended and ac-
quired diplomas from the Veterinary Colleges for
their knowledge and capability to practise the arts.

The intention of the following treatise is not to
take the practice out of th-^ hands of regular Veterinary
Surgeons, but to serve i? a ready manual to those
living in the country or even in towns, to give them

INTRODUCTION 3

a oreneral idea of the diseases and remedies, so that
they may be applied in time of need, and where a
regular veterinary practitioner is not at hand.

Some of the diseases incidental to horses and cattle
are so marked in their character, that a little ex-
perience will easily enable a person accustomed to be
among those animals, to detect it with facility, and
in such cases, medicine may be safely administered,
according to the rules we have laid down ; but there
are other disorders, whose characters are of a more
complicated form, which ought not to be treated by
a person uneducated in the veterinary art. In such
cases it will always be found safer and cheaper in the
end to apply to regular practitioners.

Although in a certain sense there is some analogy
between the diseases of man and animals, yet these
are exceedingly different in their specific characters,
and consequently in the remedies applied for their
cures ; the construction of the stomach, the length of
the alimentary canal and small intestines, with other
organic distinctions — all combining to render the
specific quantity and character of the medicines to
differ essentially.

Nevertheless, it is quite possible to acquire a con-
siderable knowledge of all that is known in the
veterinary art, by persons in private life ; although
considerable study, as may well be supposed, is
necessary to attain this degree of knowledge.

The first thing to be studied is to acquire a know-
ledge of the skeleton, then of the muscles, and lastly
of the internal organisation. The two first of these
are pretty much alike in all our domestic animals, but
a very great difference will be found in the internal
structure. For the skeleton and muscles, works and
good engravings will give a good idea to the be-

4 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

ginner ; and after acquiring the names of the different
bones and muscles, the student must practise upon
dead subjects, so that he may be enabled, by dissec-
tion, at once to determine what part of the body is
affected by lameness or a wound. He must next
acquire a thorough knowledge of the exact situation
of the internal organs, and their comparative dimen-
sions and structure. Attention must next be given to
Chemistry, and the compounding of medicines, with
the relative quantities to be administered to the
different animals, which will depend upon, as above
hinted at, the structure of the stomach and the
length of the large and small intestines. Upon the
character also of the nervous system will depend
much of the treatment of animals, and the energy
and immediate application of remedial means. Some
diseases are slow in their progress, while others are
so rapid that there is more art and utility in arrest-
ing them, than in a cure after they are fairly formed.
But this can only be acquired by experience.

It is not pretended that the knowledge above
specified is to be found within the limits of this work,
which is chiefly intended as a popular digest of all
that is truly useful to the country gentleman and
practical farmer, and others possessing domestic
animals. We shall, however, in the course of the
work, give illustrations of the general structure of
the Horse, with such other parts as should be
generally known, and directions concerning their
functions ; so that the classes for whom it is in-
tended may have such a knowledge of the subject,
as will enable them to act for themselves, in ordinary
cases, and in others to qualify them for detecting
the impositions too frequently practised by ignorant
quacks.

SECTION I

OF THE HORSE, ITS DISEASES AND STRUCTURE.

CHAPTER I.

Diseases of the Head, including the Brain, Ears, Mouth,
Nostrils, Eyes, &c.

The diseases of the head in animals, as well as in
the human being, are, for the most part, so com-
plicated and obscure that few non-professional men
are qualified to undertake their cure with success ;
but it will be our endeavour to treat the subject in
as plain language as possible, so that those who
have not regularly studied the veterinary art may
at least acquire such a knowledge as will enable
them to apply some judicious remedy, until the
advice of a practitioner can be obtained.

MEGRIMS.

This malady is occasioned by a pressure on the
brain, caused by an unusual flow of blood to it.
The flow of blood through the brain is much greater
in quantity than through any other portion of the
body of equal bulk. To prevent as far as possible
any unusual flow of blood to this organ, the arteries
pursue an extremely winding and circuitous course,
and enter the skull through small holes in the bony
process. These holes are so small that they will
admit but of little enlargement of the blood-vessels,

6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

and thus to a great extent the progress of inflamma-
tion is prevented. Yet, notwithstanding this beauti-
ful provision in nature, the horse is liable to be afflicted
with diseases in the brain, from violent and injudicious
exercise, and hard driving or riding in warm weather,
which forces the blood to the head, and distends the
arteries of the brain more than the veins ; and the
consequence^ is, the small vessels which ramify in the
substance of the brain get gorged with blood, and
then its bulk is increased to such an extent that it
will produce undue pressure upon the origin of the
nerves, which is followed by loss of power and even
consciousness, and consequences of a very serious
nature frequently follow.

Symptoms. — These most commonly appear when
a horse is over-driven. When attacked he will
suddenly stop and shake his head, having been
seized with giddiness and a slight degree of uncon-
sciousness. If allowed to stand for a few minutes,
this will go off, and he will be enabled to proceed on
his journey. But it not unfrequently happens that
the attack is of a more severe kind ; and under such
circumstances the horse will fall suddenly, or in other
cases will run round several times and then fall.
Sometimes he will lie quietly in a state of complete
torpor ; at other times he will struggle with great
violence, and for a time be unable to rise. In either
of these conditions he will continue for from five to
ten minutes, when he will gradually resume sensibility,
and then will be able to get on his feet, and may
then proceed on the journey. But after these attacks
he generally exhibits symptoms of dullness and ex-
haustion.

Remedy. — Immediately after the first attack of
this disease, if the animal is strong and robust, re-

MEGRIMS 7

course should be had to bleeding. Three or four
quarts of blood from the jugular vein generally has
the effect of arresting the symptoms. Another method
is to cut the palate, which will permit a sufficient flov/
of blood to have the desired effect, that is, from two
to three quarts. This, of course, should only be re-
sorted to if the driver happens not to possess a lancet
at the time the horse is attacked.

The bleeding place of the palate is in a direct line
between the middle and second cutting teeth, and
situate a little more than an inch within the mouth.
Here the vein and artery make a curve. A sharp
penknife may be used, and cut down upon the spot
where they intersect each other. The result will be
a plentiful flow of blood, and which will stop of its
own accord when two or three quarts have issued
forth. In consequence of the artery being cut across,
it will shrink and speedily cease to bleed, and the
application of a sponge, or piece of rag and cold
water, will stop the bleeding of the vein. In this
operation the nerve is generally divided, but no bad
effects will result from it.

If the cut is made a little too much on one side,
and nearly opposite the second incisor tooth, it is
possible the artery may be wounded longitudinally,
but not divided, in which case there may be great
difficulty in arresting the flow of blood. The most
effectual method is to make a large and compact
pledget of lint or tow, which should be rolled round
a piece of twine, and then firmly tied round the front
teeth, and its pressure on the surface of the bleeding
part will generally stop it ; but should this prove
ineffectual, then a gag may be constructed so as to
press upon the pledget, which is sure to stop the
bleeding.

8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

It is only when a horse Is on a journey that the
above mode of bleeding, by cutting the bars of the
palate, is to be resorted to, because there is no way
of ascertaining- the measure of the blood. Therefore
it is only in cases of necessity that it is to be applied,
as it may not only occasion much pain to the horse,
but also a great deal of trouble to the operator.
The ordinary mode of blood-letting is preferable in
all cases. Immediately after the first attack, three
or four quarts of blood should be taken from the
vein of the neck. A short time afterwards, give a
dose of physic, in the form of a ball, consisting of
the following ingredients : —

Barbadoes aloes . . 5 to 8 drachms,
Ginger .... 2 drachms,
Calomel . . . . i drachm ;

to be beat up in a mortar with a sufficient quantity
of honey, so as to form them into a ball, which must
be administered in the manner we direct under the
head of '' Medicines."

Megrims is a very dangerous disease, not only
to the horse but also to the driver, as in many in-
stances the horse falls down without the slightest
previous indication of illness. If a horse has had
one attack of this malady, he is liable to a return
of it ; and after a second attack, although proper
means have been adopted to prevent a recurrence
of it, the most prudent plan is to part with the
animal, as he can never afterwards be depended
upon.

THE STAGGERS, OR APOPLEXY.

Symptoms. — The premonitory appearances are a
low hanging of the head, and either supporting it
on the manger, or extending it nearly to the ground.

THE STAGGERS, OR APOPLEXY 9

He moves to and fro while standing, and seems
liable to fall at every movement. His sight and
hearing are much impaired. He will remain in this
condition from one to twelve hours ; he then falls.
His eyes are open and protruding, with a fixed,
seemingly unconscious, stare, with the pupils much
dilated ; he grinds his teeth, the whole frame mani-
fests twitchings, the veins of the neck are distended,
and in attempting to swallow, the drink is returned
by the nostrils and mouth, and he dungs involun-
tarily : strong convulsive twitchings follow, and these
are the certain preludes to death.

In the first stage of the disease there is depression,
sleepiness, and feebleness, which is distinctly indicated
by dulness of the eye. As it increases, he presses his
head against the wall or the rack, and when aroused
from this position he seems alarmed.

Causes. — A deranged state of the digestive organs
is the most ordinary cause, and this is the effect of
over-feeding in many cases. Some persons are so
foolish as to suppose that horses may have as much
grain as they can eat, and that it will do them no
harm. This is a serious mistake ; because, even
without the aid of water, the grain will swell in the
stomach, and from being completely overloaded, in-
digestion follows, the stomach being too much dis-
tended to be able to perform its office. The head is
affected, as in the animal economy a very intimate
connection exists between the brain and stomach, each
reciprocally influencing the other. The want of
exercise with horses which are highly fed, also tends
to derange the stomach, more especially during warm
weather. The bracing influence of exercise being
wanting to give energy to the actions of tlie intestinal
canal, the food frequently lodges there. This is also

10 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

caused by the food being Indigestible. Another
cause is Irregularity in watering horses, as this
element is peculiarly necessary to animals which live
upon dry food. Every horse should be watered at
least four times during the day, and in some cases
while working hard, more frequently, and in smaller
quantities.

Remedy. — If the horse Is robust or plethoric he
may be bled in the jugular or neck vein, but if weak
or debilitated from whatever cause, blood should not
be abstracted. If the lower intestines, or rectum,
is overloaded with dung, the hand should be passed
up the rectum, and the bowels unloaded in this way.
The following medicine should be administered, in the
form of a ball : —

Barbadoes aloes . , 4 to 8 drachms,

Calomel i drachm,

Ginger 2 drachms ;

these to be mixed with honey or treacle, in sufficient
quantity to form a ball.

Sometimes a clyster is useful, which may be
formed of soft soap and hot water.

These clysters may be repeated twice or thrice
with beneficial effect, as they facilitate the action of
the purgative and unload the rectum.

Blisters behind the ears, Cayenne pepper blown up
the nostrils, as well as bark and spices given inter-
nally, are perfectly useless. Indeed the two former
are ridiculous.

After the purgative has acted, should the horse
be able to take food, boiled barley, scalded bran
or oatmeal, and lukewarm water, should be given to
him for some days until he Is able to masticate hay,
which ought to be of the best quality. This must,

MAD STAGGERS 11

however, be given in small quantities until his bowels
have been thoroughly purged out.

To complete the cure, the following may be
given : —

Bicarb, of soda . • , . 3 drachms,
Pulv. gentian .... 2 drachms,
Pulv. ginger .... 2 drachms ;

these to be dissolved in a quart of hot ale ; to be given
the first thing in the morning in a tepid state of heat.
This may be repeated daily for ten days.

It is hardly necessary to remark, that this disease
is in general extremely rapid in its effects, and the
utmost promptitude must be exercised in the reme-
dies.

MAD STAGGERS.

Symptoms. — This disease proceeds from inflamma-
tion of the brain. In the earlier stages it is difficult
to distinguish from the sleepy or stomach staggers. It
soon, however, assumes a different character. The
nostrils become distended, and he commences to
heave at the flanks ; his eyes assume a fixed, vacant,
and wild stare, which is followed by complete
delirium ; he becomes furious, and dashes about in a
violent manner from side to side, being quite un-
conscious of his actions.

The mad staggers are considerably alike in their
symptoms to rabies. In the former of these maladies
the horse retains his consciousness, and the violence
of his actions will depend upon the peculiar char-
acter of the madness. In some instances a desire
to be mischievous is manifested.

Causes.-— This disease may be caused by the
animal being too fat, too full of blood, or from a
fracture of the bones of the skull, or disease of the

12 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

blood-vessels of the brain, or its coverings. The
fever produced thereby causes a determination of
blood to the head, and thus terminating in what is
generally denominated '' brain fever."

Remedy. — The treatment in this malady is at all
times exceedingly uncertain. If the pulse is full and
strong, abstract blood from the jugular until its
character is altered, thereafter give a dose of purga-
tive medicine, and without delay call in the services
of the veterinarian.

RABIES, OR MADNESS.

Symptoms. — -The symptoms are nervousness, then
excitability and violence. Determination to seize,
bite, and kick any and all objects within reach of
its mouth or heels. Sometimes the victim lacerates
his own flesh with its teeth, and neighs frequently
and loudly. Towards the close the animal experi-
ences a difficulty in swallowing, and the respiration
is loud and distressing.

The horse affected generally dies within thirty-
six hours from the first commencement of marked
visible symptoms.

Causes. — This incurable disorder is caused by
the bite of a mad dog, or other rabid animal, the
blood poison being contained in the saliva.

Remedy. — When symptoms of rabies have mani-
fested themselves, it is in vain to attempt a cure.
But in cases where horses have been known to be
bitten by a rabid animal, or, under doubtful cir-
cumstances, the wound should be well and deeply
burned with lunar caustic. Rabies being a scheduled
disease, its existence must be reported to the Local
Authority under the Contagious Diseases of Animals
Act.

TETANUS, OR LOCKED-JAW 1 3

TETANUS, OR LOCKED-JAW.

Symptoms. — To the human being, as well as to
the horse, this generally proves a fatal malady.
This disease does not manifest itself of a sudden ;
but generally steals over the system by slow or
insidious means. It first develops itself by the
animal appearing heavy and unwell for a day or
two ; he feeds sparingly, frequently half chewing
his food, and then drops it from his mouth. When
he drinks, the water is gulped, in place of the
ordinary mode of taking it. The action of the jaw
becomes extremely imperfect, and the saliva trickles
from the sides of his mouth. The mouth can at
length be but imperfectly opened ; and ultimately,
the whole voluntary muscles of the neck, head, and
upper portions of the body become immovably fixed.
The earliest and most reliable symptom of tetanus
is spasms of the retractor muscle of the eyeball, and
this is in evidence the instant the animal elevates
his head, the eye being drawn back and the haw
(Membrana Nictitans) shot forward and upwards.
In a short time nearly the whole muscles of the
body are spasmodically affected.

Causes. — This disease is due to the introduction
of a microbe (Bacillus Tetani) into the body of the
affected horse through a wound. It sometimes
comes on instantaneously, after the infliction of a
wound, or sometimes a considerable time afterwards.
Nicking and docking have frequently caused this
affection of the nervous system. The usual way
in which this disease comes on seldom leads to a
suspicion of what it is, as few who have not previ-
ously watched its progress can trace its character.

J 4 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Hence it has assumed its climax before persons are
aware of it.

Remedies. — If the cause of the disease has been
from docking, the operation should be repeated
higher up ; and if from nicking, by making a deeper
incision, — by these means the spasms have been in
some instances removed.

If tetanus follows on a prick of a nail or puncture
of the sole of the foot, the horn should be pared,
the wound opened up, and carbolic acid poured in.
As the Tetanus Bacillus is found in earth, the dust
of streets and manure, wounds of the feet, and
portions of the body on which the animal reclines,
should be carefully protected by carbolic liniment,
and tow and bandages, where these can be applied.

If the jaws are not fixed, administer an aloetic
ball, and follow this up by the immediate hypodermic
or subcutaneous injection of ** Tetanus Antitoxin,"
but this and the after-treatment should be under
the guidance of a veterinary surgeon.

In the treatment of this disease it is of the first
importance that the horse be placed in a loose box,
from which the light is excluded, and no one is
allowed to enter, except the attendant on the animal,
and he should be cautioned to make no noise or
disturb the horse in any way. A pail of cold water,
and one containing gruel (oatmeal and linseed) should
be fixed up so that the animal may be able to
drink without depressing his head. In some cases
it is advisable to place the horse in slings, for
should he fall down when asleep, he may be un-
able to rise.

EPILEPSY, OR FITS.
Symptoms. — Epileptic fits in horses are, as in the

PALSY 1 5

human being, very sudden, of which no premonition
is given. The horse suddenly stops, is seized with
considerable trembling, looks around him with a
vacant stare, and then suddenly falls. This is
followed with convulsive struggles of a greater or
lesser degree. The head and neck are considerably
contorted. The convulsions seldom last more than a
few minutes ; he ceases to struggle, and on the re-
covery of consciousness, he generally springs to his
feet. If in the stable, the horse will immediately
commence feeding.

It is exceedingly unsafe to use a horse so afflicted,
especially in riding. Indeed we would strongly re-
commend that after having one fit, he should never
be again used for the saddle, as if once attacked,
there is every probability of a return of the fits.

We shall not attempt to point out a remedy for
epilepsy, as hitherto nothing has been discovered to
prove a certain cure. Therefore, anything that may
be attempted must be by a regular veterinary surgeon.

PALSY.

This is usually occasioned by blows, falls, or racks
in pulling loads which are beyond the proper strength
of the animal. It is, for the most part, situate in the
hind-quarters. It is therefore evident that it proceeds
from spinal irritation or organic disease of the spinal
cord. It may affect the head and fore-limbs, and be
associated with disease of the brain or the growth of
tumours within the cranial cavity. Palsy is, for the
most part, met with in draught-horses. Horses so
afflicted seldom lie down either in the stable or field,
as they have invariably considerable difficulty in
getting up again. It seldom happens that this
complaint is removed. Blisters, nerve stimulants,

1 6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

and friction are the most probable means to be
applied.

GLANDERS.

Symptoms. — Of all the diseases Incidental to the
horse this is without doubt the most malignant, and
most to be dreaded In a steed. The instant that
there Is any appearance of it, the horse should be
immediately removed to a place by itself, as this
malady is exceedingly contagious ; and from want of
due caution, when even a suspicion is entertained,
the most disastrous consequences have been the
result.

This disease is due to the introduction of a para-
site, termed the " Bacillus Malleil," Into the body of
the horse, and is found In the discharge from the
nostrils and in the ''glanders nodules" In the lungs
of affected horses.

There are various diseases which in their early
symptoms have much the same appearance as
glanders, and therefore It is necessary to watch these
narrowly.

The very first visible symptom of glanders is a
discharge from one nostril, clearer and of a lighter
colour than In a common cold or catarrh, and more
glutinous In Its substance. If rubbed between the
finger and thumb, It has a sticky feel.

A singular character of glanders is, that it gener-
ally attacks one nostril only, and that is the left one ;
only a few cases having occurred where it commenced
in the right nostril. Mr Dupay, a celebrated
veterinary surgeon, and director of this school of
surgery at Toulouse, mentions, that out of ei^/i^
hundred cases of glanders, which occurred during his
practice, only one was affected in the right nostril.

GLANDERS IJ

Shortly after the discharge from the nostril takes
place, the horse is then affected in the glands of the
lower jaw, which swell to a considerable extent, and
ultimately atrophy and become attached to the bone.
Some considerable time after the discharge has made
its appearance, the gluey substance will be seen
accompanying the mucous discharge. It is this pus
mingling with the other gluey matter which, absorbed
by the circulating vessels and carried to the gland,
affects it. However, in common catarrh, the glands
are sometimes swelled. But in glanders the swelling
generally subsides considerably in a short time ; and
the glands are not in the centre of the channel, but
adhere firmly to the jaw.

At this stage of the disorder, the mucous mem-
brane of the nostril may become dark purple or of a
livid colour ; sometimes of a tone intermediate be-
tween these two shades. In some instances there is
inflammation of those parts, which varies from the
common appearance, being of a purple cast, instead
of the high red which usually accompanies inflamma-
tion. This is followed by the formation of small
circular nodules on the lining of the nostrils, and
these in a short time ulcerate and discharge pus.
When this has taken place, there can no longer exist
a doubt that the horse is glande^'ed. Care must be
taken not to mistake the lachrymal or tear-duct for an
ulcer. This duct opens by a small orifice or hole on
the continuation of the common skin of the muzzle,
which is situate a little way up the nostril ; while the
ulcerated tubercles are placed upon the mucous
membrane above the duct, and well marked by a
line of separation.

With the formation of ''glanders nodules" the
animal is certain to have become constitutionally

B

1 8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

affected. His coat will stare and fall off; he will
lose flesh, and his belly will be tucked up ; cough
will follow ; the appetite will be much affected, ac-
companied by a rapid diminution of strength ; the
nodules will multiply ; discharge will be much more
abundant, and will assume a purulent and bloody
appearance, accompanied with a very foetid smell.
The ulceration may extend down the windpipe, and
the lungs will be in a very short time studded with
glanders nodules. A test of the lungs having become
affected, the breathing will be difficult, and a stifled,
grating noise accompanies it, which is a certain pre-
lude to death.

A common catarrh has often been mistaken for
glanders ; but a little attention will soon enable any
one to perceive the distinction between those diseases.
Catarrh is invariably accompanied by fever, sore
throat, generally cough, loss of appetite, and a dis-
charge from both nostrils, and, in most cases, very
copious ; sometimes purulent ; the glands are gener-
ally swollen in both sides of the throat, are movable
and hot to the touch. The proper means being
adopted, all the symptoms are abated. Strangles
have also been mistaken for glanders. This disease
usually affects young horses only. At first they
resemble a common cold, with a severe cough and
wheezing, and accompanied with a considerable
thickening and swelling between the jawbones. The
swellings become harder towards the middle, and a
fluid can be felt in their centre, which ultimately
breaks, and a discharge flows from it. The mucous
membrane of the nostrils is of a vivid red colour ; and
an ample discharge continues, which is mixed with
pus from nearly the commencement.

Cause.— Hi-ventilated and not properly drained

GLANDERS 1 9

Stables, we fear, are too frequently predisposing
causes in the production of glanders. There the
ammonia from the urine fills the whole atmo-
sphere, and this being constantly inhaled, ultimately
produces a poisonous effect upon the lungs.

We find that glanders almost invariably breaks
out in ill-aired stables, and which are besides kept
too hot. We find that in the lofty, well-aired stables of
cfentlemen this disease is almost unknown, and when
it does show itself in such, it has in all probability
been introduced by some addition to his stud of one
or more horses previously affected. In such a case,
all the other animals in the stable may catch the
malady, as glanders is known to be highly contagious.
In many of the crowded, ill-aired stables of London
and other large cities, this disease is but too often an
inmate, and frequently great havoc is made among
the horses in consequence. Persons who are in the
daily habit of riding to town, should bespeak a stall
expressly for themselves in a livery-stable, because,
by introducing a diseased horse, the contagium may
be caught by their horses, in consequence of any
slight wound about the muzzle coming in contact with
the crib, on which the mucus of the glandered animal
has been left, and is thus carried into the circulation.
All public stables should have high divisions between
the stalls, to prevent the muzzles of horses from com-
ing in contact with each other, horses being very apt
to smell at one another in a stable, as it is by
this faculty alone they recognise their companions.
Glanders may be propagated in three ways : — (i)
By ingestion of food soiled with the glanders discharge
from the nose. (2) By drinking water containing
the discharge. (3) By inoculation of the virus into a
wound, e.g., a glandered horse biting his neighbour.

20 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

If doubt exists as to the animal being glandered, the
"mallein test" should be applied by the veterinary
attendant. Glanders is a scheduled disease, so that
the existence must also be reported to the Local
Authority, and the animal destroyed. Professor
Nocard of Paris entertains the opinion from experi-
ments which he has performed, that glanders in its
early stages is curable by injections of mallein.

From an ill-judged piece of economy, many
persons, after being aware of a horse being glandered,
persist in keeping it in the same stable with others.
Every hour is risking the health of all he possesses.
It is the duty of every person, so soon as he is certain
of his horse having caught this disease, to destroy it
as speedily as possible. For, although a glandered
horse may be able to work for a considerable length
of time under the influence of this disorder, he will
find ultimately that it is a bad piece of economy to
keep him under such circumstances.

Many persons who have lost their horses by this
disease have resorted to extremes to prevent a con-
tinuance of it. Some have even gone so far as to pull
down their stables, and others to remove their racks,
mangers, and partitions. It is quite sufficient if the
mangers and other parts which the discharge from the
nostrils have touched, is well washed with a scrubbing
brush, with a strong solution of soda and water, and
afterwards with chloride of lime, the proportion of
which should be a pint-and-a-half to a pailful of water.
The walls should be washed with lime and water,
containing a pint of crude carbolic acid to the pailful
of lime-wash, and all the halters, etc., destroyed, and
the iron work painted.

Caution. — All purchasers of horses at fairs, or
from dealers with whom they are not acquainted,

FARCY 2 I

should carefully examine horses as to their having
this disease : because they, by infamous trickery, too
frequently use means to deceive the purchaser. It is
well known that if a horse is galloped pretty sharply,
that the increased action in breathing will thoroughly
drive the mucous substance out of his nostril. And to
make it continue dry for a time, they force a pledget a
considerable way up the diseased nostril ; after having
blown powdered alum or white vitriol into it. But a
little attention will enable any one to perceive that the
animal is in pain, and will make ineffectual efforts to
sneeze.

FARCY.

Symptoms. — This is the same disease as glanders,
but confining its ravages to the skin and lymph
vessels ramifying in its structure. The first symp-
toms manifested are the appearance of small tumours,
popularly called farcy budsy or buttons, situate close
to some of the lymphatics and following their course,
connected by a sort of cord ; and hence they are
called corded veins by farriers. At first they are
generally very small, and consequently may not be
noticed for some weeks, until they have attained
their full size ; after which they usually increase more
rapidly, become hot, and cause considerable pain,
and at length ulceration ensues. They make their
appearance about the face, neck, and throat ; some-
times extending to the inside of the thigh, and pro-
duce lameness, and considerable swelling of the limb.

It sometimes happens that farcy is progressing
in the constitution long before the buds make their
appearance, or swelling along the course of the
absorbents takes place. In some instances, the buds
do not ulcerate, but assume a callous texture. At

2'2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

this period an apparent check to the disease takes
place, and the horse seems to be quite recovered.
This, however, is only a delusion ; and although no
symptoms of the complaint manifest themselves for
a number of months, it is working in secret, and all
at once breaks out in a most malignant form, and
probably in a few days he expires under its influence.

Sometimes a considerable swelling of the head
takes place, especially in the region of the muzzle,
and from which an extremely foetid mucous fluid is
discharged. Various portions of the body exhibit
mangy eruptions ; swellings in the limbs will follow,
the heels will become cracked, exhibiting all the
appearance of grease. The animal in most cases
will become emaciated and weak.

Farcy assumes many different appearances in its
various stages. It is no uncommon thing for one
of the hind legs to swell suddenly to a very large size,
frequently upwards of three times its natural dimen-
sions, accompanied by abrupt projections and de-
pressions, and which the poor animal will be unable
to move. This is generally accompanied by a con-
siderable degree of fever.

NASAL GLEET

Symptoms. — This is a constant discharge of a
thickish fluid from one or both the nostrils ; proceed-
ing from the mucous membrane, which lines the
internal cavity of the nose and sinuses of the head.

This disease is frequently brought on by the effects
of a long-continued discharge from catarrh or cold.
It is unattended with any feverish symptoms. The
flow of this thick mucous gleet is often very con-
siderable, and variable in colour. When the horse
is living upon green food, the discharge is of a

NASAL GLEET 23

bright grass-green colour ; but if his diet consists
of dry food, and he is kept in the stable, then it
assumes a very different hue ; varying from cream-
white to brown, or straw-colour, and mixed with pus
in some instances, and in others mingled with blood.
The discharge is sometimes continuous, and at others
it is only occasionally sneezed out. In the latter
case it is generally thick, and when so the disease
is on the wane. If, however, it is of long duration,
it sometimes assumes a serious aspect, and may
ultimately prove fatal to the horse.

Cure. — Give the following medicine twice a day : —

Sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol i drachm,

made into a ball with treacle and linseed meal.

Should this disease be attended with cough and
fever, then the following draught must be prepared :—

Linseed . . . . i pint,

Treacle ... .8 ounces,

Vinegar . . . . i pint.

The linseed must be soaked or decocted in hot water
for three or four hours, kept close to the fire, or on
the hob of a grate. Let it be poured off, and the
quantity of this tea which remains must be six pints.
Then add the other ingredients.

Give the horse half-a-pint from four to six times
during the twenty-four hours. The above tonic, con-
sisting of sulphate of copper, should be continued
along with the cough mixture. Should pus be found
mixed with the nasal discharge, and the smell be
disagreeable, then the following tonic medicine must
be given : —

Sulphate of copper . , i drachm,
Gentian .... 2 drachms.
Ginger .... 2 drachms,
Treacle .... J ounce ;

24 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

to be administered in a single dose, and repeated
daily for a week or fortnight unless the bowels become
costive.

POLYPUS.

This is the name given to a pedunculated tumour
which grows from the mucous membrane which lines
the nostrils, and although not painful, is attended
with disagreeable consequences by obstructing the
breathing, and often proves very annoying to the
animal. We need not treat more of its cure or other-
wise, as it can only be removed by an operation, which
requires the aid of a skilful veterinary surgeon.

LAMPAS.

Symptoms. — This is the name given by farriers to
a condition in which the bars on the upper palate
are found red and swollen, and on a line with the
cutting edges of the incision teeth. It is a condition
more or less seen in all horses when growing their
teeth.

Remedies. — In most instances the congestion and
swelling will subside without medical aid. Slight
purgatives and some mashes will facilitate its removal.
The animal may also be relieved by a few slight cuts
across the bars. This may be done with a penknife
or lancet, only the operator must keep clear of the
palatine artery ; the situation of which will be obvious
by a reference to Plate iii., fig. 2, e, e. It is a
common practice with farriers to burn the bars with
a red-hot iron, a mode of treatment which cannot
be too much deprecated.

STRANGLES.
Symptoms. — This is a disease incidental to young
horses, and few colts escape it. Occasionally it

STRANGLES 25

attacks old horses, In which event it is more difficult
to cure. The usual period at which this disease
shows itself is in the third and fourth years, although
it is by no means uncommon to attack foals. The
first symptom is cough, differing but little from that
of a common cold, only that there is a more abundant
discharge from the nostrils, which is of a yellowish
colour, and unaccompanied by a disagreeable odour :
it is also in most cases mixed with matter. There
is, besides, a profuse discharge of slimy, stringy fluid
from the mouth, the throat being sore. The mem-
brane which lines the nose is intensely red. It will
be found that considerable swelling has taken place
under the jaws and accompanied by fever, which is
distinguished by want of appetite, a quick pulse, and
a hot mouth, a general weakness of the whole frame,
producing a dejected appearance. To ascertain the
amount of fever (or increase of combustion going on
in the body), a graduated thermometer should be in-
serted in the rectum, and there allowed to remain for
four minutes. The average normal temperature is
101°, and all above this indicates the fever present, or
in other words, the disturbance of the heat function
and abnormal burning up of the tissues composing the
animal's body. A temperature above 104° is serious,
and above 107° generally fatal. There is- likewise a
quick motion of the flanks, and coldness in the ears
and limbs. The swelling is in the form of a tumour
between the jaws ; increasing with various degrees of
rapidity, occupying nearly the entire space, and gives
pain to the horse when eating ; he besides manifests
a great disinclination to feed. This is accompanied
by much thirst, but the swelling prevents him from
indulging in water, and having swallowed a mouthful
or two he desists. After which, and even after eating,

26 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

he is frequently seized with a spasmodic cough, with
suffocating symptoms.

Causp:. — Strangles is an eruptive febrile disease
dependent on a specific germ or microbe, and can be
transmitted by cohabitation, so that if the dam has
the disease she generally conveys it to her foal, and in
this way all the foals and young horses running to-
gether at grass may become infected. It appears to
be in some degree analogous to measles in the human
being ; and having passed through it, the constitution
of the animal seems to have undergone purification
and improvement. In some instances it has affected
the animal in so mild a form, that it has passed
through its various stages and gone off without much
inconvenience to it, or any remedial means whatever
having been employed. Every horse has this com-
plaint once during his life, and once only.

Remedies. — As the virus or blood-poison elimin-
ates itself by the formation of an abscess in the lymph
glands betwixt the jaws, or in the lymph glands in the
parotid region, the first thing to be attended to is
to bring the tumour to a suppuration. A sharp
mustard blister is the first thing to be applied. This,
administered in time, will facilitate the discharge a
week or two earlier than it would have taken place,
if allowed to come to a period naturally. The old
practice of applying poultices and fomentations first
were very ineffectual appliances, from the great thick-
ness of the skin of the horse, but after one or two
applications of the mustard, they materially assist in
softening the inflammatory exudates and bringing the
abscess to a point. The abscess from absorption and
thinning of its walls and the tissues about it frequently
bursts of its own accord ; but if it should not, it must
be laid open with a lancet. It will be found that

CANKER AND WOUNDS IN THE MOUTH 27

where abscesses break spontaneously, the lips of the
wound, from having uneven edges, will be more diffi-
cult to heal.

If there is much fever, with difficult breathing,
febrifuge medicine should be prescribed : —

Nitric ether . . . i ounce,
Liq. amnion, acetate . 4 ounces,
Water . . . . i pint.

The above fever drink may be given morning and
evening until the temperature becomes normal. If
there is no fever, the animal will soon manifest a desire
to eat. His food should principally be oatmeal gruel
and bran-mashes, with a supply of green meat, con-
sisting of cut grass, or tares.

If the complaint is followed by weakness, it will be
necessary to have recourse to the following tonic
medicine, which should be repeated daily until the
horse recovers strength : —

Ginger ... 2 drachms,
Sulphate of iron . . 2 drachms.
Gentian ... 2 drachms.

In bad cases of strangles the parotid gland may
swell to a great size and become hard and indurated,
and remain in this condition for a length of time. In
all such cases an abscess deep in the structure of the
glands forms. In such a case, it will require the aid
of a regular veterinary surgeon, as an operation must
be had recourse to, which no one but a regular and
experienced practitioner will be able to perform.

CANKER AND WOUNDS IN THE MOUTH.

It is but a too common occurrence, that the sides
of the mouth and other parts are wounded by the bit,
which may be either too acute in its edges or may not

28 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

fit. Frequently deep wounds are in consequence in-
flicted in the sides and inner parts, more especially
between the grinders and the tushes, on which the bit
rests. It is no uncommon occurrence for the entire
flesh to be removed from between the tushes and
grinders, and instances frequently occur of the bone
likewise being so injured that portions of it have to
be removed. It may be well conceived the very great
pain this must occasion to the poor animal. Those
who have had even a very slight inflammation of the
gums will readily have an idea of its sufferings.

Every man of feeling will make it his first study
to see that the bit fits the mouth of his horse properly,
and that it in no way can injure either the sides of the
mouth or palate. Even his own comfort ought to
dictate this ; for no horse can perform his work
pleasantly while he is suffering from an irritation in
the mouth.

When the owner of a horse finds that the bone of
the jaw is injured, he should immediately apply to a
veterinary surgeon ; but wounds and ulcers may be
cured without the aid of a practitioner. The most
simple remedies are tincture of myrrh, diluted in an
equal proportion of water. The parts should be
frequently washed with this ; or, dissolve an ounce
of alum in a quart of water, and use it as a wash.
If the wound has become a settled ulcer, and looks
foul in the edges, then it should be touched with lunar
caustic, or with the liquid nitrate of silver, which will
stimulate it and cause it to heal. At the same time
the above wash should be applied to the parts.

DISEASES GF THE TONGUE 29

DISEASES OF THE TONGUE.

TONGUE BLADDERS.

Symptoms. — A careful groom will occasionally ex-
amine the interior of the mouth of horses under his
charge. If he notices any swelling of the tongue, he
must ascertain from whence it proceeds ; or his at-
tention may be directed to this organ by a discharge
of ropy saliva from the sides of the mouth. This
will be found to have its origin in inflammation, caused
by one large or many small bladder-like swellings on
the under sides of the tongue, frequently extending
its whole length.

Remedy. — If these bladders are fully charged with
matter, they should be opened with a lancet, which
generally puts an end to the complaint, and the
swelling will quickly subside. Should any degree of
fever remain, an alterative powder should be given
daily in mash, composed as follows : —

Sulphur pulv. ... 3 drachms,
Nitrate of potash ... 4 drachms,
Rhubarb pulv. ... 2 drachms.

BITTEN TONGUE.

It often happens that horses bite their tongues.
If the wound be slight, it will heal of its own accord ;
but when of large extent, veterinary aid must be called
in, as it would be unsafe for a person not thoroughly
acquainted with pathology to attempt a cure.

VIVES, OR SWELLINGS IN THE SUBMAXILLARY GLANDS.

During catarrh it is no uncommon occurrence for
these glands to become enlarged, and also after
strangles. In such cases, stimulating embrocations
may be used, which generally relieve them ; or they

30 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

may, in most instances, subside, after the cause which
has induced the enlargement has ceased. We would
on no account allow operations to be performed for
their removal.

These swellings are readily distinguished from
those which accompany glanders, by their being, for
the most part, larger, less distinct, and occupying the
centre of the space between the jaws, and in never
adhering to the jawbones, as in glanders.

BARBS, OR PAPS.

In inflammation of the mouth, produced by catarrh
or any other cause, the ducts situated on both sides of
the fraenum, or bridle of the tongue, sometimes en-
large, and a redness is to be perceived under it. No
operation is necessary in this disease ; the only thing
to be attended to is the removal of that which causes
them. Unskilful and bigoted farriers often operate
for the paps, but in this event the cure is worse than
the disease, as abscesses are likely to follow operations,
which years may not eradicate.

GIGS.

The sublingual glands are liable to inflammation
during colds. They are situate under the tongue, or
on its lower surface. They assume the appearance of
small pimples when inflamed. If they ulcerate they
should be washed with a solution of alum, or tincture
of myrrh, which will always be found to heal them.
Operations seldom fail to prove injurious.

DISEASES OF THE TEETH.

Caries and other diseases of the teeth in horses
are common. From the constant use of the grinders,
in chewing grain and straw, they are often worn down,

DISEASES OF THE TEETH 3I

and their edges occasionaliy present a sharp and rough
appearance. This cuts the inside of the cheeks. To
prevent this they should be filed down.

If from the above cause the cheek has been cut,
and an ulcer produced, it must be frequently and
carefully washed, either with a solution of myrrh, or
alum and water ; and if it prove obstinate, nitrate of
silver must be had recourse to.

Sometimes the teeth grow irregularly in length,
more especially the grinders. This proceeds generally
from these teeth not being placed immediately opposite
to each other. Instances are not wanting where such
teeth have grown three-quarters of an inch, or some-
times more, above the general level of the grinders or
molar teeth ; and this pressing against the bars of the
mouth irritates them, and generally ends in ulceration.
The only remedy for this is to file or sheer off with an
instrument the projecting tooth down to a level with
the others. Unless the ulcer is very deep and spongy,
it will heal of its own accord ; but should it prove
otherwise, its edges must be touched with lunar caustic
or nitrate of silver, after it has been well washed out
with a solution of alum and water. It often happens,
from want of attention on the part of the groom in
this case, that the horse cannot take his food, and will
in consequence pine away, lose flesh, and become
quite dispirited.

Teeth that have thus grown will always have a
tendency to shoot out again, and must therefore be
watched to prevent a recurrence of ulcers.

In all diseases of the mouth horses will half-chew
their food and then drop it, which is familiarly termed
'•quidding their food."

3^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

DISEASES OF THE LIPS.

Few persons are aware of the very great importance
of the lips of horses. They may justly be considered
as the hands of that animal. Without their aid he
could neither collect his food in the fields, nor even
convey corn down his throat. To prove this, I shall
give an account of an experiment which was tried with
an ass, to ascertain the extent of the use of these
important organs. The nerves which give feeling and
sensation to the lips were divided, and instantly it was
perceived that he was not aware when he touched food
with them. They were entirely divested of motion,
and he was in consequence unable to convey the oats,
with which his manger was full, to his teeth. Com-
pelled by hunger, he made a violent effort to lick up a
few with his tongue, but they were nearly all rubbed
off before they could be conveyed to his mouth.

The angles of the mouth are frequently lacerated,
and become sore by the smallness of the bit, and from
the unmerciful dragging of a heavy hand in either
riding or driving him, and also from the shortness of
the snaffle. The severe excoriation of those parts
produces deep ulcers, which cannot be removed while
the animal is worked. Washing with a solution of
alum is one of the best curatives ; and if the sore is
callous, it must be burned slightly on the edges with
nitrate of silver.

DISEASES OF THE EYE.
In the horse the diseases of the eye are not
numerous ; but they are of frequent occurrence, and
often most difficult to cure.

COMMON INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE.

Symptoms. — This malady generally makes its ap-

DISEASES OF THE EYE ^3

pearance unexpectedly, accompanied by considerable
swelling of the eyelids, which has the effect of partially
closing- them, and causes a discharge of watery matter,
or tears. The lid exhibits inflammation, and some of
the vessels of the eyeball are gorged with blood.
There will also be a dimness in the cornea.

Cause. — This usually accompanies a catarrh. But
it may also be caused by substances getting under the
eyelid, such as a seed of hay ; or from a blow. When
inflammation occurs, the eye should be carefully ex-
amined, so that the cause may be discovered. This
seldom affects the health of the horse, or prevents his
feeding.

Remedies. — The eye should be bathed with the
following lotion : —

Sugar of lead i drachm,

Rose-water 6 ounces.

If this does not speedily abate the inflammation, then
use the following : —

Tincture of opium, or laudanum, J ounce,

Water i pint.

Or the following will prove equally efficacious : —

Powdered leaves of digitalis . . i ounce,
Boiling water . . . . i quart.

His food should consist of mashes, with' mild doses of
physic. Three or four days should remove the
disease.

OPHTHALMIA.

Symptoms. — This is manifested by great inflam-
mation in the eyelids, as also the cornea and aqueous
humour and iris, all of which assume a dim appear-
ance, and lose their transparency. The animal can

34 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

hardly open its eyelids from the pain produced by
exposing the eye to the action of light. This disease
is extremely difficult to combat ; and after a month's
constant treatment the eye will exhibit an alternation
of remission and increase of the inflammation day after
day. One day it will have all the appearance of being
nearly well, and on the next exhibit more unfavourable
symptoms than it has before assumed : the gorged
appearance of the inner membrane of the eyelid will
be much abated, and the inflammation on the white
of the eyeball will have nearly quitted it ; the hazy
aspect of the cornea have assumed a certain degree of
clearness, and to all appearance the malady has taken
its departure.

It seldom happens, however, that it is so, for in
six weeks or two months we too frequently find the
eye again affected with all its former redness, often
worse than on the former attack ; or oftentimes both
eyes affected. Indeed, from time to time a succession
of these abatements and attacks will have succeeded
one another, until a cloudy appearance and permanent
opacity of the lens or capsule of the eye have taken
place ; and confirmed blindness in one or both eyes
is the final result.

Cause. — The constant heated air of the stable
may be considered the remote cause of this inveterate
disease, to which all horses seem to be predisposed.
The poisoned air is also a powerful agent in the
propagation of ophthalmia. To these may be added
the too frequent use of stables which are totally dark,
so that when the animal is suddenly brought to the
light, the abrupt transition produces congestion of
blood in the vessels of the eyes. In some cases it is
an hereditary affection, and animals with specific
ophthalmia should not be bred from.

DISEASES OF THE EYE 35

Remedies. — When this disease first makes its
appearance, the affected eye should have placed over
it a thin sponge saturated with belladonna lotion.
The horse should then be put upon a low diet, and
gentle purgatives administered.

When the pain and inflammation have subsided,
if opacity of the lens has taken place (cataract), we
are not aware of any means of removing it and
restoring vision, except by an operation, as in the
human subject, and for obvious reasons it could not
be a practical success.

- the haw.

It is no unusual thing for a thickening of this
part to take place, and it will then protrude itself on
the fore part of the eyeball. In this disease the
retractor muscle pulls back the eye to protect it from
the irritating effect of the light, and this thickening
of the haw pushing it forward, and the adjacent
parts being also thickened, no retraction can take
place.

The practice of cutting out this is exceedingly
absurd, and ought never to be resorted to. It is
intended for protecting the eye against dust or
insects. In former times few farriers understood the
use of the haw ; and even yet it is surprising how
few are aware of its value to a horse. In cases of
inflammation of the eye, it sometimes itself becomes
inflamed and increased in dimensions, and the con-
tiguous parts likewise thickened. This either forces
it out of its place, or it is voluntarily produced to
protect the eye from the action of light. In some
cases it does not return into its place, and has been
mistaken for a tumour or extraneous excrescence, and
has been cut out by ignorant persons, and the eye

3$ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

consequently left unguarded. Unless in those cases
where there is a tumour growing in connection with
the haw (Membrana Nictitans), it should not be
interfered with, and where there is a growth requir-
ing removal, the veterinary surgeon is the person to
perform the operation.

ERUPTION ON THE EYELIDS.

Symptoms. — The edges of the eyelids are occa-
sionally affected with scale-like eruptions. This is
always attended with great itching, which causes the
horse to rub his eyelid against any projecting part
within his reach, in the performance of which it often
happens that the animal injures the eye itself

Remedies. — The edges of the eyelids should be
annointed with the following : —

Nitrated ointment of mercury . . -J ounce,
Hogs' lard J ounce.

A few applications will generally produce the desired
effect.

WARTS.

The eyelids are sometimes affected with warts,
which are very irritating to the animal in conse-
quence of his rubbing them on some prominent
part : this causes them to bleed, and increases their
number.

They should be cut off with a pair of sharp
scissors, and the roots touched with nitrate of silver,
lunar-caustic, or blue vitriol ; but great care must be
exercised in not making the cut through the skin large,
or eversion or inversion of the eyelid may result.

GUTTA SERENA.

Symptoms. — This exhibits itself by an extraor-

DISEASES OF THE EYE 37

dinary dilation of the pupil, which becomes immov-
able, and the eye has a bright glassy appearance.
This is caused by a paralysis of the optic nerve,
or its retinal expansion.

Cures in this disease are very few in the horse.
Indeed, we doubt if ever the cure of a confirmed case
of gutta serena, or glass eye, has been effected.

GENERAL BLINDNESS AND IMPERFECT VISION.

No subject is of greater importance than the state
of a horse's organs of vision, and ought to occupy
the first attention of a purchaser ; for blindness, or
a partial defect in the eyes, may lead to many un-
pleasant consequences to the proprietor, whether in
riding or driving. It will require considerable know-
ledge of the anatomical construction of the eye to
enable any one to judge correctly of its perfection
or defects.

Independently of the beauty of a prominent eye,
it is of much importance that the cornea should
possess considerable convexity ; but this must have
a limit. If very prominent, the rays of light will
be too convergent, which will cause indistinct vision ;
on the other hand, if the cornea be small and flat,
the rays may not be sufficiently convergent, and
consequently will render the vision imperfect. A
horse is unsafe with either of these defects, both in
riding and driving, as he is certain to start at
objects which suddenly present themselves, or he
may quickly bolt round, and in either case may
over-balance the rider, or upset a vehicle.

The cornea should, therefore, be moderately
convex, perfectly transparent, and totally free from
all opacity or cloudiness over its entire surface. The
best method of examining this organ is to place the

38 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

cheek of the scrutiniser close to the cheek of the
horse, both behind and under the eye, and the latter
position is the most advantageous to see it thoroughly.
The open air is not favourable for such an examina-
tion. The head of the horse should be a little within
the doorway of a stable, and by looking outwards
any defect is rendered more visible. If any faint
whitish, milky-like streaks be noticed passing over
the cornea, it is certain the animal has had inflam-
mation in that portion of the eye. But, should the
centre part of the cornea be perfectly transparent,
and yet the margin of it, where it unites with the
sclerotica, have a hazy ring, it may be concluded
that this has been occasioned by recent inflammation,
and consequently the eye will be predisposed to a
return of it.

During the operation of thus inspecting the eye,
no white or pale-coloured object should be near, as its
form and great transparency are very likely to reflect
these rays, and may deceive the person examining
the organ.

Attention to the dilation and contraction of the
pupil will materially aid a person in the detection of
blindness or otherwise. When the cornea and crystal-
line lens are quite transparent, with the retina para-
lysed, and of course not liable to be affected by light,
blindness in one or both eyes will be extremely
difficult of detection. It generally happens, when a
horse is totally blind, he has a constant and rapid
motion in his ears. He also lifts his feet high, as if
some obstacle presented itself, and he puts his feet
to the ground with a cautious uncertainty. Particular
attention should be directed to the pupils of both
eyes, and to noticing whether they are both of a size
while he is in the stable ; and as he approaches the

FRACTURE OF THE SKULL 39

door, observe whether both pupils contract equally as
they are subjected to the stronger light. If, how-
ever, the horse is examined in the open air and dis-
tant from a stable, place the hand over one eye, and
then observe, after it has obscured it from the light
for a little while, whether the pupil contracts. Repeat
the same experiment with the other eye also.

FRACTURE OF THE SKULL.

The admirable construction of the skull of a horse,
as will be seen in our anatomical description, renders
a fracture a thing of rare occurrence. And such is
the force required to produce such an effect, that it
almost invariably proves fatal by injuring the brain.
Horses that rear, and in that act fall, sometimes
fracture their skull, and in some instances blows in-
flicted by their grooms with a heavy weapon may
have the effect of fracturing the skull. There is little
hope of a cure, except with the assistance of a regular
veterinary surgeon. But in case one is not to be
had immediately, the parts of the bones should be
replaced and held together by the aid of adhesive
plaster. Bleeding and low feeding must be resorted
to, together with small doses of medicine.

CHAPTER II.
Diseases of the Neck and Contiguous Parts.

POLL-EVIL.

Symptoms. — This disease consists of an inflam-
mation of the muscle over the poll-bone and the first
vertebra of the neck. It generally extends under the
ligament of the neck which passes over the atlas-bone.
This ligament is not attached to the bone, and the
disease is consequently seated between it and the bone
itself. It is being thus deeply seated which frequently
renders it so difficult to cure. Before the swelling be-
comes very conspicuous, the part is very hot, and
painful when touched, which can easily be noticed
from the motion of the horse.

Cause. — The poll-evil is too frequently occasioned
by a severe blow on the poll of the neck, given by ill-
tempered and unmerciful riders or grooms ; at other
times it is brought on by the horse striking his head
against the manger, or by the ligaments being too much
stretched by severely tight reining. But, from what-
ever cause the malady proceeds, it frequently becomes
exceedingly troublesome and tedious to cure.

Remedies. — Before suppuration takes place, every
means should be adopted to suppress the inflammation,
and, if possible, to disperse the swelling. Medicines of
a laxative kind should be administered, and bleeding-
resorted to, and also cold lotions applied. This treat-
ment will often have the effect of reducing the tumour.

POLL- EVIL 41

But if it is found that the swelling continues in spite of
these, other means must be resorted to, and applications
to facilitate the ripening of the abscess must be adopted.
This will be best effected by poultices, warm fomenta-
tions, and stimulating embrocations. The progress
of the disease must be narrowly watched, and when
sufficiently advanced, which will be known by the
softness of the swelling, it must be opened with a
lancet, and afterwards kept open by means of a
seton. The needle, with the cord attached to it, must
penetrate the apex of the abscess, and be forced out
a little way below the bottom, so that no matter can
possibly collect in and lodge there. Gentle pressure
should be used to squeeze the whole of the matter
out. After this nothing more will be required except
to keep it clean and occasionally fomented with warm
water, and carbolic acid or Jey's fluid. If taken at an
early stage of the disease, what we have recommended
will generally effect a cure.

On the other hand, should the pus burrow deep
and affect the ligaments of the vertebrae of the neck,
the edges of the wound must be stimulated by
nitrate of silver or caustic, to induce a healthy action
into the muscular fibre, and excite it to granulate.
When the interior of the abscess has assumed a callous
appearance, it may be necessary to syringe it out
with a very weak solution of nitrate of silver mixed
with rose-water. Should this not have the effect of
inducing a healthy condition, then it will be necessary
to have the services of a regular veterinary surgeon.

The cord used as a seton should be wet with the
following mixture : —

Corrosive sublimate ... J drachm,
Spirit of wine . . 2 ounces.

The cord should be cut off and united at both ends

42 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

by wrapping a thread round it, and pulled round once
daily during the twenty-four hours, taking care to
wipe the part which has been in the abscess, and also
to wet the portion which is to remain in it for a time,
with the above solution.

When all the swelling has subsided, and the matter
assumes a thick white appearance, the seton may be
removed, and the wound kept clean with an antiseptic
lotion.

ROARING.

Symptoms. — This is a disease arising from an
affection of the larynx and superior portion of the
windpipe. When a horse so affected has been hard
trotted or galloped, he may be heard at some distance
to utter a whistling or roaring sound. Or when he is
standing, if touched suddenly in the flank with a whip
or stick, he will involuntarily grunt or groan. Dealers
are frequently in the habit of practising this test ; be-
cause, if a horse is moderately exercised or at rest,
this complaint never manifests itself.

Cause. — It is due to disease of the inferior laryngeal
nerve, which leads to atrophy and fatty degeneration
of the muscles which dilate the larynx, and as a con-
sequence the mouth of the windpipe is narrowed and
altered in its shape. After strangles this disease
frequently follows. Tight reining is believed by some
to be a cause of this evil, but cart-horses are more
frequent roarers than any other, and they neither wear
a "bearing rein," nor are driven with a tight rein.
The practice of what is termed cott^hing a horse, to
ascertain the state of his wind, is apt to produce
roaring. This is performed by subjecting the larynx
or trachea to violent pressure by squeezing with the
fingers. A horse so afflicted is decidedly unsound.

OBSTRUCTION OF THE GULLET 43

Remedies. — In the early stage of the disease the
application of a fly-blister over the larynx is to be
recommended, and the administration of a sedative
electuary, composed of belladonna, gum-camphor and
treacle. When the disease has been of such a character
as to threaten suffocation, the operation termed
tracheotomy must be performed ; but this is an
operation that can only be successfully performed
by a veterinary surgeon.

OBSTRUCTION OF THE GULLET.

Symptoms. — In this malady the gullet has become
contracted, which compels the horse to swallow its
food in small quantities, and that with much difficulty,
giving the animal the appearance of choking when in
the act of swallowing. Sometimes the stricture is
near the upper portion of the gullet : in which case an
experienced veterinary surgeon may devise some
remedy ; but if seated near the entrance into the
stomach, no hopes can be entertained of a cure.

Horses eating too greedily sometimes swallow
their food in too large masses, and before it is
properly masticated, which has in many instances
lodged in the gullet, producing alarming symptoms of
suffocation.

Remedies. — The first thing to be tried is to force
the ball of food which obstructs the passage down-
wards, by the aid of the elastic tube (probang) used
for hove in cattle. Sometimes it cannot be dislodged
even by means of this instrument. In that case the
only other remedy is to cut open the gullet to prevent
sufibcation. But this operation need not be described,
as it can only be successfully performed by a veter-
inary surgeon.

44 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

INFLAMMATION OF THE JUGULAR VEIN.

In the horse the jugulars are single on both sides
of the neck, while in horned cattle they are double.
Inflammation is sometimes induced in them after the
operation of bleeding, directions for which we shall
give hereafter.

After bleeding has been performed, the practice is
to bring the cut edges of the vein together, and to
keep them in contact by inserting a pin through the
skin above it, and twisting tow pretty tightly round it,
so as to keep it from being removed. In three or four
days the wound will have completely healed in most
cases.

Causes. — A variety of causes may, however,
operate to induce inflammation of the vein. Among
these may be enumerated, striking too hard on the
lancet with the fleam (an instrument used in bleeding),
or using a blunt or rusty lancet. In other cases, by
pulling the skin too far from the neck while drawing
the wound together, and thus allowing space for the
blood to insinuate itself into the cellular tissue ; or
working the horse immediately after the operation ;
or neglecting to tie up his head for a short while after
bleeding, to prevent his removing the pressure of the
pin from the wound by rubbing his head against the
manger ; and other causes.

Symptoms. — Swelling and separation of the cut
edges of the wound ; coagulation of blood within the
channel of the vein ; inflammation and thickening of
the wall of the vessel, so that it feels like a cord under
the finger. The obliteration of the jugular may ex-
tend from the point of operation to the base of the
brain. This is generally followed by a series of small

INFLAMMATION OF THE JUGULAR VEIN 45

abscesses forming along the course of the inflamed
vein.

Remedies. — Some veterinary surgeons, to stimulate
the part, apply a hot iron to the margin of the orifice,
which induces a union of its edges. Should this not
prove effectual, and if the swelling is great and
abscesses have made their appearance, the next
remedies are to inject a weak solution of nitrate of
silver or other caustic liquid into the abscesses, or to
introduce setons into them.

CHAPTER HI.
Diseases of the Chest and its Contents.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

Symptoms. — Of all the diseases incidental to the
horse, that of inflammation of the lungs is the most
prevalent, and certainly the most fatal. Sometimes
this malady is sudden in its appearance, but in the
greater number of cases dullness and fever are pre-
monitory symptoms. In its early stages -the pulse
IS not very rapid, but indistinct and heavy in its action,
sometimes feeling vibratory under the pressure of the
finger. In other instances it is hardly to be perceived,
so languid is its motion. This is followed by dilated
nostrils, coldness in the extremities, and heaving at
the flanks, which clearly indicate an oppression in the
breathing ; differing, however, from the laboured and
irregular breathing in broken- winded horses, which
appears as If it required two expirations for every in-
spiration of air into the lungs. The animal thrusts
out his head, the mucous membrane of the nose
becomes very red, especially in the inside angles of the
nostrils, where It continues ; although at times it
extends further up, from which position it may disap-
pear, but still maintaining Its chief seat In the lower
portion of the nostrils. The animal expresses great
anxiety in his look, and turns his head frequently and
hurriedly round towards his flanks, more especially to

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS 47

that side where the inflammation has settled. He
stands in a straddling manner, with his fore legs
generally considerably apart. He seldom lies down,
and when he does so it is but for a few minutes,
remaining for days on his legs.

It does not, however, always happen that the
premonitory symptoms are the same, for in many
cases inflammation comes on slowly and in an in-
sidious manner. Perhaps the horse may be off his
feed and his coat will stare ; his breathing may be
but slightly accelerated and abbreviated, with the legs
a little colder than usual. Sometimes inflammation of
the lungs is preceded by symptoms which are at-
tendant upon common fever, catarrh, or influenza. In
such instances the true disease manifests itself in its
full force when the groom or master of the horse least
suspects it. The first manifestations are coldness in
the limbs and ears, accompanied by the flurried pulsa-
tion and anxious look, with a seeming dread of lying
down. This is soon followed by an irregularity and
indistinctness in the pulse, and extreme coldness affects
the legs and ears. The nostrils become livid — he
hardly seems to breathe — he grinds his teeth — and
these may be regarded as the too certain symptoms of
dissolution ; staggering ensues, and he finally sinks in
his stall.

This last is a picture of that kind of inflammation
of the lungs which has lurked in the constitution with-
out exhibiting premonitory symptoms, and which in
most cases proves fatal. There are, besides, cases in
which the disease is so rapid that it will have under-
gone its entire stages in twenty-four hours. In this
short time the entire mass of the lungs will have suf-
fered complete destruction from engorgement with blood.
Such a case has been satisfactorily proved not to

48 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

proceed from long and deep-rooted inflammation, but
assuredly from the very reverse.

There are bad cases, which are not so rapid in
their termination, but which are nevertheless equally
fatal. This happens when the lungs have become
consolidated and the inflammatory products have
formed pus. In such a case the breath of the horse
will be extremely disagreeable, with a running at the
nostrils, which is a sure indication that mortification
has taken place in the substance of the lungs, and that
death will soon follow.

Inflammation of the lungs may be distinguished
from inflammation of the bowels, by the pulse in the
latter case being small and wiry ; the mucous mem-
brane of the nose not being so red, and by pains in the
belly, which are indicated by kicking, pulling, stamp-
ing, and lying down.

Cause. — This malady may be brought on by the
numerous and sudden transitions from heat to cold, to
which most horses are subjected. They are, under
the careless and wanton folly of masters and grooms,
often galloped, or otherwise worked and overheated,
and then permitted to cool in the open air, or in the
draught of a stable. The stable itself is also kept too
hot, frequently from twenty-five to thirty degrees
beyond that of the atmosphere ; and its air is but too
often of an impure kind, and which being breathed
affects the membrane which lines the cells of the lungs.
This is weakened, and hence rendered susceptible of
irritation and inflammation from breathing an atmo-
sphere which is impregnated with ammoniacal gas,
generated by the manure and urine.

Remedies. — The treatment for inflammation of the
lungs must be immediate and decisive. As the disease
is rapid, so also must be the means employed.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS 49

Although its first symptoms may exhibit a mild char-
acter, yet we have seen how rapid they become in
their after-effects. To palliate it therefore would be
absurd. In a previously healthy animal bleeding may
be resorted to. During the flow of the blood the
pulse should be felt all the while to mark its progress,
and the slightest change in its character should be
accepted as indicating that no more blood should be
withdrawn. If the horse be costive, which is fre-
quently the case in inflammation of the lungs, from
four to six ounces of Epsom salts, mixed with a gruel,
will be found useful, and we must next have recourse
to blistering the chest with mustard.

Febrifuge medicines must now be resorted to, and
the following doses may be given : —

Nitre 3 drachms,

Emetic tartar . . . , ij drachm,
Digitalis i drachm.

This medicine is to be given daily in a ball until the
fever has subsided, as indicated by the thermometer
standing at ioi°.

It is a great mistake to suppose that in this com-
plaint the stable should be kept close and warm ; for
the very cause which in a great measure operated in
remotely inducing the disorder is again brought into
play. Rather let warm clothing be put upon the
horse, which will have a tendency to keep up in-
sensible perspiration.

After this the horse should be well rubbed down,
and his legs in particular should have a smart applica-
tion of the brush, in order to restore heat and an
increase in the circulation, and then thickly rolled up
with flannel to keep up the action. The rubbing
should be repeated from time to time. The less he

D

^p MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

eats at a time the better. Corn must on no account
be given. Green food and mashes may be set before
him in small quantities, and as much drinking water
allowed at all times as the horse desires.

If the oppression in the breathing now subside,
heat be restored to the limbs, and the animal lie down,
these are sure indications of the disease having abated.
The strength and appetite will now gradually be
restored. But much caution should be exercised in
not allowing the animal to take too much food, which
might have the effect of inducing a return of the
malady : green meat, or, if that cannot be had, a gruel
of linseed and oatmeal, mashes, and a little hay should
form his diet. But to restore strength where much
exhaustion prevails, tonics should be given.

Iron sulphate .... 2 drachms,

Ginger 2 drachms,

Gentian 2 grains.

Should the animal continue to improve, his diet may
be extended, and probably in three or four days he
may have a small quantity of corn, which may be
increased as his strength is restored.

A cool and clean stable are the best means for
preventing predisposition to diseases of the lungs, both
of which should be scrupulously attended to. The
heated air of a stable, and the poisonous gas arising
from the dung, prove most injurious to the horse.

PLEURISY.

Symptoms. — This disease is entirely confined to
inflammation of the pleura or membrane which en-
velops the lungs and lines the chest. The pulse is
hard, but not oppressed. The extremities are cold,
although not so much so as in ordinary inflamma-
tion, nor is the membrane of the nose so very red.

PLEURISY 51

If pressure on the sides is applied, the horse will feel
pain, and express it by a quick and impatient grunt.
The unwillingness of the horse to lie down will be
manifested in this as well as in violent inflammation
of the lungs.

Cause. — This disease has its origin from the same
causes as inflammation of the lungs, viz., sudden
transitions from heat to cold, etc.

Remedies. — Much the same treatment is required
for pleurisy as for pneumonia. The two diseases are
frequently conjoined, and a veterinary surgeon can
alone decide this point.

If pleurisy is acute, it frequently induces dropsy
in the chest, as in this complaint a fluid is thrown out
from the vessels of the pleura, which, having no
means of escaping, and being too large in quantity
to be absorbed, lodges in the cavity of the chest.
When this is the case little good is to be expected
from the animal, and it seldom happens that a com-
plete cure is effected. Sometimes the chest is punc-
tured for it, which may carry off the fluid ; but it
too frequently proves an ineffectual remedy. When-
ever it is suspected that water is formed to any great
extent, puncturing should be had recourse to, the
opening to be made by the instrument called
the trochar. The locality where it is inserted is the
intercostal membrane, between the seventh and
eighth ribs, and as close to the cartilages as possible.
Diuretic medicines, in combination with tonics, should
be given. The following will be found the best : —

Nitrate of potash . . . | ounce,

Ginger \ drachm,

Linseed meal .... J ounce ;

made into a ball with common syrup or treacle.

52 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

FEVER.

Symptoms. — Fever commences with a cold and
shivering fit ; the animal manifests great dullness,
with a desire to be inactive ; his hair stands erect,
or stares, and his legs and feet are cold ; the pulse
is quick, hard, and unequal, the temperature abnor-
mal, ranging from 102° to I07^ or higher; his mouth
is hot, with a total loss of appetite, shivering, and a
dejected appearance. This is followed by general
warmth of the body ; an unequal distribution of heat
to the limbs, sometimes one being hot while the other
is cold. He becomes very costive, with turbid urine ;
affected sometimes with colic pains ; but there is no
cough, pawing, or looking back at the loins. If these
symptoms are allowed to proceed unchecked, the
membrane that lines the eyelid becomes unnaturally
red ; the inflammation may then be considered as
settled in some internal organ, and pure or sympto-
matic fever will have ensued. While this pure fever
continues, the shivering fit returns daily, at nearly
the same hour, and is followed by a warm one, and
sometimes by a cold clammy sweat. This state con-
tinues for several days, and local inflammation ensues ;
or the fever gradually becomes abated.

Some veterinary surgeons have absurdly denied
the possibility of fever in the horse ; but those who
have advanced such an opinion must have paid but
little attention to the state of his pulse, and have
never used a thermometer.

Causes. — General increased action in the heart
and arteries is the cause of fever, produced by the
sympathy of the system, induced by local inflamma-
tion ; or it may exist without any perceptible local
affection. It is too frequently induced by bad stable

STOMACH-STAGGERS 53

management, the sudden changes from heat to cold,
and the lungs having breathed impure air from the
filth and confined atmosphere of the stable. Inflam-
mation of the lungs, feet, or any other part of the
body is always accompanied by fever.

Remedies. — Gentle laxatives will be found bene-
ficial, but strong ones exceedingly injurious. The
following should be given morning and evening
until the temperature becomes normal : —

Nitric ether

I ounce,

Liq. ammon. acetate .

4 ounces,

Water ....

I pint.

The above may be slightly augmented or dimin-
ished, according to circumstances.

Symptomatic fever should be treated in the same
manner as simple fever, only that attention must be
directed to the diseased part which caused the fever.
If the inflammation can be subdued, then the fever
will naturally abate, without other means being
adopted,

STOMACH-STAGGERS.

Symptoms. — This disease is indicated by the dull,
stupid, sleepy appearance of the horse, and he staggers
about in his stall. He seems unconscious of what he
is doing, and if roused from his lethargy will probably
take a mouthful of hay, in a few seconds desist from
chewing, and the hay will fall from his mouth. Many
instances have occurred, when the disease has been
allowed to acquire an ascendancy, that the horse
would drop down and die while in the act of eating.
In other cases the drowsiness goes off, and is suc-
ceeded by delirium ; and after falling, rising, and
staggering about, will die in convulsions.

54 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Cause. — Over-feeding is too often the cause of this
sad disease, and especially if the food is of a bad
quality. Careless servants will too often neglect a
horse ; and afterwards, by food being placed before
him while ravenously hungry, he will swallov/ it
rapidly and in too large quantity, without being
properly masticated, consequently it swells in the
stomach, and thus stretches it far beyond its natural
capacity : its action is thereby impaired : the con-
sequence is, the brain is unduly acted upon, and
giddiness and drowsiness induced, which occasion
staggering. Besides the horse being allowed to eat
in this manner, the groom may neglect to give the
animal water to assist it in converting it into a
pulp and facilitating the operation of digestion,
the natural juices of the stomach, from its gorged
state, being inadequate to the performance of their
office.

Remedies. — Before remedies are attempted it
must first be ascertained what has caused the
staggers ; as the mad staggers present exactly the
same symptoms in their early stage. In this dis-
order, as may well be supposed, medicine will have
but little effect, from the gorged condition of the
stomach. Some veterinary surgeons recommend
bleeding ; but we have never found this attended
with any beneficial effects, as what must naturally
debilitate the system can hardly be expected to aid
the action of the stomach. Probably the safest plan
is to allow nature to work its own cure, by abstaining
from giving food. But as we know of no certain
remedy for this disease, we should carefully guard
against promoting it.

It is no uncommon occurrence for farmers and
others keeping a number of horses to lose several of

STOMACH-STAGGERS 55

them within very short periods of each other with
this malady, from which an opinion prevails with
many that the staggers is contagious. Nothing can
be more erroneous than this belief, as it is quite
certain that the complaint is induced by bad stable
management, or by feeding the horse with unwhole-
some food, or in the horse feeding too voraciously,
as already mentioned. This disease is more common
with old horses than others. We would strongly
recommend the owners of horses to give some
attention to the following : — Too much food given
at one time after long fasting or hard work, and
neglecting to give the animal water, is almost certain
to produce the staggers. The hours of labour should
be for limited spaces of time, with proper intervals
of rest allowed, and the horse regularly fed during
these intervals. Every man must have felt the
effects of being without dinner for two or three hours
beyond his accustomed time. From five to six hours
are the intervals between the meals of a labouring
man ; and with a horse that is worked no longer
time should be allowed to elapse without feeding
and watering. When persons are occasionally so
situated that they cannot unyoke their horses at
stated times for food and rest, then they ought to
carry hay and a nose-bag, and a supply of corn along
with them. Indeed, it is surprising that if humanity
does not influence many men to be kind to this
valuable animal, self-interest ought to have the effect
of inducing proper treatment.

Staggers often attacks horses while they are at
grass. This, however, happens chiefly with such
as have been previously stinted in their food, or
where the pasture is very rich. In such cases, nature
generally works its own cure ; because, if the horse

56 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

is kept from eating, the natural sap in green food
will soon assist in promoting digestion.

CATARRH, OR COMMON COLD.

The sudden transitions from heat to cold to which
horses are so frequently, and often so thoughtlessly,
exposed, renders this a very common complaint with
them. If masters and servants would bear in their
remembrance the old and true adage, " that it is better
and easier to keep well than to make well," their
horses would not require half the medicines which
are given to them.

A simple cold, if neglected, may end in an in-
curable disease, especially with horses of a delicate
constitution. Catarrh commences with a slight degree
of fever, with some little discharge from the nose and
eyes, accompanied by cough, which is sometimes
hard, frequent, and painful to the horse. If the
cough is not severe, the complaint may generally be
removed by simple treatment. The horse should be
kept warm, and a few doses of the following mixture
administered : —

Digitalis . •

J drachm,

Nitre .

2 drachms,

Emetic tartar

I drachm ;

to be given in the form of a ball. Instead of corn,
his food should consist of hay and mashes.

BRONCHITIS.
Symptoms. — Inflammation of the mucous mem-
brane of the bronchial tubes manifests itself by the
breathing being considerably harder and quicker than
in a common catarrh ; and also by a wheezing sound
accompanying the inspirations of air into the lungs,
and which is temporarily removed when the horse

THICK WIND 57

coughs Up the mucus secreted by the inflamed mem-
brane of the throat.

Cause. — Bronchitis is generally induced by a
severe cold, and is indicated by the cough being
severe. The seat of the disease is in the divisions
of the trachea or windpipe, just before it eilters the
lungs. At this portion it branches out into a numer-
ous series of vessels, and these are denominated the
bronchial tubes, and hence the inflammation which
attacks their lining has been called bronchitis. This
disease is generally induced by catarrh having gained
an ascendency, and the inflammation extending to
the entrance of the lungs.

Remedies. — Blisters on the chest should be applied,
and the following medicine given : —

Gum-camphor ... 3 drachms,

Carb. ammonia ... 3 drachms,

Tinct. opium .... 4 drachms,

Water i pint.

When bronchitis is neglected, it produces thick wind,
which can never afterwards be removed.

THICK WIND.

Symptoms. — Thick wind is indicated by short,
laborious, and frequent breathings when the horse is
at rest, and becomes much more evident where he is
employed in working, whether in a cart, carriage, or
as a hunter or roadster. In the latter cases, the in-
spirations and expirations succeed each other in such
rapid succession that lead us to suppose the animal is
about to expire through suffocation, and his breathing
can be heard at a considerable distance ; his sides and
loins exhibit marked symptoms of the difficulty with
which he breathes.

58 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Causes. — This affection for the most part owes
its origin to previous inflammation, and more especially
inflammation and thickening of the mucous membrane
which lines the bronchial tubes.

Remedies. — This disease does not come within
the scope of medical treatment : all that can be done
is to guard against overloading the stomach with
food, and not to exercise the animal to any extent
while his stomach is full. Abstain from subjecting
him to hard labour, or trotting and galloping him
violently. By these precautions the affection may
gradually subside, and in time he may become almost
sound.

BROKEN WIND.

Symptoms. — A marked distinction prevails between
this disease and thick wind. In the latter the inspira-
tions and expirations are of uniform length and dura-
tion ; while in broken wind, for one inspiration two
expirations are required, which is plainly indicated by
the motion of the flanks. This is caused by the
rupture or union of several of the air-cells, which
renders the cavities of the lungs more complicated,
and hence requires that double action to expel the air.
It may be easily conceived that when the lungs are
expanded the air will rush in readily enough, and one
exertion of the muscles of respiration is sufficient to
expel the carbonised air ; but when these cells have
become united, the cavity of the lung is so Irregular
and many-cornered, that air is with difficulty expelled
from them, and therefore two efforts are required to
effect it.

Broken wind is generally accompanied by a hard,
dry, husky cough, differing completely In its character
from that of a common cold.

BROKEN WIND 59

Causes. — This disease may take place without any
visible disordered condition in a horse. Voracious
feeding may produce it, or food taken hastily and in
too large quantities into the stomach, particularly
coarse hay and straw, which, by distending the stomach
beyond the natural limits, presses against the lungs
and prevents their free action. Coarse and bulky
food being frequently used, is extremely apt to produce
broken wind, from the effect just mentioned. The
constrained action of the lungs, from the frequently
distended stomach, is apt to burst the air-cells, and
thus lay the foundation of an incurable disease.
Thick wind is usually the premonitor of the dis-
order.

Remedies. — A radical cure of broken wind, I be-
lieve, has never taken place ; that is, after a rupture
of a portion of the air-cells. All that can be effected
is a palliation of the complaint. The food should
consist as much as possible of that which affords the
greatest nourishment in the smallest compass. Oats,
and particularly beans and peas, as well as carrots,
have this qualification. The bowels should be kept
gently open, and for this purpose give an altera-
tive powder in bran mash every second evening,
viz. : —

Nitrate of potash . . 3 drachms,
Sulphur sub. ... 2 drachms.

Avoid exercise or labour when the stomach is full. A
broken-winded horse should never be pastured, as, by
having his stomach constantly full and distended, the
disease is increased. By strict attention to all these
rules, and by gentle, well-timed, and progressive exer-
cise, broken-winded horses may be rendered capable
of performing a fair proportion of labour, and may

60 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

even live a considerable number of years under the
influence of this affection, by cautious treatment.

Experience must have taught many persons pos-
sessing a number of horses, that frequent instances
have occurred of horses having been put into a straw-
yard perfectly sound, coming out broken-winded. The
food affording but little nutriment, the animals require
to keep their stomachs always full, which causes a
constant pressure upon the lungs ; and their action
being thereby restricted, a violent effort becomes
necessary to effect respiration, and hence rupture of
the partitions of the air-cells take place.

CHRONIC COUGH.

Symptoms. — This is a constant, irritating cough,
which in particular manifests itself after feeding and
drinking, and on first being exposed to the open air
in the morning, and more especially after any excite-
ment, such as hard work, a sharp trot, or a gallop.
In most instances the complaint is accompanied by a
staring coat.

Causes. — Chronic cough has its origin in some
previous inflammatory complaint. In becoming a
fixed disease, it will proceed from inflammation of the
air passages ; or it may be from severe irritation of
the lower portion of the windpipe. When the seat
of the disorder is caused by inflammation in the
substance of the lungs, it will manifest itself after
eating, which is occasioned by the distended stomach
pressing upon the diaphragm, and this organ in its
turn pressing upon the lungs. This renders them
less capable of transmitting the air through their
passages ; which occasions considerable excitement,
from the great effort made to perform respiration,
and hence the irritating cough is induced.

CHRONIC COUGH 6 I

Remedies. — The following dose to be given every
night until the cough is modified : —

Digitalis . . , . ^ drachm,

Nitre i drachm,

Emetic tartar ... J drachm ;

to be made up in the form of a ball, with tar. If this
fails to lessen the irritation, a blister should be applied
to the throat, extending from one ear to the other,
and reaching six or eight inches down the windpipe,
which will have the effect of lessening the irritation
of the fauces or the larynx, if the inflammation exists
in that situation. Sometimes a blister extending to
the lower part of the windpipe, as far as the chest,
has had a good effect.

The food should be of an opening nature, as dry
feeding, such as straw and chaff, is always found to
increase the complaint : grass and other green food
will have a salutary effect in this and other similar
diseases.

Horses may have chronic cough without their
general health being affected by it ; and should the
above remedies prove ineffectual in removing it in a
few weeks, there will be no use in persisting in
attempts at a cure ; and it is only when the com-
plaint assumes a more than ordinary degree of
coughing, that medical treatment should be resorted
to. A great object is to avoid exposing the animal
to sudden transitions from heat to cold ; as a horse
afflicted with chronic cough is more liable than others
to be affected by changes of temperature.

INFLUENZA, EPIDEMIC CATARRH, DISTEMPER.

This is a febrile disease, depending upon a blood-
poison or specific microbe, and generally prevails as

62 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

an epidemic in man, and an epizootic in horses.
Like other microbic diseases it has a special affinity
for certain organs, and the microbe of influenza
selects the mucous membrane which lines the air
passages (pulmonary influenza), the same membrane
which lines the stomach and bowels (gastric influenza),
and the ramifications of the same membrane in the
liver (biliary influenza). It is a disease character-
ised by suddenness of attack, and from the first
moment by marked debility and prostration. The
temperature runs high, and this and the general
debility leads to an accumulation or congestion of
blood in the lungs, stomach, bowels, and liver.

Influenza is a highly infectious disease, and un-
doubtedly the microbes are wafted long distances in
the atmosphere. The convalescent horse can carry
the contagion and give it to others on arrival at his
journey's end hundreds of miles distant from where
he contracted it. Stallions convalescent, by the act
of copulation, sometimes give influenza to almost
every mare they cover. Experiments would point
to the *' semen " being contaminated.

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, dullness, great and
rapid prostration, weakness of the limbs, weakness of
the heart's action and pulse, high temperature or
fever, from 104" to 107°. In forty-eight hours weak-
ness so marked that the animal staggers on his limbs
when made to walk. Breathing now becomes dis-
turbed, congestion of the lungs having commenced.
A bronchial cough is generally present. Constipation
of the bowels may be present in the early stages, but
in those cases where the bowels and liver are actively
engaged in casting out the blood-poison, yellowness
of the eyes and diarrhoea may be marked symptoms.
A copious discharge from the nostrils may be present,

INFLUENZA, EPIDEMIC CATARRH, DISTEMPER 63

or there may be no discharge. The legs generally-
swell and sometimes the floor of the abdomen.

Rheumatic complications sometimes exist from the
onset of the malady, but rheumatism of the joints and
tendons more frequently make their appearance at
convalescence, and leave the animal more or less a
cripple for life.

Remedies. — Much skill is required in the treat-
ment of this disorder, and it is necessary to study it
with great attention before remedial means are at-
tempted, whether by the veterinary surgeon or the
owner of the horse. The treatment generally adopted,
until within the last thirty years, was bleeding and
purging, and the mortality as attested was 50 per
cent. ; but since bleeding and purging have been
abandoned, and the treatment we are about to pre-
scribe has been substituted, 5 per cent, or less will
cover the loss.

When the disease has found an entrance in a
stud, the stableman should be instructed to look into
the manger of each horse the first thing on opening
the stable, and in every case where he finds the horse
has not fed, on no account allow that horse to go to
work.

Remove the horse to a well-ventilated loose box.
Place on his body a warm rug and roll his limbs in
flannel bandages. Then administer the following

ifuge drink : —

Nitrated ether .

I ounce,

Liqor. ammon. acetas .

4 ounces,

Tinct. of aconite

15 drops,

Water

I pint.

Let this drink be given morning and evening until
the fever subsides. To regulate the bowels give an

64 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

alterative powder in mash daily. The powder to
contain the following ingredients, viz. : —

Nitrate of potash ... 4 drachms.
Sulphur .... 2 drachms,

Rhubarb pulv. ... 2 drachms.

Should the animal commence to heave at the flanks
and otherwise exhibit a difficulty in breathing, apply
a mustard embrocation to the chest wall. Take a
pound of the best mustard, place it in a small basin,
add water till it is much of the same consistence as
used at table. Rub the mustard well in with the
hand, and allow it to remain on the chest wall for a
couple of hours. If necessary, repeat the mustard
embrocation or poultice. The food should be boiled
barley, bran, linseed, oatmeal, grass if in season,
carrots, etc. If the animal refuses the food, malt,
porter, eggs, milk, port wine in gruels must be poured
over his throat.

In those cases where the lungs or bowels are
seriously involved in the disease, the aid of the
veterinary surgeon is urgently demanded, and his
services should at once be had in requisition.

FISTULOUS WITHERS.

Symptoms. — This consists of one or more hot and
tender tumours formed upon the withers. If neglected
it ends in a large and deep abscess, and will sometimes
extend beneath the shoulder-blade, or scapula — and
consequently become extremely difficult of cure.

Cause. — If the saddle does not fit exactly to the
shape of the withers, these tumours may be formed
by pressure.

Remedies. — When first detected it may possibly
be removed by cold applications. The following

FISTULOUS WITHERS 6$

lotion should be applied to the part affected, with a
sponge : —

Alum, powdered . . . i ounce,
Sulphuric acid . . . . i drachm,
Water i pinti

Or the following may be substituted for it : —

Corrosive sublimate ... 2 drachms,
Muriatic acid .... 4 drachms,
Water i pint;

It will be rendered more pungent by the addition
of a drachm of sulphate of copper.

If the above, after being carefully applied, does
not diminish the size of the tumour, or if it increases
and becomes more sensitive on being touched, then
fomentations, poultices, and stimulating embrocations
should be resorted to, so as to bring forward the
tumour to a suppuration. When the matter has
formed, it should be laid open with the lancet, and
a seton should be passed through the top and bottom
of the tumour to allow the discharge to pass freely off.
After which the same treatment must be pursued as
we have recommended in the poll-evil.

Fistula in the withers is frequently the cause why
some horses stumble on the road. If this is suspected,
then the saddle should be taken off; and if the part
pressed on by the saddle be hot and enlarged, and the
horse feels sensibly the pressure, then fistula of the
withers may be apprehended. If taken at this time,
and a lotion be diligently applied with a sponge, it
is almost certain to prevent the disease becoming
matured.

Where this disorder has been neglected, and the
abscess has extended to the muscle below the shoulder-
blade, in many instances the matter will work its way

E

66 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

to the elbow, and sometimes to the bones of the
withers, and render them carious.

In severe cases, and where, generally from neglect,
caries or ulcerative disease has attacked the spines of
the dorsal vertebrae, a surgical operation ought at once
to be performed, and the animal handed over to the
veterinary surgeon.

WARBLES, SADDLE-GALLS, &c.

Causes. — When saddles do not fit, various tumours
are produced on the back of horses. The name
'* warbles " is applied to small tumours produced by
pressure, which sometimes do not suppurate, but are
nevertheless troublesome and painful to the animal.
When they become indurated and callous they are
termed ''sitfasts," and may adhere so firmly as to
require great force to remove, and frequently cannot
be extracted without being cut out.

Remedies. — The first thing that must naturally
occur to the mind of a humane man, is to have the
stuffing of the saddle altered so as to make it fit, and
thereby prevent undue pressure on any particular spot,
and the animal should be allowed sufficient rest to
permit the tumours to be taken up by absorption. To
facilitate this, cold lotions should be frequently and
plentifully applied, such as goulard, vinegar, or
brine. If these fail, and " steadfasts " appear, then
a gentle blister should be applied, which generally has
the effect of removing them from their seats ; after
which the wound may be dressed with Friar's
Balsam, or carbolic liniment.

Saddle-galls are generally cured with facility by an
application of strong brine, with the addition of
tincture of myrrh, in the proportion of a fourth part
to three parts of brine,

WARBLES, SADDLE-GALLS, ETC. 6"]

We have frequently been disgusted with the un-
feeling cruelty of some thoughtless persons riding their
horses day after day, with large sores under the
saddle. Such individuals but ill deserve to be the
possessors of horses.

CHAPTER IV.

Diseases of the Abdomen and Intestines.

The complaints of the abdomen and bowels in horses
are pretty numerous, and some of them attended with
most serious consequences. In most of them the
groom or horsekeeper ought to be extremely vigilant,
and must watch their progress narrowly. Some are
slow in their effects, while others are so rapid, that
before proper remedies are applied the disease will
have gained such an ascendency that ministrations are
of no avail. We would particularly allude to two
complaints which are frequently mistaken for one
another, — the distinctive symptoms of both we shall
point out when we treat of them.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.

Symptoms. — Although this disease is rare in horses,
it nevertheless occasionally occurs, and is not easily to
be detected from inflammation of the bowels. Its
principal characteristic is a restlessness in the animal,
without the appearance of suffering that pain which
accompanies other inflammatory complaints ; and a
yellow colour of the eyes and skin.

Remedy. — The following should be given for two
or three days successively, in the form of a small
ball :—

Podophyllin

I drachm,

Calomel

6 grains,

Syrup

I drachm.

THE JAUNDICE, OR YELLOWS 69

Should the above not remove the uneasy symptoms, it
will be necessary to have recourse to a veterinary
surgeon.

THE JAUNDICE, OR YELLOWS

Symptoms. — The eyes are yellow, as well as the
skin of the mouth, and also the other naked parts.
The dung is voided in small, hard balls, and the urine
of a high yellow colour ; the appetite is blunted, and
general weakness evinces itself

Causes. — This complaint is occasioned by some
obstruction in the single duct — for the horse has but
one — throusjh which the bile is conducted from the
liver to the intestines ; or from an increased and un-
due quantity of bile. The horse being destitute of a
gall-bladder, the bile flows immediately as it is formed.

Remedies. — Purgatives must be employed to restore
the functions of the organs to their healthy condition.
These must be administered with caution, and in small
quantities, frequently repeated, until the bowels are
freely opened. It would be dangerous to risk strong
doses, as common inflammation of the intestines may
cause the symptoms which apparently mark this
disease. Let the following be given twice a day : —

Barbadoes aloes ... 2 drachms,
Calomel .... 1 drachm.

Thin, slightly warmed gruel should be given in abun-
dance, together with carrots and green food, particu-
larly tares. Let the horse be warmly clothed if the
weather is severe ; and the stable should be properly
ventilated, but not allowed to be too cold. The
following should afterwards be given : — Bran-mashes,
with green meat, for four or five days ; also drink of
thin warm gruel.

70 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

If purging should become pretty active after admin-
istering the above medicine, it should not be hastily
checked unless inflammatory symptoms begin to
appear, or if the horse exhibits weakness. In either
of these cases then the following medicine may be
given : —

Gruel . . . . T gallon,

Prepared chalk . . i ounce,

Catechu .... J ounce,

Opium .... J ounce.

After this give the following tonic : —

Gentian .... 2 drachms,
Ginger .... 2 drachms ;

formed into a ball, and repeated daily until the dis-
charge is checked.

HERNIA, OR RUPTURE.

This consists of a portion of the intestine being
protruded from the abdominal cavity, either through a
natural opening or through one caused by disease. In
many cases the intestine may be returned into the
cavity, but it seldom is an effectual cure, in conse-
quence of the impossibility of applying a truss to keep
it up. There are other instances wiiere the gut
having passed through the inguinal ring and protruded
into the scrotum of the entire horse, or in the groin
of the gelding, which may in time become so narrow
as not to admit of the gut being again returned, in
consequence of becoming thickened and the protruded
portion being filled with the dung. This is called
strangulated hernia, and can only be successfully
treated by a veterinary surgeon, and should on no
account be attempted by any other, especially an
uneducated person.

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS Jl

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.

Symptoms. — This complaint is usually preceded by
fever ; and when completely formed, the horse stands
with his hind legs wide apart, and has an awkward
gait in his walk. He withdraws from the pressure of
the hand on the loins, which also indicate an undue
heat, considerably above that in the natural condition.
When turning with moderate quickness, he feels pain,
and looks wistfully back at his flanks ; a suppression
of the action of the urinary organs takes place, and is
followed by a difficulty in voiding urine, which comes
off in small quantities, and is generally high coloured,
and not unfrequently mixed with blood. Strong
efforts are made by the horse to discharge it in larger
portions, but at length it is almost quite suppressed.
Hence it will be manifest that there is an affection of
the urinary organs ; but whether in the kidneys or
bladder it will be difficult at first to determine. At
this stage of the disease the pulse is hard and accele-
rated ; it soon afterwards becomes small, although re-
taining its character of hardness.

In order to ascertain the seat of the disease, the
hand must be introduced into the rectum, and if the
bladder (which is situated under the rectum) feels dis-
tended and hard, then it is certain that the neck or
sphincture of the bladder is inflamed. If, on the other
hand, it is soft and feeling empty, with a heat in the
intestines over it, then there is inflammation of the
bladder itself ; but if there is no unnatural heat over it,
then it may be certain that the affection is in the
kidneys.

Cause. — Musty or mow-burnt oats, from their
diuretic properties, are often the cause of inflamma-
tion in the kidneys. Indeed, very strong diuretics,

72 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

frequently given, will bring on inflammation of the
kidneys as well as weakness in the parts. A sprain in
the loins often proves the remote cause of this disease ;
or a sudden check, throwing him back upon his
haunches, and giving a sudden shock to the muscles
of the loins, is another cause. Exposure to rain and
being allowed to cool and dry without having been
rubbed down, will cause inflammation in the kidneys.

Remedies. — Place the horse in a comfortable
loose-box, and clothe his body with a warm rug and
bandages. Give warm drinks of linseed and oatmeal
gruel, and apply a counter-irritant over the region of
the kidneys. If bowels are constipated, give one pint
of linseed oil daily in boiled food, but if refused pour
it over.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.

Symptoms. — When treating of inflammation of the
kidneys, we described fully the symptoms of inflamma-
tion of the bladder. In this variety of the complaint
the urine is voided in small quantities, and with con-
siderable pain each time ; and in extreme cases a total
suppression takes place. When this is the case the
bladder becomes exceedingly distended under the
rectum, and may be easily felt by the means recom-
mended in the former article.

Causes. — This is produced by some acrid sub-
stance, which has been generated in the system by the
use of food of a heating nature, forming a chemical
compound of an acrid quality in the urine. Stone in
the bladder will also produce this disease. Some
persons are so absurd as to administer the tincture of
cantharides by way of hastening the season of horsing
in the mare, which is almost certain to inflame the
coating or sphincture of the bladder.

STONE IN THE BLADDER 73.

Remedies. — Much the same Hue of treatment as
has been prescribed for inflammation of the kidneys
should be adopted for inflammation of the bladder.
But should this not relieve the malady, then the follow-
ing must be administered : —

Gum-camphor . , , i drachm,

Powdered opium . . . i drachm,
Linseed meal ... 3 drachms ;

given as a ball every three hours. In cases where the
mare is affected, the urine may be drawn off by means
of a catheter. This will have a considerable influence
in relieving the animal, and by taking off the tension
will tend to abate the inflammatory symptoms. The
same remedy is of difficult application in the horse,
and should never be attempted by any one but a
veterinary surgeon.

STONE IN THE BLADDER.

Symptoms. — Irregularity in the discharge of urine,
with occasional suppression of it, and fits resembling
spasmodic colic, are the symptoms which attend this
disease. To ascertain if it is really stone which pro-
duces these effects, the horse should be thrown on his
back and the hand introduced into the rectum, when
the stone, if it exists, will be easily felt.

Remedies. — If the stone is of any size it must be
extracted by an operation, which can only be performed
by a regular veterinary surgeon. When it is small, or
only appears in the form of gravel, diuretics are the
only remedies which can do good ; these, by inducing
an increased flow of urine, may carry with it the
smaller concretions. The following will be found a
useful diuretic, given once a day in a drink : —

Purified nitre (nitrate of potash) 3 drachms.
Digitalis . , . . i drachm.

74 t^IANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

DIABETES.

Symptoms. — This disease consists in an excessive
discharge of urine ; and, fortunately, is not of such
common occurrence among horses as in the human
species.

Causes. — Bad food v/ill produce irritation of the
kidneys, as well as the improper and too frequent use
of strong diuretics, which cause irritation and an in-
creased action in the kidneys.

Remedies. — Order a complete change of food, and
see that the hay and oats are of the best quality.
Give boiled food once a day, and to it add the follow-
ing powder : —

Ginger . . • , , 2 drachms,
Sulphate of iron ... 2 drachms,
Gentian 2 drachms.

Whatever tends to lessen the undue action will be
the best remedy. Green meat and carrots will be of
much use during this disease.

STALING OF BLOOD.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of this complaint are
nearly allied to those of inflammation in the kidneys ;
and it always manifests itself by the highly coloured
urine, mingled with blood. If the bowels are not easy,
let them be opened by the following cathartic : —

Barbadoes aloes ... 6 drachms,
Ginger, powdered , . . i drachm ;

to be formed into a ball and administered. When it
has operated, the following must be given once a day
until the urine has assumed its natural colour : —

Peruvian bark, powdered . J ounce,
Nitre, in powder ... 3 drachms,
Balsam of capiva ... J ounce.

Inflammation of the bowels ^5

Let the above be well powdered together, and then
given in three ounces of linseed, boiled in half-a-gallon
of water reduced to three pints.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.

The intestines are subject to two different kinds of
inflammation, namely, that of the mucous membrane
or internal lining of the gut. The second is in the
external coating of the bowels. These are very
different in their characters, and consequently in the
mode in which they must be treated.

INFLAMMATION OF THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE.

Symptoms. — This is accompanied with violent
purging, proceeding too often from over-doses of
physic being administered to the horse, or from acid
generated in the bowels by the food, or some other
unknown cause. In addition to the purging, consider-
able pain attends this disease, which is indicated by
the animal frequently looking round to his flanks, with
a heaviness in his breathing, accompanied by a quick
feeble pulse, with a hot mouth, ears, and legs.

Causes. — Sudden exposure from a warm to a cold
atmosphere, and being allowed to drink plentifully of
water when over-heated, or having his belly and legs
wetted with cold water when too warm, are all causes
which induce this complaint, more especially in high-
fed horses.

Remedies. — When accompanied by excessive purg-
ing, with great pain, astringent medicines should
not be administered. All food should be denied him,
and in its stead give him gruel, a decoction of linseed,
thin starch, or arrowroot. Clysters of warm gruel would
also be proper. These should be administered with
Reid's patent pump. If the irritation and indications

']^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

of pain still continue, it will be necessary to give the
following : —

Gruel 2 quarts,

Prepared chalk . . . i ounce,

Catechu 4 drachms,

Opium 2 drachms ;

The above to be repeated every five or six hours
until the purging and pain are allayed, after which
the doses should be lessened in quantity and
frequency.

The horse must be kept warm and well-clothed,
with his legs bandaged after being rubbed thoroughly.

SPASMODIC COLIC.

Symptoms. — This disorder in general comes on
very suddenly, without any premonitory signs. The
horse becomes very restless, shifts his position, paws
the ground, and looks round with anxiety at his
flanks ; sometimes raising his foot as high as his
belly and striking it violently : he will also lie down
and roll about on his back. In a few minutes the
spasm subsides, and the animal after shaking himself
will resume feeding. At longer or shorter intervals
the attack is renewed, but with increased violence ;
he will throw himself with considerable force on the
ground ; will break into a copious perspiration, and
heave greatly at the flanks. These spasms are
renewed at intervals, and gradually become less
frequent and less severe ; or if, on the contrary, they
are more frequent and acute, and at length manifest
a nearly uninterrupted series, then it may be suspected
that inflammation has taken place, and that death
may speedily ensue.

Causes. — The causes giving rise to spasmodic
contraction of the muscular fibres of the bowels are

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS 77

very various. Stones and large earthy lumps in the
intestines cause colic pains, but it cannot be known
when these are present. Drinking cold water when
the animal is over-heated is a frequent cause of these
spasms and pains. Green food is also apt to induce
these pains when taken in large quantities, and
especially if too hard worked after it.

Remedies. — A combination of opium and ether
are valuable specifics in this disorder, in the following
quantities, and usually produce almost immediate
relief : —

Ether, nitric ... 2 ounces,
Laudanum . . . i ounce,

Warm ale, or gruel . . i pint.

If in two hours after the above has been administered
no visible mitigation of the complaint exhibits itself,
it will be necessary to repeat the medicine and apply
a mustard poultice to his abdomen ; because a long-
continued succession of spasms is almost certain to
induce inflammation. Injections of warm water, or
gruel, mixed with a small quantity of aloes, will have
an excellent effect in this complaint.

The following embrocation has produced good
effects during the time the animal was suffering from
spasms. It is made into a pretty thick paste and
rubbed over a considerable portion of the belly : —

Mustard, in powder . . 8 ounces.

Camphor . , . . i ounce.

Oil of turpentine . . . 2 ounces.

Water of ammonia . . 2 ounces.

This disease and inflammation of the bowels are
frequently mistaken for each other, which is caused
by the general appearance being somewhat similar ;
but if strict attention be paid to both diseases, it will
be found that there are symptoms connected with

78

MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

each disorder specifically different, which will at once
be understood by the following tables : —

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.

I. Pulse considerably accele-
rated, but very indistinct.

2. Gradual in its approach,

with previous febrile indi-
cations.

3. Lies down, seldom rolls on

his back, starts to his legs
suddenly.

4. Legs and ears generally

cold.

5. Belly exceedingly tender,

and when touched causing
pain.

6. Constant pain.

7. Rapid prostration 01

strength.

8. Mucous membrane inside

the nostrils very red.

9. Lining of the eyelids un-

usually red.
Peristaltic motion of the

10.

bowels excited, with the
anus hot.

SPASMODIC COLIC.

1. Pulse natural, or lower than

in its natural state, but ac-
celerated and more full
during the spasms.

2. Sudden in its attack, but

destitute of febrile symp-
toms.

3.

Lies down, and

may

roll

on his back, which seems
to give him relief.

4. Legs and ears of a natural

heat.

5. Rubbing the belly gives

relief to the animal.

6. Intervals of rest.

7. Strength hardly affected.

8. Mucous membrane of its

ordinary colour.

9. Lining of the eyelids of its

natural colour.
10. Slight motion of the intes-
tines, unless by purgative
injections.

Pawing of the ground Is common to both
complaints, but in cases of entanglement of the gut
he desists from pawing.

Both this and the preceding complaint are induced
by various causes. But if symptoms similar to them
are caused by eating green food in too large
quantity, a different mode of treatment will be
necessary.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS 79

ENTANGLEMENT OF THE BOWELS.

This is caused by colic, in consequence of the
animal throwing himself about while suffering under
the pain of that complaint ; portions of that intestine
called the ileum become twisted and knotted, and
drawn together with astonishing firmness. There is
no remedy for this complaint.

STONES IN THE INTESTINES.

Horses that are subject to very frequent attacks
of colic pains have usually stony masses in the caecum
or colon. Sometimes they are some pounds weight.
These, obstructing the passage of the gut, produce
colic pains ; and at other times, when exceedingly
large, by pressing upon the mucous membrane,
produce inflammation. But as yet no distinctly-
marked symptoms have been detected by which their
presence can be ascertained. Hitherto no certain
mode of treatment has been discovered for their
removal.

INTUSSUSCEPTION OF THE INTESTINES.

This is another evil arising from a long-continued
spasmodic action of the ileum, which sometimes causes
an inverted pressure from the caecum towards the
stomach, which overcomes the natural action, which
forces this contracted portion of the intestine into a
portion above it, which retains its natural calibre.
The irritation thereby produced increases the upward
action, and causes still more of the intestine to be
forced inwards, until an obstruction of an insur-
mountable character is produced. Continued and
unmitigated pain is the only symptom which may
lead to a suspicion that this incurable malady has
taken place.

So MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

INTESTINAL WORMS.

A variety of worms inhabit the intestines of horses,
and when they become numerous often prove injurious
to the constitution of the animal. Although a respect-
able writer says they are not of much consequence
unless they are numerous, we would recommend that
the sooner they are expelled the better, however small
the number may be, for this simple reason — that
where there exists a single pair there will naturally
be an increase of their species.

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, griping pains, a rough
coat, and tucked-up belly, are symptomatic of worms
of the larger species, lumbriais tereSy or long white
round - worms very much resembling in form the
common earth-worm, which is met with from five to
ten inches in length ; and itching of the rectum,
evinced by a quick twitching of the tail and a small
quantity of mucus, which hardens and assumes the
appearance of a white powder at the anus, is indicative
oi ascarides — small, needle-formed worms, which lodge
in the large intestines, and frequently find their way
in great numbers to the caecum. A third species
sometimes, although of much rarer occurrence, in-
habits various parts of the intestinal-canal from the
stomach downwards. This is the tape-worm, which
is known from its broad, flat, tape-like appearance,
and consisting of many articulated joints. This
species is the most formidable and the most difficult
to be removed.

Remedies. — When the symptoms which we have
pointed out are noticed, the groom should carefully
watch whether worms are voided, to ascertain their
existence. Still, however, they may be lodged in the
intestines without being evacuated ; and when there

THE BOTS 8 1

is a well-grounded suspicion that they inhabit the
body, a dose of some vermifuge should be given.

For the expulsion of the round-worm, the following
anthelmintic should be administered : —

Arsenious acid . . . i drachm,
Powd. sulph. of iron . . 2 ounces,
Tart, of antimony . . i J ounce.

Mix and divide into twelve powders, and give one
each morning ; follow up on the fourteenth day by an
aloetic ball.

If the existence of the tape- worm is apprehended,
then the following will be the proper remedy : —

Turpentine . . . | ounce,
Castor oil . . . . 2 ounces.
Gum arable, in powder . i ounce ;

treacle to form it into a ball. Warm mashes to be
given for a day afterwards.

It seldom, however, happens that these are removed
by one dose ; and unless it is quite certain that the
entire animal has been discharged, the above medicine
must be repeated. If even a link or two is broken off
and left in the intestines, these will be regenerated
into a perfect worm, as they have the property of
reproducing the parts of which they have been de-
prived.

THE BOTS.

Horses may be infested by bots without apparently
suffering material injury from them. But we cannot
agree with the opinion of Mr Bracy Clark, that they
are destined by Nature to act upon the food in the
stomach by trituration, or as pepper does in the
human stomach. Like Qvery other part of the animal
body, this organ is so admirably constructed that in

F

Si MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

its healthy condition no artificial aid is necessary to
enable It to perform Its office. If the opinion of Mr
Clark were correct, what would supply the place of
those parasites during that portion of the year when
the grub assumed its perfect condition ?

Post-mortem dissection has proved that bots are
not so inoffensive as Mr Clark supposed ; as it has
been found that horses which have been Infested with
these grubs had ulcers of considerable extent in the
muscular coat of the stomach.

Symptoms and Habits. — The progress of the dis-
ease generally manifests itself gradually ; the horse
becomes hide-bound, his coat becomes rough and un-
healthy, he loses flesh and strength, although he feeds
with his usual appetite, and has frequently a tickling
cough.

Cause. — The bots are a species of gad-fly called
cestrus equi by naturalists, which may be observed in
the month of July flying actively about the legs of
horses In the fields. These flies are represented (Plate
X, fig. i), which Is the common gad-fly. They may
be seen flying rapidly towards the sides and knees of
horses. These are the females depositing their eggs
in the hair, to which they adhere by a glutinous fluid
by which they are surrounded (figs. 2, 3). In a few
days the eggs are hatched, and the minute grubs or
caterpillars which they contain are set at liberty.
This operation Is performed by the horse, which, in
licking himself, bursts the eggs, and the caterpillar
adheres to his tongue, and in the operation of eating,
the little animal Is carried into the stomach along with
the food. These caterpillars are provided with a small
hook on each side of their mouths, and by means of
which they cling pertinaceously to the cutlcular portion
of the lining of the stomach (see ^g, 4) ; and so tena-

THE BOTS 83

clously do they adhere, that the hook will break before
they leave their hold. There these pests contrive to
locate during the whole winter, and to the end of the
following spring, feeding on the mucus ; by which
time they have grown to full size (fig. 5), and must
now undergo a new transformation ; they quit their
hold of the coating of the stomach, are carried into
the villous portion along with food, from thence pass
into the intestinal canal along with the chyme, and at
length are discharged with it. The caterpillars thus
evacuated seek an appropriate place in the ground,
where they assume the imago or chrysalis condition ;
and remaining in this state for some weeks, at length
break out from their swathing and assume the form of
the perfect insect. Immediately after this the males
and females pair ; the latter becoming impregnated,
set about seeking an appropriate situation where to
deposit their eggs, which, in imitation of the parent,
by a peculiar instinct, they fix on the hairs of a horse,
from whence they are licked off and swallowed in the
larva state.

There are two species of gad-flies ; the second is
known by the name of the red bot, fig. 6 is its larva,
and fig. 7 the perfect fly. Their natural history and
habits are similar in all respects to the other.

CHAPTER V.
Disorders of the External Parts of the Horse.

THE FORE LEGS.

We come now to treat of those portions of the frame
of a horse most intimately connected with his action,
and his essential value in the service of man. Un-
fortunately these are but too often liable to disease ;
and the animal afflicted with maladies of those parts
is not only rendered less useful to his possessor, but
also less valuable in the market, as the extremities
embrace the entire apparatus of progressive motion,
and consequently that action in which mankind are
chiefly interested in this useful animal.

To thoughtless and reckless masters, and careless,
cruel, and unthinking servants, this noble animal owes
many of his complaints, both internal and external.
And what is revolting to every humane mind, is, after
the poor animals are afflicted with a painful disorder,
their unfeeling masters too often continue to subject
them to hard work while they are labouring under
acute suffering. Let any man who has had a severe
sprained ankle fancy to himself that he was compelled
to carry a heavy burden, or remove a quantity of
stones from one part to another by means of a wheel-
barrow, or suppose he were even forced to walk at all,
and what would be his sufferings ? The probability is,
he would be utterly unable to perform one or the other
task. But the poor horse has four legs, and probably

SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER 85

three of these are sound, and he is thereby not only able
to stand, but also to perform progressive motion ; but
every time the lame limb is put to the ground and
borne upon, his sufferings are equal to, if not worse
than, what man himself would feel.

It is the interest of every man to have his lame
horse rendered sound as speedily as possible ; and
this, in most cases, cannot be effected without allowing
the animal a cessation from labour ; and it is monstrous
cruelty to subject a horse to labour whilst under the
influence of a painful malady. The finger of con-
tempt should be pointed at all such unfeeling
wretches.

In this portion of the work we shall treat of the
diseases alone, and the anatomy of the various parts
will be afterwards given, with complete references to
the plates illustrative of those parts.

SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER.

Many ignorant pretenders, who denominate them-
selves Farriers, frequently speak of what they call the
'' shoulder -lameness,'' without being able to state
wherein this lameness consists. In innumerable
instances they are wrong when they say or imagine
that the lameness proceeds from the shoulder at all.
We are decidedly of opinion that lameness of the
shoulder is much less frequent than is supposed.

Symptoms. — To those who have attended to the
anatomy of the shoulder of the horse, shoulder-lame-
ness can be recognised with considerable celerity, as
well as certainty. The horse generally suffers great
pain in moving forward while under the influence of
this complaint, which is indicated by dragging his
toe along the ground instead of lifting the foot smartly
up, which is the natural action in progressive motion ;

86 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

for it is this lifting of the foot which produces the
pain, by giving motion to the muscles of the shoulder,
some of which are inflamed and tender, in consequence
of the sprain. But it must be obvious to any one
acquainted with the anatomy ot the shoulder, that the
pain occasioned by lifting the foot must be both short
and small in lameness of the shoulder, as the limb is
allowed to bear the weight a much shorter time than
in any other species of lameness. For example, in
sprain of the back tendons, it is only when the horse
is moving forwards that he suffers much pain, and
this is most felt when the weight rests on the leg ;
consequently, there is a peculiar activity in moving up
the limb in shoulder-lameness the instant the weight
bears upon it. This is strongly manifested in moving
down a hill, in which case additional pressure is given
to the limb. And while the horse is in the stable, it
will be found that his toe only is resting on the ground
when afflicted with shoulder-lameness, while in a sound
state he will have the foot flat on the ground. But
one of its most prominent characters is, that when the
foot is lifted and pressed considerably forward, the
animal indicates a feeling of great pain, while the same
action will give him no uneasiness if the lameness is
seated in the leg or foot.

In diseases or injuries of the muscles, heat generally
accompanies them ; but from the muscles which are
affected in this belonging to the under layer, of course
the heat is not perceptible to the touch. Neither can
the swelling be perceived for the same reason.

Cause. — This has its origin in some sudden and
severe shock which the muscles have received. A slip
of the foot or side-fall may also occasion this com-
plaint.

Remedies. — In some cases of lameness a horse may

COMPLAINTS AND INJURIES OF THE ARM 87

be able to work, but not in shoulder-lameness. It
takes away all chance of the animal being restored
to soundness. At once have him put off work.
Foment the shoulder with hot water for a few days,
then apply a stimulating liniment all over the injured
muscle. If lameness persists, blister the parts with
oil of cantharidis, and if the animal is not thereby
restored to soundness, call in the aid of the veterinary
surgeon.

Numerous ridiculous operations, which only give
pain to the horse labouring under this injury, have
been resorted to, but all of them are as absurd as
they are cruel. The following mild purgative ball
may be administered, so as to keep the bowels open : —

Barbadoes aloes ... 5 drachms,
Castile soap .... 2 drachms,
Oil of caraways . . .12 drops.

COMPLAINTS AND INJURIES OF THE ARM.

FRACTURE OF THE ELBOW

sometimes occurs, and when this is the case, it would
be exceedingly imprudent for any person to attempt a
cure, except one skilled in the veterinary art, and
even with the regular practitioner there is no certainty
of a cure being effected.

ENLARGEMENT OF THE ELBOW

may be induced by a severe blow ; or it may be
caused by the heels of the shoes pressing against that
part while the horse has his feet doubled under him.

Remedy. — Let a seton be carried through the
tumour if it is of small dimensions, and in most cases
it will subside completely. But if large, an incision
should be made in the skin along the centre of the

88 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

prominent part, and the tumour removed by dissection.
Some horses produce ''Capped elbow" by resting too
long on their elbows in the act of rising from their
bed, and when this is the case, an ''elbow pad" or
"swab heel boot" should be worn during the night.

COMPLAINTS AND INJURIES OF THE KNEE.

BROKEN KNEES.

Much has been said, and a great variety of remedies
have been recommended, for injuries received in the
knees. It is a subject of very great importance, and
therefore much patient attention should be bestowed
upon it. Many fine horses have been blemished and
disfigured for life by broken knees, and others have
been so severely injured that it has rendered them
unfit for future service, and in other cases has proved
fatal to them.

This injury is generally sustained while the horse is
going at a quick pace, consequently the extent of the
wound will generally be in proportion to the rate of
the speed at which the animal is progressing, and
the weight behind, as well as the condition and texture
of the road on which he falls. The horse in the
action of falling naturally throws his knees forward,
and consequently they receive all the weight of
both horse and rider, and frequently are very severely
lacerated.

Remedies. — The first precaution is to wash the
wounds thoroughly with warm carbolised water and
a sponge, so as to remove all dirt and gravel from the
parts. The next thing to be done is to examine
carefully whether the joint is opened, which is best
ascertained by the application of a probe, but great
care must be exercised, otherwise the joint may be

COMPLAINTS AND INJURIES OF THE KNEE 89

opened by the point of the probe. But should a doubt
remain as to its being open, then a poultice must be
applied composed of linseed meal and carbolised water.
This may be allowed to remain for about eight hours,
which will have at least the effect of acting as a
fomentation to the wound, and assist in allaying the
inflammation. When the poultice is removed, if the
capsular ligament of the joint has been injured, or the
sheath of a tendon laid open, then it will exhibit the
synovia, or joint-oil, which manifests a yellowish, glary,
transparent appearance. If a doubt still remains,
then a second poultice should be applied for the same
length of time. Having ascertained the fact that
the joint has been laid open by the flow of the oily
matter, an attempt must be made to close it, and
with this object tie up the horse's head and apply
carbolic liniment to the injured parts. Tow saturated
with carbolic liniment should also be applied to the
knee and kept in position by bandage.

Prompt attention must be paid to closing the
wound, an operation which is only fit for the skilful
hand of a regular veterinary surgeon. It must be
borne in mind that wounds from contusions of the
kind mentioned are very different from a simple cut ;
as the edges are irregular, and there is a consequent
loss of substance, which can only be restored by the
tedious process of granulation. It must therefore be
evident that the less action in the limbs the better, as
if those tender, new-formed portions are either stretched
or bruised, it protracts the cure.

If the cut in the joint be large, and the joint-oil
continues to exude from it, and the horse exhibit
symptoms of suffering much pain, it may be con-
sidered that the wound has become associated with
ulcerative disease of the bones, and under the circum-

90 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Stances it will be but proper to destroy the animal,
and relieve him from the torture which always accom-
panies aggravated cases of broken knees : for high
fever is almost always induced, of which he is nearly
certain to die ; or if he survives it, the inflammation of
the parts will result in a growth of bone and a stiff
knee-joint.

To enable a person to judge of the exact situation
of the wound in broken knees, he should have a
thorough knowledge of the structure and situation of
the bones of the knee-joint, which is the most compli-
cated of all the bony structure of the horse. Between
the lower termination of the bone of the arm and the
superior portion of the leg-bones, there are interposed
seven other bones, called the carpal bones. Six of
these are arranged in two rows of three each, and the
seventh is placed behind the others. Should the
wound be situated opposite the bottom row, and if its
dimensions are small, then there will be little difficulty
in closing it ; and even a pretty large one is fre-
quently successfully cured, as there is but limited
motion in that part. But if it is situate opposite the
union of the two rows, its remedy is much more
uncertain, in consequence of this being the seat of the
chief motion of the joint, which has a tendency to
disunite the lips of the wound, and also induces most
irritating friction between the bones, which would
become in close contact with each other, in con-
sequence of the expenditure of the joint-oil.

When the skin has been broken, it is always
visible afterwards, but the extent of the blemish will
depend greatly upon the treatment of the wound in
its early stages. Caustic applications should invari-
ably be avoided, as they always leave behind them
a greater blemish. But should the mark left be of

COMPLAINTS AND INJURIES OF THE KNEE 9 1

some extent, even without using caustic remedies,
then the best way to render it less visible is to apply
a mild blister to the part, which will stimulate the hair
to shoot out more abundantly round the scar. We
do not think there is much faith to be placed in the
application of ointments, except they may be stimulat-
ing, in consequence of being generally composed of
turpentine or Spanish flies.

It is seldom a knee that has once been broken
is so healed as not to be perceptible, although in
some cases the hurt has been so slight that it can
hardly be detected. But even in the least visible of
these the hair is always slightly curled, and where
this is noticed, the leg should be taken up and the
knee bent, when the scar, however slight, will be at
once perceived. But we would not have it supposed
that a broken knee is invariably an indication of a
stumbling animal, because the best of horses have
come down, by being backed by a bad rider, or
placing his foot on a rolling stone on a road when
going at a quick trot, or other cause. However, a
broken knee once detected will put the purchaser
upon his guard to watch minutely the action and
paces of the horse, as well as the form of his fore-
quarters ; because, if his shoulder is thick and upright,
and the legs placed far under him, then he is likely
to have a bad action, and be apt not to lift his feet
high enough to clear the ground properly. On the
other hand, I knew one of the finest hunters that ever
took the field with his knees broken, from his rider
having forced him to a leap which it was impossible
he could accomplish. If the shoulder is oblique and
the withers high, with a strong, well-developed fore-
arm, it may be fairly inferred that he has come down
from some accidental cause.

92 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

SPLENT, OR SPLINT.

A splent is an enlargement, or bony excrescence,
of some part of the shank-bone, generally in the
higher portion of it, and situate in the inside of the
leg (Plate vi, fig. i). This is a complaint to which
young horses are most liable ; and it has been
generally remarked, that as horses advance in years
they gradually diminish, and not unfrequently dis-
appear altogether. It seldom happens, unless the
splent is tolerably large, and encroaches too much
upon the knee-joint or the back sinew, that it is
productive of lameness, unless the horse happen to
strike it with the foot of the other leg. In other
instances a splent not larger than a pea may be
detected in consequence of being acutely sensitive,
and produces such lameness as, without being ex-
perienced in this complaint, might lead to the belief
that it was quite disproportionate to the cause.

Cause. — It is difficult to conceive how splent
should appear on the outside of the small bones,
except we suppose that the space between these
bones is occupied by mechanism of an important
character. It is much easier to account for their
almost exclusive appearance on the inside of the
limb. The inner splent-bone is situate nearer the
central part of the body than the other ; and from
the nature of its connection with the knee, it is
subject to a greater proportion of weight than the
outer one, and hence is more liable to injury and
inflammation, and consequently inducing this bony
deposit, which has been termed splent. The inner
bone supports the entire weight, which is transmitted
to one of the small knee-bones. It is the only
support of that bone, while but a portion of the

SPLENT, OR SPLlNt 93

weight is sustained by the outer splent-bone, and the
pressure is divided between it and the shank-bone.
Besides, many smiths who are imperfectly acquainted
with their profession, most absurdly elevate the outer
heel of the shoe to a great degree, which throws an
additional quantity of the weight of the animal
on the inner splent-bone. Severe blows sometimes
occasion splents on the other portions of the shank-
bone.

During the formation of a splent, the horse is fre-
quently lame, occasioned by the periosteum, or mem-
brane which covers the bone, being inflamed and
stretched to an unnatural degree, and causing great
pain to the animal in consequence of the sensitive
nature of that membrane. But when the inflamma-
tion has subsided and the membrane has been so
stretched as to accommodate itself to the form of the
growth causing the " splent " — unless it be in a situa-
tion which comes in contact with the tendon, or the
animal from his peculiar action strikes the splent,
the lameness will disappear.

*' Splents" by a recent decision have been held as
constituting a horse unsound, and as " splents " are
always the result of a diseased action, viz., inflamma-
tion of the periosteum or covering of the bone, legally
the decision appears a fair one, but as on an average
80 per cent, of horses have "splents," and as in all
probability not over 5 per cent, of horses remain per-
manently lame from splents, but make a perfect re-
covery, it should only be held to constitute unsoundness
under given conditions. A splent or splents on the
limbs of well -formed horses, and whose action is
straight, rarely lames except during the period of its
growth, and is of no more practical consequence than
a splent or knob of bone on his nose. On the con-

94 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

trary, splents the result of striking in action should
under all circumstances render the animal legally an
unsound one.

Remedies. — When it is noticed that a splent is
forming, which generally commences with a tumour,
the hair should be shaved off all round it, and a small
portion of biniodide of mercury ointment rubbed into
it for two or three days, and after this a pretty strong
blister should be applied. If these do not stop its
progress, the cautery is sometimes used ; although
we would recommend that this should not be resorted
to, except where the splent threatens to be large, and
is making evident progress after the above remedies.
It often happens that the effects of the mercurial
ointment and blister do not manifest themselves at
first ; but after some little time the splent will begin to
lessen, and eventually disappear altogether. In fact,
most splents disappear by absorption when the horse
begins to get old.

SPEEDY CUT.

This is an injury inflicted on the inside of the leg,
just below the knee-joint, and extending to the head
of the inner splent-bone. Horses of high action are
liable to this injury, by severely striking this part with
the edge of the shoe when they are trotting at a
speedy rate. This, in some instances, occasions a bony
enlargement, and in others considerable tenderness
and great heat in the adjacent parts. Sometimes the
pain inflicted is so great that the horse will suddenly
drop as if life were extinct.

Remedies. — The only thing required is to prevent
the shoe from extending beyond the hoof; and the
shoe should have only one nail on the inside of the
foot, and that placed near the toe. Let the shoe also

KNEE-TIED — SPRAIN OF THE BACK SINEWS ^5

be of equal thickness at the heel and toe, and formed
so that the foot may bear equally on both sides.

KNEE-TIED.

In some instances, when the trapezium or hinder
bone of the knee is not sufficiently prominent, the
ligamentous ring by which the tendons are bound
together, will confine the flexor tendons of the foot so
tightly that the leg will be very deficient in depth
under the knee. This is known by the phrase, that
the horse is ** tied below the knee." This defect has
always been found to limit the speed of the animal
as well as its endurance. If such a horse is ridden
either fast or far, he is almost certain of being seized
with a sprain of the back sinews. This is caused by
the pressure of the ring producing such a degree of
friction as will militate against the free action of the
tendons, and thus requiring a greater degree of exer-
tion to keep up progressive motion. This will be the
case, even with the best horse, otherwise well formed,
and who has a complete degree of muscular develop-
ment, which by a continuance of the pressure and
action must strain the tendons. But this is not all ;
when the back tendons are thus bound down, they are
squeezed into a more oblique direction, consequently it
requires a greater force to make the muscles act, and
fatigue is induced in a shorter time, and it is almost
always accompanied by a sprain. In short, it is
one of the worst defects incidental to the horse.

SPRAIN OF THE BACK SINEWS.

The back tendons are enclosed in a sheath of
thick cellular substance, which not only protects

96 Manual of modern farriery

them from injury, but also keeps them in their proper
situation. To prevent friction, a synovial fluid fills
the space between the sheath and the tendon. When
the horse has been over -exerted or over -worked,
the tendon presses upon the delicate membrane with
which the sheath is lined, and induces inflammation.
Long-continued action will also sometimes rupture
some of the fibres with which the tendons are bound.
This is what has been termed a sprain of the back
sinew, and when this takes place to a greater extent,
the horse is said to have broken down.

Symptoms. — It will be seen that during every
movement of the limb the animal evinces great pain,
in consequence of the excessive inflammation which
accompanies this injury, and also the considerable local
swelling and heat which accompany it. The horse
will also stand with his foot off the ground, barely
touching it with his toe. The first injury which is
above pointed out, consists merely of inflammation of
the sheath, or partial rupture of the fibres by which
it is attached.

Remedies. — This is an injury so serious to the
animal's future usefulness, as to necessitate his instant
removal from work, because however slight the strain,
if kept at work the animal will gradually " knuckle
over " on his fetlock joint and become useless. To
prevent constitutional irritation, administer a dose of
purgative medicine made as follows : —

Barbadoes aloes . . from 4 to 8 drachms,

Pulv. ginger 2 drachms,

Pulv. gentian 2 drachms.

After this the limb should be well fomented with
water three or four times a day, each time for about
an hour ; and in the intervals let large poultices of

SPRAIN OF THE BACK SINEWS gj

linseed meal be wrajoped round the leg. A little of
Goulard's extract, or vinegar, may be added to the
poultice with advantage. A great deal depends,
however, on the warmth and moisture of the poultice,
as well as the fomentations. These appliances are
intended to allay the inflammation. Stimulants are
to be carefully avoided, as these are sure to
increase the inflammation in the early stages of the
injury.

When the horse begins to rest his foot upon the
sole, and the heat has left the part, it is certain that
the irritation will have considerably abated. But
although this is the case, means must be used to
prevent the recurrence of the inflammation, and also
to reduce the swelling. Apply a thin flannel bandage
to support the parts, which, by gentle pressure, will
have a tendency to stimulate the absorbents and
promote the absorption of the inflammatory exudate ;
and it should be applied tighter as the limb will
endure increased pressure ; and this appliance should
be continued for at least fourteen days. It will be
better to keep the bandage wet with the following
lotion : —

Vinegar . • , . i pint,

Spirit of wine . . .J pint.

This will have the effect of reducing the deep-seated
inflammation.

If in a fortnight or three weeks all the symptoms
have disappeared, the horse may be put to work, but
of course with caution. But if after this time lame-
ness still continues, then recourse must be had to a
blister ; and in this case it will be proper afterwards
to turn out the horse for a month or two to allow
proper time and opportunity for the reduction of the

98 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

swelling and inflammation, otherwise an incurable lame-
ness may be the result.

Severe sprains, as well as those which have been
unskilfully treated, especially where from long-continued
inflammation the structure of the part has been con-
siderably altered ; or if the swelling has become
callous, and the skin thickened so as to prevent the
free action of the limb, then it will be necessary to use
the cautery, as the best means of rousing and stimu-
lating to action the absorbents, so as to enable them
to take up the coagulated deposit, as well as the
thickened skin and unusual increase of the cellular
substance.

In firing, the cautery should be applied in straight
lines so as to contract the skin, and by its natural
elasticity to produce that pressure so necessary in this
complaint.

It may well be imagined that it will require some
time before this hardened fluid can be removed ; not
less than six months' cessation from work will suffice.
A blister applied six weeks or two months after the
use of the cautery is frequently attended with beneficial
effects ; but it should never be had recourse to except
in cases where it becomes indispensable.

It is necessary to pay very strict attention to the
appearance of the flexor tendons in the purchase of a
horse ; and if there is any thickening of the cellular
substance, then it may be inferred that the horse has
had one of those sprains, and that it has not been
properly managed. The action of the horse is sure to
be affected by it, and a return of the malady may
occur ; and although all appearance of lameness has
left the animal, still he cannot under such circum-
stances be considered a perfectly sound horse.

%IND-GALLS 99

WIND-GALLS.

Symptoms. — Wind-galls more frequently occur in
the fore than in the hind legs. These are known by
the puffy appearance so frequently noticed about the
legs of horses which have been hard worked (see
Plate VI, fig. 8, c). There is a beautiful provision in
Nature, in placing little bags between the tendons and
other parts where they are exposed to pressure or
friction. These sacs contain a mucous fluid of a
similar kind to the synovia, or joint-oil which oozes from
the bags and lubricates the tendons of the muscles.
In consequence of violent action and straining the
tendons, these bags get injured, become inflamed,
swollen, and hard, the tendons being generally in-
serted near the joints, where there is more pressure
and motion, and consequently these bags are more
liable to injury. They become inflamed, and during
this state the horse is generally lame to a greater or
less degree. However, unless these sacs attain a very
large size, the horse cannot be reckoned unsound, as
few are entirely free from wind-galls, — which appella-
tion they acquired from the fancy that they contained
wind. It was an old practice to cut or probe them, so
that the air might escape. This has, in many in-
stances, produced violent inflammation, and has been
the death of many fine horses.

Remedies. — Unless wind-galls are large and inter-
fere with the actions of the leg, we would recommend
that no treatment should be attempted. The first
appliance to a large wind-gall should be a bandage or
roller of flannel, and under it, immediately over the
swollen parts, a soft pad should be introduced, and
firmly bound down. The bandage should be wetted
with the same kind of lotion recommended in sprain of

lOO MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the back sinews, page 97. This treatment in most
instances will cause the wind-galls to disappear ; but
unfortunately they are liable to return, especially if the
animal is hard worked. A blister is more likely to
effect a cure, as it generally has the power of dispell-
ing the swellings. Firing is still more effectual in large
galls, as it immediately induces absorption of the fluid,
and consequently the swelling disappears, by means
of the contraction of the skin caused by the use
of the cautery ; and this contraction serves the pur-
pose of a permanent bandage, and prevents a recur^
rence of the wind-gall. r'--

RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT,,

Extraordinary exertion will sometimes produce
rupture in the suspensory ligament (see Plate vi, fig.
10, /). This rupture allows the sessamoid bones to
fall down, and consequently the fetlock joint nearly
touches the ground. It not unfrequently happens that
this complaint is mistaken for rupture of the flexor
tendons ; but one thing will render it sufficiently
evident that it is really the suspensory tendon which
is at fault, namely, that the horse is able to bend his
foot. No malady which affects a horse is more serious
than this ; for it is ten to one that the animal ever
becomes effectually cured of it. In most instances he
is ever afterwards lame.

Remedy. — If a cure can at all be effected, it will
be by keeping the animal quiet, and having the leg
bandaged, and giving him a high-heeled shoe with
stays.

GROGGINESS.
This consists of a singular knuckling over the
fetlock joint, and general shaking over the entire fore

STRAIN OF THE FETLOCK tOt

leg. It is a complaint common to old, over- worked
horses. Neither the fetlock or pastern joints are
simply implicated in this complaint, although both are
connected, with it.

Cause. — ^Working the animal beyond his strength
is usually the sole cause of this complaint. It is for
the most part a want of power in the ligaments of this
joint generally occasioned by frequent and severe
sprains, brought on by cruel and oppressive treatment,
in forcing the animal to pull more than his physical
energies can accomplish without a desperate effort.

Remedies. — It seldom happens that an effectual
remedy can be found for this complaint, because it is
generally accompanied by Inflammation of the synovial
membrane and ulcerated disease of the bones within
the joints.

SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK.

The fetlock-joint is peculiarly liable to injuries, from
its being the principal situation of action below the
knee. In sprains of the back sinew, accompanied by
Inflammation, which Is usually the case, inflammation
is often induced in this also. And many of the
sprains which are supposed to belong to higher
portions of the limbs are, in fact, affections of this
joint.

Symptoms. — It is no easy matter to distinguish
affections of the fetlock from those situate In the
superior portions of the limb. Pressure by the finger
on the part, and heat, are the surest tests for finding
out the seat of this complaint, but in some cases
flexion and extension of the fetlock joint, with pres-
sure of the thumb over the back tendons, will elicit
more pain than by any other method.

Treatment. — Strong blisters applied with prompti-

10:i MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

tude are the most effectual means of removing spraiii
of this joint ; and afterwards plastic bandages should
be used.

CUTTING OF THE FETLOCK.

The inside of the fetlock-joint is frequently bruised
or cut by the shoe of the opposite foot. This depends
sometimes upon natural defects in the form of the leg
and foot ; and in such a case it is seldom that a
remedy can be devised ; such as when the limbs are
placed too near each other, or when the feet have an
inward or outward inclination. Some horses are sub-
ject to this when much fatigued, arising, no doubt,
from a relaxation of the joint ; and it is not unfrequent
for colts to cut when they have not attained their full
strength.

Remedies. — Many plans have been tried to remedy
this defect, such as raising or lowering the inside and
outside of the heel, as the case might require it. In
some instances it has succeeded, and in others failed.
In fact no principle can be laid down whereby to guide an
operation for this defect. The most successful remedy
hitherto discovered is to use a shoe of uniform thick-
ness from heel to toe, so that the bearing may be
perfectly level, and to put but one nail in, and that
situated near the toe, inside of the shoe ; this shoe to
be applied to that foot which strikes the other. The
greatest care must be exercised to prevent the shoe
from extending beyond the hoof, besides having the
crust a little rasped off the inside of the hoof Great
care must be taken that the shoe be equal in thickness
on both sides, and also at the heel and toe, so as to
equalise the bearing on both sides. Another method
which sometimes succeeds when other methods fail is
shoeing the animal with light plain shoes, having a

CUTTING OF THE FETLOCK IO3

small heel on the outside turned out thus, and no nails
on the inside quarter.

When the defect arises from natural
malformation of the setting on of the
feet, many experiments have been tried
to remedy this, as above stated ; but
the most ingenious of these were in-
stituted by Mr Moorcroft, by which he adopted a
contrary practice to that above ; he says, "If the
inside of the foot be raised and the outside lowered,
the supporting leg when in action will bring the
body, and consequently the moving leg more to the
side of the supporting leg, and hence more liable to
be struck. On the other hand, if the outside of the
foot be raised, the supporting leg will throw the body
off that leg, consequently the moving leg will be
further off the supporting leg, and hence less liable
to strike." These arguments are good ; but still
there have been cases where the practice of these
suggestions has failed to produce the desired effect.

But cutting does not always arise from natural
defects, as it is often the consequence of unskilful
shoeing. When this is the case, we usually find the
upper edge, or that part which comes in contact with
the crust, to be hammered inwards, leaving the lower
edge on the ground side wider than the hoof, and pro-
jecting beyond it.

In purchasing a horse which manifests marks of
cutting by callous thickening on the inside of the
fetlock, it is safest to avoid the purchase, as it is most
difficult to ascertain the true cause by inspection,
unless the throwing outwards or inwards of the toes be
considerable. Besides, as above stated, some horses
will cut when tired, and others from a weakness of the
fetlock.

I04 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

SPRAIN OF THE COFFIN-JOINT.

This disease is indicated by a sudden lameness ;
and a considerable heat exists round the coronet, as
well as tenderness, which gives the animal pain when
pressed upon. Sprain of the coffin-joint sometimes
becomes a very bad complaint, in consequence of its
being so often unobserved by grooms or even farriers,
and it becomes deeply rooted before it is detected.
Above all others, this complaint is frequently con-
founded with lameness of the shoulder.

Remedies. — The first thing to be tried is hot
fomentations : and afterwards a blister should be ap-
plied, and at the same time the animal should have;
occasional doses of physic. The following laxative
may be given : —

Barbadoes aloes . . 4 to 8 drachms,
Calomel . . . i drachm,
Jalap . , . . ^ drachm ;

to be given in the form of a ball.

RINGBONE.

This is one of the worst species of lameness which ,
is incidental to the horse. Whenever it exists, even
in the slightest degree, it comes under the character of
unsoundness, because it is so liable to increase; and
when the bony deposit begins to enlarge, the lameness
becomes incurable. This complaint commences in
one of the pasterns, and usually near to the joint. It
is liable to spread rapidly. When the first deposit is.,
on and surrounds the lower pastern, emanating from a
violent inflammation of the ligaments, a small enlarge-
ment or bony process is to be perceived immediately
above the coronet (see Plate vi, fig. 8, b). The hind

OSSIFICATION OF THE BACK SINEW tO^

feet are most liable to this complaint, as they are sub-
jected to the greatest stress in the force required by
them to propel the horse, and in this case the back
part of the foot is most liable to be affected. But the
disease is not of so serious a nature, being chiefly con-
fined to the ligaments, and the bones have not been
injured by concussion, to which the fore legs are
peculiarly exposed ; consequently, in them, diseases
of the bones generally accompany ligamentary lame-
ness.

Remedies. — In the early stages of this complaint,
when even a bony enlargement is visible on both
sides of the pastern joint, or on one side only, and the
enlargement is of but small extent, then there is a
probability that it may be removed by the application
of an active blister, or by the use of the cautery. But
owing to the extreme action of these joints, the in-
flammation and the bony secretion rapidly spread,
and then the joints become immovably fixed, or what
is technically termed anchylosed.

OSSIFICATION OF THE BACK SINEW.
Ossification of the back sinew is very easily dis-
tinguished. When a healthy sinew is pressed upon
with the thumb and two first fingers, from above
downwards, it feels like a very tense cord, yielding
slightly under the pressure, but springing back to its
natural position the moment that pressure is removed.
When the sinew is ossified, it is divested of that
elasticity, so obvious to the touch of even the most in-
experienced. It is true that in its incipient state it is
not so readily discovered, as its bony texture has not
been fully formed, although an expert veterinary
surofeon will be able to detect it soon after it has
begun to form. In the earlier stages of ossification of

k

to6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the back sinew, no lameness takes place, but it is
certain to render the horse lame eventually, and that,
too, for the remainder of his life. There is no remedy
for this infirmity, but fortunately it is a rare termina-
tion of disease in a tendon*

CHAPTER VI.
The Haunch and other Portions of the Hmd Legs.

FRACTURE OF THE TUBEROSITIES OF
THE HAUNCH.

The portions of the haunch or pelvis which are most
liable to injury or fracture are the tuberosities on the
points of the various bones. It sometimes happens
that those parts are fractured by a fall or heavy blow.
When such is the case, the horse will walk lame, and
swelling will take place in the contiguous parts, with
a degree of heat, as inflammation is always an accom-
paniment of fracture. There are no mechanical means
of bringing those parts together, to force a reunion
and place them in their natural position ; so that all
we can do is to place the horse in slings and allow
Nature to work her own cure. A large and strong
adhesive plaster may be laid across the haunch, which
will, in some measure, assist in keeping together and
supporting the parts. It seldom, however, happens
that the parts again adhere in their natural position,
consequently deformity and lameness are entailed upon
the animal for life.

SPRAIN OF THE ROUND BONE.

Symptoms. — The rounded termination of the femur
or thigh-bone is in common language termed the
round-bone. In a few isolated cases this part has
been dislocated, and the rounded part which fits into

I08 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the cavity of the hlp-joint is fractured ; but sprain of
this part is more commonly the case. The indication
of this is, that the horse drags his leg after him, with
the toe only touching the ground as he walks. If the
bone itself has been injured, heat and tenderness of
the part will generally be manifested.

Remedies. — It seldom happens that strains of this
joint are immediately relieved ; and from the want of
proper action the muscles of the limb waste away. A
blister is the rriost likely thing to be of use, and the
horse should not be subjected to any kind of work.
Firing has sometimes relieved the complaint. Should
this fail, the only thing that remains to be done is to'
put 2. charge over the joint, or insert a seton. Dress
the seton with cantharides ointment. Change it
weekly, and keep it in for three weeks or a month.

SPRAIN OF THE STIFLE-JOINT.

This joint is frequently sprained. When it does
happen, heat and tenderness of the part will give an
indication of it. Sometimes dislocation of the patella
or small bone, answering to the knee-pan in man,
occurs. This will be indicated by the horse dragging
the limb after him, or by his resting it on the fetlock-
joint, and being unable to flex the joints. The muscles
of the inside of the thigh are sometimes sprained,
which is known by the heat in all the contiguous parts.

Remedies. — For dislocation of the patella, the aid
of a veterinary surgeon will be absolutely necessary.
In case of muscles being sprained, fomentations must
be used, accompanied by doses of laxative medicine,
as recommended at page 112.

THOROUGHPIN IO9

THOROUGHPIN.

k

In treating of wind-galls, we described certain
little bags or sacs, containing a fluid for lubricating
the joints. These, we mentioned, sometimes become
inflamed and enlarged : similar sacs are situated
contiguous to the hock-joint, and these also are
liable to inflammation, and produce swellings of
greater or lesser dimensions immediately under the
strong tendon which unites with the cap of the hock.
These swellings generally protrude on both sides,
in the form of round swellings. Sometimes when
the coverings of the tumour yield more readily in
one direction than another, it will protrude princi-
pally in that part. The nature of the complaint is
precisely the same as wind-galls, but from its situation
has been termed thoroughpin (see Plate vii, fig. 3, e e,
and fig. 5, b, b). These swellings generally produce
stiflhess of the joint, which sometimes wears off when
exercise has induced absorption of the fluid which
these bags contain. However, it is only when the
sacs become large that they occasion any incon-
venience to the action of the limb. Many persons
think thoroughpin of but little consequence ; but after
a hard day's work, a horse will always manifest stiff-
ness in the joint in which these swelHngs exist. And
although a horse cannot strictly be called unsound
which is afflicted with thoroughpin, still a purchaser,
when he notices these, should otherwise examine the
horse with care, to discover, if possible, that they
have not been induced by previous hard work, which
will sooner or later tell on the animal.

Treatment. — The same remedies as recommended
in wind-galls are applicable to this complaint. But.

no MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

there is no certain cure, and hard work is almost
certain to make them reappear.

CAPPED HOCKS.

Capped hock consists of a swelling on the very
point of the hock-joint, due to, in general, an in-
filtration of serum into the cellular tissue underneath
the skin, but in some cases the synovial bursae
are also distended (see Plate vii, fig. 4, a). The
tumour is soft and fluctuating. Lameness seldom
accompanies capped hock, but nevertheless it is an
awkward complaint, particularly in draught-horses,
in consequence of this part being very liable to come
in contact with the bar of a gig or carriage ; and by
causing pain to the animal, induces him to kick, and,
if a high-tempered horse, often causes much mischief.
It is generally produced by blows of some kind ; but
in many instances the injury is inflicted by the horse
himself in kicking, and that when the animal is in
harness, although some are in the habit of kicking
while in the stall. It also occurs sometimes by the
bedding of the horse being too thin, and the hock
may be bruised in consequence.

Treatment. — If the swollen part be hot and
tender apply the following : —

Liquor plumbi subacetatis . . 2 ounces,

Tincture of opium . . . i ounce,

Tincture of arnica . . . i ounce,

Water .15 ounces.

Apply in small quantity, and so as to keep the parts
damp.

Sometimes the swelling disappears without any
other means than rest being employed. But often
capped hock becomes of a very large size, and callous
in its structure, in which case the parts should be

MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS III

painted daily with tincture of iodine until tenderness
is produced ; or an ointment of biniodide of mercury
may be rubbed in in small quantity.

If the horse caps his hocks by kicking at the stall,
fix a large door-mat to each side of the trevis or
partition, and when he kicks it and no sound follows,
he frequently desists. A strap fixed round his pastern
with a few links of a chain and wooden clog at the
end of it, will frequently, by the clog striking the
leg, cure him of his bad habit.

In purchasing a horse which exhibits capped hock,
the whole of the part should be very carefully
examined, in order to ascertain if there are any other
bruises observable. His history should be obtained,
if possible, and learn whether it has been the result
of kicking. Horses that are given to kicking can
seldom or never be broken from the habit.

MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS.

These are scurfy eruptions, situate in the inside
of the hock, a little way under the knee, sometimes
even on it : the former appellation is given to those
of the fore leg, and the latter to the hind leg. These
seldom are accompanied with lameness, but if not
attended to in time, they will ulcerate, when a thin
watery humour will issue from them, which becomes
difficult of cure.

Remedies. — The following ointment must be
applied to the parts affected : —

Common tar . . , i ounce,
Sugar of lead ... J ounce,
Lard .... 4 ounces.

If the above does not stop the discharge in a
week's application, then recourse must be had to the
weak mercurial ointment.

112 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

During the treatment of this complaint, the follow-
ing laxative ball should be occasionally given : —

Barbadoes aloes . . 5 drachms,
Castile soap ... 2 drachms,
Oil of caraways . . 10 drops.

The cause of this complaint is in general owing to
bad stable management and want of washing and
brushing the skin.

ENLARGEMENT OF THE HOCK.
The origin of this is a sprain or inflammation,
affecting generally the hock-joint, produced principally
from some sudden or violent concussion ; checking the
horse abruptly when going at a rapid pace, or from
the animal being compelled to draw a greater weight
than his strength will enable him to do comfortably.
Considerable lameness, with tenderness of the parts,
always accompany this ; but these are not so difficult
to remove as in more limited inflammation. It will
yield to rest and fomentation in general ; but if not,
it will be necessary to have recourse to firing, which
generally proves effectual. However, it too frequently
happens that the enlargement of the whole joint
remains. But this will not incapacitate him for
work ; and if treated with ordinary caution, he may
be worked during the remainder of his life without
any increase of swelling or inflammation returning,
although the parts around the hock-joint are altered
in structure, and to a certain extent weakened.
Although a horse may never afterwards exhibit
lameness, still where permanent swelling of the hock-
joint exists, he is, in point of fact, regarded as un
sound ; because, if he happen by necessity or accident
to be subjected to extra hard work for a day or two,
he is almost certain to become lame, and that too

CURB IJJ

for life. Still, however, many a good and useful
horse has enlargement of the hock.

CURB.

A curb is situated some inches below the point of
the hock (see Plate vii, fig. 3, a, and fig. 8, e), and on
a line with the head of the external small splint-bone
(which head, if extra large, may be mistaken for a
curb)i It is caused by a sprain of the posterior
straight ligament, or an injury (strain) of the flexor
tendons at the same situation. When the limb is
viewed from the side, a gradual puffing out of this
part will be observable ; and if it is at all large or
inflamed, it is sure to be followed by lameness. If
heat and tenderness of the part are perceived, and
the horse is lame, it is certain that it has its seat in
this spot.

The cause of curb, like other injuries of the hock-
joint, proceeds from a sudden check, or over-exertion,
and inducing extension of the ligaments, which bind
down the tendons ; or it may proceed, as stated,
from an injury sustained by the sheaths of the
tendons. This brings on, inflammation, and frequently
lameness ensues. Itrf is ,,n^q^^ .common to young
horses, especially those which are cow-hocked — that
is, with the structure of the hock and leg being like
that of a cow, the hocks having an inward inclina-
tion, and the legs exhibiting a considerable outward
angle. This formation of the limbs, it will be at
once perceived, has the effect of inducing a continual
stretch on the annular ligament, and thereby confining
the action of the tendons. '•

When curb first appears it is generally accompanied
by swelling and lameness : it is seldom, however, that
the swelling is great, exhibiting generally a gradual

H

114 MANUAL OV MODERN FARRIERY

curve, so little to be noticed that, when viewed from
behind, it cannot be observed.

Remedies. — The first application should be cold,
evaporating lotions, frequently used. These to con-
sist of —

Spirit of wine ... 2 ounces,
Vinegar .... 2 ounces,
Water 2 ounces.

This to be often applied until the Inflammation has
subsided. Should the swelling and lameness continue,
a blister of cantharldes, or an ointment of binlodide
of mercury should be applied. If these fail in re-
storing the animal to soundness, then the firing irons
should be used, followed up by a blister ; after
which purgatives must be administered. The follow-
ing should be made up in the form of a ball, and
given : —

Barbadoes aloes ... 5 drachms,
Castile soap .... 3 drachms,
Oil of caraways . . .12 drops.

Long-continued rest is sometimes necessary in
cases of curb, without which the lameness is liable to
return upon the horse being worked.

Horses that have, or have had curb, are decidedly
unsound.

STRING HALT.

This complaint consists of a convulsive or twitch-
ing action in one or more of the legs, and so evident
is it in some subjects that it is perceptible to any one,
however inexperienced he may be in the action of
horses, but in other cases it is only observable when
the animal is made to wheel or turn round quickly and
set back. It is a complaint almost always confined to
the hind legs, although in a few solitary instances it

BONE-SPAVIN 115

may be met with in the fore limbs. The animal
lifts his leg high, sLfddenly elevating it towards his
belly, and puts it to the ground with considerable
force. Should both limbs be affected, then it gives
the appearance as if the horse had very good and high
action in his hind limbs, and many a purchaser has
been deceived in consequence. This shows the utility
of all possessors of horses having a general knowledge
of the complaints incidental to this useful animal.
String-halt may disappear after the horse has been
heated a little, and apparently in some instances
it is no detriment to him after he has been warmed ;
for we have seen and ridden some of the best of
hunters which have had that affection, and which were
first in at the death.

String-halt, pure and uncomplicated, is an affection
of the sacro-sciatic nerve, and legally constitutes un-
soundness, but practically it is, as a rule, a disease
which neither impairs the animal's usefulness, nor
limits his age. Owing to the peculiarity of the action
of the limbs, it may be mistaken and confounded with
the spinal and cranial disease, ** shivering." Both
are hereditary diseases, but the ** shiverer " is always
a bad subject, easily knocked up with work,
always gets worse, and rarely lives above the adult
period of life. String-halt requires no treatment.

BONE-SPAVIN.

A bone-spavin is an increased growth of bony
consistence situated on the lower and most prominent
part of the inside of the hock-joint (see Plate vii, fig.
9, a). A well-formed hock-joint gradually tapers down
so as to unite almost imperceptibly with the soft or
fleshy parts. In examining a horse, the hand should
be passed over the inside of the hock in a downward

U6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

direction, when horses having this injury will be found
to have a little prominence near the lower point of the
bone. This is an enlargement of the bone, and what
is termed bone-spavin. It is a disease of the inner
splint-bone, but in many cases ultimately it affects more
or less all the small bones of the hock.

The true nature and causes which induce bone-
spavin cannot be properly understood without a
thorough knowledge of the hock-joint, which we
have represented on Plate viii, fig. i. In this figure
the shank-bone is represented at b, and the two small
bones behind at g are the splint-bones ; these support
the lower layer of the bones of the hock. The cube*
bone, f, rest chiefly on the shank-bone, and in a slight
measure on the outer splint-bone. The middle wedge-
bone, e, rests entirely upon the shank-bone, and the
smaller wedge-bone rests in a slight degree on the
shank-bone, but its chief support is on the inner
splint-bone. From this arrangement the splint-bones
support a very unequal degree of weight and con-
cussion. The inner one is placed more under the
body, and consequently nearer the centre of gravity,
and besides nearly the entire weight and concussion is
communicated to the little wedge-bone. Hence it is
that during any violent action of this Joint either in
leaping, galloping, or under the pressure of a heavy
draught, the inner splint-bone or its ligaments are
injured. This is more especially the case with young
horses before their joints have become firmly con-
solidated. ^'''> i-> -'^'^

The shoeing blacksmith or YaVfier too often is th^
cause of inducing and increasing this complaint, by
improper treatment of the feet. An erroneous notion
has too long prevailed among smiths that cutting and
wounds of the feet inflicted by the one foot treading

BONE-SPAVIN 1 17

upon the other can be prevented by adding a calkin on
the outer heel of the shoe, which consists in the
extremity of the shoe being bent, elevating the
outer heel considerably above the ground, and thus
the ligaments of the joints are subjected to an unequal
strain, and especially those of the hock, which in-
creases the tendency to spavin.

It is this which induces, in the first instance, inflam-
mation of the cartilaginous union of the shank-bone,
and this cartilage is absorbed, and a secretion of bony
substance deposited in its stead ; consequently the
elastic action between them is terminated, and the
splint inside the hind leg formed, and has the appear-
ance of a tumour, when the head of the splint-bone
is united with the shank, and always in front of that
junction, as exhibited in Plate vii, fig. 3, c.

Lameness generally accompanies spavin during its
growth, but when the periosteum or membrane of the
bone has been stretched, and taken the form of the
bony enlargement, then the pain subsides, and with it
the lameness. Many instances occur of horses with
large spavins, and yet they are not much affected with
lameness ; sometimes having merely a stiffness of the
joint, which is not apparent after the animal has had a
little exercise. And, on the contrary, there are in-
stances in which the bony deposit is very small, and
yet the horse is very lame, so much so as to render
him comparatively useless. In all such cases it will
be found that the growth, large or small, or entirely
awanting, is associated with ulcerative disease of at
least two of the small bones of the hock, and removal
of the cartilage which clothes and protects their glid-
ing surfaces. The worst form of spavin (or so-called
occult spavin) is characterised by an absence of bony
growth. It must therefore be evident that we ought

Il8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

carefully to examine horses with suspected spavin
before they have had exercise, and as soon as they
have left the stable.

Sometimes spavin continues to enlarge consider-
ably, and spreads over the lower wedge-bones
(Plate VII, fig. 8, e) in consequence of these being
nearest the original seat of the enlargement. These
bones are capable of a small degree of motion, and
participate in every action of the joint, but their chief
office is to prevent concussion. The principal motion
of the joint is in the tibia, ^, and the astragalus, c,
and consequently stiffness more than lameness may
accompany spavin, even when the small bones of the
joint are affected. From which also it will be seen
that there is a manifest advantage in each of these
bones being provided with a separate ligament and
membrane, and thus, as it were, constituting so many
separate joints ; so that any of them may sustain
injury without its being communicated to the rest. It
is not uncommon for the bony deposit continuing to
enlarge, and embracing the second series of bones,
enveloping the larger wedge-bones, ^, and extending
to the cube-bones on the other side ; and even then
the lameness may not be so great as to prove very
injurious, for this reason, that the motion of these
two joints, or rather parts of the joint, is small ; but
when it reaches to the union of the tibia, d, and the
astragalus, c, when the joint in which the principal
motion of the joint is affected, then the lameness is of
a very serious kind, and the horse may be considered
as no longer fit for use.

Although spavin unfits horses for active employ-
ment, yet for farm purposes they need not be rejected,
especially by those who possess limited farms ; for
slow draught and other agricultural purposes they

BOG-SPAVIN 119

will be found quite useful, and from this sort of work,
in which quick motion is not required, the horse may-
improve, and even the bony matter may be absorbed
to a considerable extent.

One strong reason why spavined horses do not
improve is that they seldom lie down, as they are
conscious that they will suffer considerable pain in the
act of rising again ; so that the continual pressure and
weight of the body upon the limb keeps alive the ex-
citing cause.

There is sometimes an enlargement of the heads
of the bones of the leg, which may be mistaken for
spavin.

Remedies. — Spavin can only be successfully treated,
if at all, by blisters frequently repeated, which may
induce an absorption of the bony deposit, or at least
a diminution of the ligamentary inflammation. When
this fails, then recourse may be had to the cautery,
but no horse should be subjected to the suffering
implied in blistering and firing until the seat of lame-
ness and the character of the disease has been decided
by an experienced veterinary surgeon.

BOG-SPAVIN

Is the name given to a distension of the capsule of
the true hock-joint. This distension is of frequent
occurrence in cart horses, young and old. It may be
due to conformation, debility, want of exercise, and
entire absence of disease of the joint, or it may be
dependent on an injury, and associated with more or
less congestion and inflammation (synovitis). Bog-
spavin constitutes a legal unsoundness, but in the
majority of cases the animal is practically a sound
animal, and in not a few the swelling of the hocks
disappears. It may be a grave malady, or a condition

I20 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

of little importance, and the experienced veterinary
surgeon is tlae individual who alone. icaai decide /the
point. : lid Vo • yr:} btu: ,l5VO^q^^:;

Remedies. — In those cases where from conformation
(straight hind limbs), the capsule of the joint appears
conspicuous, no treatment should be attempted, as it
is an impossibility to alter the shape. On the con-
trary, where the fullness of the hock or hocks is de-
pendent on debility or want of exercise, tonics, good
food, and regular exercise will be attended with benefit.
An india-rubber bandage to give pressure is also of
use. If the swelling persists, apply the following with
a stiff brush, and repeat daily for some time, viz. : —

>^i. ('"Soft soap . . . . ^Ib.,
ff )ir[ vStockholm tar . . . Jib.,

Tinct. of iodine ... 2 ounces.

In those cases in which the distended capsules and in-
creased synovial secretion is associated with pain and
lameness, complete rest should be given, the hock-joints
fomented, and thereafter rubbed with hot camphor and
arnica lotion. After the inflammation has subsided
stimulating embrocations and blisters may be employed,
but their application should be under the guidance of
the veterinary adviser.

OF SWELLED LEGS GENERALLY.

SWELLING OF THE CELLULAR SUBSTANCE.

Both the fore and hind legs of horses are liable to
considerable swelling, but the latter are most subject
to be thus affected. Frequently, when a horse seems
to be affected with no other disease, the hind legs will
suddenly swell to a very great extent from the hock to
the fetlock, and in some instances even from the stifle
downwards. This is accompanied by heat and ex-

OF SWELLED LEGS GENERALLY 121

trenie tenderness of the skin, Inducing lameness of a
peculiar character. A quickened and hard pulse are
usual concomitants of this seizure, with a considerable
degree of fever. This complaint is acute inflammation
of the cellular substance of the limbs, being sudden in
its attack, very violent in its degree, is consequently
attended with the secretion of a quantity of fluid on
the cellular tissue. Young horses, and those which
are over-fed, with little exercise, are most liable to be
thus attacked, and without having had previous, in-
flammation. J>'n^t;»ir:iff,F.i; -rl

Remedies. — If accompanied by fever, the following
diuretic should be given : —

Potass, nitrate ... 3 drachms,

Ginger J drachm,

Linseed meal .... J ounce ;

made into a ball with common syrup.

Twelve hours afterwards give the following purga-
tive, in the form of a ball : —

Barbadoes aloes ... 5 drachms,

Castile soap . . . . i J drachm.
Oil of caraways ... 8 drops.

Also use fomentations, and in most instances the
swelling will subside as rapidly as it appeared.

SWELLING FROM INACTIVITY.

The most troublesome, as well as the most frequent
swelling in the limbs, is that caused by inactivity,
from high feeding and want of due exercise. One
kind is accompanied by actual or comparative debility,
or loss of power in the part affected. Those horses
which are over-fed, without exercise, are liable to
swellings in the limbs from the parterial caillary

122 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

vessels having sent forth an over-portion of fluid to
the extremities, and in consequence of the want of
muscular exertion and the perspiration naturally con-
nected with it ; and the fluids having accumulated in
the extremities in consequence of the vessels not
having sufficient power to return them. The heart is
thus acting upon an additional quantity of fluid ; while
by the want of exercise, the limbs are deprived of that
power by which the fluids are returned.

Remedies. — The above physic and diuretic should
be administered. These will lessen the quantity of
fluid ; also exercise the horse freely, which will in-
crease the perspiration externally, and diminish it
internally, and the veins and absorbents will attain
more activity, so that the complaint will gradually
subside, and the limbs resume their wonted appear-
ance.

SWELLINGS AFTER GRASS.

It is a common occurrence for horses just taken in
from grass to be seized with swelling in the legs.
This is occasioned by the difference of food, owing to
its containing a greater proportion of nutriment, which
naturally increases the quantity of the blood, and the
want of that exercise which is necessary to carry it off
by the skin. It will therefore be quite apparent that
exercise and a little opening medicine will effect a
cure.

Horses may also have swelled legs from general
debility. The proper quantity or quality of food may
induce this, or it may proceed from disease that has
reduced the strength of the animal system. The
limbs, being the most remote from the centre of cir-
culation, first exhibit loss of power ; and this is mani-

GREASE 123

fested by swelling, in consequence of the accumulation
of fluids in them.

The cure in this case would be to give such diet
and tonic medicines as would tend to invigorate the
system, as well as to administer mild diuretics.

Horses are liable to swellings in the limbs in the
spring and fall of the year. This can be accounted
for by the principal activity of the circulation being
employed in preparing a fresh covering of hair at those
periods, so that the vital influence in the extremities is
somewhat diminished, and the same cause as above
explained produces swellings in the legs. Administer
diuretics to diminish the quantity of the circulating
fluid, and give cordials to strengthen the system.

Swelling of the legs is also common to horses which
are used for hunting and pleasure only. This, it will
be seen, arises from irregularity in their habits, one
day having a more than sufficient exercise, and prob-
ably standing for days or weeks in a stable, and only
walked out or trotted for a short distance. In such
cases the limbs should be well rubbed down every
day, both morning and evening, so as to stimulate
the vessels to activity. Pressure by means of ban-
dages will also be found to have a powerful tendency
to promote the circulation. It is too much the
practice of grooms to give diuretics in swellings of
the limbs, as these, by being frequently repeated, are
sure to weaken the urinary organs and produce an
incurable debility.

GREASE.

This is a disease of the skin of the heel, sometimes
in the fore feet, but most commonly in the hind ones.
The disease is too frequently the effect of washing the
limbs with cold water while they are over-heated from

1^4 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

exercise, and allowing them to dry of their own accord ;
the consequent reaction after the application of cold
being very great, produces inflammation. Another
cause is taking a horse into a warm stable in winter,
when the legs have been chilled by excessive cold
from standing.

Grease is not contagious, yet it has been known to
affect all the horses of a stable at the same time, after
one has been seized with the complaint. This can
only be accounted for by bad stable management.
The skin of the heel is considerably different in its
texture from that of other parts of the legs. The
fetlock is subjected to a greater degree of motion and
friction than any other joint, and it is provided with a
soft unctuous matter to keep it from chapping or ex-
coriation, which can be easily felt to be greasy to the
touch. When inflammation ensues, this greasy ex-
udation stops, and the heel exhibits a red, dry, and
mealy appearance ; and in consequence of the con-
tinual motion of this joint, cracks soon make their
appearance ; these increasing considerably, present an
entire mass of sores, which ulcerate very much and
assume a fungus-like appearance.

It is easy to account for the tendency of the skin of
the heels to violent inflammatory attacks, which arises
from its being so remote from the centre of the cir-
culation, and also its constant exposure to extreme
variations of temperature. In the first place, when
standing in the stable the feet are subjected to a great
degree of heat, from being at all times surrounded
with straw, and then when the door is opened his
heels, in many instances, being close to the door, are
exposed to any cold draught which may rush in ; and
then he may be taken from the stable to the open air
and walked through soft and cold mud after being

GREASE ^aS

over-heated, and thereby chilled. It is easy then to
see that they are constantly liable to inflammatory
attacks by being thus exposed to sudden transitions
from one temperature to another, and hence the
difficulty of subduing those attacks of inflammation to
which the horse is liable. jj

Farmers' and carriers' horses, and indeed those in
general which are worked in carts, are not so liable
to grease as riding and carriage-horses, being less ex-
posed to those extreme transitions from heat to cold,
or vice versa. And the hair, which is usually allowed
to grow plentifully at the heels, is a great protection
against sudden changes.

Remedies. — The first thing to be done is to wash
the heel well with soap and warm water, and remove
as much of the white scurf as possible. When it has
become perfectly dry, which should be acccomplished
by rubbing, then the following ointment should .b^
applied until the parts are healed : —

Lard . . . . i ouilce^
Sugar of lead, well pounded i drachm.

In cases where cracks appear, the treatment will
greatly depend upon their extent and depth : when
they are small, the following lotion will be found
beneficial :-—

Blue vitriol (or sulphate of copper) 2 drachms,
Water i pint ;'

or four drachrti^ of' alum may be substituted for the
vitriol, with the same quantity of water. This will
speedily dry them up and close them. When the
cracks are large and deep, and discharge an ichorous
matter, accompanied with considerable lameness, a
poultice of linseed meal will be indispensable ; but
when the discharge is thin and accompanied by ,a

126 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

fetid smell, it will be necessary to mix an ounce of
finely powdered charcoal with the linseed meal, as it
is a powerful antiseptic. The poultices to be applied
until the inflammation has abated, and a thicker and
more healthy matter flows from the cracks. After
this apply the following ointment : —

Resin

I ounce,

Calamine powder

I ounce,

Lard

3 ounces.

Let the resin and lard be melted together, and when
sufficiently incorporated, allow the mixture to stand
until nearly cold, then add the calamine, and stir them
well together. This precaution is necessary, as the
calamine would fall to the bottom if the mixture were
thin. During the time of the above application, the
cracks should be frequently washed with the solution,
which will stimulate them to heal more speedily.
Administer the following diuretic : —

Turpentine ... J ounce,

Ginger .... J ounce,

Purified nitre ... J ounce,

Linseed meal . . . | ounce.

Three hours afterwards let the following laxative
be given : —

Barbadoes aloes ... 4 drachms,
Castile soap .... J drachm.
Oil of caraways . . .10 drops.

When the cracks have been healed up, the legs
will sometimes continue swelled. In this case a
bandage will be found of much advantage. But
nothing is better than turning the animal out to grass,
if the season of the year is favourable. Frequently
the cracks spread over the whole heel and fetlock, or
up the limb, as is sometimes the case ; and while the

GREASE 127

leg is considerably swollen, accompanied by a dis-
charge of a thin watery matter from the cracks, and
makes its appearance also in other parts of the limb,
accompanied by great heat, so much so that the heels
smoke, the skin being so hot that the watery fluid
partly evaporates as it oozes from the cracks or
through the skin.

In the above state it would be attended with very
bad consequences to stop the discharge suddenly.
The first thing to be attended to is to allay the in-
flammation, and nothing is better calculated to do so
than poultices, as already recommended, particularly
those of carrots. When the heat, tenderness, and
stiffness have abated, then the astringent, already
recommended, should be used ; but that made of
alum, or a strong decoction of bark, are the best.
Indeed, it would be preferable to use these lotions
alternately, but not a mixture of the two. The
ointment above named should be used for dressing
the cracks, and as soon as the horse can bear the
pressure without pain, a flannel bandage should be
applied, extending from the coronet to some inches
above the swelling.

From this period mild doses of medicine and
diuretics should be given, accompanied by a third
part of cordial mixture, which is composed of the
following ingredients : —

Caraway powder

•

•

8 ounces,

Bruised resins .

.

.

8 ounces,

Ginger .

•

,

4 ounces.

Palm-oil .

.

.

4 ounces ;

to be well beaten into a pulp.

If the horse is of a full habit of body, physic should
always be given before diuretics, and in some in-
stances it will be prudent to abstain entirely from

12-8 MANUAL OP MODERN FARRIERV

giving the latter ; but in cases where the animal is
much debilitated, diuretics with the above pulp will
be preferable. It will also be necessary to attend
carefully to the feeding of horses at this time. Green
meat will be found the best, and carrots are still
better, and a very moderate quantity of corn, so that
the tendency to fever may be kept down. The next
essential is proper exercise, and care must be taken
not to overdo it ; and when the animal has been
walked for some days, he may be afterwards exercised
at a gentle trot.

There is a much worse kind of grease than that
which We have just described and prescribed for,
although it is not so common. In this species the
ulceration spreads over the skin of the heel and the
entire fetlock, and a highly sensitive fungus protrudes
from both, mixed with scales : it is irritable in the
extreme, and bleeds on the slightest touch. In a
short time this fungus assumes a covering of a horny
texture, projecting in the form of knobs and in con-
gregated bunches, which, from their peculiar similarity
to grapes, have acquired that name. From the entire
surface of this callous substance issues a discharge
of a peculiar fetid matter. In this complaint the
horse suffers great pain and uneasiness, and quickly
loses flesh. It would not be safe for any one but a
veterinary surgeon to attempt a cure for this loathsome
complaint.

CHAPTER VII.

Diseases of the Foot.

The diseases of the feet in horses are more numerous,
and of a more complex nature than the inexperienced
can have any idea of. The structure of the foot is
very complicated, and having to sustain the weight
of so heavy an animal, besides being exposed to the
chances of many injuries, a knowledge of these is of
paramount importance, both as regards the safety
of the proprietor and the intrinsic value of the animal.
When, therefore, we arrive at the anatomical descrip-
tion of the horse, we shall dwell at some length upon
the structure of the foot as well as of the pastern.

ACUTE FOUNDER.

Inflammation of the foot has been denominated
** acute founder." It is the cause of many other
diseases, and is more or less connected with them
all.

Inflammation of the sensible lamellae, or fleshy
plates on the front and sides of the coffin-bone, is
the cause of acute founder. These lamellae are
thickly intersected with blood-vessels, like every other
vascular part ; and, consequently, from their exposure
to violent and long-continued action, they are elon-
gated and strained, more especially when the hoofs
have been subjected to a day's journey on a hard
road. It is easy to imagine that if, after the feet

I

130 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

have been thus heated, they should be washed and
not immediately and thoroughly dried, or the animal
allowed to stand, with his feet exposed to a cold
draught of any kind, that inflammation is likely to
ensue from this sudden change of temperature. This
observation is equally applicable to the change from
cold to heat.

Symptoms. — Inflammation in the feet is manifested
by restlessness and fidgety action of the fore legs,
frequently shifting the weight of resting from the one
to the other, and the exhibition of great unwillingness
to " set back " when made to do so. But there is no
appearance of pawing, or of elevating the hind legs
towards the belly, as in colic and other intestinal
complaints. The pulse will rise to a pretty rapid
state, the flanks v/ill heave, and the inside of the
nostrils will become very red, his countenance will
exhibit an anxious expression, and that he is suflering
pain will be indicated by moaning. He will then
scrutinise his litter, as if indicating a wish to lie down,
but will not do so immediately, from an apparent
fear of drawing his limbs together. He still continues
to shift the pressure of his weight from one foot to
the other, until impelled by pain and fatigue he at
length lies down. There is a marked distinction in
respect to his lying down between this and inflamma-
tion of the lungs, for in the latter complaint the horse
never lies down until he drops under the influence of
complete exhaustion. When a horse which is affected
with inflammation of the feet lies down, he invariably
rests quietly, because the pain is so much relieved by
the removal of the weight of his body ; whereas in colic
and inflammation of the bowels, he kicks and rolls
about violently, and his constantly looking at the part
affected as clearly shows the seat of the disease. A

ACUTE FOUNDER I3I

little attention to these will soon point out to the
inexperienced where the malady exists.

After these symptoms have been manifested, the
first thing to be done is to examine the foot, when
it will be found very hot. Tap gently on the foot
with a hammer, and the horse will express pain at
the same time. The effects of inflammation in the
foot are very rapid, and but a short time will elapse
before the horse will be quite unable to get up, unless
some means are adopted to check the progress of the
complaint. Even when horses have been forced up
while thus afflicted, they have been known to fall
down immediately, from the intensity of pain which
they suffered by resting on their feet.

Remedies. — If the animal attacked is robust, and
the pulse hard and full, blood may be abstracted from
the jugular vein. After this large poultices of linseed
meal and bran should be applied, so as to cover
the entire foot and pastern, and these ought to be
frequently renewed, and every three hours have
hot water poured over them. The shoe should be
removed, and the sole pared as thin as possible. This
operation should be done as gently as possible, as
in founder the pain experienced from the excessive
inflammation is very great. This having been ac-
complished, recourse must be had to very mild
purgatives. The following may be given in the
form of a ball : —

Barbadoes aloes ... 4 drachms,
Calomel i drachm.

Inflammation of the foot is always accompanied
by intense fever, and there is a danger of the in-
flammation shifting from the feet to the bowels or
lungs ; as it is no uncommon occurrence for horses

132 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

labouring under inflammation of the feet to have
that suddenly transferred to the lungs, or vice versd.
In such a case it might, and indeed often proves
fatal to the animal. It is therefore probably safer
to have recourse to sedative medicines at first. The
following febrifuge and sedative drink may be
given : — ■

Liquor ammonia acetas ... 4 ounces,

Nitric ether 2 ounces,

Tincture of aconite . . . '15 drops,
Water i pint.

Repeat this every eight hours until the tempera-
ture (fever) falls to normal, 101° Fahrenheit.

It should on no account be attempted to force
a horse to rise, as the animal will not lie longer
than is necessary for his recovery, and every symptom
of lameness should be gone before walking exercise
is attempted. A month or two's run at grass will
be attended with much advantage after founder.

No disease is more to be dreaded than violent
inflammation of the foot, as, even with the utmost
attention to remedy the complaint, very bad conse-
quences result from it. One of these, of frequent
occurrence, is loss of the hoof. The first symptom
of this is the appearance of a small separation
between the coronet and the hoof. Great attention
to this is necessary, as the horn thus separated will
never reunite with the parts beneath, but the
separation will continue to extend downwards, until
entire disunion is effected and the hoof is ultimately
lost. This is a most serious affair ; for although a
new hoof wnW be formed, the pedal bone having
descended can never be replaced, and in consequence
the sole of the hoof is convex instead of concave,

CONTRACTION 1 33

can bear no weight, and the mode of progression is
cnanged.

The treatment of founder is so difficult and its
results so serious for the poor animal, that apart
from pecuniary interests, it should only be entrusted
to a veterinarian, if one can be found.

CHRONIC FOUNDER.

Chronic founder is merely a conventional term,
adopted by farriers to express those changes which
take place in the foot of the horse in disease
brought on by bad shoeing or mismanagement in
some way or other. In fact, it is a word too
frequently used as a cloak by ignorant pretenders.

CONTRACTION.

To enable persons to judge of the perfect and
healthy state of the foot of a horse, they should
examine those feet of young horses in the natural
condition which have not been shod or worked in
any way. We have given a representation of the
sole of a sound foot (Plate vi, fig. 12). It will be
seen that it is very nearly circular, and is somewhat
widest towards the quarters ; the inner one is a very
little wider than the outer. This form, however,
seldom continues long ; for the foot increases in
length and gradually becomes narrow in the quarters,
more especially at the heel, when the frog becomes
contracted. The entire foot assumes a greater con-
cavity, and the heels become higher. To those
unacquainted with the different parts of the sole,
we refer to the above figure for their form. The
crust is represented at a a; the sole, b; the bars,
c c ; the frog, d d.

Contraction may exist without inducing lameness ;

134 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

nor does shoeing always promote this narrowing of
the foot, although it is in many instances the source
of contraction when unskilfully performed.

Cause. — The cause of contraction, or rather
alteration of the shape and size of the horse's hoof,
is one which has given rise to much discussion.
Some veterinarians deny that it ever is a cause of
lameness, and at the worst it Is but a symptom of
a diseased condition. The feet of any and all breeds
of horses, if shod with heels on their shoes, become
contracted, because the frogs (whose function It is
to keep the heels open) are removed from pressure,
and coming in contact with the ground. As the
frogs atrophy the heels "wire in," and the animal
has undoubtedly in time a foot with small frogs
and small heels, as compared to what they were
before he first wore shoes with heels ; but take off
the shoes and turn the animal to grass, or shoe
him with ** Charller shoes " (which have only a small
web and no heels), and the heels and frogs will
come back to their normal shape and size.

It is a grand mistake for persons allowing the
shoes of horses to remain on longer than three weeks
or a month. Whether the shoes are worn or not,
they should be taken off, and the toes of the feet
shortened, and the heels lowered with the rasp.
Without this precaution the feet must become mal-
formed. I have known instances where riding-
horses have been so seldom ridden or exercised,
that their shoes have lasted three and even four
months, and were not removed during this time,
proceeding in some cases from the parsimony of the
owners, and in others from their ignorance of the
evil effects which would result therefrom. In some
instances the shoes were made thicker than was

SAND-CRACK t$$

necessary, consequently the animal subjected to
carrying superfluous weight, besides being tightly
fastened on and provided with an extra number of
nails, and these too at the quarters. All of which
increase the tendency to thickening. It is perfectly
clear that without due attention to the above points,
in proportion to the degree of neglect, so will the
evil consequences increase, and the hoof must contract
and close up the foot round the coronet. It is a
notorious fact that low-heeled horses are seldom liable
to contraction of the hoof

Nothing can be more injudicious than to remove
the bars, as they are a grand protection against con-
traction, their use being principally to prevent wiring
in, so that cutting them away Is certain to facilitate
and greatly increase the contraction after It has
begun ; but we must not have It supposed that the
removal of the bars of themselves would produce this
tendency.

It has been said that thrushes are often the cause
of contraction, but they are more frequently. If not
altogether, the consequence rather than the cause.

Many persons are disposed to have an undue
objection to contraction, and at once reject a horse
that exhibits the slightest degree of wiring in of
the quarters. There can be little doubt but this
is a malformation of the hoof; but one thing is
certain, that Its growth is very slow, the altered
form extremely gradual, and the parts are progress-
ively accommodated to the change of form.

SAND-CRACK.
This is a downward crack, or division of the
hoof, as represented on Plate vi, fig. 8, ^. It may
occur either in the fore or hind feet. In the fore

136 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

feet they are usually found In the inner quarter,
although they sometimes exist in the outer quarter.
The reason why the quarters are most liable to
this is, that the chief stress of the foot is where it
expands, and the inner quarter is v/eaker than the
outer. Sand-crack almost always occurs in the front
of the hoof in the hind feet, occasioned by the
pressure applied by the toe in progressive motion,
especially when the animal is dragging a heavy load
behind him, and more particularly on an ascent.

Hoofs that crack in this manner are brittle In
the crust, which Is an extremely bad defect, and is
caused by a want of that nutriment necessary to
keep the crust supple. It also proceeds from disease
in the foot. It may besides occur from a false step
or over-exertion, or galloping on hard ground.

Sometimes the crack is only superficial, and does
not extend through the hoof, In which case it occa-
sions no lameness. It will, however, require atten-
tion, as, if neglected, it may reach the quick, and
occasion much trouble.

Remedies. — When sand-crack is occasioned by
brittleness of the hoof, let the following composition
be rubbed into the crust twice a day until it be-
comes pliable : —

Oil of tar . . . , 2 ounces,

Common fish-oil . , . 4 ounces.

In a superficial crack it should be pared and
rasped entirely out ; and if It has been of consider-
able depth, it ought to be strengthened by a coating
of pitch, applied so thick as to replace all that has
been rasped off, and formed so as to represent the
natural shape of the foot. Indeed, rasping ought
to be had recourse to with every crack, so as to

SAND-CRACK t37

ascertain its depth. Should it be found to pene-
trate through the crust without occasioning lameness,
and is situated low down on the foot, recourse must
be had to a red-hot firing iron, which should be
drawn across the hoof, both above and below the
crack, so as to prevent it from extending. The
edges ought thereafter to be thinned, to prevent any
pressure which might cause pain to the tender parts
below ; and it must be bound up, taking care to
avoid pressure immediately beneath the crack.
Neither must the shoe be allowed to press upon
the part below.

Should lameness proceed from the crack having
penetrated through the hoof, the cure is much more
difficult. The first thing to be done is to examine
the parts, to ascertain whether any sand or dirt has
got in and has reached the quick below, and the
crack thoroughly cleaned out. If proud-flesh is
found in it, an application of chloride of antimony
must be used to destroy it, and the edges of the
crack must be considerably thinned. Some veteri-
nary surgeons have used the cautery ; but this has
a tendency to thicken the edges of the horn and
render it rough, which is liable to irritate the tender
portions below. After the fungus has been de-
stroyed, it will be necessary to apply the iron above
and below, as recommended in a superficial crack.
A pledget of tow should be put into the crack, and
another over it, and then firmly tied down, and
not examined until the third or fourth day after.
If the proud-fiesh has not been eaten away, it will
be necessary to apply the caustic again. On the
other hand, if the crack is quite dry and exhibits
a hard horny crust, the pitch-plaster should be im-
mediately applied. Bees'-wax is considered prefer-

138 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

able by some, and the crack carefully filled with it.
The wax must be applied warm ; and to fill the
crack properly, it is necessary to draw the heated
cautery slightly over it. This gentle pressure will
contribute to the healthy granulation of fresh horn,
and at the same time prevent the access of sand or
dirt, and also cold or wet, or the influence of the
atmosphere from reaching the tender parts of the
foot.

The worst case of crack is caused by tread, which
divides the coronet ; and where this is imperfect the
horn or crust will grow down divided, because the
growth of horn proceeds from the coronary ligament.
The mode of cure which has been most successful
in this crack has been to draw the heated cautery
over the division of the coronet. This will be
followed with some degree of inflammation ; a scab
will form on the part, which in a few days will fall
off, when it will be found that no traces of the
division will be visible, and fresh and sound horn
will speedily grow downwards. When division of
the horn at the coronet takes place, it requires five
or six months to effect a cure. When the horn has
grown downwards for an inch, the animal may be
turned out, taking care that the part is well de-
fended by a clambered pitch-plaster, which should
be replaced by a new one as often as it separates
from the hoof. At the same time a clambered shoe
should be applied, but it must not press upon the
hoof immediately under the crack. During the time
the horse is subjected to surgical treatment for this
complaint, he must have perfect rest, otherwise the
cure will undoubtedly be protracted.

In purchasing a horse, it is absolutely necessary
to examine with care the inner quarter of the feet,

THE NAVICULAR-JOINT DISEASE 1 39

as it is very common for low, unprincipled dealers
to cover over sand-cracks so neatly with pitch, and
afterwards along the whole hoof, that it is so com-
pletely concealed, as not to be observable except by
a narrow inspection.

THE NAVICULAR-JOINT DISEASE.

Behind and beneath the lower pastern-bone, and
behind and above the heel of the coffin-bone, is
placed a small bone, called the navicular bone.
(See Plate vi, fig. 10, e.) The use of this bone is to
support and strengthen the union between the
lower pastern and the coffin-bone, and to assist the
flexor tendon in its action as it passes over it, in
order to be inserted into the bottom of the coffin-bone,
and forms a sort of joint with that tendon. The
navicular bone is subjected to much pressure, as is
also this tendon ; and besides, there is much play
between them in the bending and extension of the
pasterns.

Cause. — Like many other complaints of the
horse, this is often induced by sudden and
violent exercise after the animal has been allowed
to stand in the stable inactive. The parts not
being for some time adapted to overstrained action,
there may be too much play between the bone and
the tendon, and by concussion of the parts the
synovial membrane which covers the tendon and
forms the bursae may be bruised ; or the cartilage
of the bone may be inflamed, and thus produce
destruction of it, and cause a lameness of the most
painful description. From the navicular bone being
so obscurely situated, it is difficult to ascertain by
inspection when it is diseased. And this has
puzzled many to find out the cause of lameness

140 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

emanating from it, and has too often been attri-
buted to the shoulder. Indeed, the action of the
horse with this lameness has all the appearance of
being seated in the shoulder. Of late years the
attention of veterinary colleges has been particularly
directed to this point, and it has been found in
numerous cases of dissection that this is the seat
of this lameness, which has deceived and puzzled
so many persons, both learned and unlearned. The
membrane covering the bone has been found
highly inflamed, and the cartilage itself completely
ulcerated, and even the bones in a state of decay.
Besides this, bony adhesions have often taken place
between the navicular bone and the pastern, which
consequently render this joint altogether unservice-
able.

Remedies. — Like some other diseases incidental
to the horse, the cure of this is very uncertain. A
poultice should be applied to allay the inflammation,
and the bowels should be kept open. The following
purgative should be given in the form of a ball,
and repeated in a week : —

Barbadoes aloes . . .5 drachms,
Castile soap , ... 2 drachms,
Oil of caraways . . .8 drops.

The ball should be formed with a little linseed-
meal and treacle.

If this complaint is discovered at its commence-
ment, and before ulceration of the articular cartilage
has taken place, a cure may be effected ; but, on
the contrary, if the cartilage is ulcerated before
remedies are applied, the difficulty in eradicating
it will be exceedingly great, if not impossible.
Caries of the bone is certain to take place, and

FALSE QUARTER I4I

that condition can never be changed. Blistering
the coronet has been found beneficial in assisting a
cure, by removing the inflammation. Setons passed
through the part, as contiguous to the seat of the
disease as possible, have either lessened the com-
plaint or entirely removed it.

But this disease is altogether of so delicate a
nature, that we would not advise its cure to be
attempted by an unskilful person, as it is one of
those which can only be successfully taken up by
an experienced veterinary surgeon.

As in all other inflammatory diseases, there is
heat in the seat of the navicular bone, and probably
in the whole foot. In this complaint the animal
suffers much pain, to alleviate which we would
recommend neurotomy, or cutting out a portion of
the nerve, which has in some instances very much
reduced the lameness. But at all events it will
lessen the sufferings of the horse. In cases of
extreme lameness, either with or without contrac-
tion, then it would be injudicious to resort to this
operation ; because, if there was ulceration of the
membrane or decay of the bone, the increased
friction, in consequence of the freer action given to
the parts, the feeling of pain being removed, would
cause these to progress more rapidly, until complete
disorganisation of the foot took place ; or in all
probability the tendon itself would be gradually
worn through by rubbing against the roughened
surface of the decayed bone.

FALSE QUARTER.

When the coronary substance is severely cut or
divided, and has sloughed off, it is termed false
quarter. In some instances it is destroyed by the

142 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

application of caustic applied to other wounds and
sores of the foot ; when this is the case there will
be a division of the horn as it grows down, having
all the appearance of a sand-crack, or one portion
of the horny substance will overlap the other.
This is a very bad defect in the foot, and often oc-
casions lameness, and there is very great difficulty
in curing it. The coronary substance is that by
which the horn of the hoof is secreted ; conse-
quently what must be first attempted is to restore
it to the discharge of its healthy function.

Remedies. — Caustic has been used in many
instances, and found effectual ; but nevertheless it
is a dangerous remedy, as it has often proved very
injurious. Blisters have also been successfully tried,
but they are too often found not to be sufficiently
active. The remedy which has proved most suc-
cessful is the heated cautery carefully applied to the
injured part. The edges of the horn on both sides
of the crack should be thinned down, and a thick
plastering of pitch spread over the parts so as
to hold them closely together, as well as to support
the hoof. This plaster to be kept on undisturbed
for at least fourteen days, and then the parts
should be carefully examined, to ascertain the con-
dition of the coronet, and whether union of the
parts has taken place. Should adhesion not be
begun, then it must again be covered up and not
looked at for eight days, by which time it will
have adhered. During this treatment it would be
judicious to strengthen the hoof by the use of a
bar-shoe, only great care must be taken that there
is no bearing at, or immediately below, the separa-
tion of the horn. To secure this against such a
result, if the crust be naturally thick, accompanied

TREAD, OR OVERREACH 1 43

by Strong quarters, then a little of the crust near
the part should be pared off, to prevent it from
resting on the shoe. On the other hand, if the
hoof be weak, an indentation should be made in
the shoe itself opposite the part, which will prevent
any stress, as well as the danger consequent upon
a sudden or violent concussion, which might have
the effect of again cracking the hoof before it had
got firmly united.

In this complaint the horn sometimes grows
down entire, but from an unhealthy action in the
coronary substance, it secretes a narrow slip of
horn, generally different in appearance from the
other parts, usually of a lighter colour. Although
this is the case, it may become perfectly strong,
but it must always be considered as a defect, and
clearly showing that the horse has had sand-crack,
and of course predisposed to a return of it. The
horse may be fit for all kinds of work, yet there
generally will remain some degree of tenderness in
the part, and may produce lameness when the shoe
is allowed to press on it ; or when the horse is
subjected to hard work, lameness may return.

TREAD, OR OVERREACH.

This is nearly connected with false quarter, and
comprehends wounds and bruises of the coronet,
usually the effect of the horse either setting one foot
on the other, which not unfrequently happens in
the hind feet ; or in the fore feet, by the hind foot
overreaching the heel when in rapid action, and wound-
ing it.

Remedies. — Although this is not in general a
very serious injury, yet it should be immediately and
carefully attended to. The first thing is to wash out

144 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

any dirt or sand which may have got into the wound,
and dry the part thoroughly v/Ith a cloth. After
which a pledget of tow, wetted with Friar's balsam,
should be firmly bound over the wound, which usually
proves a speedy cure. If the wound is large or deep,
then it may be a necessary precaution to poultice the
part for one or two days before digestive ointment
or Friar s balsam is applied.

It sometimes happens that a soft tumour will form
on the part. This must be poulticed and brought to
suppuration. When the whole of the matter has been
discharged, the sides of the ulcer should be washed
with a weak solution of blue vitriol (sulphate of
copper), which will have the effect of expediting
granulation of the parts ; and a pledget of tow which
has been dipped in Friar's balsam will soon effect a
cure.

Ignorant farriers are frequently in the habit of
applying caustic to wounds of the feet. This should on
no account be permitted, as it is very apt to injure the
coronary substance so as to render it incapable of
afterwards secreting healthy horn.

QUITTOR.

A wound of the coronet, whether it proceeds from
a tread, or otherwise, should be carefully and immedi-
ately attended to ; because if sand or gravel get into
the wound, it is likely to produce those deep-seated
ulcerations that are termed pipes or sinuses^ which
constitute the disease called qiiittor.

But it may also proceed from any wound of the
foot, and in any portion of it. In wounds of the foot,
there is much difficulty in the matter proceeding from
inflammation and suppuration finding its way from
under the hoof, which covers the foot with its various

QUITTOR 145

complicated parts. The consequence is, pus accumu-
lates under the hoof until it has increased to such an
extent that it must find escape in some way ; and
frequently forces itself out in all directions, separating
the little fleshy plates from their connection with the
horny ones of the crust ; or disuniting the fleshy sole
from the horny one ; and in extreme cases eats its
way deeply into the internal parts of the foot, forming
pipes or sinuses, which run in all directions.

If quittor arises from a prick or wound in the lower
portion of the foot, the matter which is collected in it
issues from it, and induces a separation between the
horny and fleshy sole ; and having accumulated in
considerable quantity, at length discharges itself at
the coronet, generally close to the quarter. This,
however, does not manifest itself to any extent, as
both the aperture and quantity of matter which oozes
out are apparently so insignificant, that they would
lead an inexperienced person to suppose the dis-
charge of little consequence. In this, however,
they will be sadly mistaken ; for most serious mis-
chief lurks within, and the difficulty of removing
it is extremely great. In this state of the disease,
although the fistula is of very small dimensions, yet
the effects of this confined matter will have extended
over almost the entire quarter, and the horny sole
may be separated from the foot.

Remedies. — It must be evident that this is a
case which can only be successfully treated by a
skilful veterinary surgeon. In most instances of
such cases, it becomes necessary to remove the
greater portion of the horny sole, and thereafter
restore the healthy state of the tender surface beneath.
When this has been effected, the horn will quickly
be reproduced. But in cases where much of the

K

146 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

sole has been removed, it will take at least six
months to restore fully that which has been removed,
so that the horse may again be subjected to
labour.

Ouittor often proceeds from neglecting bruises
and injuries of the sole of the foot. When horses
have flat feet, and are ridden quickly over a rough,
uneven, stony road, the feet are very liable to be
injured, and especially by getting a small stone
between the shoe and the sole. Narrow w^ebbed
shoes are frequently the cause of bruises of the feet,
by leaving too much of the sole unprotected. Another
cause is, the smith paring out the sole too closely,
or pricking the sole while in the act of shoeing, as
also pressure of the shoe on the sole, and gravel
getting insinuated between the sole and the shoe.

PRICK, OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST.

The sole Is peculiarly liable to be Injured by sharp-
pointed stones, flints, and pieces of glass which it
may come in contact with on a road. In shoeing,
too, a nail may be driven either Into the sensitive
part of the foot, or so near to It In the horn, that It
will cause pressure and consequent Irritation, prob-
ably inflammation, and this may end in suppuration.
In all cases of lameness, particularly in those which
are sudden, the legs should be examined with great
care ; and if no cause can be discovered to account
for it, the probability Is that its seat is In the foot.
The shoe ought to be immediately removed, when
very likely the cause will be ascertained. But If
it Is not at once apparent by the heat of some portion
of the foot, then the crust should be rapped all
round with a small hammer, and when the part
which is affected is touched, the horse is sure to

WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST 1 47

flinch from it ; or pressure applied by pincers will
answer the same purpose.

Should lameness occur within two or three days
after the horse has been shod, the first suspicion
should fall upon the foot. The best of smiths
may prick the foot in shoeing, and he that acts
honestly in such a case, by at once acknowledging it,
or informing the owner, will not deserve blame. It
is in concealing or denying the possibility of the
thing that causes all the mischief. Because, when-
ever it is discovered, the shoe should be taken off,
and that too with much care. Some foolish smiths
are in the habit of wrenching off shoes, a practice
which, under any circumstances, cannot be too
severely condemned.

Remedies. — As soon as the injured part is de-
tected, the sole should be well thinned down around
it, and at the punctured spot it should be pared
to the quick. We are speaking of one of some days'
standing, in which case matter will issue from it, and
the sore will be thereby relieved. If the wound is
quite fresh, then all that will be necessary after thinning
the hoof is to apply a pledget with some Friar's
balsam to it ; or fill the wound with carbolic liniment,
and It will quickly heal if kept clean. If, however,
it does not heal speedily, and it becomes hot, then
inflammation will have taken place, and therefore
it will be necessary to apply a poultice.

But in wounds of the foot much depends upon
the particular part which has been injured. Although
a pretty deep wound is inflicted towards the back
part of the sole, and even extending into the frog,
still it may not be attended with much danger or in-
convenience to the animal, because there are no bones
or tendons to be Injured. Neither is much harm to

I4B MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

be apprehended from a prick near the toe. But in
the centre of the sole, where the flexor tendons pass
over, especially where the tendon is inserted into the
coffin-bone, a puncture may be attended with serious
consequences, as well as a wound In the joint which
unites the navicular-bone with the coffin-bone. If a
wound inflicted in this situation is neglected, the
animal may be rendered useless for life. In short,
injuries of the foot require the utmost skill to
examine their precise nature, as well as the manner
in which they ought to be treated.

In searching for a wound, it is not uncommon for
the smith to cut away an unnecessary portion of the
horn from the bottom of the crust of the sole, and
thus leave no hold for the nail of the shoe. In such
cases it has frequently taken months before the
horny substance was of sufficient substance to hold
the nails.

When it becomes necessary to remove any portion
of the horny sole In consequence of a wound, or if
separation has taken place through suppuration, then
the Injured or wounded portion of the crust must be
entirely removed, as the dead parts of the horn will
never unite with that which is living. Then the
fleshy sole which has been left exposed must be care-
fully touched with chloride of antimony, and some
soft and dry tow or lint laid on it. But if there are
Inflammatory symptoms. It will be necessary to apply
a poultice to the entire sole. So quickly is the
horny substance secreted, that In a few days a thin
pellicle will be found covering the whole, or part of
the portion that has been stripped of the crust. If
there are any symptoms of proud-flesh shooting
through it, then It must be subjected to an applica-
tion of chloride of antimony, and tow placed over it

CORNS 149

as before. In a few days the whole surface will be
invested with a horny crust.

CORNS.

A corn is a bruise of the sensitive papilla of the
sole, situated betwixt the bars and the wall at the
heels.

Cause. — This disease has acquired a name which
but ill expresses its nature. It bears but little affinity
to corns of the human foot ; although, like them,
they are the effects of pressure. Instead of being
hard as in the human subject, they are thin and
very weak, and caused by pressure on the sole in
the angle between the bars, as presented, Plate vi,
fig. 12, c c. The horn becomes more spongy and
softer than at other parts, and it is so sensitive, that
upon the slightest pressure the horse indicates that
he feels pain.

Nothing is more injurious than to allow a shoe
to remain too long on, as it is sure to become em-
bedded in the heel of the foot ; consequently the
crust grows down on the outside of it, and the bear-
ing is thus thrown on the angular portion of the
sole. Continued pressure on the sole is certain to
induce inflammation and corns. The shoe being long
on, wears and gets loosened at the heels, which
admits of gravel between it and the crust, and
having accumulated in the angle it naturally
insinuates itself into the heel, and produces a
sore.

As we have before said in another part of the
work, nothing can be more injudicious than to allow
shoes to remain too long on ; even if they are not
worn, they should be taken off every fourth week
and readjusted, to free the feet from long-continued

1-50 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

pressure on certain parts by the growing of the
horny substance of the hoof. In shoeing, too, the
bars are very often cut away, and this renders it
necessary to be bevelled inward, so as to accom-
modate it to this injurious and ridiculous shaping of
the foot ; consequently an unnatural disposition to
contraction is induced by this slanting inward direc-
tion of the heel of the shoe. From this the sole is
subjected to double liability to injury ; first, by being
pressed upon by the shoe, and, second, by being
squeezed between the outer crust and the external
portion of the bar. This angle is less able to bear
pressure than any other portion of the foot, being
more exposed to accidental bruises and injuries of
different kinds, in consequence of the shoe being
made unnecessarily narrow at the heel.

There can be little doubt but corns are mainly
owing to faults in shoeing, as well as the fact of
shoeing itself, however well performed, preventing
the due expansion of the horn when the sole is
growing downwards, and thus confining and injuring
this portion of the sole. And it is easy to imagine
that if the shoe is badly constructed, or allowed to
remain too long on, that corns must be induced.
This effect will be rendered manifest by an attentive
observation of the foot in Plate vi, ^g. lo. When
paring is not attended to in shoeing, or when it is
injudiciously extended to the bars, the evil of corns
is likely to arise. This unnatural pressure of the
sole causes the blood to be thrown out, which enters
into the pores of the soft and diseased horn which
is then secreted ; and by the colour and softness of
the horn at this place, the existence and extent of
the corn is judged.

Remedies. — The cure of corns is difficult and un-

CORNS 151

certain, because a diseased action is induced ; and
to check this is no easy matter after it has contracted
the tendency to secrete diseased horn ; for all shoeing
produces pressure on the parts.

The first thing to be clone is to ascertain the
extent of the corns ; and this can only be effected
by paring out the angle between the crust and the
bars ; at the same time it will relieve, and to a great
extent do away with, what has caused the complaint.
This can be best accomplished by the use of a small
drawing knife, with which the corn must be pared
out to the bottom ; but great care must be exercised
not to wound the sole. After this operation, it will
be seen whether there is any effusion of blood or
matter underneath the corn. If there is reason to
believe that such is the case, then an opening must
be made through the horn, so that the matter may
discharge itself and the separated horn be removed ;
and when the course of the sinuses have been ascer-
tained, the same remedies must be employed as in
quittor.

In bad cases of corns, where the inflammation
has rendered the parts very sensitive, a bar-shoe will
be of service, so chambered that there will be no
pressure on the part affected.

If corns have once existed to a considerable extent,
they are liable to return ; therefore, before shoeing,
the seat of the corn should be well pared out. The
seated shoe (which we have described in our chapter
on shoeing) should be used, with a web sufficiently
thick to cover the situation of the corn, and extend-
ing as far back as possible without producing injury
to the frog. When the horn has grown to some
extent, if the horse is turned out to grass with a
bar-shoe in the first instance, and afterwards with a

152 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

shoe fastened on one side only, or with tips, it will
frequently prove of much service.

In all cases where horses have low weak heels,
they should seldom be pared with a knife, but merely
rasped down to a level surface. This is peculiarly
applicable to the inner heel. The hind feet are
seldom affected with corns, because they are stronger
than the fore feet, and less subjected to concussion ;
and even where corns do exist, they do not produce
lameness.

CANKER.

Canker consists of a separation of the horny
substance from the sensitive fleshy and bony portion
of the foot, caused by the growth of fungus tissue
shooting up and occupying parts of, or the entire
sole of the foot and frog. It is induced either by
a puncture, bruise, corn, quittor, or thrush, more
commonly proceeding from the latter than any other
cause. It seldom attacks high-bred animals, being
almost always confined to the heavy breed of cart
and dray horses, which class seem to have a con-
stitutional predisposition to this complaint. Those
which have previously had grease are peculiarly liable
to canker, and especially those which have thick
heels.

It is peculiarly necessary to give a watchful at-
tention to all species of injuries in these heavy horses,
as they are more likely than all others to assume a
bad complexion. Their feet being clubbed, and their
hoofs in general brittle, they are liable to be punc-
tured while shoeing. Nine- tenths of the complaints
of this kind arise from negligence either in the groom
or master, and also from the carelessness or stupidity
of the shoeing smith. It will only require a little

CANKER 1:53

attention to the subject to enable the master to
detect where the mischief arises.

Remedjes. — Canker is a complaint which ought
only to be undertaken by a veterinary surgeon, being
exceedingly difficult and tedious in its progress to-
wards a cure.

The first thinof which is done in this disease is to
cut out the fungus growth ; and besides this it often
becomes necessary to use both caustic and the
cautery ; and all that portion of the horn which has
been separated from the fleshy and bony parts must
be carefully removed. Should fresh fungus be gener-
ated, it must be got rid of, and means adopted to
check its growth, and by proper applicants to induce
the secretion of healthy horn. Unskilful veterinarians
have been known to infiict severe and unnecessary
torture on horses which had canker, by too deeply
corroding the parts with caustic, and thus producing
a sore. In this complaint gentle exercise is ab-
solutely necessary where the disease is confined to
the frog and sole of the foot, but moisture is carefully
to be avoided. But it will be found that in effecting
a cure the processes will be both tedious and painful,
in consequence of the necessity of caustic applications,
which, however slight, always cause considerable
irritation in the parts.

In this complaint medicine is seldom had recourse
to, as it is of little use, the disease being local. But
it sometimes occurs that grease follows canker ; in
the event of which physic will become necessary, and
these will be alteratives and diuretics.

THRUSH.

The disease thrush is characterised by a dis-
charge which issues from the cleft of the frog and

154 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

is more or less mixed with pus. From a healthy frog
there is no discharge, but if the foot of the horse is
allowed to soak in urine and dung for a time, in-
flammation is set up in the sensitive frog, and this
ends in suppuration and separation of the horny frog
from the sensitive frog from which it grows.

Thrush is a disease to which horses of all ages
are liable, and in all situations. Even unshod colts
are subject to this complaint. When the frog is in
a healthy condition, the cleft sinks but a small way
into it. Any complaint which affects the healthy
condition and action of the frog, is almost sure to
induce thrush. Differing from most diseases of the
foot, thrush is generally more severe in the hind
than in the fore feet. This can only be accounted
for by bad stable management, and that the hind
feet are subjected to being so much exposed to the
baneful consequences of immersion in the dung and
urine, producing irritation, and generating disease.

A horse may have thrush without being lame,
and it often happens that no alteration whatever can
be seen on the foot thus diseased, and it may require
a close inspection to detect that it is affected. But
it will always be manifested by the disagreeable and
peculiar smell which invariably accompanies the
complaint. In some cases no tenderness of the
frog attends thrush, and therefore the horse is not
reckoned legally unsound by many persons. This
we, however, consider strange, as it is a complaint
which may, and indeed is likely to assume a worse
aspect, particularly if not remedied in time, and hence
may lead to positive unsoundness. But it is only in
cases where considerable alteration in the form of
the hoof has taken place, that thrushes are likely to
be of a severe kind ; for we find that they may exist

THRUSH 155

in an otherwise sound and well-formed foot, without
being attended with immediate detriment, and may
be easily remedied. Still, if the thrush be not re-
moved, in the course of time it will alter the shape
of the foot and also the action of the animal, and
consequently becomes confirmed unsoundness. It is
quite certain, if thrush is neglected, that however slow
its progress may be, still it is sure ultimately to
assume a serious and immovable complaint. The
frog will contract, become rugged and tender, and
will be followed by a copious and very fetid discharge ;
the horn will gradually disappear, and leave the
sensitive frog completely exposed and unprotected ;
it is so tender that the slightest touch gives ex-
quisite pain to the horse. In a day or two fungus
granulations shoot out, and if neglected may end in
canker.

From this will be seen the extreme folly of
neglecting thrush, however simple its aspect may
be at first. We have known valuable horses having
been lost to their owners from the erroneous belief
entertained by themselves, or put into their heads
by ignorant quacks, namely, that thrush would
benefit the horse, as it was only Nature working
its own cure by throwing off superabundant humours.
Some ignorant country smiths, who call themselves
farriers, have promulgated such a doctrine, and even
recommended that the discharge should not be
speedily dried up on this account ; and some have
even said that it should not be dried up at all. But,
assuredly, in nine cases out of ten what we have
pointed out will be the inevitable consequence of
neglected thrush. Its operations are slow, but its
effects are certain. Disease of all kinds should be
instantly attacked, and speedily subdued if possible.

156 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Remedies. — Astringents generally are the best
appliances to thrush ; but those of a caustic nature
are to be avoided. The foot should be carefully
examined, and when the cause of the thrush has
been ascertained, our first attention should be
directed to the removal of that. As has been stated,
the primary cause of thrush is allowing the animal's
feet to soak in liquid and filth, hence it is all-im-
portant to place the animal where his feet will be
kept clean and dry. Remove with the drawing-
knife all loose or under-run horn, then the following
should be applied : — -

Honey . , . . . 4 ounces,
Verdigris . . . . i ounce,
Vinegar .... J pint.

Let these be boiled for a few minutes, and the com-
position applied to the place from which the dis-
charge emanates. This is, however, a mild applica-
tion, and will be somewhat slow in effecting a cure.
But the most speedy, yet safe, appliance is the follow
ing:—

Blue vitriol .... 2 ounces,

White vitriol . . . . i ounce,

Tar I pound,

Lard i pound.

The vitriols to be finely powdered, and then mixed
with the tar and lard.

A pledget of tow covered with the above should
be inserted every evening as deeply as possible into
the cleft of the frog, and renewed every day. Should
the frog be much exposed, besides the pledget
which is to be put into the crack, a larger piece of
tow should be spread over with the above liniment,
and applied over the whole exposed surface. Care

OSSIFICATION OF THE CARTILAGES 1 57

must be taken not to force the pledget too hard
into the cleft to press upon the tender part below,
and during the treatment recommended it will be
proper to keep the frog and foot as dry as possible.

In cases of thrush it is all-important that the
feet should be kept dry ; and, contrary to the
practice of some who recommend turning out to
grass with this complaint, we prefer keeping the
animal in the stable until a cure is effected.

OSSIFICATION OF THE CARTILAGES.

These cartilages occupy a considerable portion of
the back part and side of the foot, as represented
on Plate vii, fig. 7, h. Their use is to preserve the
conformation and expansion of the upper portion of
the foot. They are liable to inflammatory attacks,
which in time leads to a conversion of their cartila-
ginous (gristle) tissue, into bone texture. This ossified
condition of the cartilages is frequently connected
with ring-bone, but it often exists without any
affection of the pastern-joint. Side bones are
almost entirely confined to cart horses of great
weight, and apparently the weight of the body is the
great cause. It is difficult to find an aged and extra
weighty cart horse without side bones ; and the
converse holds good, viz., that it is difficult to find
a light weight animal of any breed, from the pony to
the thorough-bred horse, with *' side bones."

Symptoms. — When the foot is in a healthy condition,
the lateral cartilages will yield to the pressure of the
thumb on the coronet, over the quarters. But when
ossification commences, and the complaint progresses,
then a commensurate degree of resistance manifests
itself, and in process of time it will no longer yield
to any pressure. It is then certain that complete

I5B MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

ossification of the cartilages has taken place. Dur-
ing the transformation of the cartilage into bone, in
horses with full-sized open feet no visible inflamma-
tion is observable in the foot, nor does much lame-
ness appear, and, indeed, frequently lameness is not
at all manifested, although a slight stiffness may be
noticed ; but in horses with small donkey-formed feet,
there is generally marked lameness and a proneness
for the lameness to become more or less permanent.
These observations apply to cart-horses, or such
as require only to be worked at a slow pace ; but
in horses that go at a rapid pace, it amounts to posi-
tive lameness. When this complaint is connected
with ring-bone, very great lameness is the conse-
quence.

Remedies. — If there is no lameness, have re-
course to no treatment, as the conversion of cartilage
to bone cannot be arrested. On the contrary, if
the animal is lame and suffering much pain, a blister
of cantharides may hasten on the osslfic process,
and thereby lessen the pain. The shape and size
of the foot has much to do with the pain and lame-
ness, and a horse with side bones and small feet is a
much more risky purchase than one with good open
feet.

WEAKNESS OF THE FOOT.

This is merely a conventional term in general
use among horsemen and dealers, which might with
more propriety be denominated '* malformation of
the foot," because, in point of fact, it is rather a
bad formation than a disease. In many instg-nces
it is a natural infirmity, and likewise proceeds from
some other disease. The natural slant or angle of
the well-formed crust from the coronet to the toe is

WEAKNESS OF THE FOOT I 59

an angle of forty-five degrees ; but in this formation
the angle will not exceed from thirty-eight to forty
degrees. This inclination is but ill adapted for re-
sisting the effects of pressure ; and consequently, after
the animal has been worked for one or two years,
the line of inclination, instead of being straight,
becomes hollowed half-way between the coronet and
the toe — a defect that also occurs in pumiced feet.
The surface presents an irregularly rough appear-
ance, but is more frequently roughened in circles or
rings ; and the general structure of the crust assumes
a conical form, with the lower portion, or sole,
presenting an unnaturally wide aspect ; and in most
instances the foot is larger than it ought to be.

In this ill-formed foot the sole is always so flat
that it will not stand paring when the horse is shod,
and it will be found that the bars are very small in
size, indeed, in many cases they can hardly be said to
exist ; the heels are so low that the coronet appears
almost to touch the ground, and the crust is so thin
that it will hardly be capable of holding the nails of
the shoe. Little good can be expected from horses
with such feet. Besides, they are certain to be
liable to corns ; also to frequent bruises and con-
vexity of the sole ; to the crust being broken ; to
sprain and injury of the pastern, the fetlock, and
flexor tendons ; and to punctures from the nails in the
operation of shoeing.

Feet of this construction are susceptible of little
or no improvement. To those who have the mis-
fortune to possess horses with these feet, we can only
recommend that which we have condemned in the
healthy state, namely, to shoe them as seldom as
possible. The web of the shoe should be light and
concave ; the foot should be as sparingly pared as

l6o MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

possible ; hard work and rough roads are carefully to
be avoided. With these precautions the animal may
work for a considerable time ; but an evil day must
arrive, and the animal will turn out utterly worth-
less.

CHAPTER VIII.

The Anatomical Structure of the Horse.

It is not our intention to go deeply into the
anatomy of the horse, as this would far exceed the
limits of such a work as the present, and indeed
would not be suitable for a popular treatise. We
shall therefore confine ourselves to such an outline
of his structure as will convey a pretty general
idea of what is truly useful to possessors of horses
in general.

We may briefly state, that the bones of the
skeleton and the muscles which cover them are
all double, if we except a very few bones which
lock the two halves together ; and that if an animal
is divided correctly into two halves, these will be
found exactly similar in the number of bones and
the muscles with which they are covered. But
this does not extend to the internal organisation
in general, although a few of its parts are also
double.

DIFFERENT BONES OF THE SKELETON OF
THE HORSE.

PLATE II.

Instead of giving the bare skeleton of the horse,
we have considered it better to exhibit an oudine of

[62 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the external form of the animal, which will convey a
more correct idea of the situation of the different
bones as embodied in the muscles ; and by compar-
ing this view of the skeleton with our representation
of the perfect horse in Plate i, the reader will have
little difficulty in ascertaining the position which
the various bones occupy under the superincumbent
muscles.

Fig. 1,1. The seven cervical vertebrae, or bones of the neck.

2. The sternum, fore part of the chest, or breast-bone.

3. The scapula, or shoulder-blade.

4. The humerus, or bone of the arm.

5. The radius, or bone of the fore-arm.

6. The ulna, or elbow.

7. The cartilages of the ribs.

8. 8, 8. The costse or ribs, eight of which unite with, or are

articulated to the sternum — these are called the
true ribs; and ten are united together by cartilages,
and are called Xki& false ribs.

9. The carpus, or knee, consisting of seven bones.

10. 10. The metacarpal, or shank-bones : the larger meta-

carpal, or cannon, or shank-bone, in front, and the
smaller metacarpal, or splint-bone, behind.

11. The upper pastern.

12. The lower pastern.

13. The coffin-bone.

14. 14. The eighteen dorsal vertebras, or bones of the back.

15. The six lumbar vertebrae, or bones of the ioins.

16. 16. The haunch, consisting of the ilium, the ischium, and

the pubis.

17. 17. The femur, or thigh-bone.

18. 18. The stifle-joint, with the patella, or knee-cap.

19. 19. The tibia, or proper leg-bone.

20. The fibula.

21. 21. The tarsus, or hock, composed of six bones. The

prominent part behind is the os calcis, or point of
the hock.

BONES OF THE HEAD 1 63

22. The metatarsal bones of the hind legs.

23, 23. The pastern of the hind feet, including the upper and

larger bone (fig. 23), the lower pastern (fig. 25), and
the coffin-bone (fig. 24).
26, 26. The caudal vertebrae, or bones of the tail.

BONES OF THE HEAD.
PLATE VIII, Figs. 2 and 3.

The head contains the brain and other im-
portant organs of sense. It is divided by anato-
mists into two parts, namely, the skull and the
face. The skull, or cranium, is that portion in
which the brain is situate ; and the bones in which
it is enveloped are destined for its protection.
This division consists of nine bones : the two frontal
bones, a, a; two parietal, c, c; two temporal, d, d;
the occipital, g ; the ethmoid ; and sphenoid : the
two latter are situate at the base of the skull, and
are not visible in a front view, but their position
will be seen in fig. 3, Plate ni, the ethmoid, or sieve-
like bone, immediately above k, and sphenoid, /.
These nine bones are separated in the foal at an
early period of its existence ; but soon after birth
they are firmly united together by the sutures, at
which parts they are so strong that fracture seldom
or never occurs there.

There is a beautiful evidence of design in this
division of the head -^into so many bones. When
the foetus of the foal in the womb first assumes a
form, and may be said to be in life, this portion
of the skull is merely a jelly-like consistence, which
is gradually changed into a harder substance, called
cartilage ; and previous to the birth of the animal
much of this cartilaginous substance is carried off

164 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

by certain vessels emanating from the brain, called
absorbents, and bone is deposited in Its stead. In
all the flat bones, such as those of the head, this
deposit takes place from the centre, from which
radiations, or rays of bone shoot forth in all direc-
tions. Therefore it is evident, that by having so
many bones, there are so many more centres of
radiation, and consequently the formation of bone
is carried on so much more rapidly, and becomes
perfected at the time when the necessities of the
animal require It. But when the foal is born, this
process is not completed, as the edges of the bones
remain somewhat soft and pliant; so that In parturi-
tion they yield a little, and by overlapping each
other render the birth more easy, and save the
parent much pain, and contribute materially to the
safety of the foal ; and indeed without a change
in the form of the head, from this compression
and yielding of the bone of which it is composed,
the animal could not be born.

a. The occipital bone, or bone of the hinder part of the head.
3, b. The parietal bones, or walls of the skull,
c, c. The temporal bones, or bones of the temple.
d^ d. The temporal fossae, or pits above the eye.

The age of a horse is pretty well manifested by
the depth of these fossae. At the back part of the
eye there Is a cushion of fatty matter on which
the eye rests, and revolves without friction. In
aged horses this substance decreases, and con-
sequently the eye sinks and the pit above It
deepens. To deceive the unwary, dishonest dealers
puncture the skin of the pit, and with a blow-pipe fill
up what it has lost in substance with air. This
puffed-up skin will continue for many hours. The

feONES OF THE HEAD 1 65

name which is given to this by these unprincipled
men is 'puffing the glims'

c, e. The frontal bones, or bones of the forehead.

The frontal bones are articulated together by a
curious and very intricate dove-tailed suture, which
gives great strength, so as to defend the upper
portion of the brain, which lies immediately below
them, from injury. The frontal bones strongly
manifest the breed or blood of a horse. Those
which are high-bred have a broad angular forehead,
with the face gradually tapering from the brow to
the muzzle, as represented in this figure. The
cranium of the dray or cart-horse is nearly as wide
below as above. It is the full and largely developed
forehead which gives to the blood-horse that fiery
and intelligent expression.

/,/. The zygomatic arch.

g, g. The super-orbital foraminae, or holes above the orbit for
the passage of the nerves and blood-vessels which
supply the forehead. The small hole beneath
receives vessels which penetrate into and supply the
bone. In some craniums there are several such
holes.

//, //. The lachrymal, or tear-bones.

z', i. The orbits which contain and defend the eye.

j\J. The malar, or cheek-bones.

k^ k. The nasal-bones, or bones of the nose.

/, /. The superior maxillary, or that portion of the upper jaw
containing the molar teeth or grinders.
/«, m. The infra-orbital foraminae, or holes below the orbits,
through which pass branches of nerves and blood-
vessels to supply the lower portion of the face.

;/, n. The openings into the nose, with the bones forming the
roof of the palate.

0, 0. The inferior maxillary, the lower portion of the jaw-
bone, which is a separate bone in quadrupeds, contain-

1 66 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

ing the incisors or cutting teeth and the upper tushes
at the point of union between the superior and inferior
maxillaries.
/,/. The upper incisors, or cutting teeth, or, as they are
otherwise called, the nippers, a term which we limit
to the two central ones above and below ; the one
next to these, on each side, are called the dividers,
and the innermost ones on both sides are termed the
corner incisors. There are in all twelve incisors in
the head of a horse, viz., six in the upper, and six in
the under jaw.

SIDE VIEW OF THE CRANIUM.
PLATE VJII, Fig. 2.

b. The parietal bone.

e. The frontal bone ; the cavities or cells below which are

called the frontal sinuses.

f. The zygomatic arch.

g. The super-orbital foramina.
h. The lachrymal bones.

i. The orbit which contains the ej^e.
k. The nasal bone.

/. The superior maxillary bone.
m. The infra-orbital foramina.
71. The opening into the nose.
0. The inferior maxillary.
p. The upper incisors or cutting teeth.
^, q. The molars, or grinders of the upper and under jaw.
r. The posterior maxillary or under jaw.
/. The lower portion of the under jaw.
II. The under incisors, or cutting teeth.

SECTION EXHIBITING THE INTERNAL
ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

PLATE III, Fig. 3.

a. The occipital bone.

SECTION OF INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HEAD I67

b. The frontal bone, under which are cavities called the
frontal sinuses, marked 16, 16.

These frontal sinuses are cavities intervening
between the frontal bone and a transverse plate of
bone which grows within it. They communicate
with the cavities of the nose, as also with those of
the sphenoid, ethmoid, and upper jaw-bones. In
consequence of this conformation, they increase the
loudness and clearness of neighing. It sometimes
happens that the larvae of certain flies crawl up
the nostrils and locate themselves in the frontal
sinuses, occasioning great pain to the animal.
Happily, this is not of very frequent occurrence
with the horse, although sheep and horned cattle
are more liable to such intrusion.

These sinuses are occasionally opened by tre-
phining the bone, in order that the pus cells, which
they frequently contain in large quantity, may be
removed by direct injection of water and as-
tringents.

In performing the operation we suppose a line
to be drawn across the forehead from 2 and 3,
one foramen to the other, Plate viii, fig. g, g, g.
On that line, and about half an inch from the
suture, or line which separates the frontal bones,
the sinuses or cavities are situated, and extend to
an inch in depth, as represented in Plate iii, fig.
3, immediately under b, and marked 16, 16. If the
position of g, g in fig. 3, Plate viii and b in fig. 3,
Plate III, are compared, a perfect idea of their seat
in the forehead will be formed. At this part a small
circular portion of bone is drilled out with a
trephine, and into this warm water is injected by
means of a common syringe, which will run out at
the nostrils.

1 68 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

c. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose.

d. The tentorium, or bony separation between the cerebrum

and cerebellum.
€. The occipital bone.

/. The cerebrum, or brain.

g. The cerebellum, or little brain.

h. A portion of the medullary, or marrow-like substance of
the brain ; and the prolongation of it, which bears
the name of the crus cerebri^ or leg of the brain, and
from which many of the nerves emanate.

2, and m. The ligament of the neck, or pack-wax, by which the
head is chiefly supported.

j. The sphenoid, or wedge-like bone, with its cavities.

k. The cuneiform, or wedge-shaped process, or base of the
occipital bone. Between it and the other portion of
the occipital bone, a^ lies the great foramen or
aperture through which the prolongation of that
portion of the brain called the spinal-marrow issues
from the cranium, and is continued through the
spine or back-bone.

/. The medulla oblongata^ a prolongation of the brain after
the marrow-like substance of the cerebrum and cere-
bellum have united, and forming the commencement
of the spinal marrow. This portion has a ropy
appearance.

n. The point of the atlas bone which sustains or carries the
head.

0. The first bone of the neck.

/. The dentata, or tooth-shaped bone, the second bone of
the vertebral column.

q. The cartilage covering the entrance into the eustachian
tube, or communication between the mouth and
internal part of the ear.

r. The spinal marrow, extending through a canal in the
centre of the bones of the neck, back, and loins, to
the extremities of the tail, and from which the
nerves of feeling and of motion which supply every
part of the frame arise.
^, s. The septtun-nasi^ or cartilaginous division between the
nostrils.

PLATE 111

EXTEKHAL jm'B IIWTIEEHM. i^AT^MY ^F THJI HOKSE'S IHIEiy]).

SECTION OF INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HEAD 169

When the nostril is opened, the membrane by
which the cartilage and whole cavity of the nose
is lined is seen. By the colour of this membrane,
and the lining of the eyelids, we are assisted in
determining the amount of congestion of blood in
the mucous membrane which lines the air passages
and the bowels. This cavity on both sides is
occupied by two bones, which, in consequence of
being rolled up in the form of a turban, are called
the turbinated bones.

/, /. The septum nasi, cut off at the lower part to exhibit the
spongy turbinated or turban-shaped bones, filling the
cavity of the nostrils. Part of the cartilage is re-
moved to display them. They are as thin as gauze,
and, like it, perforated into a thousand holes.
Between them are left sufficient passages for the
air.

If these gauze-like membranes were unrolled,
they would present a very considerable surface.
On every part of them there is spread the delicate
fibres of the olfactory, or first pair of nerves,
which are the organs of smell. It is by this ex-
quisite sense of smell that the horse selects such
food as is best calculated for his nutriment, and
is enabled to reject what is poisonous. By smell
he judges of the quality of his food in a domestic
state. The horse will recognise his master or
favourite groom by the sense of smell, and fre-
quently expresses such recognition by a neigh.
These cavities intensify sounds issuing from the
larynx — the organ of voice ; the sound reverberates
through them, and increases in loudness as through
the windings of a French -horn. All the air which
passes to and returns from the lungs must go
through the nostrils, as he can breathe through

170 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

the nose only. The nostrils ought therefore to be
large and expanded. The skin also which covers
them should be thin and elastic, that they may
the more readily yield when the animal requires a
greater supply of air while trotting hard or gallop-
ing. In the race-horse, the nostrils are wide and
flexible, while in the cart-horse they are con-
fined, and surrounded by . a quantity of cellular
tissue and thick skin.

There are, besides, four distinct cartilages attached
to the nostrils, which are exceedingly elastic, and
bring them back to their ordinary dimensions when-
ever the muscles cease to act. The bones also of
the nose, n, Plate viii, fig. 2, and n n, fig. 3, are
tapered off to a point, to give a wider range for the
action of the muscles ; while the cartilages are so
constructed as not only to discharge the office above
referred to, but also to prevent this tapering point
of bone from injury.

u. The palate.

V. The inferior maxillary-bone, containing the incisor teeth,
or nippers.

w. The molar teeth, or grinders.
Xy X. The tongue.

y. The posterior maxillary, or jaw, with its incisors.
^, z. The lips.

12. The upper incisory teeth.

13. The lower incisory teeth.

14. The posterior maxillary, or jaw-bone.

1. The thyroid, or helmet-shaped cartilage, enclosing and

protecting the contiguous parts.

2. The epiglottis, or covering of the glottis, or aperture of

the windpipe.

3. The arytenoid, or funnel-shaped cartilages, having between

them the aperture leading into the trachea, or wind-
pipe.

EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE HORSES HEAD I71

4. The trachea, or windpipe, with its rings.

5. One of the chordcB vocales, or cords concerned in the

voice.

6. The sacculus laryngis^ or the sac or ventricle of the larynx,

or throat, for the modulation of the voice.

7. The opening from the back part of the mouth into the

nostril.

8. The soft palate at the back of the mouth, so constructed

as nearly to prevent the possibility of vomiting by the
mouth.

9. The muscle of the neck, covered by the membrane of the

back part of the mouth.

10. The cricoid, or ring-like cartilage below and behind the

thyroid.

11. The oesophagus, or gullet.

15. A portion of the os hyoides^ or bone of the tongue.

REPRESENTATION OF THE PALATE AND
TEETH.

PLATE III, Fig. 2.

«, a. The tushes canines, or tusk-formed teeth.
3, b. The incisors, nippers, or cutting teeth,
c, c. The palatine nerve between the artery and the vein.
dy d. The palate, divided into ridges and bars.
^, e. The palatine artery.
/,/. The palatine vein.
g^ g. A strip of the palate, dissected up, to exhibit the position

of the vessels and nerve beneath.
hy h. The cheeks.
2, i. The molars, or grinding teeth.

EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S HEAD.

PLATE III, Fig i.

<z, a. The orbicularis muscles, surrounding the eye, and destined
for the purpose of closing the eyelids.

\*]2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

b. The nasalis lahii superioris takes its rise from a depression

at the junction of the superior maxillary and malar
bones, and extending to the angle of the nostril. Its
use is to raise the lip, and dilate the nostrils.

c. Dilator tnagnus^ or great dilator, which assists in the office

of retracting the upper lip and in dilating the nostrils.

d. Dilator naris lateralis^ or side dilator of the nostrils,

reversed to exhibit the vessels and nerves which it
covers, extending from the covering of the nasal and
frontal bones to the angle of the mouth and side of
the nostril. Its office is to retract the upper lip, and
dilate the nostrils.

e. The zygomatims^ extending from the zygomatic arch and

masseter to the corner of the mouth, for the purpose of
drawing back the angle of the mouth.

/, g. The orbicularis oris, or circular muscle of the mouth.
This muscle surrounds the mouth for the purpose of
closing the lips and dilating the nostrils.

//. The buccinator, or trumpeter muscle, extending from the
inside of the mouth and cheeks to the angle of the
mouth, to draw it back.

i. Depressor labii inferioris^ or puller down of the under lip,
attached to the sides of the under lip to pull it down.

j. Branches of nerves, with small blood-vessels.

k. The parotid duct, penetrating the cheek to discharge the
saliva into the mouth.

/. See letter r, and explanation.

tn. The vein and artery passing under the zygomatic arch.

n. A branch of the fifth pair of nerves, the sensitive nerve of
the face, emanating from under the parotid gland.

0. The masseter, or chewing muscle. This muscle occupies
the entire cheek of the horse, and is exceedingly
powerful, extending from the upper jaw-bone into the
rough surface round the angle of the lower one ; which,
in conjunction with the temporal muscle, is destined to
chew the food and close the mouth.

/. The stylo-maxillaris, or styloid, pencil-shaped process of
the occiput, extending to the angle of the jaw. Its
office is to pull the jaw backwards and open it.

EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE HORSES HEAD I 73

q. The maxillary gland, or gland of the lower jaw, with its
duct.

r. At this situation the submaxillary artery, a branch of the
jugular artery and the parotid duct pass under and
within the angle of the lower jaw, and reappear again at
// and, ascending the cheek, are distributed in a branch-
ing manner over it.

s. The subscapula hyoideus^ emanating from under the
shoulder-blade to the body of the os hyoides^ to draw
back that bone.

w. The sterno-maxillaris^ or muscle belonging to the breast-
bone and upper jaw, from the cartilage in front of the
chest to thB angle of the lower jaw, for the purpose
of bending the head ; or, if one only act, to bend it on
one side.

n. The levator humeri^ or elevator of the shoulder, arising
from the tubercle of the occiput, the mastoid, or nipple-
shaped process of the temporal bone ; and the trans-
verse processes of the four first bones of the neck and
the ligament of the neck, and proceeding to the muscles
of the shoulders and the upper bone of the arm, for the
purpose of drawing forward the shoulder and arm, or to
turn the head and neck ; and, when the two levators
act, to depress the head.

V. The jugular, or neck-vein. It is from this vein that blood
is taken for all diseases in the head, neck, and contiguous
parts.

X. The tendon common to the complexo major^ or larger
complicated tendon ; and the splmius, or splint-like
tendon, and the mastoid process of the temporal, to
hold up the head, or, the muscles on one side alone
acting, to turn it.

y. The superior portion of the ligament of the neck.

2. The superior portion of the parotid gland, or gland situate
near the ear, reversed to exhibit the blood-vessels and
nerves beneath it.

174 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

MUSCLES AND PARTS CONNECTED WITH THE

EYE.

PLATE III, Figs. 4 and 5.

The horse has a very extended field of vision.
The eye is provided with seven muscles to move
it in all directions ; and that they may act with suffi-
cient promptitude and power, no fewer than six
nerves are directed to the eye generally, or to parti-
cular muscles ; and that it may receive no injury
from friction, it rests upon a mass of fatty matter,
which also enables it to be turned without much
exertion of the muscles. Four of the muscles, a, e^
and d, are straight ; these rise from the back of the
orbit, and are inserted into the ball of the eye, immedi-
ately opposite, and at equal distances from each other.
One of these, f, rises to the upper part of the eye,
immediately behind the transparent and visible portion
of it, the office of which is to raise the eye. When it
contracts, the eye must necessarily be drawn upward.
Another, «, is inserted immediately opposite, at the
bottom of the eye, for the purpose of depressing the
eye, or enabling the horse to look downwards. A
third, By is inserted at the outer corner, which turns
the eye outward ; and a fourth is inserted at the
inner corner for turning the eye inwards. By means
of all these the eye can rotate, or be turned in
any direction at the will of the animal. Should the
animal wish to look upward and outward, then the
outer and upper muscles are called into action, and
can be modified in any manner at the will of the horse.
These muscles perform another duty, namely, keep-
ing the eye in its place, for, while grazing, the principal
weight of the eye rests upon them ; and to aid them

MUSCLES AND PARTS CONNECTED WITH THE EYE 1 75

in this, another muscle, d d, called the retractor, is
added ; it arises from the edge of the foramen, through
which the optic-nerve enters the orbit. The use of
this muscle is to support the eye generally, or when
it is suddenly called into great action, and aided by
the straight muscles, it draws the eye back out of the
reach of danger, and in the act of drawing it back it
forces the haw to protrude in the manner already
described, as an additional defence. The cornea, i,
is the only visible part of the eyeball of a horse, or at
least it should be ; and it is said that where much
white is seen, that it is an indication of bad temper.
The pupil, k, in the horse differs in form from that of
all other animals. It is of an elongated, oblong,
ovate form, and placed transversely, as represented in
fig. 4, Plate ni.

The eye is a very important organ in the horse.
It ought to be large and rather prominent ; the
eyelid should be fine and thin. This thinness is for
the purpose of preventing pressure, and at the same
time to give more extensive and easy motion.

The horse is devoid of eyebrows, and the eye-
lashes are singularly arranged. The rows of hairs
are longest and most numerous on the upper lid, and
especially towards the outer or temporal corner,
because the light falls on the eye from above ; and
as he stands, especially when he is grazing, as well as
from the lateral situation of the eyes, the greater
portion of the light, the attacks of insects, and the
trickling down of moisture, is chiefly from the outside.
Towards the inner corner of the eye there are hardly
any eyelashes, because there is little or no danger
from below, and as little light is thrown from below,
the eyelashes are thin and short. While horses are
grazing, insects may find their way to the eye towards

176 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the inner angle, the principal or only hair is found
on the lower lid. All of which most beautifully
proves design in the formation and adaptation of the
animal. The eyelashes should on no account what-
ever be cut, as they have a most important office to
fill, not only preventing the eye from being injured by
dazzling light, but also protecting it from the intrusion
of insects.

The horse is destitute of eyebrows, but in their
stead he is provided with a number of scattered bristly
hairs, as also a projecting fold of the upper eyelid,
which answers the same purpose. Some persons are
so foolish as to cut off these hairs, and have absurdly
attributed them to weakness. The under eyelid also
is furnished with projecting bristly hairs, which are so
sensitive that they give immediate warning to the
animal of the approach of any insect or other object
which might injure the eye, and he naturally closes
the eyelid instantaneously. Ignorant grooms some-
times denude horses of these admirable premonitory
feelers. It will thus be seen that these muscles are
admirable substitutes for the want of hands, in pro-
tecting the eyes against the intrusion of things that
would injure them.

These muscles perform another important office in
altering the focus of the eye to accommodate itself
to the examination of distant or near objects.
(See c and b, fig. 5.) The straight and retractor
muscles draw back the eye, and forces it upon the
substance, and thus in a slight degree flattens it,
brings it nearer the retina or mirror, and adapts the
eye to the observation of distant objects.

But as these muscles are chiefiy employed in
supporting the weight of the eye, they might not
have power to turn it so quickly and to such an

MUSCLES AND PARTS CONNECTED WITH THE EYE 1 77

extent as the animal might wish or require ; therefore
the eye is furnished with two other muscles, whose
entire office is to turn it. They are placed obliquely,
and in consequence are called the oblique muscles.
The upper one, a b, is curiously constructed. It
emanates from the back part of the orbit, and follows
a direction upwards and towards the inner side, and
there, immediately under the ridge of the orbit, it
passes through a perfect mechanical pulley, and
turning round takes a direction across the eye, and is
inserted a little beyond the middle of the eye, and
towards the outer side. Thus the globe of the eye
is evidently directed inward and upward. This is
not all which is accomplished by this remarkable
mechanism. That the eye may be completely de-
fended, it is sunk deep in the orbit, but it may be
occasionally requisite to bring the eye forward and
enlarge the field of vision. Under the influence of
fear the eye is positively protruded, and it is not only
forced more forward, but the lids are opened more
widely. It may be asked, how can this be possibly
accomplished ? The remarkable pully-muscle, or
trochlearis, at b c, readily effects this, while the
straight muscles at the same time do not oppose it,
or only regulate the direction of the eye, it is really
brought forward. The lower oblique muscle has its
insertion just within the lachrymal-bone, n, and pro-
ceeding across the eye is fixed into part of the sclero-
tica, opposite to the other oblique muscle, and turns
the eye in an opposite direction, and also assisting the
upper oblique muscle in bringing the eye forward
from its socket.

There is another beautiful provision preventing
impurities or insects from being carried to and lodging
in the corner of the eye, which would, if allowed to

M

t;^ MANUAL OF MODERN J^ARRIERY

accumulate at the inner angle of the eye, be carried
down the duct, which would Irritate and obstruct It.
No sooner do any of these annoyances enter the
eye but they are carried off by the haw, which lies
concealed within the Inner corner of the eye. This
haw is a black or pied cartilaginous substance of a
triangular form, concave within, and made exactly to
suit the globe of the eye ; while It Is convex exter-
nally, accurately fitting the membrane lining the lid,
while the base of It Is reduced to a thin or almost
sharp edge. The horse has the voluntary power of
suddenly protruding this from Its concealment, and
passing It rapidly over the eyeball, clears off every
nuisance mixed with the tears, and then being quickly
drawn back, the dust or insect is wiped off" as the
cartilage again passes under the corner of the eye.
In treating of disease of the haw, page 35, we
mentioned the barbarous practice of cutting out this
valuable appendage to the eye. This member is
destined by nature as a substitute for the want of
hands for wiping the eye and cleansing It from offen-
sive matter. This being removed, subjects the poor
animal to pain In Its eye for life, and lays it open to
the constant chance of Inflammation from dust or
small pieces of gravel being blown into It. The pain
they thus infiict on the horse may be easily conceived
by any one having dust or other extraneous matter
lodged between the eyelid and eye, and being without
hands to wipe It out.

THE EYE AND ITS VISUAL STRUCTURE.
PLATE X, Fig. 8.

The eye Is of a spherical figure, yet not perfectly
globular ; or it may rather be considered as com-

THE EYE AND ITS VISUAL STRUCTURE I79

posed of the parts of two globes, the half of the one,
A, Plate X, fig. 8, smaller, and transparent in front ;
and of the other, b, which is larger, with an opaque
coat behind.

It is an established law in optics, that all objects
become visible from the rays of light which flow
from these objects into the eye. These rays pass
through the pupil and fall upon the retina, which is
a fine expansion of the optic nerve, interwoven like
net-work in the back part or bottom of the eye, and
there the rays form a picture of the object, whose
apparent bulk depends upon the size of such picture
so formed upon the retina. We shall suppose the
animal looking at an arrow with the barb of it down-
wards, c, D. From every part of the arrow rays of
light will be sent forth in straight lines, and in
passing through the pupil, Plate iii, fig. 5, ^, it is
clear that those which flow from the under portion
of the object, c, must flow upwards, while those
above, d, must pass downwards ; and pursuing this
principle, all the intermediate rays, /, will intervene,
consequently a reversed picture of the object will be
formed upon the retina, as seen at ^, /i.

Paley makes the following interesting observation
on this subject : he says, "In considering vision as
achieved by means of an image formed at the bottom
of the eye, we can never reflect without wonder on
the smallness, yet correctness, of the picture, the
subtlety of the touch, and the fineness of the lines.
A landscape of five or six square leagues is brought
into a space of half-an-inch in diameter ; yet the
magnitude of objects which it contains are all pre-
served, are all discriminated in their magnitudes,
positions, figures, and colours. A stage-coach pass-
ing at its ordinary speed for several minutes, passes

l8o MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

in the eye only over one-twelfth of an inch, yet is
the change of place in the image distinctly perceived
throughout its whole progress."

2, i. The points where the rays, having passed the cornea,
converge by the refracting power of the lens.
j. The cornea, or horny and transparent portion, which is
covered by the conjunctiva uniting different parts
together.

The cornea fills up the vacuity which is left by
the sclerotica ; but although it is closely united with
it, may be easily separated and will drop out. A
prominent eye adds greatly to the beauty of a horse,
and this will depend upon the projection of the
cornea. But if too prominent, the rays of light
may be rendered too convergent, which will produce
indistinct vision. If it be small and flat, the rays
may not be sufficiently convergent, which will produce
imperfect vision. An eye that is moderately convex
will be found best ; because, when either too pro-
minent or too flat, the horse is liable to starting and
shying upon a road. The cornea is quite transparent
in the healthy eye, and when cloudiness is observ-
able, then it is an indication of disease.

In the purchase of a horse, the utmost attention
should be given to the condition of the cornea.
Perfect transparency over the whole surface is in-
dispensable. The eye should be carefully examined
in the manner pointed out at page '^'] ; first in front,
and afterwards through its substance.

k^ k. The crystalline, or glassy lens, situated behind the pupil
and in front of the vitreous humour, which is so
named from a supposed resemblance to melted glass ;
it is a clear gelatinous fluid, very much resembling
the white of an ^g^.
I. The sclerotica, a hard, firm coat, covering the whole of

THE EYE AND ITS VISUAL STRUCTURE l8l

the eye, except that portion occupied by the cornea.
The choroides, or choroid coat, covered with a black
secretion, or black or dark brown paint, called the
pigmentum nigrum.

This delicate membrane extends over the whole
internal part of the eye, from the optic-nerve to the
cornea. This is intended to absorb the stray rays
of light which might dazzle and confuse the animal,
and is not found on any portion which may be called
the field of vision ; but in its stead a bright green
substance is spread, which extends more over the
upper than the lower portion, because the objects
which are most necessary for him to see are below
the level of the head. This in some way, yet un-
discovered, enables the animal to see even when it
is comparatively dark. In the dusk this beautiful
sea-green colour may be seen in the eye of a horse.

Cream-coloured, or perfectly white horses, have
not this dark pigment ; so that the ordinary appear-
ance of the pupil is red instead of black. In looking
into their eyes we do not see the covering, but the
choroid coat itself.

m, m. The iris, or rainbow-coloured circular membrane, situated
under the cornea in front of the eye, and on which
the colour of the eye depends. The duplicature
behind is the uvea, so called from its colour re-
sembling a grape. See also Plate in, fig. 5, /. The
iris acts as a curtain, and floats in the aqueous
humour.

In horses the colour of the iris is subject to little
variation, but for the most part has some analogy
with that of the hide, varying in different degrees
from hazel to dark brown.

n. The pupil is placed in the centre of the cornea, and
through which all the rays of objects pass to the retina
or mirror of the eye. See also Plate in, fig. 5, k.

1 82 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

In the horse it is of an oblong form (see Plate
III, fig. 4). It is variable in size, depending upon
the intensity of the light in which it is viewed. In
the open air it will be much contracted, so as to
prevent too large a quantity of light being thrown
upon the retina, as it is painful and injurious to that
object to receive too great a portion of it, as well as
prejudicial to vision ; while in a dark stable it
expands, in consequence of a deficient portion of
light reaching the retina.

This contraction and expansion of the pupil is
of much service in enabling purchasers to judge of
the state of the horse's sight. There is a description
of blindness, in which the crystalline lens and cornea
continue quite transparent, but the retina of the eye
is palsied, and consequently not affected by light ;
so that the pupils are hardly if at all altered by a
change from light to darkness, or vice verscl. In
purchasing a horse, the size of both pupils should
be strictly observed, to see that they both expand
and contract to the same extent by the change of
light. The hand ought to be held over the eyes for
a short time, and then notice if both pupils expand
alike, when removed.

Suspended from the upper edge of the pupil of
the eye two or three black bodies may be discovered .
on close inspection, the size of millet-seeds. When
the horse is suddenly brought into an intense light,
the pupil suddenly contracts ; these little globes are
pressed out from between the edges of the iris, and
an equal number, but of much smaller size, are
attached to the lower edge of the iris. Their use,
probably, is to intercept portions of light which would
be injurious to the eye. But their chief function is
called into action while grazing, and perform the

THE EYE AND ITS VISUAL STRUCTURE 1 83

duties which are attributed to the eyelashes, namely,
to obstruct the rays of light in those directions in
which it would come with the greatest force both
from above and below ; while at the same time the
field of view is quite open, so far as respects the
pasture on which the horse is grazing.

0, 0. The ciliary, or hair-like processes.

p. The vitreous, or glass-Hke humour, which fills the whole
of the cavity of the eye behind the lens. It is a clear
gelatinous fluid, resembling the white of an Qgg. It
fills about three-fourths of the globe of the eye, and
extends from the posterior part as far forward as the
ciliary ligament.

q. The aqueous, or water-like humour which fills the space
between the cornea and the crystalline lens.

It is by means of this humour that the cornea is
preserved in its rounded form. A small portion of
it is behind the iris.

r. The retina, or fine net-like expansion of the optic-nerve,
which is spread over the whole of the choroides, as far
as the lens.

s. The optic-nerve, or nerve of sight.

/. The conjunctiva, or that membrane which covers the fore
part of the eye, and which lines the lids, and even
extends to the transparent portion of it. It is trans-
parent, and transmits colour to the parts beneath. It
is very liable to inflammation, during which the
vessels of the lining of the lids will become engorged
with blood, and present an intensely red appearance,
which extends itself to those vessels in the white of
the eye, which will also become completely congested
with blood, and will ultimately render the cornea
clouded and opaque.

A defect of sight in the horse is more dangerous
than total blindness, for this reason, that one with
a defect of sight will start and shy at every object

184 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

which he meets with upon a road, and the rider
may be thrown off when he least expects it ; while
a horse that is quite blind will generally resign him-
self to the guidance of his rider or driver.

THE TEETH AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT.

Mastication in the horse is performed in two
ways, namely, by a champing motion, and also a
grinding motion.

At 0, Plate III, fig. I, is the masseter-muscle,
which is of great strength, and constituting the
cheek ; it has its origin at the superior maxillary
bone, under the ridge continued from the zygomatic-
arch, Plate viii, fig. 3, yiy^ and inserted into the
lower jaw. This acts in conjunction with the
temporal muscle in closing the jaw, and in pro-
ducing its direct cutting, or champing motion.

Inside of the lower jaw, on each side, and occupy-
ing the entire of the hollowed portion, and opposite
the masseter, or cheek-muscles, are the pterygoid-
muscles, which proceed from the jaw-bones to those
more in the centre of the channel, also shutting the
mouth, and likewise by their alternate action giving
that grinding motion so necessary in preparing the
food of the horse.

The channel which occupies that portion of the
lower jaw between the branches, is of considerable
importance in the conformation of the head of the
horse. If this part is too wide, it always gives a
clumsy, heavy appearance to the face ; and when too
narrow, it prevents the animal from bending his
head with freedom and grace. Horses with such
heads are unpleasant in the hand either of the rider
or driver, as they constantly keep pulling and

THE TEETH AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT 1 85

Stretching their head, which also prevents them
from being well reined in.

The changes which successively take place in
the incisor teeth throughout the whole period of
the life, form the most certain test of the age of
the horse.

The teeth of a horse are forty in number, and
in the mare thirty-six, being destitute of the four
canines or tushes. The incisor, or cutting teeth,
are temporary, and are replaced by others from
two and a half years to four or five. The marks
on them which distinguish the age become obliter-
ated at eight years.

Teeth are composed of three distinct structures,
viz., dentine, enamel, and crusta petrosa. The
dentine surrounds the ** pulp cavity " in all teeth.
The enamel forms the white shell, and the crusta
petrosa or cement joins the three structures to-
gether. The incisor tooth of the horse is known
from other incisor teeth, not only by its shape,
but by having a cavity in the crown, termed the
*' infundibulum " or pit, which descends about a third
way down the body of the tooth and ends in a
blind pouch.

In the early stages of their formation, the
incisor teeth of the horse resemble a cellular body
whose sides are soft and membranous, and quickly
become hard and thickened, and are then reflected
at the side of the table. From this primary dental
production emanate two cavities that have no com-
munication with each other, and which are essen-
tially different, the largest being situated next the
root. (See Plate v, fig. ii.) This contains the
pulpy substance and the blood-vessels and nerves
of the tooth. The other cavity, or so - called

1 86 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

"infundibulum," is open at the side next the table,
and forms a reflected funnel.

Through wear, the enamel of the incisors is
divided into two portions, the exterior or casing
enamel, and the other, the interior, which envelopes
the infundibulum. The enamel being harder, and
offering more resistance than the dentine and crusta
petrosa that surrounds it on all sides, the central
enamel presents a slight prominence, and takes on
different forms in proportion as the funnel becomes
destroyed and contracted.

As we have stated, the horse has forty teeth,
namely, — six incisor, or cutting teeth, in both jaws,
(see Plate in, fig. 2, b, U) ; two tushes, or canines,
in each jaw, a, a ; and six molars, or grinders, in
both jaws, hy h. There is a considerable vacant
space between the incisors and tushes, as also
between the tushes and grinders, as will be seen by
the figure referred to. These teeth are inserted into
sockets, consisting of a spongy bony substance,
called the alveolar process, which forms the edge
of the maxillary bones. All the teeth are first
germinated in the interior of the maxillary bones ;
and having acquired a certain size, and the exterior
table of their sockets having been removed by ab-
sorption, they push out above the gums. Those
which appear shortly after birth are called sucking
or temporary teeth ; these consist of all the incisors
and the three first molars. The formation and
appearance of the others are later, and are called
the permanent teeth ; and those which succeed the
temporary are called the rephcers, or horse-teeth.

DENTAL INDICATIONS OF AGE OF A HORSE tSy

DENTAL INDICATIONS OF THE AGE OF A
HORSE.

Nothing can more clearly indicate a proof of
design than the beautiful contrivance in the forma-
tion of the molars of the horse for the purposes
required. They are, like the incisor teeth, covered
on the sides with enamel, but not on the top,
though several portions of enamel enter into their
substance in their internal structure. They are
subjected to much more friction than the cutting
teeth in grinding down the harder portions of their
food, and nature has made ample provision for their
strength and endurance.

We have given a representation of the section
of a grinder (Plate v, fig. 12) to show its interior
structure. The teeth are prepared and formed in
cavities within the jaw-bones. In the unborn
animal a delicate membranous bag, containing a
jelly-like substance, is situate in the small cell
within the jaw-bone. By degrees this substance
assumes the form of a tooth, and then the
jelly within the membrane begins to change to a
bony consistence ; then a hard crystallisation is
formed on the outside of this membranous cover-
ing. This is the enamel of the tooth. In the
formation of each grinder of the horse in the upper
jaw, there are originally five of these membranous
bags filled with jelly, and four In the lower jaw.
This jelly is gradually superseded by bony matter,
which is deposited by little vessels penetrating into
it. These vessels are represented by the black
streaks in the c-irker central portions of the figure,
around each of which the crystallisation of enamel
can be distinctly traced, so that there would be five

1 88 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

distinct bones or teeth. The white spaces in the
figure represent a very powerful cement, which
unites all these distinct bones into one compact
body, thus making one tooth of the five as they
originally appeared to be ; this being accomplished,
an outer coating of enamel invests the whole of the
sides, but not the top, which completes the tooth.
It will thus be manifest that this is a beautiful and
perfect contrivance to prevent the wearing down of
the grinders by the constant friction to which they
are subjected by chewing the harder portions of
their food. Thus it will be seen there are columns of
enamel penetrating through the entire substance of
the tooth ; this, together with the bony matter and
cement by which the different layers are united,
and which fill the spaces between the columns, soon
begin to wear away, while the enamel remains,
thus occasioning the uneven surface presented by
them, and which is the very best structure for
them to possess in order to grind down the food.

The grinders in the lower jaw are smaller and
narrower, and more regular in their form than the
upper ones. They are placed horizontally in both
jaws ; but in the lower one the higher side is
within, and gradually shelving outwards, while in
the upper jaw the higher side is without, and
shelving inwards ; by which beautiful arrangement
the triturating or grinding motion is most advan-
tageously performed. Each of the grinders is
different in appearance, and can be respectively
recognised with the situation of, and the jaws to
which they belonged.

When the foal is born, it has the first and
second temporary molars, which are large compared
with the size of those by which they are afterwards

DENTAL INDICATIONS OF AGE OF A HORSE l^Q

replaced. In six or eight days after birth, the
two central incisors make their appearance. These
are large in comparison to the size of the jaw, and
occupy its whole front, as represented in Plate iv,
fig I. In three weeks or a month the third tem-
porary molars will have made their appearance,
and within six weeks an additional incisor (middle)
on each side of the two first, both above and
below, will be visible, and soon after completed,
and the jaw will have assumed the form exhibited
in fig. 2. In from nine months to twelve months
the corner temporary incisors appear. The two
molars that the foal has at birth remain until the
animal is three years of age, at which time they
fall out of their sockets by the protrusion of the
second set, or permanent molars. But from this
time there is no use in consulting the grinders for
the age of the horse, as the best tests and easiest
come at are the incisors. The permanent molars
appear in the following order : the first permanent
(but the fourth by position in the jaw) at one year,
the fifth by position at two years ; the first and
second by position at three years; the third and
sixth by position at four years.

The incisor teeth are continually undergoing
some change, in consequence of the friction pro-
duced by the action of their rubbing against each
other. The anterior edge being considerably more
elevated and sharper than the posterior, the wear
first commences there, and in a short time it is
level with the posterior, then both wear together;
the longitudinal cavity, or infundibulum, becomes
narrower, and afterwards triangular, and, finally,
at a certain period disappears, and is replaced by
the small end of the funnel next the root : it is

190 -iANUAL OF MODERN FARPaERY

this regular wear which is termed *' losing the
mark " (see fig. 4). The obliteration of the mark
has frequently taken place by the time the corner
teeth are beginning to appear. It must be dis-
tinctly understood, that in speaking of the marks
in the tooth we constantly refer to the incisors of
the under jaw, except when otherwise expressed ;
and the ages of all horses, except thoroughbreds,
are reckoned from May.

When an incisor tooth has commenced wearing?
and its two edges are parallel, the table exhibits
two bands of enamel, the one exterior, that sur-
rounds the tooth, which is termed the casing
enamel ; the other internal, only surrounding the
cavity, and this is called the central enamel (see
Plate IV, figs. 3 and 5). The incisor teeth of the
low^er jaw always wear more quickly than those
of the upper, and uniformly more regular. The
reason of this has never been satisfactorily ac-
counted for, but it is certainly very remarkable.
From this fact it is obvious that it is more difficult
to judge of the period of obliteration of the mark
in the upper jaw. In the lower jaw the marks of
the central incisors are always obliterated at about
ten months, in the dividers or second teeth at one
year, and from the corner or inner incisors varying
from fifteen months to two years.

By this time the marks of the upper nippers have
become almost entirely obliterated, so that at two
years old the cavities in all the temporary incisor
teeth have disappeared.

At this period the crowns of the incisors become
insensibly smaller, and with their base necked. They
also assume a yellowish-brown aspect, soon after
which they loosen and almost entirely lose their

DENTAL INDICATIONS OF AGE OF A HORSE I9I

attachment in the gums, and finally fall out. It is
at this time the second period in the age of a horse
commences.

The mark in the tooth is occasioned by the food
blackening the infundibulum or hollow pit which is
formed on their surface by the bending in of the
enamel, which passes over the surface of the teeth ;
and by the gradual wearing down of the enamel
from friction, and the consequent disappearance of
it, we are enabled for several years to judge of the
age of the animal.

In the third year, the tushes sometimes begin
to make their appearance, although there are in-
stances of their not being developed until the fifth
or sixth year. But the most general time for their
appearing is in the fourth year. Little dependence
can, therefore, be placed on them in determining
the age of the horse. We have given a repre-
sentation of a three-year-old mouth (fig. 5), in which
it will be seen the central teeth are larger than the
others, and are provided with two grooves in the
outer convex surface. The mark is long, narrow,
deep, and black ; and these teeth, not having
attained their full growth, are somewhat lower than
the others. In the two next teeth the mark is
nearly worn out, and in the corner teeth it is slowly
disappearing.

At this period it is not unusual for dishonest
dealers to deceive the unskilful with regard to the age
of a horse. If they happen to possess one that has
been foaled a little earlier than usual, probably in
January, and which may have acquired bulk and
strength, they punch or draw out the central
nippers, and the others appear some months earlier
than they otherwise would. This will allow the

192 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

teeth to rise much quicker than they would do
naturally, and three or four months may be thereby
gained In their reproduction ; consequently dealers
who wish to take advantage of this may sell a colt
for a year older than he actually is.

But we must look to the general form of the
animal, and when young It will be manifested by
the small development of the forehead. The second
pair of Incisors will still have the mark, and it will
also be much stronger on the corner ones, and
probably with an enlargement or Irregularity about
the gums. In consequence of the teeth having been
violently forced out ; the first and fifth grinders will
be small, and the sixth will not have yet appeared.
As it Is the teeth of the lower jaw which are usually
consulted as to his age, dealers who wish thus to
impose seldom extract the teeth of the upper jaw,
therefore It would be well to examine it also, when
all the signs will remain. Attention to these points
will enable anyone to detect the true age of the colt.

At two years to two-and-a-half the central
temporary Incisors are cast, and at three years
replaced by the central permanent. At three years
to three-and-a-half the middle temporary incisors are
cast, and at four years replaced by the middle
permanent. At four years to four-and-a-half the
corner temporary Incisors are cast, and at five years
replaced by the corner permanent.

A horse at three years of age will have the
central permanent nippers growing with their edges
sharp In comparison to the others.

The tushes are now fully half-an-Inch above
the gums, with an external rounded prominence,
and a groove on each side. Up to the period of
the reproduction of the corner Incisor the animal is

dp:ntal indications of age of a horse 193

designated a colt, but it now assumes the name of
horse ; the female, which up to this time has been
denominated filly, is now called mare.

The mouth of the horse is nearly perfect at the
age of five years. The corner incisors are fully
developed, with the mark on the inside long and
irregular. (See Plate iv, fig. 7.) The other nippers
will exhibit considerable indications of wearing, the
tushes be much grown, and the grooves on the
sides will have nearly or quite disappeared, pre-
senting an almost regular convex surface. They
are still, however, as concave within, and with their
edges nearly as sharp as they were six months
previously. The third and sixth molar teeth will
have attained their complete height. The three
last grinders and tushes are never shed.

When the animal has attained its sixth year, the
mark on the central incisors, or nippers, will be com-
pletely worn off, leaving, however, a little difference
of colour in the centre of the teeth. The cement
which fills the hole produced by the dipping in of
the enamel will be somewhat browner than that of
other portions of the tooth, and will exhibit evident
proofs of the edge being surrounded by enamel.
This condition has perplexed the inexperienced, as
many expect to find the surface of the tooth plain,
and of a uniform colour, whereas they are both
irregular and discoloured, as we have above de-
scribed. (See Plate iv, fig. 8).

In the second incisors the mark is shorter,
broader, and more faint, with the enamel of the
edges of the corner teeth more regular, while the
surface gives sufficient evidence of wear. The
tushes will have attained their full size, being fully
an inch long, convex outwardly, and a little concave

N

194 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

inwardly, accuminated towards the point, and slightly
incurved at the apex.

During the long period which the horse is sub-
jected to teething, it is surprising how little the
animal has suffered from it, and hardly a day of
his valuable services will have been lost. In some
instances heat and swelling of the gums take place,
but this can easily be removed by scarification.
Here, then, we have an example of the wisdom and
perfection of the works of creation ; were the horse
to suffer as much as the human being, he would not
be able to chew his food for weeks, and must con-
sequently fall off in flesh. Dogs are liable to con-
vulsions while cutting their teeth, and many even
die during this process.

At seven years the marks in the four centre
incisors are worn out, and are speedily disappearing
in the corner ones. The tushes are now undergoing
an alteration of form ; they are rounded at the
point and edges, but still inflated outwardly, and
beginning to round inwardly ; the inner edge of
the corner teeth is on a level with the outer, in
consequence of wear. Sometimes a notch is ob-
servable in the upper corner teeth. (See Plate v,
fig. I.)

At eight years old all the marks on the teeth of
the lower jaw will be obliterated, and will be on a
level at the surface ; their form is changed, they
assume an oval shape, and the cavity is altered into
an elongated transverse protrusion of enamel, which
is the termination of the central enamel, or funnel
next the root. (Plate v, fig. 2.) After this period
it is the practice to examine the nippers of the
upper jaw, and to draw deductions as to the age
of the horse ; because, for years after the marks

DENTAL INDICATIONS OF AGE OF A HORSE I95

have become obliterated in the lower jaw, traces of
them exist in the upper jaw. This is in consequence
of the enamel which occupies the pit in the centre
of the tooth not being elevated to a level with the
general surface, so that there is a greater depth to
be worn down in order to rub it off; and besides,
the upper incisors are less liable to friction and
wear than those of the under jaw, in consequence
of the lower jaw alone being moved in the act of
chewing, and the upper jaw being fixed and without
motion : its office is only to resist the pressure of
the under jaw in eating.

The tushes are of no use whatever in enabling
us to determine the age of a horse, because the
change of their form is very uncertain. They do
not rub against each other like the teeth, and are
consequently less liable to be worn down.

At nine years the infundibulum is gone in the
inferior incisors, and the inside and outside walls of
the upper corner teeth are level.

At ten years the upper central incisors loose
mark ; at eleven years the middle, and at twelve
years the corner. To tell the age of the animal
beyond this period is difficult and uncertain, but
the shape of the teeth and other conditions facilitate
the undertaking. Young permanent teeth are about
twice as broad as thick, whereas the old are the
reverse, and this difference graduates itself yearly,
but not by growth and change in the teeth them-
selves. This change is by wear of the crown and
body of the teeth, and absorption of the alveoli or
sockets. In the young the teeth describe a semi-
circle, and stand perpendicular, and the alveoli or
sockets are deep. In the old they shoot almost
straight out, like the point of scissors, the upper

196 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

incisors overlapping the under, and the alveoli are
shallow from absorption, just as is seen in old
people when the chin and nose meet.

At ten years a longitudinal groove makes its
appearance in the middle of the body of the corner
upper incisor teeth, immediately under the line of
the gum. This groove or longitudinal line takes
eleven years to come down from top to bottom, so
that when it reaches the bottom of these teeth the
horse is twenty-one years of age. To return, at
thirteen years the groove is a quarter way down ; at
fifteen to sixteen years, half-way down ; at eighteen
years, three-quarters ; and at twenty-one years, all the
way. After twenty-one years, the top of the corner
teeth next the gum commences to get round in shape
and yellow in colour, and the groove ceases. The
longer the round portion of the tooth above the
groove, the older the horse. At twenty-five or
twenty-six years the round portion is a quarter
way down, at thirty years it is round half-way
down.

In consequence of the continual growing up of
the teeth of the bone from the side next the root,
and the socket not being sufficiently long, the
pressure of the new portion of the root gives the
tooth an outward inclination. Besides, these new
portions of the teeth being always narrower, the
sockets must necessarily contract, in order to secure
the teeth. At this time the sides of the superior
maxillaries become flattened, and the head assumes
a lengthened and pointed form, which gives to the
animal an appearance which is very indicative of
age. The horizontal direction, owing to the same
cause, is always a mark of advanced life, but this
direction is much developed in some horses, and

DENTAL INDICATIONS OF AGE OF A HORSE igj

not at all in others, the cause of which remains still
a question.

The horizontal direction of the teeth, which in-
creases with the years of a horse, will be easily-
understood by a reference to Plate v, fig. i8. This
figure represents the under incisor teeth of a horse
known by the name of '* Old Billy," which attained
his SEVENTY-SIXTH year, and was perhaps the oldest
horse that ever lived. The cranium, with the muscles
preserved, is deposited in the Museum of the
Manchester Natural History Society, from which I
made the drawing. The whole of the incisors are
much elongated horizontally, but not perpendicularly
elevated more than those of a horse at six years of
age. The upper surface of the nippers and dividers
are of a quadrangular form, the inner margins being
a little rounded, while the corner teeth are oblong
oval, nearly the form of an ^ggy with the most acute
end outwards. The tushes are conical, a little
blunted on the crown, and turned backward, with an
elongated, shallow, curved groove on their inner sides.
It will be seen that the outer edge of all the cutting
teeth is nearly parallel, the corner teeth being only a
little less produced than the others. It does not
appear that the jawbones themselves have been
lengthened, the teeth alone having shot forward ; con-
sequently, their surface is lying obliquely, and hence
their elongated form from front to back, as more
particularly developed in the corner teeth. The
tushes are considerably larger in proportion than in
a horse under twenty years of age.

The portion of the tooth which is buried in the
gums is called **the root"; the nippers are placed
parallel to the axis of the jaw, that is, perpendicular
to it ; the dividers are somewhat oblique, and the

198 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

corner teeth still more so, with their roots turning
inwards ; the semicircle formed by the roots of
these teeth is considerably narrower, and occupies
less space than that of the free portion.

The entire length of the temporary incisors varies
from an inch and a quarter to an inch and three-
quarters ; and the permanent incisors from two inches
and a half to three and a quarter. Their form is not
the same throughout. Thus, next to the surface of
wear, they become flattened from front to rear, they
narrow towards the edge of the socket, are at first
oval and then rounded, and of a triangular form
towards the base of the root, with the extremity
flattened from side to side. This variation is much
more remarkable in the nippers and dividers than in
the corner teeth, which is rendered more obvious by
making several sections of an incisor tooth at some-
what about a quarter of an inch apart. We have
given five transverse sections of the tooth of a young
horse to exhibit this: Plate v, figs. 13, 14, 15, 16,
and 17, have the funnel, and the sections, 16 and 17,
show the septum of the root of the tooth.

The incisors of the upper jaw are stronger,
broader, and more developed than those of the
lower ; consequently the outer edge of the lower
corner teeth rests against the centre of the upper
corners, and wears them in such a manner as to
produce in some jaws a triangular nick, which leads
in a certain degree to the determination of the age
of a horse. This nick never appears until the horse
has attained its seventh year. It becomes obliterated
in time, but sooner in proportion as the jaw assumes
a horizontal direction.

We have given representations of six teeth, show-

DENTAL INDICATIONS OF AGE OF A HORSE 1 99

ing the exterior of the incisor teeth, together with
their internal organisation.

The tooth of a foal viewed from its posterior or
inner surface. Plate v, fig. 8, a, the mouth of the
cavity of funnel of the table.

Another foal's tooth, viewed anteriorly, fig. 7 : a,
exhibits the body of the tooth ; b, the neck ; and c,
the root.

The tooth of a very young foal, in which the
casing or outer enamel is cut through its whole
length, and exhibiting the central enamel, fig. 10, a.

The molars, or grinding teeth of " Old Billy,"
mentioned at page 197, are worn in a singular
manner. The first grinder of the lower jaw, on
both sides, is worn clown to about half-an-inch above
the gum ; the second, on a level with the gums, form-
ing a hiatus into which the second grinder of the
upper jaw fits, which is fully a quarter of an inch
longer than the first grinder, and very uneven and
unequal on the surface. About half-an-inch of the
outer portion of the fourth grinder is parallel with
the third, but the remainder is worn level with the
jaw ; the fifth and sixth molars are almost entirely
worn down, except a small portion of the inner part
of the sixth. The third upper one is more than
half worn down, and the fourth level with the socket ;
part of the fifth and sixth are worn obliquely down,
the cavity formed by which is occupied by the lower
opposite teeth, and the worn down fifth and sixth
of the lower jaw are occupied by the upper ones. In
short, it is curious how mastication could be per-
formed.

It seems probable that the natural age of the
horse is from thirty-five to forty. It would be most
erroneous to estimate his life according to the age

200 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

at which he is worn out in a state of servitude. Few
of these valuable animals live to anything like what
they would do in a state of freedom, most of them
being unserviceable or destroyed by excessive labour.
Mr Blaine informs us of one gentleman who had three
horses which attained a considerable age : one at
thirty-five, another at thirty-seven, and the third at
thirty-nine. Mr Cully mentions one which received
a ball in his neck at the battle of Preston, in 1715,
and which was extracted when he died in 1758, so
that he must have been forty-seven or forty-eight
years of age. Albertus mentions that in his time
there was a charger, proving serviceable at the ad-
vanced age of sixty, and Augustus Nephus says
there was a horse in the stable of Ferdinand the
First that had attained the age of seventy years.
This is the oldest horse mentioned by any author
as far as I know ; so that in all probability " Old
Billy " is the Parr of horses.

The incisor tooth of a horse, divided into two
parts its whole length, fig. 12, and which exhibits the
external cavity, a, and the internal cavity, b.

The incisory tooth of a young horse, with an
opening at the middle of the anterior surface, leaving
exposed the lower portion of the funnel, fig. i\, a.

The incisory tooth of a young horse, divided
throughout, fig. 9, a, shows the exterior cavity, and
by the extremity of the funnel.

Independently of the teeth, there are other signs
by which an aged horse is known : first, the temporal
fossae or pits above the eyes become much sunk, grey
hairs are also seen above the eyes and about the
muzzle, the lips being thin and hanging, the back
sinks, the withers become sharp, the ■ quarters
lengthened, spavin, windgalls, and all kinds of

J^W'^^

DENTAL INDICATIONS OF AGE OF A HORSE 20I

tumours disappear, and for the most part the animal
has a dull and heavy appearance, with hanging of
the head.

Various are the tricks resorted to by dealers to
impose upon the uninitiated. They endeavour by
fraudulent means to make them appear most near
the age at which they are of the greatest value, and
when they can of course obtain the highest price
for them. If too young, they endeavour to make
them seem older, and on the contrary, if too old,
they try to give them a youthful appearance. Besides
what we have mentioned at page 191, there is a
practice amongst dishonest dealers to prolong the
youthful marks of the teeth of a horse by what has
been designated Bishoping, after the infamous in-
ventor of this fraud. This trick is to imitate the
appearance of the mark. A horse of eight or nine
years of age is taken, and, by the aid of an engraving
tool, a hole is dug in the surface of the corner teeth
to imitate that in a horse of seven years of age. The
hole is then burned with heated iron, until it leaves
a permanent black stain. This is sometimes ex-
tended to the dividers, in a slight degree. But upon
a narrow inspection this trick will be detected. The
irregular appearance of the cavity, the absence of
the ring of enamel around the infundibulum, the dif-
fusion ot the black stain around the tushes, the
sharpened edges and concave inner surface can never
be successfully imitated so as to deceive the experi-
enced. Besides, if the incisors of the upper jaw be
examined, they will aid the most ignorant in detect-
ing the imposition.

CHAPTER IX.

Principal Muscles of the Limbs, etc.

We do not consider it necessary for the general
reader to be acquainted with the entire muscles of
the horse, although a knowledge of such as are more
immediately called into active operation will aid him
in discovering the seat of sprains and bruises, and
to administer for their relief, in the absence of a
regular practitioner.

MUSCLES OF THE OUTSIDE OF THE
SHOULDER.

PLATE VI, Fig. i.

a. A portion of the sterno-maxillaris ^ or muscle which is
common to, and connected with, the lower jaw, as well
as the fore part of the chest. This is one of the muscles
employed in lowering the head. It lies immediately
under the skin, and arises from the cartilage projecting
from, or constituting the breast-bone, Plate ii, fig. 2. It
then traverses the neck in an upward direction, and is
neither of great dimensions nor strength. About three-
fourths of its length upwards, it changes to a flat tendon,
and is exhibited, Plate m, fig. i, w, above which it in-
sinuates itself between the parotid and submaxillary
glands, that it may be inserted into the angle of the
lower jaw. It is exerted in bending the head towards
the chest.
^, /, Is a muscle which is the raiser of the shoulder, and takes
its rise from the nipple-shaped process of the temporal

MUSCLES OF OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER 203

bone, c, c, Plate iii, figs. 2 and 3, and extending down
the fore part of the neck, is inserted into the middle
part of the lower bone of the shoulder, and thence con-
tinued down to the arm. The use of this muscle is to
bend the head ; or, the head and neck being fixed, to
elevate and bring forward the arm. When the horse is
running at full speed, with the head thrown forward,
this muscle is in powerful action.
c, d. The serratus major ^ or great tooth-shaped muscle of the
shoulder, which constitutes a large proportion of the
lower part of the neck. It is deeply seated, arising from
the five last bones of the neck and the two first ribs.
Its lower portion springs from all the true ribs. The
whole of its fibres have a downward tendency, and are
inserted into the inner surface of the shoulder ; by
means of which the shoulder is attached to the chest,
and the weight of the body thereby supported.

When the horse is in a standing position, this
muscle occasionally performs another important office.
The shoulders and legs, by means of the v^eight of
the body, are fixed and immovable ; consequently,
having no longer any power over the motion of the
limbs, it now exercises its power in enlarging the
cavity of the chest, and thus materially contributes
to give freedom to the action of the chest in
breathing.

In treating of inflammation of the lungs, page 47,
we mentioned that horses labouring under this dis-
ease would stand night and day. The cause of this
is, that the breathing is laborious and painful, and
the animal in standing obtains the aid of this muscle
in giving ease to the respiration. Therefore, when
he does lie down, it is a pretty strong proof that the
violence of the disease has abated, and consequently
he no longer requires the assistance of this muscle.

e^f. These parts represent portions of the trapezius muscle,
which is of a quadrangular form, and rises from the

204 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

sides of the withers. Its base is turned upwards, and
its right side forwards in a parallel line with the spine
of the scapula or shoulder-blade. It occupies the space
between the withers and upper part of the scapula, and
is large and strong in proportion to the height of the
withers, and the oblique direction or slanting of the
shoulder. Its use is to elevate the scapula, as well as to
draw it backward. This muscle is one of the most im-
portant as connected with the action of the horse, and
prominently illustrative of the advantage of high withers
and a slanting shoulder. We have represented a portion
of it turned back to exhibit the muscles beneath.

g. Is the little pectoral or breast-muscle ; it is connected
with both the breast and shoulder-blade. It takes its
rise from the breast-bone, and extends to the covering
of the shoulder-joint and to the muscle of the shoulder.
It lies below the greater breast-muscle. Inwardly it
is attached to the anterior half of the breast-bone, and
to the cartilages of the first four ribs. Its action is
common with that of the larger breast-muscle (pector-
alis major), and to assist it in drawing back the top of
the lower bone of the shoulder and the lower part of
the scapula, as well as to keep the latter bone more
upright in its position.

//. The antea spinatus muscle, or muscle before the spine, is
placed on the external part of the shoulder, before the
ridge of the shoulder-blade, and fills the whole of that
space. It proceeds downwards, dividing into two parts,
each of which is attached to the summits of the greater
and lesser tubercles of the humerus, or bone of the arm,
and also to the capsular ligament of the shoulder-joint.
It is a muscle of great strength, and extends the arm
or humerus upon the scapula, and moves it forward.
See the description at b.

k. The postea spinatus muscle, situated behind the spine or
ridge, and occupying the space called the fossa postea
spinata. It extends to the lower bone of the shoulder,
and is inserted into the upper head of that bone. It is
of a triangular form, and is flattened, and broader, but
not so thick in substance as the antea spinatus muscle.
It assists the flection of the humerus, and at the same
time rolls it outwards. This is the tendon of the long

MUSCLES OF OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER 205

extensor of the arm, which reaches from the upper angle
and the posterior border of the scapula, to the point of
the elbow and the inside of the arm. This muscle is a
very important one.
0, q, /, Are the three divisions of another muscle concerned in
the same office with p, arising from the shoulder-blade
and the lower bone of the shoulder, and likewise attached
to the point of the elbow by a very powerful tendon.

t. This is the middle flexor, which is one of the numerous
and powerful muscles which bend the leg. It is also
represented at e, Plate vi, fig. 2, and is the muscle which
bends the shank-bone, because it is situated precisely in
the middle of the back part of the arm. It has its origin
from the inner head of the lower bone of the shoulder,
and is inserted into one of the bones on the inner side
of the knee. The other is seen at 2, fig. i, and is called
the external flexor of the leg, in consequence of lying on
the outer side of the arm, towards the back. It is in-
serted on the outer head of the lower bone of the
shoulder ; advancing towards the knee, it is tendinous ;
and the tendon divides into two portions, one of which
is inserted into the same bone of the knee, and the other
into the outer small bone of the leg. The internal flexor
is exhibited at g, Plate vi, fig. 2.

u. This is one of the muscles of the lower bone of the
shoulder. It is the external one, whose office is to
bend the arm. It arises from the inner and back part
of the neck and body of the lower bone of the shoulder,
and turns obliquely round it, and is inserted into the
inner and upper part of the bone of the arm.

w. This is the extensor of the leg ; it is the principal one of
the fore arm, is of considerable bulk, and occupies the
front part of the arm. It takes its rise from the lower
portion of the body of the lower bone of the shoulder,
and from its outer head. As it descends down the arm,
it becomes tendinous. This tendon passes under one of
the ligaments of the knee ; it then spreads out, and is
inserted mto the fore and superior portion of the shank-
bone. It is also seen at e, fig. 2.

X. The middle flexor, or bending muscle of the shank-bone.
This is situated immediately on the middle of the back
part of the arm. It arises from the inner termination of

2o6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

the lower bone of the shoulder, and is continued and
inserted into one of the bones on the inner side of the
knee. It is also seen at e, fig. 2.

2. The external flexor of the leg, and which is situated on

the outer side of the arm, towards the back. It has its
origin in the outer head of the lower bone of the
shoulder, stretching towards the knee. It is of a
tendinous character, and divides into two portions, one
of which is inserted into the same bone of the knee, and
the other into the outer small bone of the leg.

3. And extending down to 7, 4, and 5, are the principal

artery, nerve, and vein of the leg.

7. This is the perforated flexor muscle. It arises from the
lower and back portion of the inner head of the lower
bone of the shoulder, and is intimately intermixed with
the perforating flexor muscle. As it descends along the
bone of the arm, it becomes tendinous, and extending
to the knee, it is bound down by ligamentary bands to
prevent it jfrom starting in sudden or violent motion.
From the knee it widens and partly laps round the
tendon of the perforating muscle ; they then descend
together in contact, but are not adherent, sliding over
each other freely and safely by the aid of the lubricating
fluid. They are both encircled in a thick sheath of
cellular substance which is attached to them by
numerous small fibres. Reaching near to the fetlock,
the tendon expands still more, forming a complete ring
round the tendon of the perforating muscle. This is
shown at ^, Plate vi, fig. 7. The perforated tendon soon
divides, and is inserted into the larger and smaller
pastern-bones, its office being to bend them.

8. The subcutaneous vein of the side of the chest.

MUSCLES ON THE INSIDE OF THE SHOULDER.

PLATE VI, Fig. 2.

a. The flexor of the arm, which is one of the most powerful
of the flexor muscles. It has its origin in the extremity
of the ridge of the shoulder-blade, in the form of a
large and round tendon, which extends between two

Ti^ 1

DnufTi tj,' T Bvo^-.ii

'SCILES OF THE F€>mE 3LJg(&S

MUSCLES ON INSIDE OF THE SMOULDER lOJ

prominences in the upper portion of the front of the
lower bone of the scapula. This groove, or pulley?
is as perfect as it is possible to suppose it, and is
lined with smooth cartilage, between which and the
tendon there is interposed an oily fluid, which enables
the tendon to move in this pulley without the danger
of being injured by friction. Passing on from this
pulley, and extending beyond the head of the lower
bone of the shoulder, the cord spreads out into a
round fleshy substance, containing numerous tendinous
fibres. It is deeply seated, and gives that fine fullness
to the front of the arm. It is inserted into the head
and neck of the bone of the arm, as also into the
capsular ligament of the elbow-joint. It is the
chief muscle, by which nearly the entire of the leg
below the arm is bent.
b^ b. This muscle is called the pectoralis transversus^ or the
muscle which crosses the breast. It takes its rise
from the first four bones of the chest, and, stretching
across to the inner part of the arm, is inserted into
the tendinous substance which covers the muscles of
the fore-arm, and extending a considerable way down
the arm. Its use is to bind the arm to the side of the
horse, and it also keeps the legs straight before the
horse when it is at speed, so that the weight of the
body may be received on them in a direction most
easy and safe to the horse as well as the rider, and
most advantageous for the full action of all the
muscles connected with progression.
c. This represents the disease called capped elbow ^ or an en-
largement of the joint of the elbow, as described at
page 87.
g. The internal flexor. It takes its rise from the inner head
of the lower bone of the shoulder, and is inserted into
the head of the inner splint-bone. Its oflSce is to
bend the leg, and to turn it very slightly.
r. The principal veins, nerves, and arteries of the shoulder
and arm.

2o8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

MUSCLES OF THE OUTSIDE OF THE THIGH.
PLATE VII, Fig. i.

a. The great glutaeus muscle, or gluteus maximus. It

occupies the anterior, middle, and external parts of
the haunch. It arises from the spinous and transverse
processes of several of the bones of the loins, from the
sacrum, and from the different edges of the ilium,
and is inserted into the protuberance of the upper
bone of the thigh, behind and a little above the joint
that unites the thigh to the haunch-bone. It is this
muscle which gives that fullness and roundness to the
haunch so much admired. It is one of the chief
muscles of progression.

b. The outer glutaeus or buttock-muscle, which can only be

considered as a fleshy slip attached to the great
glutaeus. Its origin is as high as the spine, and it runs
along the back part of the thigh in the form of a
ridge, and is inserted into the smaller outer pro-
minence of the upper bone of the thigh.

c. This muscle arises high up from the bones of the spine,

from others at the root of the tail, from the pro-
tuberance of the ischium, and from other bones of the
pelvis. It is, in fact, a sort of triple muscle, as it has
three heads ; it is called the triceps femoris^ or three-
headed muscle of the thigh. It is inserted into the
upper part of the lower bone of the thigh, and its
office is to draw back the thigh when placed under
the trunk, and so to throw forward the trunk of the
body.

d. This muscle descends from the sacrum, and from the

first bones of the tail runs down posterior to the
triceps femor is ^ and constitutes the hinder border of
the haunch. It is inserted into the lower bone of
the thigh, and assists in performing the same kind of
motion. The whole of these muscles are very much
developed in the thoroughbred horse, and hence his
strength and speed, which is besides another very
important point in the horse. To perform their full
action, these muscles should be so prominent that the

MUSCLES OF OUTSIDE OF THE THIGH 269

horse, when the observer stands behind him, should
be perceptibly wider at the thighs than at the loins
and haunch.
e. The root of the tail, with its muscles.

'/i'This is the tendinous expansion which binds and
'"■ •"'• strengthens the above muscles.

g. Is X^XQ flexor metatarsi^ or muscle used to bend the hocks,
or bender of the leg. It arises from the lower part of
the upper bone of the thigh, and is inserted into the
upper portion of the shank bone, and also the inner
splint bone. It is a muscle of considerable power.

h. The extensor pedis. It is situated on the anterior part
of the thigh, and is attached to a roughened de-
pression upon the antero-inferior part of the external
condyle of the femoral bone, and below to the
coronal process of the os pedis ^ and to the upper edge
of the bone in the interval between the lateral
cartilages. Its office is the extension of the foot, as
well as the fetlock and pastern joints.

i. This letter is placed at the situation occupied by the
principal nerves before they pass under the muscle.
They take a direction nearly in a line with the
letter c.
l^p. ThQ poplitceus or femoro-tibia lis obliqtmSf a short, thick,
triangular muscle, extending from the upper to the
lower thigh bones, bending the stifle, and turning the
limb inward.

k. The use of this muscle is to extend the hock. It is an
exceedingly powerful muscle, having its origin in the
head of the upper bone of the thigh, and, midway
down the lower bone of the thigh, ending in a flat
tendon, which is inserted into the joint of the hock.
It is advantageously placed for powerful exertion, for
it acts nearly at right angles.
?«, ;/. The peronceus^ which is another of the extensor muscles,
and so called from a name given to the fibula. It
arises from the whole course of the fibula, and also
becomes tendinous before reaching the hock. About
half-way down the shank, it occupies the same
sheath as the principal extensor muscle, and is
inserted along with it into the coflin bone. The

O

2IO MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

province of the extensor muscles is to raise the foot
from the ground, and to bring it forward under the
body.

0. The flexor pedis ^ one of the chief bending or flexor

muscles of the foot, which has its origin in the upper
part of the tibia. As it approaches the hock, it is
distinguished by its large round tendon, which is
seen to enter into a groove at the back of the hock.
It is continued down the back of the leg in the same
manner as a similar muscle in the fore leg. It is the
performing flexor muscle of the hind leg, and assists
in binding the pastern and coffin joints.

CHIEF MUSCLES OF THE INSIDE OF THE
THIGH

PLATE VII, Fig. 2.

h. The blood-vessels belonging to the groin.
d^ X. These represent the course of the principal anterior
arteries and veins, which extend to x^ and include in
their range d and k.
c. The gracilis^ or slender muscle, which is very broad, and
occupies the greater portion of the surface of the
inner part of the thigh, and especially the prominent
part of it. It has its origin in the lower part of the
haunch bone, and in its downward passage unites
with the sartorius^ and is inserted with it into the
lower bone of the thigh. Its province is also to turn
the leg.

/. A portion of the muscle described at k^ fig. i.

k. The peronceus. This muscle is attached above to the
head of the fibula, continuing its attachment for the
whole length of that bone, and below to the coronal
process of the os pedis.

1. Tht poplitceus^ a short muscle.

m. The flexor metatarsi^ or bender of the leg, which arises
from the lower part of the upper bone of the thigh,
and is inserted into the upper part of the shank bone,
as well as to the inner small splint bone. This
muscle has considerable power.

STRUCTURE OF THE HOCK JOINT 211

It. The extensor pedis ^ described at ^, fig. i.

0. An inside view of the perforating muscle of the foot.

/. The veins of the posterior part of the leg.

V, The ligamentous bands, which are of such importance in
confining the tendons at the bending of the hock.

w. Immediately behind the bend of the hock, at iv^ from the
anterior superior part of the metatarsal bone, issues a
thin layer of fleshy fibres, enveloped in cellular
substance, and concealed in part of the tendon of the
extensor pedis, with which (about one-fourth of the
cannon downward) they form a union, and make
some addition to its substance. In action, these
supplementary fibres will brace the tendon, and are
probably furnished to prevent it from being com-
pressed by the flexion of the hock.

y^y. The -large cutaneous vein, or vein immediately under
the skin.

z. The inguinal vein, which is one of rather large size,
coming from the groin, which owes its formation to
a considerable branch emanating from the muscles of
the thigh, and the above superficial or cutaneous
abdominal vein. The femoral vein is the continua-
tion of the external iliac trunk below the brim of the
pelvis, and becoming the main channel into which
the deep-seated veins of the hind extremity pour
their blood.

STRUCTURE OF THE HOCK JOINT.
PLATE VIII, Fig. i.

This is one of the most important points of the
animal, and which ought to be thoroughly knov^n by
all who possess a horse. We are convinced that
this is much more frequently the seat of disease and
lameness than is suspected. Besides, upon the proper
formation of this joint, the value and excellence of
the horse chiefly depends.

As the knee answers to the wrist of man, and is

2 12 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

therefore analogically regarded as the carpus, so in
like manner the hock becomes the correspondent
part to the instep, and is consequently considered
under the technical appellation of tarsus. It consists
of six small bones.

a. The astragalus, or knuckle bone. Its form is like that
of a pulley. Its surface consists of two bold semi-
circular prominences, with a deep capacious groove
between them ; these are admirably adapted to the
two grooves, parted by their middle projection in the
lower extremity of the tibia, and these opposite
prominences and grooves are received, and as it were
morticed into each other. At the posterior part its
convex surface is received into a concavity near the
base of another bone, and with which it is united
by very strong ligaments to the os calcis^ c, or bone
of the heel, and it projects upwards, flattened at the
sides, and receives into it the tendons of powerful
muscles, which are strongly implanted into it. The
lower surface is smaller than either of the others,
and is irregularly flattened, and almost wholly
articulatory ; it is embraced by the superior part
of the large cuneiform bone. The two bones above
described rest on two others, the os cuboides^ or cube-
shaped bone, e^ behind, and the larger wedge-shaped
bone, d^ in front. This larger wedge-shaped bone is
supported by two small ones,/, and these two smaller
ones and the cube-shaped bone by the upper heads of
the shank bone, ^, and the splint bone, g. The cube
bone is placed on the external splint bone and the
cannon bone ; the small wedge bone chiefly rests on
the inner splint bone, which cannot be seen in our
(d ({ figure, and the middle wedge bone rests on the

shank bone, h^ alone. All these bones are connected
together by very strong ligaments, which prevent dis-
location, but are suflSciently flexible to allow a slight
degree of motion among them, and the surfaces
which are opposed to and move upon each other are
thickly covered by elastic cartilage.

h. The inferior end or base of the tibia. This bone reaches

STRUCTURE OF THE HOCK jOtNT ^1^

from the stille to the hock ; it is connected with tlie
round bone above, and the os calcis below.

c. The OS calczs, which forms the posterior projecting part,

called the point of the hock.

d. The OS cuneiformc magnum^ large wedge-shaped or cunei-

form bone, situated immediately under the astragalus.

e. The os cuboides^ or cuboid bone, situate on the outer part

of the hock.

f. The 0^ cimeiforme^ or middle cuneiform bone, situated

immediately underneath the large cuneiform bone,
and upon the hind cannon bone.

g. The splint bone.

h. Upper head of the shank bone, or metatarsi magnum.

This joint is subjected to very great stress and
weight, and consequently peculiarly liable to injury
both in the draught and during rapid motion. How-
ever, nature has constructed it with wonderful skill ;
and it is, by the beautiful adjustment of its parts,
rendered less liable to disease than might be ex-
pected from the important and heavy duties it has to
perform. The provisions made for this end are;
that the pulley-like heads of the astragalus and tibia
fit deeply into each other, and are strongly confined
in their position by extremely powerful ligaments,
which are so contrived that they admit of the
necessary freedom of the hinge-like motion of the
joint, but completely prevent that lateral or side
motion to which the joint is exposed in rapid move^
ments, or passing over uneven surfaces. It will be
seen, by inspecting the figure referred to, that the
weight of the hind-quarters is principally thrown upon
the tibia, by and that it rests almost entirely on the
astragalus, a ; but it will be observed that this weight
does not press perpendicularly, but in an oblique
direction, so that much of the concussion which

^14 Manual of modern farriery

would otherwise take place is avoided, by the springy
action this slanting pressure produces among the
several bones which compose the joint. This will be
more readily understood by a reference to the skeleton,
Plate II, fig. 21. As we have already shown, this
joint consists of six bones, all of which are covered
with articular cartilage, and each admitting of a
certain degree of motion, which diminishes concussion
by the weight, pressure, and action being diffused
among them all, and thus the concussion is neutralised
and rendered harmless. Besides the cartilaginous
covering, each of these bones has a membranous
covering, which secretes the synovia or oily fluid,
which we have already mentioned at page 89 and
elsewhere. In fact these bones may be considered
as so many distinct joints, all separated from each
other and protected from injury, yet united by different
ligaments, binding them so firmly together as to
prevent the possibility of dislocation, yet permitting
sufficient motion for the important office they have
to fulfil. Beautiful and wonderfully powerful as
this joint is, it is sometimes injured, — too frequently,
we lament to say, — by the brutal cruelty of those to
whose care horses are entrusted. In ordinary action
this joint has heavy work to perform, but often more
severe exertion is exacted from it than even its ad-
mirable construction can possibly perform. Much of
the lameness of the hind-quarters will be found, upon
careful examination, to be seated in the hock. If
the exact locality of lameness cannot be detected
elsewhere, we may almost consider that it is some-
where connected with the complicated structure of
the hock joint, and we may particularly refer to the
various diseases of this joint described towards the
beginning of Chapter VI, page 107.

BONES OF THE FOOT 215

BONES OF THE FOOT.
PLATE VI, Fig. 3.

This figure represents a back view of the bones of
the pastern joint and of the foot, and those connected
with it. The coffin bone constitutes its osseous fabric,
to which the navicular bone may be regarded as an
appendage. The anatomy of this part should be well
understood, as it is of much importance in the action
of a horse, as also very liable to disease.

a. The coffin bone, with its horny laminae. It is situated
within the hoof, which it nearly resembles in form, being
in its outline crescent-shaped. Its form, however, varies
with the natural make and morbid changes in the form
of the hoof. The coffin bone is of a soft, spongy texture.

h. The navicular bone, or shuttle bone, which is situated at
the back of the coffin joint, into whose composition it
enters. It is crescent-shaped. One of its extremities is
directed outward, and the other inward ; their points are
obtuse, and are fixed by lateral ligaments to the coffin
bone.

c. The lower pastern, or coronet bone. Its situation is be-

tween the pastern and the foot, and answers to the
second phalanx of the human foot. Its form is nearly
square.

d. The upper pastern is situated below the cannon bone, with

which, from taking an oblique direction, it forms an
obtuse angle. It is connected with the cannon and
coronet bones, and with the two sesamoids.

e. The sesamoid bones, or os sesamoidea. These are situated

at the back of the articulation formed by the pastern and
cannon bones. They are articulated only with the large
metacarpal bone, and are connected both with that and
the pastern bone.

FRONT VIEW OF THE PASTERN.
PLATE VI, Figs. 4, 5, and 6.

We have described some of the injuries to which
the fetlock is liable, page lor.

2l6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

a. The coffin bone, or os pedis. The outUne of its form is

semi-lunar, convex before and above, concave below and
behind.

b. The navicular bone, or os naviciilare.

c. The lower pastern, or os coronce.

d. The upper pastern, or os suffraginis.

NERVE, VEIN, AND ARTERY OF THE PASTERN
AND FOOT.

PLATE VI, Fig. 7.

This gives a representation of the nerve on the
inside of the foot as it approaches the fetlock and
passes over the pastern. It will be noticed that
branches are given off above the fetlock, which pro-
ceed to the fore part of the foot and give it feeling.
The continuation of the nerve under the fetlock
principally supplies the quarters and hinder parts of
the foot.

This figure is intended to show the parts and
situation of the vein, artery, and nerve, which has
been operated upon during diseases of the foot, to
alleviate the pain the animal suffers under some of
these affections. This is termed neurotomy, or
cutting of the nerve.

a. The sole of the foot.

b. The horny crust.

c. The fleshy, or sensible laminie, covering the coffin bone, the

horny crust being removed.

d. The posterior lateral ligamems.

e. The internal, or sensible frog.

/. The branch of the nerve which supplies the fore part of the

foot with feeling.
g. The lower part of the vein before the artery.
h. The same vein spreading over the pastern.
i. The continuation of the nerve, s, and proceeding downward
to supply the back portion of the foot with feeling.

ATTACHMENTS IN FRONT OF PASTERN BONES 21?

j. The extensors of the foot.

k. The deeper flexor tendon continued downward, called the
perforans^ or perforating, and contained within the other.
/, m. The division of the nerve on the fetlock joint.
n. The tendinous band in which the flexors work.
0. One of the flexor tendons.
p. The deeper flexor tendon.
q. The artery between the vein and nerve.
/'. The vein before the artery.

s. The nerve on the inside of the off leg, at the edge of the
shank bone, and behind the vein and artery.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF DEFECTS OF THE FORE

LEG.

PLATE VI, Fig. 8.

a. The situation of sand-crack in the foot of the fore leg, as

described at page 135.

b. Representation of ringbone when it first appears on the

side of the pastern. See page 104.

c. The situation of wind-gall. See page 99.

d. The situation and appearance of the enlargement which

accompanies sprain of the back sinews. See page 95.

e» The ordinary position in which splint occurs on the side of
the shank bone, which, however, does not produce lame-
ness after its first formation, in consequence of its not
interfering with the motion of the knee, nor does it injure
the suspensory ligament. See page 92.

/. The tying in of the leg below the knee.

//. The situation of the disease called mallenders. See page 1 1 1.

ATTACHMENTS IN FRONT OF THE PASTERN
BONES, Etc

PLATE VI, Fig. 7.

a. The coffin bone.
h^ c. Branches of the suspensory ligaments, proceeding to unite
with the extensor tendon.
ii. The back of the upper pastern.

2l8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

e. The back part of the lower pastern.

/. Back of one of the sesamoid bones.

g. The lower part of the shank bone.

h. The lateral cartilages of the foot.

i. The ligaments connecting the two pastern bones together.

SITUATION OF DISEASES OF THE HIND LEG.
PLATE VII, Fig. 3.

a. The situation of grease of the foot. See page 123.

b. Represents a wind-gall. See page 99.

c. Capped hock. See page no.

d. Curb. See page 113.

e, c The position of thoroughpin. See page 109.

We have given a series of different representations
of these, as follow, on Plate vii : —

a. Fig. 4, Capped hocks. See page 1 10.
h^ b. Fig. 5, Thoroughpin. See page 109.

e. Fig. 6, Bog and blood-spavin. See page 119.
e. Fig. 8, Curb. See page 113.

d. Fig. 9, Bone-spavin. See page 115.

THE PASTERN AND FOOT, WITH THEIR BONES
AND INTEGUMENTS.

PLATE VI, Fig. 10.

At the interior portion of the shank bone, immedi-
ately below the knee, and occupying the space be-
tween the two splint bones, two remarkable and
important ligaments are situated. They are not
only elastic, but also particularly well adapted to
obviate concussion. They have their origin from
the head of the shank bone, and likewise from the
heads of the splint bones. They descend down the
leg, and fill the groove between the splint bones,
although they are not attached to either. A little

BONES AND INTEGUMENTS OF PASTERN AND FOOT 2ig

lower down they expand on both sides, and as they
approach the pasterns, separate, and are inserted
into two small sesamoid bones, situate at the back
of the upper pastern. These form a joint, both
with the lower termination of the shank bone and
the upper pastern bone, to both of which they are
united by ligaments, /, ^, and ^, but more firmly
united with the pastern than the shank. Between
them pass the flexor tendons, through a synovial
bag, which prevents the friction to which they would
otherwise be exposed in passing through so confined
a situation. This ligament is continued over the
sesamoid bones, and afterwards is directed obliquely
forward over the pastern, where it unites with the
long extensor tendon, and downward to the perforated
tendon, which it surrounds, and fixes in its position,
and likewise to the smaller pastern bone.

a. The coffin bone. This bone is fitted to, and occupies the
fore part of, the hoof, filUng about half of it. It nearly
resembles the hoof in form, being half-moon shaped ; it
is convex above and in front, and concave behind and
beneath. It varies, however, with the natural form of
the hoof, and also adapts itself to such changes in the
hoof as are induced by disease. Its structure is light and
spongy, and perforated with numerous holes. These
are adapted for the passage of the blood-vessels of
the foot, without which the circulation could not be so
safely and conveniently kept up, and aflfords another
striking example of those beautiful provisions of nature
for effecting certain ends. But for this, these vessels
would be frequently subjected to great pressure, which
would occasionally obstruct its free passage. The upper
surface, it will be seen, is concave, for the reception of
the rounded end of the lower pastern, b ; at the back, o,
is a depression for the perforating tendon, ^. We have
described the diseases connected with this joint at page
104.

b. The lower or smaller pastern bone.

2^0 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

c. The upper or larger pastern bone.

d. The shank bone.

e. The sesamoid bone.

■f. The suspensory ligament. See rupture of this described,

page ICO.
g. The tendon of the perforating flexor, inserted into the

coffin bone after having passed over the navicular bone.
h. A long ligament, reaching from the pastern bone to the

knee.

i. The small inelastic ligament, which fastens down the sesa-
moid bone to the larger pastern.

/. The extensor tendon, inserted into both the pasterns and
the coffin bone.

k. A continuation of the suspensory ligament, inserted into
the smaller pastern bone.

/. The navicular, or shuttle bone. One of the chief uses of
this bone is to take off a portion of the weight from the
coffin bone ; and from the navicular bone it is thrown on
the tendon, which rests on the elastic frog beneath. See
diseases of this bone, page 139.

m. The inner, or sensitive frog. This is a wedge-shaped body
projecting from the bottom of the foot, together with
the substance continued from it, and occupying the in-
terval between the cartilages.

;/. A ligament which unites the navicular bone to the smaller
pastern.

0. A ligament uniting the navicular bone to the coffin bone.

/. This is the seat of lameness of the navicular joint.

q. The sensitive sole between the coffin bone and horny sole.
It is placed between the coffin bone and the sole ; and,
from its yielding nature, assists in preventing concussion,
and also forms a supply for the horn of the sole. It is
furnished with nervous fibres, and is highly sensitive. The
lameness which is caused by the pressure of a stone or of
the shoe on the sole is occasioned by inflammation of the
sensitive sole. From the same cause, corns between the
crust and the sole result.

r. The coronary ring of the crust.

s. The covering of the coronary ligament, from which the
crust is secreted.

BONES AND INTEGUMENTS OF PASTERN AND FOOT 22 1

/. The sensible laminae, to which the crust is attached.
tij V. The crust, or wall of the foot.
w. The place of bleeding at the toe.
X. The horny sole.
y. The cleft of the horny frog.

It is obvious, from the situation which the suspen-
sory ligament occupies, that splints formed backward
on the leg are more liable to produce lameness than
those which are formed on the side of the leg ; be-
cause they interfere with the motion of this ligament,
and if large may press upon and injure it. The chief
action of the suspensory ligament is to suspend the
sesamoid bone in its place.

It will be seen by the figure above described,
that the pasterns are united to the shank in an
oblique direction, differing in degree of obliquity
with the various breeds of horses. A portion of
the weight which falls upon the pasterns must be
communicated to the sesamoid bones. The yield-
ing of the pasterns, taken in connection with their
oblique position, is a beautiful contrivance to pre-
vent jarring in the action of the horse ; and this is
materially assisted by the sesamoid being suspended,
and no bone being under it ; so that the suspensory
ligament gradually yields, lengthens, and contracts
in proportion to the weight or pressure applied to
it, thus rendering all severe concussion impossible,
because it yields to the force it has to sustain, and
lengthens ; but as soon as the foot is raised from
the ground and pressure is removed, its elastic power
is again exerted, and it contracts to its natural length,
and the sesamoid bone springs back into its place,
and by this quick and rapid return assists in raising
the limb. This action is thus clearly described by
Mr Percivall : — '' Furthermore, it seems to us that

22 2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

these elastic parts assist in the elevations of the feet
from the ground in those places in which they are
called into sudden and forcible action. The suspen-
sory ligament, by its reaction instantaneously after
extension, aids the flexor muscles in bending the
pastern joints. The astonishing activity and ex-
pedition displayed in the movements of the race-
horse at speed, seem to be referable, in part, to the
promptitude with which the suspensory ligament can
act before the flexor muscles are duly prepared ; the
latter, we should say, catch, as it were, and then
direct the limb first snatched from the ground by
the powers of elasticity."

The spring and elasticity in the action of a
horse depends, in a great measure, upon the length
and obliquity of the pasterns. It should be long
in the race-horse, less so in the hunter, still shorter
in the hackney, and considerably less so in the cart
and dray horse. In the latter the concussion is ex-
ceedingly little, because their movements are slow ;
and the short and upright pasterns enable him to
sustain and drag the heavy loads which he is
destined to support and move forward. But in a
horse that is to be used for the saddle, the short
and upright pastern is not only a great defect, but
is also very unsafe, as he is exceedingly liable to
come down when trotting. Besides, such joints
soon begin to knuckle over, even with ordinary
work, which is the precursor of ossification of the
cartilages, ringbone, and contracted feet.

EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE FOOT 223

EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE FOOT.

THE CRUST OR WALL OF THE HOOF.

The formation of the foot of the horse fits him,
as well as the ass, above all other animals, for the
service of man. In short, had the hoof of the
horse been cleft, he would have been incapacitated
for many of the useful departments of his employ-
ment ; and a correct knowledge of the structure of
every part of the foot is indispensably necessary to
render us scientific overseers of the farrier's art.

The crust is that portion which reaches from
the termination of the hair to the ground. Its depth
is greatest in front, and is denominated the toe ;
it is more shallow at the sides, which are called
the quarters, and still less behind, which is termed
the heel. When the sole is placed on the ground,
the front exhibits an angle of about forty-five
degrees, differing, however, considerably in many
horses to the extent of the angle. But a healthy
and well-formed hoof very nearly approaches what
we have stated, that is, a fourth part of a semicircle.
With a greater degree of obliquity, it is said the
crust has *' fallen in," and when the sole is too flat,
and is said to be pumiced, or convex ; and if the
front be more upright than the above angle, it is
the proof of a contracted foot with the sole too
concave. When the crust is deep at the heel, it is
a foot liable to contraction, thrush, sand-crack, and
inflammation. The pastern will be found too up-
right, and the horse will have a bad and unpleasant
action. If, on the other hand, the crust diminishes
too rapidly from front to back, and the heels are
low, this is always accompanied by too great ob-

2 24 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

liquity of the pastern, producing a weakness in the
joint, and liability to sprain of the back sinew,
described at page 95. The foot itself will be weak,
and have a general tendency to that hidden lame-
ness called ''the navicular joint disease," particular-
ised at page 139.

The general thickness of the crust in front is
somewhat more than half-an-inch, becoming- Qfradu-
ally thinner towards the quarters and heels. This
will show the necessity for shoeing-smiths being-
adepts in driving the nails, seeing the small space
for that purpose, and more especially behind. The
crust is thinner and a little higher in the inner
than the outer quarter. This is another beautiful
provision, because, being placed under the inner
splint bone, more of the weight rests on the inside
than the outside, consequently it is enabled to ex-
pand more, and thus by its elasticity assists in
lessening concussion. When, therefore, expansion
is prevented by the inner quarter being nailed
firmly to the shoe, corns, contraction, and sand-
crack are induced. The crust is not liable to much
variation in thickness, as will be seen by a reference
to Plate VI, fig. 10, u and v, and c in fig. 9, until
near the top, at the coronet, or where the horn
of the hoof unites with the skin of the pasterns,
where it becomes abruptly thin, as will be seen
on a reference to s, in fig. 10. Here it appears as
if scooped out, and here also its colour and consist-
ence are changed, and it appears like a continuation
of the skin. This thin portion is called the coronary
ring, r, fig. 10, which covers a thickened prolonga-
tion of the skin called the coronary ligament, c, in
fig. 9. This extension of the skin is supplied with
numerous densely set blood - vessels, connected to-

ijTar-n !g/ T bron

MWSOLES (0)JF TME MM)Q) S.E(&g

EXTERNAL PARTS OB' THE FOOT 225

gether by a fibrous texture, many of which have
the property of secreting the horny substance which
forms the crust. The sensible laminae, a, fig. 9,
have the power of secreting some horn, which
furnishes an immediate defence against injury in
cases where the crust is either purposely removed,
or has sustained injury. This is sufficient proof in
cases of quittor or sand-crack, when it becomes
absolutely necessary to remove a portion of the
crust. The exposed portion is soon covered by a
film of a hard horny texture. The crust, however,
is chiefly formed by the coronary ligament ; and
hence in quittor and sand-crack its growth is slow
and downwards, and is only replaced with the
natural lengthening of the crust, in the same manner
as in injury to the human nail. And there is situate
below the coronary ligament a strip of horny matter,
emanating from the frog, which seems intended for
a similar purpose to that which surrounds the root
of the human nail — namely, to strengthen the union
of the part where it rests, and to bind together the
various substances which meet there.

The crust is composed of numerous fibres, which
proceed directly from the coronet to the ground,
but which follow an oblique course from the heel
forwards. These fibres are kept together by a
glutinous substance.

In a sound condition the crust of the foot is
smooth and hard, and when there are rings or other
thickenings, it is a sure indication of disease in the
foot, and that, too, to a considerable extent, as may
be well supposed, to induce this irregularity of
growth. When the front is depressed, it may be
inferred that a sinking of the coffin bone has taken
place, and that the sole will be flat and pumiced.

2 26 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

When hollow at the quarter, it is a clear indication
of contraction to a considerable extent.

The perspective representation which we have
given, Plate vi, fig. ii, will convey a clear idea of
the structure of the crust and its various component
parts.

a. The coronary ring, which is a circular, attenuated, con-

cavo-convex part, entering into the composition of the
coronet. Its extent is marked exteriorly by the whitish
aspect which it assumes, and likewise by a partial
separation and eversion of the outer flakes of horn
around its junction with the wall, or crust below.

b. The small horny plates which line the crust. These

consist of numerous narrow laminae, or processes,
arranged with the nicest order and mathematical pre-
cision upon the internal surface of the wall. They
extend in uniform parallels in a perpendicular direction
from the lower edge of the superior border to the line
of junction of the wall with the sole, and are so thickly
set, that no part of the superficies remains unoccupied
by them. They are also continued upon the surfaces
of the bars. They are soft, yielding, and elastic ; but
from exposure they become dry and rigid. Every
plate exhibits two edges and two surfaces. By one
edge it grows to the wall, and the other, which is
somewhat thinned, hangs loose and floating within the
cavity of the hoof. These are two smooth lateral
surfaces, and, considering the magnitude of the lamella
itself, of enormous extent ; so much so, that it may be
said almost to be constituted entirely of superficies.
Looking at this, we are naturally led to the contempla-
tion of the great and magnificent designs which Nature
evidently had in view in their formation and beautiful
adaptation, viz., the production of ample surface within
a small space, an end that has been obtained through
the means of multiplication. A mathematical calcula-
tion was made by the late Thomas Evans, LL.D., of
what the united superficies of these lamellae amounted
to, and it was found that they afibrded an increase of
actual surface more than the single internal area of the

EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE FOOT 227

hoof would give, of about twelve times, or about two
hundred and twelve square inches, or nearly one square
foot and a half.

c. These above described laminae are continued over the bars

in this situation.

d. The bars are processes of the wall, inflected from its heels

obliquely across the bottom of the foot. These are
also seen in figure 12, c, c. They extend from the base
of the heel into the centre of the foot, between the sole
and the frog ; behind, they are continuous in substance
with the wall or crust, with which they form acute
angles ; anteriorly they stretch as far as the point of
the frog, constituting two inner walls between that
body and the sole. They seem formed for the purpose
of offering resistance to the contractions of the heels.
^, e. Two concave surfaces of the inside of the horny frog.
/. That portion which externally is the cleft of the frog, the
inferior surface of which exhibits a remarkable cavity,
broad and deep, and of a triangular form, bounded on
the sides by sloping prominences, which diverge from
the convexity forming the toe of the frog, and terminate
at the heels. This cavity is called the cleft of the frog,

g. The frog, as also exhibited fig. 12, d^ d. In its superior
surface it is continuous, uniform, and porous, being the
counterpart in form of the inferior surface, presenting
only reverses, where the one is hollow, and the other
swelling. Opposite to the cleft is the frog-stay^ which
is elevated and bounded on its sides by two deep
channels, and a hollow of shallower dimensions in the
front. This bold, horny elevation is admirably cal-
culated to form that dove-tailed connection with the
sensitive foot, which greatly augments their surfaces
of opposition, and establishes their union beyond all
risk or possibility of dislocation.

//, h. The external crust, or wall ; as also seen fig. 12, ^, ^, and
fully described above. At the first h and i is the
rounded portion of the heels belonging to the frog.
/. Fig. 12, is the external surface of the sole, or the arched
plate entering into the formation of the bottom of the
hoof, and covering the whole inferior surface of the
foot, excepthig the trog. No individual part requires

228 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

such undivided attention as the sole, as regards shoe-
ing; since the success of this mechanical operation
chiefly depends upon the paring and defence of this
arched horny plate. Viewed from below, the sole
commonly presents an arch of more or less concavity.
It is subject to vast variety in the degree of the arc ;
in some feet it is of surprising depth, and in others the
arch is converted into a flattened surface, and yet both
seem to perform equally well. In the hind feet the
sole is generally more arched than in the fore, and
approaches in figure more to the oval than the circle.
Its thickness is about one-sixth of an inch. That
portion most elevated from the ground — that which
forms a union with the bars — is nearly double the
thickness of the central or circumferent parts, and next
to this in substance comes the heel. This is situate at
the back part of the foot, at which point the crust of
the hoof, instead of being continued round and forming
a complete circle, is abruptly bent in, as will be seen by
a reference to fig. 12, and at //, fig. 11.

CARTILAGES OF THE FOOT.

The cartilages are two broad, scabrous, concavo-
convex cartilaginous plates which surmount the sides
and wings of the coffin bone. There is a groove
extending along the upper part of the coffin bone
on each side, except at the protuberance, which re-
ceives the extensor tendon, and which extends to the
very posterior portion of the foot, rising about the
quarters fully half-an-inch above the hoof, and dimin-
ishing in height backward and forward. These car-
tilages occupy a greater portion of the foot than does
the coffin bone, as will be observed in fig. 7, Plate vii,
i, where it will be seen they extend far behind the
coffin bone. They are fixed into two grooves, ex-
cavated in the superior lateral borders of the coffin
bone, and are thus perfectly secured.

Between these cartilages is the sensible frog, occu-

CARTILAGES OF THE FOOT 229

pying the whole of the space, and answering several
important purposes, it being an elastic bed on which
the navicular bone and the tendon can play with
security, and without concussion. This will be under-
stood by referring to Plate vi, fig. lo, /. Thus all
concussion to the cartilages of the foot is prevented,
and these cartilages kept asunder, and the expan-
sion of the upper part of the foot preserved. This
mechanism is both beautiful and important. The
yielding and elastic substance of the frog is pressed
upon by the navicular bone as well as the tendon and
the pastern, and being incapable of condensing into
less compass, is forced out on each side of them, and
expands the lateral cartilages ; and these again, by
their inherent elasticity, revert to their former situation,
when they are no longer pressed outward by the frog.
It thus appears that by a different mechanism, but
both equally admirable and referable to the same
principle, namely, that of elasticity, the expansion of
the upper and lower portions of the hoof are effected,
the one by the descent of the sole, and the other by
the compression and rising of the frog. The pre-
servation and usefulness of the limbs of the horse are
chiefly maintained by this upward expansion, when
the destructive methods which are adopted in shoeing
are calculated to destroy the expansion beneath.
From the long-continued and violent pressure on
the frog in draught-horses, and conveyed from the
frog to the cartilage, inflammation is frequently pro-
duced, and too often terminates in the cartilages
being turned into bony matter.

CHAPTER X.

Sketch of the Internal Organisation of the Horse.

THE LUNGS.

PLATE IX, Fig. i, etc.

The lungs are two spongy bodies formed for the
purpose of breathing. They are contained in the
lateral regions on each side of the chest, a, a, a,
separated from each other by the mediastinum and
heart, which occupy the middle region. The lungs
are two in number, — the right and the left, partitioned
from each other by the mediastinum. They are
further divided into lobes, — that on the right side,
which is the larger of the two, consists of three lobes
and the left has only two. These lobes are merely
partial divisions, of variable extent, which serves to
adapt them more accurately to the cavities of the
chest, and at the same time render them fitter for
the purposes of expansion and contraction. When the
windpipe enters the chest, it is divided into two
branches, one extending to each lung ; and when
these enter the substance of the lungs, they separate
into numerous branches, each terminating in a little
bag or cell. These bear a considerable resemblance
to minute bunches of grapes. Around these cells are
spread innumerable blood-vessels, being the extreme
ramifications of those which conveyed the blood from
the right side of the heart to the lungs, and the com-

THE LUNGS i^l

mencement of those which conduct It back from the
lungs to the left side of the heart. These cells and
blood-vessels are connected together by an interven-
ing substance of a fibrous and cellular texture.

The blood circulating through the capillaries of
the body contribute to the nourishment of the animal
system, and furnishing all the secretions, becomes
changed, and is no longer capable of supporting life :
it becomes of a poisonous quality, in consequence of
having in it a too large portion of carbon. This
must be expelled before the blood can again be
rendered subservient to the purposes of life. That
portion of the atmospheric air called oxygen having
a strong attraction for carbon, unites with it whenever
they come in contact. The chest enlarges by means
of the diaphragm and the muscles between the ribs,
called the intercostal muscles, and others, and the
lungs expand with the chest in order to fill up the
vacuum which would otherwise exist between them
and the sides of the chest. These cells enlarge, and
a sort of vacuum is formed in each of them, as the
air rushes down and fills them ; and being divided
from the venous and poisoned blood by these mem-
branes alone, it is enabled to act upon the blood and
abstract from it the carbon, and by this means purifies
it, and the arterial blood is fitted for the purposes of
life. This purification being performed, the chest
contracts, and the lungs are compressed into smaller
compass, and a portion of air, holding in it a quantity
of carbon, and rendered poisonous in its turn. Is
squeezed out. Immediately afterwards the chest
expands again, and the lungs expand with it, and
pure atmospheric air Is drawn Into them, which is
immediately thrown out again by the compression of
the lungs, which, like the preceding expiration, is

23^ MANUAL OV^ MODERN FARRIERV

poisoned by the carbon of the blood. These alternate
contractions of the chest and lungs constitute what is
termed breathing.

When the horse is subjected to powerful exertion,
it is obvious that a more ample supply of uncontamin-
ated blood will be required to sustain the energies of
life, and violent action of the muscles forces the
blood more rapidly through the veins, and hence the
quick and deep breathing of the animal when running
at speed. Therefore, the more capacious the chest,
the greater will be the supply of pure blood, as the
lungs will have more room to expand and perform the
functions which we have above described. Besides,
a capacious chest will fit him for a longer duration of
speed.

Those who are accustomed to hunting or horse-
racing, must have frequently w^itnessed the wonderful
relief which loosening the girths have afforded to a
horse after a severe gallop. The tightening being
removed, permits the chest to expand and contract
to a greater extent, and consequently yields a larger
portion of purified blood. A very short rest will
sufficiently manifest how much the exhausted energies
of those organs will recover when the greater expendi-
ture is not necessary.

Even for animals which are not required to possess
speed, such as cart, waggon, dray, and farmers' horses,
a capacious chest is equally necessary ; for this reason,
that in these there is generally a great accumulation
of both flesh and fat, which require a large portion of
the blood to supply his growth ; consequently, large
and ample chests are requisite so as to afford room
for the necessary provision of a rapid purification of
the contaminated blood.

Diseases of the lungs are among the worst to

THE HEART 233

which horses are liable, and most frequent of oc-
currence, and hence the most likely to impair his
usefulness.

It is not to be wondered at, that so many horses
are afflicted with lung complaints, most of them re-
sulting from carelessness. The poor animals are too
often over-heated, and afterwards put into cold stables
in a state of profuse perspiration, and allowed to dry.
This should never be the case. The animal ought
to be instantly rubbed down, until his coat is quite
dry. If this is not attended to, inflammation of the
lungs and a host of other complaints may be the
consequence.

THE HEART.

The heart is enclosed within a membrane or bag,
called the pericardium, Plate ix, fig. i, c, and both
together occupy the middle space of the cavity of the
chest. The pericardium contains within it a small
quantity of serous fluid, which serves to lubricate the
contiguous surfaces of the sac, and to preserve them
against any ill consequences arising from friction.

The use of the pericardium is to confine the heart
in its situation, to sustain it in its reciprocal action
with the lungs, and guarding it from any undue
collision, and to serve as a guard to the heart.
When the pericardium or the heart becomes in-
flamed, an undue secretion of this fluid is induced,
sometimes to such an extent as to obstruct the
beating of the heart. When such is the case, the
animal is said to have dropsy of the heart.

The heart itself, fig. i, ^, is the organ by which
the blood is circulated through the body. It is of
a conoid form, with the base turned uppermost, and
is opposed to the fourth, fifth, and sixth vertebrae

234 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

of the back, from which it is suspended in its situa-
tion in the middle of the cavity of the chest, by the
attachment of the venous and arterial trunks im-
mediately connected with it. Its apex hangs loose
within the cavity of the pericardium, pointing down-
wards and backwards, and rather inclined towards
the left side. It is composed of four cavities : the
two uppermost are called auricles, from their form
being somewhat like the ear of a dog ; and two
ventricles, or belly-shaped cavities, which occupy the
substance of the heart. Although the heart is chiefly
composed of fleshy fibres, still a tendinous substance
is found in the middle, which seems to be the common
medium of attachment between its auricles, ventricles,
and vessels, one to another.

The heart is supplied with blood by two coronary
arteries ; the first branches are given off from the
aorta, or great artery. Its veins pour their blood
into the coronary vein, by which it is returned into
the right auricle.

There are two orders of blood-vessels, arteries and
veins ; the former conduct the flood from the heart to
all parts of the body, nourishes it, and returns to the
heart through the veins. It enters the auricle on the
right side, where it is accumulated as a reservoir, until
there is sufficient to fill the ventricle below. The
auricle then contracts, and forces the blood into the
ventricle, which in its turn contracts, and drives the
blood through an aperture that leads to the lungs.
It cannot be drawn again into the auricle, because
there is a complete valve, like that of a sucker of a
pump, to prevent this. The blood which has thus
been forced into the lungs traverses every portion of
them, by the minutely ramified blood-vessels, and
entering all the little cells, there to undergo the

THE HEART 235

important change of being subjected to the action of
the atmospheric air which the lungs have inhaled, and
be purified by the oxygen contained in the air, and
from which substance it owes its beautiful red colour.
It is now carried to the left auricle, and from thence
it descends to the left ventricle, and by the powerful
closing of the ventricle is propelled into the arteries.
These vessels, in all their numerous ramifications,
emanate originally from two main trunks, the pul-
monary artery and the aorta ; the branches of the
former penetrate the lungs, and the latter are spread
over every part of the body.

The aorta, with its numerous branches, when taking
them as a whole, may be compared to a short but
straggling and very branching shrub or dwarf tree,
of luxuriant but extremely irregular growth. It takes
its rise from the left ventricle, and the blood by the
force communicated to it by the sudden contraction
of the ventricle, and aided by the elastic power of the
arteries, keeps them open and free from obstruction,
and likewise, by the pressure of the muscular and
elastic coats, endeavouring to return to their former
dimensions, flows in a continuous stream through
every portion of the frame.

The pulmonary artery is a vessel of larger dimen-
sions and calibre than the aorta. It has its origin in
the posterior upper part of the right ventricle of the
heart, and winding upwards to the root of the left
lung, there divides into what are termed the right and
left pulmonary arteries. These divisions immediately
enter the substance of their correspondent lungs, and
therein ramify in all directions, like the minutest threads,
the branches regulating their course and division by
the ramification of the bronchial tubes.

The heart is liable to disease, as it is sympatheti-

236 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

cally affected by almost all the complaints incidental
to the animal frame, no matter how distant that
malady may be from it. An injury of the foot will in
a very short time cause the heart to beat or pulsate
with double its ordinary quickness. This is not a
complaint of very frequent occurrence, but extremely
dangerous, and such is the strength and rapidity of
the heart's action, that its pulsations may be dis-
tinctly seen at the animal's side, and even heard at
some yards distance. In this complaint the animal
exhibits great energy of expression of countenance,
with a quick and restless motion.

THE PULSE.

As the pulse is so intimately connected with the
action of the heart, we may with propriety treat of it
in this place. As in the human subject the pulse is
a useful key to the health of the system, it is likewise
of the same value to those practising the veterinary
art.

Although there are several parts in a horse where
the pulse may be felt, yet the most convenient is at
the lower jaw, a little behind the part where the sub-
maxillary artery and vein, and the parotid-duct, pass
under the jaw. (See Plate iir, fig. i, r.) At this spot
the pulsations may be not only distinctly counted,
but also the character of the action of the pulse
accurately ascertained, which is of much importance,
because its hardness and softness indicate certain
conditions of disease. Many persons place the hand
on the side to ascertain the state of the pulse, but this
will only give the number of its beats in a minute,
without its condition.

In a healthy state, the pulsations in the heart of
a farmer's horse range from thirty-five to forty in a

THE PULSE 237

minute ; in the thoroughbred horse from forty to forty-
five. These are considered the standard healthy
pulses ; but even in health these are subject to some
variation either above or below these numbers of
beats. It must be understood that this is the con-
dition of the pulse when the animal is at rest, or at
least when he is not in the act of using exertion ;
because, even in pulling a heavy load or during
trotting, and for a short time after both of these,
the pulse will be higher, according to the degree of
exertion to which the horse has been subjected.
Besides, exercise, a warm stable, and fear v^ill
materially augment the action of the heart.

When the animal is at rest, and the pulse reaches
fifty or fifty-five beats in a minute, then it may be
suspected that there is a degree of fever, and its cause
must be investigated. When it is from seventy to
seventy-five, a high state of fever may be the con-
sequence, and active means must be resorted to, but
the only reliable test for the existence of fever and its
intensity is that indicated by the thermometer.

When horses are labouring under disease, it is
necessary to approach them with caution, because
either abruptness or speaking harshly to them will
have a tendency to raise the pulse ten or fifteen
degrees. The animal should be patted and spoken to
gently, and the pulse felt a second time before its real
state can be determined. The conditions of the pulse
may be arranged under the following heads : —

QUICK PULSE.

This is always an indication that the animal is
under some excitement. This will vary in degree
according to the force of the exciting cause. The
business of the veterinarian is to ascertain and remove

238 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

this as speedily as the circumstances will permit.
We have above stated the number of beats in a
healthy and diseased state. The heart may be
excited to more frequent and also to more violent
action. It may contract more powerfully upon the
blood-vessels, and consequently drive the fluid with
greater force through the arteries, and the expansion
of the coating of the arteries will be greater and
more abrupt. The quickened pulse indicates a
tendencv to fever and irritation.

SLOW PULSE.

This is an indication of an oppressed condition of
the heart's action, and accompanies diseases of an
opposite kind from those which are the concomitants
of a quick pulse. It proves that the malady with
which it is connected results from a deficiency of
nervous energy. It is always a concomitant of sleepy
staggers.

HARD PULSE.

This is indicated by a firm and jerking feeling
under the pressure of the finger, and at the same
time accompanied by a fullness in the flow of blood
through the vessels.

SMALL PULSE

Is indicated by feebleness in the beat and a feeling
of languidness in the circulation, very easily discerned
under pressure of the finger. It, however, sometimes
happens that small pulse may be accompanied by
hardness and jerking, but still the remarkable small-
ness in the circulating fluid will be perceptible.

ONES OF THE MOCK.. 2 &8. THF.

'ME STOMACH. 6, THE IHTESTIME

THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS 239

A WEAK PULSE.

This is caused by a feeble action of the heart, as
the stream of arterial blood is flowing slowly, and
hence is hardly to be felt. It indicates debility.
Stimulants are generally necessary in this condition
of pulse.

OPPRESSED PULSE.

When the arteries are fully distended with blood,
and the pressure upon them is greater than their
calibre will convey with ease, owing to some ob-
struction in their interior, and the action of the
heart is unable to press forward the current, and in
consequence the pulsation feels irregular and unequal,
the pulse is said to be oppressed. In sudden in-
flammation of the lungs this condition is common.

The pulse is subject to various modifications be-
sides those above enumerated, which it would be
very difficult to explain, and which are well under-
stood by those who are practised in feeling the
pulse.

THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS.

PLATE VIII, Fig. 5, and PLATE IX, Figs, i and 2.

Having given a brief account of the contents of
the chest, or rather those parts most essential to
the general reader, we now descend to the ab-
dominal viscera. The heart and lungs may be
considered the moving powers of the animal system,
which, however, require the materials to keep up
and supply that motion. The organ which prepares
and distributes that stimulus is the stomach, and is
lodged in the higher region of the belly, while the
intestines which carry off" the waste are situated in

240 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the middle and lower portion of the abdominal
cavity.

The abdomen, or belly, is formed chiefly of soft
parts, which principally consist of the four pair of
abdominal muscles which mainly constitute its broad
superficies below and laterally. In its interior part,
the most important viscera are situated, viz., the
stomach and liver. It is bounded by the false ribs,
and in front by the diaphragm ; its posterior com-
partment is bounded by the pelvis, and above by
the dorsal and lumbar vertebrse and muscles belong-
ing to the loins.

The abdominal viscera of the horse differ from
those of man chiefly in the shape and comparative
size of the stomach, and the intestine called the
colon ; their general relative situation is much the
same in both.

THE PERITONEUM.

The peritoneum is the membrane that lines the
cavity of the belly, and is reflected upon the con-
tained viscera. It presents a shining secreting
surface, of a whitish aspect, and considerable trans-
parency. Its internal surface is smooth and humid.
The use of this organ is to secrete a serous fluid,
which is intended for lubricating every part of the
membrane, in consequence of which those viscera
that are continually moving within the belly glide
over one another, not only without friction, but
without exciting the least consciousness of their
motions on the part of the animal himself. In
addition to this, the peritoneum furnishes most of
the viscera with a complete external tunic, and
thereby adds strength and firmness to their several
textures. It attaches, supports, and confines those

tHE DIAPHRAGM 24 i

Viscera (within certain limits) in their respective
places ; and it strengthens the abdominal cavity-
altogether by its uninterrupted extension everywhere
through and around it.

THE DIAPHRAGM.
PLATE IX, Fig. x, h.

This forms a fleshy and tendinous partition, divid-
ing the cavity of the chest from that of the abdomen.
It is of a broad circular form flattened from before
backwards ; its front surface is convex, and concave
behind ; divided or forked above, and having two
elongations or appendices extending backwards, with
pointed extremities. On that side next the chest it is
invested by the membrane which covers the lungs,
and towards the belly by that which covers the
intestines. It adheres to the spine, the ribs, and the
breastbone, by strong muscular fibres. Its structure
is fleshy and tendinous. The fleshy parts are those
which form the circumferent portions of the large
muscle, and the principal part of the crura or ap-
pendices. The tendinous parts consist of a thin
circular expansion, occupying the middle of the
larger muscle, and uniting that with the lesser.
Through the muscle are seen three remarkable
openings, an upper one in the interspace between
the crura for the passage of the aorta ; one a little
lower, formed by the decussation of the crura for the
oesophagus ; and the third, or lower one, perforating
the cordiform, or heart-shaped tendon, for the re-
ception of the posterior vena cava.

The diaphragm is the chief agent in inspiration ;
it acts in opposition to the abdominal muscles, which
are the chief expiratory powers. By the contraction

Q

242 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

of its radiated fibres, with the assistance of that of the
crura, the cordiform tendon is transformed to a plane
surface, and the dimensions of the chest from front to
back thereby considerably augmented. When this
muscle acts, in consequence of the shortening of its
fibres, it loses its convexity, as above stated, and the
chest being thereby enlarged as well as the lungs,
the air rushes in, and inspiration is performed. This
muscle also assists in the natural constant motion of
the bowels, and lends its powerful aid in expelling the
faeces and urine ; and in females, facilitates the birth of
the young animal.

The membranes by which the diaphragm is
covered — viz., the pleura in front and the peritoneum
behind — are very liable to inflammatory attacks. In
many cases of disease of the lungs and bowels, the
diaphragm is inflamed ; and this is sometimes the
cause of the breathing of the horse being so much
affected during inflammation of the chest and abdo-
men. It is likewise concerned in coughing, yawning,
and sighing. Sometimes it is ruptured, occasioned by
any violent exertion. We are, however, unable to
give distinct indications of this condition. In cases
of small rupture some portion of the intestines in-
sinuates itself into it, and there becomes entangled, so
that an incurable obstruction is the consequence. In
the event of a large aperture, the intestines protrude
through it, and by pressing upon the heart totally
suppress respiration.

The gullet passes through the diaphragm into the
stomach, and in which it terminates. See Plate viii.

trtE STOMACH 243

THE STOMACH.
PLATE Vlir, Fig. 4, and PLATE IX, Fig. 1.

The stomach is situated in the left side of the
belly, resting upon the large intestines. Its anterior
or convex part lies upon the diaphragm and the false
ribs of the left side ; its posterior or concave part is
concealed by the intestines, and its lower surface is
invested by the omentum ; attached to its left ex-
tremity is the spleen, and its right end is in contact
with the left and middle lobes of the liver.

The stomach may be compared to a pouch or bag,
formed for the reception of the food after it passes
through the oesophagus. Perhaps no animal, in pro-
portion to its size, has so small a stomach as the
horse. The stomach of a middle-sized man, of about
twelve stone weight, will contain somewhat more
than three quarts of water ; whereas that of an
ordinary-sized horse, whose bulk and weight exceeds
that of the man by eight times, will only contain
three gallons, or four times the quantity of the man's.
However, we must bear in mind that the stomach,
like other hollow muscles, has the property of accom-
modating itself to the bulk of the matter which it
contains.

This organ is of vast importance in the animal
economy ; in short, it is indispensable to their being ;
no animal is without one. This is not the case with
the brain, and much less with the heart, as we know
that animal life is sustained in some species without
either. That great anatomist, John Hunter, in his
physiological disquisitions, showed that the existence
of a stomach was the chief characteristic between
animals and vegetables. The stomach has been

^44 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

truly said to be the organ of digestion, because
within it the aliment transmitted by the oesophagus
in a crude state, undergoes its primary and principal
change in a process, the object of which is to convert
it into material for the support of the body, and the
distribution and transmission of those fluids which
sustain life and motion in its different parts.

It must be obvious, from the situation of the
stomach, that it is not only attended with great
inconvenience and pain, but also danger, to work
a horse hard after a full meal. Indeed, many have
sustained irreparable injury from this cause. By the
action of the diaphragm, the stomach must be
displaced and forced back in the belly by every
contraction of the diaphragm or act of inspiration ;
then in proportion to the fullness of the stomach
will be the weight to be overcome in breathing, and
hence the increased labour of the diaphragm, and
consequently the exhaustion of the animal. Besides,
if the stomach is very full, and consequently dis-
tended, its weight may prevent it from being forced
sufficiently far back to allow ample room for the
necessary volume of air which the animal requires
during a state of exertion. Hence the short, frequent,
and oppressed breathing during rapid action, and
which too often destroys the animal. On a journey,
a horse should therefore be fed moderately, and more
frequently than in a state of rest, and care should
be taken not to allow him too much water, which
ought also to be given in small and frequent
quantities.

It would seem that Nature had wisely foreseen,
that as the horse was destined to be the servant of
man, and to render him more valuable and fitted
for the labour that would be required of him, it

THE STOMACH 245

became necessary to diminish the inconvenience and
danger from pressure which would necessarily ac-
company a large stomach, that the animal should
have one proportioned to the situation he was
destined to fill in creation. The great bulk and
consequent expenditure of his frame require a large
quantity of food to be consumed to afford nutriment.
Yet the stomach is wisely formed small, to prevent
pressure as much as possible ; and in addition it
has the power of rapidly digesting the food, which
speedily descends to a portion of the intestine remote
from the diaphragm, where the pressure of the food
cannot inconvenience him. Indeed, the whole of his
digestive system is quick, and consequently his food
passes rapidly through him ; otherwise life never
could be sustained, considering the small proportional
nutriment contained in the ordinary food of the
horse.

We shall now proceed to describe the several
parts of the stomach. The situation which the
stomach occupies in the abdomen will be seen by
a reference to Plate ix, fig. 2, b; and its general
form and several parts are represented in Plate vni,

fig. 4.

a^ a. The mucous or villous portion of the stomach in which
the food is chiefly digested, or converted into a soft and
pulpy substance. It extends over that portion of the
stomach left unoccupied by the cuticular part. It is of
a yellowish cast, inclining to red in some places.

3, h. Is that portion of the stomach which is covered by cuticle
or insensible skin. This cuticular substance is of the
same nature as the lining of the oesophagus, with which,
indeed, at the cardia it is continuous. Numerous small
openings are visible upon its inner surface, through
which issues a mucous fluid, the product of follicular
glands underneath, which is useful in the process of

246 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

digestion, and where it may be said properly to
commence. This is called the gastric juice, which
mixes with the food already softened, and converts it
into that fluid substance called chyme.

c, c. The margin which separates the cuticular from the villous
portions.

d. The entrance from the gullet into the stomach. The
circular layers of muscles which invest this part are
very strong and thick. By their powerful contractions
they assist in rendering it difficult for the food to be
returned or even vomited. This orifice is called the
cardiac orifice, in consequence of its contiguity to the
heart. It is constantly closed by strong muscular fibres,
except when the food is passing through it into the
stomach.

/. The oesophagus, or gullet, through which the food is
conducted from the pharynx into the stomach. It has
its commencement in the pharynx, and is there placed
at the upper and back part of the larynx, the first part
of its course being behind the trachea, between it and
the cervical vertebrae. After proceeding a short way
down, it inclines to the left, and soon after makes its
appearance altogether on the left side of the trachea,
and continues so on its passage down the neck. This
will explain what has puzzled many, why we look for
the bolus during the act of swallowing on the left, and
not on the right side of the animal. Accompanying
the trachea, the oesophagus enters the chest between
the first two ribs, at which part, running above that
tube, it diverges from the trachea, and in connection
with the superior mediastinum, and traversing that
cavity a little way below and to the right of the
aorta.

£■. The communication between the stomach and the first
intestine.

t. A small orifice through which a portion of the secretion
of the pancreas enters the intestines. Its direction will
be seen by the probe which is passed through it. The
pancreas, otherwise called the sweetbread, is a glandular
body lying across the spine in the epigastric region,
iinderp^ath the crura of the diaphragrn, immediately

THE LIVER 247

behind and a little above the small curvature of the
stomach.

y, k. Two probes passed through the common orifice through
which the bile and the pancreatic secretion pass into
the first intestine. The part where the two probes
intersect each other mark the spot where these tubes
unite.

THE LIVER.
PLATE IX, Fig. 2, a.

This organ is situated between the stomach and
the diaphragm. Its right is in contact with the
duodenum and the right kidney, and the middle
and left divisions with the stomach. It is confined
in its place by means of what have been termed
its ligaments, which, with the exception of one, are
nothing more than elongations proceeding from the
peritoneum. The one attaching the right lobe to
the diaphragm is called the right ligament ; a similar
one connecting the left lobe to it, the left ligament ;
between the diaphragm and its middle lobe, is the
suspensory ligament ; and immediately above that,
surrounding the posterior vena cava, is the coronary
ligament ; and that within the folds of the suspensory
ligament are the remains of the umbilical vein.

In our description of the heart, at page 234, we
mentioned that the blood which is conducted to the
different parts of the body by the arteries, is returned
to the heart by the veins. But that portion of the
blood which is returned from the stomach, intestines,
pancreas, spleen, and mesentery, instead of taking
a direct course to the heart, passes first through the
liver. Two large vessels conduct it thither, and as
soon as they have entered its substance, they spread
out into innumerable minute branches, traversing

248 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

through every part of the liver. During the passage
of the blood through the liver, a fluid is separated
from it, which is called the bile. This is carried by
the gall-duct, /, into the duodenum, m, in such
quantities as are required for aiding digestion. The
horse has no gall-bladder, and, consequently, the
bile flows into the duodenum, or first intestine, m^
immediately after it is separated from the blood.
As we have already mentioned, the stomach of the
horse is small in proportion to the quantity of food
which he must consume, and consequently must be
much oftener emptied ; and hence the necessity for
uninterrupted flow of bile to aid the process of
digestion.

The diseases connected with the liver are in-
flammation and jaundice, treated of at page 69.

THE OMENTUM, OR CAUL.

This is a doubling of the peritoneum, investing
the lower portion of the stomach, to the great
curvature of which, and to that portion of the colon
which crosses the spine to form the sigmoid flexure,
or last turn, it is attached. The omentum is small
in the horse, and seldom contains much adipose
matter. It is situated between the intestines and
walls of the abdomen, to prevent concussion and
injury during rapid movements of the horse. See
fig. 2, c,

THE SPLEEN.

This is situated on the left side of the stomach,
fig. 2, e, and between it and the short ribs, with the
hinder cartilages of which its margin beneath cor-
responds, so that if the belly were pierced from the
left side posteriorly to the last rib, this organ would

THE DIAPHRAGM, OR MIDRIFF 249

escape injury. It is attached to the left half of the
great curvature of the stomach, but the chief portion
of it lies behind and rather above the stomach. Its
anterior end comes in contact with the left lobe of
the liver ; its posterior is connected to the left
kidney, and concealed by the convolutions of the
colon. The particular use of the spleen has never
been yet satisfactorily ascertained.

Great enlargement and also rupture of the spleen
has been noticed after the death of horses ; but little is
known of the causes nor the symptoms which indicate
disease of this organ.

THE PANCREAS.

This organ is situated between the stomach and
left kidney. It lies across the spine, within the
epigastric region, underneath the crura of the
diaphragm, immediately behind and a little above
the small curvature of the stomach. Its structure
bears a strong resemblance to that of the salivary
glands, contiguous to the mouth, and secretes a fluid
very much resembling common saliva. This fluid is
conducted into the intestines by a duct, which enters
at the same aperture with that which proceeds from
the liver. There is every reason to believe that this
fluid aids digestion, but in what way has not been
ascertained.

THE DIAPHRAGM, OR MIDRIFF.

The cavity of the chest consists of two compart-
ments, and the division or separating wall between
which is called the diaphragm, as more fully described,
page 241. See fig. 2, i, i, and fig. i, li.

250 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

THE KIDNEYS.

These are two somewhat oval, reddish-coloured
bodies, which occupy the upper part of the abdomen,
and are situated under the loins. Their form is like
that of a kidney bean. The right kidney lies most
forward, and is placed under the liver ; the left one
lies more backward, rather behind the stomach and
spleen. They lie above and are concealed by the
intestines, consequently upon dissection they are not
visible until the intestines are removed, as will be seen
by Plate ix, fig. i. In fig. 2 these are removed, and the
kidneys, d, d, are exposed, as well as other organs which
occupy the chest and abdomen. The chief function of
the kidneys is the secretion of the urine, and carrying
off an ingredient which enters into its composition,
called the urea^ a substance which, if allowed to
circulate with the fluids, would prove poisonous. To
each of the kidneys a large artery runs, which conducts
nearly a sixth part of the blood of the body to them.
These branch off into innumerable minute vessels,
which ramify every portion of the substance of the
kidney, and by this means, and the uriniferous secret-
ing structures, the watery portions are separated from
the blood, and by the ureters conducted to the bladder.
The urine varies more in its quantity and quality in
the horse than in any other animal with which we are
acquainted, and hence the necessity of attending to its
appearance and composition during disease ; because
attention to this enables the veterinarian to detect the
disease, and also to judge the quantity of medicine
which may prove beneficial to the animal. In the
application of these much good or much evil may be
the result. Ignorant ostlers, seeing the effects of
nitre in promoting staling and also in purifying th^

THE KIDNEYS 25 I

urine, are too prone to use it with indiscretion. These
diuretic medicines, if used in too great quantities,
stimulate the kidneys to separate more of the watery-
fluid than they do in a natural and healthy condition,
and the effect is to lessen the quantity of blood.
Although this property in nitre is advantageous in
many disorders where the heart is burdened by the
pressure required to force the blood forward through
the arteries in inflammatory complaints, it is easy to
see that taken in too great quantities, or too frequently,
may not only render it too thin, but also deficient in
quantity.

Diuretic medicines are of much value in many
diseases. For example, in swellings of the legs the use
of diuretics have the eflect of carrying off — as we
have above shown — a greater than ordinary quantity
of the watery portion of the blood. Nature has
always a tendency to keep in equilibrium all her
machinery and laws ; consequently, the absorbent
vessels are stimulated to greater action in order to
compensate for this waste, and take up and convey
into the circulation that portion of the fluid which had
affected the limbs. In short, many horses are so pre-
disposed to swelling of the limbs, that it is impossible
to render them fine without the use of diuretics. We
shall treat this part more fully in our chapter on
medicines ; but we may in the meantime offer the
following precautions in the use of diuretics. First,
let the horse have as much drink as he will take, as
this will promote the urinary evacuations. Secondly,
the stable should be kept cool, and the clothing thin ;
because, if this is not attended to, the medicine given
to stimulate the kidneys will pass off by perspiration,
and the effect intended will be thus frustrated. It
is a law of the animal economy that when the skin

252 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

gives off perspiration, the action of the kidneys is
reduced.

THE BLADDER.
PLATE IX, Fig. 2, k.

The bladder occupies the middle and lower por-
tion of the pelvis. In its undistended condition it
is wholly confined to the cavity of the pelvis ; but
when full, its fundus advances before the pubes into
the abdomen, the advancement being in ratio with the
degree of distention. It is pretty nearly pear-shaped.

We have described how the urine is separated from
the blood, when treating of the kidneys. The urine
which is separated is discharged by these minute
vessels into larger ones, which terminate in the kidney,
which is termed its pelvis, and from thence led into
the ureter duct, n^ n, to the bladder, k, which we have
represented distended with urine. The urine is con-
stantly secreted and flows continually from the
kidneys through the ureter ducts. It is this elastic
property of the bladder which enables animals to
retain the urine beyond the time which it is filled to its
unstretched capacity, and prevents that constant flow
which would be the result but for this beautiful
provision.

The bladder is provided with three coats. The
outer one covers the greater portion of it, and is a
part of the peritoneum ; the muscular coat consists of
two layers of fibres ; the external running longitudin-
ally, and the inner circularly, which enables it to yield
to the pressure of the urine as the cavity fills, and
again contract to a small size when emptied. This
contractile property also assists in expelling the urine
from the bladder. The inner or mucous coat i3

THE INTESTINES ^53

white, soft in its texture, and highly organised. It
possesses numerous follicles or little glands, from
whose excretory pores issue a plentiful mucous secre-
tion, to defend it from the acrimony of the saline and
other matters contained in the urine ; this mucous
matter being perpetually washed off from the surface
of the inner coat by the urine, is kept constantly
renewed, and it is sometimes voided in considerable
quantities. When this is the case, it may be appre-
hended that the urine is unusually acrid, or that
calculi or other irritable matter is within the bladder.
About an inch before the cervix or neck of the
bladder, in the sides of the bag, the orifices of the
ureters are placed, which enter the bladder in an
oblique direction, and prevent any reflux of the urine
at the time the bag is contracting, and which gives
them the property of valves. The bladder terminates
in a small neck, round which is a powerful muscle,
which keeps the passage closed and retains the urine
until the animal wishes to expel it ; or when the
bladder contains a certain quantity of fluid, the
muscular coat contracts, and, the lungs being filled with
air, the diaphragm is rendered convex towards the
intestines, and they are by that means pressed upon
the bladder, and by their united powers the fluid is
forced through the sphincter muscle at the neck of the
bladder, and escapes. We have described the dis-
orders to which the bladder is liable at page 72.

THE INTESTINES.

The intestines are cylindrical tubes of very un-
equal dimensions, forming one continued but con-
voluted canal from the lower orifice of the stomach to
the anus, in which the process of digestion, begun in

254 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

the stomach, is completed, and ultimately expelled in
the form of faeces.

The abdominal viscera, taken collectively, cannot
be said to occupy any particular region of the belly,
for they are spread chiefly over the lower portions of
it — immediately supported by the abdominal muscles,
and one or more of them are found in every portion of
the cavity of the belly, and collectively fill nearly its
whole space.

The length of the intestines of the horse of full
dimensions is ninety feet, or between eight and nine
times the length of his body. Those of man are
about sixty feet long, or six times the length of the
body.

The food having been partially digested in the
stomach, and converted into a substance called chyme,
passes through the pyloric orifices into the intestines.
The length of the intestines in animals bears a pro-
portion according to the nature of the food. The
nutritive portion of vegetables is extracted with much
more difficulty than with animal substances, and
hence the necessity of the alimentary canal being
much longer and more complicated in the horse and
other animals which feed upon vegetables. This
viscera is divided into the small and large intestines,
from the latter exceeding in volume the former. Each
of these is subdivided into three parts, all of which
are composed of three coats : the first, or external
one, is called the peritoneal ; the second, or middle,
the muscular ; and the third, or internal, the villous or
mucous coat.

The peritoneal coat is a covering continued from
the peritoneum itself, which includes the mesenteric
vessels and nerves in its course to the intestines, and
connects them to the spine, to one another, and to

THE INTESTINES 255

Other viscera. It intimately adheres by fine cellular
tissue to the muscular coat underneath. It serves to
strengthen the tubes, and to furnish a lubricating
serous perspiration, which renders the membrane
smooth and moist, and serves to prevent all friction
and concussion. By the aid of this coat the bowels
are confined in their proper situations. If the in-
testines were allowed to float loosely in the abdomen,
they would be liable to constant entanglement and
injury by jolting during the rapid and violent motions
which the horse is subjected to.

The middle, or muscular coat, like that of the
stomach, is composed of two kinds of fibres, one of
which is longitudinal, just under the peritoneum, and
stronger circular fibres are situate more inwardly.
In consequence of these combined actions the intestine
may be contracted in all directions. It is by the
action of the circular fibres that the aliment is gradu-
ally forced through the intestines.

The villous, or mucous coat — so named from its
surface being studded with small glands which give
out a mucous fluid to lubricate the coating, and
sheaths and defends it from acrimonious or mechanical
irritation of the aliment, and also to facilitate its
passage through the intestine. It is also crowded
with innumerable small apertures, which are the
mouths of minute vessels, by which the nutritial
portion of the food is absorbed, and which is ulti-
mately conveyed into the circulation and distributed
through every part of the body.

Having given an account of the structure and
appearance of the intestines generally, we shall now
enter into their peculiarities.

256 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

PLATE VIII, Fig. 5.

This gives a general view of the appearance of the
belly with the intestines, as they are presented without
any of them being removed, the skin of the abdomen
only cut open and thrown back so as to expose the
viscera.

a^ a, a, a. The colon, which in the horse is a gut of enormous
size, being the longest and most capacious of the large
intestines. Such is its capacity, that it will contain
about twelve gallons of water. The course and
figure of this intestine are peculiar. It begins at the
head of the colon, and expands into a cavity larger
in dimensions than the stomach itself; it then
begins to contract, and continues to do so gradually
until it has completed its second convolution round
the caecum, or blind gut, where its dimensions are
not more than one of the small intestines.

h. The caecum, or Wind gut, which is the first sub-
division of the large intestines, originating in a
large capacious receptacle, called the ccecimi caput
coli, or blind head of the colon, from which it
extends downward and terminates in a blind
extremity. The caecum differs from all the other
intestines in having but one opening into it, so
that all the substances which enter into it must
reascend into the caput coli, in order to be carried
through the intestine. The exterior parts are
braced by three longitudinal bands, and puckered
by them into three sets of cells internally, which
will be better understood by a reference to Plate ix,
fig. I.

<r. A portion of the mesentery. It is a duplicature of the
peritoneum, which bears this appellation. The
colon is attached in like manner to the bone by a
production of the same membrane, called the
mesocolon, and the rectum is kept in its place by a
similar reflection, called the mesorectum.

e/, e. Are portions of the small intestine.
/. The beginning of the colon.

THE INTESTINES 257

g. The rectum. As soon as the colon has reached the
basis of the sacrum, it ends, and it then assumes the
name of rectum, being to a certain extent straight ;
however, it is not perfectly so, as it follows the
curve of the bones. It terminates by a large ex-
tremity, called the anus. The rectum will hold
about three gallons of water or fluid matter. The
outer extremity is furnished with a circular muscle,
called the sphincter ani, the use of which is to keep
the anus closed, to retain the feculent matter until
so much of it be accumulated in the rectum as to
excite a desire to discharge it.

PLATE IX, Fig. i.

This figure is intended to display the relative
situations of the principal organs, with only part of
the intestinal canal. These lie exteriorly to other
important viscera.

a^ a, a. The different lobes of the lungs, already described, page
230. Its vessels are seen upon its surface.

b. The pericardium, or bag which surrounds the heart.

c. The heart.

Uy a J d. The colon, already described in Plate viir, fig. ^^a^a^ a, a.

e. The ligamentous bands of the colon, which pucker it
into folds.

/,/;/,/. The ribs. „,.,.,!,,

g. The sternum or breast-bone, removed from its junction

with the ribs, and thrown back to exhibit the contents

of the chest beneath.

'urroboi
//. The diaphragm, already described, page 241.

2', z", /, i. The skin thrown back, to show the contents of the chest.

J. One of the small intestines.

k. The ensiform, or sabre-shaped cartilage.

/, /, /. The neck.

m. The situation of the trachea, or windpipe.

258 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

PLATE IX, Fig. 2.

The chief organs represented in this figure are
principally hidden by those described in the last figure.

a. Lobe of the liver.
h. The stomach, described at page 243.
c. The omentum, or caul, described at page 248.
d^ d. The kidneys, described at page 250.
e. The spleen, described at page 248.

/ The uterus, or womb, which is a hollow membranous
organ, united to the anterior part of the vagina, and
in the mare is of a striking and peculiar form. Its
body spreads out anteriorly into two horn -like pro-
cesses. The vagina resembles a bottle, and the
uterial portion is like a head and neck. This is in
the female which has never been fecundated. But
during the period of gestation the womb is almost
incredibly augmented in size, and never afterwards
resumes either its identical form or virgin state of
contraction.
g^ g. The ovaries. These are two egg-shaped bodies, situated
a little further forward than the Fallopian tubes, within
the cavity of the abdomen. They are the female
testicles, and are about the size of walnuts.

h. Part of the rectum,
z, i. The diaphragm.

k. The bladder, distended with urine to show its dimensions
and form.

/. The gall-duct.

m. The duodenum takes its rise from the right extremity
of the stomach — being the first of the small intestines —
and soon after forms a curvature around the head of
the pancreas, having the liver above and the great
arch of the colon below it. When it reaches the
concave part of the liver, it makes a sudden turn
backward, and becomes attached to the right kidney,
then crosses the spine, between the roots of the
mesentery and mesocolon and left side, where it
>! assumes the name of jejunum. The duodenum receives

THE INTESTINES 259

the food which has been converted into chyme by the
digestive power of the stomach, and in this gut is
converted into chyle. It is mixed with the bile and
the secretion from the pancreas, which enter into
this intestine about five inches down from its origin.
The bile appears to be the principal agent in this
change, for no sooner does it enter into combination
with the chyme, than the fluid begins to separate into
two distinct ingredients, namely, the thick white
liquid termed chyle — which is the nutritive portion
of the food — and a yellow pulpy substance, which
becomes excrement. A more perfect separation of
these substances takes place further on in the in-
testines, the chyle is sucked up by the mouths of the
numerous small vessels called the lacteals, leaving the
excrement alone. .

.1

The next part of the small intestine which follows

the duodenum is the jejunum, through which the food

passes with great rapidity, for it is generally found

quite empty in the dead subject. It is paler in colour

and less in calibre, and also much longer than the

duodenum.

The next intestine is the ileum, which is the longest
of all the intestines, and forms the greater part of the
convoluted tube, which lies chiefly in the umbilical
region. The small intestines altogether will contain
about eleven gallons of fluid.

That part of the food which has not been taken
up by the lacteals and absorbents in its course
through the small intestines, passes through the
valvular opening of the ileum, the fluid portion of it
finds its way into the colon, and the rest enters into
the caecum. Here it seems to remain a considerable
time, in order that the nutriment may be extracted
from it. This blind pouch is plentifully supplied
with blood-vessels and absorbents, which perform
their office of carrying oft' the nutritive portion.

26o MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Horses will frequently drink more at a time than
the stomach is capable of containing. It does not,
however, remain in it, but passes on to the caecum,
which acts as a reservoir in time of need. This organ
will contain four gallons of fluid.

?/, w, 11. The aorta descends in both cavities.
0. The vena cava descends.
/, p. The emulgent veins, which empty their blood into the

vena cava.
q^ q. The emulgent arteries, emanating from the aorta,
r, r. The spermatic arteries and veins, which are united by
a cellular substance, soon after their origin is dis-
tributed to the ovaria.
.9, s. The ureters, which have their origin in the kidneys,
and are inserted into the upper part of the bladder.
' tyt. The iliac vessels, which are bifurcations of the aorta and
' vena cava.

•ruojt

CHAPTER XI.

Of the Skin and its Diseases.

The skin of the horse consists of three parts, differing
in appearance from each other, namely, the cutis, or
true skin ; the cuticle, epidermis, or scarf-skin ; and
the rete-mucosum.

THE CUTICLE

Is placed externally ; it is very thin and somewhat
transparent and tough. In the living animal this
may be proved by application of a blister : serum is
effused from the exhalents of the cutis, and the cuticle
becomes elevated by it in the form of small pellucid
bladders. This membrane is continually growing,
and the scales which are brushed out in grooming
are scaly portions of the cuticle.

The cuticle seems to be composed of very thin
flexible scales, somewhat resembling the scales of a
fish, and similar to them in arrangement. The
cuticle is produced by the true skin, and is perforated
by both its exhalent and absorbent pores. In almost
all parts of the body the cuticle is thickly clothed
with hair, but that of the nose, the lips, and the
interior of the ear, the borders of the eyelids, and
the inside of the superior portion of the thighs, is
naked ; and in all those places is thinner in substance
than on the other parts, which are invested with
hair. The colour of the cuticle is the same in all

262 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

horses, whatever be their hue. But it is a known
fact that the skin of the silver grey Arabian horse is
of a bluish black ; but whether this colour is in the
cuticle or in the rete-mucosum I have not yet been
enabled to discover.

The epidermis is everywhere perforated by minute
holes, corresponding in situation, size, and number
to those of the cutis. First, there are the pores for
the hairs ; secondly, the perspiratory, or exhalent
pores ; thirdly, the absorbent, or inhalent pores ; and
lastly, larger-sized pores, through which unctuous
secretions in various parts are emitted. The cuticle
is destitute of both nerves and vessels, and conse-
quently devoid of sensibility.

THE CUTIS.

This is the true skin, or that portion which is
converted into leather, and lies immediately under
the scarf-skin. It reaches over every part of the
animal. It is attached to the under parts by the
cellular membrane, and in some places fits so tensely
that it is incapable of motion of any kind. In other
situations it is more loose and can be pulled into
folds ; about the forehead, the back, and near the
hock and pasterns, it is so tightly braced that it is
hardly possible to pinch up a part of it between the
finger and thumb ; upon the sides of the face, neck,
ribs, along the flanks, front of the chest, and upon
the arms and thighs, it is more easily folded. In the
blood-horse it is thin and highly sensitive ; while in
the cart-horse, it is much thicker, and far less sensible ;
and is liable to considerable variation in different breeds.
The texture of the hair seems to depend in a great
measure upon that of the cutis, for we find that of
the thick-skinned black hocse much coarser than in the

THE CUTIS 263

racer and other high-bred varieties. It is a rare thing
to meet with a black thoroughbred horse.

The skin is beautifully adapted for giving strength
as well as a protection to the muscles ; for we find
in those parts that require to be firmly bound
together, such as the bones of the knees, the
pasterns and tendons of the limbs, it adheres with
such tenacity that it cannot be raised from those
places ; thus acting the part of a powerful ligature
to the parts which are subjected to the greatest
degree of stress ; and in those situations where being
tight would interfere with the action of the horse,
it is loose.

The cutis is of a strong fibrous texture, very tough,
yet supple, elastic, very vascular, and sensitive. Its
fibres are curiously interwoven in almost every
direction, and so interlaced as to give great strength
to its texture, making it almost impenetrable by a
knife in the living animal, and possessing extreme
elasticity. It is this quality which adapts it so closely
to the animal, whether he is plump and muscular, or
reduced to skin and bone. In man, and most other
animals, where from disease a great reduction of the
muscular fibre has taken place, the skin becomes loose
and shrivelled. It owes this great elasticity to the
innumerable larger and smaller glands which penetrate
its entire substance, and furnish that unctuous matter,
preserving the skin soft and pliable, and maintains
that greasy moisture which its surface ever possesses,
giving that beautiful sleek appearance to the hair.
When the animal gets out of condition, and the skin
is diseased, then the coat assumes a rough appearance,
the hairs refuse to lie down, and it is then said that
the coat stares.

The skin at the bend of the knee and hock is

264 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

bountifully supplied with this mucous matter to give
them suppleness, and to preserve from friction those
parts which are subjected to such constant and active
movements. Sometimes this secretion exceeds the
quantity necessary for the due action of the parts,
and from want of attention and cleanliness becomes
inspissated, and collects about those parts : and, if
this hardness is permitted to remain, it will become
a watery sore, which will terminate in lameness,
stiffness, and pain in the joint when the animal
bends it. When this is situated in the bend of the
knee, it is termed mallenders, and when it is seated
in front of the hock joint, it is called sallenders,
complaints which we have described at page iii.
If these complaints are attended to in their early
stage, nothing more will be required than to cleanse
the part from the scurf or scab which it produces by
soaking it in hot water, and carefully washing it
every day with a sponge and some astringent mixed
with the water, such as a small portion of vinegar.

The skin of the heel has numerous glandular
pores, through which the unctuous secretion oozes ;
and sometimes these are unduly excited, and this
matter becomes altered in its substance and odour,
and produces that disease called grease, described
at page 123, and which in some instances proves
somewhat difficult to cure.

The cutis, when destroyed by any means, does
not regenerate quickly. Great care should therefore
be taken not to allow any portion of it to be broken.
Many think that it is of little consequence for horses
to have the skin of their back rubbed off by friction
from a saddle. Such parts as have lost their cutis
have it but slowly reproduced ; and even when it
has been restored, its vital power is much weaker

PORES OF THE SKIN 265

than it originally was ; for, although it appears at
first to be very vascular, its vessels after a time
either shrink in calibre, or some of them become
altogether obliterated. It invariably happens that
when horses have had fistulse or saddle-galls, they
are always more disposed to subsequent injury in
those parts.

THE RETE MUCOSUM.

The third part of the skin consists of a membrane
which bears this name ; it is a fine, delicate, laminated
tissue, interposed between the cutis and the cuticle.
The skin takes its colour from this membrane. It
is from this membrane being black in the negro
that he takes his dark colour ; for dissection has
proved that his cuticle when separated from this
membrane is as white as that of a European. Its
use appears to afford protection to the delicate vessels
of the nerves from outward injuries.

PORES OF THE SKIN.

The skin exhibits an infinity of pores over its
entire surface, and probably the whole of these trans-
mit hairs. There are also numerous others, smaller
and less perceptible, which are called perspiratory
pores, from their emitting an imperceptible vapour,
denominated the insensible perspiration, the sensible
perspiration being what is ordinarily called sweat.
The situation of these pores is rendered manifest by
the condensation and collection of this exhalation.
But these pores can be rendered visible by macera-
tion, or putrefaction in the dead animal. Besides
these there is another set of pores, of larger dimen-
sions, more discernible than others in some places,
which are the mouths of follicles. These are of larcre

o

266 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

size in the nose, for the secretion or mucus ; and the
tubes of the ears have many of them for the passage
of the waxy matter ; and all the portions of the skin
which are liable to friction are numerously provided
with them, which preserves it in a soft and pliable
condition, and produces that greasiness of feel which
is constantly kept up in the skin.

This process of perspiration in the horse cannot
be so controlled by the use of medicine as in the
human being. The visible perspiration can only be
increased in a limited degree in the horse, although
we can in some measure lessen profuse perspirations
which accompany the moult, disease, or want of
condition.

The visible perspiration, as far as we know,
cannot be produced by any kind of medicine. Anti-
mony and sulphur, however, have considerable effect
in opening the pores, and in a certain degree exciting
the vessels to action.

There can be little doubt but the skin is furnished
with absorbent vessels, which take in any substance in
a fluid state and conduct it into the circulation. We
have strong proofs of this in the horse being more
easily salivated than man himself, as we have known a
horse to be salivated by rubbing a splint with mer-
curial ointment.

OF THE HAIR.

The hair of the horse is of two qualities : the one
covering the entire surface of the skin, called its coat,
and which is of a fine soft material ; and the other,
which invests the ridge of the neck, crown of the head,
and forms the tail, of a coarser texture, and much
lengthened. The foretop appears only formed as an
ornament ; while the mane is a protection to the neck

OF THE HAIR ±6f

during combat ; and the tail acts the double purpose
of an ornament, and as a switch to drive off insects
from its rear. The tufts of hair springing from the
fetlocks defend them from contusion, and also protects
the heels. The coat is of a uniform thickness all over
the body, excepting- upon the inner parts of the thighs,
under the arms, etc. The coat varies in quality, colour,
and length in different breeds. The thoroughbred
racer, the Arabian, Barbs, and Turkish horses are re-
markable for the shortness and sleekness of their coat ;
while the cart-horse, the Shetland pony, and horses
of all northern climates, are distinguished by the
length, roughness, and coarseness of their hair. The
lighter the shade of colour, the finer the hair ; and it
has been found that in the chestnut and light bay
horses there are many more hairs in a square inch
than in black and other dark-coloured horses.

The coat is shed twice a year, in spring and
autumn. In a state of nature this commences with
great regularity as to time ; but in a state of domestica-
tion, this process is much influenced by the tempera-
ture and stable management. The hair of the mane
and tail is never shed. Regeneration of the hair is
attended with a considerable expenditure of nervous
energy, and consequently the strength of the animal
during this process is affected, as well as his general
health. The horse at this time feels a general languor,
and consequently should not be subjected to violent
exercise or hard work. This weakness will invariably
be manifested by profuse perspiration when at work.
Hard labour at these periods frequently induces
various complaints.

To facilitate the process of moulting, or changing
the coat, spices and other stimulants have been given
to horses, which no doubt has the effect of hastening

268 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the change ; but we would prefer allowing nature to
pursue its own course, as there can be little doubt but
these stimulants induce a higher degree of fever at the
time, and may bring on a regular febrile attack.
Gentle friction will be beneficial ; but care should be
taken not to abuse this. The currycomb should not
be used at this time ; the brush only should be had
recourse to, and that applied with caution. Moderate
exercise and warmer clothing ought to be adopted
during the biannual moult.

The slightest attention to the subject will easily
convince any one of the altered state of an animal
during shedding the hair. It will be found that at
this time there is always an increased pulse, redness of
the nose, and heat of the mouth, unusual in the
healthy condition. Hence it is evident that every-
thing exciting should be avoided. Many grooms are
in the habit of giving the animal cordials and stimu-
lants, mistaking febrile excitement for debility. The
following alterative will be found beneficial : —

Digitalis ..... i drachm,

Nitre 2^j drachms,

Emetic tartar . . . . i drachm,

Aloes I J drachm.

The stable-clothing should be warmer, the usual
quantity of food should be diminished, and bran-
mashes given instead of hard food.

CLIPPING.

It is an utter absurdity to denude the animal of its
natural quantity of clothing. It has been a practice
to clip hunters, so that the coat of the animal may
sooner dry after a long run ; but there is less danger
to be apprehended from the longer coat, although it

SINGEING 269

does not thoroughly dry, than when the short hair of
the clipped animal exposes the overheated skin to the
chilling effects of a frosty atmosphere, and thus during
pauses from exercise the horse must suffer severely
from cold, and besides is liable to be attacked by in-
flammation.

I am aware that many persons of much experience
will differ with me in what I have said upon this
subject. Waiving my objections, it must be admitted
that the skin of the animal will dry much sooner after
hard labour when he has a thin coat, and undoubtedly
much labour will be saved to the groom, which is of
material consequence. It has been said that horses
which have short hair feed much sooner after a hard
run than those which have a long and rough coat ;
and then when once it is dried, there is less chance of
its afterwards breaking out into a sweat.

SINGEING.

Many approve and recommend this operation, and
by a little practice it can be singed nearly as close as
in clipping. The instrument used is a piece of iron,
about four inches wide at the extremity, made in the
form of a Dutch-hoe, and inserted into a handle six or
eight inches long. Some wick-cotton must be rolled
round the bar at the bottom of the instrument as
evenly as possible. It must then be dipped in naphtha
and lighted, and drawn gently over the coat of the
horse, taking care not to go too deep at once, but re-
peating it frequently until the hair be burnt as close to
the skin as possible. During this operation a blunt
table-knife must be held in the left hand, with which to
scrape out the flame from time to time, to prevent it
burning too deep in any part, as well as to preserve the
skin from being blistered. The singed hair must

270 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

always be scraped carefully off before the flame be
re-applied. The same part should not be singed
several times in succession without allowing it to cool
thoroughly, otherwise great irritation and fever may
be induced. In singeing the neck, the mane must be
turned to the opposite side to that which it is intended
to burn, and a wet brush should be passed over the
roots of it, to prevent the flame running over it. We
would recommend that the operation of singeing
should not be done all at one time, but by degrees on
several successive days.

COLOUR OF THE HAIR.

Fashion too frequently regulates the prevailing
colour of horses, because, as we have already observed,
the colour of the coat is dependent upon chemical
action, and consequently the constitution of the animal
is connected with it. It will be found that there is
also a sympathy between the colour of the hair and
that of the eyes. The three primitive colours in the
horse are white, red, and black ; and all the inter-
mediate shades are modifications of these. Milk-white
horses have very often wall-eyes, while blacks have
dark hazel, and chestnut brown, varying in intensity
with the depth of colour.

Black horses have in general excellent constitutions.
In Lincolnshire much attention has been paid to the
purity of their large and stately blacks. They are
peculiarly well adapted for waggons and other heavy
machines, but are defective in point of activity. In
the above and adjoining counties considerable attention
has been devoted to a smaller breed of blacks, for the
purpose of cavalry horses. They are remarkable for
their high action, a quality which, however valuable in
a draught-horse, is objectionable in a roadster, their

COLOUR OF THE HAIR 2j\

paces being disagreeable. Few racers or hunters of
character have been known of this colour.

Of all the colours, bays have been the best in this
country. They are liable to many modifications of
shade. Those which have no white about them, and
whose limbs are black from the knees and the hocks to
the feet, are the most desirable to possess, having in
general good constitutions, and also well-formed feet.
When they verge into the bay-brown, they are not
so showy, nor is their action so good ; but they will
be found to be hardy, durable, and useful. They
possess more substance than the lighter coloured
bays, and have a greater depth of leg. If they
happen to be high-bred, they will generally turn out
good.

There are three varieties of chestnuts. The
lightest red, which is denominated sorrel, have too
frequently white about either their feet or face. In
general they are found to be light in the carcass, and
possessing delicate constitutions, and for the most part
are hot-tempered. Many of them, although light in
the figure and tolerably well formed, are nevertheless
totally devoid of good breeding, and certainly incap-
able of endurance. If we have a predilection for
chestnut, which is undoubtedly a showy colour, we
must look to the lighter coloured horses with less of
the red, and tending more to the bay or brown. The
action of these horses is generally pleasant, but some-
times possessing irritable tempers. They are, how-
ever, considered rather constitutionally weak. The
dark chestnut possesses a finely-moulded form, with
well-rounded quarters, although the legs have a
tendency to be rather fine. This horse is capable of
great endurance, and possesses a healthy constitution.
His temper will be found fiery and high. Small feet

272 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

are frequently met with accompanying this colour, and
which are generally disposed to contraction.

Snow-white horses are now seldom to be met
with, although at one time they were very common ;
I mean, those which are white in their earliest years ;
as light grey animals soon become white, especially
those which have dark-coloured joints.

The silver-grey is now not common, but they are
in general high-bred, and of undoubted descent from
the Arabian or Barb. Their height seldom exceeds
fourteen and a half hands (which is the ordinary
size of their progenitors), with a well-rounded body,
firmly knit, light legs, oblique pasterns, and high
shoulders. They are active and fleet, fitted for hard
work, and possessing excellent health. Their action
and appearance peculiarly fit them for the use of the
ladies.

The iron-grey is a larger horse than the above,
generally higher in the withers, with a thinner body,
flatter chest, and more angular in all his proportions,
with his legs often too long. They are showy horses,
and well adapted for a carriage. In some instances
they make good hunters, and are useful as roadsters,
being capable of greater endurance than would be
expected from the flatness of their chests. They are,
however, found often to have a tendency to con-
traction of the feet, and hence lameness.

The dappled grey is usually a well-formed and
active horse, and divested of all the angular points
which characterise the iron-grey. They look remark-
ably well in harness, and are showy as hackneys.
When these horses are high-bred, which is mostly
the case, they are not only handsome, but also active.
If they are dark-coloured when young, they seldom
or never become white, but retain their dappling and

COLOUR OF THE HAIR 273

fine rusty colour for life. F'ormerly, this breed were
heavy animals, but their form has been materially
improved by the admixture of foreign blood.

The dun is a hardy kind, and especially if it is
of the smaller or Galloway size. Some of the best
hackneys which I have known were of this colour.
If of the paler dun, they are particularly well adapted
for the phaeton of a lady. I have seen duns with
a good deal of blood possessing very great activity.
It is, however, curious that the larger horses of this
colour, unless high-bred, are conspicuous for their
want of action.

Roans, although frequently showy animals, are not
remarkable for activity nor for constitution. Their
delicate habits seem to give them an elasticity of
joint which renders their paces easy, and they are
therefore well adapted for ladies. This variety is
very apt to have white legs and feet, and they are too
frequently weak in consequence.

The cream-coloured steeds are a breed originally
imported from Hanover, where they have for a very
long period been bred as horses for the royal stud.
There is a marked peculiarity in this breed : possess-
ing a large yet perfectly well-formed carcass, with
a beautifully arched crest ; the action is graceful and
dignified, which peculiarly fits them for the stage-
carriage of a monarch. The pupil of these horses
is red, and the eyeball or iris white, so that they
are true albinos. Their constitution is delicate,
and they are incapable of great exertion and en-
durance.

The pied horse is in many instances an attractive
animal, although seldom used as a riding-horse. If
more than half-bred and well matched, they are showy
in a carriage. They are, however, liable to have

s

274 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

white legs and feet, points not desirable in any
horse.

HIDE-BOUND.

Symptoms. — This complaint consists of an altera-
tion in the substance of the skin, proceeding from a
hardness and unyieldingness of texture, in conse-
quence of the want of the ordinary oily secretion on
its surface, as well as in its whole parts. The skin
to the touch has a dry and rigid feel, which proceeds
from a want of energy in the vessels of the skin,
rendering them unfit to perform their functions, and
indeed in the vessels of the stomach and bowels,
which must affect those of the whole system.

This rigidity of the cuticle naturally causes a
dryness in the scales which cover it ; and these
being separated in all directions, turn the hairs in
that irregular manner, and produce the rough, uneven
coat, which is termed staring, always indicating a
want of condition in the animal. This complaint
may rather be considered as the concomitant of
disease, than the ailment itself; for the root of the
evil is seated in the stomach and bowels. This being
the case, we must apply the remedy to the seat of
the disease, as well as to the skin itself.

Cause. — This state of the skin accompanies
various complaints, consequently the first thing we
must look to is to discover its cause ; and so soon
as the cause is removed the skin will be restored to
its natural healthy condition and appearance.

Remedies. — If the complaint is connected with
any of the maladies to which we have referred, then
the medical treatment already recommended in these
must be adopted ; but if we are unable to detect
the cause, which is frequently the case, it may then

tllDE-BOUND 275

be suspected that it is connected with the suspension
of some important secretion, and with the alimentary
canal orenerallv. Then we should administer some
mild purgatives, which may consist of the following
prescription : —

Aloes . . . . \\ drachm,
Nitre .... 2 drachms ;

made into a ball with treacle.

Let the above be twice repeated, and on the third
day the following should be given : —

Calomel . . . . i drachm,
Aloes .... 2 drachms.

The horse should be kept from dry food, and in its
stead give him bran and other mashes. This treat-
ment must be pursued until a regular and healthy
action of the alimentary canal is re-established, which
will be indicated by the appearance of his coat.
Some veterinarians recommend the following pur-
gative in hide-bound cases : —

Levigated antimony . 2 drachms,

Nitre .... 3 drachms,
Sulphur .... 4 drachms ;

made into a ball.

This is repeated every night, and accompanied
by mashes until a healthy condition is established.
Perhaps it is better to vary these different medicines.
Sulphur and antimony combined produce a peculiar
effect upon the skin, while the sulphur acts upon the
bowels, and the urinary organs are cleared out by
the nitre.

If the horse is off his feed, and no symptoms of
fever, it may be apprehended, as above hinted, that
a want of energy of the vessels is the cause of the

276 MANUAL Ot' MODERN FARRIERY

complaint. In that case it will be necessary to add
a tonic to the above prescription. Let that be —

Gentian . . . . i drachm,
Ground ginger . . J drachm.

Besides what we have above recommended, it
will be found that friction may be advantageously
employed, as it arouses the dormant energies of the
secreting vessels. Additional clothing may also be
resorted to with great advantage. We must, how-
ever, draw a marked distinction between heat thus
employed from that of keeping the stable warm.
This is too frequently resorted to by injudicious
grooms, who thus contaminate the atmosphere of
the stable, and keep up what is very often the cause
of the disease. Nothing is of so much consequence
as a well-aired stable ; and if warmth is necessary,
let it be applied in the shape of clothing.

SURFEIT.

Symptoms. — In the spring large pimples or lumps
suddenly make their appearance on the skin of the
horse. They differ materially in their effects, as
some are attended with much itching, and others
seem to give the animal no uneasiness whatever.
Instances occur in which they disappear as suddenly
as they came. When they do remain, in a few days
the epidermis peels off, leaving a small scale-like
spot, which is rarely a sore. In some instances
these lumps are confined to the neck ; but more
frequently they extend over the back, loins, and
quarters.

Cause. — The true cause of this cutaneous disease
is not known, although it has been called surfeit,
from a supposed resemblance to those eruptions in

SURFEIT 277

the skin of the human being which follow unwhole-
some or indigestible food. This complaint, however,
most frequently exists after or during the time the
horse is shedding his hair, and at which period there
exists a stronger tendency to stomach-affections, and
consequently indigestion has been supposed to affect
the skin in the manner described. Poisonous sub-
stances taken into the stomach, such as herbs and
mow-burnt hay — the chemical qualities, in the latter
case, having changed its properties — have been known
to cause this eruption. Drinking cold water in im-
moderate quantity, as well as improper exposure to
cold air when the animal was over-heated, have been
known to induce affections of this kind. There can
be little doubt but it is caused by some obstruction
of the pores of the skin, which produces swellings
around them, and depending upon a primary affection
of the cuticle, or from a sympathy with the digestive
organs.

Remedies. — The following alterative must be
administered : —

Levigated antimony . . . 2 1 drachms,
Purified nitre .... 3 drachms,
Sulphur 4 drachms ;

given at night, either in a mash, or formed into a ball
with the ordinary substances ; to be repeated for
several nights in succession, with the use of warm
clothing, which, together with heat of the stable, will
cause the sulphur and antimony to act with more
effect upon the skin. His drink should be slightly
heated, and a moderate quantity of green meat should
be given him, if it can be procured at the time. In
the mornings he should be walked out for half-an-hour,
but his clothing must be warmer than usual. His
food must consist of mashes,

278 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

MANGE.

Mange is a parasitic disease, similar to ** Scab "
in sheep, and the *' Itch" in the human subject, but
the parasites are distinct. There are three kinds of
mange parasites found on the body of the horse, but
all of them are so small that they cannot be recognised
with the naked eye, and therefore a microscope has
to be used in order to determine their presence.
Certain chronic non-infectious skin affections lead to
changes in the skin, very much similar to those
changes produced by the burrowing and breeding of
the mange parasites, and therefore it is imperative in
all suspicious cases to examine the scales and hairs
with the microscope.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are intense pruritus
or itching. Touch the skin and the horse shows his
sense of pleasure by stretching his neck, curling his
lips, and clenching his teeth. He rubs his body
against the stall or any object to which he can gain
access, and this rubbing and biting and burrowing
of the parasites sets up inflammation in the skin.
Numerous small pimples and vesicles appear on the
skin, the hairs fall off and are glued together by a
liquid. The epidermis thickens, and fissures are
formed in it. Owing to the continued irritation to
which the animal is subjected, he falls off in flesh and
condition, and if he is allowed to come in contact with
other horses, or the harness, or the clothing, or the
brushes which have been in contact with his body,
the so-called mange disease appears on them. Grooms
should be very careful not to use the same currycomb
to a diseased and to a healthy horse indiscriminately,
neither should the same brush be used.

Remedies. — In the early stage, when the parasites

MANGE 279

are not numerous, "mange" in horses, like "scab"
in sheep, is not difficult to eradicate, but when the
parasites are numerous and have burrowed into the
skin and formed galleries therein, considerable time
and frequent application of agents destructive to
insect life are required.

Commence the treatment by washing the skin
thoroughly with hot water containing carbolic acid
and soap. Then clip the hairs off, soften the scabs
with carbolised black soap, a thick coating, and leave
it on the skin for a day and a night. Wash off, then
apply :—

Coal tar i part,

Oil of cade . . . . i part,
Benzoine 3 parts.

Mix the tar and cade and then add the benzoine.
During the application of the liniment, an alterative
ball should be daily administered, such as we have
recommended at page 277.

When the above treatment has been continued for
some time, then the following ointment may be pre-
pared, and the parts daily anointed with it : —

Sulphur .... J pound,

Oil of tar . . . . i pint,
Palm oil .... I pint.

Every fifth or sixth day the ointment should be
washed off with spirit of turpentine, and afterwards
well cleansed with soap and water, which will enable
the groom to see what progress has been effected
towards a cure. But should the disease still continue,
the application must be still proceeded with. Mange
often proves extremely obstinate, and weeks of trouble
have been required to restore the skin to a healthy
condition. In the various wa-shings the soap and

28o MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

water should be pretty warm, as this will have the
effect of opening the pores, which is of material con-
sequence while the animal is undergoing anoint-
ment.

While the animal is subjected to this treatment,
his food should be plentiful and nourishing, but not
of stimulating quality. If during warm summer
weather, he should be turned out to graze ; but if the
weather is cold, he should be plentifully supplied with
green food.

Sometimes this complaint is deceptive in its ap-
pearance, and seems better than it really is after the
above treatment. Therefore, to guard against a
return of it, the rubbing should be continued for
three or four days after it is apparently well. The
alterative medicine should also be continued for ten or
twelve days after a cure has been effected.

It is hardly necessary to say that the clothing
which the animal wore during the use of those re-
medial means must be thoroughly cleansed. To
render contagion impossible, they should be first
soaked in water, with the addition of a thirty-fifth or
fortieth part of the saturated solution of chloride of
lime, and afterwards well washed with soap and water.
In short, every part of the harness, rack, manger,
and partitions should be completely scrubbed with a
strong solution of soda and water ; and when dry,
with a solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion
of a pint to three gallons of water. The currycomb
should also be well cleaned, and the brush thrown
away.

We would particularly caution all persons possess-
ing horses to be watchful of this disease ; and when-
ever they observe indications of itching in the head
or neck of the animal, to examine carefully if any

WARTS 281

symptoms of this disagreeable disease exist, and to
attack it instantly.

WARTS.

These are tumours of various sizes which spring
from the cuticle, and afterwards are based in the
true skin. They grow on various parts of the body,
and sometimes are found in the prepuce and eyelids,
or inside of the ears. These can only be removed by
an operation, and that safely and effectually done by a
practical veterinary surgeon. If the roots be very
small, which is sometimes the case, they may be cut
out close to the skin by a pair of small sharp-pointed
scissors, and the part afterwards touched with caustic.
If the stem of the wart be thick, it will not be prudent
to cut it off, but a thread of fine waxed silk may be
tied round it, and tightened every day until it drops
off. Sometimes warts are in considerable clusters.
When this is the case, it will be necessary to cut them
off close to the skin, and afterwards sear the place
with a red-hot iron, which will prevent them from
growing again. If the horse is of a spirited nature, it
will be necessary to cast him, and operate under
chloroform.

CHAPTER XII.

Operations.

Although operations are more the province of the
veterinary surgeon than of private individuals, yet it
would not be proper to pass over these without
partially touching upon the subject. It is well for
the untaught at least to know how the most simple
of these are performed, and to them only shall we
draw attention.

It is easy to imagine that in several operations
the animals must suffer considerable pain, and under
these are frequently very restive. It therefore becomes
necessary to have certain instruments constructed to
restrain the animals, and prevent them from injuring
themselves, as well as for the safety of the operator.
These we shall describe in the first instance.

The Travis. — This machine, considered by Con-
tinental horse-shoeing blacksmiths as indispensable
accompaniments to their forge, is comparatively rare
in this country. On the Continent, even the quietest
horses are shod in the travis. It consists of very
strong bars of wood, between which the horse is con-
fined and slung. Although this is well calculated to
prevent danger to the blacksmith, yet many fine horses
have been rendered useless from their violent resist-
ance to such confinement.

The Barnacles. — These are the handles of the

OPERATIONS 283

pincers, which are placed over and enclose the muzzle.
These are compressed by the assistant in operations.
They give great pain, but are indispensable with some
horses to enforce obedience. Sometimes this can be
effected by blindfolding, but cannot be depended upon.
Sometimes the use of the barnacles are ineffectual,
which renders the side-line and twitch indispensable.

The Side- Line. — This is found useful in the
operations of nicking, docking, and slight firing. It
consists of the long line of the hobbles, or common
cart-rope, with a noose at one end. This is fixed to
one of the pasterns of a hind leg. The rope is then
carried over the neck, and afterwards round the
withers, and this is tied to that portion which comes
from the leg. By drawing this leg forward, it renders
him incapable of kicking with the other ; and should
he attempt to use his fore leg, the other may be
seized and held up, which renders any exertion on his
part nugatory. The above will be found effectual in
all the more simple operations ; and that even with
restive horses, if the assistants are determined and
know how to restrain the animals. Sometimes the
side-line is made so as to include both limbs, but in
the struggles of the animal he is apt to throw himself,
and may be injured in his fall.

For the more severe operations of firing and cas-
tration, improved hobbles are used. These permit of
any single leg to be set at liberty and returned at
pleasure ; and when the operation is finished, all the
legs may be freed from restraint in an instant. We
need not describe the methods employed to throw a
horse, because these are well known to the practical
veterinarian, to whom alone operations which require
this degree of restraint should be entrusted, and there-
fore we shall not touch upon them,

284 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

BLEEDING.

It is a too frequent practice for gentlemen who
have given a little attention to the veterinary art, as
well as with some professional surgeons, to order a
certain quantity of blood to be taken away, without
themselves attending to the operation. Although we
have pointed out the probable quantity under particular
diseases, yet it must be distinctly understood that
much depends upon the strength, size, and condition
of the animal at the time ; and although we may sup-
pose, from what we have seen effected by practice,
that the quantity which we have ordered will suffice,
yet in this we may be greatly mistaken. No regular
surgeon, however great his practice may have been,
can predict this to a certainty. We have already
pointed out, at page 236, the nature of the pulse and
its different indications. Before bleeding, we are
supposed to have ascertained the state of the pulse,
and our object is to reduce it as nearly as possible to
its natural or healthy condition, or at least until a
change has been effected in its action ; therefore, the
operator or his assistant should keep his finger on the
artery while the blood is flowing, and, without strictly
adhering to the quantity which he had previously
supposed, continue to take blood until a marked
alteration in the pulse has taken place.

The operation of bleeding is performed with a
fleam, or lancet. We would recommend the former to
be used by private individuals, or at least by such as
have not had sufficient practice with the lancet. A
piece of hard wood, loaded at one end with lead, called
a blood-stick, is used for striking the fleam into the
vein. Care should be taken not to strike too hard, as
by doing so it is likely to wound the opposite side of

BLEEDING 285

the coating of the vein, which may produce severe
cases of inflammation. If the fleam is sharp, which
it always should be, a blow with the doubled fist will
answer the purpose of a blood-stick.

The jugular vein is the part usually selected for
general bleeding. It is necessary to blindfold the
horse, or to turn away his head from that side from
which blood is to be taken. The hair is smoothed
along the course of the vein with the finger, which has
been previously moistened ; then with the third and
little fingers of the left hand, in which the fleam must
be held, sufficient pressure is applied to the vein so as
to bring it completely into view, taking care, however,
not to distend it too much, as the too rounded surface
is apt to roll or slip when the blow is given to the
fleam. The particular part from which the blood is
taken lies about two inches below the union of the two
branches of the jugular vein at the angle of the jaw.
(See Plate iii, fig. i,/.) The fleam must be placed in
a direct line with the course of the vein, and over the
precise centre of the vein, with its point as close as
possible to the skin, without touching the vein. A
sharp but not heavy rap from the blood-stick or fist
on the back of the fleam, directly over the blade, will
cut through the coating of the vein, and the blood will
immediately flow after the fleam is withdrawn. A
large-bladed fleam should always be preferred, which
will make a greater opening, and thus facilitate the
operation ; besides, what is of greater importance,
blood drawn speedily has far more effect on the system
than double the quantity taken slowly ; and the wound,
although larger, will heal as fast as a smaller one. A
slight pressure on the neck with the pail, or other
vessel used while blood is taken, will be enough to
cause the blood to flow sufficiently fast. Some persons

286 Manual of modern farriery

introduce the finger into the mouth between the tushe.^
and the grinders, which by gently moving it about
induces motion in the jaws, and facilitates the rapidity
of the stream by the action of the muscles in connec-
tion with the vein.

In the operation of bleeding the blood should
be received into a vessel the dimensions of which
are exactly known, so that the operator may be able
to judge from time to time of the quantity that has
been taken. When it is necessary to repeat the
bleeding, it will be better to make a fresh incision
lower down than to open the old w^ound. The blood
coagulates soon after it is drawn. That portion of
it which is coagulable is composed of two substances
— that which gives colour to the blood, and the thinner
part in which the red corpuscles float. By degrees
these separate, and the red corpuscles sink to the
bottom. If coagulation takes place slowly, the red
corpuscles have more time to sink through the fluid
portion, and there appears on the top a thick, ad-
hesive, pale, yellowish orange substance, called the
buffy coat. In proportion to the slowness of coagu-
lation and the thickness of this coat, the degree of
inflammation used to be determined. In the healthy
condition, coagulation is more rapid, and consequently
the red particles have not time to sink, and the buffy
coat is thin. When the horse is much exhausted, and
there is a general decay of his constitution, coagula-
tion is imperfect.

When the necessary quantity of blood has been
taken, the edges of the wound must be brought close
together and kept in their place by a small pin being
passed through the contiguous skin, with a little tow
wrapped round the extremities of the pin so as to cover
the entire wound. In bringing the edges of the wound

BLEEDING ^87

together, care should be taken not to draw the skin
too much from the neck, otherwise blood will insinuate
itself between the skin and the muscles, and cause a
swelling (thrombus), which sometimes proves trouble-
some. The edges of the wound will heal in forty-
eight hours, but the pin should be allowed to remain
in the skin for about seven days.

The jugular being the largest superficial vein,
and most readily got at, is generally selected to bleed
from. In local inflammation, blood may be taken
from any of the nearest superficial veins. For
example : in affections of the shoulder, fore leg, or
foot, the plate-vein may be used, which lies along the
inside of the arm, and runs up immediately in front of
it, towards the jugular vein. The disposition of this
vein will be seen at Plate vi, fig. 2, r, and the branches
of the other veins of this portion of the limb are
exhibited in the same figure. Where the hinder
extremity is affected, blood is sometimes taken from
the saphsena, or thigh-vein, which runs across the thigh.
The course of the different veins of this part will be
seen on referring to Plate vii, fig. 2. Where the
foot is at fault, blood may be taken from the coronet ;
or, what is better, from the very point of the toe, by
cutting down by means of a searcher at the union
between the crust and the sole until the blood flows.
Should it not do so freely, the discharge may be
increased by dipping the foot in warm water. Any
quantity of blood may be taken from this situation,
and its flow is easily stopped by putting a little tow in
the cut, and then placing the shoe slightly over it, to
prevent it from getting out.

In inflammatory cases, the finger of the veterinarian
should never be off the artery during blood-letting, as
this will be a better indication of the quantity neces-

288 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

sary to be drawn than any preconceived opinion, as
nothing can be more absurd than drawing blood
indiscriminately. The prudent man will bleed until
the oppressed pulse becomes more distinct and fallen,
or the strong pulse of high fever softer.

We would recommend a sharp-pointed, broad-
shouldered lancet, but especially the spring lancet
invented by Mr Weiss of London, as the most safe
and certain one in use, not only for bleeding from
the larger, but also the smaller veins, etc. We
especially recommend great care in keeping the lancet
clean, and after every operation it should be wiped
very carefully. Private individuals should occasionally
look at and rub their lancets, because they are apt to
rust even when not in use.

BLISTERING.

We have already mentioned blistering in treating of
the various diseases to which it is applicable. Blisters
act on the principle that two intense states of inflamma-
tion cannot exist in contiguous parts of the system at
one time ; therefore we apply some irritant substance
to the skin to induce external inflammation, to draw
away that existing in some deeper contiguous parts.
Upon this principle we apply a blister to the skin of
the side in cases of inflammation of the lungs ; for
inflammation of the bowels, we blister the belly ; the
legs are blistered for that of the cellular substance
surrounding the sheaths of the tendons ; and for
inflammation of the navicular joint, we make the
coronet or heel the medium of operations. Besides
their use in inflammation, blisters are useful in increas-
ing the activity of the vessels contiguous to the places
where they are applied. In cases of strangles, for
example, a blister is used to induce earlier suppuration.

BLISTERING 289

Such is the power of blisters, that they will excite the
absorbents to greater energy, and by this means they
will carry away tumours, and callous, and even bony
substances.

In the application of blisters there is some nicety
required to determine when a stronger or weaker one
must be applied ; whether by long-continued, or
sudden and violent action, the desired effect is most
Hkely to be produced. In inflammatory cases, strong
blisters will be found best ; but in old and long-
seated tumours and swellings, milder means must
be adopted.

It is necessary to prepare the skin of the horse for
a blister, by clipping off or shaving closely all the hair
of the part where it is to be applied, and also washing
the skin. The best composition for a blister is Spanish
flies, lard, and resin, in the following proportions,
viz. : —

Powdered Spanish flies . . . i ounce,

Powdered resin i ounce,

Lard 4 ounces.

Mix the lard and resin together and then add the
Spanish flies. This should be thoroughly rubbed in,
otherwise it will not rise. After the application of a
blister the head of the horse must be tied up for at
least three days, to prevent him from disfiguring the
part with his teeth, as well as injuring his muzzle. If,
however, the sides are blistered, the clothes may be
so fixed that he will be unable to reach the part.
When the blistering ointment has remained on for
three days, the part may be rubbed with a little olive
oil, which will assist in alleviating the pain, as well as
in softening the skin and preventing it from cracking,
which it is liable to do, and these become difficult to
heal. The oil must be applied morning and evening

T

290 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

to the part, until the scab falls off. When the scabs
show symptoms of peeling, their removal may be facili-
tated by the application of a lotion of soap and water,
applied with a sponge or piece of flannel ; but they
must not be forced off, as by doing so a blemish will
be left.

Some persons recommend the removal of all the
litter and straw from the stall of the animal, if blistered
on the belly or sides ; but we think this unnecessary,
as it would be better to put additional clothing, or
cover the part with something soft, well secured against
being irritated by the straw. It would be as well to
keep the horse standing for two days, taking care that
he cannot reach the blistered part to blemish his skin,
which will be best effected by what is called a cradle.
This consists of round strips of wood attached together,
extending from the lower jaw to the chest.

For a sweating blister the best application is an
infusion of Spanish flies in turpentine, and that should
be reduced to the proper strength with neats'-foot oil,
according to the degree of excitement required.

If the blister has not the effect of removing the
disease, it may be repeated after the scab has been
healed and removed from the old part.

It sometimes occurs that absorption of a portion of
the flies takes place, which produces strangury, or
spasm of the neck of the bladder, and this, upon the
principle of counter-irritation, will assist in allaying the
more dangerous one. However, this must not be
allowed to continue long, as it is of itself a most pain-
ful complaint. It will be necessary to supply the
horse plentifully with linseed-tea, made in the follow-
ing proportions, until the complaint is abated, which
will be known by the animal staling less frequently ;
as in inflammation of the bladder or its sphincter, the

BLISTERING 29 1

animal stales very often, and that is voided in small
quantities : —

Take a pound of linseed a little bruised, and pour
on it two gallons of boiling water, and allow it to stand
until nearly cold ; then pour off the clear mucilaginous
fluid. This should be given to the animal in portions
of a quart at a time every three hours. Half-a-pound
of Epsom salts should be dissolved in a quart of water,
and administered. Every six hours the following ball
should be given : —

Opium .... I scruple,
Camphor . . . . i drachm ;

made into a ball with linseed-meal and treacle.

Mustard blisters have frequently been applied to
horses with beneficial results, and produce even a
greater degree of swelling than cantharides. Those
are made by pouring water on a pound of good mustard
powder, according to the dimensions required to be
excited. It should be of the consistence of a thick
paste. It has been found to relieve inflammation of
the kidneys more rapidly and effectually than can-
tharides. Tincture of croton makes an active liquid
blister ; and for milder applications hartshorn has been
used.

In treating of sprain of the back sinews, page 95,
we recommended a blister in certain cases ; however,
this must never be resorted to while any heat or tender-
ness remains about the places affected, as this would
only increase the superficial inflammation, without
allaying that which is more deeply seated, and might
produce enlargements of the limb, and finally obstinate
ulcerations, and thereby render the horse unfit for
work. It is a mistake to suppose that blistering is
beneficial in grease, as it rather increases than

292 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

diminishes the complaint. Blistering in cold wintry-
weather must be done with great caution, because if
the part should be exposed to cold it is very likely to
end in grease. Blistering all round the limbs is not
only a cruel but a dangerous practice, and ought never
to be resorted to.

FIRING.

We cannot contemplate the use of firing without
associating with it a degree of cruelty ; but in many
cases it must be had recourse to as the only method
of removing the complaint. The principle on which
firing is adopted is by exciting some superficial parts,
and thereby, by counter-irritation, relieving deeply-
seated inflammatory action. This strong remedy has
also the effect of exciting the absorbents to carry off
bony matter which is apt to be deposited in the limbs.
In short, it is the most powerful stimulating agent
with which we are acquainted ; but should never be
had recourse to, except when there is no chance of
milder remedies being effectual.

When it becomes necessary to fire a part, the hair
is clipped as close as possible, and afterwards shaved,
so that the iron may come into immediate and close
contact with the part, as also to prevent the smoke
arising from singeing the hair, obscuring from sight
the part requiring to be operated upon. In some
cases it is absolutely necessary to throw the horse, not
only for his own safety, but also for that of the
operator. And to prevent the animal from using
violent exertions, the hobbles, mentioned at page 283,
must be used.

As this is an operation which ought never to be
attempted but by a veterinary surgeon, we shall not
descend to the details of how it is performed. The

FIRING 293

Operation of firing requires both tact and skill ; and
even with the best operators, accidents will occur to
the horse, in consequence of his violent struggles,
which it is impossible in some instances to prevent, and
the skin will be unavoidably cut through with the
iron ; but the accident cannot be fairly attributed to
the surgeon. The skin thus partially divided is sure
to separate in two or three days after the operation ;
but the ulceration which follows will be slight and easily
cured, when compared with the skin being actually
burnt through with the iron, as this is sure to be
followed by violent inflammation, ulceration, and
sloughing, producing effects very difflcult to cure,
besides leaving unsightly blemishes.

It is the practice of some veterinary surgeons to
blister after firing. This is a most unjustifiable
procedure, unless in cases of large bony tumours,
spavin with considerable lameness, and ring-bone
investing the entire coronet, and in old and obstinate
affections of the round-bone ; but in less serious
complaints it is a piece of great cruelty.

The day after the operation of firing, the part
should be rubbed with lard, or, what is still better,
neats'-foot oil. This will give a pliability to the skin,
and render it less liable to separate or ulcerate ; but if
cracks or ulceration take place, then calamine ointment
must be applied to it. The composition of this
ointment will be found amongst the medicines in the
following chapter. A bandage must not be used, as
it would prove injurious by irritating the part.

There can be little doubt of the superiority of firing
over blistering. The skin being partially destroyed by
the iron, is restored, and the surface lessened by its
being drawn together, which acts as a kind of bandage,
and consequently tightens and binds the whole parts ;

294 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

and by adding pressure is of much advantage in
reducing hard and callous substances. After firing, it
will be found of much advantage to turn out the
animal to grass for three or four months.

Firing should always be either in parallel or longi-
tudinal lines, particularly on the coronet, fetlock, and
back sinews, for the reason that the skin will contract,
so as to form the greatest uniformity of pressure.

NEUROTOMY, OR CUTTING THE NERVE.

The valuable services of the horse would be in a
great degree circumscribed, but for the artificial pro-
tection of his hoofs by an iron shoe. Without this his
feet would soon be battered to pieces going over our
hard roads. But while shoes protect his flexible
horny hoofs from injury, they at the same time cramp
and confine them, from the inflexible nature of the
iron and tight nailing, which, without great care, lays
the foundation of many diseases, and those too of a
very painful description.

To alleviate to a certain extent the severity of
those painful complaints, veterinary surgeons have
adopted the practice of cutting the nerve which goes
to the foot. This nerve has its origin in the union of
several of the spinal nerves, and consequently is a
nerve which gives both motion and feeling to the foot.
The fibres, however, which are connected with motion
are carried only to those parts which are concerned in
producing motion, and these are muscles. The in-
fluence of the nerves acting upon the muscles cause
them to contract, and consequently the limbs are
moved. The bones, blood-vessels, and other parts are
merely passive agents. The muscles of the leg do not
extend below the knee, and the fibres of the nerves
concerned in motion are distributed above that joint,

NEUROTOMY, OR CUTTING THE NERVE 295

SO that no part concerned in the production of motion
extends below the knee ; and when the nerve is
divided either above the fetlock or on the pastern, not
a fibre is touched concerned with motion, but those of
feeling alone, and those are continued to the point of
the toe. It will be seen therefore that this operation
does not at all interfere with motion ; but the sensi-
bility or feeling of the foot is taken away, and the
poor animal relieved from the torture which diseases
of the foot generally cause. By this means the irrita-
tion of the foot is relieved, and this in most cases pro-
duces an abatement of the inflammation, and the
horse will be able to perform work, and have the free
use of his foot.

When horses have inflammatory diseases of the
foot, they generally keep beating it on the ground,
which not only keeps up the inflammation, but even
increases it, while they frequently destroy the hoof by
this constant battering.

Many persons have supposed that by cutting the
nerve, the horse must lose its foot, but it is seldom
that sloughing of the hoof results, unless suppuration
has been set up in the hoof by a prick with a nail in
the act of shoeing the animal. This nerve is con-
nected with sensation alone ; those on which the
nutrition of the foot depends are the ganglial nerves,
which wind round the veins and arteries, even to their
most minute branches, and enable them to perform
their functions. These cannot be touched in the
operation of destroying the nerve of sensation, nor
will it in the slightest degree militate against the
functions of nutrition.

I have given a representation of the parts con-
nected with the operations of neurotomy, Plate vi, fig.
7, and described these parts at page 216. It will be

296 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

seen that the nerve is on the inside of the foot, as it
approaches the fetlock and passes over the pastern,
where it branches off above the fetlock. The prolon-
gation of the nerve below the fetlock is extended
principally to the quarters and hinder part of the foot,
for the purpose of supplying it with feeling. Before
operating for neurotomy, the seat of the disease which
causes pain must be ascertained. The artery, vein,
and nerve lie close together, and run in the same
direction ; the vein is next to the fore part of the leg,
then the artery, and the nerve behind. Before com-
mencing the operation, the horse is cast and properly
secured. Then remove the limb to be operated on
from the hobbles. The hair must be shaved from the
part. The skin is then cut through with great caution
for an inch and a half in length, which will expose the
vessels above referred to, and the nerve will be dis-
tinguished as occupying the position above pointed
out, as well as from its whiteness. Pass a crooked
needle with a silk thread under it, raise it a small
degree, and then dissect it from the cellular tissue
beneath : and when fairly felt, cut out about a quarter
of an inch of it, making the first incision above, and
the second cut will not be felt by the animal at all.
The same must be performed on either side of the foot,
as the nerves proceed down both sides. The sides of
the wound are now brought together and secured by a
bandage. The head must then be tied up for a day or
two. In less than a fortnight the horse will be fit for
work.

The operation of cutting the nerve may also prove
of service for ring-bone, where the side cartilages
become ossified, with partial stiffness of the pastern
and coffin joints. They will be more liable to recover
their usual action in consequence of the animal using

NEUROTOMY, OR CUTTING THE NERVE 297

the foot freely, as he will not feel pain while in motion.
Neurotomy may also prove of much advantage in
long-continued lameness, where no unusual heat is dis-
coverable, nor contraction or alteration in its form can
be perceived ; neither will the extremely acute pain
caused by the pressure of the horny crust on the
sensible parts be longer felt, and the animal will be
able to place his foot firmly and fully upon the ground ;
all appearance of lameness will be removed, and the
ultimate result will be a partial restoration at least of
the form and elasticity of the foot.

The above are some of the benefits which will be
derived from neurotomy ; but there are other cases
where cutting the nerve would be attended with un-
favourable results. When the pastern or coffin-joints
are quite stiff and unyielding, if this operation were
performed, the animal would naturally bring his foot
to the ground with force, and the joints being divested
of their natural elastic play, the bone would be still
more injured. In inflammation or ulceration of the
cartilages and ligaments, it would be injudicious to cut
the nerve, as the animal feeling no pain, the too active
use of the foot would hasten the progress of disease by
bruising the parts. Neither would it be proper to
have recourse to neurotomy in pumiced and convex
soles of the foot, because it would be speedily worn
out and destroyed by the animal now pressing on it ;
whereas before the operation the pain of pressure
naturally induced him to bear lightly on it.

From what we have said, we hope all the prejudices
against this operation will be removed, and by resort-
ing to it many suffering cart and waggon horses will be
freed from suffering, and prove more serviceable to
their owners. But by all means let the nerve be cut
by an experienced veterinary surgeon.

298 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

SETONS.

In abscesses, ulcers, and tumours, the use of setons
will prove of great service. A seton is a piece of cord
or tape passed through the base of such ulcers as have
deep sinuses, or between the skin and muscles. This
is effected by means of an instrument resembling a
needle, and the seton is kept in its place by means of a
knot at each end, or tying the ends together. The
tape should be moved daily, and wetted with turpen-
tine, spirit of wine, or some acrid liquid, in order to
keep up the inflammation and promote the discharge
of matter, which is the purpose for which setons are
used.

Setons are often useful in increasing a discharge in
the places contiguous to inflammation. For example :
In inflammation of the eye, a seton in the cheek will
act with much advantage, on the principle of counter-
irritation. In deep-seated inflammations many favour-
able results have been experienced in the use of setons.
For example : In inflammation of the navicular-joint,
great advantage has been derived from a seton,
although the reverse is the case with frog-setons for all
diseases of the foot. But where there is inflammation
in the larger organs, we must not expect to reap great
advantage, as their power of action is too limited.

Where there are abscesses or tumours in the withers
or poll, the seton should be passed entirely through
from the bottom to the top, by which the fluid will be
discharged and the accumulation of more prevented.
They are especially valuable in deep fistulous sores, by
giving an outlet to the matter secreted in them, which,
if not discharged, would burrow deeper into the parts.

DOCKING 2 99

DOCKING.

It has been a long-established custom to dock the
tails of horses — convenience justifies it and fashion
guides it. The length of the stump varies with the
taste of the times, or the fancy of the owner. A
medium length is undoubtedly the best, and a very
short one is not only unseemly, but also a very great
injury to the animal, as he is thus deprived of that
which nature intended as a switch, and as a substitute
for hands to drive off insects.

The operation of docking is performed at different
ages of the animal ; some consider it best to do it at
two years, while others think the earlier the better.
From what we have ourselves noticed, we coincide
with the latter opinion. At a fortnight it may be
done with perfect safety, and even sooner ; and it un-
questionably affects the foal less at this period than at
the age of two years.

The manner of performing the operation is to fix
upon a part of the tail, and having determined on that,
take the one next joint to it ; let the hair be turned
up and fastened with tape for an inch or two above
the joint, while that which grows upon the vertebra
itself must be cut off. The horse is then restrained
by the side line, and the surgeon now applies his
docking machine, and cuts it through at the division
between the vertebrae at one stroke. It is not un-
common for farmers and other breeders to perform the
operation with a sharp knife, resting the tail on a
board, and striking the back of the knife with a mallet
or hammer. Although considerable bleeding is caused
by this operation, there is no danger to be appre-
hended from it. To stop this in the speediest manner
is to sere the stump with a red-hot iron, with a hole

300 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

in its centre to prevent it from touching the bone,
which would cause exfoliation ; or, if severely injured,
it would fall off at the joint above, and thus shorten
the desired length of the tail. The bleeding vessels
are all on the outside of the bone. The iron must
not be too hot, nor much pressure applied to it,
neither should it be long continued. No kind of
dressing is required after this operation, but it should
be remembered that while docking is a simple and
generally safe operation, many horses have fallen
victims to the parasitic disease ''Tetanus," im-
mediately or shortly after being docked,

NICKING.

It is to be lamented that fashion has lonp^ held a
sway in promoting and maintaining this cruel opera-
tion, even in its simplest form. However, of late,
public taste has materially improved in this respect,
for the fashion at the present day is to have horses
with long switch tails, possessing much of that beauty
which nature wisely intended by the formation of that
organ ; as also, like that of other quadrupeds, to assist
him in turning when going at a rapid speed, as well
as to defend him from the attacks of numerous insects
with which he is constantly annoyed when in the
field.

We wish we could pass over the subject of this
barbarous operation without noticing how it is per-
formed, but as there are still persons so devoid of
taste and feeling as to approve of it, the work would
be necessarily imperfect without a description of the
operation.

We have given a figure of the skeleton of the
horse, Plate ii, and referred to it at page i6i. It
will be seen by a reference to these that the horse

NICKING 301

has eighteen dorsal vertebrae, or bones of the back
or spine, extending from figs. 14 to 14; besides five
lumbar in some subjects, and in others six, fig. 15,
there is a continuation of these called the sacrum,
which consist of five bones, which are separate in
the colt, but which become consolidated in the adult
animal. To the sacrum the bones of the upper and
side portion of the haunch, or pelvis, are strongly
articulated, so much so that they resemble a solid
mass rather than a joint. From the lower or outer
extremity of the sacrum, the bones of the tail emanate ;
these are fifteen in number, extending from figs. 16
to 16, and gradually diminishing in size towards the
point. The spinal-marrow extends to the extreme
tip, as well as the continuation of the arteries of the
sacrum. The setting on of the tail and its particular
character and curvature from the loins is much looked
to by those who are judges of horses, as from this
they discover the purity or impurity of the breed.
The line from the setting on of the tail ought to be
almost straight, or with a slight inclination down-
wards, as there is no surer test of a high-bred horse
than this character of tail.

The tail has three sets of muscles, the one for
raising it, Plate vii, fig. i, e, and another immediately
below for depressing it, and a third for giving it
lateral motion in every direction. When the animal
is at rest, the power of the lateral set of muscles
seems to predominate, as the tail is constantly
inclined downwards, resting upon the buttocks ; but
when energised the tail is carried higher, which gives
that spirited character to him when excited. It was
to convey this expression constantly that the operation
of nicking was devised ; therefore the depressor and
part of the lateral muscles are nicked through to a

302 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

greater or lesser degree, as the wish of the operator
may suggest to him, as to the height at which he
wishes the animal to carry his tail.

The operation is performed in the following
manner. The horse is cast, and the hair at the
point of the tail firmly tied together, so that a
weight may be afterwards attached to it. The tail
is then held firmly in the hand and lifted up, and
the exact central spot of one of the bones is ascer-
tained, and the muscle is divided deep with a very
sharp knife or scalpel from the edge of the tail to
the centre, and continuing the incision across the
bone of the tail, it is cut as deep as on the other
side. All this may be done with one rapid and steady
incision without lifting the scalpel. In a high-bred
horse this will be sufficient for the purpose ; for a
hunter two incisions are usually made, the second
being about two inches below the first, which should
also be as near as possible to the centre of one of
the vertebrae. In the hackney it has been the practice
to make three cuts, so as to make him carry his tail
still higher. Two cuts only are made in the tail of
a mare, and the second one is seldom deep. Any
of the fibres which may reach across the incision
must be cut off with a pair of curved scissors. Each
incision must now be filled with pledgets of tow, and
inserted deeply into the wounds ; and it must be
distinctly ascertained whether the muscles are cut
uniformly on each side, otherwise the animal will
carry its tail awry. They must be secured by a
bandage, but it must not be made too tight, as bad
consequences are likely to follow where this is done.
Indeed, if not loosened in the course of two or three
hours, intense inflammation and swelling will ensue,
and in all probability death may follow. In about

Fiyj. S

Fiq JO.

Fin /.'

hj/IBroxm

NICKING 303

twenty-four hours after the operation, the bandage
may be thrown aside and the wounds kept clean,
which is all that will be required.

The tail must be afterwards kept bent back for
some weeks until the wounds are healed ; because if
allowed to hang down, the edges of the cuts would
come in contact and soon reunite again. This is
accomplished by means of a cord from one to two
feet in length, which is attached to the hair at the
point of the tail, and this is affixed to another divided
cord, each division passing over a pulley on either
side of the back of the stall. To each extremity a
weight is suspended, sufficient to keep the cuts of the
tail open to the extent required ; but it is an act of
cruelty to hang too heavy weights to these, as the
smallest quantity beyond what is necessary inflicts
great pain on the animal. Some persons do not use
pulleys at all, but by keeping a slight girth on the
horse, attach a cord to the tail and pull it backwards.
However, whether the pulleys or simple cord are
made use of, the tail must be relieved from the
weight once or twice a day, and the horse exercised.
Ten days or a fortnight will be required to complete
the operation, as if too soon removed, the desired
elevation of the tail may not be effected.

It sometimes happens that great irritation and
inflammation take place in nicking, and even locked-
jaw has been brought on by it. When the first of
these ensue, the weight must be removed from the
tail, and the parts carefully fomented with warm
water, and gentle purgatives administered. When
locked-jaw has taken place, the joints of the tail
should be amputated at the first joint above the
highest nick.

CHAPTER XIII.
Of Breeding, Feeding, and Training Horses.

SECTION L— BREEDING.

The utmost attention should be paid in the selection
of brood-mares, because the progeny depends more
upon the dam than the horse, and the size and strength
of the foal will bear a considerable similitude to hers.
As a proof of this, we have found that those horses
that have been the produce of an Arabian stallion and
a mare, if she were large and well-formed, have not
resembled the horse in their stature. Up to the year
1829, only one Arabian horse had been brought to
Scotland, which was in the reign of Alexander I., who,
in the year 1131, presented to the Church of St
Andrew's an Arabian horse, furnished with costly
trappings ; this is the first that was brought to Great
Britain. In 1829, Capt. Home, of the Madras
Artillery, introduced a beautiful silver-grey horse,
called the Humdanieh Arabian. His height was
fourteen hands and a half — a size which the Edinburgh
breeders thought too small to be a good breeding
stallion, and refused to use him as such. Sir Robert
Keith Dick, Bart., however, who had been long in
India, was well aware of the fallacy of size being an
objection. He offered to keep him at Prestonfield and
breed from him. The first colt of his produce turned

BREEDING 305

out the largest that Sir Robert had ever bred. It is
an established axiom, that in general the produce
partakes of the qualities, or the mingled qualities of
both parents. Above all things, avoid breeding from
either a horse or mare which has any nervous disease,
as it is almost certain that the progeny will inherit it ;
and like diseases in the human race, if it does not show
itself in the first generation, it is more than probable
it will break out in the second ; so that breeders should
always know the history of both sire and dam. And
we again repeat, that however perfect the form of the
horse, these may be neutralised by a defective mare.
Wherever bad points appear in either the male or
female of animals the breeder is anxious to avoid, or,
on the other hand, keep up, from possessing some good
qualities and points, attention should be paid to put an
animal of the opposite sex to the other having those
points in a more perfect degree ; and it cannot be too
strongly impressed upon the mind that excellence on
the part of the mare is as essential as that of the horse :
for it very rarely happens that a good foal is produced
by a sorry mare.

We see what has been effected in Yorkshire and
other midland counties in breeding the larger-sized
cart-horses, by a strict attention to have both sire and
dam as perfect as possible in their form. Both parents
should be in full possession of their health and strength ;
and it is a great mistake to suppose that a mare can
be fit for breeding when incapacitated by disease for
work. Many suppose that because a mare is rendered
lame by accident, that she is nevertheless useful as a
brood-mare. This, however, is sometimes found to be
a mistake.

Breeding in and in, as it is termed, — that is,
forming a constant union of the same blood, is always

u

306 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

attended with bad results. However good both sire
and dam may be, if too closely allied, the progeny will
in all probability turn out weak, and become liable to
all those diseases to which delicate constitutions are
subject ; but where parties have a predilection to a
particular stock, these evil consequences may be
obviated by occasionally introducing fresh blood,
either by crossing with the sire or dam.

A good brood-mare should be selected with a rather
long carcase, so as to give sufficient room for the
growth of the fcetus ; at the same time she should be
compact in the make, and rather short than otherwise
in the leg ; while the stallion should be somewhat
opposite in his form, which ought invariably to be
short, with as many of the good points which we have
before enumerated contained within a small compass.
The inclination of the shoulder is also an essential
point to be attended to. A large stallion with upright
shoulders never got a good hunter or hackney ; but
for a draught-horse, this form to a limited extent is
desirable.

To secure a good and healthy progeny, youth on
the side of both sexes is very essential. Both ought
to be in the prime of life, and in full health. From
three to four years of age is a proper time to commence
breeding from a mare, but to begin sooner (unless the
animal is large and well fed), before their form has
assumed its full strength and vigour, cannot fail to
limit the growth of the mother and her progeny.
Mares that are little worked may be safely bred from
until they attain the age of eighteen or twenty, and
instances have occurred where they produced splendid
foals at twenty-seven years. But, on the contrary, if
hard worked, there is little chance of the progeny
being good.

BREEDING 307

The mare comes into heat early In the spring, and
generally goes with foal for eleven months, although
it not unfrequently happens that they vary, even so
much as from a month to six weeks, either earlier or
later. From the time which the mare is covered until
she foals, she may be moderately worked with safety,
and even with advantage to both parent and colt ; but
we would recommend for a week or two before foaling
that she should not be worked, but subjected to regular
daily and moderate exercise. The time can be pretty
nearly guessed from the time she was covered. About
a day before foaling an adhesive matter issues from
the teats of the mare, and after this she should on no
account be subjected to any sort of work, but allowed
to go at large, and constantly watched by some careful
person.

After the mare is about half advanced in pregnancy,
she should be well fed, and from one to two feeds of
oats given to her daily, as a greater quantity of nourish-
ment after this period is required for the support of the
foetus. If the system is allowed to become debilitated
from want of a supply of food to meet the Increased
demand, then there is a probability that her weakness
may lead to her proving abortive, to which mares are
more liable at this period than either before or after-
wards. There can be little doubt that good feeding
and moderate exercise will be most conducive to the
prevention of dropping a foetus ; but after this time
hard work must be avoided, and also galloping or
hard trotting. Should a mare once abort it is
extremely likely to happen afterwards. It is a fact
that where two or three mares in foal are on the same
pasture, if one aborts, the rest are very liable to the
same occurrence. It is therefore evident that as soon
as such a circumstance occurs, other mares that may

3o8 Manual of modern farriery

be in the same field should be removed to another
pasture.

If mares are in good health while in foal, there is
little danger of any mischance during parturition ;
but should any such occur, either as regards a diffi-
culty in parting with the foal or a wrong presentation,
recourse must instantly be had to a regular ex-
perienced veterinary surgeon, who, from practice, is
most likely to afford the necessary relief, and will
save the suffering animal pain, and frequently save
her life. Many fine mares have been lost, or rendered
useless, by unskilful persons attempting to afford relief.

It would be absurd in a limited treatise to attempt
laying down rules for enabling persons to perform
those duties successfully, which can only be acquired
by a lengthened course of study ; and which, conse-
quently, would far exceed our limits. Mares gener-
ally come in heat about the tenth day after foaling,
and thereafter every third week.

Whenever parturition has been accomplished, the
mare with her foal should be turned out into a
pasture, which ought always to have a shed to
retire to for shelter. If this happens to be early in
the spring, that is, in April, before the grass has
become sufficiently plentiful, then the mare should be
supplied with three feeds of oats daily ; otherwise
she will be unable to supply the foal with a sufficiency
of milk, a lack of which is sure to lay the foundation
of weakness, and in all probability arrest his growth,
as this is the most important time in the life of a
foal. In a week or two the foal will be able to take
crushed corn along with the mother. Bran and
shielings are also very fit food for both mother and
foal at this period ; but after grass grows more
plentifully, both kinds of food may be discontinued.

BREEDING 309

The foal may be weaned in five or six months,
as may be determined from its strength. This is
done by gradually withdrawing it from the use of
milk, and after lessening the quantity for a week or
two, it should be turned into a rick yard, where it
can have benefit of both food and shelter during bad
weather, and occasional draughts of meal and water
given to it. The mare, in the meantime, should be
put upon dryer food, so as to lessen the secretion of
milk, and a little harder work will have a tendency to
give a different action to the fluids, and thus diminish
the supply. Should it, however, prove troublesome,
a physic ball and one or two diuretic balls will be
found beneficial in that case.

After the foal has been separated from the dam,
he should be well fed until he has attained his full
growth. During the earlier stages, bruised oats,
bruised beans and pease, and also bran should form a
part of his daily food. This applies to all kinds of
colts, whether racers, hunters, draught, or saddle
kinds. During the time foals are sucking, the
greatest caution is necessary not to overheat the dams,
as this is sure to affect the milk, and proves most
injurious to the colt.

To save the heavy expense of corn-feeding in
young horses, clover, lucerne, and tares, are substi-
tuted ; carrots have also been successfully used. But
no species of food is so nourishing as pease, half a
feed of which is about equal to a feed of oats. Young
horses should invariably be plentifully fed ; and a
want of attention to this has been the cause of many
of them acquiring the practice of biting their racks,
and thence called crib-biters. To prevent this practice,
a little hay or straw should be constantly kept in the
rack.

3IO MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

SECTION II.— FEEDING.

Hay and oats being the chief food of horses, it is
highly necessary that the owner should be, at least,
a tolerable judge of their quality. The best kind of
hay for horses is that which grows on upland
meadows. It should be bright in its appearance, of
a greenish cast, possessing a fragrant smell, and not
too dry ; for when it is so, and crackles when squeezed
in the hand, it is a sure sign that its nutritive
qualities have been dissipated by too long exposure
to the sun and air after it has been cut. It would,
however, be proper occasionally to vary the quality
of hay by giving white clover and also rye-grass in
limited quantities. Care must be taken that it is not
too new, as in that state it is apt to produce acidity
and flatulence. Twelve pounds of hay is sufficient
for any ordinary-sized horse per day, with eight
pounds of oats and two of beans. The cart or
agricultural horse will require about twelve pounds
of oats, with two of beans, added to eighteen pounds
of chaff or hay, but where the hours are long and the
loads heavy, a larger quantity of grain will be
required to keep the animal in fair condition. The
horse having consumed the above quantity of food,
requires none during the night, and it would be
proper to keep his rack without hay, but where the
animal has long hours of work during the day he
must have a quantity of long hay to eat during the
night.

Some horses which are greedy feeders swallow
their pease and oats without being properly chewed,
and much of both pass through the stomach and
intestines without undergoing much change ; indeed,
this is the case to a certain extent with all horses ;

FEEDING 3 I I

the consequence is, that the animal is deprived of
their nutritive qualities. Horses which do not chew
their food, can easily be detected by examining their
dung, when it will be found to contain much grain in
its perfect condition. When this is the case, the
grain and pulse should be bruised, and also mixed
with a portion of chaff, or cut hay and straw, which
he cannot swallow without chewing. Besides deriving
all the benefit of the nutritive qualities of the food,
the animal is prevented from bolting his food too
quickly and overloading his stomach, and rendering
him unfit for being used immediately after feeding,
as we have already explained when treating of the
stomach, page 243. Slow feeding is of much im-
portance, because in the lengthened process a greater
portion of saliva is carried into the stomach with
the food, which materially assists in the process of
digestion.

Machines have been constructed for cutting hay
into chaff Meadow hay, clover, wheat, barley, and
oat straw are cut into pieces of a little more than half
an inch in length, and the whole well incorporated,
and the proportional quantity of bruised oats and
beans added, and measured out at meal-times to the
animal. If the chaff is slightly wetted immediately
before feeding, the horse is enabled easier to chew it.
With some horses the bruised grain produces scour-
ing ; when this is the case, it must of course be
given whole, but this very rarely happens with
bruised grain when mixed with chaff, as we have
above recommended. Horses that are driven rapidly
in harness are more liable to be purged with bruised
grain than those of slow draught ; and it has been
found that diminishing the proportion of straw-chaff,
and increasing the quantity of hay in the proportion

312 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

of two trusses of hay to one of straw, has had the
effect of obviating this. For horses which are used
as hunters, the quantity of oats must be materially
increased, as affording a substantial meal of consider-
ably less bulk, and consequently does not distend the
stomach so as to press upon the lungs, and thereby
impede the process of breathing, as it will be seen
by an examination of our figures, i, 2, and 3 of Plate
IX, that these organs lie close to each other. It must
be understood that the same applies to the race-horse
as well as the hunter.

Horses which are accustomed to bruised grain and
chaff, become so fond of it that they prefer it to the
oats or beans alone. We cannot too strongly impress
upon the owners of horses the danger of feeding them
on either grain or hay which has become musty, as
either are almost certain to induce disease ; and
although no particular complaint is manifested, the
horse is sure to fall off in condition. One great
advantage in manger-feeding is that the horse when
returning from a fatiguing journey or hard gallop, is
sooner enabled to fill his stomach and lie down. If
the rack is used, it takes from two to three hours to
eat his fill, whereas a little more than an hour will
suffice with bruised grain and chaff, which gives him
so much more additional time to rest, which is of vast
importance to such horses as are used in mail and
stage-coaches.

When small farmers or others unfortunately possess
musty grain, the smell will to a considerable extent be
removed by kiln-drying it ; but in this process great
care must be taken not to overheat it, which renders
it unpalatable to the horse, and more heating in its
nature, producing an increased discharge of urine as
well as diseases of the skin, and is apt to induce

FEEDING 3 1 3

inflammation of the eyelids and of the ball of the
eye.

Horses that have been fed all winter on dry food
will receive much benefit by being turned out in the
spring, when the grass has become luxuriant ; or when
this is inconvenient, cut grass may be given to him in
the stable. The use of green tares will also be found
very beneficial. Green food is certain to purge the
animal, and that in a moderate degree, which carries
off all the evil effects of constant feeding on hard
meat.

Wheat is too expensive to be used as food for horses
in Great Britain, and it is only when damaged that
farmers think of applying it for this purpose. Although
wheat contains a large portion of nutrition, it is not
by any means desirable as food for a horse, as it has
a tendency to form obstructions in the bowels by
becoming caked ; and besides, it is difficult of digestion.
This has been found to be especially the case when
they are watered soon after feeding ; for the water,
flowing quickly through the stomach and small in-
testines in its passage to the caecum, or blind-gut,
carries off with it all the gelatinous substance of the
grain, and leaves the more indissoluble mass behind,
and the masses thereby formed have often caused the
death of the horse. A small portion of hay should be
given along with wheat.

Beans are an excellent and nutritious food, but
should never be given whole when dried, as their skin
being so very hard the horse swallows many of them
whole, or drops others.

Pease are still more nutritive than beans ; but
should never be given unbruised, being difficult to
grind by the horse, in consequence of their round form.
They are frequently swallowed quite whole by the

314 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

horse, and when an undue quantity has been given,
the most injurious consequences have happened to the
animals, especially if much water is given soon after
being fed with them.

On the Continent, barley is a common food of the
horse. It contains more nourishment than oats ; yet
it does not seem so well adapted for the food of the
horse as oats, except where the animals are hard
worked. It has been found that horses fed on barley
are more liable to be affected with complaints of an
inflammatory character, and likewise to surfeit and
other skin diseases. In Britain, farmers have been
known to feed their horses on unsound and unsaleable
barley, which in many instances has produced serious
maladies. In the form of mashes, barley is found to
be advantageous, from its stimulating properties ; but
we certainly do not approve of it as a general food.

Tares are valuable In their green state in the early
part of summer, as they possess medicinal properties,
as well as being very nutritive. In the event of horses
having surfeit-lumps, green tares to the extent of ten
or twelve pounds daily, cut up and mixed with the
chaff, will be found to remove them very quickly.

It has been satisfactorily proved that tares have
not the effect of producing a rough coat, although this
opinion still exists with many persons.

Carrots form an excellent food for the horse when
mixed with the chaff In the proportion of half-a-bushel
a day, and excluding the oats and beans. With this
quantity, or not exceeding three quarters of a bushel,
horses will stand any quantity of work.

Swedish turnips are a tolerably nutritive food, and
very easy of digestion. Twenty pounds of sliced
turnip, to twelve pounds of bruised oats and six pounds
of straw, forms an excellent meal for a horse.

FEEDING 3 1 5

Nothing contributes more to the health of a
horse than feeding regularly, and at fixed intervals.
As his digestion is very rapid, he should be regularly
fed. When kept long without food, the horse is apt
to take his meal too rapidly, and by distending the
stomach produce tympanitis and rupture.

That the food may be well ground down to prepare
it for digestion, it must be previously moistened. The
horse is fed in a stable on dry food. In the vicinity
of the mouth are placed the parotid and submaxillary
salivary glands, destined to secrete abundantly a
limpid fluid of a saltish taste. This fluid (estimated
to be secreted at the rate of eighty-four pounds in
twenty-four hours) is conducted into the mouth by
various ducts while the animal is chewing his food ;
and being mixed with it, assists in making it more
easily ground and conducted into the stomach, and
better prepared for digestion.

Sometimes horses are afllicted with inflammation
of the stomach from having eaten poisonous plants,
although this is of rare occurrence.

The deleterious plants of this country which affect
the horse are but few. The common hemlock, and
water-hemlock, which prove a deadly poison to many
other animals, are eaten with impunity by the horse.

Water-parsley, if not eaten in too large quantities,
will not act as a poison ; but if much is consumed, will
produce palsy.

Water-dropwort is poisonous, but is generally
rejected by horses ; although instances have occurred
of mares in foal having died from eating it.

But of all the vegetable poisons, yew is the most
to be guarded against, as horses are very apt to
eat its leaves. When eaten it produces great sleepiness,
from which it is hardly possible to rouse the animal ;

3l6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

and that is only for short intervals, for he soon relapses
into a torpid state, and dies without manifesting pain.
The remedy to be tried is the following : — Give ten
grains of the farina of the croton-nut whenever it is
known the horse has eaten yew-leaves ; then a drink
of half-a-pint of vinegar, mixed with a pint of gruel.
Repeat the croton every six hours until it operates.

OF DRINK.

Nothing is of greater importance than the quantity
of water which is given to a horse as drink. Accus-
tomed for the most part to dry food, water is indispens-
able to nourishment and health. Its quality, too, is of
vast importance. Mr Lawrence, in his treatise entitled
''The Horse," makes the following remarks, which
convey all we can say upon this point —

** It has frequently been observed, and not easily
accounted for, that horses do not thrive on changing
from one part of the country to another, although their
treatment in every respect be the same, difference of
water excepted. This perhaps may, in a great measure,
be owing to the quality of the water they drink, and
which may be possessed of different chemical properties
from that to which they had before been accustomed.

" This is particularly observed in those places
where the stable-yards are supplied from pit-wells,
some of which are very deep, and the water very hard,
which occasions that chilliness, trembling, and shaking
which is frequently observed in horses when they drink
it immediately after it is new pumped, and which causes
their coats to stare and stand on end for a considerable
time, and sometimes they are griped, and much out
of order. Spring-water is liable to partake of all the
metallic or mineral properties of the strata through
which it passes ; hence it becomes noxious or salutary

OF DRINK 317

according to the nature of those substances with which
it has been in contact. River-water has, likewise, its
different qualities, from the various soils through which
it travels ; but, in general, it is much softer than water
that runs underground. Pond-water (under which
head may be included all stagnant water, which
generally proceeds from rain), if lying on a clear and
clayey bottom, and fresh, answers well for cattle of all
kinds ; but in warm weather it is apt to corrupt and
ferment, which renders it unwholesome and unfit for
use."

To correct the hardness of pit-water, and render it
more salutary for horses to drink, it should be pumped
into a large trough, and exposed to the open air for
some time before it is used ; or if a cart-load or two
of clay or chalk be thrown into the well, it will greatly
improve the water. It has likewise been found that
breaking down a piece of clay, about the size of an
apple, in a pailful of hard water, before it is given to
a horse to drink, morning and evening, has produced
a considerable change in their coats.

Indeed, it will be found where horses are obliged to
drink hard water, they are for the most part rough-
haired, and at the same time have a great deal of
dusty matter at the roots of their coats, even though
they are well curried and brushed every day ; from
which we infer this is occasioned by the bad quality of
the water they drink.

In cases where stagnant water can only be pro-
cured in summer, unslacked lime will materially im-
prove it ; but ground charcoal will render even the
most impure water sweet and wholesome.

When horses are warm, they should never be
allowed more than a few mouthfuls of water ; neither
should they be permitted to drink too freely while on

3l8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

a journey, or while they are subjected to any active
employment. But when they have cooled, two or
three quarts may be given to them, and after that
their feed. Before finishing their corn, two or three
quarts more may be offered them.

If horses refuse their food after travelling, it is a
bad sign of them, as a healthy and vigorous animal
will always feed well after he is properly cooled down
and has had a drink ; and when horses do refuse their
food on a journey, they ought not to be again made
to travel that day, or at least for some considerable
time afterwards, and not until they have taken their
feed.

Horses will invariably, If left to themselves, prefer
soft to hard water, and when cool may be allowed to
drink their fill, and no evil will result therefrom.
Instinct or experience has taught them this ; they will
leave crystalline hard water, and resort to soft, how-
ever turbid it may be.

Horses kept in the stable should be watered in
summer at least three times a day ; and if this salutary
advice be attended to, many of the diseases to which
they are liable will be prevented. Horses subjected
to hard labour require a great deal of drink to supply
that moisture which is thrown off by perspiration, and
the poor animals but too frequently suffer much from
a want of due attention to this. Let any one observe
how eagerly a horse plunges his muzzle into a pail of
water, and with what difficulty he can be removed
from it while a drop remains, and he will be able to
judge of the thirst which he must have suffered. If
they are allowed a moderate quantity of water while
warm, they must not be permitted to stand still for
some time afterwards, otherwise very bad consequences
may follow ; and nothing is so likely irreparably to

TRAINING 319

injure the wind of a horse, as to gallop him immedi-
ately after drinking ; but a little, taken at intervals,
will not harm him. If horses are allowed to drink
freely when overheated, and remain quiet, violent
spasms, inflammation, and sudden death is likely to
ensue.

SECTION III.— TRAINING.

Training should be commenced as soon as the colt
is taken from the mare, and, as before hinted at, he
should be placed under the care of a man of a mild
and gentle disposition. Kind treatment and caresses
are the only sure methods to obtain obedience, attach-
ment, and confidence in man. This maxim should be
applied to horses even of the most stubborn temper,
for assuredly if gentle measures will not render them
obedient, harsh treatment never will. In short, most
of the vices in horses may be traced to their being
early entrusted to the care of persons of brutal disposi-
tions, who destroy their temper by cruelty and inju-
dicious severitv. Others aofain are tauofht all manner
of tricks for the gratification of idle folly. Tracta-
bility, steadiness, and good temper, are the qualities
for which a horse is chiefly valuable to man ; so that
the utmost attention should be paid by breeders to
points on which depend so much of the safety and
comfort of those who may become their owners. In-
deed, gentle treatment has been more effectual in
taming wild animals than any other.

Much difference of opinion prevails as to the time
which horses ought to be worked. My unalterable
belief is, that at three years is the earliest period at
which a horse should be used either for the turf,
hunting, the road, or harness ; consequently breaking-
in should not be completed until after the second

320 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

winter, although, of course, it ought to be gone about
gradually from his weaning. A bit should be selected
with a plain snaffle, that will not hurt his mouth, and
it ought to be of a small size, in the centre of which
should be attached a stabbering-bit, which, resting
gently upon the tongue, excites the horse to move his
jaws, and prevents him from pressing too heavily upon
it, as this would deaden and harden the mouth, which
is one of the worst faults a horse can have. He
should be accustomed to the use of it in his mouth for
some days before the hand of the trainer is applied to
it. He ought then to be led out, and gently checked
by it when he is getting too playful, until by degrees
he will bear its control without manifesting irritation.

After the colt has thus been partially broken-in, the
next thing to teach him is implicit obedience to his in-
structor. This should be effected by steadiness and
firmness, while severity should be carefully avoided.
He should be spoken to in a soothing, rather than an
angry tone of voice. He must be taught to know the
effect of the whip and spur, but their uses must be
administered with much caution ; and only showing
him that we have the power of enforcing submission.

If a young horse refuses to allow the bit to be
placed in his mouth, it must not be attempted to ac-
complish it by force, because this will only redouble
the resistance. Coaxing and gentle trials day after
day will be the quickest means of accomplishing the
object. When it has been effected, then kindness
should be shown him, and caresses used. A head-
stall is now put on him, and a cavesson is then afifixed
to it, with long reins. The cavesson is an apparatus
intended to confine and pinch the nose ; but this being
a powerful and severe instrument, it should be used
gently. Instances have been known of the bones and

TRAINING 321

gristle of the nose becoming diseased from harshly
pulling the cavesson. He must first be taught to
obey the action of the rein, and after he has become
obedient to it, he must next be led round a ring on
soft ground. To the cavesson is attached a small rope
or cord, which is held by the breaker, and the colt is
first led round the circle at a walk. When he has
acquired his paces, and become obedient to this action,
he should then be trotted round the circle, but at an
easy rate, and only for a short time at once. When
stopped, he should be caressed. He should be accus-
tomed to go both to the right and left. If any cir-
cumstance occurs which may frighten a young horse,
and he refuses to proceed in consequence, another
horse ought to be led on before him, and he is almost
certain to follow. At first the circles should be large,
and gradually diminished ; because small ones are apt
to produce giddiness and too much fatigue at first.
In performing those revolutions, he should be fre-
quently stopped by the trainer, and pulled up to him
gently, to show him that no injury is intended, and he
ought to be caressed at the same time. The cord
should be long and loose ; his paces all regular and
correct, and if he gets false in these, he should be at
once stopped, and recommenced. Should he become
restive or frolicsome, let the person who holds the
whip crack it to show him he is there, but upon no
account should he touch the horse with it ; or if he
stands still and plunges or rears, the whip should be
cracked, and only ought to be applied gently to him,
when he absolutely refuses to proceed. When the
trainer changes the direction of the colt, he should in-
variably be stopped, and each time be enticed to ap-
proach, which will have the effect of accustoming him
to have confidence in his attendant or groom, always

X

32 2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

caressing him when obedient ; and whatever gait he is
performing, on no account allow him to depart from it,
as it is only by strict attention to the action wanted
that he will learn to be correct in his paces. If he
happens to hold his head too low, shake the cavesson,
to remind him to raise it ; but be sure always to
adopt one mode of directing his attention to any
particular thing required. All his lessons should
be short, the pace should be kept distinct and
perfect in each, and he should be rewarded for atten-
tion and obedience by handfuls of corn and caresses.
When the colt becomes tractable and obedient in all
his lessons, crupper-straps, or something similar,
should be attached to his clothing to accustom him to
it, that he may not be afterwards tickled and become
restive by the rider's coat-tails. A few days will suffice
to make him endure this patiently, because when he
finds that he suffers no harm from them, he soon
becomes reconciled to them.

The regular riding-bit should now be applied to
his mouth. It ought to be large and smooth, to which
should be attached the reins, buckled to a ring on
either side of the pad. The reins ought to be flat and
allowed to be slack, and gradually tightened. The
trainer should occasionally stand in front of the animal,
and take hold of each side-rein near to the mouth,
gently press upon it, and thus begin to teach him to
back and stop by the pressure of the rein, always re-
warding obedience, but gently punishing him by a
slight jerk when obstinate.

The colt should now be taken to the street, or road,
and led about, to accustom him to meet carts and
other objects without starting and shying ; but if he
does start or shy, he should not be allowed to pass on,
but ought to be quietly led up to the object of his

TRAINING 323

fear, and shown that it will not harm him. But on no
account should he be beaten on such occasions. And
should he be still shy, let him be taken past the object
of his fear, first at a greater distance, and then nearer,
until he may be quietly led close to it. It is only by
patience on the part of the breaker that these diffi-
culties are got the better of; whereas if the animal is
forcibly and suddenly taken up to the object before the
fear has subsided, a habit may be established, which
will never afterwards be eradicated. Nothing can be
more absurd than to beat even an adult and thorough-
trained horse for shying. This is certain to establish
rather than remove the fault. The same system
should be adopted with an aged horse, as recom-
mended for the colt, and this I have found effectual in
every case. The best horse is liable occasionally to
shy at a white post, or other object which he may
suddenly come upon, especially in the evening or in
the dark ; but on no account should the rider proceed
on his journey without quietly and deliberately leading
up his horse to the object, and allowing him to see
what it is.

When the colt has been inured to walking on a
road or street, and will pass any object that may be
presented without shying, the breaker should then
walk by his side, throw his right arm over his back,
while he holds the reins in his left. The breaker
must invariably walk by the left side of the animal, so
that he may be thoroughly accustomed to permit him
to approach on that side, which is the one universally
adopted for mounting. The pace should now be occa-
sionally quickened, and at the same time the colt should
be gently tapped on the right side with the whip, which
ought always to be held in the right hand. This being
repeated at each time the pace is quickened, will

324 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

familiarise the animal to it, and will associate in his
mind the increased action required by such a signal.
Horses in general have excellent memories, and
seldom forget what they are taught. If, however, the
colt does not attend to the gentle tap, a sharper one
may be applied, and the feeling of pain exerted as a
monitor to increased action. These lessons must be
repeated until the animal is reduced to perfect
obedience.

The next thing to be attended to is to apply
the saddle, which should be put on his back with
great caution. The breaker should place himself at
the head of the colt, and by caresses and patting
divert his attention. Let one assistant on the off side
put the saddle gently on his back, while another on
the near side gets hold of the girths, and slowly
tightens them. They ought to be but loosely drawn
at first, only to such an extent as to prevent the
saddle from turning round. If a crupper is used, it
ought to be sufficiently long to prevent it from galling
the tail. He should then be led about with the saddle
on his back for at least a couple of days, the trainer
occasionally leaning his arm as heavily as possible.
The girths during this time must be gradually
tightened, until that firmness is acquired which is
necessary when a man is mounted on his back. If
the previous process of breaking has been effectually
accomplished, he will generally submit to all this
quietly, if done with caution. On or about the third
day the trainer must then attempt to mount. At
first two assistants will be absolutely necessary. His
first business will be to remain at the head of the
animal, patting and caressing him, while the person
who intends to mount must first pull the left or near
stirrup pretty heavily with both hands, while the man

TRAINING 325

on the off side presses equally on the other stirrup ;
and after having repeated this several times, the
person on the near side must put his left foot into
the stirrup, and gradually apply pressure to it, the
man on the off side pressing on the other stirrup-
leather as before, until the colt will endure the whole
weight of the rider, mounted, and leaning his hands
upon the saddle ; and if the animal proves very re-
fractory, no further attempt must be made at that
time. If this is in the morning, the same course
may be pursued in the evening, and by repeating
twice a day, it may be fairly mounted in about two
days. During this operation, a handful of corn
should be occasionally given to the colt.

After the colt has been fairly accustomed to the
rider balancing himself in the stirrup, and has become
docile under it, the rider may gently throw his right
leg over the saddle, and quietly seat himself, taking
care that he has a firm hold of the reins in case the
horse should plunge and attempt to throw him
off. But if he submits to it with little resistance, the
breaker will then gently and slowly lead him round
the ring, while he is followed by a man with a whip,
as in the early part of his training — the rider sits
quite still. He will then endeavour to direct the
horse round the ring by means of the reins, which
must be done by as gentle pressure as possible, while
he frequently pats the animal on the neck and en-
courages him to proceed. When he intends to
dismount, it must be done slowly and with much
caution, and the colt should be given some corn or
green meat to encourage him to obedience. Mount-
ing and dismounting should now be frequently
practised for a day or two, but he ought not to
be much exercised during this operation. When

326 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

he has become quite reconciled to this, the rider
must now apply pressure with his legs, and also
a gentle touch of the heels when he desires to
quicken his pace, which will finish the process of
training.

All this accomplished, rewards must be gradually
withdrawn, and obedience instilled by gentle and kind
treatment, which in most instances is all that is
required. But should the colt at any time become
obstinate and resist the commands of his rider, the
whip and the spur must be applied to enforce
obedience. These means, however, should be very
sparingly used, for whenever he finds that he must
yield to the power of his rider, he will seldom attempt
to disobey him ; but on a recurrence of restiveness,
soothing should first be attempted to restrain him,
which in most cases will have the effect ; firmness
and gentleness are more likely to prove effectual than
cruelty and harshness. Few horses are naturally
vicious.

The above is applicable to a horse that is to be
used for riding, we come now to those means best
adapted for fitting him to endure harness and the
draught. At first, portions of the harness should
only be placed upon him, and then blind-winkers,
and in a few days the whole trappings. He should
then be put into the shafts of an empty cart or
waggon ; and the better to teach him to draw,
another horse may be placed before, and there is
little danger but he will soon be taught to follow,
gentle patting alone being used to encourage him.
He should then be tried alone, and if he works, then
a little weight may be added, and increased by
degrees, until he will draw a full load. The horses
used in agriculture will frequently be required for

TRAINING 327

riding, and if they have not been regularly broken-
in, as we have directed, before putting them in
harness, their feeder should be put on their backs
while they are in the team, and it is seldom they will
resist his continuing to ride.

We would caution all those who ride horses
occasionally used in harness, to keep a firm bridle-
hand, that is, to feel the mouth constantly ; because
they are accustomed to depend for support on the
wheel-carriage, and thus have a tendency to lean
forward, and hence are very apt to stumble and
come down upon the road.

We shall not attempt to give directions for train-
ing the higher bred blood-horses for carriages and
the turf This can only be effectually accomplished
by persons whose entire profession it is. To those
unaccustomed to it, the attempt is at best a hazardous
undertaking.

CHAPTER XV.
Of Stabling, Exercise, Clothing, Etc.

THE STABLE.

A PROPERLY constructed and well-regulated stable is
of the utmost importance. All proprietors of horses
ought to give much attention to this subject, as for
want of a thorough acquaintance with, and care as
regards it, many of the diseases incidental to horses
have their origin. A stable ought to be built in a
dry situation, roomy, high in the roof, and well aired,
without, however, having a great draught passing
through it ; but when the horses are out, the stable
doors and windows should be thrown wide open, and
allowed to remain so as long as they are abroad.
But nothing is worse than to allow the wind to blow
directly upon the horse, or a cross-draught of any
kind. Grooms, however, are too prone to go to the
other extreme, and in general allow the stable to
become too warm, and block up with the utmost care
every place where air is admitted. Some practice
this from an erroneous opinion that they should be
kept very warm, while too many do so that the
animals may have a fine shining coat. By this in-
judicious practice, the air becomes contaminated with
the unwholesome vapour generated from the litter
and urine, which produces a strong exhalation of
ammoniacal gas. This being breathed for a length

THE STABLE 329

of time, has a pernicious effect upon the lungs of the
horses ; digestion is impaired, and all the vital
functions injured. Inflammation of the eyes, chronic
cough, with a host of concomitant ailments, are the
consequences of inhaling this deteriorated and semi-
poisonous vapour. Let any person enter a stable
in the morning which is not properly ventilated, and
he will be sensibly alive to the pungent smell, and
even pain in the eyes, produced by the vitiated atmos-
phere. The chemical action of the urine commences
soon after it is voided. It is from this cause that
horses are but too frequently attacked with distempers
in the spring of the year, or in autumn. This is,
however, seldom the case in small well-regulated
stables. In short, I have gone into many stables
where their heat induced copious perspiration in a
few minutes, This must have a strong effect upon
the skin of the horse, and especially if his clothing is
on ; and when strapped and suddenly taken to the
open air thus overheated, induces coughs and other
diseases in the mucous membrane, as well as inflam-
mation in the kidneys and lungs ; and should the
weather be cold, rheumatism and stiffness in the
joints, because horses are frequently allowed to stand
for some time before they are put in motion, and
are in consequence chilled. It also too frequently
happens that carriage or cart-horses are allowed to
stand an hour or more in harness after they have
been overheated by severe exercise or labour. This
is the reason why such horses seldom live to be aged,
and too frequently die in the prime of life. The
horses of stage and hackney coaches seldom live
beyond the age of eight or nine years, and this is
chiefly owing to the carelessness of their drivers and
grooms ; whereas horses have been known to acquire

S30 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

a very great age when they are looked after with
that care which so valuable and useful an animal
requires. A remarkable example of this occurred in
Warrington, where a horse attained the extraordinary
age of seventy-six years, and was well known by the
name of Old Billy. As far as I have been able to
learn, this was the oldest horse which ever lived, and
may hence be considered the Parr among horses.
He belonged to the Mersey and Irwell Navigation
Company, and more than half his life has been spent
in towing boats. The Company, for many of his
last years, on account of his great age, kept him
without working. In summer he grazed on the
luxuriant pasture on the banks of the Mersey, and
in winter was taken into stable and fed on mashes
and soft food. When he died, the Company had
his head preserved, the skin stuffed, and the cranium
cleaned, and presented it to the Museum of the
Manchester Natural History Society, where it is still
to be seen.

Few people are aware that after a horse has been
worked hard or galloped, that his return to a hot
stable is nearly as dangerous as subjecting him to a
cold atmosphere from a warm stable. Many a horse
has been seized with inflammation and fever after
having been worked and returned to a hot stable,
filled with the noxious gas above alluded to, and
more especially if he was cold at the time. Nothing
is worse than the sudden change from one tempera-
ture to another. From this thousands of horses
yearly meet their death.

Stables should never be built longer than with
accommodation for five or six horses, as repose after
working is of vital importance ; and where there are
many together, it is more than probable that some

THE STABLE 33 I

will be awake while the others are asleep, and disturb
them.

The dimensions of a stable, in proportion to the
number of horses, is a most important point. A stable
for six horses should be from thirty-eight to forty feet
in length, from thirteen to fifteen feet wide, and about
twelve feet in height. It is always of consequence to
have the roof of a stable plastered, whether there is a
hay loft above it or not. This will prevent currents
of air from passing through the floor There should
always be a few central tiles to allow the hot air to
escape and give place to that which is pure and cold.
These tiles should be furnished with protecting ledges,
to prevent the rain from entering ; or, what is perhaps
better, large tubes should be carried through the roof,
with caps a little way above them, to prevent the rain
from beating in, A third plan is to have gratings
placed high in the walls. These last ought to be as
near the roof as possible, and shut and opened by a
cover, as occasion requires.

In summer and autumn the stable ought never to
be more than a few degrees warmer than the atmos-
phere. In winter not more than fifteen degrees,
because the hair is thicker at this season than in
summer.

If the hay is kept in a loft over the stable, there
should be no holes over the racks for throwing down
the hay, as by these openings foul air will be carried
up to the hay, and render it unwholesome. And
besides, it not unfrequently happens that seeds fall
down into the eyes of the horse, and occasion serious
inflammation in them.

While the floor of the stalls should be so con-
structed that the urine will be speedily carried off, yet
a little reflection will show that the practice of making

33^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

them gradually slope from the stall to the outside Is
very prejudicial to the horse, and too frequently the
cause of lameness by straining the back sinews. Mr
Lawrence justly remarks, that '' If the reader will
stand for a few minutes with his toes higher than his
heels, the pain he will feel In the calves of his legs will
soon convince him of the truth of this remark. Hence,
when a horse Is not eating, he always endeavours to
find his level, either by standing across the stall, or
else as far back as his halter will perrnit, so that his
hind legs may meet the ascent of the other side of the
channel."

This sloping direction of the floor of the stall Is
also a frequent cause of contraction of the heels, by
throwing too great a proportion of the weight upon
the toes of the foot, and removing that pressure which
tends most to keep the heels open. It must there-
fore be evident that the floor should slant no more
than is absolutely necessary to drain off the urine
sufficiently quick to prevent chemical action taking
place. This Is the kind of stall most suitable for
mares, but for horses It should be constructed with a
grating In the centre, and an Inclination of the floor
on every side towards the middle. This should be
carried off to the outside by means of a small drain
and lodged in a reservoir, as urine Is a valuable ac-
quisition to the farmer. To prevent an offensive smell
or current of air passing through the drains, cheap
traps have been invented to stop the grating. I have
lately seen stables constructed with the patent wooden
pavement, which answers many good purposes ; it is
much warmer for the feet, and at the same time softer^
and entirely free from noise.

Some persons Imagine that the horse should not
stand on litter during the day, because the heat which

THE STABLE 333

it produces may prove injurious to the hoof of the
horse. I imagine that little injury will result from
standing all day on litter, providing it be dry and not
so deep as entirely to cover the hoof. It is quite
certain that standing on litter must be much more
comfortable to the horse than on cold, hard stones,
and we therefore recommend its adoption.

Farmers are in the practice of using the haum of
peas, beans, and potatoes, as well as heath. But we
would have them to recollect that they must be much
oftener changed than straw, as they soon begin to
ferment, and consequently the gas emanating from
them is noxious ; and besides, the heated litter proves
injurious to the feet. We cannot too strongly impress
upon farmers and others the great impropriety of
allowing an accumulation of litter in their stalls and
stables. Some are in the practice of nightly heaping
fresh straw or other materials over that of the preced-
ing day, instead of having it removed. It is sure to be
hurtful to the animal from the reasons we have above
stated.

Before closing this subject, we must state our entire
disapprobation of double-headed stables, that is,
having a range of stalls along each wall, with the rear
of the horses standing towards each other. It too
frequently happens in inns that from want of room
these stables are so narrow that the hind legs of
horses are too near each other, and serious injury is
often done by kicking. Many fine horses have been
rendered lame for life, and even have had their legs
broken, from the kicks of quarrelsome horses. If it is
absolutely necessary that such a construction must be
adopted, then there ought to be at least a free passage
of about eight feet. Every stall should be at least
six feet wide, and ought always to be divided by

334 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

a boarded partition as high as the back of the
horse.

MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET.

The feet of a horse should be examined with great
care every morning, for the purpose of ascertaining, in
the first place, if the shoes are all firm, and that none
of the clenches are raised, which might wound the
limbs. A worn shoe is also liable to press on the sole
or heel, and prove injurious.

One of the first things to be attended to after a
horse has come off a journey, or has ceased from his
day's labour, is that his heels should be thoroughly
brushed out. If an agricultural or cart-horse, it will
be better to apply the hand than washing, as the long
hair with which the heels are generally invested will
take a considerable time to dry, especially during
winter, which may occasion grease. The feet should
then be stopped, after the picker has been used to
remove all stones or clay between the hoofs and shoes.
With other horses, the feet may be washed w4th a
brush. The shoes should be removed at least once a
month.

LIGHT.

It is surprising that in many parts of the country,
farmers' stables, and indeed those of other individuals,
have no other light than probably what is admitted by
a few panes of glass over the door ; or some have an
open window closed by a shutter, which is only occa-
sionally opened. To this cause may be attributed
many of the diseases to which the eyes of horses are
liable, and ultimately blindness itself. It is easy to
imagine what the animal must feel, and the conse-
quences which are likely to be the result, from our own

LIGHT 335

painful and giddy sensations on issuing from a dark
place to the full blaze of the noonday sun, or even
when a candle is introduced, after sitting for some
time in a dark room. A repetition of this several
times during the day would inevitably be attended with
most injurious consequences, from the sudden shock
it gives to the optic nerve, and the vessels of the
retina. Besides, it may produce inflammation in the
coating of the eye, which may end in the total de-
struction of the organ. There can be little doubt but
horses that are liable to start at objects, frequently
owe this dangerous quality to the cause above alluded
to.

A stable ought to be as well lighted as a house, so
that this source of injury may be avoided, and also on
account of all parts of it being properly seen, so that
masters may be enabled to detect a want of due atten-
tion to cleanliness, a subject which we cannot too often
impress upon masters and servants.

In stables which have a due quantity of light, the
shutters may be partially closed when the animals
have fed properly, and lie down to sleep. Many
horses stand too long upon their limbs, and therefore
this subdued light is more apt to produce drowsiness,
and thus incline him to repose, during which time the
food is well-known to have the most salutary effect in
increasing the muscular fibre, and the cellular and
adipose substances.

While we have shown the utility of a well-lighted
stable, we would guard our readers against allowing
that part of the wall next the head of the horse being
too light ; because the refraction of the rays of light
constantly beaming into the eye will stimulate the
nerve too much, and is apt to produce exhaustion of
energy in the optic nerve and retina. If the stable is

2,^6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

well provided with windows, the walls should be
painted of some subdued tone of colour ; and when
otherwise, white should be used.

EXERCISE.

This with the horse, as with man himself, is of
paramount importance for the preservation of health.
A horse kept in a stable ought to be exercised for two
hours regularly each day, without which he will never
be fit for work, as he will suffer more from absolute
idleness than hard labour. The quantity of exercise
should be regulated according to the age of the horse.
A young horse requires more than an old one ; but
violent exercise must be carefully guarded against,
especially with young horses, which, although prone
to activity, must not be indulged too freely. The be-
ginning and termination should be moderate, and in
the middle he may be trotted smartly, or galloped for
a short distance. When horses are of full habit, the
exercise should be of medium quantity, and in-
creased a little daily ; but those who fatigue or even
drive a horse hard when in full condition, may find it
followed by inflammation.

In training the race-horse and the hunter, the
utmost regularity in exercising them is quite indis-
pensable, otherwise they never can perform the task
required of them, and grievous disappointment is
certain to be the result. The one will be knocked up
with half a day's work, while the other is certain to be
winded before he performs a circuit of the course.

I have particularly to caution the inexperienced
against working a newly-purchased horse too hard, as
these are invariably made up by the dealer, by feeding
and idleness, so as to please the eye. To take a horse
to the hunting-field under such circumstances, is run-

GROOMING 337

ning a great hazard. Let him be carefully and re-
gularly worked for some days before hunting him, and
there is little danger of bad consequences following, if
gradually cooled and well groomed at the end of his
work. We would recommend the proprietors of horses
to attend themselves to this salutary and necessary
operation, as grooms but too frequently neglect it, or,
in many instances, injudiciously perform it.

The above remarks are applicable to the horses
of the gentleman and tradesman, but those of the
agriculturist need but little attention, as they are
generally worked with moderation and regularity, and
hence are not predisposed to those diseases where a
different mode of treatment exists.

GROOMING.

Horses kept constantly in a stable should be
subjected to constant grooming. It is of the utmost
consequence to their health and appearance. The free
use of the currycomb and brush should never be
neglected, as the scurf which accumulates at the roots
of the hair, and stops the pores of the skin, will other-
wise prove injurious to the health of horses, by retard-
ing free perspiration. Horses which are turned out
in a field do not require grooming, as Nature provides
a means of removing the scurf. Besides, without
grooming, the coat of a horse will never have that
sleek appearance which so much heightens the beauty
of this fine animal. Lazy and careless grooms prefer
giving the coat that smooth texture, by keeping the
stable above that temperature which is safe for the
health of the horse. The use of the currycomb and
brush gives an increased action to the surface of the
skin, and accelerates the circulation in the external
vessels, which stimulates the animal and rouses all his

Y

JO

8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

energies. Indeed, any one may perceive the salutary
effects of grooming on the spirits of the horse after
this operation, which should always be performed in
the open air when the weather is favourable, which
braces the skin and conduces to health. It, however,
frequently happens that grooms in using the currycomb
give too much pressure, and thereby often irritate the
cuticle and give pain instead of pleasure to the animal,
especially to those which have thin skins. It ought
therefore to be used with gentleness, and a longer
time bestowed upon it. We also disapprove of a very
hard brush, and especially one which has irregular
hairs on the surface. A soft brush well applied will
be equally effective, and produce less irritation to the
horse.

After violent exercise, or a long journey, the legs
of horses should be well rubbed down both with the
hand and brush. This will prevent swelling, and even
allay it if it has actually taken place.

CLOTHING.

If stables are kept dry and all cross-draughts are
avoided, then the use of horse-cloths will be unnecessary.
Nature has given the animal a covering which perfectly
fits it, to prevent the necessity of artificial clothing
while under a comfortable roof

If a horse has been overheated, the true method to
prevent his taking cold when put in the stable is to
rub him well down with straw or hay until his skin is
dry ; but if it should so happen that the groom cannot
possibly spare time at that moment to attend to it, a
cloth may be thrown across his loins, until he is fairly
cooled down, when it should be immediately removed.

Nothing can be more absurd than to clothe coach
and post-horses in the stable, because when out of

clothinC 339

doors this cannot be done, and the consequence is, it
renders them extremely susceptible to colds and in-
flammation. When horses are overheated and have
occasion to stand any length of time In the street, it
will be a very proper precaution to throw a cloth over
their loins, but this will be only necessary in very cold
weather. In summer it would be rather injurious than
otherwise.

But with horses that are used for riding, the
greatest attention must be paid to prevent them being
subjected to any sudden transition from heat to cold ;
and, as above noticed, good grooming is the best and
surest preventive.

We would recommend that all stables should be
provided with a thermometer, so as to enable the
groom to preserve, as far as possible, a uniform
temperature.

CHAPTER XV.

Vices and Dangerous Habits of the Horse.

The horse is an animal of a noble and generous dis-
position, and naturally possessed of few vices, although
he is occasionally met with having a bad and even
furious temper, and, as may be expected, manifests
great variety of natural habit. His vices, however,
are too often attributable to the effects of improper
training, and to tricks which he is taught by the bad
treatment and folly of his groom or keeper.

The first breaking-in of the horse should only be
entrusted to persons of mild dispositions, as it is by
kind and patient treatment alone that we can hope to
succeed in rendering this valuable animal truly useful
and docile. I have no doubt but in nine cases out of
ten, where horses exhibit furious or stubborn tempers,
that these have been produced from the cruelty and
ignorance of their first trainers.

RESTIVENESS.

The most unpleasant and dangerous of all vices
possessed by the horse is that of restiveness. Some-
times this proceeds from a naturally bad temper, and
at others from faultiness in education. This term
includes plunging, rearing, kicking, bolting, and
general impatience while mounting. A horse with any
of the above faults can never be depended upon, for,

RESTIVENESS 34I

although we may use means to counteract a particular
vice, whether by compulsion or gentle measures, he
may exhibit that vice when we are off our guard and
are the least expecting it. Force may bring him to
obedience, and he may succumb to him who has had
the determination to subjugate him ; but when mounted
by another he is extremely likely to break out again.
A horse that kicks in harness may be driven with
safety by a cautious and experienced driver or coach-
man, but still there is no certainty of his not exhibiting
the same trick years afterwards ; indeed, most horses
which have been kickers return to it again.

However high the temper which the horse may
exhibit, we would recommend that he should be broken
from his vices by kind and soothing means, and these
exercised with patience for a considerable length of
time ; and force should only be resorted to when all
other means have failed.

There have been several striking instances of
persons who possessed the power of taming vicious
horses by gentle measures ; the most remarkable is
recorded in the Rev. Mr Townsend's *' Statistical
Survey of the County of Cork," who remarks, that
although the following circumstances appear almost
incredible, yet they are nevertheless true, as he was
an eye-witness to them : — " James Sullivan was a
native of the county of Cork, and an awkward, ignorant
rustic of the lowest class, generally known by the
appellation of the whisperer ; and his profession was
horse-breaking. The credulity of the vulgar bestowed
that epithet upon him from an opinion that he com-
municated his wishes to the animal by means of a
whisper, and the singularity of his method gave some
colour to the superstitious belief As far as the sphere
of his control extended, the boast of veniy vidi, viciy

342 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

was more justly claimed by James Sullivan than by
Caesar, or even Buonaparte himself. How his art
was acquired, or in what it consisted, is likely to remain
for ever unknown, as he has lately left the world with-
out divulging it. His son, who follows the same
occupation, possesses but a small portion of the art,
having either never learned the true secret, or being
incapable of putting it in practice. The wonder of
his skill consisted in the short time requisite to accom-
plish his design, which was performed in private, and
without any apparent means of coercion. Every
description of horse, or even mule, whether previously
broke or unhandled, whatever their peculiar vices or
ill habits might have been, submitted without show of
resistance to the magical influence of his art, and, in
the short space of half-an-hour, became gentle and
tractable. The effect, although instantaneously pro-
duced, was generally durable. Though more submissive
to him than to others, yet they seem to have acquired
a docility unknown before. When sent for to tame a
vicious horse, he directed the stable in which he and
the object of his experiment were placed, to be shut,
with orders not to open the door until a signal was
given. After a tete-a-tite between him and the horse
for about half-an-hour, during which little or no bustle
was heard, the signal was made ; and after opening
the door, the horse was seen lying down, and the man
by his side, playing familiarly with him like a child
with a puppy-dog. From that time he was found
perfectly willing to submit to discipline, however
repugnant to his nature before. Some saw his skill
tried on a horse which could never before be brought
to stand for a smith to shoe him. The day after
Sullivan's half-hour lecture, I went, not without some
incredulity, to the smith's shop, with many other

RESTIVENESS 343

curious spectators, where we were eye-witnesses of the
complete success of his art. This too had been a
troop-horse, and it was supposed, not without reason,
that after regimental discipline had failed, no other
would be found availing. I observed that the animal
seemed afraid whenever Sullivan spoke or looked at
him. How that extraordinary ascendancy could have
been obtained, it is difficult to conjecture. In common
cases, this mysterious preparation was unnecessary.
He seemed to possess an instinctive power of inspiring-
awe, the result, perhaps, of natural intrepidity, in which
I believe a great part of his art consisted, though the
circumstance o^t\iQ.tSte-a-tite shows that upon particular
occasions something more must have been added to it.
A faculty like this would, in other hands, have made a
fortune, and great offers have been made to him for
the exercise of his art abroad ; but hunting, and attach-
ment to his native soil, were his ruling passions. He
lived at home in the style most agreeable to his dis-
position, and nothing could induce him to quit Dun-
hallow and the fox-hounds." Among the many striking
performances in this way, none was more remarkable
than his taming the celebrated racer King Pippin, one
of the most ferocious horses that ever lived. Such
was his furious temper, that to saddle and bridle him
was almost impracticable, even by his ordinary attend-
ants. His particular propensity was flying at and
worrying any person who came within his reach ; and
he has been known to turn round and tear the leg of
his rider with his teeth, and drag him from his back.
On one occasion, when he had bid defiance to all, the
*' whisperer" was sent for, who was shut up with him
the whole night, and in the morning, so completely
subdued was this furious animal, that he followed
Sullivan round the course like a dog — lying down at

344 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

his command — permitting his mouth to be opened,
and any person's hand to be introduced into it — in
short, he was as quiet as a lamb.

"At the same meeting, on the Curragh of Kildare,
he won a race, and continued his docility for three
years ; but again broke out, and having killed a man
in one of his furious fits, he was ordered to be
destroyed."

As I have before said, there is little chance of
reclaiming a bad-tempered horse by harsh treatment,
as I believe it will always be found to have an
opposite tendency. An ill-tempered groom should
never be allowed to enter a stable, however fit he
may be for his business in other respects. For a
surly, bullying fellow is sure to frighten horses so
much that as soon as he ^enters the stable they will
jump from side to side at nis approach. Many a scar
has been inflicted by such a man, by using his pitch-
fork instead of soothing the animal for a fault ; and
if asked how the horse came by the blemish, he
invents a falsehood to account for it.

REARING.

Rearing is one of the worst vices in a horse, and
is practised with the intent to throw the rider off.
Sometimes it is the result of playfulness, but even
then it is a dangerous and unpleasant fault. The
use of a deep curb and sharp bit will, in some
instances, cause even a quiet horse to rear, and when
this is the case, immediate recourse must be had to
the snaffle bridle.

As in kicking, however, this is seldom or never
cured. Horse-breakers have attempted it by absurd
and dangerous means, namely, that of pulling the
horse backward on a soft piece of ground. This has

BACKING OR GIBBING 345

ruined many horses, some having had their necks
broken, or their spine so severely injured as to render
them ever afterwards useless. If rearing proceeds
from determinedly vicious habits, it is a hopeless
case, as the animal seldom abandons it. Sometimes
horses rear from playfulness, which is, however, very
different from that which proceeds from passion.

BACKING OR GIBBING.

It is not an unfrequent occurrence for horses in
harness to back instead of drawing when first started,
and some add to this considerable viciousness, com-
bined with obstinacy. In this case soothing and
persuasive coaxing should be tried, and some patience
exercised ; and it is not until these have failed that
the whip should be applied, and this must be exercised
with moderation. In nine cases out often, if severely
punished with the whip, the animal becomes obstin-
ately determined not to move, or he may proceed a
short way on his journey, and probably he will again
stop at the first hill he comes to on the road.

In breaking, great care should be taken not to
start the horse uphill when using the break, because
he feels the entire weight of the machine at once,
whereas if he were put in motion on a level road,
the heavy pull would be less perceptible. Some
trainers are so foolish as to teach the horse backing
by placing his head uphill, and making the animal
draw a little. He feels the weight of the break, and
then by halting and pulling him backwards the
weight is removed, and the animal finds it much
easier to back down hill than to pull ; and hence a
habit of backing is acquired, which is both trouble-
some and dangerous.

With horses which have this habit at starting,

34^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the best method to break them off it is to place a
large heavy stone behind the wheel ; and the horse,
feeling he is unable to back, will generally proceed
forward, finding it more easy to do so ; and by
carefully continuing this practice, the horse will
gradually be broken off the bad habit. Another
plan, nearly as good, is to start the horse, if it can
possibly be managed, with the back of the machine
placed towards a rising ground ; and as it is more
difficult at all times to force it backward than forward,
besides the hill being against him, he will prefer going
forward to backward. Sometimes it will be necessary
to lead the horse for a short distance, and when the
groom has quitted the reins, a gentle touch with the
whip will make him proceed. If, however, he is
determinedly obstinate, there will be little chance of
succeeding by forcible means ; and if the driver is
resolved to use compulsion, we would recommend
that it should not be attempted unless there is a
wide space, where by tight reining the driver may
back him in the particular direction which he wishes,
and it would be very desirable to do so uphill if the
ground inclines in the neighbourhood. But still there
is considerable danger in the attempt.

Gibbing and backing are' frequently produced by
the pain inflicted on a horse where the collar is tight
or does not fit. Some horses have also a great
dislike to a cold collar, and when this is the case it
ought to be lined with cloth instead of leather, or a
false collar or strip of cloth may be worn round the
shoulders. Many horses, not otherwise gibbers, will
not start if their shoulders have been chafed with the
collar and has left a rawness, as the coldness of the
collar gives considerable pain ; but after the collar
becomes of the same temperature as the animal, then

KICKING 347

he will go on. To prevent unpleasantness of this
kind it would be well to warm the collar at a fire
before putting it on. Some horses, which were
inveterate gibbers, have been cured of this vice by
constantly wearing a false collar ; while others have
been reformed by keeping the ordinary collar on
night and day. This is, however, not to be recom-
mended, as it interferes with the animal's rest.

Many horses are such determined gibbers that they
will never cure. When this is the case, they should
be sold to the owners of a stage-coach, in which four-
in-hand are driven, and if placed as the near wheeler,
they will be forced to do their work. Some have
also been worked in a team by farmers ; but nobody
would think of keeping an animal which can only
occasionally be rendered serviceable.

KICKING.

The vice of kicking is too often caused by horses
being teased, tickled, and pinched by grooms, from
wanton mischief or thoughtless folly. The habit
becomes habitual with the animals, and what was at
first only done in play, is exercised in anger, and often
too when one least expects it. In short, it is a
dangerous and incurable vice.

Horses with an irritable or fidgety disposition kick
the stall or bail, and especially during the night.
This is a great annoyance to other horses in the
stable, and breaks their rest. Besides, the animal is
liable to injure himself seriously, and bring on swelled
hocks or other malady. Mares are more given to
this than horses ; and in either it is difficult to
eradicate if once confirmed. As soon as it is dis-
covered that a horse has this vice, a furze or thorn-
branch should be fixed to the partition or post ; and

348 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

few horses will continue to kick when they are pricked
at every attempt. Many cures have been effected by
this simple means, although cases have occurred where
it was not a remedy. The next remedy is to have
recourse to the log. This consists of a heavy piece
of wood attached to a chain, and buckled a little way
above the hock, so as to reach half way down the
leg. As often as the horse kicks, he receives a severe
blow from the log ; and he soon learns to desist,
finding the pain which it inflicts. However, not un-
frequently considerable injury is done to the limbs
by the bruises and severe swellings which have
followed.

Kicking is a dangerous vice, especially with horses
used in harness ; bad with a chaise, but much more
so with a gig behind them. The slightest touch on
their quarters, even by the reins touching, will set
them to kicking ; and in many instances the bottom
of the chaise will be driven in, or a gig may be
battered to pieces, and the horse frequently coming
off with a broken limb, or the driver may sustain
serious injury. With kicking horses, the greatest
care should be taken not to allow the reins to pass
under the tail, as the moment they feel it, the tail
is pressed suddenly and tightly down, so much so,
that it is impossible to extricate the reins ; and the
more the driver pulls, the more the animal kicks and
plunges. When the driver finds that the reins are
so entangled, he should on no account attempt to
extricate them by pulling, but quietly dismount, and
relieve them by lifting the tail gently.

This vice is seldom eradicated. Where persons
cannot afford to part with such horses, as they must
be sold at a great loss, a strong kicking strap may
be used, which circumscribes the use of the hind

BITING — SEIZING THE CHEEK OF THE BIT 349

limbs, and prevents the horse from raising them to
kick. But even this is no security, as by violent
efforts on the part of the animal the strap may break,
and no one can tell what may be the consequence.
I had a particularly handsome and powerful mare
which possessed this vice, and although I adopted
every means to break her off it, I found it impossible.
I sold her, and the person who bought her was sure
he could effect a cure ; but he was mistaken, and he
parted with her. Her fine form soon found a ready
purchaser, and in six months she was in the hands
of eight different persons. Never trust a kicker.

BITING.

This trick often proceeds from play, and is taught
by the folly of grooms or stable-boys teasing the
animals. But what they have thus acquired as sport,
becomes a fixed habit ; and when thwarted in any
manner, they will sometimes bite with great severity.
Like other vices, this is difficult of cure, and it is but
seldom they can be really broken off it. Teasing a
horse should be strictly forbidden, and the groom or
stable-boy severely punished when detected in the
act. Biting, like other vices, should never be taught
the animal, as it is easier to avoid it than to effect a
cure. Gentle treatment is the best suited for all our
domestic animals, and the surest way to command
their affections. Bad-tempered and tricky grooms
ought to be scouted by every one ; and any master
giving such a person a character, is highly culpable,
and ought to be held up to public scorn.

SEIZING THE CHEEK OF THE BIT.

Some horses are so cunning as to get the cheek
of the bit into their mouth, which gives them a great

350 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

command over their rider or driver. There is no
cure for this ; and the only thing that can be done
is to fasten a round piece of leather, or use some
other mechanical contrivance, so that the animal
cannot possibly get the cheek of the bit into his
mouth. Neither soothing nor beating will remedy
this trick, as the horse who has once been guilty of
it is sure to seize the first opportunity to repeat it,
when anything vexes him. Many very serious
accidents have happened to persons from horses
running away with the cheek-bit between their

teeth.

RUNNING AWAY.

The only thing that can be done in this case is
to use a strong curb with a sharp bit, and at the
same time always keeping a firm bridle-hand. But
if in spite of these precautions he does run away, if
there is plenty of open space, or a ploughed field at
hand, turn him into it, and apply the curb, spur, and
whip, as vigorously as possible, and make him run
until he is heartily tired of it. If anything can effect
a cure, this will. Some horses only bolt off when
they hear the cry of the hounds, and will not be
restrained while the chase continues ; other horses
seem to be well aware when they are mounted by
unskilful riders and endeavour by bolting to throw
them off; while some vicious, headstrong animals
bolt even with the best of riders.

SHYING.

Of all the vices incidental to the horse, shying is
one of the worst, and more accidents have happened
from it than any other of the vices or defects of a
horse. Shying proceeds from various causes, but
one of the principal is defective vision ; timidity

SHYING 351

Stands next ; and it often proceeds from a disposition
to be playful. This vice is far less common among
high-bred horses than with those which are half-
bred, although we have met with it in some of our
first racers.

When we have a horse given to shying, our first
attention should be directed to the cause ; that is,
whether it proceeds from friskyness, timidity, or de-
fective vision.

When shying proceeds from playfulness, it is
difficult to judge what mode of cure is best to be
adopted, because if corrected for it, he will associate
with any object that diverts his attention the infliction
of punishment, which will tempt him to run away,
under the dread of a flogging ; and if caressed for
the fault, it is liable to induce him to repeat it. But,
of two evils, gentle correction must be adopted, and
rather to pass by the object than to take him up to
it. He should also be spoken to sharply.

If shying proceeds from fear of new objects, the
true way to correct him of this is not to force him
up to them, but to pat him and soothe him, but
avoid beating ; and take care to pass the objects of
his fear again and again, always going nearer to them
every time you pass. This will familiarise him to
them. Seeing that these are harmless, he will soon
learn to pass by unnoticed any novel object which he
may meet with upon a road.

When an animal is given to shying from defective
sight, the only method to effect a cure is to take him
up to it, and in the act of doing so he must be
coaxed to approach it, and on no account must he
be beaten ; and although it sometimes happens that
the horse will manifest great reluctance to do so, he
should be persevered with, and not allowed to proceed

352 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

until he has seen closely the object of his fear. After
he has been a few times thus treated, he will soon
learn to pass with indifference any object which he
may meet.

We cannot better define the folly of beating a
horse for shying than by the following, which we
extract from '* The Veterinarian " : — *' We will suppose
a case, an every-day one. A man is riding a young
horse upon the high-road in the country, and meets
a stage-coach. What with the noise, the bustle, the
imposing appearance altogether, and the slashing of
the coachman's whip, the animal at the approach
erects his head and crest, pricks his ears, looks
affrighted, and no sooner comes alongside of the
machine than he suddenly starts out of the road.
His rider, annoyed by this, instantly commences a
round of castigations with whip, spur, and curb, in
which he persists until the horse, as well as himself,
has lost his temper, and then one whips, spurs, and
pulls, and the other jumps, plunges, and frets, and
throws up his head, until both, pretty well exhausted
by the conflict, grow tranquil again, and proceed on
their journey, though not for some time afterwards,
in their former mutual confidence and satisfaction.
Should they on their road, or even on a distant day,
meet with another coach, what is the consequence ?
That the horse is not only more alarmed than before,
but now, the moment he has started, being conscious
of his fault, and expecting chastisement, he jumps
about in fearful agitation, making plunges to strike
into a gallop, and attempting to run away. So that
by this correction, instead of rendering his horse
tranquil during the passage of a coach, the rider
adds to the evil of shying that of subsequently
plunging, and perhaps running away."

RESTIVENESS, AND RESISTING BEING MOUNTED 353

If a horse is aged and prone to shying, and will
not be broken off it by gentle treatment, then severe
measures must be resorted to. Many years ago, I
rode a remarkably spirited and active hackney, which
was much given to shying, and particularly in the
evening or at night, although he had no defect in his
sight. About a mile from my residence there was
a salt-work. The first time I had occasion to pass
this at night, the flames were issuing from the top
of the furnace. My horse came to a stand when
within about fifty yards from it, and neither coaxing
nor force would induce him to proceed. I turned his
head homewards, and applied both whip and spur
smartly, and galloped him at full speed to my gate ;
I then drew up, and turning round, returned at a
sharp trot, and on coming up to the salt-work, he
passed it without manifesting any signs of fear, and
never afterwards showed the slightest reluctance to
proceed when he came to it.

Some horses have a trick of shying on coming
out of the stable. This is acquired by having received
some injury while entering the door, or striking his
head against the top of the doorway if too low. This
is incurable, so far as I know ; for both kind treat-
ment and severity have been tried without success.

RESTIVENESS, AND RESISTING BEING
MOUNTED.

Some horses which possess a lively or impatient
temper, manifest a desire to start off before the rider
can get seated in the saddle. Indeed some will
attempt to set off whenever the foot is put in the
stirrup. This is a troublesome and dangerous fault,
even with the most expert horseman, and especially
so to those who are inexperienced or infirm. Horses

z

354 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

sometimes become so cunning that they know a good
from a bad horseman, and finding they are either to
be, or actually mounted, by a timid or indifferent
rider, will endeavour to throw him off, or bolt away
before he is properly seated.

The horse mentioned in the preceding article on
shying, when I first had him, exhibited the utmost
reluctance to be mounted ; so much so, that it was
impossible to succeed without some one holding his
head ; and no sooner did the servant quit the reins,
than he plunged and leaped about in all directions.
However, I refrained from flogging or spurring him,
but patted him on the neck until he became quiet.
I overcame this by making the groom hold his head,
while I mounted and dismounted a dozen or more
times successively. After repeating this once or twice
a day for upwards of a week, I then led him out to
a broad garden walk, and commenced by patting him
on the neck and shoulder, and then putting my foot
in the stirrup, quickly mounted him. When seated,
I gently walked him about, soothing and speaking
kindly to him all the while ; and then dismounted,
and led him about for a few minutes, and again
mounted many times, which he became quite re-
conciled to. This I repeated several times daily for
about a week, but never rode him out of the grounds
during this time. At last he became so tractable by
kind treatment that he never afterwards was trouble-
some to mount. I sometimes rewarded him with a
handful of oats while pursuing this treatment. When
a horse has such a propensity, he should be mounted
quickly and without fear, and not allowed to proceed
on his journey until he is perfectly quiet. Instances
are not few where horses that are generally pleasant
and easy to mount, become restive when too high fed

VICIOUS WHILE CLEANING 355

and having too little work. The remedy for this is
obvious. But when animals continue to manifest this
vice, they should be sold.

VICIOUS WHILE CLEANING.

Very great difference exists in the temper ex-
hibited by horses under the operation of cleaning.
Some that are steady and quiet on the road and in
the field, cannot be cleaned without great hazard to
their grooms, as well as the danger of laming them-
selves. This often proceeds from a very sensitive
skin, and at other times from their grooms having
inflicted severe chastisement on some former occasion
when cleaning. Besides, ill-disposed grooms, by teas-
ing the animals, or currying them with a broken-
toothed comb or uneven -surfaced brush, teach them
this bad habit, and have even a delight in seeing the
animals show their teeth ; and this is continued until
it becomes a fixed vice. If a change of groom takes
place, what was done partly in play is then manifested
in anger, and serious injuries have been inflicted upon
the unsuspecting stranger. It therefore behoves
grooms to be cautious how they handle a strange
horse.

There is much variety in the sensibility of the
skin of horses, some being so tender that moderate
rubbing gives them uneasiness, while others are so
much the reverse that the whip hardly excites it.

It will not be difficult to overcome this vicious
habit. When the groom discovers it, the best plan
is to use a gentle hand while cleaning, and lean
lightly on those parts which seem most sensitive ;
and avoid punishing the animal for exhibiting restive-
ness, and he will soon lose all recollection of the

35^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

former ill-treatment which he had received from his
groom, and become quiet and steady.

RESTIVENESS WHILE SHOEING.

When a young horse is first shod, great caution
should be used, and gentle means adopted to induce
the animal to submit to this novel operation ; and it
would be much better to pay the smith a small
gratuity for his loss of time in coaxing the horse to
submit to it, than to use the gag hurriedly. It must
naturally be expected that a young animal will exhibit
uneasiness for the first few times he is taken to the
smithy. He should on each occasion be led thither
by the person who feeds him ; and above all things
the smith must not strike him for a fault ; as in
most instances horses which are vicious under the
operation of shoeing, are rendered so by severe
treatment either by the smith or groom. Patience
at first shoeing will be well rewarded, and when the
animal finds he receives no injury, he will soon
become obedient under this necessary operation ; but
if severe chastisement has been resorted to, he is
certain to be troublesome every time he is shod,
having in remembrance his former treatment, and
the pain he suffered under the twitch and the gag.
The business of the smith is to be mild and yet
firm. Shoeing a quiet horse in the presence of a
young one has had the effect of teaching him to
submit to it. For his own sake, the smith should
avoid teaching this evil, as he is in constant danger
during the operation ; and the horse is liable to be
pricked and lanced in his struggles. Some horses
are so vicious that they never can be conquered, and
it becomes necessary to cast them every time they
are shod, and confined in the trevis. When this is

CRIB-BITING 357

the case, it may be expected that sooner or later the
animal will meet with an accident which will render
him useless.

CRIB-BITING.

Crib-biting is one of the worst habits which a horse
can acquire, and is seldom or ever cured. The horse
seizes the manger with his teeth while he stretches his
neck forward, and after some spasmodic action of the
throat, a slight grunting sound is uttered, which
appears to be accompanied by a drawing in of air.
The cause of this trick is not yet well understood ;
and whether it proceeds from a bad habit, or a defect
in the formation of the soft palate and back part of
the mouth, still remains undiscovered ; and therefore
we shall not indulge in any speculative opinions as to
its origin.

One serious effect of this trick is the wearing down
of the teeth ; and instances have occurred where they
have been broken. It has likewise been found that
crib-biters are more liable to colic than those without
this vice.

It has been found that crib-biting is acquired by
horses being in the stable with one which has the
trick. Among the expedients which have been
resorted to for the cure of crib-biting, the edge of the
manger has been lined with iron ; also with sheep-skin
besmeared with aloes, tar, and other disagreeable
substances, but all with no effect. The only thing in
this case is to resort to a preventive, and that will be
found in the use of a strap buckled tightly round the
neck, which has the effect of compressing the wind-
pipe, and rendering it impossible to resort to it ; but
no sooner is the strap removed, than the horse re-
commences his old habit, so that it must be constantly

35^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

worn to be of use. But the continual use of it is apt
to produce irritation in the trachea, and this will
terminate in the affection termed roaring, which we
have particularly described at page 42. A five or six
months' run in a field has also been tried without
proving a remedy. Crib-biters are generally in low
condition.

A muzzle barred across the bottom will prevent
crib-biting. This must be made only of sufficient
width to allow full action to the lips, so that the animal
may pull his hay from the rack and eat his corn, but
so close as not to admit of him grasping the edge of
the manger. Crib-biting is legally considered un-
soundness.

WIND-SUCKING.

This is so intimately connected with crib-biting
that it may properly be considered a modification of
it ; as it is accompanied by a want of condition, and
the same bending of the neck, with the head drawn
inward, is manifested, and the horse alternately opens
and closes his lips, and a sound is produced similar to
sucking air. The remedies attempted have been
tying up the head of the horse, except when feeding ;
and the application of a muzzle with sharp spikes
bending towards the neck, which will prick him when
drawing in his head.

NOT LYING DOWN.

Horses are sometimes prone to standing constantly ;
and some only lie down once in a fortnight, or even a
longer period. When this is the case, they are
generally liable to swellings in the limbs, and seldom
able to go through much work. Such horses should,
if possible, be put into a stable by themselves and left

PAWING 359

at liberty, and a well-made bed will sometimes tempt
them to lie down. No means can be adopted to force
the animal to take rest by lying down. When it is
not possible to place him in a stable alone, an empty
box should be constructed so that he may be left for
the night unhaltered in it. I had a remarkably fine
draught-horse that never was known to lie down, and
yet he kept in good condition, and was not troubled
with swelling in the limbs : but this is a rare occur-
rence. He sometimes fell down on his knees while
asleep, but the groom always found him on his legs
before he could reach the stable, although his house
was next door.

SLIPPING THE COLLAR.

Some horses are very expert at getting out of their
collar, and range at large in the stable during the
night, which subjects them to the liability of being
kicked by their neighbours, besides keeping all the
others awake. To prevent this, the web of the
halter should be accurately fitted to the neck, and
made so as to slip only one way ; to this a strap must
be attached, so as to buckle round the neck, taking
care that it is not too tight.

PAWING.

This is a disagreeable and very bad habit, and
proceeds from an irritable temper. Bruised feet and
sprained legs too often proceed from it. The shoes
are quickly worn down in front, and the litter consider-
ably wasted. The only remedy for this is the use
of shackles, to which should be attached a chain
sufficiently long to allow the horse to shift his posture
arid move about in his stall. These to be used only

360 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

in the daytime, as if kept on at night the horse will
not lie clown.

ROLLING.

Horses that roll in the stable are apt to be injured
from want of sufficient room, and also to get entangled
in the halter ; and, strange as it may appear, although
he may get severely hurt and be nearly choked by the
halter, he will repeat it night after night. The only
thing which will prevent him from rolling, is to give
him just enough of collar to enable him to lie down,
but so short that his head will not touch the ground,
because it is impossible he can roll over without rest-
ing his head upon the ground. If a horse is in a field,
rolling is a harmless and even healthful amusement.

WEAVING.

Animals of an impatient, irritable temper, that dis-
like confinement in a stable, will sometimes keep
moving their head, neck, and body to and fro, like the
motion of a weaver's shuttle : these have been called
weavers. Such horses seldom or never carry much
flesh, from their fretful temper and incessant move-
ment. The only preventive is to tie the head close
up, except when feeding.

TRIPPING.

Innumerable attempts have been made to cure this
dangerous quality in a horse, but few indeed have
been the cures. It is only a waste of time to enumerate
these. The true remedy is to get quit of the horse.

CHAPTER XVI.

Of Shoeing.

A FINE horse without sound feet may be compared
to an elegant building without a firm foundation —
both are in constant danger of falling.

It is not known when the practice of shoeing
horses with iron was first practised, although it is
certain that William the Conqueror introduced it into
Britain.

We shall not dwell upon the methods which were
practised to preserve the hoofs of horses before the
invention of iron shoes, but proceed to consider the
best methods now adopted. The construction of our
roads and streets render shoeing indispensable ; at the
same time it must be obvious that shoeing with iron, and
nailing them to the hoofs, is productive of very serious
mischief, and is the cause of various diseases, most of
which we have already noticed in the preceding part
of the work.

Much attention has been devoted by eminent
veterinarians to the best form of shoe for the preven-
tion of contraction, and the consequent destruction of
the expansion of the hoof; but no means have yet
been devised to obviate this completely.

There cannot be a greater error than the pos-
sessors of horses exercising parsimonious economy in
having their horses shod by those smiths who will per-

362 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

form the office cheapest. The first object with every one
should be to get the work well done, because it is
being ** penny wise and pound foolish " to have the
shoes of a horse ill fitted, for the saving of a few
pence.

PREPARATION OF THE FOOT FOR SHOEING.

The first thing to be done by the smith is to re-
move the old shoe, and it is of importance to see that
this is performed in a careful and proper manner.
Some smiths are very careless and rash in removing
the shoe, and instead of turning up the points of the
nails tear off the shoe by force. The shoe is fixed to
the foot by nails which penetrate from the sole to the
upper surface of the hoof; these are broken off,
allowing sufficient length remaining to turn down and
be clenched into the horny substance. These clenches
should be carefully raised and rendered as straight as
possible, so that the nails may be pulled without in-
juring the hoof or increasing the dimensions of the
nail-holes. By thus wrenching off the shoe, there is
danger that some of the stubs may be left in the crust
and cause future lameness, or portions of the crust
itself may be torn off. In most cases, where such
violent treatment is practised, the horse exhibits by
his flinching that he suffers pain from it, and is the
too frequent cause of animals being troublesome to
shoe.

When the shoe has been removed, the crust must
be rasped down in the edges ; and although a little
roughness may be exercised in this, yet there is little
danger of injury to the hoof, only that too much must
not be removed, so as to render it too thin.

It sometimes happens that the horn of the sole

PREPARATION OF THE FOOT FOR SHOEING ^6;^

becomes so hard and thick that it is removed with
very great difficulty, in which case it becomes necessary
to soften it by heat. This is effected by means of a
flat iron heated, and drawn over the sole, and even
kept close to it for a little time. If the sole is thick,
no injury will be sustained from it, and, on the con-
trary, it will render the paring more easy and less
disagreeable to the horse ; but if the desquamating
portions of the sole has been regularly pared out
during shoeing, this must not be permitted. The
quantity of paring necessarily varies, according to the
formation and condition of the foot, but as a rule little
horn requires to be removed by the drawing knife
from the soles of perfectly healthy feet, for as the horn
of the hoof grows in lairs it is more or less shed. The
foot which is pumiced should only have the ragged
parts cut away ; when the foot is flat, no paring is
needed. Care must always be taken that the crust is
not reduced to a level with the sole, as this would per-
mit the sole to press upon the edge of the seating, and
thereby be bruised and injured. The entire circum-
ference of the crust should be perfectly level, but pro-
jecting a little beyond the sole.

We must now direct particular attention to the
heels. More stress is thrown on the inner heel than
on the outer, and, from natural weakness of the
quarter there, it generally wears quicker than the
outer one. This being the case, less horn must be
pared from it than from the outer, as taking the same
quantity of horn from it would leave it lower than the
other, whereas they should be perfectly on a level.

Almost all smiths have a fancy for opening the
heels, from the idea that it does good by rendering the
foot neater, which is a complete fallacy, as they ought
seldom or never to be touched ; for, as we have

364 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

already shown in our description of the anatomy of
the foot, the bars are the only check in preventing
contraction. Nothing, therefore, should be removed
but the ragged and detached portions.

It is intended that the heel of the shoe should rest
partly on the bar, and partly on the heel of the foot,
consequently the bar should be allowed to remain
nearly in its original condition, from its first inflection,
and extending down the side of the frog. It is only
when the frog becomes level with the crust that it
should be pared at all. We have already shown,
when treating of contraction, page 133, that when the
bars have been removed we have destroyed the props
which are the main preventions of that defect.

The quantity to be pared from the frog depends
chiefly upon its prominence and the shape of the foot,
but here again as in the case of the healthy sole,
so also in that of the healthy frog, the less horn re-
moved by the knife so much the better, as the larger
and stronger the hoof, the more fitted is it to bear
pressure and protect the delicate structures underneath.

From what we have shown it will be sufficiently
evident that skill is necessary in the preparation of the
foot for the reception of the shoe ; and it is equally
incumbent on the groom and his master, as well as
the smith, to possess this knowledge ; and it is w^ell
for some one always to be in attendance during the
operation of shoeing.

THE PUTTING ON OF THE SHOE.

The foot having been prepared, the smith selects a
shoe from among those already made, which he thinks
may fit as nearly as possible, and what alterations
are necessary are made on the shoe. This frequently

THE PUTTING ON OF THE SHOE 365

requires both the use of the hammer and the file, and
the conscientious workman will not nail it on until it
is so formed that it rests firmly on the sole, and its
external shape precisely corresponds with that of the
crust. On the other hand, the careless and incon-
siderate mechanic will pick a shoe, and suit the hoof
to the shoe, frequently paring the sole and crust to the
quick ; and often cutting it so thin that it will not
hold the nails firmly, besides rendering the unprotected
part of the foot liable to be punctured, and exposing
the sole to pressure which may occasion lameness, and
that too of a permanent character.

A properly constructed shoe should have the web
of equal thickness from toe to heel. When thinner
at the heel than the toe, it permits the heel to sink
too much, which has a tendency to induce sprain of
the flexor tendon, and when the shoe is thicker at the
back than the front, it elevates the frog too much, is
sure to promote disease, and will impair its function,
and is certain to bruise the toe, which from its
naturally exposed position is more liable to injury
than other parts.

Every possessor of a horse should be well ac-
quainted with the different kinds of shoes now in
general use, and have such a knowledge of the varied
form of hoofs as to enable him to judge the particular
kind best adapted to the shape of the foot of his own
horse. Country smiths pay too little attention to this
point, and with a predilection for one form, apply it to
whatever shaped hoof they may meet with.

In a state of nature the hoof of a horse is ad-
mirably adapted to give security to its steps ; but when
the foot is shod, the weight and bearings of the whole
limb, or, more strictly speaking, of the entire animal,
are changed. It therefore becomes a matter of much

366 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

importance to investigate what form of shoe is best
calculated for this altered condition, and which will
produce the least mischief to the feet ; for the best of
shoeing must ever continue to be a source of diseases
and inconvenience to the horse. And any one who
strictly investigates the structure of the foot, with its
numerous modifications of shape, will soon perceive
that no universal form will be suitable for all feet.

Some parsimonious individuals contract with their
smiths to supply shoes at a certain sum per annum.
From what we have said in this, as well as other
parts of the work, it will easily be seen how absurd
such a practice is ; because the smith will, in nine
cases out of ten, put heavy shoes on the horse to
save the labour of repeated shoeing ; nor will he think
of removing the shoes at stated intervals, as we have
already recommended.

THE CONCAVE-SEATED SHOE.

Considerable difficulty has been experienced in
having enough of room to pass a picker between the
foot-surface of the patent-safety shoe and the sole of
the foot, more especially where soles are flat, with an
inclination to convexity. The consequence has been,
the soles of such feet in some cases have been pinched
by the pressure of the shoe, although this shoe is not
more difficult to fit than any other. To obviate this
supposed difficulty, and to meet the views of those
who think it desirable, a concave-seated shoe has been
invented, concave to the ground, and seated on the
foot surface.

This shoe presents a perfectly level surface to the
ground, so as to give as many points of bearing as
possible. There is a groove round the outer edge, in

TFIE CONCAVE- SEATED SHOE 367

which the nail-holes are punched ; when the shoe is
on, the nails project but a little way beyond the
general surface of the shoe, but are soon worn level
with the face of the shoe.

The web of this shoe is of equal thickness through-
out, and parallel from toe to heel, deviating in width
according to the form of the foot to which it is to be
applied. The foot-surface of the shoe is sufficiently
wide to protect the sole from bruises, and as wide at
the heel as the frog will permit, in order effectually
to cover the situation where a corn grows.

It is seated on the foot side, and the outer portion
made as accurately flat as possible, and of the exact
width of the crust, which it is designed alone to
support, so that the entire weight of that union which
exists between the numerous little plates which are
arranged upon the internal surface of the wall of the
foot (which are more particularly described at page
226), and this portion, supports the whole weight of
the horse. This flattened portion of the shoe is
wider towards the heel, and occupies the entire breadth
of the web, to support the heel of the crust and its
reflected portion, the bar ; so that while it protects the
horn included within the angle from injury, it pro-
motes that equal pressure upon the bar and crust,
which is most likely to prevent contraction as well as
the growth of the corn.

We have given a representation of this shoe, Plate
XI, fig. I. It is secured to the foot by nine nails, five
on the outside, and four on the inner side of the shoe.
These are not placed parallel to each other, but the
outside ones extend a little further towards the heel
than on the other side, because the outside heel has
more nail-hold, and is thicker and stronger than the
inside. When the feet are of moderate size, and not

368 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

a great deal of work required of the animal, three
nails on the Inside and four on the outside will be
sufficient, and the last nail being distant from the heel,
will permit of expansion In that part. Besides, it is
always desirable that as few nails as possible should
be used, so that they are sufficient to secure the
adhesion of the shoe. That there may be no pressure
on the sole, the inside of the web of the shoe is
bevelled off, or rendered concave. As we have
already explained, the foot of the horse Is exceedingly
susceptible, and easily bruised if the sole comes in
contact with hard substances. Although it Is so far
protected by the Iron shoe, the sole descends slightly
when the foot of the animal is placed on the ground,
and is unable to bear constant or even temporary
pressure for any length of time ; and if it bears upon
the shoe, the sensible sole between the coffin-bone
and horny external sole would be so much bruised as
to occasion lameness, and if long continued it would
be of a very serious character. Working horses too
early has a strong tendency to flatten the natural
concavity of the sole, and may induce a disposition to
continued descent. If the feet are pumiced, the shoe
must have an extra degree of bevelling to protect
them.

When shoes are flat, gravel and dirt constantly
insinuate themselves and lodge there, and are certain
upon a journey to bruise and Injure the foot ; but in
bevelled shoes, it is hardly possible for either to remain
between the sole and foot, as they would naturally be
shaken out every time the foot comes In contact with
the ground.

Another advantage In this shoe is that the web is
of that proper thickness, that when the crust is properly
pared the prominent part of the frog will lie im-

PIATE XI

THE SEATED SHOE 369

mediately within and above Its ground surface, per-
mitting the frog to rest sufficiently on the ground, so
as to act as a wedge, and produce a tendency to
expansion in the quarters ; while at the same time it
is protected from the injury it would sustain if it
reached the ground with the full and first shock of the
weight. In the common shoe the ground surface is a
little convex, and its inward rim first comes in contact
with the ground ; so that the weight, instead of resting
fairly on the crust, is sustained by the clenches and
nails, which cannot fail to be prejudicial to the crust,
and must often tear and splinter it.

The nail-holes must be situated as near the outer
edge of the seating as the strength and security of the
web will permit. The nails will consequently have a
natural tendency to take an inward direction, and
therefore will have a firmer hold, and be divested
of that strain to which they are subjected in the
common shoe.

We have given a representation of the under-
surface of this shoe, Plate xi, fig. 2.

THE SEATED SHOE.
PLATE XI, Fig. 3.
The seated shoe is of an equal thickness, perfectly
flat, and parallel from the toe to the heel ; only varying
in width according to the form of the hoof to which it
is to be applied, and similar to the ordinary shoe in
the fullering, nailing, etc. The foot-surface, however,
differs in having a narrow plain rim, about the same
width as the thickness of the crust, extending round
the edge of the shoe, except at the heel, where it
presents a fiat surface, to the extent of an inch ; the
other part of the shoe Is hollowed out, bevelling from

2A

370 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the inner edge of the seat, making it thin except at
the heel, which is of the same thickness throughout.
The intention is that the crust should bear upon and
be supported by the seat of the shoe. The nail-holes
are situated in the inner part of the seat, but the
nailing is the same in principle as the common shoe.

The advantage of this shoe over the ordinary one
is that of the crust resting on a flat surface instead of
an inclined plane ; and as it bears on the edge, it is
less liable to induce contraction. But with that
advantage, yet there are several objections to it. The
shoe being flat without the proper degree of curvature,
and the mode of fastening by pitching the nails
inward, is equally destructive to the crust, although
there is no strain upon the nails and clenches, as in
the common shoe ; and it has been found that its use
has not the eflect of diminishing the number of corn
cases, which arises from the quarters being removed
to fit the flat-shoe, and the weight is then sustained
more by the heels than the quarters. Besides, it is a
difficult shoe to make.

THE EXPANDING SHOE.

This consists of a shoe of the common English
form, with a joint at the toe, which the inventor, Mr
Bracy Clark, intended to relieve the feet from the
restraint of the shoe and nails, by admitting the
natural expansion of the hoof, and thus avoiding all
the evils arising from shoes made on the common
principle. This, however, has not been realised.

THE HUNTING SHOE.
PLATE XI, Fig. 4-
The hunting shoe differs from that of a horse used

THE RACING-SHOE — THE BAR-SHOE 37 I

upon the road, both in weight and form. It is not so
much bevelled off as the common concave-seated shoe,
and only enough of space left between the shoe and
sole for the introduction of the picker ; as, going over
heavy ground, the clay would insinuate itself; and by
its tenacity would have a tendency to loosen the shoe,
or indeed, what has been the case, tear it off altogether.
It is also made shorter in the heels, so that they may
not be torn off by the toe of the hind feet when
galloping.

THE RACING-SHOE.

PLATE XI, Fig. 5.

The racing-shoe, or plate, should be constructed of
the best Swedish iron, and made of sufficient thick-
ness to prevent breaking or bending when used. A
fiat surface on the foot side is generally used ; and the
same form of plate as in the shoes intended to be put
on after the removal of the plate. Three or four nails
on each side according to the size of the foot will
suffice. The heels of the plate should not be longer
than the horn of the heels, rather a trifle shorter, to
prevent them from being torn off by the toe of the
hind foot when at great speed.

THE BAR-SHOE.

This is a useful invention to remove the pressure
from any tender part of the foot, and throw it on the frog
which is quite sound. It consists of the common shoe
continued round the heels and across the frog. Its
chief use is in cases of corns and weak heels, and it
quite covers their seat. It elevates the sole in pumiced
feet, and thus secures them from pressure. It is also
useful in sand-crack, as by it we can remove the

^']2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

pressure from the slit, and throw it on each side of it.
In short, in all the diseases of the foot the bar-shoe
will be found very serviceable if worn during these
diseases ; but it must be discontinued as soon as a
cure has been effected. When the bar-shoe is used
for sand-crack or corn, the crust and frog ought to be
perfectly parallel, and the bar should be the widest
part of the shoe, so that an extended bearing may be
placed upon the frog. This shoe, however, is by no
means safe during frost.

CLIPS.

These consist of portions of the upper edge of the
shoe, hammered out, and turned up so as to embrace
the lower surface of the crust, which must be a little
pared out so as to receive the clip. The chief use of
the clip is to give greater security in attaching the
shoe to the foot, and lessening the stress upon the
nails, which might prove injurious. In horses
subjected to heavy draught, clips are indispensable,
and are useful to all employed in draught of any kind.
They will be found a useful preventive in securing the
shoes from being torn off, when the strain is great on
the feet while drawing. Clips are also beneficial when
horses are given to stamping and pawing, as either of
these tricks are likely to loosen the simple shoe. But
clips should only be used in such horses as we have
named, because they press upon the crust as it grows
down, and are therefore objectionable with horses
which are employed in light draught or hackneys.

THE HINDER SHOE.

As the hinder limbs are the chief instruments of
propulsion in the animal, except while walking, the

TIPS — PATENT SAFETY SHOE 373

whole Stress of the frame rests upon them. In conse-
quence of this, the shoes of the hind feet are always
made broader than those of the fore feet, and the toe
is widened still more by rasping. When there is the
slightest tendency to over-reaching, the toes of the
hind feet should be shortened as much as possible, by
sloping in the surface, and rendering the shoe some-
what less projecting than the horn at the toe. The
hinder differs a little from the fore foot, in being
straighter in the quarters. The nails in the hinder
shoe should be situated nearer to the heel than in the
fore shoe.

TIPS.

Tips are short shoes which reach only half way
round the foot, and are worn by the horse while at
grass, as a protection to the crust, to prevent it being
injured by any hard parts in the ground. They are
especially necessary when horses have a practice of
pawing. The reason why these shoes are made short
is to permit those feet which have a tendency to con-
traction to return to their natural condition by ex-
pansion.

PATENT SAFETY SHOE.
PLATE XI, Fig. 6.

This shoe is constructed of malleable cast-iron.
This is accomplished by a chemical process called
annealing, which renders the cast-iron less liable to
break ; as ordinary cast-iron is nearly as brittle as
glass. The figure referred to exhibits the ground side
of this shoe. The letters a, a, a^ a, are a raised
border, intended to strengthen the inward edge of the
shoe, as well as to orevent the intrusion of small

374 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Stones, flint, and dirt, between the sole and shoe,
which it is likely would take place but for this pro-
tection.

WATER AND POULTICE BOOTS.
WATER-BOOT.— PLATE XI, Fig. 7.

Considerable difficulty has been experienced In keep-
ing diseased feet effectually wet by the application of a
poultice. The usual method has been to put the poultice
in a piece of old rag or sacking, and set the foot into it,
and to tie the edges of the cloth round the fetlock. It
must be obvious that the pressure of the foot will soon
displace that portion under the sole, where probably it
may be most required. Besides this, the cloth is
liable to be cut through by the crust, and consequently
the greater portion of the application escapes.

The poultice and water-boot is constructed with a
leather bottom, defended by iron plating of different
sizes. When required for the application of a poultice,
a linen drill top Is only necessary ; but when required
for a continued application of cold or warm water, it Is
necessary to have two or three thicknesses of bath-
coating sewed together, and cut of a proper form for
the top. In order that the whole foot may be sub-
jected to moisture, a bottom consisting of two or three
pieces of this cloth are sewed together, of the exact
form and size required. The top must be soaked in
water, and this will naturally descend to the bottom of
the boot, where it is absorbed by the doubles of cloth.
To keep the boot duly moist, it would be proper to
dip the foot with the boot on Into a pail of water
occasionally through the day, and immediately before
shutting the stable for the night. In this way the
cooling moisture may be kept up for any length of
time.

PLATE XJI

n .>m fy TH.

FELT, OR LEATHER SOLES 375

However, long-continued moisture has a tendency
to destroy the texture of the frog, as well as the tough
elastic property of the hoofs. To obviate this, two
days in each week should be appropriated to keeping
the boots off, and an unguent of tar applied to the
surface of the foot, which should be well rubbed in with
the hand. This will completely saturate the horn, and
prevent that crumbly tendency which manifests itself
when the foot is long kept moist. During this time
the horse should have a well-supplied bed of litter to
prevent injury to the hoof.

If during the two days on which the boots have
been removed the animal paws with his foot, it is very
liable to sustain injury ; to prevent this, the use of a
rope-boot will be necessary. See Plate xi, fig. 8.

FELT, OR LEATHER SOLES.

In cases of bruised or inflamed feet it has been
found of much benefit to insert a strip of leather or
felt between the shoe and the crust. The intention
of this is to lessen the vibration or shock which is
given to the sensible portion of the foot, in conse-
quence of the want of elasticity of the iron shoe.
This is useful where disease exists, but must by no
means be adopted where the feet are sound ; for one
reason — the nails can never be so firmly driven in
when any substance is interposed between the hoof
and the shoe, and by its alternate contraction and
expansion with dry or hot weather, it is sure to lessen
the security of the shoe ; causing too much play upon
the nails, and consequently enlarging the perforations
in the crust, and rendering a portion of it liable to be
torn away.

CHAPTER XVII.

How to Buy a Horse.

Little do novices in horse-flesh think how many tricks
are resorted to by dishonest dealers to conceal the
defects of a horse, and take in the uninitiated. To
exhibit a few of these will be the aim of this chapter,
as well as to throw out several hints which may be
useful in assisting the unexperienced in the purchase
of a horse.

The first thing to be attended to is the form of the
animal ; and this differs materially in the various
breeds, and its good points will depend upon their
adaptation to particular kinds of work. The head in
all the breeds should be fine, broad between the eyes,
and tapering towards the nose ; the jaws ought to be
clean, and not possessing too much flesh ; the eye full,
sparkling, and lively ; the nostrils rather large, open,
and of a clear red ; the space underneath between the
jaws should be roomy, and free from glandular swell-
ings or lumps ; the ears should be well set into the
head and pointed forwards, but not large ; the neck
should be well curved, ' lightly formed rather than
muscular, and considerably arched beneath at its union
with the jaws ; the shoulder should be high and
sloping ; the withers should be of medium breadth,
and not too high, as it will be found that high-
w^ithered horses are generally narrow in the chest,

HOW TO BUY A HORSE 377

which is always a bad point, as not allowing sufficient
scope to the lungs, and never so pleasing to the eye as
a broad expanded front. Still, some horses have
proved both hardy and good in point of action with
narrow chests ; but these have had depth to compensate
for the want of breadth. However, there is a medium
in the width of the chest, because great width is
invariably accompanied with want of action ;
and such horses are better adapted for cart or farm
purposes.

The back should be short and somewhat arched
across the loins ; the chest deep, and the ribs expand-
ing, especially between the last rib and the huckle-
bone, or hip, so as not to permit of a hollow betwixt
them, which is always unsightly to the eye, if it is not
a physical defect. No feeding will fill up a hollow in
that quarter ; nor can a horse be pleasing to the eye
which has not well-formed hind-quarters. These
should be rounded and full, and the muscles of the
hips well developed. A low rump is a characteristic
feature of the Irish horse. This is termed among
dealers goose-rumped. Many blood-horses have this
characteristic. Horses long in the quarter are seldom
serviceable ; if a horse is required for field sports,
always choose him short in the quarters, as this is a
character possessed by all good leapers. The thighs
must be muscular, and extending to the hock, from
which to the hoof he should be clean, flat, and sinewy.
The back part of the thigh ought to have a consider-
able bend, as a straight-legged animal seldom possesses
good action, although there are exceptions to this
rule. Avoid those which are cat-hammed, that is,
with their hocks nearly touching each other. See that
the fore-legs are strong and muscular down to the
knee, and otherwise formed as we have described

;^yS MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the fore-legs. Let the feet be nearly circular, gradually
increasing as they descend towards the sole. Their
inclination outwards should not be so great as that
of the pastern ; the chances are that feet which slope
too much forwards are diseased, or liable to it ;
besides, this obliquity throws the animal too much
on his heels, which produces tenderness of the part,
and straining of the back sinew.

The position of the legs and feet, or what may be
termed their setting on, is a most important point.
Viewing the horse in front, his legs should be as
nearly straight as possible, and his feet neither inclining
to the right or left ; as feet turned outwards are very
liable to cut and trip, and the action of the horse is
seldom good or agreeable to the eye, having an out-
ward stride, and loses ground thereby at every step.
Horses with an inward inclination are said to hepm-
toed, ox pigeon-toed. These generally throw the foot
outwards, exhibiting the sole of the foot while in
action to those who are standing on one side of him.
Such horses have usually a laboured action, which
fatigues the animal, and is equal to a third, less or
more, of the distance he has actually travelled. The
fore-legs should be set well under the fore part of the
shoulder, affording ample support to it ; such as have
their legs placed forward possess neither power nor
action. When the legs are viewed sideways, or in
profile, they should be nearly straight, as in our re-
presentation of the horse (Plate i), but when horses
have what are called calf-knees, that is, with a slight
inclination inwards, and with the shank sloping
forwards, it is a certain sign of weakness, and such
horses will always more easily knock up with hard
work than those which have straight or even pro-
minent knees.

HOW TO BUY A HORSE 379

The hind legs should either be straight from the
hock downwards, or having a slight inclination under
the belly. Horses so formed are, for the most part,
low in the rump, and will throw out their legs well
under them when in action. On the contrary, horses
which throw their legs outward are always disagree-
able to ride, and seldom work well. Horses that
stand with their hind legs much under them, and at
the same time which droop in the hind-quarters, may
be suspected to be diseased in the spine or the kidneys,
and should be carefully examined on those points ;
and while doing so, on no account permit a dealer's
servant to hold up the horse by the bridle, or to stand
on rising ground. This should be most especially
attended to while examining the legs. It is the in-
variable practice of dealers' grooms when exhibiting
a horse to throw the snaffle and curb reins over the
head, and to hold him back with the latter, while he
touches him up behind with a long whip, which has
the effect of making him elevate his head, and brings
him to his mettle, and therefore he hardly knows
where he places his feet, consequently he will both
bend his knees and throw out his feet much more than
he does in his ordinary style of going. These wily
servants take care always to bring horses to a stand,
with his fore-quarters on rising ground, which makes
him advance his fore-legs, so as to conceal any
knuckling of the knees, or pasterns, and will give a
groggy animal all the appearance of soundness.
Therefore let the horse that is intended to be pur-
chased, be examined thoroughly on level ground, with
his head at liberty.

The first point to be attended to is the crown of
the head ; to ascertain if he has the disease called
poll-evil (see page 40), examine his nostrils, and if

380 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

there is a fetid discharge, he may be glandered (16)
or have nasal gleet (22). To ascertain this, the
nostrils should be pinched together for about a
minute, to prevent him from breathing, and on re-
moving the hand he is sure to snort, which will blow
out any matter if he is diseased. The tongue should
also be particularly looked at. Examine the eye for
gutta-serena and blindness (36 and 7,7) ; see that the
withers are not fistulous (64) ; carefully scrutinise the
knees (88), because a horse that has had broken knees
must be suspected of stumbling ; what he has once
done, he may do again ; see that there is no appear-
ance of splent below the knee (93) ; nor grogginess
in the region of the fetlock (100) ; nor ringbone of the
pasterns {104) ; nor thorough-pin of the hock-joints
(109); attend particularly to the hocks, in case they
are capped (no); and notice that there is curb a
little way below these points ; examine narrowly the
inside of the hock-joint, in case bone-spavin or en-
largement of the bony substance exist there (115);
descend to the feet, and examine if there are symptoms
of grease (123); see that there does not exist sand-
crack in the horny substance of the hoof (135); nor
canker separating the horny substance from the
sensible and fleshy part of the foot (139). These are
a few of the external maladies which the purchaser
must particularly attend to, all or any of which
dealers will be at no loss to account for. Disbelieve
all their eloquent excuses ; err on the safe side by
rejecting the purchase. Sweeping as this condemna-
tion may be thought, it is unfortunately too true that
this class of men are not to be depended upon ; and
considering the risks which they themselves are
liable to, it is not to be wondered at. If the legs
exhibit any sign of having been bandaged, a well-

HOW TO BUY A HORSE 38 1

grounded suspicion may be entertained that all is not
right.

Besides the points to which we have directed
attention in the examination of the mouth, are the
teeth, whereby the age of the horse is determined.
Take care that he has not been bishoped (201) ; or
had a tooth extracted (191). The different changes
of these we have very fully described at p. 184. But
besides the dental indications, the physical signs of
age must also be looked to ; because a young horse
may have been early and hard worked, and to that
extent that he is to all intents and purposes aged in
strength and action. When heated by being trotted
or galloped, all his infirmities will disappear ; but these
will re-appear whenever he is again cooled down.

A horse with an upright shoulder is more fitted for
harness than riding ; and a sloping one is best adapted
for riding, from having generally better action and
less of his own weight to sustain on his fore-legs. A
long-necked horse Is generally admired ; but we
consider this a fault, as such are generally weak, and
are predisposed to roaring. Short-necked horses are
for the most part clear in the wind ; but one of medium
length should be preferred. When the head joins the
neck at too sharp an angle, it is always disagreeable
to the eye. Horses whose limbs have marks of having
been fired, should never be purchased but at a low
price, for It is a proof of disease : although many
horses will work well after being cauterised ; we have
known animals of high reputation as hunters and
racers, which have been subjected to this opera-
tion.

When the cornea of the eye is of a yellowish tinge,
it is indicative of liver complaint. This being observed,
turn up the lips and notice their internal structure, and

382 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

if they are of a similar hue, avoid the purchase of the
animal.

If the coat of a horse stares, it is certain he is not
in good health. It will be noticed that their dung is
either unusually fetid and slimy, or it is soft and washy,
like that of a cow. When not disturbed, such animals
are languid and sleepy, but dealers take care in show-
ing them off temporarily to rouse them from their
lethargic condition, by inserting ginger into their anus,
salt into their mouth, and giving them a smart touch
or two with the whip ; and no sooner does the master
enter the stable, than they commence champing their
bits, cocking their tails, and exhibiting for a short time
all the appearance of perfect health and spirits. In the
meantime, the dealer exerts his clap-trap eloquence to
induce the novice to believe the animals are the best
and most active horses in Britain ; and they too often
succeed in inducing such a belief. The hand should
be drawn over the ribs, and the finger pressed firmly
between them. If the skin appear tight and unyield-
ing, it may be inferred that he is hide-bound, and
consequently labouring under some internal disease.
I would particularly direct the attention of the pur-
chaser to the mark of a cut which may be some inches
in length, and situated parallel with the shank-bone,
immediately below the pastern-joint. If such a mark
is found and the animal shows no signs of feeling,
when his limb above the hoof is struck with the point
of your boot, it is certain that the nerve operation
has been performed, which we particularly noticed at
page 218. Such a horse should instantly be rejected.

In examining the foot, if the front and sides of the
hoofs are marked with circular depressions of any depth
running parallel to the coronet, it is certain that severe
inflammation has existed at one time in the sensible

HOW TO BUY A HORSE 383

portion of the foot, and Is consequently liable to return
again. See that both fore-feet, as well as the hind
ones, are of equal size, and ascertain that they are
quite cool, and equally so. Attend to what we have
already said respecting the examination of the sole,
and its proper form. Thrush may be detected by the
fetid smell of the foot, besides the other symptoms
which we have described, but it is not of much
consequence.

As the feet of horses are of such Importance, we
would especially recommend to all to acquire a
thorough knowledge of them ; and we know no better
plan than to attend daily at a well-employed shoeing-
forge, and for a small gratuity the smith will allow
the various feet to be examined ; and if he has had
experience, he will be able to point out readily the
indications of disease. He will also see why differently
formed hoofs require the shape of the shoe to be modi-
fied, and adapted to the peculiarity of structure, or
probably existing disease.

The next important point to be attended to is the
wind and breathing of the animal. Study all we have
said on the different complaints connected with the
lungs ; namely, roaring, broken wind, whistling, etc.
The wind may be tested by pinching the wind-pipe im-
mediately behind the jaw. If the horse give a long
sharp cough, it is an indication that he Is sound in that
respect ; but if the cough be short and hollow, it may
be inferred that he has unsound lungs : let gentle
pressure on the wind-pipe be repeated in order fully to
test this. Be sure to perform this test with your own
hand, as dealers know that by compressing the wind-
pipe firmly with one hand and the fore-finger of the
other, the horse Is forced to cough while they do so,
which produces that shrill sound considered a test of

3^4 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

good wind, by the air rushing through the limited
aperture. Having satisfied yourself by this first
experiment that the horse is sound in the wind, pro-
ceed next to watch the flanks in breathing. If the
belly of the animal swells out, and the inspirations and
expirations are regular, it may be reasonably inferred
that his lungs are sound ; but if these are irregular,
and the inspiration stops before it is completed, with a
considerable drawing in of the flanks, with the ribs
very apparent, then it is certain his lungs are unsound.
The third test of broken wind is to trot the horse
pretty sharply, and watch the motion of his flanks, and
observe if he utters a noise in breathing, with consider-
able blowing. If this is the case, reject him.

To examine whether a horse is a roarer, piper, or
whistler, place him with his side against a wall or the
side of the stall ; take hold of the bridle near the mouth,
and hold his head high, and give him a smart blow on
the ribs with your doubled fist, or touch him smartly
on the belly with a stick ; and if he utters a grunt at
each blow, he is a roarer ; and if he dances about in
consequence of the blows, sobbing, and drawing his
breath quickly, this will be found an indication of his
being a whistler, or piper. But for testing all diseases
connected with the lungs, nothing is better than a
good gallop or hard trot. Consider no time wasted
which is spent in thoroughly investigating all points
connected with the health of a horse.

Having satisfied yourself on the above points,
stand in the rear of the animal, and scrutinise care-
fully the prominences of the hip-bones, and see
whether or not they are on a level, and especially
mark the round bones, which are situated a little
posterior to the prominences of the hip. This is
liable to lameness from strains, blows, and other

HOW TO BUY A HORSE 385

causes. If there is any fault here, there generally will
be a wasting of the muscles, and the defect will be
more readily detected when he is in motion. If any
symptoms of lameness are observable, pass the hand
over the spot, and heat will be found to exist in it,
and it may be probably verified by the smell of some
liniment, which may have been applied.

When examining a horse, never permit the
dealer's man to hold his head high, nor to place
his fore-feet on rising ground ; because, while a horse
stands in this position, the defects (if he has any) of
his fore-legs will not be apparent ; whereas if he
stands with his feet upon level ground, if the limbs
have been shaken from hard work, they will exhibit a
tremulous appearance, and the knees will be more or
less bent, and the heels will not rest firmly on the
ground, as they ought to do. Horses that have been
severely worked, have the fetlocks of the hind-legs
bent and relaxed, and the natural elasticity of the
tendons and ligaments will have departed. The horse
that is groggy, when standing in a quiescent state,
will be found in a posture leaning over the fore-legs,
the feet of which will be further under the belly than
the upper part of the leg, and the entire limb forming
a fiat semi-circle with the knee at the extreme point of
the curve.

In looking at the action of a horse, see that his
fore-feet are lifted high, and that he completely clears
the ground and throws his legs out freely and lightly.
This is especially necessary in a saddle-horse. Horses
with a short, confined step, can never have good
action, and are always disagreeable to ride. In
walking, the knee ought to be moderately bent, but
only sufficiently so that he may fairly clear stones and
other objects which he may meet with on a road ; and

2 B

386 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

when the foot is set down, the sole should fall flat, so
that the toe does not first touch the ground. The
legs should be thrown straight out ; that is, the toes
should neither be turned outwards nor inwards, nor
should the sole be seen by a person standing on either
side. In a larger-sized horse, the step must be
lengthy and regular ; in a smaller, compact horse, it
ought to be sharp, active, and springy ; and in either
the marks produced on the ground by the fore-feet
should be stepped on by those of the hind-feet ; if,
however, the animal is wide hipped, the hind-feet will
rest on the outside of the marks left by the fore-feet.
The head should be carried high.

In trotting, see that the horse does not lift his feet
too high, and that he places them flatly and firmly on
the ground, for if the toe first touches the ground, he
is liable to trip. If the shoe is examined, it will at
once indicate the part which comes soonest in contact
with the ground, by being most worn down. Blood-
horses never raise their feet so well as those of more
inferior breeding, and are in consequence not so safe
to ride upon the road. Their action in the trot will,
however, be found much more pleasant and easy to
the rider. Blind horses are almost invariably high
steppers, and therefore whenever you find a horse
lifting his legs very high, it would be prudent to
examine his eyes carefully.

Ladies generally prefer horses which go at a
canter instead of a trot. Indeed, it is a much safer
action for them, in consequence of their peculiar seat.
In the choice of a lady's horse, take care that he has
been accustomed to lead with both legs ; because he
is capable of longer duration, and the wear of his feet
and shoes will be more equal. In the canter the hind-
legs should be thrown well under the body, because it

HOW TO BUY A HORSE 387

is a minor species of gallop. It will be found that
horses with an oblique shoulder will perform both
the canter and gallop better than those which are more
upright.

If a horse is required for speed, do not choose one
which holds his head high, as such is incompatible
with a great stretch ; consequently the style and
bearing of a horse intended for show and park use is
very different from those intended for rapid action ;
and these latter always carry their heads low. It is
the habit of blood-horses always being trained to go
over a smooth and level surface, which is the cause of
their not lifting, being unaccustomed to meet with
obstruction in their way. The hunter, on the con-
trary, being subjected to all kinds of ground, soon
acquires the habit of lifting his feet sufficiently high to
enable him to surmount all the difficulties which he
must constantly encounter. The style of their gallop
must also be essentially different : that of the racer,
a lengthened stretch ; and of the hunter, a rounded
gallop.

CHAPTER XVIII.

General History of the Horse, with an Account of
Different Breeds.

Plutarch says a good man will take care of his horses
and dogs, not only while they are useful to him, but
also after age renders them unfit for service. A
beautiful illustration of this benevolent maxim is
recorded of the Athenians, who, when they had
completed the building of the Hecatompedon, set at
liberty the animals employed in its erection. It is
related that one of these at the head of his fellow-
labourers some time after the completion of the temple,
led the way to the citadel, which so highly pleased the
people that a decree was made by the senate, enacting
that these faithful and willing servants should be
kept the remainder of their lives at the public ex-
pense.

Near the tomb of Cimon were placed the graves of
the mares who bore him, on three several occasions,
victorious at the Olympic games.

Every humane mind must feel sensibly alive and
indignant at the brutal treatment to which that noble
and generous animal, the horse, is but too frequently
exposed in Europe. The ass, also an animal of great
sagacity and gentleness, is almost invariably treated
with savage barbarity. Let these unprincipled and
unfeeling wretches look to the mutual love which

GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE 389

subsists between the Arab and his steed, and
the kindness manifested by the people of eastern
countries to their asses and mules, and the benefit
they derive from such a mode of treatment. If no
other principle will awaken their kindly feelings towards
those most useful animals, surely that of self-interest
should stimulate them to adopt gentler measures.

The first breaking and training of the horse
should only be entrusted to persons of mild disposi-
tions, as it is by kind and patient treatment alone
that we can hope to succeed in rendering this valuable
animal truly useful and docile ; for although force may
produce obedience, it will be found, as with man him-
self, that as soon as fear has subsided and the animal
has discovered its own strength, revenge will generally
follow. I have no doubt that in nine cases out of ten
where horses betray furious or stubborn tempers, that
these have been produced from the cruelty or ignor-
ance of their first trainers. The horse is an animal of
great intelligence ; but everything addressed to his
perceptions should be clear, short, and distinct, for he
is incapable of following a train of spoken language.
Few words, delivered with precision, accompanied by
caresses and gentle treatment, will be found more
effectual than any other course.^

The domestication of the horse may be regarded
as one of the most important acquisitions made by
man from the animal kingdom. Without this useful
quadruped, civilisation must have made comparatively
but little progress, and we should have been later by
many centuries in emerging from barbarism. The
horse contributes largely to our luxuries, pleasures,

* Wo ! used by carters to horses, is derived from the Norman-
French, and signifies, '* attend, stop, listen." Gee ! is derived from
the German verb gehen^ " to go."

390 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

and service ; he facilitates and lessens the labours of
the field ; he transports burdens, and man himself, to
the most distant parts, with certainty, celerity, and
ease ; he is ever the faithful and obedient servant of
his master. His form, sagacity, and temper, have
been most admirably and wisely adapted for our use ;
he is fitted in an eminent degree to fill a most im-
portant part in the scale of being.

The horse is framed with such a pliability of
physical structure and constitution, that man may
mould him to the form or bulk best fitted for the
particular service in which he is to be employed.
Whether we contemplate the powerful and symmetrical
structure of his frame, the elegance of his limbs,
evincing strength and speed in their movements ;
the delicacy and glossy sleekness of his skin ; his
large and sparkling eyes, which either beam with mild
intelligence, or flash with energetic fire ; or the docility
and tractability of his disposition, we cannot fail to
regard him as one of the noblest of animated beings.
In addition to these qualities, he possesses the most
intrepid courage ; he has been from most remote
times the bearer of man in the field of carnage, where
he fearlessly meets every danger ; the most appalling
discharges of musketry and the thunders of a cannon-
ading, he faces with a fortitude as dauntless as that
of his rider, and seems even to enter into the spirit of
the attack. This has been his character from the
earliest ages ; for he is spoken of in Job, one of the
oldest books in the world, and, few will deny, one of
the best ever written, in the following powerful
language, which is amended from the common transla-
tion by my late learned friend Dr Scot, Professor of
Hebrew in the College of St Andrews : —

*' Hast thou given spirit to the horse ? Hast thou

GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE 39 1

clothed his neck with a mane? Canst thou make
him bound as a locust ? The majesty of his snorting
is terrible. He paweth in the valleys and exulteth ;
he goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at
fear, and trembleth not ; nor turneth he back from the
svv^ord. Against him rattleth the quiver, the glittering
spear, and shield. He devours the ground with fierce-
ness and rage, and is impatient when the trumpet
soundeth. He uttereth among the trumpets, Ha!
Ha ! He smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of
the captains, and the shouting."

The time at which the horse was first domesticated
is now lost in the cloud of antiquity. He is mentioned
by the earliest writers, and in all probability his sub-
jugation has been nearly coeval with the earliest
state of society. From the Scriptures we learn that
seventeen hundred and two years before the Christian
era, horses were used ; for in the 47th chapter of
Genesis we are told that Joseph gave the Egyptians
bread in exchange for horses. It seems probable,
from the earlier chapters of Genesis, that horses were
unknown to the Hebrews and Egyptians ; as we find
from the 12th chapter of that book that Abraham
'* had sheep and oxen, and men-servants, and maid-
servants, and she-asses and camels," but no mention
is made of horses: this was 1920 years before the
birth of Christ.

But after this time they seem to have propagated
and greatly increased in Canaan ; as it is said in the
eleventh chapter of Joshua and fourth verse, of
certain kings opposed to Joshua, that there were
" much people, even as the sand that is upon the sea-
shore in multitude, with horses and chariots very
many."

From many other parts of holy writ we find that

392 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

horses were numerous in most of the kingdoms of the
East, but no mention of the country from whence
they were originally derived. It is a generally re-
ceived, although erroneous opinion, that Arabia was
the native country of the horse. We find that even
so late as the seventh century of the Christian era,
when the prophet Mahomet attacked the Koreish,
not far from Mecca, he had only two horses in his
train ; and although, in the plunder of this hornble
campaign, he carried with him in his retreat twenty-
four thousand camels, forty thousand sheep, and
twenty-four thousand ounces of silver, there is no
mention of horses being part of the booty.

Solomon's stables seem to have been magnificent.
He kept horses both for pomp and gain. His stud,
even in our own times, is unequalled. He is said to
have had four thousand stalls for horses and chariots,
and twelve thousand horsemen ! The price of a horse
in those days was fifty shekels of silver, which amounts
to about seventeen pounds, two shillings sterling ; a
very large sum at that remote period.^

It seems certain that Egypt was the first country
in which the breed of horses was first improved, and
from whence most of the early Eastern monarchs
procured their studs. Solomon obtained many from
thence ; and although it abounded in horses, still I

*Dr Scot wrote me upon this subject : — *' We allow that there
is some controversy among scholars about the exact number of
the stalls, and we dare not say that no mistake is introduced into
the text. The probability, indeed, is very great that the most
ancient and authentic copies of the text are corrupted. We
should conceive that four thousand was a large number. This
indeed is stated to be the number in 2 Chronicles, chapter ix,
verse 25th ; and even the parallel passage in i Kings, chapter iv,
verse 26th, commonly translated forty thousand, will bear to be
so interpreted."

GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE 393

think it more than probable that the Egyptians ob-
tained their best steeds from the south, as the local
situation of that country was but ill adapted to pre-
serve them in perfection. This monarch, as well as
several of his successors, obtained coursers from
Togarmah, now understood to be the modern Cap-
padocia, or the lands which border the Euxine Sea,
which was in early times the seat of several flourishing
and powerful kingdoms.

To trace the history of the progress of the horse
from that period to the present time would require a
larger space than our limits will admit, and we must
now turn to that part of his history which refers to the
place of his nativity.

Left only to conjecture, we can only suppose, from
a combination of circumstances, that Asia was the
original country of the horse ; for there he is found to
the present day roving in unrestrained freedom, and
we are without any historical record of his having
been introduced by man into those extensive wilds.
One thing is quite certain, that he was not found either
in America or New Holland on the original discovery
of these continents. The great tract of desert country
around the Sea of Aral, as well as those of the Caspian
Sea, have been supposed to be the native residence of
the horse ; but if this conjecture be correct, he must
have widely extended his geographical range, for he is
found in a wild state in Asia, as far north as the
sixtieth degree, and to the utmost southern extremes
of that vast continent, and also in many parts of
Africa.

On each side of the river Don horses are found in
a wild state ; but these are supposed to be the off-
spring of Russian horses which were used at the
siege of Azof, in the year 1697, as many were turned

394 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

loose upon that occasion for want of forage. In
South America, on these immense plains extending
from the shores of La Plata to Patagonia, immense
troops of horses are found, sometimes to the extent of
ten thousand individuals. These are the offspring of
emancipated horses which were taken to that con-
tinent by the Spaniards : for it is quite certain that
the horse was unknown in America when that con-
tinent was first discovered. Indeed, the natives
considered the horseman and horse as one animal.
There great troops do not always feed in company,
but are dispersed into smaller herds, and only con-
gregate when they are alarmed. These animals are
impelled by a natural instinct, which looks remarkably
like reason, for they are invariably preceded by a
leader in cases of alarm, and are sensible that their
safety consists in united force, and a principle of
subordination — the first things to be attended to, even
by man himself

In a domestic condition the horse is found in
every country, such being the pliability of his physical
constitution, that he thrives in very opposite ex-
tremes of temperature, except within the limits of the
Artie circle itself But in Great Britian he seems to
have acquired the highest degree of symmetrical
proportions and powers of speed ; as our race-horses
are universally admitted to be the finest and fastest
gallopers in the world.

The celebrated race-horse, known by the name of
Flying Childers, was the fleetest horse that ever ran,
having repeatedly accomplished nearly a mile in a
minute ; and, carrying nine stone two pounds, has
been known to perform the course at Newmarket —
which is three miles and three hundred and sixty
yards — in six minutes and forty seconds, or at the

BRITISH HORSES 395

rate of eighty-two feet and a half in a second of time.
Eclipse was next to him in fame, and nearly his equal
in speed, but considerably his superior in conforma-
tion, and from whom spring most of the finest horses
which this country has produced.

Long ages of domestication, as well as the variety
of climate to which horses have been subjected, has
produced the great varieties in size and general con-
formation in the horse. Every country possesses
horses with a peculiarity of character belonging to
itself; and in each country there is great diversity of
shape and size.

SECTION I.-OF BRITISH HORSES.
THE ENGLISH RACE-HORSE.

The form of the head, in this horse in particular,
Is like that of the Arabian. His beautifully arched
neck is finely set on, and his shoulders are oblique and
lengthened ; his hind legs are well bent, his quarters
are ample and muscular, his whole legs are flat, and
rather short from the knee downwards, although not
always so deep as it ought to be, and his pasterns are
long and elastic.

The thoroughbred horse is by no means a safe one
to ride on a road, as he seldom lifts his fore-feet high
enough to enable him with certainty to clear the in-
equalities of the road. His action, in consequence, is
much more pleasant ; and he possesses another quality
of much importance, namely, that he seldom or never
will shy at any object on the road ; two things of
valuable consideration to the rider.

Thoroughbred is a term employed in Britain to in-
dicate the descent of a horse from a South-Eastern

39^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

courser. The English racer has therefore been the
progressively improved breed, from a commixture of
our own horses with those of Asia. The horses of the
first blood, or such as are the nearest possible to the
Eastern stock, are those immediately produced from
the Arabian, or Barb ; any stallion with an English
mare, which has been already crossed with a Barb or
Arabian steed, in the first degree ; or that which has
sprung from two crossings in the same degree. In its
action the English race-horse is somewhat like that of
the Arabian, but differs from the Spanish horse in
carrying the whole of his frame forward with an
energetic power, while the motions of the latter are
measured with more of a graceful motion and shorter
step.

In breeding, a mare should be chosen with as
great a proportion of the blood of King Herod as
possible. She should be deep in the girth, long and
full in the fore-arm and thigh, short in the leg, stand-
ing clean and even upon the feet, and wide and
spreading in the hind-quarters. It is a curious fact
that the produce of our first-rate mares and an Asiatic
horse seldom or never are good racers ; and they must
be one remove at least from the foreign stock before
they can be depended upon.

THE HUNTER

Is a combination of the thoroughbred race-horse and
half-bred horses of greater strength, and less lengthy in
their carcase. He should be from fifteen to sixteen
hands in height. The points most likely to discover a
horse of good proportions as a hunter, are a sanguine
and healthy colour, with a lofty forehand, a head and
neck as light as possible, clear wide jaws and nostrils,

THE HACKNEY, OR ROADSTER 397

large and thin shoulders, strong and muscular thighs,
deep chest, and short back. Above all, his joints
should be strong, firm, and closely knit, his legs and
pasterns rather short ; for I believe there never was
yet a long hinder-legged horse that was able to gallop
down steep hills and take bold leaps with a weight
upon his back, without sinking or foundering. And,
lastly, his feet should be moderately large and
sound.

THE HACKNEY, OR ROADSTER,

Should be a hunter of a small size ; his height not
exceeding fifteen hands and an inch ; rather below
than above that size. His make should be more
compact than that of the hunter, with considerably
more substance according to his height, so as to fit
him for the fatigues of everyday work. His forehand
should be high, but rather light ; his head small, and
placed on the neck in a gradually tapering manner,
with a clear, full, and sprightly eye ; his shoulder
should be deep and large ; his back straight, and his
loins strong ; his withers well raised, his fillets wide ;
and his croop gradually descending, but must not drop
too abruptly, nor must his tail be too low set. The
forearm and thighs should be strong and muscular ;
and the legs rather short than otherwise, straight, and
rather near set, but the touching of the hoofs to be
carefully avoided. An essential point is, that the
shank-bone should be solid and flat. It is of great
consequence that the bones beneath the knee should
be deep and flat, and the tendon not too much
tightened. His feet ought to point straight forward,
with the heels wide and open ; the fore-legs closely set,
and as straight as possible ; for a horse with bent

398 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

knees is very likely to stumble and fall when his feet
come in contact with the smallest obstacle or inequality
of the road. In his action he ought to lift his fore-
legs high, and have a well-bent knee ; his hind-legs
should be placed considerably behind him, and widely
set.

We must, however, remark, that he ought only to
lift his fore-legs moderately high. Some are of opinion
that the higher he lifts them the better, and conceive
that while possessed of this quality he never will come
down. This is a mistake, and it will be found that a
horse that raises his feet too high in trotting, produces
a disagreeable action, and shakes and fatigues even
the best of riders ; besides, he batters his hoofs to
pieces in a few years. The principal thing to be
attended to is the manner in which the hackney puts
his feet to the ground ; for if his toes first touch the
road, he is sure to be a stumbler ; the foot should
come flat down on the whole sole at once, otherwise
the horse is not to be depended upon in his trotting.
But every rider in passing along a road should be
constantly on his guard, as the best horse may come
down by a rolling or loose stone getting under his feet,
and therefore his mouth should always be felt by the
rider. >i 5?iri

Some persons prefer hollow-backed horses on
account of their paces being generally easy ; but it is
an ascertained fact that they will never stand much
work : the back should be straight and rather short
than otherwise. Many suppose that if the fore-legs of
a horse are close, the feet must necessarily cut the
pasterns ; but this is by no means the case, as it is
only when the feet are twisted or irregularly set in one
way or other that they cut. Indeed a saddle-horse
can hardly be too close before, or too wide behind.

THE CHARGER 399

Another most essential point in a hackney is, that
his sight is good, otherwise he is sure to shy at every
object which suddenly meets his vision ; and conse-
quently by starting to one side is very apt to throw
his rider.

THE CHARGER.

Much diversity of opinion prevails in this, as well
as in other countries, respecting the kind of horse best
suited for a charger. At one period, the whole British
cavalry were mounted on strong, heavy horses, which
were bred from the large Flander's horses, crossed by
those of Britain. But in the Peninsular campaigns, it
was found that lighter horses, with a considerable pro-
portion of blood, were the most useful, as they got
over wet, marshy tracts of country better than heavier
horses. The qualities of a charger, or troop-horse, are
much the same as those of a hunter. His action
should be great, as well as his spirit ; the neck deep
and arched, with a large swelling breast ; the ribs full
and finely bent ; the chine broad and straight ; and
the rear round and full ; the legs broad and flat, and
the pasterns short. In action, the charger enters into
the spirit of the attack, as the hunter does that of the
chase. In the words of the poet —

**The fiery courser, when he hears afar
The sprightly trumpets and the shouts of war,
Pricks up his ears, and, trembhng with dehght,
Shifts place, and paws, and hopes the promised fight.
On his right shoulder his thick mane reclined,
Ruffles at speed, and dances in the wind :
His horny hoofs are jetty black and round.
His chine is double, starting with a bound,
He turns the turf, and shakes the solid ground ;
Fire from his eyes, clouds from his nostrils flow,
He bears his rider headlong on the foe."

400 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

The charger which has been in many battle-fields
retains as long as he lives a remembrance of his past
services, which is thus beautifully expressed in " The
Pleasures of Memory," one of the finest didactic poems
in our language : —

" And when the drum beats briskly m the gale,
The war-worn courser charges at the sound,
And with young vigour wheels the pasture ground.'*

THE COACH-HORSE.

The better kind of coach-horses owe their origin
to the Cleveland bays ; the greatest attention being
paid to breeding them in Yorkshire, Durham, and
Northumberland. Some fine horses of this kind have
also been bred in Lincolnshire. The most useful are
those which are propagated by a cross of the Cleve-
land mare, with a three-fourth or thoroughbred horse
of sufficient substance and height. They have a fine
knee action, lift their feet high, which gives grandeur
to their figure and paces ; the head is generally well
carried, and with a beautifully elevated crest.

THE CLEVELAND BAYS.

This fine breed emanated from Cleveland, in
Yorkshire, but are now bred in Northumberland and
Durham. They are of a superior size and of a good
form, with a strength and activity surpassing most
other horses. They are chiefly distinguished by their
bay colour. Mares of this breed, with full-blood
stallions, produce excellent hunters and roadsters ; and
with half-bred stallions, an offspring very suitable for
farm purposes, particularly that of ploughing.

THE DRAUGHT-HORSE 40I

THE DRAUGHT-HORSE.

Much variety of opinion has prevailed respecting
horses for the purposes of draught, and consequently
these are found to vary throughout the kingdom ; but
one principal character now prevails, that of weight, to
give them more physical force. For ordinary purposes
they should not be above sixteen hands high, with a
light, well-shaped head and neck, short pricked ears,
and brisk, sparkling eyes ; the nostrils large and wide,
to allow freedom in breathing ; their chests should be
full and deep, with large, strong, muscular shoulders,
but rather lower in front than otherwise ; that is, with
a large and round rump, which should be higher than
the forehand ; the tail firm, strong, and well furnished
with hair ; the back straight and tolerably long, but
not too much so, as that is found to impair the general
strength of the animal ; the legs should be rather long,
flat, and broad ; the fillets large and swelling, the joints
closely knit ; they should stand wide on all their legs,
the hind-quarters being wider than the fore.

Large horses are better adapted for waggons, and
have frequently been bred seventeen hands high, and
even more, with elevated forehands, and deep counters.
The great object in the breeding of draught-horses is
to increase strength, activity, and power ; to remove
weight as much as possible, and procure them of the
height of sixteen hands for general utility. Indeed it
has been proved that horses of this size have performed
feats of strength of greater magnitude than those of
elephantine proportions. I remember to have seen a
black cart-horse, of sixteen hands, draw thirty-six
hundred weight of baggage from Glasgow to Stirling,
a distance of twenty-seven miles, in about eleven hours.
Instances have been known where a single horse has

2C

405 MANUAL OF MODERN FAkRIERV

drawn a weight of three tons for a short distance. In
former times, when burdens were removed from one
locality to another by horses without carts, the pack-
horses of Yorkshire were accustomed to carry the
weight of four hundred and twenty pounds over the
old roads, which usually traversed high and precipitous
hills.

THE SUFFOLK PUNCH-HORSE.

This hardy and active breed has now become
nearly extinct. They are rather under sixteen hands
in height, and their colour chestnut or sorrel. Their
heads are rather large and coarse ; their ears being too
long and placed too distant from each other for modern
taste. The body is deep, capacious, and compact ;
the shoulders wide and thick at top, and somewhat
low, with the rump more elevated than the shoulder,
which it is supposed enables them to throw much of
their weight into the collar. They are large and
strong in the quarters, full in the flanks, flat and short
in the legs, with short pasterns.

In the ''Sportsman's Repository" we are told
that " they were the only race of horses which would
collectively draw repeated dead pulls, namely, draw
pull after pull, and down upon their knees, against a
tree, or any body which xki^y felt could not be moved,
to the time of J up, Ji ! ! and the crack of the whip
(once familiar, but abominable sounds, which even
now vibrate on our auditory nerves) as long as nature
supplied the power, and would renew the same
exertions to the end of the chapter."

The hideous yelling of most carters and farm
servants, which is still prevalent when driving horses,
not only in this country, but also on the Continent, is
a barbarous custom ; for I have known many instances

ASIATIC HORSES 46^

where gentlemen subdued this practice in their ser-
vants, and the most gentle and temperate accents were
found to succeed better than the frightful and thunder-
ing exclamations in general use. Every possible
means should be used by those who have either in-
fluence or power over that class of men, to abolish
this noisy and useless practice, which not only stuns
the poor, willing animal, but is also a great nuisance
while passing through the streets of a town.

The old Suffolk breed of horses brought very high
prices, but of late a larger breed has become more
fashionable in that country and neighbouring districts,
which for largeness and beauty certainly excel the old
breed. They have been produced from a cross with
the Yorkshire half- and three-part bred horses of the
coach kind, and are particularly beautiful and lofty in
the forehand. In the year 1813, at a sale in Suffolk
of the stock of a celebrated breeder, which was, in
consequence, numerously attended by persons of rank
and opulence, the horses brought considerable prices.
The following were a few of them : — A mare, with a
foal at her feet, ;^i24, 4s; a three-year-old filly,
£S^, IS ; a mare, which had lost the sight of one eye,
but of a beautiful form and powerful make, ;^98, 14s.
The whole of his stud consisted of fifty mares,
geldings, and foals, and brought the large sum of
^2263, 13s 6d.

SECTION II.— OF ASIATIC HORSES.

THE ARABIAN.

Arabia being sufficiently above the level of the
sea, and having a surface composed of sand, mixed
with a portion of vegetable mould (a circumstance
favourable to pasture-ground), and the plains of Persia,

454 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

situated still higher above the ocean, and consisting
of a deposit of alluvial soil, resting on granite, are
naturally dry, and by means of their heat attract
moisture from the horse. On the other hand, the
aromatic vegetation, which is there strong and succu-
lent, drives from him those humours, the exudation of
which is favoured by the imperceptible, but continual,
perspiration incidental to a warm climate. The con-
sequence is, that the horses of those and other
countries with similar pasturage, are completely free
from the strangles and other glandular diseases, which
are so frequent and fatal to those of Europe.

The pure Arabian is considerably smaller than
our racehorse, seldom exceeding fourteen hands two
inches in height. His head is very beautiful, clean,
and wide between the jaws ; the forehead broad and
square ; the face flat ; the muzzle short and fine ; the
nostrils large and open ; the eyes prominent and
brilliant ; the ears small and handsome ; the skin of
the head thin, through which may be distinctly traced
the whole of the veins ; the neck rather short than
otherwise. The body, as a whole, may be considered
too light, and the breast rather narrow ; but behind
the fore-legs, the chest generally swells out greatly,
and with much depth of ribs, leaving ample room for
the lungs to play ; the shoulder is superior to that of
any other breed ; the scapula, or shoulder-blade, in-
clines backward, nearly at an angle of forty-five
degrees ; the withers are high and arched ; the neck
beautifully curved ; the mane and tail long, thin, and
flowing ; the legs fine, flat, and wiry, with the flanks
placed somewhat oblique, which has led some to
suppose that their strength was thereby diminished ;
but this is by no means the case : the bone is of
uncommon density, and the prominent muscles of the

THE ARABIAN 405

forearms and thighs prove that the Arabian horse is
fully equal to all that has been said of his powers.
The Arabian is never known in a tropical climate to
be a roarer, or to have curbs ; the shape from the
point of the hock to the fetlock being very perfect. It
is a remarkable fact that the skin of all the light-
coloured Arabians is either pure black or bluish black,
which gives to white horses that beautiful silvery
grey colour so prevalent among the coursers of noble
blood. If an Arabian horse exceeds fourteen and a
half hands in height, the purity of the blood is always
doubted in India. Three of the swiftest horses which
were known in our own times at Madras, were under
fourteen hands.

Above all others, the Kohlan horse of Arabia is
distinguished for his superior qualities and the beauty
of his form. He possesses an uncommon mildness of
temper, an unalterable attachment to his master, a
courage and intrepidity as astonishing as they are
innate in his noble breast, an unfailing remembrance
of the places where he has been, of the treatment he
has received ; not to be led, not to be touched but by
his master ; in the midst of carnage in battle he is
cool and collected ; he never forgets the place he came
from, and though mortally wounded, if he can gather
up sufficient strength, he carries back his desponding
rider to his defeated tribe. His intelligence is wonder-
ful, and he seems to know when he is sold. When
the proprietor and purchaser meet for that purpose in
the stable, the Kohlan soon guesses what is going on,
becomes restless, gives from his beautiful eye a side-
glance at the interlocutors, scrapes the ground with
his foot, and plainly shows his discontent.

The action of the Arabian in his native plains is
very beautiful. He carries his head high, which gives

406 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

him a dignified aspect ; his tail is turned up In the
air, and forms a most graceful curve, which our
English dealers have vainly attempted to imitate by
the cruel and absurd practice of nicking the ver-
tebrae.

In Arabia the horse Is treated with the utmost
gentleness, kindness, and affection. He Inhabits the
same tent with his master and family. His wife and
children, with the mare and her foal, associate together
in indiscriminate friendship, occupying the same bed,
where the children may be seen prattling with and
climbing over the bodies, and hanging round the
necks of the docile creatures, who in their turn will
frequently repose with their heads inclining on some
one of the family. Whipping, by an Arab, is con-
sidered the greatest cruelty to horses, and it is by
gentle measures alone that he secures the willing
service and affection of his steed. Their friendship is
mutual ; for If the rider falls, although in the most
rapid career, the horse instantly turns round, and
halts till remounted by his master.

The Arab will never sell a mare on any considera-
tion whatever. The genealogies are always recorded
from the dams. In the pedigree of their steeds^ they
are more particular than any other people on earth ; it
is an undoubted fact that they have pedigrees among
them of not less than five hundred years. In this re-
spect they look upon it as of more importance than
that of their chiefs. Among the great dealers, they
pride themselves upon being rigidly strict, and are
more to be depended on than many of those of Europe
in the pedigree of the horses they offer for sale.
Weston, in his *' Fragments of Oriental Literature,"
gives the following pedigree, which was hung about
the neck of an Arabian, purchased by Colonel Ainslie

THE ARABIAN 4O7

during the campaign of Egypt : — ** In the name of God,
the merciful and compassionate, and of Seed Mo-
hammed, agent of the high God, and of the com-
panions of Mohammed, and of Jerusalem ! Praised be
the Lord, the Omnipotent Creator ! This is a high-
bred horse, and its colt's tooth is here in a bag about
his neck, with his pedigree, and of undoubted
authority, such as no infidel can refuse to believe.
He is the son of Rabbamy, out of the dam Lahadha,
and equal in power to his sire — of the tribe of
Zazhalah. He is finely moulded, and made for
running like an ostrich, and great in his stroke and
his cover. In the honours of relationship, Zaluah
reckons Lalaack, sire of Mahat, sire of Kallack, and
the unique Alket, sire of Manasseth, sire of Alsheh,
father of the race down to the famous horse, the sire of
Lahalala ; — and to him be ever abundance of green
meat and corn, and water of life, as a reward from the
tribe of Zazhalah, for the fire of his cover ; and many
a thousand branches shade his carcass, from the
hysena of the tomb, from the howling wolf of the
desert ; and let the tribe of Zazhalah present him with
a festival within an enclosure of walls, and let thou-
sands assemble at the rising of the sun, in troops,
hastily, where the tribe holds up under a canopy of
celestial signs within the walls ; the saddle, with the
name and family of the possessors. Then let them
strike the hands with a loud noise incessantly and
pray to God for immunity lor the tribe of Zoab, the
inspired tribe."

The Arabs have a breed of horses which they pre-
tend is descended from the stud of King Solomon ;
but this, of course, is not the case ; at all events,
exceedingly unlikely.

The Persian, Tartar, and Turkish horses are all

408 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

somewhat similar to the Arabian, but not so perfect in
their symmetry.

THE PERSIAN HORSE.

From the most remote ages Persia has been
famous for its breed of horses, which even now are
only excelled by the Arabian breed. The former, how-
ever, were noted for their excellence long before we
have any account of the latter. The Persian horse is
considerably larger than the Arabian. The neck is
beautifully arched, with a finely-formed crupper, and
the whole frame more developed. We are informed
by historians that Alexander the Great considered a
Persian horse as a gift of the highest value ; it was one
which he only bestowed on potentates and favourites
of the first class.

The Parthian kings used to sacrifice Persian horses
to their divinities ; this they considered the most
costly offering they could make.

THE TARTAR HORSE.

In the widely extended plains of independent
Tartary, there are various breeds of wild horses, which
differ considerably in their external conformation.
Those in general are ill-made, clumsy animals, but are
said to possess great speed. They are hunted by
the natives on account of their flesh, which is con-
sidered a great delicacy, more especially that of the
foals, which is prized above that of all other food.
The better formed animals are tamed and domesti-
cated.

The largest of these wild coursers are a little
larger than the smaller Russian horses, with large
heads in proportion to the size of the body, and some

THE TOORKOMAN HORSE, ETC. 4O9

of them have ears nearly as long as those of asses ;
their mane is very short and curled, their tails more or
less covered with hair, but always shorter than that of a
common horse, and certainly far from being a graceful
ornament. They are for the most part of a mouse
colour, and a few are of an ash-grey ; their coat is
very long, and extremely thick.

THE TOORKOMAN HORSE.

Turkistan is situate to the north of the Caspian
Sea, or South Tartary, and has been long celebrated
for a breed of horses possessing great physical powers :
these are called Toorkomans. Some travellers affirm
that they are greatly superior to the Persian race for
enduring long-continued exertion.

In their form, however, they are by no means
attractive, being too small in the barrel, with too long
legs, with lank necks, and heads disproportionably
large to the body. In size, they are from fifteen to
sixteen hands high, and of excellent temper.

In that portion of central Asia peopled by the
Tartars and Calmucks, are many herds, or tabunes,
of wild horses. These herds may be seen grazing
together on the same plain, but never intermingle, nor
do any individuals of the respective herds stray from
them. Their forms are so different that horses of one
herd can at once be distinguished from those of the
other.

THE TURKISH HORSE.

k

The horses of Turkey are chiefly descendants from
those of Arabia, Persia, and Barbary. Their fore-
heads are slender, and they carry their heads higher

^han the Arabian breed ; their bodies are longer, a,nd

4IO MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

their crupper more elevated. They are possessed of a
great deal of fire and spirit, extremely active, and
peculiarly adapted to the Turkish mode of performing
military evolutions. They are said to evince great
affection for their masters.

SECTION III.— OF AFRICAN HORSES.

The horses of Africa are next to the Arabian in
point of lineage and excellence, and are probably
sprung from them. They generally possess a fine
form and that mildness of disposition peculiar to the
Eastern horses.

THE BARB.

The present horses of Morocco are a race nearly
allied to the Arabian, and have been produced by a
cross of those of Algiers, which are supposed to have
had their origin in a south European breed, crossed
with the Arabian, but somewhat larger than the latter
in size, with fine heads and crests, and in general well
formed about the shoulder, straight backed, but droop
considerably towards the haunches. They are exceed-
ingly swift ; and as none of them are geldings they
possess great spirit, and are naturally fiery in their
dispositions.

The forehead of the Barb is generally long and
slender, and his mane rather scanty ; his ears are
small, beautifully shaped, and so placed on the forehead
as to give him great expression ; his shoulders are
tight, flat, and sloping backwards ; withers fine, and
standing high ; loins short and straight ; flanks and
ribs round and full, without producing in him too large
a belly ; his haunches are strong and elastic ; the
croup is sometimes long to a fault ; the tail is placed

THE EGYPTIAN HORSE, ETC. 4II

high ; thighs well turned and rounded ; legs clean and
beautifully formed, with the hair thin, short, and silky ;
the tendons are detached from the bone, but the
pasterns are frequently too long, and bending ; the
feet are rather small, but sound for the most part,

THE EGYPTIAN HORSE.

These horses are not at all to be compared with
those of Persia and Arabia. They have neither the
fire nor shape of these breeds, and are said to be thick
in the breathing. These bad qualities, in all probability,
arise from the humid atmosphere, and the low alluvial
flats on which they are pastured.

THE NUBIAN AND DONGOLA HORSES.

Bruce says, " The Nubian horses are beautiful
and symmetrical in their parts, of large size, great
strength, and most active, agile, nervous, and elastic
in their movements, capable of great endurance of
fatigue, docility of temper, and seeming attachment to
man, beyond any other domestic animal ; and if these
faculties can promise anything for a stallion, the
Nubian is, above all comparison, the most eligible in
the world. They are all kept monstrously fat." They
are black or white, but a vast proportion of the former
to the latter ; and a few bright bays, or inclining to
sorrel.

The horses of Dongola, like those of the district
of Nubia, are of large size, standing full sixteen hands
high ; but the length of the body, from the shoulders
to the quarters, is considerably less, so that their form
is quite opposed to that of the Arabian or English
thoroughbred horses, which are longer than they are
high by some inches. Their necks are long and

412 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

slender, and their crests very fine ; the withers sharp
and high, producing a beautiful forehand. They are,
however, faulty in the breast, being too narrow, and
the quarters and flanks too flat, with the back some-
what bent. Bosman thinks them the most beautiful
in the world. One of these horses was sold in Grand
Cairo in 1816 for a sum equivalent to one thousand
pounds sterling.

Several of these steeds have been imported into
Europe, and some into England ; but they did not
turn out so well for breeding from as was expected.
This failure might possibly arise from not breeding
them with the kind of animal to which their qualities
are likely to be the most useful. It is very probable
that they might improve our cavalry horses by
crossing them with three-part bred mares.

SECTION IV.— AMERICAN HORSES.

Horses are found in vast numbers in a wild state
in the immense plains of South America, extending
from the shores of La Plata to Patagonia. They are
an emancipated race, emanating from those v/hich
were carried thither by the Spaniards, after their
discovery of the new continent ; and have increased
with such astonishing rapidity, that they are to be
seen in troops of many thousands. Azara affirms
that they sometimes congregate in squadrons of not
less than ten thousand individuals. They are invari-
ably preceded by a leader, by whose movements they
are governed ; and all they do seems to be conducted
in a systematic style.

These immense troops do not always feed together,
but are dispersed into smaller herds ; though when
disturbed they congregate, and continue so until th^

AMERICAN HORSES 413

cause of alarm has passed away. In form they bear a
strong resemblance to the horses of Barbary and
Turkey. Their colours are chestnut, bay, sorrel, or
black ; the latter, however, is not very common, chest-
nut being the prevailing colour, from which some
authors suppose that this must have been the original
colour of the horse ; but we do not find it to be the
prevailing colour of the Asiatic wild breeds, bay and
dun being the most common amongst these.

When the Spaniards first entered Mexico, their
horses were objects of the greatest astonishment to all
the people of New Spain. At first they imagined the
horse and his rider, like the centaur of the ancients, to
be some monstrous animal of a terrible form ; and
supposing that their food was the same as that of man,
brought flesh and bread to nourish them.

In South America mares are never ridden. An
Englishman, who once attempted to ride a mare, was
so hooted and pelted by the natives, that he had a
narrow escape, and thought himself fortunate to get
off without serious injury.

Wild horses are captured in South America by the
native inhabitants of the plains, who are called Gauchos.
They are taken by these men with much dexterity,
with a halter called a lasso ; which is thus described
by Miers, in his Travels in Chili: — "The lasso is a
missile weapon used by every native of the provinces
of Chili. It is a very strong, plaited thong, of equal
thickness, half an inch in diameter, and forty feet long,
made of strips of green hide plaited like a whip-thong,
and rendered supple by grease. It has at one end
an iron ring, about one inch and a half in diameter,
through which the thong is passed and forms a
running noose.

" The Gaucho, or native Peon, is generally mounted

4^4 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRlERV

on horseback when he uses the lasso. One end of the
thong being affixed to his saddle-girth, the remainder
he coils carefully in his left hand, leaving about twelve
feet, belonging to the noose end, in a coil, half of which
he holds in his right hand. He then swings this loose
noose horizontally round his head, the weight of the
iron ring at the end of the noose assisting in giving to
it, by a continued circular motion, a sufficient force to
project it the whole length of the line."

The Gaucho takes a wild horse by first mounting
an animal which has been accustomed to the sport,
and gallops over the plain in the direction where the
herd of wild horses are, and, circling round, by degrees
gets near to one of them ; and as soon as he has ap-
proached sufficiently near, *' the lasso is thrown round
the two hind-legs, and as the Gaucho rides round a
little on one side, the jerk pulls the entangled horse's
feet laterally, so as to throw him on his side, without
endangering his knees or face. Before the horse can
recover the shock, the rider dismounts, and snatching
his cloak from his shoulders, wraps it round the
prostrate animal's head. He then forces into his
mouth one of the powerful bridles of the country,
straps a saddle on his back, and bestriding him,
removes the cloak ; upon which the astonished horse
springs on his legs, and endeavours by a thousand vain
efforts to disencumber himself of his new master, who
sits quite composedly on his back and by a discipline
which never fails, reduces the horse to such complete
obedience, that he is soon trained to lend his whole
speed and strength to the capture of his companions."

There is a remarkable difference in the dispositions
of the Asiatic and South American wild horses :
those of the former country can never be properly
tamed, unless taken and trained very young ; if

AMERICAN HORSiES 4^5

Captiirecl when adults, they frequently break out in
fits of rage in after life, exhibiting every mark of
natural wildness ; whereas those of America can be
brought to perfect obedience, and even rendered some-
what docile within a few weeks.

k

CHAPTER XIX.

The Ass and Mule.
THE ASS.

This animal belongs to the same natural genus as the
horse, and has been under the dominion of man from the
earliest ages of which we have any account. Indeed,
he seems to have been sooner domesticated than the
horse ; for we find asses mentioned in the twelfth
chapter of Genesis, as domesticated, 1920 years before
the Christian era, although nothing is said of the
horse.

In early times, the ass was not, as is now the case
with us, considered a despicable animal ; for we find
that he was rode by the rich and noble in preference
to the horse, as will appear from the following in-
stances, which we select from many that are recorded
in the sacred writings : — When Abraham went to
offer his son Isaac, he rode upon an ass : Joseph's
brethren rode on asses when they went down to
Egypt to purchase corn ; and we are told that when
Moses left Jethro, his father-in-law, he took his wife
and his sons, and set them upon asses, and returned
to Egypt. In the enumeration of Job's property,
which appears to have been very great, we find that
he had five hundred she-asses ; and in his prosperity
he is said to have had a thousand. It is probable
that the preference given to she-asses arose from the

THE ASS 417

circumstance, that as the ass can subsist on a scanty
and coarse fare, the female would not only bear the
riders and their goods through the desert, but also
with her milk contribute to the support of her master
and his followers.

The ass is by no means that stupid animal which
he is generally supposed to be. He possesses all the
senses in a very high degree, and his perceptions are
clear and precise ; and it may be affirmed that he has
more solid good qualities than the horse. His dis-
position is naturally timid ; hence the caution of his
movements, which the thoughtless have improperly
attributed to stupidity and obstinacy.

The ass is robust in constitution, and is liable to
few diseases. His temperance is very great, being
able to subsist on a scanty meal, of the coarsest
herbage. He is more sure-footed than the horse, and
superior to him in comparative strength. The Hebrew
word athor is a term for the ass, from a root which
signifies strong or firm ; and he is less easily startled
than the horse, a failing in this quadruped by which
many lose their lives. Those very qualities which
unthinking men ought to appreciate, have, on the con-
trary, the effect of bringing upon the unfortunate
and patient animal an overwhelming load of unmerited
hardships, barbarous chastisement, and contempt.
His services are despised by the rich ; and he is
destined only to share the labours of the poor and
needy, whose hearts are hardened by poverty, with
scarcely a kindly feeling to bestow on the humble and
patient animal, who exerts all his energies in their
service, and whose scanty meal is often so limited as
to be hardly sufficient to sustain life, and on whom,
when weak and debilitated, the abject wretch but too
frequently wreaks his chagrined feelings. Is it then

2 D

41 8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

to be wondered at, that the poor animal should ex-
hibit a character of stupidity and dullness? It is
chiefly in Britain that this valuable animal is treated
with barbarity, and is a disgrace to our national
character. Cruel treatment to any animal should be
punished with the utmost severity by the legislature ;
for although the Almighty has given man dominion
over the beasts of the field, yet the All-wise could
never intend man to tyrannise over the poor, helpless
creatures which have feelings equal to his own, and
gratitude far surpassing the lords of the creation,
when properly treated.

In Eastern and mountainous countries, the ass is
held in high estimation, and is treated with that care
which he so justly merits. In mountain tracts his
services are invaluable in transporting travellers and
their baggage where the horse is of no use. In
Aleppo there is a large and handsome breed, and
in Persia also, where they sell for seventy-five ducats
to one hundred crowns.

THE MULE.

It is a matter of surprise that mules are not more
bred in this country, as their action is much more
agreeable than that of the horse ; and they are also
more hardy in their nature. It is not known when
mules were first bred. The first mention of them
in the sacred writings is 1 740 years before the Christian
era. In the book of Genesis it is said, " This was
that same Anah that found mules in the wilderness
as he fed the asses of Zibeon his father." It is a dis-
puted point whether he was the first breeder of them :
Aristotle and Pliny are of opinion that he was. How-
ever this may be, mules do not appear to have become

THE MULB 419

common in India until the reign of David, which was
about 300 years after the death of Anah. We think
it very improbable that wild mules were found, as
hybrids are only known to be generated under the
influence of domestication. Or, if the manner of
engendering mules were known to the Israelites, that
people probably desisted from breeding them in con-
sequence of the law of God against their propagation ;
for it is said, ''Ye shall keep my statutes. Thou
shalt not let thy cattle gender with diverse kinds."
It is, therefore, likely that the mules which David
and his nobles rode were imported from other countries,
where they appear to have been common long before
his reign. In Greece and Cappadocia they abounded
in early times, for the latter country paid an annual
tribute of mules to Persia.

The mule, like its progenitor, the ass, is much more
useful as a beast of burden in mountainous countries
than the horse, being very sure-footed. Their long
and sweeping pace on a plain makes their motion ex-
tremely easy and agreeable to the rider. Fifty or
sixty pounds sterling is no uncommon price for a fine
mule in Spain,

SECTION IL

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

INTRODUCTION.

The chief attention of the veterinary art has been
devoted to diseases of the horse. This has pro-
ceeded in a great measure from selfishness on the
part of those practising it, being better paid for the
treatment of horses than cattle. This department
has been hitherto almost entirely practised by farmers,
and uneducated country blacksmiths. However, Mr
Dick, of Edinburgh, Professor of Veterinary Surgery
to the Highland Society, has done much towards in-
creasing our knowledge in this most important branch :
indeed, none is more so, when we consider so much
of the comfort and health of the human race depends
upon the quality of that food so much used in almost
every country.

The following judicious remarks are made by Mr
Lawrence in his excellent work : — " It should be
considered that animals, living in a state of nature,
regulated by the reason and experience of man,
would be almost wholly exempt from disease ; that
their appetites, like our own, may be held under a
constant control ; that their diseases result purely
from negligence or erroneous treatment of their
owners. They are either too much exposed to the

422 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

rigour and changes of the weather, or they are gorged
with food, denied a sufficient quantity, or supplied
with such as is unwholesome. Here we learn the
chief cause of their maladies. Learn to prevent tkem,
instead of undertaking the tedious, unsuitable, and
hopeless task of learning to cure them. Of all things
let the proprietors of cattle renounce for ever the in-
sane folly of offering premiums for curing incurable
diseases, and the hope of providing medicines which,
by a sort of miraculous operation, will enable men to
continue in the habit of exposing their animals to the
constant risk of such diseases. I have no infallible
recipes to offer. On the contrary, I wish to impress
my readers strongly with the idea that all infallible
recipes are infallible nonsense''

We agree with Mr White, that, "almost all the
diseases of cattle arise either from exposure to wet
and cold weather, from their food being of a bad
quality, or deficient in quantity, or from being changed
too suddenly from poor, unwholesome keep to richer
pasture. It is necessary to observe also that the
animal is more liable to be injured by exposure to
wet and cold, when previously enfeebled by bad keep,
old age, or any other cause, and particularly when
brought from milder and more sheltered situations.
I have scarcely met with a disease that is not attributed
by those who have the care of cattle, to a chill ; and
under this impression the most stimulating medicines
are usually employed : among which we generally find
grains of paradise, ginger, long pepper, and mustard,
in large doses. It unfortunately happens that the
disorders arising from a chill are often of an in-
flammatory nature, and require a very different treat-
ment. It must be granted, however, that cattle more
frequently require stimulating medicines than horses ;

PLATE XI II

Dr-amm ly T Brown

KHmM5fM. STMICKHnEE ©IF TTIHUE EM^ ©IF A
^.CiECTDSg m ®? 4, ST<QSflA!CH (Of A

©CCKJFltirM. MME ©IF ;

INTRODUCTION 423

and that bleeding is not so frequently necessary, nor
is it carried to such an extent in the former as in
horses, particularly in milch-cows. Many of the
medicines of which their drinks or drenches are com-
posed are quite inert, some are nearly so, and others
are very nasty."

Black cattle, sheep, and goats are included in a
distinct order called ruminants, or those animals which
chew the cud. They have three kinds of teeth ; and
are destitute of the incisory or cutting teeth in the
upper jaw, but are furnished with eight in the lower
one, which are opposed to a dense callous structure in
the upper gums. There are twelve grinders in each
jaw, marked with two double crescents of enamel on
their crowns, of which the convexity is outwards in
the lower, and internal in the upper jaw. They have
four stomachs, calculated for ruminating, or the
faculty of masticating their food a second time, by
bringing it back to the mouth after a deglutition, a
faculty depending upon the structure of their stomachs.
The three first stomachs are so disposed that the food
may enter into either of them, the oesophagus ter-
minating at the point of communication.

The first, and greatly the largest, is called the
paunch or ''rumen," and occupies a considerable por-
tion of the abdominal cavity. In this bag the food is
macerated after very slight mastication ; it is divided ex-
ternally into two saccular portions. It is in this cavity
that all these morbid concretions are formed, called
hairy balls, etc. (see Plate xiii, fig. 4, ci). The second
stomach is called the honeycomb-bag or " reticulum,"
in consequence of its parieties being laminated like a
honeycomb. It is much smaller than the first, and of
a globular form. Its of^ce is to seize, moisten, and
compress the food into little pellets, which afterwards

424 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

successively ascend to the mouth to be re-chewed.
The animal remains at rest during this operation,
which lasts until all the food first taken into the
paunch has been submitted to it. The aliment thus
re-masticated descends directly through the oesophagus
into the third stomach. Now, as this latter tube com-
municates with three of the stomachs, the contents of
the mouth may be sent into any of the three by the
will of the animal. This stomach is the smallest of
the three, and resembles a rolled-up hedgehog ; its
external coat has broad duplicatures, like the leaves of
a book, and is called the manyplies or ** omasum "
(see 3«). There the food only remains a short time,
and undergoes some change which fits it for being
received into the fourth stomach, which is called the
abomasum, the sides of which are wrinkled, and which
is the true organ of digestion, corresponding with the
same organ in man and other mammiferous animals.
The internal coating furnishes plentifully the ordinary
gastric secretions for facilitating digestion. There is
a beautiful provision in Nature, that while the young
ruminants are still feeding on milk, this stomach is
the largest of the whole. The paunch is only
developed by receiving increased quantities of grass,
which finally gives it an enormous volume. The in-
testinal canal is very long, though there are but few
enlargements in the great intestines. The caecum is
likewise long and tolerably smooth.

Of all animals, the ruminants are the most useful
to man. He can eat all parts of the animal ; and it is
from that he procures most of the flesh which con-
stitutes his aliment.

The passage of the food through these various
stomachs will be easily understood by reference to
fig. 4, Plate XIII. Its course is indicated by the

INTRODUCTION 425

direction of the probes a, b. The oesophagus com-
municates on one hand with the paunch, i, and on the
other, with the cavities, 2, 3, 4 ; and by the aid of a
muscular fold formed by the walls of the second cavity,
a passage may be formed which leads directly into
the third stomach, without communicating with the
second. It would therefore seem that the process of
rumination is effected in the following manner : — The
herbage when first swallowed in an unmasticated
form passes into the paunch, i, where it accumulates,
and undergoes a kind of preliminary mastication.
When this paunch is filled, the animal desists from
grazing, and the food is again regurgitated into the
mouth to undergo that more complete mastication.
It then passes into the second stomach, or reticulum,
and is there formed into a smooth, lubricated bolus,
which being expelled into the oesophagus, is immediately
seized by the spiral muscles surrounding that canal,
and forced forward into the mouth. After undergoing
a thorough trituration, the aliment is again swallowed,
and then enters the third stomach. Here it is spread
out over the extensive surface formed by the laminated
walls of the manyplies, and is prepared for admission
into the last or true stomach.

CHAPTER I.

Diseases of the Head and Neck of Neat Cattle.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN.

Symptoms. — This fatal disease but seldom occurs in
neat cattle. The animal afflicted with the disorder
exhibits a frightful appearance ; he is unusually watch-
ful, starts frequently, and groans loudly, as if labouring
under severe and sudden pain ; his respiration is slow,
although he will sometimes make long inspirations,
and has all the appearance of his breathing being
entirely suspended. The animal becomes exceedingly
restless, lying down, starting and rising up suddenly
and frequently, with signs of delirium, and groans
piteously. When this becomes great, the eyes have
a red and furious appearance ; and at other times he
manifests symptoms of stupefaction and listlessness,
and shows evident signs of constant fear, avoiding
every object which he approaches. Sometimes he is
quite ungovernable, and never lies down to repose.
If the disease has been allowed to gain an ascendency,
or has not been abated by the ordinary treatment, then
the animal sinks into a state of stupefaction and total
want of energy or tact. In some cases, the animal
urinates frequently, and it is of a high colour ; at other
times it is paler than usual, but in both cases he stales
frequently.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN 427

When strong lethargic symptoms ensue, in con-
sequence of sudden abatement of the frenzy and
irritation, the pulse becomes feeble, and the strength
quickly diminishes. This is strongly symptomatic
of approaching dissolution. But on the other hand,
if the fever and redness of the eyes gradually subside,
without the pulse suddenly sinking, or great and
quick debility ensuing, it is pretty certain that the
animal is in the way of recovery.

When cattle have died of this complaint, their
heads have been opened, and it has been found that
the membranes have exhibited strong inflammatory
symptoms, and in many cases in the substance itself,
and even effusion of lymph, serum, and blood, where
the animals have been greatly frenzied.

Causes. — Great heat, in exposed situations,
where there is no shade to screen them from the
mid-day sun, an excess of exercise, a sudden change
from poor to rich pasture, and an inadequate supply of
water, poisonous plants ; with other causes which in-
duce congestion and inflammatory febrile complaints.

Remedy. — Whenever the symptoms which we have
above described are noticed, prompt decisive measures
must be adopted. Either the jugular vein or temporal
artery should be opened, and blood taken. When
the animal labours under a very high degree of
excitement, the more rapid the discharge of blood the
better. When bleeding has been effected, a strong
stimulating blister should be applied to the crown of
the head, over the brain, and the sides of the neck
should be rubbed with a mixture of cantharides and
oil of turpentine, and every possible means adopted to
induce external inflammation, so as to determine the
blood from the head. The bowels should be kept

428 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

open by means of an active purgative, according to
the following recipe : —

Sulphate of soda . . , . i pound,
Powdered caraway seeds . . i ounce,
Oatmeal gruel . . . . i quart.

CHOKING

Is the name given to a mechanical obstruction to
the passage of food from the mouth to the stomach.
This obstruction may take place in the pharynx or
entrance to the oesophagus or gullet, or about half-
way down the oesophagus, or where the oesophagus
ends in the stomach. The cause given rise to the
arrest is generally the shape and not the size of the
article swallowed. A turnip sliced, rarely chocks a
cow, but if the animal be allowed to eat it with her
teeth, the last portion of it swallowed is prone to stick,
it being now more or less pointed and irregular in its
outline.

Choking never results in the passage of the food
from the rumen to the stomach, as the bolus or food is
preceded by a quantity of fluid which lubricates, and at
same time distends the walls of the oesophagus.
There has been invented by Mr Alexander, a farmer
of Tweeddale, a useful instrument, called a probang, for
pushing down the food when it sticks in the throat,
which can be had of all instrument-makers who deal in
implements for the use of farmers. But where
farmers or others do not possess this instrument, a
substitute may be made in the following manner.

Three small canes of about five and a half or
six feet long, are firmly bound together by waxed
twine, rolled closely round its whole length. To the
extremity of the canes is attached an elongated knob,

LOCKED-JAW 429

made of shammy leather, stuffed with tow, and having
a cup-shaped extremity. This knob must be firmly
attached, by having long thongs proceeding from the
edges of the leather, and firmly welted down by the
enveloping twine. See Plate x, fig. 19. The purpose
of the cup-shaped extremity is to make certain of
pushing forward the obstructing food, which but for
this termination might slip past it. Great care must
be taken that the knob is properly attached, as, should
it come off, it must ever remain in the stomach, an
undigestible incumbrance, which is certain to create
disease. The cup-shaped termination should be
formed of tin, with a number of holes in it to permit
of the leather being sown to it. See Plate x, fig. 20.
Whalebone, if sufficiently long, is preferable to cane,
as being much more elastic. Great care must be
exercised on using the probang, or otherwise the
cesophagus may be ruptured.

LOCKED-JAW.

Symptoms. — Tetanus or locked-jaw is at once
distinguished by the animal being incapable of moving
his jaw or of opening his mouth for the reception of
food. It consists of a spasmodic contraction of the
muscles by which the jaw is moved. If means cannot
be devised to remove the spasm, the animal attacked
must necessarily die for want of food. ':Jinyq<>

Cause. — The causes giving rise to lock-jaw and
other forms of tetanus, is the same in all animals, viz.,
the entrance, through a wound, of the *' Bacillus
Tetani " into the tissues of the affected animal, and as
these have been already considered in dealing with
the disease in the horse, the reader is referred for
further information to page 1 3 of this work.

430 MANUAL OP MODERN FARRIERY

SORE THROAT.

Congestion and inflammation of the mucous mem-
brane which lines the pharynx, or anterior portion of
the gullet, is not an uncommon occurrence in cattle,
and when associated with the formation of abscess in
the ''Velum Pendulum Paleti," or soft palate, gives
rise to great distress in breathing. Tumours fre-
quently grow from the mucous membrane of the
pharynx, and according to their situation interfere
with the breathing.

Symptoms of sore throat are stretching of the
head and neck, pointing of the nose, heaving of the
flanks, disinclination to eat or drink, difficulty in swal-
lowing, and a sound heard in inspiration.

Remedies. — Apply a mustard embrocation to the
throat, or cantharides blister. Feed the animal on
oatmeal and linseed gruels, and if bowels are consti-
pated, administer a dose of purgative medicine.
Unless the bowels are markedly constipated, do not
administer any medicine by pouring it over, as there
is a liability for the liquid passing into the larynx and
thus entering the lungs instead of the stomach.

If an abscess forms in the soft palate, the distress
in breathing will be great, and necessitate the per-
formance of tracheotomy. The abscess when ripe
will also require to be opened, and neither of these
operations should be undertaken except by an experi-
enced veterinarian.

SNORES.

Symptoms. — The snores or snivels are known by a
collection of thick, coagulated matter, inside the
nostrils ; and when the accumulation becomes great,
it impedes the respiration through the nostrils, and

SNORES 431

produces a snivelling sound, as the air is expired and
inspired. This complaint is sometimes mistaken for a
disease in the throat, where it is imagined it causes
obstruction. However, an inspection of the nostrils
will readily show whether it is the snivels or not. The
inflammation causes swelling in the nostrils, and it is
not until suppuration has taken place, that the animal
is relieved.

Cause. — The cause of this complaint is exposure
to cold, producing inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the nose.

Remedy. — To effect a speedy cure, every means
should be adopted to facilitate suppuration ; and
fomentations or heating liniments will prove the most
effectual. It has been found that oil of bays injected
up the nostrils frequently has the effect of inducing
speedy suppuration. Steam of hot water has also
been successfully employed ; or holding a thick cloth
steeped in warm water to the nostrils will produce the
same effect. Putting a warm mash of bran into a
thick canvas bag, and attaching it to the nose, in the
same manner as the nose-bag of a horse, has also
been attended with speedy results. While the animal
is labouring under this disease, he should be kept
warm, and in a house, and supplied with nutritious
food.

CHAPTER II.
Diseases of the Chest

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS (PNEUMONIA).

Symptoms. — The premonitory symptoms of this com-
plaint are loss of appetite, with depression and an
appearance of anxiety ; rapidity of breathing, and
consequent increased motion of the flanks, accompanied
by a hard, dry, short cough. The pulse at first is full
and oppressed, thereafter quick and small, and difficult
to be felt. The mucous membrane lining the eyelids
is considerably congested, and sometimes approaching
to a deep orange colour. Milch-cows soon become dry,
and the horns, ears, and legs are generally cold.

Cause. — This complaint is caused by sudden
changes of temperature, or by removing the animals
from close, sheltered situations, to exposed, high, and
cold localities. Cattle feeding in low and damp
situations, exposed to dense fogs and moist atmos-
pheric changes are liable to be affected with inflamma-
tion of the lungs. Suddenly checking the perspiration
by drinking a large quantity of cold water, when the
animal is subjected to a high temperature, is another
frequent cause. From this it will be manifest that
sheltered sheds will be most beneficial in the feeding
of cattle, either to retire into when exposed to the
meridian of a summer sun, or during rains. It will be
seen that in either case cattle will invariably avail

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS (pNEUMONIa) 433

themselves of shelter when it is within their reach.
And, during variable seasons, movable sheds, however
temporary, would be found of much value in prevent-
ing diseases of this description.

Remedies. — As soon as the symptoms v/hich we
have described are noticed, recourse may be had to
bleeding. It is a mistake to bleed too profusely, as such
weakness is often induced, that the animal never again
rallies, and death follows. To act as a sedative on the
heart, and lessen the frequency of its pulsations and
force, Fleming's tincture of aconite may be given in
fifteen drop doses every third hour, but as it is a
deadly poison, care must be exercised in its use,
and not more than ten doses given except under
the guidance of the veterinary surgeon.

Tartarised antimony . • ^ ounce.
Saltpetre .... 3 drachms,

dissolved in a quart of linseed gruel, and the dose re-
peated every twelve hours, until the symptoms have
disappeared. Counter - irritation by mustard and
turpentine to the chest should be employed and re-
peated until the chest wall becomes tender to the
touch of the fingers.

Instances have frequently occurred where cattle
died in twelve or fourteen hours after being attacked
with inflammation of the lungs.

Some veterinarians recommend a large seton in the
dewlap, and to be stimulated with an embrocation of
ammonia, spirit of turpentine, and mustard ; but the
connection of the dewlap with the lungs, is too remote
to act in the manner intended, namely, by counter-
irritation.

^

2B

434 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

CONTAGIOUS PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.

Cattle, like all other creatures which have lungs,
are liable to attacks of congestion and inflammation of
these organs from the causes which produce in-
flammation in other animals, but they are also liable
to be attacked by a specific form of inflammation of
the lungs, which as yet has been found in no other
but the Bovine race.

This contagious and specific form of inflammation
of the lungs and its covering (Pleura) was unknown
in this country until the year 1841. According to
the literature on this subject, and on the authority of
Bourgelat (Founder of the French Veterinary College),
this disease existed in France in 1769, and appeared
in Prussia and Germany in 1802 ; in Russia in 1824;
Belgium, 1827 ; Holland, 1833 ; Sweden, 1847 ;
Denmark, 1848; Cape of Good Hope, 1854; United
States of America, 1843; Melbourne, 1858; New
Zealand, 1864 ; and in all these countries named, with
the single exception of Great Britain, it still exists.

The name by which the disease is known, viz.,
"Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia," is a misnomer and
very misleading. It is a parasitic disease, and the
lung lesions or structural changes in the lung and its
covering are the results or consequences of the specific
organisms breeding and burrowing in the lung tissue.
It is a highly infectious disease, the organisms being
given off in the breath of the affected animal.

The late Professor Dick did not believe in its
infection, and as a consequence the bulk of veterinarians
held the same opinion, and no measures having been
taken to prevent the spread of the malady by infected
animals, within a few years of its first appearance in

CONTAGIOUS i?LEURO-PNEtJMONtA 4^5

this country, it had become widespread, and the
deaths very numerous.

In all probability another reason for its infectious-
ness having been overlooked may be found in the
fact that the lung disease does not manifest itself in
recognisable symptoms, for at least six weeks after the
animal has become infected.

Instances have been cited tending to show a
period of incubation or hatching for twelve months,
but undoubtedly the average period of incubation in a
primary and uncomplicated case of epizootic pleuro-
pneumonia is six weeks.

Symptoms. — The first and earliest symptom is a
cough of a peculiar short, sharp, and dry character,
increase of temperature, pulse full and quick, breath-
ing quickened, nostrils dilated, bowels constipated,
a slight grunt at expiration, and marked tenderness
when spine is pressed. On recourse to auscultation
and percussion, certain sounds are heard which in-
dicate the existence of bronchial disturbance and
lung disease. As the disease advances the tempera-
ture increases, the grunt becomes louder, and the
breathing distinctly abdominal.

Causes. — The cause of this, like all other specific
diseases, is the entrance of the living specific organism
into the lungs. Unlike many other specific or germ
diseases, it cannot be propagated by inoculation of the
diseased exudates of the lungs, neither can it be
propagated by ingestion, that is by the introduction of
the virus into the stomach in food or drink. It can
only be propagated in one way, and that is by In-
halation^ inhaling the breath of the living affected
animal, and the moment the animal dies the infection
or power to infect ceases.

436 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Remedies. — Like other germ diseases, once the
germs have gained an entrance to the lungs, the
diseased conditions or structural changes will progress
until the last germ has ceased to exist. We know of
no agent which will destroy these germs and not
destroy the lung tissue. But we know of a method
and an agent whereby cattle whose lungs are sound can
be rendered proof to the attacks of the organisms, and
that method consists in inoculating the lymph found
in the early stages of the disease in the lung of the
affected animal into the tail of the sound animal.

Inoculation of the virus has been looked upon by
some as producing a milder form of the disease, and
some have gone the length of asserting that it is a
curative agent, but in our opinion it is neither the one
nor the other. The result of inoculation in our hands
has never demonstrated the existence during life of
a lung affection, nor has it demonstrated, on post-
mortem, diseased lungs, and therefore we hold that
it does not produce a milder form of the disease or any
form at all. Moreover, an inoculated animal, if its
lungs were sound, that is free of the pleuro germs at
the time of inoculation, has never been known to give
the disease to other cattle. Then as regards the
curative power of the inoculated lymph, numerous
experiments have satisfied us that it is neither a
diagnostic nor curative agent, the symptoms exhibited
and the series of changes produced at the point of
inoculation, being as pronounced in the affected as the
non-affected animal.

A sound animal successfully inoculated with the
lymph found in the lungs of an affected animal, is
beyond all doubt immune to an attack of infectious
pleuro-pneumonia by the natural method.

This disease, as has already been stated, is non-

CONTAGIOUS PLEURO-PNEUMONIA 437

existent in this country, and not being an indigenous
disease, will not appear again until re-imported, but
as the importation of cattle, except for immediate
slaughter at the port of debarkation, is prohibited,
there is little chance of it again ravishing our herds.

In stamping out the disease (which many asserted
would never be achieved), two methods were advocated.
The first, by slaughter of all the cattle on the farm or
premises where the disease was found to exist ; and
second, the slaughter of all affected animals, and the
inoculation of all the other cattle in the country.

The last method being the more humane, was
the most popular, but it was not supported by the
members of the veterinary profession who advised the
Board of Agriculture, and for various reasons, some of
which we will now refer to : —

I. Cattle are subject to two forms of inflammation
of their lungs, one of which is non-infectious and
curable, the other infectious and generally fatal.

II. In the living animal the two diseases cannot be
differentiated by veterinary skill, or by inoculation or
any other method known to the veterinary profession.

III. The undoubted existence of infectious pleuro-
pneumonia, as distinguished from simple pleuro-
pneumonia, can only be affirmed after a post-mortem
examination of the lungs has been made.

IV. Granting that the existence of contagious
pleuro-pneumonia has been correctly diagnosed in one
or more members of a herd, and all have been
slaughtered which exhibited the slightest symptoms
of a lung affection, and all the remaining animals have
been most carefully and apparently successfully in-
oculated, where is the guarantee that not one of the
inoculated animals was labouring under pleuro-
pneumonia at the time of inoculation?

438 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

The prepared vaccine of tuberculosis, or as it is
termed, *' Tuberculin," when inoculated into the body
of a sound ox produces no sudden and marked rise of
temperature, but it does so act on the animal affected
with tuberculosis, and in this way the veterinarian
can with almost absolute certainty separate the affected
from the non-affected, but we repeat the vaccine of
contagious pleuro-pneumonia reacts on both alike, and
while It, protects the sound animal from an attack of the
disease, it in no way protects the affected animal,
or assists in its recognition or detection, and con-
sequently it (Inoculation) has failed to stamp out the
disease in any and all countries where it has been
employed for that purpose.

If the vaccine of contagious pleuro-pneumonia had
been a detective as well as a protective agent, then the
stamping out of the disease by the cruel and brutal
method of slaughter of affected herds, would never
have been advocated by the members of the veterinary
profession, nor adopted by the Government of the
country.

INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of inflammation of the
stomach are not well marked ; loathing of food is the
most prominent, together with foul breath, with a
tightness of the hide about the shoulders.

Causes. — This is brought on by some acrid sub-
stance taken into the stomach while feeding, or from
the animal feeding too greedily when removed from a
poor to a rich pasture ; it sometimes proceeds from
debility of the system, and the food in consequence
remaining in the paunch until it has undergone a
certain degree of fermentation, which produces heat,

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER 439

and inflammation, and obstructs the circulation, in-
ducing great distention of the parts.

Remedies. — The medical treatment of this com-
plaint must be something like that in inflammation of
the lungs. Bleeding as a primary remedy may be
resorted to, depending upon the strength of the animal
and character of the pulse, and followed by cooling
aperient medicines, to carry off the indigestible matter
lodged in the stomach. We do not know a better
medicine than the following : —

Soda, bicarbonate .... 3 drachms,

Powdered gentian .... 2 drachms,

Powdered ginger .... 2 drachms,

Powdered capsicum . . . . i drachm,

these to be given with a pint of linseed gruel. Let it
be repeated every twelve hours for two or three days.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.

Symptoms. — The diagnosis of this disease is
difficult, but we may state generally, that it is accom-
panied by a difficulty of breathing, accompanied with
fever, high temperature, a certain amount of tenderness
over the last ribs on the right side, hot clammy mouth,
furred tongue, and mucous membranes of the eyes
yellowish in colour. The bowels irregular, and forces
bad smell, the breath has also a bad smell. The
animal has usually no inclination to eat, but drinks
large quantities of water if permitted to do so.
Emaciation rapidly results with marked nervous
prostration.

Causes. — One of the most common causes is feed-
ing animals upon food too rich in albumen and fat
constituents and a want of sufficient daily exercise.
As exciting causes may be named, sudden changes of

440 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

temperature, sudden chills as a result of warm days
and cold nights, sleeping on damp pastures, cold dewy-
nights, fast driving after idleness, intense heat. It
may also proceed from blows or injuries of various
kinds.

Remedies. — Bleeding is seldom beneficial, and
more benefit will be derived by producing a drain
upon the portal circulation by changing the diet and
administering saline purgatives and counter-irritants.
With these objects in view, administer the following : —

Soda sulphate (glauber salts) . . . . i pound,
Sodium chloride (common salt) . . .J pound,

follow this up by the application of a blister over the
region of the liver, and if the animal continues in-
disposed send for the veterinary surgeon.

FOG-SICKNESS, OR HOVEN.

Cause. — This unpleasant, and frequently trouble-
some malady, is sometimes caused by cattle being
removed from house or yard-feeding to rich pastures
of meadow-grass or young clover, on which they feed
so voraciously, that the stomach being overloaded
with succulent food, fermentation takes place, gases
are generated, which descending into the bowels,
produce a general swelling of the belly. The cause is
the animal taking in too great a quantity at once,
without performing the necessary act of chewing the
cud, by which the food is reduced into a more liquid
consistence, and prepared for its passage from the
paunch into the other stomachs. It not unfrequently
happens that the stomach is so distended with food
and gas that unless immediate relief be given, the
animal will die from paralysis of the nerves of
respiration and circulation. It must be obvious that

FOG-SICKNESS, OR HOVEN 44I

it is better to guard against the direness of this
malady, than to remedy the evil. Care should be
taken not to turn cattle into rich pastures when they
are hungry ; but if it is absolutely necessary that they
should be turned out, they ought only to be allowed a
limited time for feeding, and then return to their
former situation, to chew the cud ; and thus, by little
caution, the evil may be avoided. This should be
repeated daily, until the animals are habituated to
the change. The sudden gorging of the paunch, and
the evolution of air, creates such a distention in it,
that the- function of chewing the cud is entirely
prevented, and consequently it is seldom that Nature
works its own cure, as is the case with other com-
plaints.

Tympany or hoven may not be due so much to the
condition of the food, as to general debility and im-
paired digestion. Foreign bodies, e.g., hair balls,
portions of an old leather shoe, parasites, etc., etc.,
may and generally set up indigestion and evolution of
gases. Hoven is a marked symptom in most of those
cases of traumatic heart disease, due to a hairpin or
sharp body having become fixed in the heart.
Dairymaids should be careful in preparing the food
of cattle, and if they must wear hairpins, see that they
do not fall into the animal's food, for if they do, they
will find their way through the walls of the stomach
and become fixed in the heart.

Remedies. — Where there is very great swelling,
the most speedy way of affording relief, in the absence
of a trochar and cannula, is to make an incision with
a sharp penknife, a scalpel, or other instrument,
beneath the short ribs, and insert a quill so as to
allow the air to escape. The exact point to puncture
is midway betwixt the last rib and the prominent

442 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

point of the pelvis or hook-bone. Cut the skin, then
plunge the instrument (trochar or knife) into the
wound with the cutting edge looking downwards.
The trochar being withdrawn, the cannula may be tied
round the body and left there so long as gases are
formed and escape.

This surgical remedy is, however, not very often
required, as medicines given internally, if promptly
administered, generally have the effect of relieving the
animal. The medicines are various. The following
has been found effectual : —

Gin or whisky i pint,

Water i pint.

It has been found that the following medicines
afford relief: —

Aromatic spirits of ammonia .... 3 ounces,

Sulphate of soda i ounce,

Ether 2 ounces,

Carbolic acid 2 drachms.

In using these and other agents in solution or
suspension in water, a good plan is to taste the
liquid, and thus ascertain their strength, and if too
pungent, add more water.

CATARRH, OR COLD.

Symptoms. — Colds are two fold — one is of a simple
nature, and the other an Enzootic known by the name
of Influenza. Cold, raw, and wet weather frequently
induce common colds, and neglect of these often ends
in serious evils, and are too frequently the remote
cause of consumption and death. The influenza cold

CATARRH, OR COLD 443

will frequently attack a whole straw-yard of cattle, even
in the course of a single night. The first symptoms
are a dull and languid appearance, with watery eyes,
which are partially closed, and a mucous discharge
from the nostrils. These are commonly accompanied
by cough and loss of appetite. If neglected, the
animal gradually loses flesh, and becomes hide-bound,
with a rough, staring coat.

Causes. — Many causes induce colds ; the generality
of these are too well known to require pointing out ;
but we may generally remark, that cold springs, which
follow mild winters are very conducive to colds.

Remedies. — Prompt attention to these complaints,
as in most others, is most likely to effect a speedy cure,
and even to prevent the more serious consequences
attendant upon neglected colds.

In the earlier stages let the animal be placed in a
warm situation, and supplied plentifully with warm
fluid drinks of gruel, infusion of malt, or linseed.
But when the animal manifests chillness and shivering,
with coldness of breath, warm stimulating draughts
should be given to restore the action of the stomach
and intestines. The following draught should be given
every eight hours : —

Powdered ginger . . J ounce,

Hartshorn . . . i ounce,

Ale, warmed . . . . i quart.

For drink, the water must always be given a little
warmed. If feverish symptoms appear, an ounce of
nitre, dissolved in a pint of warm water should be
given.

Sometimes the throat is affected, and the animal
experiences a difficulty in swallowing. When this is

444 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the case, the following liniment should be applied to
the throat : —

Oil of turpentine . . ij ounces,

Liquid ammonia, or hartshorn |- ounce,
Rape-oil .... 2 ounces.

This is applied for the purpose of inducing counter-
irritation.

When influenza has been allowed to get hold of the
constitution, extreme weakness generally ensues.
When this is the case, warm, nourishing, and
stimulating diet should be given, together with some
tonic medicine twice or thrice a day.

Should the animal be costive, it will be necessary
to administer the following laxative, which will be
sufficient for two doses : —

Sulphate of soda . . I pound,

Powdered caraway-seeds . i ounce.
Oatmeal gruel . . . i quart.

In all cases of influenza the animal should be kept
in a cow-house or shed, and a moderate quantity of
grass or tares given daily, if they can be had at the
season.

Whenever influenza appears to be epidemical, the
animals should be immediately removed to a warm
situation ; and if in the winter or cold spring weather,
a house or shed should be chosen to remove them to,
as it is easier to prevent than cure a disease : indeed
the old adage, ''It is easier to keep well than to make
well," applies to most complaints incidental to man
and animals.

COUGH.

Symptoms. — Cows after calving are frequently
seized with a tickling, short, irritating cough, in conse-

Moose, or HtjsK 445

quence of being removed from a cow-house to some
exposed situation. It may also proceed from sudden
transitions from heat to cold. It is also occasioned by
some extraneous matter adhering to the interior of the
throat or trachea.

Remedies. — Some recommend warmth, with a
constant but moderate supply of succulent food.
Colds may also be relieved by a pint of the following
mixture, to be administered twice or thrice a day : —

Pyroligneous acid ... 2 quarts,

Treacle .... 2 pounds,

Nitre 2 ounces,

Warm water .... 4 pints.

Besides the above, the animal should be drenched
twice or thrice every day with the following dose of
medicine : —

Powdered aniseed

2 ounces,

Vinegar of squills

2 ounces.

Honey

3 ounces.

Ale warmed

2 quarts.

HOOSE, OR HUSK.

This is the name commonly given to an affection
characterised by a spasmodic husky cough, and
dependent on the presence of parasites in the air-
passages. Calves and yearlings on certain farms are
prone to be affected with a fatal form of bronchitis,
and the deaths annually from this disease are
numerous. In other farms ** Verminous Bronchitis"
is unknown. The parasite belongs to the family
classed strongylus, and is named " Strongylus Mic-
rurus." A similar parasite attacks foals. A some-
what similar, but a different parasite (Strongylus
Filaria) is found in the bronchial tubes and wind-
pipe of lambs and ewes. Low-lying, damp pastures

k

44^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

are the favourite breeding-grounds of these parasites,
and first and second growths of clover, especially where
water occasionally rests in pools. Lambs following
sheep pasturing, if the ewes do host to the parasite,
rapidly become affected. The embryos are swallowed
in grass, or drank in water, or entering the bodies of
snails, in the water or food, thus gain the stomach
of the calf or lamb. On being hatched, it bores its
way into the blood or lymph vessels and finally it
reaches the lungs.

Symptoms. — Husky cough, with not much nasal
discharge, rubbing the nose on the ground, or against
a hurdle ; mouth open ; tongue out ; hurried and
difficult breathing ; rapid loss of flesh and strength.
If the parasites infest the bowels there is profuse
diarrhoea.

Remedies. — While the embryo worms are in the
bowels, and the cough but slight, oil of turpentine and
milk will kill them. The dose of turpentine is two
drachms morning and evening in milk or linseed oil
gruel. If the lungs are infested to any extent,
chlorine evolved from bleaching powder (chloride of
lime), or from common salt, black oxide of manganese,
and sulphuric acid, or sulphuric acid gas, obtained by
burning stick sulphur on a few live coals. Injections
of oil of turpentine, carbolic acid, and opium into the
windpipe is also a certain remedy, but it is a method of
treatment which requires veterinary skill and super-
vision. When possible, change the pasture, and keep
up the strength of the herd or flock by liberal use of
hand-feeding.

STOMACH, OR GRASS STAGGERS.

Symptoms. — This disease is indicated by a stagger-
ing, unequal walk, as if the animal were intoxicated,

JAUNDICE, OR YELLOWS 447

accompanied by a dull, heavy eye, with a hard, and
oppressed pulse, and great drowsiness. In some
cases, owing to disturbance in the cerebral circulation,
the animal is greatly excited and bellows loudly and
frequently, paws the ground, foams at the mouth, and
almost presents as violent symptoms as seen in cases
of rabies. In other cases the animal is blind, does
not hear, and stands as if rivetted to the spot ; violent
spasms of the voluntary muscles is sometimes a pro-
nounced symptom.

Cause. — The cause of this stomach disorder is
generally due to the grass upon which the animal is
fed. Rye-grass, unless eaten down " shoots," and in
this state from the large quantity of woody fibre
present in it, is difficult to digest. On light sandy
soils, rye-grass shoots readily, and if the season is a
dry one and the animals have little water to drink,
grass staggers is not only a widespread affection but a
deadly one.

Remedies. — Crop the grass and thus prevent the
rye-grass running to woody fibre. Give a pound or
two of oil cake daily to each animal on the grass and
thus prevent constipation of the bowels, and see that
there is at all times plenty of water to drink.

Affected animals should be removed to the farm-
stead, and have a dose of purgative medicine adminis-
tered. If brain symptoms are exhibited, employ the
services of the veterinary surgeon.

JAUNDICE, OR YELLOWS.

Symptoms. — Cattle are very liable to this disease.
Its seat is in the liver. It prevails in the spring and
autumn. It is known by yellowness of the eyes and
inside of the mouth ; a dull and languid aspect,

448 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

accompanied by debility and loss of appetite. It is
generally attended by costiveness, and the animal is
disinclined to feed.

Cause. — The cause of the disease may be
associated with inflammation of the liver, or con-
gestion of the organ, or disease and obstruction to
the flow of bile from the liver to the gall bladder, or
from the gall bladder to the bowel. Sometimes
" Jaundice " is a symptom of verminous disease of the
liver, e.g., fluke disease in cattle and sheep.

Remedies. — If the jaundice is due to functional
disturbance of the liver, a dose of laxative medicine
and a less nutritious and stimulating diet, may be all
that is required. If due to organic disease of the
liver, with or without the presence of parasites in the
bile ducts, the treatment must be entrusted to an
experienced veterinary surgeon.

When the disease continues for some considerable
time, it may be inferred that the liver is in a very
disordered condition, and in that case a cure is
hopeless.

CHAPTER III.

Diseases of the Abdomen.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.

Cattle seldom are attacked with inflammation of the
bowels, whereas horses are remarkably prone to the
disease. This immunity in all probability is due to
the prolonged and very thorough cooking process to
which the food is subjected in the stomachs of ruminat-
ing animals.

Symptoms. — The chief symptom by which this
disease is characterised, is great restlessness, ac-
companied by a violent, griping pain, and the animal
will frequently turn his head towards his belly, and
even endeavour to strike it with his hind-foot. The
pulse is rapid, and the breathing oppressed ; and it is
not unusual for the animal, while suffering severe
pain, to break out into profuse perspiration. The
most prompt measures must be adopted, or the disease
will end in mortification and death.

Cause. — This malady may proceed from drinking
cold water too copiously after being overheated by
being overdriven, or being exposed to the noon-day
summer sun, or placed in a sheltered locality where
there is no free circulation of air. It may also have
its origin in costiveness.

Remedies. — The treatment to be adopted will

2F

450 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

depend upon the condition and extent of the evil. If
the pulse is unusually quick, the eyelids unnaturally
red, and the breathing most oppressive and hard,
bleeding may be resorted to. If the bowels are con-
stipated, then the following drench must be given : —

Sulphate of magnesia . , 2 ounces,
Castor oil .... I pint,
Gruel 3 gills.

The salts should first be dissolved in the warm gruel,
and the oil added afterwards.

If this drink does not operate quickly, clysters
should be given to facilitate the evacuation. They
should consist of —

Hog's lard .... J pound,
Gruel, warm . . . i pint.

If there is no redness In the under surface of the
eyelid, the complaint will not be so severe as to render
bleeding necessary ; and particularly if the pulse
should not be very quick and hard, and the bowels
open. With a moderate attack, when the animal Is
in low condition, anodyne drinks may be substituted
for bleeding. The following will be a sufficient dose,
which should be repeated every six or eight hours,
according to circumstances : —

Spirit of nitrous ether

I ounce,

Laudanum .

I ounce,

Purified nitre

J ounce.

Water

I pint.

If the complaint proceeds from costiveness, after
having been fed upon dry fodder (which will be
manifested by a difficulty in dunging, and what he
voids will be more solid than usual, differing in colour
and offensive in smell), then the laxative drink above
recommended must be given. Counter irritation to

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS ^451

the abdomen is also recommended, and with this
object in view apply i lb. of mustard and 2 ounces of
spirits of turpentine. Rub them well into the skin.
Rugs dipped in boiling water and tightly wrung out,
may also be applied to the body of the animal.

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.

Symptoms. — This complaint may be distinguished
by a quick pulse, loss of appetite, and a frequent
inclination to stale ; and only a small quantity of
urine being voided at a time, of a dark red colour, and
accompanied by much suffering to the animal, in-
dicated by every motion expressive of pain. There is
also much stiffness in the hind-quarters in walking.
This complaint requires immediate attention, other-
wise it may terminate fatally. It differs from the
malady called red water.

Causes. — External injuries or irritating substances
taken into the stomach, and passing through the
kidneys with the urine, will produce inflammation.
It may also be induced by the injudicious administra-
tion of strong diuretic medicines and exposure to
cold.

Remedies. — Keep the animal in the cow-shed,
apply warm rugs, give plenty of water to drink to
wash out the kidneys, and administer a dose of purga-
tive medicine. If a difficulty in making urine or a
small quantity is only passed, digitalis in ^-drachm
doses may be given in linseed gruel or mucilaginous
drinks. A fresh sheep skin, fieshy side in, may be
applied on back over the region of the kidneys.
Copious injections of warm water into the rectum has
a soothing effect, and tends to hasten the action of the
purgative.

452 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.

Symptoms. — While cows are in calf, especially
during the latter portion of their gestation, they have
sometimes a frequent desire to void urine. This
proceeds from an irritable condition in the sphincter
of the bladder.

Cause. — This in most instances is caused by a
continued pressure upon the region of the bladder.

Remedies. — The first thing is to draw off the
urine by means of a catheter, and then to follow up
the treatment recommended for inflammation of the
kidneys. If a catheter is not at hand, the finger in-
troduced as far as the neck of the bladder will permit
the urine to flow freely.

INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB.

A loss of appetite, accompanied by a rapid pulse,
a languid action, and loss of milk are the ordinary
symptoms of this complaint. As the disease pro-
gresses, a foetid discharge from the vagina takes place,
accompanied by straining arching of the back and
a constant endeavour to void urine, which comes off
in small quantities at a time. Sometimes a complete
retention of the urine takes place, which can only be
relieved by the introduction of the catheter. The
cow frequently becomes so weak as hardly to be
able to stand, and moves about with much difficulty.

Causes. — This complaint may have its origin in
keeping the cow on too full and rich a diet during the
latter period of gestation, but it much more frequently
follows after parturition, and due to exposure to cold or
injuries sustained as a result of violence in assisting
the delivery of the calf.

RED WATER 453

Cure. — When retention of urine takes place, the
catheter must be used as above mentioned. If the
after-birth has been retained, it should be carefully-
separated and removed by hand. An injection of
carbolised tepid water should be thrown into the
womb and repeated, and the following laxative drink
may be given : —

Castor oil ... 8 ounces,
Epsom salts ... 6 ounces,
Linseed meal ... 4 ounces ;

the whole to be dissolved in half-a-gallon of thin,
warm gruel. Clysters of warm gruel and oil will
be found beneficial, and then give the following
anodyne : —

Camphor

2 drachms,

Laudanum

I ounce.

Spirit of nitrous ether .

I ounce,

Linseed meal .

2 ounces,

dissolved in a quart of gruel. If the animal does not
exhibit symptoms of relief in ten or twelve hours,
the same dose may be repeated. And if the straining
and painful symptoms of frequent urinating continue,
then an anodyne clyster may be given, composed of
the following : —

Laudanum ... 2 ounces,
Thin gruel . . . i quart.

RED WATER.

This is the name given to a disease in which the
affected animal passes urine the colour of blood. A
microscopic examination of the urine reveals the pre-
sence of broken down blood cells, and imperfectly
formed blood cells. An analysis of the urine proves
the existence of albumen and the colouring matter and

454 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

iron which exists only in the red corpuscles of healthy
blood. The disease is a blood disorder, and due to
the food upon which the animal is feeding.

Symptoms. — At the commencement, this complaint
is manifested by frequent, but unavailing attempts to
emit urine ; but when the disease has acquired a more
advanced condition, the discharge is in large quanti-
ties. When the disease is neglected, the urine
assumes a darker hue, and in time looks like foul
coffee, and now he loses strength rapidly, and sinks
into a lethargic condition ; and unless speedy remedies
are had recourse to, the animal will seldom exist
under the complaint for more than ten or twelve days.
Great pain is felt in the urinary passage, and the
animal generally retires from the rest of the herd, and
extends its tail, raising up its back in an arcuated form.

In the earliest stages, sunk eyes, restlessness,
and want of appetite, with hot and dry nose, and a
staring coat are the ordinary concomitants of this
disease.

Red water is usually accompanied with considerable
costiveness ; and although this may not be the case
at first, it generally shows itself in the more advanced
stages of the complaint. Dry feeding is certain to
induce costiveness in this malady, and more especially
if strong estringents are given ; and in this case such
a degree of constipation may be induced, that the
animal will die in consequence, as no medicine will
give relief. So prone to costiveness are animals
labouring under this complaint, that it will take place
even when feeding on grass. Relief may sometimes
be given by drawing off the dung with the hand.
This complaint differs in a material degree from in-
flammation of the kidneys, as the urine is not voided
in small quantities, as in that disorder.

GRIPES 455

Causes. — The geological formation of the locality-
has much to do with the prevalence of this disease.
Before drainage was introduced, red water was a
common disease, but now it only exists on farms
undrained and where the soil is wet, and the grass
coarse and rank. Turnips grown on such soils may
cause red water. Sometimes the disease manifests
itself as an enzootic in cattle and sheep, and may be
due to the animal eating the leaves of resinous
trees — coniferae — as they fall in early autumn, especially
if the pasture is bare.

Remedies. — At the commencement, laxatives have
been generally found efficacious. The following
formula has been recommended as the best : —

Epsom salts

.

4 ounces,

Purified nitre

,

I ounce,

Castor oil .

.

4 ounces,

Thin gruel .

.

I quart.

After the purgative has acted, the food should be
highly nutritious, boiled barley and linseed. If the
animal is weak and evidently bloodless, decoction of
linseed, milk, eggs, and porter, should be poured over,
and diffusible stimulants and iron tonics prescribed.

GRIPES.

Symptoms. — Young cattle are extremely liable to
colic, which is manifested by great restlessness,
frequently lying down and rising again groaning, and
striking against the belly with the hind-feet, and
sometimes even with the horns. It is seldom that
any change of the pulse takes place. The body is,
however, liable to swell, particularly on the left side ;
and unless remedies are speedily applied, the pain
generally increases greatly, accompanied with inflam^

45^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

mation, and a quick, hard, and unequal pulse, while
the feet, ears, and horns are very cold. When the
last symptoms appear, they are generally the fore-
runners of death.

Causes. — Retention of food in the third stomach,
with costiveness, will produce gripes. Even when
the bowels are lax, or in a natural condition, cattle
have been known to be griped. Dry food, such as
grain and hay, will produce it in cows. It also occurs
from the animal taking large meals of rank grass, and
drinking cold water when much heated : in this case,
the disease is sudden in its attack ; but when caused
by costiveness, its effects are more gradual, but more
difficult to remove.

Remedies. — When costiveness is the cause of this
disease, recourse must be had to purgatives, taken in
combination with aromatics, or stimulants. The
following prescription general proves effectual : —

Barbadoes aloes

. f ounce,

Powdered ginger .

. J ounce,

Spirit of turpentine

. I ounce,

Linseed-oil .

. 8 ounces,

Carbonate of potass

. 3 drachms,

Water ....

. 1 quart.

In country situations where all of the above
medicines cannot be readily procured, the following
formula may be used as a substitute : —

Common salt 8 ounces,

Rape-oil, or melted hogs' lard . .8 ounces,

Mustard i ounce,

Rum, or whisky .... 2 ounces.

When the animal is in high condition, with redness
on the inner surface of the eyelid, bleeding may be
resorted to. But when accompanied with looseness of
the bowels, or in an ordinary condition and a tendency

GRIPES 457

to weakness, blood must not be taken, and the follow-
ing carminative medicine given : —

Spirit of turpentine .

. I ounce,

Laudanum

. 6 drachms,

Spirit of nitrous ether

. 2 ounces,

Linseed-tea

. I J pint.

When it is necessary to have recourse to a
purgative mixture, its operation will be facilitated
by clysters.

If colic is induced from the animal gorging itselt
with dry and hard grain or hay, great caution must
be exercised in feeding for some days after the
complaint has been removed. At the same time it
will be proper to give the animal the following
stomachic, as a restorative, once or twice during the
twenty-four hours : —

Powdered ginger .

J ounce,

Powdered gentian .

1 ounce,

Carbonate of ammonia .

2 drachms.

Infusion of camomile flowers .

I pint,

Peruvian bark

J ounce,

Warm gruel ....

I pint.

If, however, costiveness is the proximate cause of
the colic, an alterative must be the remedy adminis-
tered, and the purgative above recommended must be
given. Sometimes a change from dry to green food
will produce the desired effect without having recourse
to medicine. Salt mixed with the food has been
known to relieve the pain, and also to restore a
healthy condition in the animal. Or, if he refuse the
dry salt, a solution of four ounces, daily, In a quart of
water will give a desire to drink, which, if w^ater is
given plentifully, will be of much service In obviating
the complaint.

45^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

DIARRHCEA, OR LOOSENESS.

Symptoms. — This complaint is manifested by
general weakness and loss of flesh, increasing paleness
of the eyes, frequent discharge of dung mixed with
the slimy substance which lines the intestines, which
has a most foetid smell, accompanied by inflammatory
fever and griping pains, with irregular pulsation.

Causes. — Diarrhoea is induced by a variety of
causes; the most frequent, however, is when cattle are
either turned out from a straw-yard or poor pasture to
a luxuriant field of grass — which is always preferred
by cattle — where they gorge themselves to such an
extent, that they bring on fog-sickness, and inflam-
mation, as well as this complaint.

Remedies. — If the malady is taken at first, it has
been found that putting the animal into a house, and
feeding it upon dry fodder or grain will effect a cure.
But should it not do so, its food should consist of malt-
mashes, linseed-tea, or gruel made of flour or oatmeal.
If the scouring is attended with pain, an ounce of
laudanum may be given in the food, or in a drink of
a pint of gruel.

In cases where the discharge is very great, half-a-
pint of castor oil may be given in a drink. If in five
or six hours there is no abatement of the disease, let
the following medicine be given every six hours, until
the scouring is less violent, and the dung resumes its
natural colour : —

Peruvian bark, powdered . J ounce,

Camphor, finely powdered . i scruple,

Prepared chalk . . . i J ounce,

Laudanum . . . . i ounce ;

to be administered in a quart of gruel, made of
flour.

DIARRHCEA, OR LOOSENESS 459

In diarrhoea, it is not the object of the veterinarian
to stop the disease suddenly ; and he that knows his
profession will not prescribe strong astringents, and
these in large doses, as this mode of treatment may
produce worse effects than the disease itself

If the discharge becomes intermittent, and the
dung occasionally hard and difficult to pass, then it
will be necessary to have recourse to laxatives, to clear
out the exciting cause of this irregularity. The first
and most simple to try is a dose of half-a-pint of castor
oil, or half-an-ounce of the powder of bitter-apple,
either of which may be given in a pint of flour-gruel.

Great attention is required to the different condi-
tions in diarrhoea, otherwise the disease may assume
that character which is termed rottenness or scouring-
roty a disease which too often terminates fatally. The
system should not be allowed to become too low ; to
prevent which, nourishing mashes of oatmeal and malt
should be frequently given, and in small quantities at
a time ; for during the progress of this malady, it is
found, that so long as the animal is permitted to in-
dulge in a full meal, so long will the complaint continue.

It will be found that cattle, when left to themselves
will seldom eat more than is proper to enable them to
perform the necessary function of chewing the cud.
It is only when they have been previously starved, or
removed from a poor to a rich pasturage, that they
exceed in this respect : so that, in those cases, they
ought to be allowed to remain only a short time at
first in such situations.

A low condition of the system will induce diarrhoea,
and when it proceeds from this cause, there is more
danger to be apprehended, and the animal is, conse-
quently, less able to withstand any sudden transitions
from poor to rich living, or from heat to cold, or from

460 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

cold to heat. When, either from a dearness of food,
or scarcity, the animal is kept on short allowance, it is
a wise plan, when the luxuriance of spring arrives, to
continue feeding the animal in the straw-yard, or
house, upon a mixture of chopped hay and succulent
grass, for a short time previous to turning him out to
the field.

It is not uncommon for calves at the time of
weaning to be affected with diarrhoea, which at this
tender age should be stopped by

Prepared chalk .... 2 ounces,
Gruel composed of flour and milk i quart ;

to be given every six hours, until the symptoms are
arrested. But if in two days evident signs of a cure
are not visible, to the above must be added a drachm
of powdered ginger, and one drachm of laudanum.

DYSENTERY.

Symptoms. — This is a dangerous malady, and some-
times is very deadly. Long-continued purging induces
loss of flesh and general weakness ; and so reduced is
the muscular fibre, in many instances, that the skin
may be seen hanging like a loose garment about their
bodies. In other instances the animal is hide-bound ;
the hair changes its colour to sandy or grey ; the eyes
grow pale ; they eject a thin and slimy matter ; and their
pulse is weak and irregular : the excrements often
change colour, more particularly in the earlier stages
of the complaint. In the more advanced stages of the
malady, the faeces appear like food half-masticated, as
it passes through the stomach and intestines without
undergoing the ordinary digestive process. If the
animal is pressed on either side of the spine, immediately
behind the shoulders, after a long continuance of

DYSENTERY 46 1

scouring-rot, it will manifest symptoms of suffering
much pain. When this is the case, it may be inferred
that the animal has become unsound, or tainted, and
the chances against his recovery are exceedingly small.
The excrements in the advanced stage are of a dark
colour, with a frothy appearance, and the smell
exceedingly offensive.

Causes. — Exposure to cold and long-continued
rain, especially if the animal has been previously over-
heated and overdriven ; also drinking cold water when
warm. Want of a nutritive diet in milch-cows fre-
quently induces this disease, which is one of the most
difficult to cure.

Remedies. — A great variety of prescriptions have
been given for the cure of this complaint, and some
have been found very efficacious in some cases, which
have no effect whatever in others. One of the points
to be chiefly attended to, is to take the affected animal
home to the straw-yard or shed, and subject it to dry
feeding, which in some cases effects a cure without
medical treatment. The following prescription has
been found of much utility ; it is one of Mr Blaine's : —

Ipecacuanha

Nux vomica .
Galls, finely powdered
Alum .
White vitrol .

I ounce,

ij drachm,
J ounce,
2 drachms,
20 grains ;

to be well incorporated in a quart of boiling water.

The following recipe has been highly recommended : —

Alum J ounce,

Kino 2 drachms,

Ginger, powdered . . . i drachm,

Castile soap, moistened in water 2 drachms.

Powdered oak-bark . . J ounce ;

to be made into a ball, with a sufficient quantity of

treacle.

462 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

When scouring has continued long, considerable
irritation in the membrane which lines the intestines
and loss of its mucus must be the consequence. To
mitigate this, mucilaginous drinks should be freely
given. For this purpose, let a pound of linseed meal
be boiled to a jelly in two gallons of water, and add to
it an ounce of nitre. This will be sufficient to form
six draughts, of a pint and a half each, to be diluted
in half-a-gallon of warm water. Some practitioners
recommend a quarter of a pound of starch to be added
to the above quantity of linseed. Gruel made of
milk and flour may be given with advantage ; and if
the dung assumes a dark colour with a disagreeable
odour, then about a gill and a half of castor oil must
be administered, and this may be assisted by clysters
of gruel, butter, and laudanum.

When the disease becomes inveterate, some
veterinarians have recommended strong tonics, which,
in many instances have proved effectual. The follow-
ing recipe will frequently prevail in bad cases : —

Prepared chalk ... J pound,

Ground cassia . . . . ij ounce,

Ground ginger .... J ounce,

Laudanum . . . . i ounce ;

to be made into four balls, and given every four or
five hours.

Should all the above remedies prove ineffectual,
the disease may then be treated as an affection of the
liver, and the following ball administered : —

Blue mercurial pill ... 3 drachms,

India rhubarb .... 3 drachms,

Castor oil .... 3 ounces.

Oatmeal 4 ounces ;

which should be repeated for three or four days in
succession. This may, however, produce sickness

FARDEL-BOUND, OR EXCESSIVE COSTIVENESS 463

and gripes, accompanied with increased scouring ;
and in that event it will be necessary to administer
astringents, and warm gruel should form the chief
drink of the animal while he is under the above
treatment. Let the following be given : —

Laudanum .... 2 drachms,

Ground ginger .... 3 drachms,

Catechu, or terra japonica . J ounce,

Fine patent starch ... 4 ounces ;

the whole to be diluted in two quarts of warm water,
and given as a drink.

If the animal has received benefit from the above,
and a progressive improvement becomes apparent,
the animal should be allowed green pasturage for a
few hours daily ; but the situation must not be low or
damp, otherwise a relapse will be the consequence,
which will very likely prove fatal. Cows that are
constantly milked and poorly fed are frequently
attacked with scouring-rot. The remedies which we
have above pointed out, will be also applicable to this
case. But, while medicine is administered, drenches
of oatmeal and flour, mixed, should be given at the
same time, but not in great quantities at once, as too
sudden changes would be injurious to the animal.
After he is able to take a greater portion of food
with safety, bean and pea-meal, mixed, should be
given as a drench, which contains a greater portion
of nutriment than any other vegetable substance.
Bran-mashes may be given as a change from the
above, until the animal is sufificiently recovered to be
turned out entirely.

FARDEL-BOUND, OR EXCESSIVE COSTIVENESS.
Symptoms. — This disease manifests itself by ex-
traordinary costiveness, and alternating with looseness

464 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

at intervals ; the faeces consisting of a profuse slimy
discharge, with portions of hard dung in the form of
balls, of different dimensions. Sometimes the com-
plaint is accompanied by considerable swelling of the
body, terminating in inflammation which is manifested
by a short heaving of the flanks with hard breathing,
and a considerable degree of fever. The animal
loathes his food, and soon becomes weak and
emaciated.

Causes. — This disease is generally due to the
animal being fed on too large quantities of grains or
meals, such as bean-meal, pea-meal, undecorticated
cotton cake, and more especially if these are coarsely
ground and not steamed or boiled.

Sometimes constipation in oxen is due to the cut
spermatic cord twisting round a portion of bowel and
thus mechanically preventing the contents of the in-
carcerated bowel passing downwards and being voided.
Fardel-bound is generally a constipation of the third
stomach.

Remedies. — Give the animal a pint of castor oil
in half-a-gallon of warm oatmeal-gruel, with four
ounces of Epsom salts and one ounce of carbonate of
ammonia. If in twelve hours this purgative does not
restore the bowels to their proper condition, repeat
the dose and allow the animal to drink as much cold
water as it desires.

Veterinary surgeons frequently treat that form of
constipation known as " Gut-tie" by operation. The
animal is first thrown on the ground, and an incision
made in the right flank sufficient to admit the hand ;
when the operator will insert his hand to feel for the
ligament by which the intestine is bound, and having
discovered it, he separates the ligament with the nail
of his thumb, which enables the intestine to assume

MORTIFICATION 465

Its natural position. The part is then sewed up, and
it will soon heal if the animal is in a good condition
of body.

MORTIFICATION.

Symptoms. — This complaint shows itself by swell-
ings behind the kidneys, and sometimes in the flanks,
shoulders, side, or legs, accompanied with a desire to
remain in a lying posture undisturbed. The pre-
monitors to dissolution are a most foetid odour pro-
ceeding from the animal. It is seldom that he lives
long after the first appearance of the malady : from
five to twenty-four hours generally puts a period to
his existence. Animals which have died of this
complaint have been skinned, and it has been found
that the swollen parts contain a gelatinous matter,
mixed with very dark-coloured blood, nearly ap-
proaching to black. The animal dies without any
symptoms of pain.

Causes. — This is a complaint which has only been
known to exist in Connecticut, America, where it has
proved very fatal to cattle. It is attributed to a
change of pasture, or from bad to good fodder,
which causes plethora, or fullness, and gorging of the
vessels of the body. Cattle in the highest condition
are most liable to be affected.

Remedies. — Little can be effected where this
malady is not attacked at the outset, and the medicines
must be those of a preventive quality. These must
be, first, not to make too sudden a change from a bad
to a good pasturage, nor too abrupt a transition from
a poor to a rich diet. The following aperient should
be first administered in the form of a drink : —

Calomel

J drachm,

Tartarised antimony .

2 drachms,

Cream of tartar .

J ounce,

Camphor

2 scruples,

2G

466 MANUAL O^ MODERN FARRIERV

to be given in a pint of gruel of wheat-flour. And
when it has operated, give the following medicine
every day until the symptoms disappear : —

Peruvian bark . . • J ounce,

Nitre, powdered ... 2 drachms,

Salt of steel . . . i drachm,

Camphor, powdered . . i scruple,

to be administered in a quart of warm oatmeal gruel.

CHAPTER IV.

Of Febrile Diseases.

SPLENIC APOPLEXY— ANTHRAX.

Anthrax is a disease which not only attacks cattle
and sheep but also pigs and horses, and by inoculation
of the blood of an affected animal, it may be conveyed
to almost all warm-blooded animals, including man-
kind. The manner in which cattle, sheep, and horses
are infected is difficult to trace, but there is but one
way that the disease can be propagated, and that is
the introduction into the body of the animal of the
spores or seeds of a rod-shaped organism, termed the
f* Bacillus Anthracis."

Anthrax being a scheduled disease, stockowners
are required to report to the local authority its existence,
and treatment of the affected animal is not permitted.
The Board of Agriculture, having published a leaflet
on Anthrax, and expressly requested that the in-
formation which it contained might be brought under
the notice of agriculturists and stock-owners throughout
the- country. We gladly comply with that request :—

1. Anthrax is due to the existence in the blood oi
a minute rod (Bacillus Anthracis), which is one of a
large family of fungi, and grows from spores or seeds.

2. Any substance which is brought on to a farm
may act as a carrier of the infecting agent : fodder,

468 Manual of modern farrierV

litter, manure, whether from home or foreign sources,
may contain the spores. A water-course may carry
the poison. In fact, the channels through which the
infecting agent may be conveyed to the susceptible
animal are beyond calculation.

3. Diseased animals do not transmit the infection
to others in the ordinary way by association. The
organism on which the disease depends must be in-
troduced into the blood through a wound however
small, or an abrasion however slight, before the
affection can be communicated, and it may be said
without exaggeration that the carcase of an animal,
dead of anthrax, is more dangerous than a living
diseased animal.

SYMPTOMS AND POST-MORTEM APPEARANCES
OF ANTHRAX.

4. In most cases, the first sign of an outbreak of
anthrax or splenic fever is the discovery of a dead
animal in the pasture or byre. Probably the animal
was left a few hours before in apparent health ; at
least there was nothing to attract attention, or give
any warning of the approaching catastrophe. Occa-
sionally, and in the case of sheep not uncommonly,
there are certain premonitory symptoms of an attack
of anthrax which can be recognised by an expert.
The affected animal is dull and disinclined to move.
If one of a herd or flock is attacked, the fact is
indicated by the separation of the sick animal from the
rest. Close observation will enable the observer
to detect an occasional shiver, which seems to pass
rapidly over the body, and then ceases. Sometimes
a little blood is discharged from the nose and also
with the faeces, and from time to time the animal

ANTHRAX 469

will cease to feed, and stand with the head bent
towards the ground. On closer inspection, especially
in the case of swine, it will often be found that there
is a good deal of swelling under the throat, extending
down the neck ; and the swollen part will at first be
tender to the touch, and hot, but as the disease goes
on it becomes insensitive, cold, and clammy. The
shivering fits now become more frequent, and perhaps,
while these signs are being noted, the animal will
suddenly roll over on its side, and, after a few violent
struggles, expire.

5. According to the severity and suddenness of
the attack, the post-mortem appearances will vary in
degree, but they are tolerably uniform in kind. Under
the skin there are usually patches of effused blood,
and a considerable quantity of viscid serous fluid will
be seen in those parts which were swollen during life
If the cavities of the chest and abdomen are examined,
some red serous fluid generally escapes. The spleen
is enlarged to three or four times its proper size, and
is of a deep purple or black colour, soft and easily
broken down. Effused blood is also found in masses
under the kidneys, and red patches are seen in various
parts of the serous membranes. The lining membrane
of the intestines is often congested, and the contents
are generally mixed with blood ; sometimes, indeed,
the intestinal canal is almost filled with that fluid.

6. The symptoms and post-mortem appearances
which have been described may, as a rule, be accepted
as evidence of the existence of anthrax. But it is
very desirable to avoid opening the carcase of an
animal which has died of anthrax, and the bacillus
may be detected by putting a drop of blood from the
ear or foot on a glass slide, covering it with a piece of
thin glass, and examining it with a magnifying power

470 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

of, at least, 400 diameters. The thin rods will appear
like short pieces of fine thread crossing each other In
every direction, and enclosing the blood corpuscles.
This examination may:' be conducted in the shed or
pasture, but in the laboratory .staining processes are
employed.

PROCEDURE.

7. The healthy animals on the pasture or other
place where the outbreak occurred should be moved
under proper restrictions to a convenient place for
isolation, and should be examined by a veterinary
surgeon every day for a week. I f a rise of temperature
is discovered in any of the isolated animals they should,
as far as practicable, be removed from the rest of the
herd until they have recovered.

8. Slaughter, by a Local Authority, of healthy
animals in contact is only justifiable under special
circumstances, i.e., where the animals are fat and fit
for the butcher, or where the animals are few in
number and of little value, or in outbreaks where the
disease is spreading rapidly and there are no means ot
proper Isolation.

5 9. Antiseptics, such as hyposulphite of soda, have
been administered to the in-contact animals with
apparent advantage. Medical treatment of animals
should, however, only be carried out under the advice
and direction of a veterinary surgeon, and with regard
to this and other preventive measures it may be said
that: it is Impossible to determine the degree of efficacy
which they possess, owing to the fact that anthrax
frequently ceases after the loss of a single animal.

ID. Inoculation, on the system recommended by
M. Pasteur, could not be adopted except by an expert,
accustomed to operate, but the results of the operatioa^

DISPOSAL OF CARCASES 47-li

in this country and elsewhere have not been of such a
nature as would warrant the Boafd in recommending
it to stock-owners as a means of dealing with outbreaks
of anthrax. - '

DISPOSAL OF CARCASES.

II. Carcases of animals that have died or been
slaughtered, affected with or suspected of anthrax,
should be dealt with by the Local Authority in accord-
ance with the following provisions : —

Either the Local Authority should cause the carcase
to be buried as soon as possible in its skin in
some convenient or suitable place removed from
any dwelling-house, and at such a distance from
any well or water-course as will preclude any risk
of the contamination of the water therein, and at
a depth of not less than six feet below the surface
of the earth, having a layer of lime not less than
one foot deep beneath, and a similar layer of
lime above the carcase.

Or the Local Authority may, if authorised by
licence of the Board, cause the carcase to be
destroyed, under the inspection of the Local
Authority, in the mode following : The carcase
should be disinfected, and should then be taken,
in charge of an officer of the Local Authority,
to a horse-slaughterer's or knacker's yard
approved for the purpose by the Board, or other
place so approved, and should be there destroyed
by exposure to a high temperature, or by chemical
agents.

Before a carcase is removed for burial or destruc-
tion as above suggested, it should be covered
with quicklime. In no case should the skin of

47^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the carcase be cut, nor should anything be done

to cause the effusion of blood.
It is most important that the carcases should be
left uncut, as the bacillus of anthrax disappears when
kept from contact with air.

Any method, therefore, of destroying or disposing
of the carcases which involves skinning or cutting up
should be avoided. The disease is likely to be spread
thereby, and, in addition, people engaged in such
work run a very serious risk of being inoculated with
the disease.

CLEANSING AND DISINFECTION.

The following are the provisions of the Anthrax
Order of 1895 as regards the cleansing and dis-
infection of premises in which cases of anthrax have
occurred : —

The Local Authority shall, at their own expense,
cause to be cleansed and disinfected in the
mode provided by this Article —

All those parts of any shed, stable, building,
or other place in which a diseased or sus-
pected animal has been kept or has died or
been slaughtered ;
Every utensil, pen, hurdle, or other thing used
for or about any diseased or suspected
animal ;
Every van, cart, or other vehicle used for
carrying any diseased or suspected animal
on land, otherwise than on a railway.
The mode of the cleansing and disinfection of such
shed, stable, building, or other place, or the
part thereof, shall be as follows :

All those parts aforesaid of the shed, stable^

CLEANSING AND DISINFECTION 473

building, or other place, shall be swept out,
and all litter, dung, or other thing that has
been in contact with, or used about, any
diseased or suspected animal, shall be
effectually removed therefrom : then
The floor and all other parts of the shed,
stable, building, or other place with which
the diseased or suspected animal or its
droppings or any discharge from the mouth
or nostrils of the animal has come in contact,
shall be, as far as practicable, thoroughly
washed or scrubbed or scoured with water :
then
The same parts of the shed, stable, building,
or other place shall be washed over with
limewash made of freshly burnt lime and
water, and containing in each gallon of lime-
wash four ounces of chloride of lime or half
a pint of commercial carbolic acid, the lime-
wash being prepared immediately before
use ;
Except that where any place as aforesaid is
not capable of being so cleansed and dis-
infected, it shall be sufficient if such place
be cleansed and disinfected as far as
practicable.
The mode of the cleansing and disinfection of such
utensil, pen, hurdle, or other thing, and such
van, cart, or other vehicle aforesaid, shall be as
follows :

Each utensil, pen, hurdle, or other thing, van,
cart, or other vehicle, shall be thoroughly
scraped, and all litter, dung, sawdust, or
other thing shall be effectually removec^
therefrom : then

474 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

It shall be thoroughly washed or scrubbed or

scoured with water : then
It shall be washed over with limewash made
of freshly burnt lime and water, and con-
taining in each gallon of limewash four
ounces of chloride of lime or half a pint of
commercial carbolic acid, the limewash
being prepared immediately before use.
All litter, dung, or other thing that has been re-
moved from any such shed, stable, building,
place, van, cart, or vehicle as aforesaid, shall be
forthwith burnt or otherwise destroyed or dis-
infected to the satisfaction of an inspector of the
Local Authority.
In riegard to the disinfection of fields and like
places in which animals affected with anthrax have
died or been slaughtered, there are serious difficulties
which cannot be completely removed. A top-dressing
of lime is the most simple method which can be em-
ployed, and after a month or six weeks the lands may
be re-stocked. But it must be understood that a
certain degree of risk is incurred even after a much
longer interval, and occasionally it has been found
impossible to render contaminated land safe. In the
majority of cases, however, the plan suggested will be
effectual.

"BLACK LEG," "BLACK QUARTER."

Stock proprietors generally look upon Black Leg
and Anthrax as one and the same disease, or if not
very closely related, but they are perfectly distinct
affections, although both are dependant on specific
organisms.

The specific organism of Black Leg is smaller and

"BLACK LEG," "BLACK QUARTER*' 475

thicker than the bacillus of Anthrax. It is motile (seen
to move under the microscope), rounded at the end,
and generally contains a bright oval spore. The blood
and the spleen contains the anthrax bacilli in large
numbers. The bacilli of black leg do not invade the
spleen nor the blood stream, but they are found in
large numbers in the exudate in the muscles and joints
of the locally affected parts, e.g., loins, hip, knee, hock,
shoulder, etc.

Anthrax may affect any animal and at any age.
Black Quarter always attacks the yoting, and is con-
fined to cattle and sheep.

Dogs and cats lapping the blood or eating the
flesh of an anthrax subject, contract the disease and
die, but we have never known death to result from
lapping the blood and eating the flesh of a black leg
subject.

Symptoms. — In the early stage of the disease,
there is stiffness and soon marked lameness, and the
inexperienced are apt to connect these with an injury ;
but in the course of a few hours the locally affected
part becomes swollen and crepitates (crackles) when
pressed with the fingers. This is a valuable symptom
and shows that mortification has set in. The other
symptoms are a quick small pulse, grinding of the
teeth, standing in the field by itself, dullness and un-
willingness to move from the spot.

Treatment — Preventative. Draining the land and
the application of gas lime. Rock salt to lick. Feeding
the animals so as to maintain at all times fair con-
dition. Animals meagrely fed during winter, and
then by a rush of grass in spring, put on rapid con-
dition, are found in largest numbers to be the victims
of this disease. As a preventative some proprietors
have great faith in the introduction of a seton into the

47^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

dewlap inserted a week before the cattle are turned
out to graze in spring. Sulphite of sodium in ounce
doses daily is a valuable preventative agent.

PARTURIENT APOPLEXY, OR MILK FEVER.

This form of parturient disease not unfrequently
commences twelve or from that to thirty-six hours
after calving. It sometimes occurs before calving,
but it is seldom, and even then it may be confounded
with parturient paralysis.

Symptoms. — Uneasiness, moving off the one hind
limb on to the other, swinging to and fro of the body,
staggering, ultimately falling down. Eyes at first
bright, clear, expressive of cerebral excitement. Eye-
lids and ears spasmodically moving. By-and-bye,
dullness, grinding of the teeth, head tossed from side
to side, coma, deep breathing, puffing of the cheeks,
and falling down of the lower jaw. The cow now lies
in a deep sleep and is perfectly unconscious.

Causes. — The causes of this disease hang to-
gether as a narrative. First, the breeding is all-
important ; Ayrshire and shorthorns are more prone
than any other, but even these, unless deep milkers,
escape. Second, the age of the animal is a predispos-
ing cause. Rarely is any cow attacked earlier than at
the third calving. Third, the feeding and condition are
powerful links in the chain of causation. Plethora (rich
in blood) inducing the disease.

Treatment. — The curative treatment of this
disease is frequently disappointing, whereas the pre-
ventative is highly satisfactory. We will first describe
the preventative. Bring all cows to the calving in
fair condition and none in a state of plethora. To

t^ARTURIENT APOPLEXY, OR MILK FEVER 477

do this, if the animals are calving on the grass, have
the pastures rather bare than otherwise, so that the
animals will require to take a deal of exercise in
procuring their food. When the cow is due to calf
indoors, see that she has food to keep her in fair
condition but nothing more, and as much as possible
allow her to be out of doors daily for exercise and
grazing.

Be careful to prevent constipation of the bowels
from whatever cause, and by bran-mash and treacle,
with a few boiled turnips and chaff, bring her to the
day of calving with open and rather empty stomach
and bowels. As soon as the labour pains commence,
administer the following : —

Epsom salts . . i pound,

Common salt . . i pound,

Croton beans . . 20 (crushed and sound),

Ginger powdered . i ounce ;

dissolve in four pints of water and pour over.

If the cow has much milk on her, do not hesitate
to milk her daily before calving, and thus prevent con-
gestion of the udder. After calving, milk her thrice
daily or more frequently, doing it slowly, rubbing the
gland and leaving a quantity of the milk undrawn.
The diet for a week after calving should be only suffi-
cient to keep the animal in health, and neither cakes
nor meals of any kind, nor draff must be allowed. If
grass is procurable, a sufficiency of it and plenty of
water is all that is required. If grass is not in season,
good hay and a few boiled turnips or cabbages will
suffice. In eight days after calving, if all goes well,
now the forcing feeding (meal, cakes, draff), may
commence, but not earlier. We have practised this
preventative treatment for years, and the cases of milk

478 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

fever which occur under it are few indeed, and seldom
prove fatal.

The curative treatment after the animal is seized, is
too serious and complicated to be undertaken by any
other person than the experienced veterinarian.

CHAPTER V.

Diseases, etc., of the External Parts of Cattle.

SCURF, SCAB.

Symptoms. — This is a disease of the skin, and is
manifested by its stiffness, and sticking fast to every
part of the body, as if it were too small for the carcase,
and first becomes visible about the head and jaws, the
skin exhibiting a pale, dry, scurfy appearance, and
then extends down the shoulders and back. The
animal rubs itself violently against every object which
it comes near ; and unless remedies are applied, it will
tear its skin, and cause bleeding, and thereby produce
scabs, which retard the efficacy of the ointment, and
allow the disorder to become more deeply rooted. ,^.^,

Causes. — Poverty of the blood is an immediate
cause of this complaint.

Remedies. — The best specific is mercury ; but the
animal is so apt to lick its skin, that it is a dangerous
remedy. The following ointment has been found
effectual in removing the complaint : —

Sulphur vivum, powdered . . 4 ounces.
To be mixed with hogs' lard . . 6 ounces.

Let the whole parts affected be rubbed with this
ointment, and repeated in the course of three or four

480 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

days, if the itching does not abate. Some think that
the following lotion is as certain as the above : —

Corrosive sublimate, finely powdered . . J ounce,

Muriatic acid i ounce.

River, or rain-water 2 quarts,

to be applied with a sponge daily to the parts
affected.

COW-POX.

The following is the description of this disease, as
communicated by Dr Jenner, the discoverer of it, and
who first applied the lymph contained in the cow-pox
vesicles to the human being, and which has proved
an inestimable blessing to mankind as a preventative
of small-pox. Dr Jenner was a medical practioner at
Berkeley, in Gloucestershire, and often saw the com-
plaint in various dairies in that neighbourhood. He
says, "In this dairy country a great number of cows
are kept, and the office of milking is performed indis-
criminately by men and maid-servants. One of the
former having been appointed to apply dressings to
the heels of a horse affected with the grease, and, not
paying due attention to cleanliness, incautiously bears
his part in milking the cows, with some particles of
the infectious matter adhering to his fingers. When
this is the case, it commonly happens that a disease is
communicated to the cows, and from the cows to the
dairy - maids, which spreads through the farm,
until most of the cattle and domestics feel its un-
pleasant consequences. This disease has obtained the
name of cow-pox. It appears on the nipples of the
cows, in the form of irregular pustules with depressed
or umbilicated centres. At their first appearance they
are of a palish blue, or rather of a colour somewhat

COW-POX 48 1

approaching to livid, and are surrounded by erysipe-
latous inflammation. These pustules, unless a timely
remedy be applied, frequently degenerate into
phagedenic ulcers, which prove extremely troublesome.
The animals become indisposed, and the secretion of
milk is much lessened.

Frequently another kind of eruption appears on
the udder of the cow, which, when not carefully
examined, may be mistaken for the cow-pox. It
manifests itself by the appearance of a number of
white blisters on the nipples, filled with a whitish
serous fluid. They are distinguished from the cow-
pox pustules by not having the bluish colour of the
latter, as well as their never eating into the fleshy
parts, being entirely confined to the skin, and termina-
ting in scabs. This eruption is infectious, but not so
highly so as the true cow-pox.

Dr Jenner was of opinion that this spurious
eruption had its origin in the transition of the cow
in the spring from a poor to a rich diet, at which
period the udder becomes more than usually vascular
from the supply of milk. In the West of England
dairies there is still a third kind of inflammation, ac-
companied by pustules, which is not uncommon.
When a cow with a naturally small udder is intended
for sale, she is neither milked by the hand or by a
calf for a day or two previously to her disposal.
Consequently, an unusual quantity of milk is accumu-
lated, and the udder is stretched out to an unnatural
extent, which also has the effect of distending the
nipples, and frequently produces inflammation, accom-
panied by pustular eruption.

Remedy. — It is not necessary to apply any remedy
for this complaint ; all that is required is to keep the
teats clean, and handle them gently during milking,

2H

482 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

and in a few days the eruption disappears. If the
sores on the teats are painful, a few applications of
glycerine and olive oil will assist the healing process.

THE FOULS.

Symptoms. — This disease is nearly allied to the
disorder called canker in the horse, and is manifested
by the discharge of foetid matter from the cleft of the
hoof, or, in some cases from one of the claws.
Veterinarians have divided this complaint into two
kinds, the soft fouls and the horny fouls, which are
differently treated by them. In the soft fouls, the
discharge issues from the cleft of the hoof, and also
from the heels, and in both cases the animal becomes
very lame.

Causes. — Hard driving and long journeys often
produce the fouls, more particularly if the roads are
bad, and dirt lodges and dries in the cleft, or behind
the heels. It affects cattle of all ages.

Remedies. — For the soft fouls, when cracks take
place, these must be well washed with soft-soap and
water, and then anointed with tar-ointment, and the
feet kept as dry as possible. When a distention of
the horny substance takes place, and soft, spongy
protrusions appear, accompanied with the discharge
of matter of a most offensive smell, these soft parts
must be cut, or scraped off, and a caustic liquid
applied to the parts. The following will prove
effectual if well applied : —

Sulphate of copper . , . i ounce,

Nitrous acid .... J ounce,

Alum, pounded .... 2 ounces,

Rain, or river water . . . i pint.

When the parts are properly washed with the above,

THE GAD-FLY, WURBLES, OR WORMALS 483

and it has become dry, then a pledget covered with
tar-ointment should be applied to the parts.

For the horny fouls, if the hoof feels very warm,
and the animal manifests pain on pressure being
applied to the parts, and they feel hard underneath, it
will then be discovered that a horny substance is
penetrating into the softer parts of the foot, either
between the two halves of the hoof, or at the heels ;
these horny parts must be eradicated by cutting. In
performing this operation, it will be necessary to
throw the animal on some soft ground, or upon straw,
the more easily to effect the cutting. After this is
done, let the parts be rubbed with the above lotion,
and the whole foot wrapped round with a cloth
moistened in it. The animal may then be turned out
to a soft pasturage. Should, however, the inflamma-
tion not subside in a couple of days, bleeding from the
veins of the foot will be necessary.

THE GAD-FLY, WURBLES, OR WORMALS.

The gad-fly is exceedingly troublesome to cattle
during the summer months, more especially in very
hot seasons. This has been minutely investigated by
Mr Bracey Clarke, and is scientifically called by him
cestris bovis, or ox-fly. It has otherwise been called
the breeze-fly. Their bite is very painful, and always
creates a small swelling in that part of the skin
penetrated by its tongue. But that evil of which we
are about to treat has been successively denominated
wurbles, or wormals, probably a corruption of worm-
holes, which are frequently found on the backs of
cattle. The female gad-fly, which produces these
humours, we have represented in Plate x, fig. 15.
From the observations of the celebrated naturalist and

484 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

physiologist, Reaumur, it appears that the female is
furnished with a singularly constructed ovipositor,
which lengthens by a series of sliding tubes (Plate x,
fig. 10), precisely like that of an opera-glass. There
are four of these tubes, as may be seen by pressing
the belly of the fly till they come into view. Like
other ovipositors of the same sort, they are composed
of a horny substance. This instrument is furnished
with five points, three of which are longer than the
other two, and at first sight not unlike 2. flettr-de-lisy
though, upon narrower inspection, they may be dis-
covered to terminate in curved points (Plate x, fig. 12)^
somewhat like the claw of a cat. The two shorter
pieces are also pointed, but not curved ; and by the
union of the ^ve, a tube is composed for the passage
of the eggs. (See Plate x, fig. 11.) It would be
necessary, Reaumur confesses, to see the fly employ
this instrument to ascertain in what manner it acts,
though he is disposed to consider it fit for boring
through the hides of cattle.

Mr Bracey Clarke, taking another view of the
subject, is decidedly of opinion that the fly does not
pierce the skin of cattle with its ovipositor at all, but
merely glues its eggs to the hairs, while the grubs,
when hatched, eat their way under the skin. If this
be the fact, as is not improbable, the three curved
pieces of the ovipositor, instead of acting, as Reaumur
imagined, like a centre-bit, will only serve to prevent
the eggs from falling till they are firmly glued to the
hair, the opening formed by the two shorter points
permitting this to be effected.

The extraordinary effects produced upon cattle, on
the appearance of one of these flies, would certainly
lead us to conclude that the pain inflicted by the ovi-
positor, is excruciating. Most of our readers may

THE GAD-FLY, WURBLES, OR WORMALS 485

recollect to have seen, in the summer months, a whole
herd of cattle start off across a field, at full gallop, as
if they were racing, their movements indescribably
awkward — their tails being poked out strait and stiff
behind them, and their necks stretched forward to
their utmost length. All this consternation has been
known from the earliest times to be caused by the
appearance of the gad-fly.

If Mr Clarke's views be correct, when the egg of
the ox-fly is hatched, the grub (Plate x, fig. 17) im-
mediately burrows under the skin, where it feeds upon
the fatty matter, and remains until it has reached
maturity. As the grub continues to grow, the bumps,
or wurbles, increase in dimensions, in proportion to
the size of the grub (Plate x, fig. d). It is not until the
middle of May that these bumps can be seen full
grown ; but, owing to particular circumstances, they
do not attain an equal size. The largest of these are
sixteen or seventeen lines in diameter by the base, and
about one inch high, but they are scarcely perceptible
before the beginning, or during the course of the
winter.

Young cattle are most commonly attacked by these
insects, and the most healthy are fixed upon for the
deposition of their eggs ; a wonderful proof of the
instinct of these flies. Cattle-dealers and farmers
have remarked this fact, and the latter always find the
hides the best that these flies prefer. The number of
bumps, or wurbles, which are found upon a beast, is
equal to the number of eggs which have been de-
posited in its flesh ; or, to speak more correctly, the
number of eggs which have become matured under
the skin, as those which have been fertile. Some-
times there will be found a single wurble on a cow,
while in others upwards of thirty have been counted.

486 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

The ordinary size of the full-grown grub is represented
on Plate x, fig. 16; and 18 is a magnified figure.
Fig. 13 is a greatly magnified view of the tail of the
grub.

Remedies. — As soon as it is detected that the
skin of the cow is penetrated by this insect, the part
may be squeezed between the two thumbs, and the
grub will be forced through the aperture in the skin.
If the person have not sufficient strength to dislodge
it, this can be easily accomplished by the aid of a pair
of shoemaker's pincers. This may be done at any
time while the grub remains. Any other mode of
cure is of no avail. When the grub has been ejected,
let a drop of turpentine be put into the cavity, and in
a short time it will heal up. A dressing of carbolic
soap or sheep dip tends to prevent the fly depositing
its eggs.

LICE.

When young cattle have been turned out in cold
weather they are very subject to lice ; more especially
if they are in a low habit of body, and have not been
kept clean. Parasites are not only disagreeable to the
animal which they infest, but are also apt to be com-
municated to others. The speediest means should be
adopted to destroy them. The following recipe will
generally have the effect : —

Common tobacco ... I ounce,
White hellebore-root, ground . 2 ounces,
Vmegar 2 J pints ;

these to be boiled together for half-an-hour, and the
warm decoction to be applied with a soft brush or

STRAINS AND BRUISES 487

Sponge. A second application seldom fails to destroy
the vermin.

Carbolic acid and warm water destroy the para-
sites.

STRAINS AND BRUISES.

Cattle are not so liable to strains and bruises as
horses ; and as they are seldom necessitated to active
exertion after an accident has occurred to them, there
is less difficulty in curing them. Whether the affection
is in the muscular or tendinous parts, we would re-
commend similar treatment as that employed for the
horse under such circumstances.

Fomentation should first be tried, and when the
inflammation has been subdued, the following liniment
must be well rubbed on the part affected, two or three
times daily, until all the symptoms have disappeared : —

Linseed oil ... . 5 ounces,

Spirit of turpentine, . i ounce,

Hartshorn, or liquid ammonia . i ounce.

When any portion of the limbs has been sprained,
so as to occasion lameness, and has not been removed
by applying the above liniment, it will be necessary to
have recourse tb a blister.

WOUNDS.

In treating of this part of our subject, we shall
confine our observations chiefly to wounds of a simple
nature, for this reason, that when cattle are injured in
the internal parts, which requires a long and tedious
attention, it will be better at once to kill the animal,
because the trouble and expense will counter-balance
the profit of a tedious recovery. The flesh of cattle

488 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

which have received severe wounds, if the animal be
immediately destroyed, is perfectly wholesome. Besides,
in the attempt to cure severe wounds, there is always
a risk of the animal's dying, under the best devised
treatment.

In the cure of wounds much depends on their
situation, and the form of the instrument by which they
were inflicted. A cut from a sharp instrument, provided
it be clean, is very easily healed ; all that is required
being to bring the edges of the wound together, and
keep them in contact by means of a slip of adhesive
plaster. But if they are in situations where the plaster
is not likely to remain on, in consequence of the action
of the muscles or otherwise, a few stitches with strong
thread or fine twine will have the same effect ; and
when it is found that adhesion of the parts has taken
place, the string must be cut away, and the needle-
holes will quickly fill up. Or the wound may be kept
together by means of a pin or two, vv^ith thread twisted
crossways round them, which can be drawn out after
the part has healed. Care must be taken that the
wounds are rendered perfectly clean before their edges
are brought together. But in fresh wounds, the use
of stimulants as a wash, is to be carefully avoided, all
that is necessary being to wash the parts with warm
water. Ignorant quacks often apply salves and other
greasy substances to fresh wounds, which, instead of
healing them, produce suppuration and sores ; and
stimulants rather retard the progress than facilitate the
natural healing process.

Where wounds are inflicted by a round substance,
or an unequal-sided, or triangular instrument, they are
more difficult and more tedious to heal. And if the
wound is deep, sewing or pinning the parts must not
be had recourse to. In such cases, deep-rooted

WOUNDS 489

suppuration is almost certain to attend them ; and
although the external surface may be brought together
and healed, ulceration will be lurking beneath, and the
matter there collected must sooner or later find vent.
Whenever it is suspected that ulceration is going on
below, it will be better to keep the surface open, and
in about a week probe the wound to the bottom, and
thus make a free opening for the escape of the ac-
cumulated matter, which should be pressed out, and a
warm poultice applied to the part to draw out all that
remains. As soon as the inflammation completely
subsides, granulation of the sides of the wound will
take place, and it will ultimately heal up.

In cases where valuable breeding cattle have
received deep and severe wounds, and the proprietor
is anxious to preserve the animals, then every means
must be adopted which are known in the veterinary
art to effect a cure. One of the first thinofs to be at-
tended to is to keep down inflammation. In cases of
the animal being gored, or deeply wounded in the
belly, by leaping over a fence or other object, it often
happens that the incision is of such an extent as to
permit the bowels to protrude. The first thing to be
done in such cases, is to see that the intestines are
clean, and free from dirt or hair ; and if they are not
so, let them be carefully washed with a sponge and
carbolised warm water, and then return them into the
abdominal cavity, and stitch up the wound carefully
with a crooked needle and strong well-waxed linen
thread, or metallic wire, and afterwards apply a broad
roller round the carcase of the animal, to prevent the
internal pressure from tearing the sides of the wound
asunder. The animal should then be placed in a
situation where it can remain undisturbed. Its diet
for some time must be limited, and consist of such food

490 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

as will prevent it from becoming costive, such as
mashes of bran, and linseed or thick oatmeal-gruel,
and occasionally fresh grass. But should costiveness
come on, then let a pint of castor oil be given in a
quart, or half-a-gallon of thin warm gruel. It is a
most important point to keep the bowels open in all
such cases.

In protrusion of the bowels it often happens that a
quantity of air collects in the part which has been
forced out, and so enlarges it that the orifice of the
wound will not admit of its being returned. It
will therefore be necessary to enlarge the opening
with a sharp knife, but very great caution is necessary
not to cut any vital part. This is most effectually
prevented by guiding the knife with the fore-finger.

When, however, such dangerous wounds have
been inflicted, it will be safer to have them treated by
a skilful veterinary surgeon ; and it is only for the
instruction of those who are far from such aid when
an accident occurs that we have pointed out the
best mode of treating it.

When parts which are greatly inflamed become
gangrenous, instead of suppurating, exciting stimu-
lants must be applied. Let the following simple
application be first tried : —

Tincture of myrrh . . 2 ounces,

Corrosive sublimate . . 12 grains,
Pure water .... 4 ounces.

Some practitioners recommend a solution of the
sulphate of copper, in the proportion of half-an-ounce
to four ounces of water.

The following has also been advantageously used : —

Hog's lard

6 ounces.

Bees' wax .

I ounce,

Spirit of turpentine .

6 ounces,

Powdered verdigris .

I ounce.

WOUNDS 491

Let the first three ingredients be melted together,
and the verdigris then added. The mixture must
be stirred until cold, to prevent the verdigris from
falling to the bottom.

All other wounds must be treated by practical
veterinarians, or dealt with according to the judgment
of the possessor of the animal : to particularise all
such as may occur would require more space than our
limits will admit of.

CHAPTER VI.

Of Gestation, Parturition, etc

GESTATION.

The period of gestation in the cow is about nine
months, and she rarely produces more than one at a
time, although instances have occurred of two, and
even three being brought forth ; but the latter case
is exceedingly rare. The time at which the cow has
taken the bull should be carefully noted, that she may
be dried off in proper time before calving. She
should also be allowed as much rest as she will take
for some time previous to calving. Her food should
be of good quality, and rather nutritious than other-
wise. By pressing the closed hand on the left side of
the belly in an early stage of pregnancy, the calf can
be felt.

It may be well for the information of those who
only keep one or two milch cows, to know that by
proper attention to their food, the animals may be
continued in milk, without detriment to the cow or
her calf, till within two months of the time of calving.

In cold and severe weather, in the winter, when
cows are in calf, they must be taken into houses
during the night, and even in day-time when stormy.
This is more especially to be attended to for a couple
of weeks before calving, as, should the cow drop the
calf in a cold, wet field, there is a possibility that both

GESTATION 493

may perish. Even in the finest weather it will be
prudent to take the cow and calf into the house at
night, for a week or two.

During the time of gestation, cows are liable to
several complaints, such as costiveness and strangury,
or a difficulty in voiding urine. These must be care-
fully attended to, otherwise they may cause the cow to
slip her calf.

Strangury will be known by the animal making
frequent painful attempts to stale, and by her voiding
only a small quantity of urine at a time, and frequently
none at all. The following must be administered until
the complaint is removed : —

Camphor, powdered .

2 drachms,

Nitre ....

I J ounces,

Spirit of nitrous aether

J ounce,

Laudanum

J ounce,

Oatmeal-gruel, warm

1 pint.

When strangury is accompanied by costiveness,
which is frequently the case, immediate recourse should
be had to laxatives. A pound of Epsom salts, dissolved
in half-a-gallon of warm gruel, may be given ; and the
discharge assisted by administering clysters at the
same time, consisting of four ounces of linseed-oil, and
a quart of thin warm gruel, with half-an-ounce of salt
of tartar to make them incorporate. If an evacuation
does not speedily take place, the clyster must be re-
peated in half-an-hour afterwards, and continue every
twenty minutes, until it has the desired effect.

It will be injudicious to feed a cow too much,
previous to calving, as in that event they may be
attacked with what is termed the milk-fever. If it is
found that cows have too great a tendency to fatten
previous to calving, they must be removed to a less
nutritious pasture, or stinted in their diet, which is

494 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

much more safe than reducing them by the aid of
medicine.

SWELLING OF THE UDDER.

This is a complaint to which cows are liable at
the time of calving, and is generally an indication
that the animal will milk well. The swelling is due
to congestions of blood in the vessels of the skin,
with effusion of a watery liquid into the cell tissue
underneath.

Symptoms. — Distention of the udder, pain and
tenderness to pressure of the hand.

Remedies. — As a rule the swelling gradually
subsides by absorption of the liquid within a few
days after calving, and nothing is required but gentle
rubbing with lanoline or vaseline ointment. The
swelling of the udder may be associated with
mammitis or inflammation of the udder, and when
so, the treatment to be adopted will be found under
that heading.

DISEASES OF THE MAMMARY GLAND OR
UDDER.

In the cow the mammory gland is divided into
four quarters, and there are four teats and four
orifices ; but in the mare there are only two quarters
and two teats, with four orifices. The gland is
connected to the abdomen by a sheet of connective
tissue. It is further bound and supported to the
abdomen by tendinous structure running betwixt
the two halves of the gland, connected on the one
hand to the muscles of the abdomen, and on the
other by delicate fibres to the lactiferous (milk)
ducts. It is in virtue of this arrangement that

MAMMARY GLAND OR UDDER 495

the COW can *' keep up her milk " for a time, and
only give it freely to those she likes when being
milked.

A healthy udder is recognised by the two halves
being equal in size, and the four teats being equal in
size and length. If, as is sometimes the case, one teat
is markedly smaller than the other three, it indicates
disease, and on examination with the hand, the
teat may be found blind and the quarter diseased
and secreting no milk.

When the cow comes to the calving the udder
is generally swollen, tender to pressure, and more
or less hot. This is a natural state, and constitutes
what is generally termed

PHYSIOLOGICAL CONGESTION OR ENGORGEMENT OF
THE MAMM^.

If the animal is come of a race of good or deep
milkers, and possesses this qualification, then this
physiological congestion is well marked, but on the
other hand, if the animal neither inherits nor
possesses the power of secreting a large quantity
of milk, the congestion or ''swam" is small.

The physiological engorgement referred to may
lead to undue dilatation of the blood-vessels, and by
pressure the arrest of the secretion of milk, or by
" hefting " to engorgement of the milk tubes, and
in this way to pathological (diseased) congestion
and inflammation termed

MAMMITIS, OR MASTITIS.

Inflammation of this gland is much too common,
especially in dairy cows, and probably in many
cases it is due to a want of attention. It may
appear before parturition, immediately after, or at

49^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

any period during lactation. Sometimes it appears
in dry cows (in calf or barren), put to grass, and
is most troublesome to the grazier, as they cannot
give the animals the attention required. If the cow-
is destined for the butcher, the teat is amputated at
the root, and the pus formed in this way allowed
to escape.

The type of inflammation may be acute or
chronic. It, the inflammation, may be confined to
the lactiferous (milk) tubes, and the delicate mucous
membrane which lines their interior, and when this
is the case the disease is termed

CATARRHAL MAMMITIS.

In other instances the inflammation primarily
affects the secreting gland and connective tissue
structures, and then it is termed

INTERSTITIAL OR PERENCHYMATOUS MAMMITIS.

If the udder prior to the attack was healthy, and
the inflammation catarrhal, the symptoms are gener-
ally as follows, and confined to one quarter.

Pain (not acute at first nor for some time) on
stripping the teat, the feeling of little hard lumps
distinct, and only felt here and there. No uniform
thickening and hardening of the gland and its con-
nective tissue, because they are not involved in the
inflammation. On withdrawing milk it is seen to
be changed. It may be tinted more or less red, or
watery, or curdled, and found to contain mucous,
pus, and blood-cells. Very little milk may be able
to be withdrawn, the teat sinuses or reservoirs being
blocked with coagulated milk and pus. Here, if
relief be not given, an abscess or abscesses form,

MAMMORY GLAND, OR UDDER 497

and the gland and connective tissue may now
become the seat of inflammation also. If the case
is seen early and proper treatment adopted the
inflammation may subside, but if not it is apt to
become a chronic affection like a chronic catarrh of
the mucous membrane of the nose, and when this is
so there is neither thickening of tissue to be felt
nor pain on pressure exhibited. The milk secreted
remains more or less watery, purulent, and bloody.

Causes. — The causes are various, exposure to
cold, or cold drafts of air coming in under the
door, and blowing direct on the udder. Hefting,
that is allowing two or more meals of milk to
remain in the udder, a practice followed by many
persons when exhibiting a cow in milk, in a fair
for sale or show purposes. Another cause is care-
lessness in milking the animal and not removing*
by the hand all the contents of the gland. Blind
teat resulting from an injury, and gradually closing-
up, and the introduction of teat syphons which are
not scrupulously clean, may also lead to and
terminate in inflammation of the udder.

Remedies. — Keep the animal within doors and
free from drafts. Limit the food to that only sufficient
to support the strength and not form milk. Ad-
minister a dose of salts sufficient to purge the animal
freely, and keep up the purgative action for a few
days. Gently strip the teats to remove the milk, and
do this frequently. Anoint the udder with an oint-
ment of palm oil and camphor, and rub it gently in
with the hand, taking plenty of time so as to assist in
softening the lumps. If necessary pass up a teat
syphon, but see that it is clean and disinfected.
Should the inflammation end in suppuration and the
formation of an abscess, then the sooner the veterin

2 I

49^ MANUAL OP^ MODERN FARRIERY

arian is in attendance on the animal, it will be to the
advantage of all concerned.

INTERSTITIAL, OR PARENCHYMATOUS
MAMMITIS.

When it originates as a primary affection, it
generally does so suddenly. It may be an animal
milked in the evening and all right ; next morning
no milk of consequence, and the udder tender, painful,
and swollen. She has no desire for food, is stiff and
unwilling to move, and disinclined to allow you to
manipulate the gland.

The inflammation once set up proceeds rapidly,
and is prone to invade at least one-half of the udder,
and frequently it involves the whole of the organ.
Fever is a marked symptom, the thermometer
standing at io6 or more. The pulse is full, the
breathing disturbed, and the animal seldom ruminates.

By early and appropriate treatment, the inflamma-
tion may subside, and resolution by absorption of the
exudate take place, but if so, the area of the inflam-
mation must be limited. If the inflammation spreads
rapidly, the udder in a day or two is enormously
enlarged and becomes as hard as a stone, and in this
indurated condition it may remain for an indefinite
period, the lacteal secretion having ceased. If the
animal lives, the hard masses of inflammatory exudates
may commence to break up, softening and suppura-
tion following each other.

The purulent matter may discharge itself by the
teats, by sinuses through the body of the gland, and
in places it may be retained in cysts or abscesses, so
that we have circumscribed and diffused suppuration
as in the lung tissue in pleuro-pneumonia.

INTERSTITIAL OR PERENCHYMATOUS MAMMITIS 499

If the inflammation be acute and the induration
extensive, the animal may die before that softening
and suppuration has set in, the pressure of the in-
flammatory exudates on the blood-vessels of the udder
being so great as to stop the circulation and lead to
mortification of the udder.

If the suppuration be diffused, death may also
result by blood-poisoning (septicaemia pyaemia) and
general prostration, the animal partaking of no food to
sustain life.

Causes. — The causes are various : rough handling
and bad milking. Blows from the head of the calf or
lamb in the act of sucking. Lying on a damp or cold
surface, chills from drafts of cold air from doors and
windows, and sometimes contagion, as in abortion,
from organisms gaining an entrance to the udder by
the teat.

Remedies. — Have the cow or ewe housed and
made comfortable. If cold weather, cover the body
with a rug. Administer a full dose of saline purga-
tive. Restrict the diet to one that will only support
life, and not form milk.

Support the udder with a bandage and anoint the
udder with camphorated mercurial ointment or bella-
dona ointment. Apply the ointment three times daily
with gentle friction and manipulation, but do not
irritate the skin ; at same time strip the teats and
remove the secreted milk and pus. Fomentations and
poultices may also be required, and for contagious or
septic inflammation of the udder, injections of boracic
acid, and other agents should be employed, but as the
operation is a delicate one and in some cases has led
to serious and fatal consequences, we would not advise
any one but an experienced veterinarian to attempt it.
The prevention of the spread of contagious mammitis

500 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

to Other animals in the herd or flock, is one requiring
the guidance of a veterinary expert, and will well
repay the stock proprietor for the outlay.

AGALACTIA.

Agalactia or arrest of the milk secretion, some-
times takes place within a day or two, and some-
times it affects a number of cows at the same time.
When a number are affected, and they are all being-
depastured in the same field, it may be taken for
granted that it is due to some herb in the grass, which
at this stage in its growth, has this power of affecting
the circulation of blood in the mammory gland, and
the secretion of milk.

Remedies. — Change the pasture and give thrice
daily warm drinks of bean and oatmeal with a little
linseed, if bowels are constipated. In a fortnight or
so, the cows may in all probability be returned to the
same pasture and fed thereon without bad effects.

ULCERATED TEATS— CHAPS.

Cows that are cat-hammed, or go close behind, are
liable to be affected with chapped udders, in conse-
quence of their thighs rubbing against them. The
skin of the thighs may also be inflamed. These may
be readily cured by the parts being regularly washed
with carbolic soap and warm water, and afterwards
sponged over with a lotion, composed of —

iLxtract of goulard .... 2 ounces,
Camphorated spirits of wine . . 4 ounces.

When the teats are chapped, which frequently pro-
ceeds from a want of cleanliness on the part of the

ABORTIOlr 501

milker, great care must be exercised, otherwise deep
fissures and ulcers may form, and the same affection
may appear on the teats of all the other animals
milked by the same unclean person. Mammitis may
also result from the animal suffering so much pain on
milking that she refuses to give up her milk.

Remedies. — Chapped and other diseased con-
ditions of the teats are largely preventable. With this
object in view, the hands of the milker should be
washed before and after milking a cow, and the
farmer or dairyman should have clean water, towel,
and soap so placed as to allow of this being carried
into practice without inconvenience and trouble to
the milker.

Before (if necessary), and always after, milking, the
teats should be sponged and dried, and if the skin is
tender (as it generally is in all cows for some time after
calving, but especially in cows subjected to milking
after their first calf), anointed with camphorated olive oil
and glycerine. If this treatment is adopted from the
first, the tender skin having now been used to the
friction and heat in milking, will not become in-
flamed and tender, and when this stage has been
reached, the ointment may be discontinued, and all
that is now required is to keep the teats clean.

ABORTION.

This is the term in general use to signify a pre-
mature expulsion of the foetus from the womb at any
period before, when born, it is capable of a separate
existence. A calf seldom lives if born at seven
months, and even at the end of eight months it is
small and weakly. Abortion may take place as early

50^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

as the sixth week, but in cows it is more frequently
the sixth or seventh month.

The causes giving rise to abortion may be ranked
under two heads : first, Accidental or Non-Contagious ;
and, second. Contagious.

Under the head of accidental causes, may be
enumerated (i) exposure to cold and wet, (2) fright,
(3) over-exertion, (4) injuries of various kinds and
particularly over the region of the abdomen, {5) food
indigestible, ergotised grasses, frozen turnips, cabbages,
grasses, etc., (6) water impure, or at a low tempera-
ture, (7) bad smells, e.g., cows hanging their placental
membranes, or after-birth, etc., etc.

As a rule the cases of abortion due to accidental
causes are not numerous even in large herds and flocks,
but when abortion is due to contagion, or the entrance
of micro-organisms (via the vagina), betwixt the
placental membranes and the womb, then the cases
in general are numerous and prone to become con-
tinuous.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of abortion depend
upon the stage of development of the young at the
time of its expulsion from the womb. If prior to the
fourth month, no premonitory symptoms may be
exhibited. The embryo lamb or calf may be found in
the field and close examination required to single out
the unfortunate mother. If after the fourth month,
the cow about to abort, generally has a bloody dis-
charge coming from the vulva, the ligaments of the
pelvis relaxed, and the udder more or less congested.
Shifting of the feet, arching of the back, and straining,
are also symptoms.

Remedies. — If the animal about to abort is
detected, early abortion in some cases may be
prevented. In all cases it is of the utmost importance

ABORTION 503

to remove the animal and place her in a loose-box
away from all other. A sedative drink should be
administered, composed of the following : —

Linseed oil i pint,

Tincture of opium 2 ounces,

Tincture of ginger ..... 2 ounces.

This drink may be repeated in twelve hours. The
food should be restricted to small bran mashes and
plenty of tepid water to drink.

If the animal aborts and the placental membranes
are not cast off, as is generally the case, they must be
removed by the hand without delay, and the womb
washed out with Jays' fluid and tepid water, but the
removal of the membranes should be entrusted to the
veterinary surgeon.

As preventative treatment various agents have
been administered, and by some carbolic acid is
looked upon as a specific. Pure carbolic acid in
from one to two drachm doses may be given daily
in drinking water or in the food.

In contagious abortion it is all-important not
only to administer carbolic acid internally, but also
to sponge out the vagina and wash the vulva and
tail with carbolised soap and water, and to do this
daily to all the animals in the herd until the malady
disappears.

The strength of carbolic acid for disinfection and
sponging purposes varies, but in the proportion of
I oz. of carbolic acid to 50 oz. of water, it is safe.
A solution of sulphate of copper is useful, and
another inexpensive and effective lotion is : —

Corrosive sublimate . . 2J drachms,

Muriatic acid . . . . 2J ounces.
Soft water .... 2 gallons.

504 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

In tracing the original cause of the outbreak of
contagious abortion, and its continuance in a herd,
it is all-important to remember that the contagion
may be carried by the bull as well as the cow, and,
all things considered, it is advisable to keep two
bulls for service in a herd where contagious abortion
has obtained a footing. It is also advisable to
divide the herd into two portions, and to graze
and house all the cows who have aborted by
themselves, and to serve them by the one bull.
The sound cows and the other bull should congregate
together, and, if possible, have separate attendants.

FALLING DOWN OF THE CALF BED.

The extent to which this takes place varies. In
some cases it is only a prolapsus of the walls of
the vagina, and is only seen to take place when
the cow lies down. In other cases not only the
vaginal wall descends, but also the whole body of
the womb or calf bed.

Remedies. — Where the prolapsus is restricted to
the vagina, and only takes place in the recumbent
position, all that is required in general, is to lower
the floor in front, or raise the floor behind, so that
when the animal is lying down, her body behind
will be raised up, and the calf in the w^omb will
gravitate forwards, instead of downwards and
backwards.

When the womb has become inverted the first
thing to be done is to remove the placental
membranes, support and protect the womb with
a clean cloth underneath, and have it returned at
once, and this as a rule can only be accomplished
by a veterinary expert, so that we need not describe
the operation in detail.

PARTURITION, OR CALVING 505

PARTURITION, OR CALVING.

In most instances animals do not require the
aid of man in bringing forth their young, as nature
works her own ends. The principal thing to be
attended to, is to have the animal placed in a dry
and warm situation. But, as it is possible, that
a wrong presentation or an accident may occur, it
will be proper to have a person watching the animal
when parturition is near at hand.

The natural presentation of the calf is with its
head and fore-feet, the muzzle resting between the
feet, with the back of the animal upwards. Mr
Downing, a veterinary surgeon, who had much
experience, enumerates seven different preternatural
presentations ; namely : —

I St. Reverse, or with the tail and hind-quarters
first. — This position being favourable for extraction,
if the calf be a small one, let nature take its course,
but assist the animal in a speedy delivery, to prevent
the possibility of suffocation. Let the haunches be
pressed back with the palm of the hand, and seize
the bend of the hough of one leg, and pull it until
the foot is reached, which will facilitate the extraction
of both feet.

2nd. The fore-feet first, the head not being
visible. — Get hold of the nose or face-bone, and
place the head in its proper position, between the
fore-legs. This requires the arm of the operator
to be stretched its full length, being careful that the
fingers are firmly fixed, so that advantage may be
taken of every throe, as it occurs.

3rd. The side — belly upwards, the head being
reversed over one shoulder, the legs appearing. —

506 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Let the calf be moved backwards by gentle pressure,
and bring the head forward to the legs.

4th. The fore-feet with the head under the
brisket. — Let the calf be pushed back until the head
is felt, then take hold of the nose and pull at it,
when it is certain that the head is in a proper
position ; but force must on no account be used
until it is certain that it is so.

5th. The head alone, or with only one fore-leg
accompanying it. — Push the calf back against the
shoulders and brisket, and the feet, or one of them,
will be found folded under the belly ; pull the feet
forward, one at a time, while the hand is gently
placed on the bend of the knee. It not unfrequently
happens, that the head becomes so much swollen
and bruised, that it cannot be returned ; when this
is the case, the only thing which can be done to
save the cow, is to amputate the head of the calf,
after having first skinned it. Cut through the skin
of the forehead in a straight line, from the nose to
the poll, and force it back over the first joint of the
neck, at which place let the head be divided from
the body, and push it back into the womb so as
to enable you to lay hold of the knees, and after
wrapping the loose skin over the end of the neck-
bone, while an assistant keeps hold of the skin, in
order to guide it clear of the haunch-bones of the
cow ; let the calf be extracted gently ; but should
it not come fairly forward, let the calf be pushed
back immediately, and properly adjusted before again
pulling it out.

The same treatment is applicable to the 6th, when
there is a presentation of the head and a single leg,
or the head alone.

7th. The calf lying on its back, with its four

PARTURITION, OR CALVING 507

legs folded nearly together, and close up to the
cow's back ; the head appearing, or doubled back,
even with the ribs, on one side or other ; the hind-
leg perhaps appearing. — If the latter is the case,
let it be put back, as it is impossible to extract the
calf with a hind and fore-leg together, and the
difference between the knee and the hough will be
at once discovered. The head in this case being
doubled back, must of course be returned to its
proper position, as mentioned above. As this is
a case where time is required, the cow often becomes
very impatient and restless ; but if quiet, the opera-
tion may be performed easily and deliberately. But
if it is found that extraction cannot be accomplished
without the use of the hook, then the operator must
take hold either in the sockets of the eyes, cavity
of the ears, or under the jaws. Sometimes the calf
is unnaturally swollen, in consequence of dropsy, and
thus the cow is unable to give birth to it. When
this is the case, it will be necessary to pierce the
belly of the calf with a knife, to allow the water
to escape.

A popular author says, *' When every other plan
has failed for turning the calf, so as to put him into
a favourable position for delivery, the following has
often succeeded : — Let the cow be thrown down in
a proper position, and placed on her back ; then, by
means of ropes and a pulley attached to a beam
above, let the hind parts be raised up, so as to be
considerably higher than the fore parts ; in this
position, the calf may be easily put back towards
the bottom of the uterus, so as to admit of being
turned, or his head and fore-legs brought forward
without difficulty."

508 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Mr Lawrence, an experienced veterinarian, gives
the following rules, which merit attention : —

** ist. Employ timely assistance before the animal
is exhausted. trx^qaK ;^n ;fh

'' 2nd. Extraction never to be attempted in an
improper position.

" 3rd. Supple the hand and arm with warm water
and fresh lard.

"4th. Examination best made, the cow standing,
and in the interval of pains.

" 5th. In pulling at the feet, enclose the claws,
or hoofs, in the hand, that the horn may not bruise
the cow.

" 6th. The navel-string bursting, and the usual
flux of blood of no consequence.

*' 7th. Instruments to be used only as the last
resort, and by experienced and steady persons
only."

Should it be necessary to assist the cow, the
position of the calf may be ascertained after the
waters have been seen. A cord should always be
at hand to attach to the fore-legs of the calf, in
order that each natural exertion, or throe, may be
assisted. Alv^^ays keep the head free from ob-
struction.

It sometimes happens that the passage to the
uterus is so contracted and sinewy as to obstruct the
passage of even the smallest hand ; and, indeed,
even the finger, in some cases. This is called
horning (scirrhus) of the lye, or calf-bed. This
occurs even at the last stage of gestation ; and
many cows cannot give birth to their calves in con-
sequence, and not a few have fallen victims to it.
When the period of parturition has arrived, and the
animal manifests difficulty in parting with her calf,

PARTURITION, OR CALVING 509

a small hand, which has been anointed with hogs'
lard, should be introduced into the vagina, so that
it may easily be effected, and it may then be ascer-
tained whether this horning of the lye has taken
place ; and if it should be found to be the case,
recourse must be had to the following operation,
which, however, we would recommend to be per-
formed by a veterinary surgeon, if one can be had ;
but if not, there will be no alternative but to proceed
with the operation : — Procure a small, very sharp
knife, with a blade of about an inch and a half in
length, and with a hollow on the back part, near
the point, on which the extremity of the fore-finger
must rest, to guide the knife in cutting, and let the
point and edge of the knife be covered as much as
possible, to prevent it cutting the vagina. It must
have a short handle, so that the fore-finger of the
operator may always be kept forward, as far as the
extremity of the blade, to prevent any danger from
its edge cutting the sides of the vagina. With the
point of the knife cut the lower side of the passage
to the womb, and when the horny obstruction is com-
pletely divided, the animal will feel immediate relief,
and the natural pains will be resumed, and v/ith
a little assistance the calf may easily be extracted,
and in many instances by the efforts of the cow
alone.

When this horny obstruction exists, it will be
observed that those necessary alterations preparatory
to calving do not take place, and when this is noticed,
particular attention must be paid in examining into
the cause, why due preparation has not been made by
nature for the change about to take place.

As a rule in the cow, the placental membranes are
(ixpelled by the contractions of the muscular fibres of

5IO MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the womb within twelve hours, but should they not
be expelled within three days, they ought to be re-
moved by the hand of an expert. Much force should
not, however, be used, as this might cause haemorrhage,
and endanger the life of the animal. If allowed to
remain long after the birth of the calf, it is apt to
become putrid, and mortification in the womb may
follow. Some cows, after they have dropped their
calf, and the after-birth has come away, have a pro-
pensity to eat the latter, which should never be per-
mitted, if possible.

After a cow has calved, she should be kept in the
house for two days, and not allowed to drink water
which is quite cold ; it will also be of benefit to mix
a little oatmeal with the tepid water.

REARING OF CALVES.

Some cows will disown their progeny soon after
birth ; to prevent this, let a little salt be thrown over
the back of the calf, and the mother will speedily take
to licking it, and afterwards allow it to suck her.
If the cow inclines to horn the calf, chain her up, or if
she kicks it violently, tie her two hind legs together
with a small soft rope or strap, above the hocks.

About an hour after birth, we would recommend
that the calf be allowed to suck its mother. And
when it is designed to wean calves, for the sake of the
cow's milk, the operation is commenced when they are
about a fortnight old, in which cases the best sub-
stitute for the milk is that recommended by the late
Duke of Northumberland, who was a zealous agri-
culturist. The following is the mode of preparing
it : — Take one gallon of skimmed milk, and to about
a pint of it add a tablespoonful of treacle or golden

REARING OF CALVES 5II

syrup, and after mixing them well, take an ounce of
linseed oil cake, finely beaten down, and strew it slowly
into the milk, stirring it all the while with a spoon,
until it is thoroughly incorporated ; and when it is so,
add to it the other portion of milk, and place it on the
fire until it is the warmth of new milk, when it may be
given to the calf. Sometimes water is substituted for
milk ; when that is the case, let four ounces of linseed
meal be well boiled in a gallon of water, and afterwards
add half a pound of treacle, which must be added
when the linseed meal has been slowly and thoroughly
boiled.

To secure health and strength to the calves, the
surest plan is to allow them to continue with their
dam, and be suckled by her, until they have acquired
sufficient energy to provide for themselves. There-
fore they should be permitted to run about with her
for twelve months. Calves, however, are apt to
bruise the udder and teats, by butting against them
with their head while sucking. To obviate this, they
are prevented from sucking by means of a small piece
of leather, with little sharp iron spikes upon its outer
surface, and attached to the snout of the calf in such a
manner as to permit it to feed upon grass, while it will
prick the udder of its dam, and she will therefore not
permit the calf to suck her. The cow is only milked
twice a day, and it is at those times that the calf is
permitted to suck the teats of one side, while the
milkmaid strips those of the opposite side ; and when
she has completed the milking, the muzzle is again
replaced.

In the great Yorkshire dairies, calves are hardly
ever permitted to suck ; they generally drink the new
warm milk from a pail. This is continued for two or
three weeks, and for the next three weeks they are

512 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

fed upon half new and half skimmed milk ; after this,
upon skim milk alone, and even sometimes mixed
with water, and ultimately with the addition of a little
oatmeal porridge, until they are able to feed entirely
upon grass.

The practice in Cheshire is to allow the calf to
suck its dam for the first three weeks, and it is after-
wards fed upon warm whey or butter milk, to which
water is sometimes added, with the addition of oatmeal
or flour. To every forty or fifty quarts of liquid, one
quart of meal or flour is considered sufficient. On
this they are fed night and morning for some weeks,
and then it is only given to them once a day until
they are three or four months old, when they are
considered able to live entirely upon vegetable food.

In Gloucestershire, calves are only permitted to
suck about two or three days, after which they are fed
with ' skimmed milk warmed. When they are able to
masticate a little, they have given to them chopped
hay, split beans, or oatmeal and water ; and sometimes
oats, which latter is an expensive food.

In Norfolk, calves are permitted to suck their dams
twice a day for a fortnight, and for the next fortnight
to be fed with the pail ; then only once a day for a
month or two, and accompanied by cut hay, turnips,
or carrots.

A different mode of treatment takes place in
Sussex, where calves are permitted to suck the cows
for two months to twelve weeks ; after which they are
fed with skimmed milk, with a mixture of oatmeal and
water. Sometimes they are weaned at the end of this
period, and fed upon cut hay, turnips, etc.

It has been found that linseed boiled to a jelly, in
the proportion of one quart of seed to six quarts of
water, forms an excellent substitute for milk in rearing

REARING OF CALVES 5 1 3

calves. A pint of this to be given three times a day
in a quart of water slightly warmed. Calves fed in
this way thrive as well as if fed upon milk.

In America calves are fed with gruel, made of one-
third barley and two-thirds oats, ground very fine.
To each quart of flour add twelve of water, and boil
it for half-an-hour. Let it stand until it has become
of the heat of milk from the cow. Each calf to be
given a quart of this morning and evening. When
calves are ten days old, a bundle of soft hay is tied up
in the middle of the cow-house, which they will come
to eat by degrees. The quantity of gruel must be
gradually increased until they are two months old, by
which time they are generally enabled to provide for
themselves. Three bushels of the above compound
will raise six calves.

One of the most important objects to be attended
to in rearing calves, as well as in feeding all animals,
is to preserve the utmost regularity in the hours of
feeding, and not to give too much at a meal. It has
been found better to feed thrice a day instead of twice.

When calves are not intended for breeding from,
it is the practice to castrate the males and spay the
females. These operations should be performed when
the animal is fifteen or twenty days old. After the
operation great care is necessary to prevent the
wounded parts from being exposed to the action of the
air. They must be kept quiet and warm for the first
three or four days afterwards, and not allowed much
drmk. ^mii^mMut ur

The time when cows should be put to the bull is
not until they are from two to three years old, although
it is not unusual for farmers to commence breeding
from them at two years. But this latter has a
tendency to weaken the system, as cows can hardly be

2 K

514 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

expected to have attained their full strength at two
years.

There are many other methods adopted in feeding
and fattening calves and cattle, but these come more
within the scope of a work on agriculture than of one
on farriery.

DENTITION OF CATTLE.
The period at which the teeth appear in the
mouth varies according to the breed and early
maturity of the animal, and without doubt the feeding
of the animal affects the growth of the teeth. Well-
bred and well-fed animals have the teeth earlier in
the jaws than under-bred and under-fed cattle. As an
example, the mouth of a well-bred shorthorn at three
and a half years is as advanced as that of a West High-
land at four and a half years, so that to judge correctly
we require to calculate the shorthorn by the table of
early dentition and the West Highland by that of
late dentition. As a guide to early dentition the
following^ table may be used : — . /" ' ^. *

!2 central temporary incisors.
2 middle temporary incisors.
2 lateral temporary mcisors.
2 corner temporary incisors.
Tist, 2nd, and 3rd temporary
At birth, or within one month s molars on each side, and

(^ above, and below.
At six months 4th permanent molar.

At fifteen months 5th below permanent molar.

At one year and ten months to two years, the central temporary
incisors are thrown off, and replaced by the two central permanents,
and about the same time, the 6th molar makes its appearance in
the jaw.

At two years and six months, the middles are cast and re-
placed by the two permanent middle, and at this time, also, the ist
and 2nd temporary molars are replaced by the ist and 2nd per-
manent molars. 'juJ inoi\
At two years and nine months to three years, the lateral tem-

DENTITION OF CATTLE 515

porary incisors are cast and replaced by the lateral permanent
incisors, and a little earlier or at the same time, the 3rd temporary
molar disappears, and its place is taken by the 3rd permanent
molar. Lastly, at three years and three months, or three years
and six months, the two corner temporary incisor teeth fall out and
are replaced by the corner permanent incisors.

The perfect mouth consists of eight cutting or
incisory teeth in the under jaw, and none in the upper,
with six grinders or molar teeth on each side, both in
the upper and lower jaw, making a total of thirty-two
teeth. At three years, the; horns are furnished with a
wrinkle at their base, and every succeeding year they
acquire an additional wrinkle ; so that after the
animal has reached its third year, its age may at once
be ascertained by counting the wrinkles or circles at
the base of the horns. In some cattle these wrinkles
are not so apparent as in others ; and many un-
principled dealers file down some of the wrinkles when
they wish to pass off old cattle for young ones, and
thus deceive those who are unsuspicious of the imposi-
tion. But experienced persons may detect the trick
by a close examination of the horns, as it is hardly
possible to perform this unworthy trick in so nice a
manner as to give the part which has been rasped
down the n^itural appearance of the horn.

CHAPTER VII.
Management and Feeding, etc., of Cattle.

COW-HOUSES.

Nothing is more conducive to the health, and conse-
quently to the feeding of the animal, than well-aired
and ample cow-houses. The dimensions of these will
depend upon the quantity of stock which the farmer
may desire to bring up for immediate and marketable
purposes. Many different plans have been adopted in
the construction of such buildings ; some have been
well and usefully conceived, while others have been
erected with more than necessary accommodation and
elegance. In the latter respect none was, perhaps,
more absurdly so, than that one erected by a joint-
stock company at Edinburgh, about fifty years ago,
which was ironically designated ''The Cow-Palace.'
The speculation did not succeed, and this building-
stood long, a monument of extravagance and folly, not
being easily convertible into any other purpose.

Perhaps the most useful and economical construc-
tion for a cow-house is one with a central wall, which
should be about fourteen feet high, with a roof resting
on it, sloping downwards to an outer wall of seven feet
in height. The total width on each side should be
about twelve feet. Each stall should be four feet two
inches in width. At the heels of the cattle must be
placed a gangway about three feet and a half broad.

THE FEEDING COW-HOUSE ^Ij

Urine runs should be conducted from the ends of the
stalls, towards the outer wall of the cow-house, where
there ought to be a receptacle for the urine. There
should be a dung-pit, constructed of stone, or brick-
work, for the reception of the dung. At about five
feet apart should be a series of windows, covered with
flap-boards, for giving light and air, when required.
There should be a door at each end of the building,
for admitting of a free current of air, as the occasion
requires.

Some feeders prefer a circular building, on the
score of economy ; the animals standing with their
tails towards the wall, which would offer facility in
throwing out the dung, and the area within would
answer for the purpose of feeding, and attendance
upon the cattle.

The strictest attention should be paid to ventilation,
and attendants should watch that the upper timbers of
the house are dry, as they are liable to become damp
from the condensed perspiration, and vapour arising
from the respiration of the cattle.

Some experienced feeders affirm, that it is better
to leave a gangway of sufficient breadth for the attend-
ants to pass along, at the heads of the cattle, to feed
them. And, if possible, troughs well supplied with
running water. Where this can be obtained, there
can be little doubt of its great utility.

THE FEEDING COW-HOUSE.

It has long been ascertained that the cleaner and
more comfortable cattle are kept the better ; and the
utmost diligence should be employed in preserving the
food as clean as possible. Upon these depend, in a
great measure, their healthy condition ; and conse-
quently the sooner they will become fat and market-

51$ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

able. To attain these objects, Mr Hunter, of
Blackness, near Dundee, a gentleman who paid much
attention to agricultural pursuits, had cow-houses
constructed in so complete a style, as to answer most
effectually these desirable ends. His plan was to
erect a house of two apartments, an inner one for
feeding the cattle, and an outer one for containing the
turnips and fodder.

In wintering young cattle, it is of much importance
to keep them sheltered from the wet, and in a warm
situation, as they feed much better. They should be
tied up in sheds or houses constructed for the purpose ;
and, if possible, these should be in a yard, surrounded
by a wall. The cattle should be tied up in stalls ; and
it will be found that they feed faster than when run-
ning loose in a yard, and with much less consumption
of straw and fodder.

A principal object with Mr Hunter was to obtain
as much manure as possible, and at the same time to
save the urine. After the turnips are fully ripened,
they are gathered together in large quantities, and the
roots are separated from the leaves, with large knives,
made of old scythes, or knives purposely constructed,
and as much of the earth removed from them as
possible, and then carried into a barn, where they are
deposited for use. The cattle are first fed with the
leaves, until they are exhausted, which they eat with
avidity when not withered. The turnips should be as
closely piled up as possible, and covered with straw,
to preserve them from frost. It must be observed
that all the turnips are not removed from the ground
at once, but taken up from time to time, as the leaves
may be required for food. When turnips are permitted
to remain in the ground during the whole winter, the
green parts are rendered useless by the alternations of

THE FEEDING COW-HOUSE 519

frost and thaw, and the turnips themselves much
injured.

The. feeding-house should be at right angles with
the barn ; and, at about three feet and a half distance
from the principal wall, there should be a series of
troughs from which the cattle feed. These should be
constructed of fire-clay, which is preferable to wood.
The floor should be an inclined plane, on which the
troughs rest, and in the ends of each there ought to
be an arched aperture for the passage of water from
one trough to the other, by which means they are
easily kept clean, by throwing a few buckets of water
into the higher one, and the last or lower one empties
itself by a spout led through the wall. By means of
this arrangement, the food can be kept clean without
much trouble. The cattle should be chained to stakes,
situate at a proper distance from each other, and these
are attached to a horizontal beam, running from one
end of the house to the other, and attached to the roof
by an upright support. The three and a half feet
space between the beam and the wall, is intended as a
walk for the men who feed the cattle, and from which
they deposit the cut turnips into the troughs. The
cow-house should have a window at both ends, to en-
able the men to see that no accident befalls the animals.

Should any of the cattle be seen choking, the
attendant must immediately apply the instrument
described, with the mode of using it, at page 429, and
represented on Plate x, fig. 1 9, which ought constantly
to be at hand.

In large establishments, the cattle-feeders should
be on the spot night and day, and ought to have a
sleeping apartment at the end of the cow-house, with
a window looking into it, so that he may hear and see
anything which may require his attention.

5^0 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

At about a foot distant from the hind-quarters of
the cattle, there should be a hewn stone dung-groop
and urine-gutter, so that the latter may run off as soon
as it is discharged by the animal, and be conducted
into the urinarium in the yard, which should be
enclosed for the purpose.

There should be several vents constructed for
allowing the breath of the cattle and ammoniacal gas
to escape, as the inhaling of the latter is very detri-
mental to the health of cattle ; and these also prevent
too great an accumulation of heated air.

CHAPTER VIIL
The Various Breeds of Horned Cattle.

THE SHORT-HORNED, OR HOLSTEIN BREED.

It is from this breed that we derived the best of our
English cattle, which now, in most parts of the
kingdom, far exceed the parent stock. They differ
much from all the older British cattle in the shortness
of their horns. They are wider and deeper in their
form, and feed to a much greater weight than most
other breeds ; they yield a large quantity of tallow, and
their hides are greatly finer in texture, thinner, more
compact in fibre, and with a thin coating of hair.

It is not the province of a work of this kind to
enter into an elaborate detail of all the methods
pursued by breeders for improving their stock, which
would exceed the limits of a treatise of this kind ; but
we shall quote the words of Mr Beilby, who, in speak-
ing of the improved Holstein breed, says, ** We shall,
however, give the general principles which have been
laid down, and steadily adhered to, in the improvements
of several breeds of cattle, and which have been so
successfully brought into practice. The first, and
most obvious, is beauty of form, a principle which has
been, in common, applied to every species of domestic
cattle, and, with great seeming propriety, was supposed
to form the basis of every kind of improvement, under
an idea that beauty of form and utility were inseparable.

5^2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

But at present a distinction is made by men who have
long been conversant in practice, between a useful sort
and a sort that is merely handsome. Utility of form
is, therefore, the next general principle, and may be
considered as arising from a larger proportion of those
parts which are deemed offal, or which bear an inferior
price, should be small in proportion to the better parts.
A third principle of improvement laid down by breeders
consists in the fineness of the muscular parts, or what
is termed yf(?^^. But the great object which engrosses
the attention of breeders at present, is the fattening
quality, or a natural propensity in cattle to arrive at a
state of fatness at an early age, and in a short space
of time ; and it appears, from observation, that beauty
and utility of form, the quality of flesh, and its pro-
pensity to fatness, are principles consistent with each
other, are frequently found in the same individual, and
hereditary in particular lines or families of cattle. In
regard to the means of improvement, it has long been
an established maxim, that, to improve the breed, it is
necessary to cross it with others of an alien stock under
an opinion, that continuing to breed from the same line,
weakens the stock. This idea, however rooted it may
have been in the minds of former practitioners, is now
entirely set aside by the modern practice of breeding,
not from the same line only, but from the same family :
the sire and the daughter, the son and the mother, the
brother and sister, are now permitted to improve their
own kind ; and in this way the improvement of the
several breeds has advanced rapidly to a height un-
known before in any age or nation."

This we may admit has been the case to a certain
extent ; but a limit must be put to it, otherwise
degeneracy and weakness are sure to follow, and also
a train of diseases, which will become hereditary.

THE KYLOES, OR HIGHLAND CATTLE 523

Crossing the different breeds throughout the United
Kingdom has been so much practised within the last
thirty years, that it is now difficult to say what is the
origin of the cattle of any part of the country. Bulls
and cows of improved breeds have been transported
from one district to another to such an extent, that
an almost uniform improved stock prevails throughout
Britain and Ireland. These, however, are varied to
a certain extent by the opinions and practice of various
farmers. We must, however, peculiarise.

THE KYLOES, OR HIGHLAND CATTLE.

This hardy and small breed is peculiar to the
Highlands of Scotland and its Western Islands.
They are mostly black or light brown in colour, their
horns white, with long and rather shaggy hair. These
cattle feed to a good size in proportion to the dimen-
sions of their bodies. The flesh is well flavoured, and
the muscular fibre of a fine texture. They are much
sought after by gentlemen in England, to be turned
out in their parks, from the gentleness of their tempers,
and the ease with which they fatten.

THE LONG-HORNED CATTLE.

This breed was formerly called the Lancashire
breed, and prevailed over that county, as well as
Cumberland and Westmoreland. Of late this breed,
which was a favourite one, is so altered by the mixture
of other kinds, that it is now nearly extinct.

THE GALLOWAY BREED.

The cattle of this and the neighbouring counties
have long been the polled kind. They are of medium

524 Manual of modern farrierV

size, generally weighing from forty to sixty stone,
although some have been known to weigh seventy
stone. Their form is shorter than the Lancashire
breed, and otherwise resemble them, except in their
want of horns. They fatten on the most valuable
parts, and their beef is finely marbled or mixed.

MILCH COWS.

Great differences are known to exist in the
quantity of milk which cows yield, as well as the
quality of the milk itself.

The short-horned and Ayrshire breeds give most
milk ; more cream is thrown up on its surface, and it
produces a greater proportion of cheese. Some persons
think the Alderney breed the best suited for dairies,
as yielding a great proportional quantity of milk and
cream, and also for consuming a smaller quantity of
food. The Suffolk duns are also remarkable for the
quantity and excellence of their milk.

TUBERCULOSIS.

The bodies of all animals are open to invasions of
a growth generally termed " tubercle," and no organ
is exempt. The human subject and cattle are especi-
ally liable to this invasion, and it is calculated that
tuberculosis proves fatal to 25 per cent, of the human
race, and invades from 25 to 50 per cent, of milch
cows.

If we examine these tubercles as we find them in
the lung of the human subject, they are seen to be
little, round, hard, grey-coloured bodies, about the
size of a millet seed, and yielding no fluid when
crushed (miliary tubercle). In a more advanced stage
it is of a yellowish colour, and of the consistency of
putty or cheese (yellow tubercle).

TUBERCULOSIS 525

In cattle the miliary tubercles are larger than in
man, and form bunches sometimes as large as grapes.
They adhere or grow out from the membrane which
lines the chest (pleura), and the membrane which lines
the abdomen (peritoneum). They also invade the
lung tissue, the lymph glands, mammary glands^
mesenteric glands, the liver, kidneys,. bawels^MWombj
testicles, brain, etc., etc. I '.^'>-' -^rfi ? -^rfi riji v

If we now have recourse to the microscope, and
make an examination of a recent tubercular growth
in an acute case of generalised tuberculosis, we find
it is made up of a number of cells like those found in
the blood (leucocytes), like those found in a wound
(granulation cells), like those found in the skin
(epitheloid cells), and, although last not least, one or
more micro-organisms belonging to the class termed
" Bacillus Tuberculosis."

This bacillus has been singled out and grown on
blood serum, glycerine-broth, glycerine-milk, glycerine-
agar, agar, potatoes, etc. If the cultivation material
be injected into the subcutaneous tissue, or into the
blood stream, or into the chest, or into the abdomen,
or into the anterior chamber of the eye of rabbits
or guinea-pigs, in about three weeks they exhibit
symptoms of tuberculosis, and on post-mortem ex-
amination tubercles are found in the various organs
of their bodies.

Cause. — It is therefore certain that the cause and
spread of tuberculosis is the introduction of the living
parasite, the ** Bacillus Tuberculosis," into the body of
the individual or animal, and without its introduction
and multiplication within the body, the disease tuber-
culosis, or consumption, could not make its appear-
ance in either the human subject or the lower animal.

Regarding the experimental transmission of the

526 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

disease to the human subject from the lower animal,
for reasons which are self-apparent, the field of opera-
tion is a shut one, but light is indirectly thrown upon
this point by experiments, having for their object the
transmission of the disease from the human subject to
the lower animals. A considerable number of ex-
periments in this direction have been made, and all
with the same result, but time and space will only
permit of one example being given in detail.

The experiment to which I now refer was con-
ducted by Professor Edgar M. Crookshank, King's
College, London, and reads as follows : — "I obtained
sputum containing numerous bacilli from an advanced
case of phthisis. The sputum was shaken up with
sterilised salt solution and injected into the peritoneal
cavity. A few weeks afterwards the calf showed signs
of illness. The animal looked dull, did not feed well,
had a slight cough, and showed less inclination to move
about than usual.

These symptoms gradually increased, and death
occurred forty-two days after inoculation. Extensive
lesions were discovered at the post-mortem examina-
tion. The mesentery was adherent to the abdominal
wall at the seat of the inoculation, and to the rumen;
the liver was adherent to the diaphragm. There was
extensive tubercular deposit at the seat of inoculation,
and an abscess the size of a walnut. Extending over
the mesentery from this point, there were hundreds of
wart-like, fleshy new growths, some quite irregular in
form, others spherical or button-shaped.

There were similar deposits on the under surface
of the liver, on the spleen, 'in the gastro-splenic
omentum, and on the peritoneal surface of the
diaphragm. On microscopical examination of sections,
extremely minute tubercles were found to be dis-

TUBERCULOSIS 527

semlnated throughout the whole of the substance of
the lungs and liver, and tubercle bacilli were found
in these and in the peritoneal deposits. The calf
died of pyaemia, but sufficient time had elapsed for
marked local infection leading to generalised miliary
tuberculosis."

We thus see that human and bovine tuberculosis
are one and the same disease, and that no difficulty
is experienced in transmitting the malady from the
human subject to the calf or cow, and can there be a
doubt as to the transmissability of the malady from
the calf or cow to the human subject ?

The natural methods by which tuberculosis is
propagated from the human subject to the lower
animals are (i) inhalation of the dried expectora-
tion of the consumptive person, or contamination
by the lungs. (2) Ingestion of the expectorated
sputum, or contamination by the stomach, and
cases can be cited proving its transmission by these
methods in dogs, and poultry which readily pick and
swallow the sputum.

We do not incline to the opinion that many of the
lower animals receive the infection from the human
subject, nor are we inclined to believe that a large per-
centage of the cases of human tuberculosis are trace-
able to contamination from eating the flesh or drinking
the milk of tubercular cattle.

Tubercular deposits rarely are found in the flesh. —
Its favourite seats are the investing membranes of
the chest and abdomen, and the glands, and these are
removed by the butcher in dressing the carcase.
Further, the heat to which the flesh is subjected in
preparing it for human consumption, is sufficient to
destroy the bacilli, and tuberculous beef without living
bacilli cannot produce tuberculosis in those who eat it.

5^8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

But while we believe that few cases of tuberculosis
in the human subject are traceable to the eating of the
flesh of tuberculous animals, we entertain a different
opinion as to the propagation of tuberculosis by drink-
ing the milk of tuberculous cows, because it is partaken
of as drawn from the animal, and rarely subjected to
heat or cooking of any kind.

But even here again, the cases of tuberculosis
which owe their origin to drinking the milk of tuber-
culous cows, are not so numerous as at first sight
would appear, because numerous experiments in the
feeding of calves on the milk of tuberculous cows, tend
to prove that if the mammary gland be free from
tubercular deposits (which in the majority of cases it
is), the milk does not produce tuberculosis in the
calves fed on it. -•-

Regarding the hereditary transmission of this dis-
ease, until lately it was the unanimous opinion that
consumption, or tuberculosis, descended from parent to
offspring, and was propagated in' no other way, but as
it is a parasitic disease, or a disease produced by a
specific parasite (bacillus tuberculosis), and without
the parasite there can be no such disease, then it
cannot be a parental inheritance, or disease flowing
from the parents of the affected animal, but a disease
associated with, and entirely dependent on, the pres-
ence and existence of the bacillus tuberculosis in the
body of the affected animal.

We do not, however, incline to the opinion that all
individuals and all animals are alike exempt from, or
prone to be attacked by, this parasite. On the contrary,
we hold the decided opinion that certain families in
the higher and lower animals inherit a condition of
body which predisposes or lays- them open to be
attacked by this parasite. ? ' -•

TUBERCULOSIS 529

Symptoms. — The symptoms of tuberculosis depend
upon the stage of the disease. The earliest symptom
is a short, dry cough frequently repeated, especially in
the morning, and while feeding. By-and-bye, accord-
ing to the activity of the disease, there is wasting,
enlargement of the cervical glands, hidebound, and
a dirty pale colour of skin. The breath is generally
bad, the eyes dull and sunken in their orbits, the
appetite is frequently good, and the secretion
of milk considerable ; in other cases, fastidious ap-
petite and almost no secretion of milk. Abnormal
sounds are heard on auscultation, and dullness on
percussion.

If the udder is invaded, nodules are felt, which are
hard and painful to pressure, but must be distinguished
from the indurations produced by simple inflammation
in cases of mammitis.

In doubtful cases, or in those cases where it is de-
sirable to ascertain if there are any of the herd
affected with tuberculosis, injections of *' tuberculine ''
should be made ; but as this is an operation which
should be conducted by a member of the veterinary
profession, we shall not enter into details.

Remedies. — Where tuberculosis exists in a herd
of valuable breeding animals, in order to get rid of
the disease, it is not imperative to slaughter all of
them. Those markedly affected should be slaughtered,
and thereafter the remaining animals (young and old
alike) should be subjected to the tuberculine test.
Having by this test divided the herd into affected and
non-affected animals, then house and graze the two
sections apart. At stated intervals re-apply the
tuberculine test, and add any re-acting animals to the
affected section. The calves of the whole herd to be
removed from their mothers as soon as born, and hand-

2L

530 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

fed with milk from the sound cows. The calves, in
time, also to be subjected to the tuberculine test, by
adopting these and other repressive measures which
the experienced veterinarian will suggest ; and by-
excluding all additions to the herd which re-act to
the tuberculine test, the stock proprietor will, in a few
years, find himself in the possession of a herd of cattle
in which tuberculosis does not exist.

SECTION III.

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

INTRODUCTION.

The duties incumbent on the shepherd are of a
most arduous kind ; and he that performs them
rigidly, even with a moderate range of pasturage,
will have little leisure time on his hand. Sheep
are accustomed to enjoy an ample district of country
for feeding, and being widely scattered, the shepherd
has little opportunity of watching the condition of
their individual health. Some will naturally be
seized with maladies, unobserved by the shepherd,
and in many instances die without being seen in
some sheltered corner, where they retire for quiet,
when overtaken by disease.

It is of great importance to have shepherds well
versed in the different complaints to which sheep are
liable, and to be able to distinguish the disease
immediately on its earliest appearance. The diseases
are comparatively few, and these in general well
marked.

The sheep is not that stupid and defenceless
animal which many suppose him. In extensive
mountain ranges, where they but seldom see man-
kind, and where they are not dependent on the
protection of the shepherd, sheep will be found to

53^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

assume a very different character. Rams and
wedders have been known to attack a single dog,
and in general are found more than a match for one
of ordinary strength. But when danger of an
imminent kind presents itself, the whole flock assume
an attitude of defence, — forming themselves into a
compact body, with the females and young in the
centre, the males place themselves in the front, and,
keeping close to each other, boldly wait the attack ;
and when their enemy has approached within a few
yards, the rams dart upon him with such impetuosity,
as to lay him dead, unless he takes to flight, and
thus eludes their vengeance. Dogs and foxes have
no chance of breaking their ranks when thus
formed.

CHAPTER I.
Diseases of the Head, etc

STAGGERS.

Symptoms. — This malady has a variety of names
applied to it, as indicating various diseases, namely,
sturdy y goggles, fernsick, and hydrocephalus, or water
in the head ; but they are in fact only one.

The staggers is a disease which more particu-
larly attacks young sheep or hogs, from nine to
eighteen months old. Sheep that have died of this
disorder, on their skull being opened, a collection
of water has been found between the skull and
brain, and even sometimes in the ventricles of the
brain.

The first symptom which manifests itself, is the
sheep lagging behind its companions in the pasture
ground, and assuming a dull, sluggish appearance.
Then the animal will be noticed to go round, as if
giddy ; its eyes look as if they were blind ; and
ultimately he dies. But all these symptoms may
be apparent for a considerable time before death
ensues. Sheep labouring under this complaint
sometimes feed well to the last, and die in good
condition.

Causes. — One form of this disease proceeds from
an over-abundant supply of that fluid which moistens
the ventricles of the brain. This is considered in-

534 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

curable. The more common state proceeds from a
species of worms, called hydatids. These parasites
are found in little bags or cysts, filled with a fluid.
They do not inhabit the substance of the brain, but
lodge between it and the skull. It is by the pressure
of those cysts disturbing the functions of the brain
that this malady is produced, and which generally
terminates fatally.

The hydatid is the cystic form of the tapeworm
of the dog, and the sheep becomes the victim by
swallowing, in the grass, the ova or eggs of the tape-
worm extruded in the faeces of the dog. If the dogs
herding the sheep have no tapeworms in their bowels,
the sheep will have no hydatids in their brains.

Remedies. — The celebrated poet, Hogg, better
known by the name of the Ettrick Shepherd, dis-
covered one mode of curing the species of disease
which is caused by hydatids. His plan was to
thrust a knitting-needle up the nostril of the animal
and force it through the skull, into the cyst, which
destroyed the hydatid, and the sheep then recovered
its usual health.

In cases where a portion of the skull becomes
soft, it is penetrated by a common awl, which
permits the water and hydatids to escape, and a
cure is effected. Care must be taken not to pierce
the substance of the brain by forcing the awl too
deep. Trepanning has been recommended, and
successfully performed by veterinary surgeons. It
is, however, too delicate an operation to be attempted
by unskilful hands, and should therefore be entrusted
to no one but a regular veterinarian. The animal
must be properly secured, and placed in such a
position that the part to be operated on should lie
convenient to the hand. An incision of an inch

BLINDNESS 535

and a half in length is made through the skin,
which is crossed by another at right angles to it.
The portion of bone above the cyst, and which in
general is felt to be more or less soft to pressure,
is removed by a circular saw termed a '* trephine,"
or a hole is made by a "borer." The cyst is
punctured by a ''trochar," and the fluid withdrawn
by a ** syringe" applied to the "canula." Care
must be exercised in the removal of the cyst.
When this has been effected, the parts of the skull
must be brought together, and crossed by slips of
adhesive plaster. Remove these in three days, and
wash the part with carbolic soap, if any matter
appears, and dress it in the same manner. Two
or three dressings generally is all that is required.
Mr Rhind, Surgeon, Edinburgh, describes, in
the first volume of the Edinburgh Journal of
Natural and Geographical Science ^ a species of
worm, which was found in the frontal sinus of a
sheep ; but is unable to account for the animal
being found in such a cavity. It belongs to that
genus of worms called Pentastoma, and may be
specifically termed ovis. We have given a repre-
sentation of this worm on Plate xiv ; fig. 9, the
worm the size of nature ; fig. 1 1 , the head magnified ;
fig. 10, the point of the tail ; fig. 8, a cross-section
of the body, showing the intestines.

BLINDNESS.

It may naturally be supposed that this malady
subjects the animal to the risk of accidents, and
consequently such as become blind should be fed
in an enclosure where there is no inequality of
ground.

53^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Cause. — Blindness is frequently induced by re-
moval from warm and sheltered localities to such as
are exposed to cold winds and storms. Moist situa-
tions are also apt to produce blindness. Exteme
heat has also the same effect, especially in the dog-
days. Poor feeding is likewise instrumental in
producing blindness ; and that peculiar condition
of the atmosphere, generally denominated blight,
produces an affection similar to what is called sty
upon the human eye. When the cases are numerous
in the flock, and at the same period in summer, it
is caused by the dust of the grasses at the flowering
season.

Remedies.— The eye being an extremely delicate
organ, cures should only be attempted by a veterinary
surgeon. The ointment made from the nitric oxide
of mercury, drawn across the eye-ball by a camel-
hair pencil, or a feather, will frequently effect a cure ;
and the common mercurial ointment has been found
beneficial.

CATARRH.

'/? Symptoms. — The discharge of a purulent fetid
matter from one or both nostrils, the membrane
excoriated, accompanied by dullness, and the wool
parting easily from the skin, together with want of
appetite, are symptomatic of this malady.

Cause. — Subjection to wet or boggy layers in
cold, wet weather, or during wind, as also exposure
to damp situations during snow, are apt to produce
catarrh. There can be little doubt but the disease
is sometimes contagious, as it has been frequently
observed, that when one animal has been seized
with the complaint, others soon become infected.

CATARRH

537

Remedies. — The following preparation has been
found an effectual cure if taken in time : —

Gum-guaiacum .

J ounce,

Camphor, finely powdered

J drachm,

Tartarised antimony

i ounce,

Fennel-seeds, powdered

I ounce,

Mithridate ....

J ounce ;

to be made into a ball with treacle.

CHAPTER II.
Diseases of the Chest.

FLUKE, OR LIVER ROT.

Symptoms. — The name rot has been given to many
diseases, which are, however, widely different in their
character. But this complaint is a distinct malady,
exhibiting characters peculiar to itself. The lungs,
liver, and whole system are affected, and water is
effused into the abdominal cavity. The chief seat of
the malady seems to be the liver, which is always
found in a diseased state ; and a species of worm,
called the fluke-worm, is found lodged in the bile
ducts. The sheep invariably falls off in flesh, which
also becomes flabby ; the eyes are heavy, dull, and
yellow in colour, and the animal appears stupid, and
weak. The gums and tongue are of a livid hue ;
and the breast loses its fine rosy colour ; the breath
is fetid, and the teeth become loose. The wool parts
from the skin easily, and in some instances the animal
scours.

Causes. — Sheep that are fed upon dry, and especi-
ally mountain land, are seldom subject to this malady.
On the contrary, it has been ascertained that those
fed on low, wet pastures are liable to be attacked by
this complaint. It has been especially remarked to
affect sheep brought from hill-pastures to those which
are damp and luxuriant, for the sake of speedily

FLUKE, OR LIVER ROT 539

fattening them. The immediate cause of the disease
is the introduction into and the presence within the
liver of two fluke or leaf-Hke parasites, termed the Dis-
tomum Lanceolatum and Fasciola Hepatica, and their
ova, which are present in thousands, disorganising
the liver, preventing the secretion and excretion of
bile, and draining the body of its blood until it
becomes anaemic and generally dropsical. The ova,
or eggs, of these parasites are not hatched within the
body of the affected sheep, but pass out with the
dung, and unless moisture and heat are afforded they
come to nothing, but if they gain a pool of fresh
water, they are hatched, and, floating about, are on
the out-look for molluscs, the bodies of which they
pierce, and then become encysted and form brood
capsules, and within these many young embryos may
be formed. If the molluscs are swallowed by the
sheep in the grass or water, then the embryos develop
into mature flukes, inhabiting the bile ducts and re-
producing themselves only by eggs. One fact, how-
ever, is certain, namely, that where sheep are fed on
salt-marshes, the complaint never occurs ; and in
Lincolnshire sheep pastured in such localities are
uniformly well fed, and in most excellent condition,
and bring high prices. It will now be apparent to
the reader why high lying and dry pasture lands
are almost exempt from fluke disease, and low, un-
drained soils, where fresh water rests in pools, is
infested ; and, also, why salt marsh lands are exempt
from the malady and may lead to recovery of the
affected sheep, the salt being a poison to the
parasites.

Remedies. — As preventative, drain the pasture
lands and get rid of the pools of surface water ; if
this cannot be accomplished dress the pastures with

540 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

salt — no breeding stock should be reared on fluke
lands, but a flying stock kept, and liberal hand-
feeding allowed so as to push the sheep forward for
the butcher. Up to a certain point the sheep thrive
well, and the moment they are seen to be standing
still or going back in condition, they should be con-
signed to the butcher. Rock-salt and sulphate of
iron assist in the destruction of the parasites and
strengthen the constitution of the sheep.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

This complaint is most common in lambs, and
occasions a short, hard cough. Whenever this is
observed, give the following specific, every day, until
the cough is subdued : —

Tartarised antimony . . . i drachm,
Linseed-tea .... 4 ounces.

GRASS-ILL.

Grass-ill is a disease which affects lambs from
three weeks to a month old, and is caused by eating
grass before the stomach is properly habituated to
it, and no doubt from indigestion. It is most rapid
in its progress, and speedily terminates in death, if
not promptly attended to. The following should be
given whenever the animal exhibits a languid, de-
jected state : —

Castor-oil i ounce,

Tartarised antimony . . . i drachm,
Infusion of gentian-root . . J gill ;

to be administered with the flexible tube funnel.

MILK-ILL.
Symptoms, — The animal exhibits a dull appear-

JAUNDICE, OR YELLOWS 54 1

ance, with the ears spread and hanging on either
side of the head, instead of standing up in the
ordinary manner.

Cause and Cure. — This complaint is one affect-
ing lambs, and follows weaning, and is probably
owing to indigestion, and acids generating in the
stomach. It is nearly akin to grass-ill, and we are
not aware of any other remedy than the one re-
commended for that disease. When they are affected
with scouring, from twenty to thirty drops of laudanum
may be given with effect.

JAUNDICE, OR YELLOWS.

This complaint is not a common one amongst
sheep. It manifests itself by the white of the eyes
assuming a greenish-yellow cast, and their skin
being of a yellow tinge all over. This disease, as
in other animals, is caused by a diffusion of the bile
over the different parts of the body. Give the follow-
ing :—

Salt of tartar . . . i drachm,
Epsom salts ... J ounce,
Bitter infusion . . i gill.

The following has also been found effectual in re-
moving the complaint : —

Calomel ... 3 grains,
Jalap .... I drachm.

CHAPTER III.
Diseases of the Abdomen.

THE RESP, OR RED WATER.

Symptoms. — The beginning or end of winter are the
times when this complaint makes its appearance. It is
less common in higher mountain ranges, but pretty
frequent in lower situations when hoar-frost prevails.
Where sheep are put under cover during the night,
they always escape this malady, which manifests itself
by an inflammation of the skin, and induces blisters,
filled with a thin watery fluid, of a reddish colour.
These first appear about the breast and belly, which
is generally distended. After a short time they break,
and the matter flows from the blisters, which, when
fully discharged, are soon covered by a blackish scab.
It is a disagreeable disease, but seldom proves fatal.
Sheep affected with red water become melancholy, and
are usually seen lagging behind their fellows while
feeding, and may be observed poking out their heads
in an awkward manner, and soon afterwards a
discharge of saliva takes place from the mouth, and
accompanied by swelling of the belly.

Causes. — Cold and wet are the chief sources of
this complaint, as well as many others in sheep. The
skin being fretted by the wet, watery blisters rise on
it. Sometimes, however, the animal is affected with
internal cold, which produces a slight febrile attack,

THE RED WATER BLIBES 543

and causes these watery vesicles to appear on the skin,'
and are similar to the eruptions which are produced
about the mouth and face of many individuals when
they have caught a severe cold. This affection has
but little influence on the blood, although a small
portion of it finds its way into the vesicles under the
skin, and produces that red tinge to the thin glary
matter of these little blisters, from which the name of
the complaint is derived.

Remedies. — The first thing to be done when the
disease is violent, is to remove the animal to a place
by itself, and then the vesicles should be laid open by
means of a small knife, scalpel, or lancet ; after which
let each of them be well washed out with tepid water
and carbolic soap. Afterwards administer the follow-
ing for three or four successive mornings : —

Sulphur, in powder .... 2 ounces,

Treacle, or syrup 3 ounces,

Nitre J ounce ;

to be made into six doses, and given them in the form
of a ball, or in half a pint of water, a little warmed.
On the seventh morning give the animal an ounce of
Epsom salts ; and on the following or next day, wash
the whole parts affected with lime water, and the sheep
may then be considered as cured.

THE RED WATER BLIBES.

Symptoms. — This disease is so similar to the
preceding, that there is no visible distinction in their
appearance ; but they differ entirely in their origin,
the latter being caused by the animal feeding on
succulent grasses or on turnips, which induce an
inflammatory state of the system. This complaint
attacks sheep which are quite healthy and in high

544 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

condition, and not unfrequently carries them off in a
day ; for besides the external appearance, the whole
internal organisation is affected.

Remedies. — An ounce to an ounce and a half of
Epsom salts should be given to clean out the bowels
effectually. Then give on the two following days a
cooling draught, viz :

Tartarised antimony . . . . i drachm,
Cream of tartar 2 drachms ;

to be made up in a ball with treacle.

THE BRAXY, OR SICKNESS.

Symptoms. — This is above all others the most
insidious and rapidly fatal malady to which sheep are
liable. Before any symptoms manifest themselves,
the animal is suddenly overtaken with the complaint,
while feeding and apparently in perfect health, when
he will start, and instantly fall down lifeless. If
opened immediately after death, it will be found that
the stench emanating from the carcase is quite intoler-
able, caused by the putridity which has affected the
entire internal parts.

In some instances there are premonitory symptoms,
by which it may be guessed that this complaint is
making progress in the animal's system, as he seems
uneasy and restless, lying down and rising up fre-
quently, and sometimes standing with his head down and
his back raised ; and when forced to run, he manifests
pain by his awkward action, and gradually ceases to
feed with his usual regularity, and drinks frequently.
The eyes have a watery appearance, and the eyelids
are half closed, with considerable inflammation of the
eyeballs. The mouth, tongue,, nose, and skin become
dry and parched ; the pulse becomes strong and quick,

PLATE XIV.

W&Mi- ®F k S3aDEE3F jeXfflIII}BlIirm(& TEE ]B3LKE3D)B!"(Er "^nif , MfJ^^
TfflUE TEJ^Tiai JROSIE ©HE TO SIX YIEiJR^ .

THE BRAXY, OR SICKNESS 545

and the breathing rapid and difficult. Inflammation
is going on, and considerable pain must be felt, termin-
ating in mortification, after which, as is usual under
such circumstances, the pain subsides, and the animal
will frequently commence feeding with his usual
avidity ; and thus persons who have not attentively
watched the progress and symptoms are deceived, and
the animal dies when they little expect it.

Cause. — Cold, wet weather will have the effect of
producing inflammation of the bowels, and thus lay
the foundation of the disease. Costiveness is also
supposed to occasion it ; or it may arise from drinking
cold water, when the animal is much overheated ;
from being washed in cold water when very warm, or
any other sudden change of temperature.

Remedies. — Bleeding is the first thing which must
be had recourse to after it is suspected this disease
is coming on, which of itself will frequently have the
effect of checking it. From half-a-pint to a pint may
be taken. This should be followed by an ounce of
Epsom salts, dissolved in a pint and a half or a quart
of cold water, and given in two doses. The lower
intestines being generally constipated on the approach
of this disease, it will be found beneficial to assist the
purgative by a clyster of warm broth or gruel, with an
ounce of butter or lard melted in it. Give the follow-
ing three times a day, until symptoms of recovery are
apparent : —

Nitre, ground into a fine powder, i drachm ;
made into a ball with treacle and linseed meal. It will
be found of much importance to sprinkle the animal's
food with salt. The food should consist of cut grass
or turnips ; and if the complaint attacks the animal in
the winter, green food should be occasionally given, if
possible.

2 M

546 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

DIARRHOEA, OR LOOSENESS.

Symptoms. — This disease and dysentery have fre-
quently been confounded, although they are sufficiently
different in their characters. Diarrhoea consists in an
unusual discharge from the mucous membrane of the
intestines, and is always accompanied by pain, gripings,
and frequent stools, but unaccompanied by fever ;
nor is there any blood or slime : it almost always
occurs in the spring ; weak sheep and hogs being most
liable to its attacks. In this disease there is only a
temporary or partial wasting of the flesh, while in
dysentery a rapid diminution of the muscular fibre
takes place.

Cause. — Sudden changes from poor to rich
pasturage ; and bad food will induce it.

Remedies. — It is not prudent to stop this disease
too rapidly ; but it is equally wrong to allow it to con-
tinue too long, as, if the discharge is either too long
continued, or the purging very copious, it brings on
great debility. If caused by change from dry to moist
food, then it will be proper to resume the dry feeding
for a time, which will generally effect a cure within a
few days.

If a change of food does not prove effectual, give
the animal half an ounce of prepared chalk in a pint
of cow's milk, slightly warmed. If the purging has
not been subdued by this, it may be repeated on the
second day. If the discharge is very great, and
accompanied by symptoms of pain and straining, two
drachms of rhubarb may be given as a first dose, and
chalk as a second. If this has not the effect of re-
lieving the animal, then from twenty to thirty drops
of laudanum may be given with advantage, and after-
wards the chalk, as above recommended.

DYSENTERY — COLIC 547

DYSENTERY.

Symptoms. — -This complaint is distinguished from
the last disease by being always accompanied with
fever, and other symptoms of an inflammatory con-
dition of the intestines, whereas diarrhoea is generally
a state of simple irritation or weakness of the bowels.
In dysentery there is great pain, frequent gripings,
especially when at stool ; the matter discharged is in
hard balls, accompanied by mucous blood, and often
purulent matter from the bowels. Sheep affected with
dysentery have generally the wool clapped, with a
languid expression of eye, the mouth dry, and rough
skin, with a greatly accelerated pulse. When the
disease is in an advanced state, the faeces are very
black and fetid. The animal eats very little, and is
rendered incapable of ruminating. This complaint
frequently ends fatally by ulceration of the bowels.

Remedies. — The treatment of dysentery should be
commenced with a change of food, e.g., crushed oats,
bran and rye grass and clover hay. If costive, the
bowels to be moved with castor oil, three ounces ; and
laudanum, thirty drops. In twenty-four hours follow
this up by the daily administration of one drachm of
pulv. rhubarb with half an ounce of prepared chalk,
mixed in a pint of warm milk. The food should be
sprinkled with salt. Hay and a slice of Swedish
turnip may be given to him during the continuance of
the malady.

COLIC.

It not unfrequently happens after sheep-shearing,
that they are affected with flatulent colic, when the
weather is cold and damp. They roll much about

54? MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

when seized with the complaint, and are considerably
swelled.

Remedy. — Two table-spoonfuls of the following^
mixture, given twice or three times at intervals of an
hour, will generally prove effectual : —

Compound tincture of senna, 6 drachms,

Spirit of nitre . . . i ounce,

Tincture of rhubarb . . 6 drachms,

Laudanum .... 6 drachms,

Water i quart.

FINDING.

This is a complaint with which lambs are afflicted,
generally when very young. The fsecial discharge is
of a thin, glutinous consistence, which has the effect
of making the tail adhere to the anus, effectually in-
terrupting the passage of the dung, and proves most
injurious to the lamb, sometimes causing its death.
This is, however, completely prevented by docking
the tail a day or two after birth.

This disease, which consists of pretty copious
purging, will be alleviated by the following pre-
scription : —

Laudanum ... 20 drops,
Ground ginger . . J drachm ;

made into a small ball with linseed meal and treacle,
and forced down the animals throat.

CHAPTER IV.
Diseases of the External Parts, etc.

SCAB, OR ITCH.

Symptoms. — This troublesome, infectious, and de-
structive malady is analogous to the itch in the human
being, and the mange in horses and dogs, being due
to the presence of parasitic acari lodging on, feeding
from, and breeding in the skin of the affected sheep.
As soon as a sheep has caught the complaint, it rubs
itself against every object which it meets. It will
even tear off its wool with its teeth. The skin emits
a peculiarly sickly smell, and presents a red, fretted
appearance, which in a short time hardens into scabs
all over the body. This disease is highly contagious,
so that when one is discovered to be affected, the
whole flock should be carefully examined, and those in
which the slightest indications are manifested should
be separated from the rest, otherwise the entire flock
will catch the complaint. But even here the assiduity
of the shepherd must not terminate, as it will be
necessary to go carefully over the flock for three or
four days successively, as some of them may have
caught the malady, although it has not become ap-
parent at first.

Remedies. — A variety of means have been adopted
for the cure of this disease, and it has been remarked
that sheep which have been smeared seldom are

550 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

attacked by it. The following ointment has been
found an excellent remedy : —

Strong mercurial ointment . 6 pounds.
Spirit of turpentine • • . 3 gills,
Hogs' lard, tallow, or butter . 6 pounds.

The hogs lard, or butter, must be first melted, and
poured over into a vessel ; then add the mercurial
ointment, stirring them well together until properly
incorporated, and all cloudiness disappears, when the
mixture will be of a uniform pale grey colour. The
turpentine must then be added, and the whole stirred
together until the ointment is thoroughly mixed, and
then pour it into a large flat dish, that it may cool
rapidly, so that the mercury may not sink to the
bottom, to prevent which the mixture should be stirred
until cold.

The following preparation has also been found
effectual, and is considerably cheaper than the pre-
ceding : —

Corrosive sublimate, finely powdered 8 ounces,

Train oil 6 gallons,

Resin 2 pounds.

Tallow 2 pounds.

Let the corrosive sublimate be put into a vessel with
a pound of the tallow, and when warm, let them be
well stirred together, and then the resin added, which,
when melted, will keep the corrosive sublimate sus-
pended. When these are well incorporated by means
of stirring, the remainder of the tallow should be
added ; and when thoroughly mixed, put in the whole
of the oil, and after being well mixed let the salve be
poured into a flat vessel to cool ; or it may be allowed
to remain in the vessel in which it was melted : in
either case keep stirring the mixture until cold.

SCAB, OR ITCH 55 1

If the weather is warm, the preparation may be
found too thin ; to obviate this, add an additional
quantity of tallow and resin. This ointment is applied
in the same manner as the smearing preparation, com-
mencing with a line along the back, and one on each
side, one down all the legs, and on the centre of the
belly, as well as the inside of the thighs, and both sides
of the neck. Unless the weather is cold, the wool
should be shorn previous to the use of any of the
above appliances, and the whole skin well washed with
soda and water, or strong soap and water, with a soft
shoe-brush, and after the animal is perfectly dry, the
ointment may be then applied over the whole body.

After the ordinary process of shearing, if the sheep
were anointed with a very weak preparation of the
above ointments, it will have the effect of keeping off
the scab and other cutaneous diseases.

It will require great caution in the application of
these ointments, taking care that too great a quantity
is not used, because it may bring on salivation, and
consequently endanger the life of the animals ; as many
have died out of a flock which have been anointed
with these mercurial preparations. Instances have
occurred where nearly the half of flocks have been
salivated, while the other portion exhibited no such
symptoms. This may be accounted for in two ways :
first, by the shepherd having been too liberal in the
application with those which are so affected ; or the
salve may not have been properly prepared, from want
of attention to the stirring of the ointment until cold,
and consequently a greater proportion of the mercury
falling to the bottom, and thus rendering it unequally
charged with this substance.

When the animals are salivated — which will be
seen by saliva issuing from the sides of the mouth

552 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

and the teeth becoming loose, then the following pre-
scription must be given, which will counteract the
destructive effects of salivation ; two table-spoonfuls
to be given every twelve hours, until a change takes
place : —

Sulphuret of potass . . i J ounce,

Wine steel .... 6 ounces.

In cases where the disease has not gained an
ascendancy, let the animals be shorn and well washed
with a strong solution of soda, applied by a soft shoe-
brush ; and when dry, rub off the scabs and scurf
with a dry shoe-brush. Then anoint them with the
following preparation, which is less hazardous than
mercurial preparations : —

Hogs' lard .... i pound,

Flower of sulphur . . 6 ounces.

Spirit of turpentine . . 4 ounces.

Melt the lard over a slow fire, and then add the
sulphur, which should be well incorporated by
stirring : and when removed from the fire let the
turpentine be mixed with it, and continue stirring it
until cold.

After numerous and repeated trials of various
agents, we have found the following in our hands to
be the mosi, efficient, viz. : —

FOR POURING 20 SHEEP.
Tobacco juice (Fleming's patent), i gallon,
Ground hellebore . . . i pound.
Black soap .... 2 pounds.

Directions. — The hellebore to be boiled fifteen
minutes with water and soap, and then add the
tobacco juice and as much more hot water as will
make the wash in all five gallons.

In pouring or dipping sheep affected with scab, it

PELT -ROT 553

must be remembered that the dip can only destroy
the parasites but not their eggs, and therefore the
affected sheep require several applications before all
the parasites, young and old, are destroyed.

PELT-ROT.

This is a complaint caused by the animals which
are in low condition lying in wet commons, woods,
or copses, with their fleeces soaked with rain, and
the debilitated condition of the sheep producing low
spirits and inactivity, so that it does not shake itself.
This produces a relaxation of the action of the vessels
of the skin ; and consequently the wool falls off,
leaving large patches of the hide bare. Scanty and
poor pasturage will also induce this complaint ; and
it is sometimes caused by a sudden transition from
poor to rich pasturage.

When this disease is noticed, the animal should be
removed to a warm straw-yard, and fed upon diet of
a nourishing kind, such as mashes of malt and oat-
meal, mixed with pea-meal ; and also give him cordial
draughts.

ERYSIPELAS, OR WILD-FIRE.

Symptoms. — This is an affection of the skin, and
is extremely contagious ; and if not attended to will
quickly spread over the whole flock. The skin
becomes very red, and considerable inflammation pre-
vails, but differs from red water in never blistering.
It is caused by some peculiar condition of the atmos-
phere, and generally appears in August and Sep-
tember. It seldom, however, continues more than
eight days at a time, although sheep which have been
affected with it are liable to a relapse. In some
seasons the disease proves very fatal to sheep.

554 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

(i»i Remedies. — Cooling medicines, such as antimonial
preparations, are useful in this complaint. Give a
dose of from one ounce to one ounce and a half of
Epsom salts for three days successively, after half-a-
pint of blood has been taken from the animal. Then
let half-an-ounce of purified nitre be given for two
days thereafter, when generally a cure will be effected.
Sir George Mackenzie recommends the salts and nitre
to be given in a cold state, which he says will prove
more powerful, and more beneficial. The parts which
are most inflamed should be washed with goulard-
water, to cool them.

CRAMP OF THE LEGS, OR WOOD-EVIL.

Cold is the cause of this complaint, which
suddenly seizes sheep, and renders them incapable
of walking, by partially paralysing the action of the
nerves of the limbs.

Remedies. — A teaspoonful of mustard given night
and morning for some days has been found to restore
power to the limbs, while they are rubbed twice or
thrice a day with strong camphorated spirit of wine,
mixed with about a fourth of that quantity of spirit
of turpentine. This is applied with a flannel rubber.
Let the animal be kept very warm, and the following
prescription given twice a day : —

Ground cinnamon . . i ounce,

Caraway-seeds, ground . . i ounce,
Linseed-meal . . . ij ounce ;

to be made into six balls.

LEG-EVIL.

This is a complaint in which the legs are liable
to considerable swelling, which sometimes ends in

FOOT-ROT 555

mortification and death. Sheep which are attacked
by this complaint should be immediately taken into
the house, and their legs well washed with soda and
water ; and after they are quite dry, let them be
properly anointed with citric or nitric ointment.
When the swelling suppurates, it should be dressed
with tar-ointment, and a rag rolled round it, and the
anointing to be repeated every second day.

FOOT-ROT.

Symptoms. — The earliest symptom of foot-rot is
lameness, after which a fetid discharge issues from
between the claws, and soon afterwards proud-flesh
makes its appearance ; and this is followed by a
gangrenous or cancerous aspect of the fleshy portions
of the foot.

Causes. — Wet, cold pasturage, is one of the chief
causes of this complaint ; and if the sheep are re-
moved to a distance when the horn is still soft, the
effects of travelling on a hard road is almost certain
to cause the rot. It is sometimes produced in a
sheep-house, where a number of suckling ewes are
kept, from the heating nature of the dung, if not
frequently cleaned out. Sheep which are afflicted
with this disease frequently feed as well as when in
good health ; but notwithstanding this, they seldom
thrive, and often rapidly lose flesh, and more especi-
ally their fat, which no doubt is caused by the
copiousness of the discharge.

Remedies. — As soon as sheep are observed to go
lame, the feet should be inspected, and if affected
with this disease, the horn should be pared away,
so as to permit the matter to escape. Caustic
remedies are found the most effectual in foot-rot.

55^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Three recipes have been recommended as efficacious
in this disorder ; these are as follows : —

NO. I. MILD RECIPE.

Sulphate of copper . . 2 ounces ;
dissolved in twelve ounces of water.

Strong sulphuric acid . . 2 drachms ;

to be applied with a sponge or feather to the proud-
flesh.

NO. II. —STRONGER RECIPE.

Verdigris, powdered . . i ounce,
Nitrous acid .... 2 ounces,
Water 6 ounces.

NO. III. — STRONGEST RECIPE.

Red nitrate of mercury . . i ounce,
Nitrous acid .... 2 ounces.
Spirit of wine ... 4 ounces.

The nitrated mercury should be first dissolved in
the acid, and then the spirit of wine should be added ;
to facilitate the decomposition of the nitrate, add a
teaspoonful or two of pure water, as frequently no
action and decomposition will take place without
water being added.

After these appliances have been repeated twice or
thrice, it will be found that the flesh assumes a more
healthy aspect ; the parts should then be healed by an
application of tincture of myrrh, or Friar's balsam.
But should a discharge continue to flow from the
parts, they should be carefully washed with a weak
solution of soda, or Goulard's extract. The animals
must be kept in a dry situation until the feet are
perfectly healed.

The treatment pursued by that enterprising

FOOT-ROT 557

agriculturist, Sir George S. Mackenzie, is first to
administer a dose of Glauber's salts, from one to two
ounces, according to the size of the animal. Then the
ulcer is laid open, and cleaned and washed with a
weak caustic ley of potash or soda, and then filled up
with scraped linen, steeped in Goulard cerate. This
dressing to be continued every evening, until the
granulations of the healing process become apparent.
If ulceration continues, then the part may be again
washed with caustic ley. When the hollow part
caused by ulceration is tolerably well filled up, a
dressing of cerate may be applied, after which it will
soon heal, in most instances. Sometimes, however,
the flesh grows too rapidly and in too great a quantity ;
which must be checked by a mixture of red precipitate
and burnt alum dusted upon it. When the discharge
has changed from a green hue to a yellowish-white,
it may then be assumed that the parts are healing ;
and they should be brought together at the edges by
gentle pressure, and kept so by adhesive plaster ; but
care should be taken to leave free egress for the
matter if it still continues to flow. To keep down the
swelling, the lower portion of the limbs may be washed
with vinegar.

Where the flock is a large one and the cases are
frequent and numerous, the method of treatment
recommended by Mr Buttar, of Corston, is the most
effective and least expensive. Mr Buttar's directions
are as follows : *' Pass the whole flock twice during the
year through a solution of arsenic, which is thus pre-
pared : Boil 2 lbs. of arsenic with 2 lbs. of potash
(pearl ash) in one gallon of water over a slow fire for
half-an-hour. Keep stirring, and at any signs of
boiling over, pour in a little cold water, then add five
gallons of cold water. Put this solution to the depth

55^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

of one inch to one and a half inch (just sufficient to
cover the hoofs of the sheep), in a strong, well-made,
water-tight trough, twelve feet long by eighteen inches
wide, and about six inches deep, with narrow strips of
wood nailed across the bottom to prevent the sheep
from slipping. The trough must be set and fixed
perfectly level alongside a wall or other fence in some
out-of-the-way place. It should be provided with a
good waterproof lid, secured by a padlock, so as to
prevent the possibility of danger from any poison
which might be left in the trough.

'' There should also be a wooden fence on the other
side of the trough, extended somewhat at the entrance
end to guide the sheep into it.

'* Before the sheep are driven through the trough,
their feet should be well pared : then walk them
quietly through, and let them remain in Pen No. 2
for half-an-hour or so before taking them back to their
pasture.

** If sheep are badly attacked, I would recommend
drawing out all the affected ones and passing them
through the trough a second time, after remaining
for half-an-hour in the pen. Should this not cure
them, repeat the process in a fortnight or three weeks
time. Having got free from foot-rot, the passing the
flock through the solution twice a year, will com-
pletely prevent any new attack."

VERMIN.

Sheep are liable to be infested with various
kinds of vermin, especially those that are lean and
out of condition, as well as the young animals. Various
kinds of insects deposit their eggs in the skin of sheep,
which produce little tumours. These are the re-

WOUNDS 559

ceptacles of the grub or maggot, after the eggs are
hatched. The insects which lay their eggs in the
skin of animals are provided with an instrument
called an ovipositor, with which they penetrate the
skin, and at the same instant they deposit their eggs.
The tumours produced by the grub after it is hatched
create considerable uneasiness to the sheep ; and when
a single sheep has several of these in his hide, he will
seldom feed well, from the constant irritation produced
by the motion of the grub. The shepherd, when he
sees this uneasiness manifested, should search for the
tumours, and pick out the grubs with a pin, or squeeze
them out with his thumb nails, as there is always a
small aperture on the surface of the tumour through
which the grub escapes in due season.

The sheep-tick, called hippobosca ovina, is also very
troublesome to sheep and lambs, especially before they
are smeared.

Remedies. — When the former of these vermin in-
fest sheep, the flowers of sulphur mixed with hogs'
lard, and rubbed over the fleece, generally has the
effect of preventing insects from alighting on them
for the purpose of depositing their ^'g^. A solution
of aloes, spirit of turpentine, and black soap have also
been successfully used for this purpose. Strong,
colourless spirit of tar or carbolic acid, has likewise the
effect of preventing flies from alighting on sheep.
It also destroys the tick. A solution of corrosive-
sublimate has the property of extirpating flies.

WOUNDS.

We have already given directions concerning the
treatment of wounds, which is alike in all quadrupeds.
But we must remind our readers that the application of

560 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

greasy substances to a fresh wound makes it suppurate,
and become a sore, and consequently Friar's balsam,
or tying or bringing the sides of the wound together by
means of adhesive plaster, will in most cases prove the
best remedy. We would therefore recommend the
shepherd to have always at hand a piece of adhesive
plaster in case of need ; and he should have a bottle
of Friar's balsam, or the following preparation in his
possession, which will answer equally well in fresh
wounds : —

Saltpetre, finely ground . . i ounce,
Spirit of turpentine ... 2 ounces.
Opodeldoc ..... 4 ounces.

When sheep are bitten by that species of snake
called the viper, or adder, the wound being so small, it
is seldom known until considerable swelling has taken
place, in consequence of the poison entering the
system. The only specific which we know in such cases
is to administer doses of castor oil to the extent of
from three-quarters of an ounce to an ounce and a
quarter. Half-an-ounce of hartshorn, mixed with
water, has been also found effectual in allaying swell-
ing produced from the bite of the viper.

FRACTURES.

When bones get fractured in sheep, if in the limbs,
the ends of the bones should be placed in contact, and
splints of wood placed round the part, firmly bound
together by means of a plastic bandage an inch and a
half in breadth ; and where this cannot be conveniently
procured, broad tape may be substituted, which should
be replaced as soon as a proper bandage can be had.
A piece of pasteboard will also answer the purpose of
splints. The bandage should be wound round in a

OF BLEEDING 56 1

spiral direction. The splints will require to be worn
for about twenty-one days, when they may be removed,
and the bandage alone worn, until the leg has acquired
sufficient strength. If the limb swells considerably,
the bandage must be slackened, and again tightened
when the swelling has subsided. If the fracture is
comminuted, that is, in more than one piece, the
safest thing is to destroy the animal immediately, as
there is but little chance of a recovery under such
circumstances.

OF BLEEDING.

The best and easiest mode of bleeding a sheep is to
open a large vein which passes over the cheek. This
vein can be readily felt, by pressing the finger on the
edge of the lower jaw-bone, where its trunk passes
over, and from thence its greater branches emanate,
and spread over the cheek about two inches from the
corner or angle of the jaw, nearly opposite to the third
grinding or molar tooth. When blood-letting is to be
performed, the operator must hold the sheep between
his limbs, with the croup placed against a wall to pre-
vent him from getting backwards. Place the left side of
the jaws undermost, and seize the lower jaw in such a
way that the fingers come upon its right side, so as to
press above the trunk of the vein a small way below
where the lancet is to be inserted. Make an incision
obliquely across the vein, where the trunk is largest,
which we have marked by letter a, Plate xiv, fig. i.
This will be distinctly felt through the skin. The
pressure prevents the flow of blood beyond the spot
where the finger is applied, and consequently must
pass through the opening, as it can find no other
course. The oblique incision is found to answer
better than one made along the course of the vein, or

2N

5^2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

directly across it. To prevent the vein from shifting
while the lancet is inserted, it should be pierced as
near to the point of the finger as possible.

In our figure above referred to it will be seen that
the trunk of the vein passes from under the lower jaw
at b, and that its branches go along the soft portion
of the cheek. At ^ a small nerve takes an opposite
course, passing over the vein, and in bleeding care
should be taken not to divide it. Under this nerve
there is a thick, fleshy muscle, which is called the
zigomaticus majors whose office is to take a principal
part in moving the jaw during mastication. The
letter d marks the situation of another much thinner
muscle, beneath which the branches of the cheek-vein
pass, and lead to the corner of the mouth, and assist
in giving motion to the lips.

ON THE AGE OF SHEEP AS INDICATED BY
THE TEETH.

The sheep, as well as all the other ruminating
animals, is destitute of the upper fore, or cutting-
teeth, which are also termed the incisors, but is
furnished with eight cutting-teeth in the lower jaw.

At two years of age two of these drop out, and
are replaced by other two. At three years old four
of them are renewed, and the others at the age of
four years.

The teeth undergo considerable changes between
the first and eighth years, which we have delineated
in Plate xiv, so as to enable persons to judge of the
age of sheep by their dentition.

Fig. 2 exhibits the appearance of the teeth at one
year old. Their cutting, or outer edges, form a
crescent-shaped line, the teeth being nearly all of a

THE AGE OF SHEEP 563

similar breadtn, almost flat, and very smooth on their
outer surface, and considerably concave internally.

Fig. 3 shows their aspect at two years of age, in
which the two central teeth are considerably broader
than the others, with the cutting edge not nearly so
much arcuated as at two years.

Fig. 4 represents the structure of the teeth at
three years, from which it will be observed that the
four central ones are considerably broader and longer
than the other two on each side, which rather suddenly
shorten, the external teeth being shortest and narrow-
est : the cutting edge of the four central ones is but
slightly curved.

Fig. 5 characterises the teeth at four years, and
shows that the six central ones are nearly of uniform
breadth and length ; their cutting edge being but
very slightly curved, the external tooth on each side
being materially shorter than the others. The whole
of the teeth are much stronger than in any of the
preceding years.

Fig. 6 shows the structure of the teeth on the fifth
year. It will be observed that the whole eight teeth
are nearly straight on their cutting margin, and that
there is but a small difference in their breadth, and
they almost gradually diminish from the centre to
the sides. The basal range above the gums is also
nearly parallel.

Fig. 7 shows the character of the teeth on the
sixth year, when the general length and breadth con-
tinue nearly as in the fourth and fifth years ; but the
two central ones are generally considerably worn down,
or broken, as exhibited in our figure, and frequently
dark-green, or brown, at their base above the gums,
and their hue rather yellow.

As in cattle, so in sheep, selection and feeding

564 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

causes the teeth to appear earlier or later in the
mouth, and in a flock of well-bred and well-fed
sheep, the teeth generally appear in the following;
order of time : —

At birth, or by the seventh day, the lamb has 4 incisors,
tenth
thirtieth

„ „ tenth ,, 2

,, „ l.i.ill.lV.l.li „

Temporary incisors, 8

At three weeks the ist, 2nd, and 3rd temporary molars on
each side and in both jawbones appear.

At three months the 4th molars appear, but they are per-
manent and not sucking teeth.

At nine months the 5th molars (also permanent) appear.

At one year to one and a quarter the 2 central temporary
incisor teeth are thrown off and replaced by the 2 central per-
manent.

At one and a half year to one and three-quarters, the 2
middle temporary incisors are thrown off and replaced by the
2 middle permanent.

At one and a half year the 6th molar (permanent) appears.

At two years the ist, 2nd, and 3rd temporary molars are
thrown off and replaced by the ist, 2nd, and 3rd permanent
molars.

At two and a quarter years to two and a half years the 2
lateral temporary incisors are thrown off and replaced by the 2
lateral permanent incisors.

At three years to three and a quarter the 2 corner temporary
incisors are thrown off and replaced by the 2 corner permanent
incisors. The permanent teeth of sheep are easily distinguished
from the temporary or sucking, by being double their size. See
Plate XIV, figs. 3, 4, and 5.

CHAPTER V.
Gestation, Parturition, etc.

THE RAM.

Of late years much attention has been paid to the
form of the ram from which to breed, as well as
the quality of his wool, fleeces, and other properties
which experience has shown to be the most ap-
propriate.

The head should be fine, and rather small than
otherwise ; his eyes large and prominent, ears thin,
his nostrils wide and expanded, his collar full from
the breast and shoulders, but gradually tapering from
the junction of the head and neck, and the latter of a
graceful and gentle curve, without any appearance of
hanging skin underneath ; the shoulders broad and
full, and joining smoothly to the collar forward, and
to the chine backward, without permitting a hollow
in either situation ; the muscle upon his arm or fore-
thigh must swell boldly from its superior part to the
knee ; the legs straight with a clean and fine bone ;
the knee must not have any loose skin about it, and
the hair from thence, as well as from the hough
downwards, without long or coarse hair ; the breast
broad and well-formed, and his fore-legs placed at a
proper distance from each other ; his chest of con-
siderable girth, full and deep, free from any hollow
between the shoulders, and the fore-flank quite full ;

566 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the back and loins broad, flat, and straight, with the
ribs finely arched ; his belly straight, and the quarter
long and full, furnished with ample muscle down to
the hough, which should be nearly straight ; the
junction of his thighs deep, wide, and full ; the entire
body should be covered with a thin pelt, and thick,
with fine, bright, soft wool.

There can be little doubt but the above is an
excellent and graphic description of a well-formed
ram, although some individuals differ with respect to
some of the points. But it is hardly to be expected
that all will agree on any given form, however
symmetrical it may be, and at the same time well
adapted for taking on flesh.

Considerable differences of opinion exist among
sheep-farmers, as to whether a large or small ram
is the best. This, however, can only be determined
by local circumstances, and other considerations,
which may strike the fancy of the breeder. Much
will also depend upon the nature of the pasture-
ground, as there can be no doubt that large rams
require more food than small ones. Therefore, on
lighter pastures a middling size should be preferred
to those which require a greater proportion of
food.

The ram lives to the age of about fifteen years,
and is fit for procreation at one year old. When
castrated, they are termed wedders ; and they soon
fatten, and the flesh becomes better flavoured, and
finer in the fibre.

LEAPING.

In former times it was the practice to turn rams
loose among the ewes ; but they are now kept apart
from them during the rutting season. A separate

LEAPING 567

paddock, or small enclosure, is appropriated for the
purpose, and to keep them quiet a couple of ewes
are permitted to remain beside them. The ewes
of the flock are brought to them, and they are only-
permitted to leap them once. The consequence of
this improved method is, a ram is enabled to im-
pregnate nearly double the number of ewes he would
do, if allowed to go amongst them without any
restraint, more especially a young ram. Formerly
from sixty to eighty ewes were considered as many
as a ram could serve ; whereas, now, from one
hundred to one hundred and twenty are impregnated
by a single ram. Instances have occurred where
one ram has served seven score in a season, but
this is decidedly injudicious.

Much attention is required by the shepherd during
the rutting season, to see that rams leap those ewes
which are in season, as the ram will sometimes take
a fancy for a particular sheep, which probably is not
in sufficient heat to receive him, and will remain with
her a whole day inactive, and will drive off such
other ewes as come near him. When the shepherd
notices a circumstance of this kind, he should remove
the favourite ewe to a great distance from the ram ;
that is, of course, in cases where he is not kept
apart from the flock.

To ascertain when the ewes have been served,
it is a good practice to rub the breast of the ram
with red keel, or other dry paint, which will leave
a mark on those which he has leaped. But this is
not a sure criterion, as tups frequently leap without
accomplishing their end.

It is of great consequence that both rams and
ewes should be in good condition before the rutting
season, which of course must be regulated by climate,

568 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

and the necessary quantity of spring food. It is
likewise important that lambs should be dropped as
early as possible, so that they may be well nursed,
and able to provide for themselves before the winter
commences.

THE EWE.

The ewe generally produces one lamb at a birth,
sometimes two, and rarely three or four. She goes
with young five months, and brings forth in spring.
Some, however, produce their lambs at Christmas.

LAMBING.

When ewes are far gone in parturition, they
should be moved about as seldom as possible, and
feed upon dry ground, and in a quiet, retired situation,
as much annoyance is apt to make them miscarry.
When they happen to part with their lambs prema-
turely, they should be taken into the house if the
weather be cold ; but if the weather be mild and
dry, they may be allowed to remain on the pasturage,
if it is in a favourable locality. When ewes are
about to yean, they should be located on as dry and
smooth ground as possible, which will be of much
benefit to them, as well as to their lambs.

When lambs are dropped on a place where they
have difficulty in rising, they ought to be lifted,
placed on their feet, and carried close to their dams.
But when they can rise without aid, it is better to
let them alone. It is usual to dock lambs when two
or three days old, but if the weather is cold it should
be delayed, and the remaining portion should not
exceed two or three inches in length. It is of much
consequence for ewes to have short tails, as it not

LAMBING 569

unfrequently happens that lambs at birth are en-
tangled by the tails of the ewes, and in this way
get strangled or killed. The tails of the males need
not be docked until they are about to be castrated.
Short tails are of much consequence when they are
attacked by the disorder called pinding.

While ewes are nursing, the pasture should be
good, and they should be kept on the same feeding
ground until their lambs are weaned.

It is of importance that the shepherd should be
almost constantly with his flock during the lamb-
ing season, so as to assist such ewes as require it
in cases of difficult parturition. In this office he
should act with great gentleness, and watch the
times when nature is acting her part to discharge
the lamb.

When lambs are weakly, the shepherd should hold
them up to the teats of their dam to suck. And in
cases where the dam dies, he should endeavour to get
another ewe to adopt the orphan lamb ; and when he
cannot succeed in this, should carry it home, as well
as any weakly ones, so that they may receive his
fostering care, or that of his family. This may be
done by drawing off the milk from the udders of ewes
that have an abundance of it, or from ewes which have
lost their lambs. Lambs seldom attempt to eat grass
for fourteen days, and during this time their whole
sustenance consists of milk.

It not unfrequently happens that lambs die from
hunger, in consequence of their dams refusing to suckle
them. When this is the case, the poor lamb will be
seen running about, and following any sheep it may
come near, while it utters a mournful bleat. When it
attempts to suck its dam, she will run off from it to a
distance. When this is noticed the shepherd should

570 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

examine the ewe, when he will find that sore nipples,
or some other disease, is frequently the cause of her
want of maternal care. If he discovers that sore
nipples is the reason she deserts her young, they should
be anointed with some emollient ointment to heal them :
such as common cerate, or palm-oil. If the want of a
sufficiency of milk is the cause, then the ewe should be
supplied plentifully with green, rich food, and the lamb
fed in the meantime with cow's milk, or from the milk
of a ewe which has lost her lamb.

To make a ewe which has lost her lamb take to
another, the following device has been adopted. The
dead one is skinned, and the skin fixed on the other
lamb, and both ewe and lamb confined together in a
particular place, when the ewe will take to it, and then
the false skin may be removed. In those cases where
the ewe refuses to allow the lamb to suck, tie her by
the horns or head and place her in a small corner pen,
where she can neither kick the lamb, nor turn round
upon it, when the little creature desires to suck. Give
the ewe hand-feeding, and allow her to remain tied up
for a day or two. As a rule she now takes kindly to
the lamb. If not, introduce within the vagina a small
quantity of common salt, and this by acting on the
mucous membrane of the vagina and womb excites the
maternal feeling and desire to give milk.

WEANING LAMBS.

It is rather a difficult task to wean lambs. They
should be allowed to suck for three months and a half ;
after which time they should be removed to a distance
from their dams, and kept apart for two or three weeks,
when they may again be returned to the pasturage
along with the ewes, and will give no further trouble.

CASTRATING LAMBS 57I

They should be so far off that their bleating cannot be
heard by the ewes, otherwise they are sure to be
extremely restless and anxious, and will hardly settle
to feed.

Ewes will generally cease to have milk in about ten
or twelve days, if they are not milked regularly, which
some farmers are in the habit of doing for the purpose
of making cheese. If, however, this is long continued,
it cannot fail to weaken them, and reduce them to too
low a condition before the rutting season. It will be
proper to milk them every second day at first, when
the lambs are removed from them, and allow a longer
interval at each milking, until they cease to secrete
milk, or at least in small quantities, which will be
carried off by absorption.

CASTRATING LAMBS.

This operation may be performed at any time, from
fourteen days old, to that of a month or six weeks.
In some districts it is deferred to a much later period.
We would, however, recommend it to be done early,
as there is much less danger of inflammation occurring
at an early period than there is at a later one. At-
tention must be paid to the state of health of the
animal at the time, as if weakly, or labouring under
any other disease, constitutional irritation may ensue,
and death is most likely to follow.

This operation is usually performed by the shep-
herd. It is executed by the excision of a portion of the
scrotum or cod with a sharp scalpel, and pushing out
the testicles with the spermatic cord attached to them.
Some shepherds perform the operation of dividing the
cord with their teeth.

It is evident that this must be a. painful and

572 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

dangerous operation, when not judiciously performed ;
and some lambs die on the day they are castrated.
The second and third days, however, are those on
which it may be judged of the probability of safely sur-
viving it.

Strict attention should be paid to the state of the
weather when castration is performed : the atmosphere
should be dry, but not too warm, and, if possible, the
lambs which have been gelded kept in a dry, quiet,
and sheltered situation, until the inflammation has
subsided. If wet weather comes on, it would be
prudent to have them removed to a shed, or barn, but
not too many crowded into one place, as they should
have room to move about freely. The operation
should not be performed when the nights are frosty.

INFLAMED UDDER, ETC.
When the ewe is suckling, she is liable to inflam-
mation as well as to hard tumours, in the udder. These
are caused by obstructions in the lacteals, or milk-
vessels ; and unless they are speedily removed, morti-
fication will ensue in two or three days. When
tumours are discovered, the ewe should be taken into
the house, the wool must be cut closely off, and the
hard parts frequently rubbed with camphorated spirit of
wine and goulard water, in the proportion of three
parts of the former to one of the latter. Should the
parts not get softened by the means recommended, and
suppuration appear likely to follow, in that case the
tumours should be opened with a lancet, and the
wound carefully dressed with Friar's balsam. It some-
times happens that the loss of one or both teats follow
this complaint ; when this is the case, then the best
way is to fatten the ewe, and dispose of her, as she
will never afterwards be adapted for breeding from.

CHAPTER VI.
Management, Feeding, etc., of Sheep.

SHELTER.

The natural habit of sheep is to range at liberty, and
that, too, over a wide extent of country ; therefore,
confinement is ever to be avoided, except under
peculiar circumstances. At the same time, all sheep-
farmers must be aware of the positive necessity of
their being sheltered sometimes ; and it will be
universally acknowledged that those which are pro-
tected from storms and much wet always thrive the
best. Therefore, on all sheep-farms, sheds or other
shelter should be provided for the animals in case of
need.

DRIFTING SNOW.

In all mountainous countries sheep are liable to be
overtaken by sudden falls of snow, and few situations
afford natural shelter. Therefore large circular
enclosures should be constructed of turf or stone,
into which the sheep should be driven on the approach
of snow. These should generally be on the south or
west sides of the hill, as snow-storms usually proceed
from the north or east. This should always be
situated on dry ground, and advantage taken of any
natural shelter, such as an elevated rock, or side of a
ravine. The walls of turf enclosures should be four

574 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

feet thick at the base, and two feet at top, and the
height not less than six feet. There should be two or
three openings in each, and these always on the south
side. The spot on which they are situated should
be on a slightly inclined plane ; and drains should be
properly constructed, so as to carry off the rain or
melted snow ; these should pass through holes in the
walls, and be received in a large drain outside.

When sheep have been driven a few times into
these enclosures, they will go into them of their own
accord, on the approach of a storm or even during
indifferent weather. Consequently, such enclosures
are of much advantage to a shepherd, as he will be
certain that his sheep will be safe in them, when a
snow-storm has taken place, without the danger to
which he is liable, in attending to them personally.

Besides these enclosures, it has been found that
strips and clumps of Scotch fir-trees are of much utility
as shelter for sheep ; and where such exist, sheep will
always retire to the lee side of them on the approach
of boisterous or rainy weather.

Where gentlemen feed sheep in their parks, there
is generally sufficient shelter ; but in the formation
of new ones, we would especially recommend the
introduction of a considerable proportion of spruce-
firs, as better adapted for shelter both during snow
and rain, owing to the thickness of their foliage. Dry
knolls or rocky ground should always be preferred for
planting clumps.

In localities where foxes are plentiful, it becomes
necessary to have folds or cots constructed for the
protection of lambs during the night, where they
should be driven with their dams by the shepherd
at nightfall. There are various methods of construct-
ing these, which, however, comes more within the

EFFECTS OF RAIN 575

province of a work devoted to agriculture, than one
on farriery. There is one, however, of a very simple
and cheap construction, invented by Mr Plowman, of
Broome, Norfolk, which we may notice. This is
twenty-one feet long, and three feet eleven inches
high, composed of a top rail, with bars below passed
through uprights. These have low cast-iron wheels
below, on which they move strongly, but so lightly
constructed that a boy may remove them from one
place to another. It saves much time besides, for
it can be changed from one locality to another in a
few minutes ; that is a fold which can contain at least
three hundred sheep.

EFFECTS OF RAIN.

It is almost impossible to shelter large flocks
during rainy weather, unless very large sheds were
erected, which would cost too much money, besides
occupying too great a space of ground. In the
summer months, however, little danger is to be appre-
hended from sheep being long exposed to rain. But
in winter, weak sheep are very liable to be affected
by their fleece getting drenched with rain, without
an opportunity of drying themselves. When such,
however, is the case, they must be taken into a barn,
or shed, to enable them to get dry, otherwise disease
is sure to be induced.

HEAT AND FLIES.

In low and flat localities without shelter, sheep
are frequently subjected to the oppressive heat of the
sun, and likewise to the attacks of flies and various
other tormenting insects, and even when they have
shelter in flats, still they are not free from these
pests. It is very common for these insects to deposit

576 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIER V

their eggs at the roots of the horns, or other parts
about the head, as well as under the tail, which in
the course of time will change into the grub or larva
state. It is the duty of the shepherd to see that
sheep are free from these, and to destroy their eggs
when he finds them. This is most effectually done
by the following ointment, which he must apply on
the places where eggs are deposited : —

Mercurial ointment . . i ounce,
Resin, finely ground . . i ounce,
Hogs' lard .... 3 ounces.

Let the lard be melted in an earthen or other pot,
and the powdered resin added, and when properly
incorporated, let the ointment be put in, and the
whole stirred until cold, to prevent the mercury from
falling to the bottom. A very small portion of the
above, well rubbed on the parts, will have the
desired effect.

As a preventive, the head and tail may be rubbed
with the following composition : —

Tar I pint,

Train oil .... J gallon.

The time when flies are most troublesome to sheep
is after shearing. Sheep that are fed on mountain-
pasture are free from the attacks of insects.

WASHING.

Preparatory to shearing, it is necessary to cleanse
the fleece. The best method of performing this
operation is to rail off a portion of the river, or
pond, with a sloping opening at one end, by which
the sheep are driven into the water, at a part so
deep that they will be unable to cross without
swimming. A cask loaded should be fixed so that

SHEARING 577

the men may stand in it dry, with a plank or bridge
leading to it, to wash the sheep, before allowing
each individual to pass to the opposite side, where
they can walk out by means of an inclined plane.
Before they reach the man who washes them they
should be well soaked in the water, so as to save
time. When washing is over, the flock should be
driven to a dry, clean pasture. Of course, dusty
roads must be carefully avoided, until the animals
have become fairly dried. The lambs do not require
more than simply swimming through the water.

SHEARING.

June is the time when shearing commences. It
requires considerable care and nicety to perform this
operation without mangling the fleece, and leaving
large patches of wool adhering to the backs of the
animals. After sheep are shorn, they are liable to
the attacks of different insects, such as ticks and
gad-flies, etc. The former of these should be care-
fully picked off, and the skin smeared all over with
the following composition : —

Tar J gallon,

Train oil .... 4 gallons,
Spirit of turpentine . . i pint ;

but oil of tar may be substituted for the turpentine,
being considerably cheaper.

The method employed in sheep-shearing is so
well known that a detailed account of it is un-
necessary.

FOOD.

It is considered prejudicial to change the food of
sheep frequently, as it has a tendency to derange the

2 o

57^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

regular action of the bowels, and to induce disease.
Sudden change from one kind of pasture to another
is certain to affect sheep, more particularly in the
spring and autumn. It is, however, more dangerous
to change suddenly from poor to rich diet than the
reverse.

Sheep thrive best where there is a tolerable uni-
formity of pasture all the year round. If the ground
is wet, with the water standing on it here and there,
that is quite unfit for pasturing sheep.

There is no better spring food for sheep than rye-
grass and red clover ; the former comes in most ap-
propriately after turnip feeding. Cole, tares, and rye
are likewise of much consequence as spring food.

For winter feeding, nothing is better than turnips,
which should be accompanied by hay, or the straw
of peas, beans, or wheat, chopped or cut. Swedish
turnips are most approved of in most parts of England.
Cabbages come in well late in the season, and sheep
fatten quickly upon them.

FATTENING.

Various methods have been adopted to force the
feeding of sheep ; among these may be particularly
mentioned oil-cake, in addition to the ordinary food,
half a cake being given daily. But hay, bran, chaff,
and corn have all a tendency to fatten, and of the
latter two pounds may be given daily with advantage.
The cake, corn, and chaff should be given in troughs,
and the hay in racks, which may be placed over the
troughs as a roof to keep the cake from being soaked
with rain. From eighteen to twenty pounds of turnips
are required daily for each sheep. Barley-meal has
also been successfully used In feeding, as well as pease

FATTENING 579

and beans and meal made from them. These last
two are the most nutritious of all food ; and it will be
found advantageous to have a piece of rich land for
the final stages of feeding.

On the subject of fattening there has been con-
siderable diversity of opinion, but much depends upon
the particular locality ; for what may answer well in
one place, may not prove effectual in another.

CHAPTER VII.

Different Breeds of Sheep.

The introduction of the Merino sheep has done much
to improve the different breeds of British sheep. And
in almost every county, which formerly had their dis-
tinct and recognisable breeds, the Merino blood has,
to a certain extent, been introduced. In our descrip-
tion of the ram, page 565, we have detailed the points
which are now generally admitted to be the best in
the form of sheep. So many crosses have taken place
of late years, that there is hardly a breed which
possesses characters by which they can be dis-
tinguished, if we except those which feed on the
mountainous tracts of Wales and Scotland, which are
for the most part small animals, and many of the
flocks with black faces, and both males and females
provided with horns. These sheep are remarkable for
their fine, close-grained, muscular fibre. Nearly allied
to these are those of the Westmoreland, Yorkshire,
and Northumberland mountain sheep, with white
faces. Those which are now most propagated are
long-woolled, and also such as is of a fine texture.
These were first successfully improved in the following
counties, viz., Cumberland, Dorset, Hereford, Norfolk,
and Sussex ; and these may be considered as the
parent stocks of all our modern improved varieties.
To attempt a specific description of these is now
almost impossible, as the distinguishing character-
istics of each are mere shades of difference.

SECTION IV.

DISEASES OF SWINE.

INTRODUCTION.

The most erroneous opinions prevailed for a long
time respecting the nature of swine, as also their
mode of treatment. It was fancied that this animal
would thrive equally well, whether kept clean or dirty,
as it was supposed its natural habits were to wallow
in the dirt and mire. Modern experience, however,
has proved these fancies to be most incorrect, and it is
well known that pigs always prefer a clear sty and
clean litter to those that are dirty ; and it is an equally
well-ascertained fact, that they never thrive when
these important points are neglected.

If it is possible, swine-sties should be constructed
in localities through which a running stream passes,
and their sleeping-houses on a sloping bank, so that
they may be dry and comfortable for the animals,
and the inclined plane will carry off any urine from
the enclosure appropriated to them. Those who keep
a number of pigs should have separate sties for the
young and the old, as well as for the accommodation
of those which are in pig ; and where they should be
kept until they farrow.

Swine are liable to various diseases ; but their
treatment has not yet been sufficiently ascertained, in

582 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

consequence of the difficulty of administering medical
treatment to them. They are, besides, not robust
in their constitutions, being exceedingly liable to
complaints of the lungs, if kept in cold situations, from
the effects of which they are frequently afflicted
with a hard, dry, and husky cough. As with almost
all our domestic animals, it is of infinite consequence
that their food should be regularly given to them.

CHAPTER I.
Internal Complaints.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

This complaint makes its appearance in animals pre-
disposed to it, when subjected to wet and cold sties.
It is also induced by their being too hastily changed
from poor feeding to that which is rich.

Remedies. — In the highly inflammable state, with
much cough, cooling aperients may be given. The
following has been found effectual in affording
relief : —

Cream of tartar . . . . i J ounce,

Saltpetre J ounce,

Tartarised antimony . . . i drachm ;

to be dissolved in warm water, and mixed with the

food. The same quantity to be repeated every

twelve hours, until an abatement of the complaint is
apparent.

QUINSY.

This complaint manifests itself by a quickness of
the breathing, and is often accompanied by a wheezing
sound.

Remedies. — Clean, plentiful, and dry bedding is of
the first importance ; and give a spoonful of tartarised
antimony in the food, every twelve hours. If swell-

584 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

ings in the glands follow, and matter collects under
the jaws, the gathering should be let out with a lancet,
after which dress it with tar-ointment.

BLOOD-STRIKING.

Pigs labouring under this complaint will frequently
drop suddenly down and die almost immediately.
Sometimes, however, there are premonitory symptoms,
indicating the approach of the complaint, by stagger-
ing, or the fore-legs giving way under the animal.
This malady is caused by an overflow of blood to the
head, and is analogous to the staggers in horses,
cattle, sheep, etc. When pigs die of this complaint,
putrefaction almost instantly ensues, which renders the
carcase entirely useless.

Remedies. — Whenever the above symptoms are
noticed, aperient medicines must be freely given ; the
following will act more rapidly than any other : —

Tartarised antimony . . . ij drachm,
Epsom salts .... 4 ounces ;

to be given in gruel of oatmeal, or linseed-meal, and
repeated every twelve or fifteen hours, if necessary.

CHAPTER II.
GARGUT, OR DISTENDED UDDER.

This complaint is occasioned by the lacteal vessels be-
coming obstructed, and the udders being distended by
coagulated milk, and internal inflammation of the
parts is induced. In some instances, this disease is
caused by too nutritious food previous to the time of
farrowing ; and when it occurs afterwards, it is attri-
buted to the teats not being sucked or drawn down
sufficiently soon after having farrowed.

The first remedy is to milk the animal with the
hand, as young pigs will not suck their dams, when
the milk is corrupted, nor would it be proper to allow
them to do so, if they were so inclined. And when
this has been accomplished, the following ointment
must be gently applied, and slight friction used : —

Camphorated spirit of wine . . i ounce,

Florence oil | ounce,

Goulard's extract .... J ounce.

Two grains of calomel for two or three nights may also
be given with advantage.

CHAPTER III.
Breeding, Gestation, Parturition,

BREEDING, ETC.

Like all our other domestic animals, the hog has, of
late years, been much improved, and nearly a uniform
shaped animal is now generally diffused throughout
Great Britain and Ireland. In the latter country, fifty
years ago, the prevailing character was more that of a
greyhound than of a hog : long-bodied and legged,
high-backed, and leanness, being their ordinary char-
acteristics.

The body should be of moderate length ; the head
broad and rather flat ; the carcase well rounded and
compact ; the legs of moderate length, and rather
short than otherwise, and fine in the bone ; the
shoulders broad, breast wide, and the quarters full ;
the hide must be fine and thin, and the ears rather
small ; the feet should be rather small, with the claws
upright and even. The form which we have particu-
larised holds good, whether the animals be of a large
or small size.

The sow goes four months with young, and brings
forth from six to twelve, and even so many as twenty
at a litter, and that twice a year. At the time of far-
rowing, the sow must be carefully watched, as it is
not uncommon for her to devour her young.

It has always been found that the best pigs are

S87

produced from a full-grown boar ; but when they be-
come aged, the progeny seldom proves good. The sow
should be wide in the chest, and capacious in the belly ;
and if well nursed before weaning, she may procreate
at the age of seven or eight months, and produce an
excellent litter of young. But we think ten or twelve
months is soon enough to commence breeding, as the
animal will by that time have gained sufficient strength
to bear the exertion of gestation and parturition.
And no boar should be put to a sovv^ until he is at
least a twelvemonth old.

It is of great importance that sows should farrow
in warm weather, as when they produce in the winter
season, the pigs are very liable to die with cold.
When they are farrowed late in August, the chances
are much against many of them getting through the
winter ; and those which do are seldom strong and
healthy. It is, therefore, advisable to part with these
as soon as practicable.

During pregnancy sows should be kept separate
from others which are not in that condition, as by
keeping many together, the pigs are liable to be in-
jured in the womb, and even killed, which will have a
very prejudicial influence on the rest of the progeny, as
well as on the sow.

It is of great importance to keep the sow and her
young in a dry and warm situation, with plenty of
good litter ; and neither should be permitted to go
abroad in bad weather. When sows have the un-
natural propensity of devouring their young, they
should be carefully watched for some days after their
birth ; and such as have this desire, should be parted
with, as useless for breeding from.

During the time of pregnancy, sows should be
well fed, and have a meal of a rich mash twice a

588 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

day, at least, and, besides, a good supply of vegetable
substances, such as cabbages, carrots, or potatoes ;
and when they are nursing their young, they should
have a still larger supply of food, to keep up that
secretion of milk so essentially necessary for the
supply of such a numerous progeny.

Pigs may be weaned when about eight weeks old,
and separated from the sow. She should be shut up
by herself for a week or so, and well fed, to restore
what she has lost in suckling her young. She will
very soon after this manifest a desire to take the
boar.

The times at which hogs are fattened, are twice
a year, namely, beginning in October, for the winter,
and February or March for the spring-time. Where
skimmed-milk can be spared, it will be found the best
liquid, and mixed with ground oats, barley-meal, pea-
meal, or bean-meal, as also pollard ; these may be
given combined, with great advantage. Indeed, it is
better to neutralise the heating effects of pea and
bean-meal, by a mixture of some of the other farina-
ceous bodies. Malted barley has also been given
to pigs while fattening, with considerable success.
Potatoes and carrots boiled, mixed with skimmed
or butter-milk, and even whey, prove an excellent
variety for inducing an increase of substance in the
animals. The refuse of the brewhouse and distillery
are also found to be beneficial in fattening swine,
with other farinaceous substances mixed in them.

From the contumacious and unruly nature of hogs,
there is great difficulty, if not an utter impossibility,
of performing operations on them, as with other
animals, and consequently little progress has been
made in the application of the veterinary art to these
animals. The ordinary methods, of cutting off part

BREEDING, ETC. 589

of the ears and tail, can do but little good ; and
equally ineffective is the plan of opening a vein in
the roof of the mouth, about an inch from the front
in a line between the second and third tooth, an
operation that it is almost impossible to perform on
a pig, and the bleeding is never of sufficient extent
to relieve inflammation. Purgatives will consequently
be the best remedies to be adopted. Epsom salts,
varying in quantity, from one to two ounces, ac-
cording to the age of the animal, and sulphur, in
doses of from one to three drachms, may be ad-
ministered. Attention should, therefore, be given
chiefly to preventive, rather than remedial, means.
It is of great consequence to let the animals have
occasionally a quantity of green meat, as they will
always be found to eat it with avidity. Grass, tares,
or clover will be used with advantage.

SECTION V^

DISEASES OF DOGS.

INTRODUCTION.

The dog seems to have been destined by the Creator
to be the friend and assistant of man. Throughout
the dangers and difficulties which beset the human
being, particularly in an inartificial condition of
society, the dog has ever proved himself the vigorous
and faithful defender of his life and property, as well
as a powerful and essential auxiliary in subduing
other animals to his purpose, and of securing them
as his food. Without the assistance of the dog, man
would not even yet have obtained a beneficial
dominion over the various races of wild animals of
the earth, or been able to watch with sufficient care
those creatures destined for his support.

Of all animals known to mankind, the dog is the
most diversified in form, size, proportions, properties,
and intellect, agreeing only in one striking and ad-
mirable peculiarity — his constant attachment and
fidelity to his master. Our domestic dog, with all
the varied and striking varieties of form, is, however,
but one species ; changed and modified by local cir-
cumstances, domestication, and breeding ; conse-
quently, it is improper to consider and call pointers,
terriers, mastiffs, and greyhounds species, as they are

592 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

mere varieties. The parent stock from which all our
domesticated races have sprung, has long been a
dispute among naturalists, and is at this time an
unsettled point. Buffon was of opinion that the
shepherd's dog was the progenitor of them all.

Dogs in a domesticated condition are liable to a
variety of diseases ; but, above all others, what has
been termed canine madness, or hydrophobia, is the
worst, and most to be dreaded by mankind. They
are, besides, subject to many complaints, in some
respects similar to those of the human body. We
believe there is none more common with them than
lung disease and worm complaints, diseases to which
mankind in this country are very liable. Our friend,
Mr Mackenzie, keeper of the anatomical museum in
the University of Edinburgh, an expert anatomist
and physiologist, concurs with me in this opinion,
and informs me that he has made many dissections
of dogs, and found diseased lungs very prevalent in
them. This is chiefly to be attributed to sleeping in
damp situations, and in the open air, at times, when
they are for the most part accustomed to be kept
comfortable and dry in a house. Some families of
dogs are constitutionally liable to this disorder ; and
sportsmen would do well to avoid breeding from a
stock predisposed to lung disease.

CHAPTER I.
Diseases of the Head and Chest

SWELLING IN THE THROAT.

Symptoms. — This is a common complaint, and consists
of an enlargement of the glands of the throat. It is
a disease to which the smaller breeds of dogs are
more particularly subject, and comparatively of rare
occurrence with the larger kinds. Young dogs are
most liable to it ; and if not attended to early, it may
become a fixed swelling, not reducible at any after
period. It produces a stiffness of the neck ; and if
swelling is on one side, the animal sometimes has his
head inclining to the opposite side. There is seldom
much pain, nor does it often terminate fatally. It,
however, occasions pain if pressed upon.

Remedies. — The hair should be clipped off the
swelling, and the part well rubbed with the following
ointment : —

Calomel . . . . i drachm,
White cerate ... J ounce.

This to be repeated daily, until a cure is effected ; but
if no diminution is visible in a week, add half-an-ounce
of blistering-ointment to the above proportions. Let
the animal have a quarter of an ounce of nitre, in his
drink, daily.

If the swelling is noticed early, fomentations will

2 p

594 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

often perform a cure. Sew up a quantity of camomile
flowers in a bag, immerse them in hot water, and apply
it to the parts affected. Let it be applied as hot as
the animal can bear it. The application should be
taken oif several times during the day, and heated
again.

INTERNAL ULCERATION OF THE EAR.

Symptoms. — This disease is manifested by the dog
continually shaking his head ; and a discharge of
matter will take place after the complaint is matured ;
but before the matter is seen, a dry, scurfy, red scab
is formed on the inside of the ear. It is occasioned
by too high feeding, and by the animal taking the
water when heated.

Remedies. — When the case is not severe, all that
will be necessary is to use the following wash, slightly
warmed : —

Sugar of lead . . . i drachm,
Rose, or rain-water . . 4 ounces.

About a teaspoonful should be poured in night and
morning.

When the disease is of a more severe kind, the
following remedy must be applied : —

White vitriol . . . 18 grains,
Decoction of oak-bark . 4 ounces.

When the above fails to prove effectual, recourse must
be had to mercury. Let the ears be well washed with
a solution of soda, and then rubbed with the follow-
ing :—

Strong mercurial ointment . i ounce.
Hogs' lard J ounce.

Besides rubbing internally, the ointment should be

COUGHS 595

well applied at the base of the ear externally, close to
the head.

COUGHS.

It frequently happens that cough precedes the dis-
temper ; and if the dog is young, and no probable
reason can be assigned for the cold he has taken, it
may reasonably be inferred that it is a premonitory
symptom of that disease ; and precautionary measures
ought to be adopted. The cough which precedes
distemper is always accompanied by dullness, and cold
shiverings, with wasting of the flesh ; and it is always
dry and short in its character. Still there is little
perceptible diminution in his appetite. For this, the
following may be given with great advantage : —

Febrifuge antimonial powder . 6 grains,
Powdered nitre .... 8 grains,
Linseed-tea i gill.

A cough arising from a cold is distinguished from
that connected with the distemper by its shortness
and frequency.

Sometimes cough is occasioned by worms ; when
this is the case, the coat stares, and the breath is
very fetid. When this is suspected, it must be treated
as recommended for worms, under its proper head.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

This is occasioned by colds, and many dogs die of
it. It is a complaint which, with the canine species,
is very rapid in its effects ; and, therefore, must be
speedily attended to.

Symptoms. — An animal labouring under this
malady holds up his head, as if to give him more
freedom in breathing, the pulse is much accelerated,
with an oppressed beating of the heart.

59^ MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Remedies. — Apply a copious mustard poultice to
the chest over the region of the lungs. Then give
the following mixture : —

Powdered foxglove . . 12 grains,
Emetic tartar ... 3 grains,
Nitre, powdered . . . t drachm.

If for a large dog, let it be made into six powders ;
for one of a middling size, nine ; and for a small one
twelve. One to be given every three hours, until the
symptoms are abated, and then they may be given
every six hours, for a day afterwards. The animal
must be kept warm. If the powders produce vomit-
ing, they must be divided into two parts each, and
given less frequently.

ASTHMA.

Confinement and high feeding are the causes of
asthma ; a complaint to which dogs are very liable,
and are attacked with it at any period of life, but
more especially at three or four years, where they are
over-fed ; but with those who are less pampered, it
is seldom known until they are six or seven. It may
be brought on at an earlier period by severe colds,
and inflammatory complaints in the lungs. When it
proceeds from over-feeding, it is caused by an
accumulation of fat in the regions of the heart and
lungs. It manifests- itself by a short, harsh, and dry
cough, and difficulty in breathing, more particularly
when the animal has been much exercised, or by
catching cold. This malady generally comes on
gradually. Remedies should be adopted as soon
as any indications of the complaint are noticed ;
otherwise, if allowed to attain a height, it is likely to
prove fatal.

Remedies. — If there appear to be inflammation

THE DISTEMPER 597

at an early stage of the complaint, bleeding will
be necessary, which should be followed by gentle
alteratives. The following purgative must be ad-
ministered : —

Calomel .... J grain,

Nitre 4 grains,

Cream of tartar ... 10 grains,

James's powder ... 2 grains ;

to be made into a ball with linseed meal and treacle,
and put down the animal's throat. To be repeated
every morning, and, if the complaint is severe, each
evening likewise. The above is for an ordinary sized
dog, and is rather too much for a small one ; but for
a large animal it must be increased.

If the calomel sickens the dog, the following
preparation may be given instead of the above : —

Emetic tartar . . . | grain,

Nitre 3 grains,

Powdered foxglove . . J grain ;

prepared as a ball, with the linseed meal and
treacle.

THE DISTEMPER.

This universal and fatal disorder made its first
appearance among the dogs of Great Britain about
150 years ago, at which period its ravages were
widely diffused over the country. At that time
about seven out of every ten fell victims to its
malignity. The virulence of this disease and its
baneful effects have now, however, greatly abated,
either from the preventive remedies which are had
recourse to at its commencement, or from the opera-
tion of certain medicines applied in the actual
progress of the disease. I, however, find that this

598 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

malady has been known for a much longer time on
the Continent than in this country. It is as infectious
among dogs as the small-pox, measles, and scarlet
fever among the human species ; and the contagious
miasmata, like those arising from the diseases just
mentioned, retain their destructive properties a long
time after separation from the distempered animal.
Young hounds, for example, brought in a state of
health into a kennel where others have gone through
the distemper seldom escape it. Kennels have been
carefully washed with water, then whitewashed, and
even repeatedly fumigated with muriatic acid, without
any good results. The dogs generally sicken the
second week after exposure to the contagion. It
commences with inflammation of the substance of
the lungs, and generally of the mucous membrane
of the bronchia. The inflammation at the same
time seizes on the membranes of the nostrils, and
those lining the bones of the nose, particularly the
nasal portion of the ethmoid bone. These membranes
are often inflamed to such a degree as to occasion
extravasation of blood.

Dr Jenner mentions a case which came under his
observation, of a dog dying within twenty-four hours
after infection, and in that short space of time the
greater portion of the lungs was, from exudation,
converted into a substance nearly as solid as the
liver of a sound animal. When inflammation of
the lungs is very severe, the dog frequently dies on
the third day.

By judicious treatment, the distemper might be,
in all probability, entirely banished, or at least its
features be very much mitigated.

Colonel Hawker, in his Instritctions to Young
Sportsmen, mentions a case ot a dog belonging to

THE DISTEMPER 599

himself, on which he performed inoculation, by
vaccine virus^ or the matter of cow-pox, had the
effect of preventing the distemper completely ; and
this was found an effectual preventive by James
Drearden, Esq., of Rochdale, Lancashire, confirmed
by an extensive and successful practice. It would
certainly be worth while to try this expedient, as
being exceedingly simple ; and we have ascertained
that in the instances where dogs have had the dis-
temper after vaccination, it has been very mild.

The manner in which this operation is performed
on a dog, is to make a puncture or scratch inside of
the fore-leg, within the shoulder pit : the abrasion is
then rubbed with a small quill with the virus. A
better method, however, is to puncture with a lancet,
charged with the virus, the inside of the ear. The
virus acts with more certainty on the sensible skin
devoid of hair, and the animal cannot remove it by
licking with the tongue.

Although the distemper is a disease which, for the
most part, attacks puppies from four to twelve months
old, yet it is said there are instances where old dogs
have been affected by it, which had not the disease
when young. Without entering into a more length-
ened detail of this disorder, I shall only notice the
prevailing symptoms, and mode of treatment.

Symptoms. — There are some symptoms in the
distemper which predominate, although the general
ones are not invariably the same. In the first stages
of the disease, the dog has a hard, dry cough, a want
of nervous energy, depression of spirits, a swelling of
the glands of the throat, and almost total loss of
appetite ; after which he is seized with a running at the
nose and eyes, when emaciation and great weakness
ensue, more especially in the hinder extremities. These

6oO MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

symptoms are universally followed by convulsive
twitchlngs of the head, and sometimes in other parts
of the body, indicating considerable irritation in the
brain and spinal marrow. The bowels are violently
affected, either by being costive or extremely loose ;
and in either case the dog suffers great pain. When
these acute symptoms continue, they are soon followed
by vertigo, or giddiness, which produces dimness of
the sight ; in which case the dog runs round, foams at
the mouth, and makes a piteous moaning or howling.
In truth, inflammation and effusion take place in the
brain, producing water in the head, a disease to which
young children are liable, from long-continued irrita-
tion in the stomach and bowels.

These affections are accompanied by great irrita-
bility of the stomach, which discharges everything as
soon as taken ; and it not unfrequently happens that
the poor animal expires in one of these spasmodic
affections. When the distemper reaches this degree
of virulence, few dogs recover : but there have been
instances where Blaine's medicine has proved effectual,
even in the worst stages of the disease. Dr James's
powders have also, in extreme cases, produced a
favourable change. Even in the worst cases the dog
always retains its sanity, and will drink water, though
certainly not very freely, two circumstances which will
readily distinguish the disease in question from canine
madness.

Remedies. — If this disease is attended to at its
first appearance, the after-symptoms may be greatly
mitigated, by administering opening medicines, in
small quantities, and persisting in their use ; and
afterwards in larger doses, as the disease makes
progress. This will be found of the greatest conse-
quence in all complaints where the mucous membrane

THE DISTEMPER 6oi

is likely to be affected, which is almost invanably the
case where there is inflammation of the lungs ; and
was satisfactorily proved, by my late talented friend,
Dr Macintosh, Lecturer on the Practice of Physic,
Edinburgh, to be a general accompaniment of all
pulmonary diseases in the human species. For this
purpose I would recommend, so soon as the symptoms
appear, to administer an ounce of castor oil, and, after
its operation has abated, the following bolus should be
given : —

Crocus metallorum, finely levigated . . 6 grains,
White antimonial powder ... 6 grains,
Diaphoretic calx of antimony . . .10 grains ;

to be mixed up with treacle and linseed meal into a
ball and given every two hours ; the dog should be
kept very warm during its operation, and should be
supplied frequently with new milk or water gruel. If
this medicine occasions sickness, or brings on great
laxity in the bowels, the doses must be temporarily
stopped, or greatly diminished.

The above dose is sufficient for a pointer, fox-
hound, harrier, or other large dog of ten months old.
If younger, or a smaller dog, the quantities must be
proportionally diminished.

Mr Shaw, principal gamekeeper to His Grace the
Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith, has generally found
the distemper easily disposed of by attending to the
first symptoms of the disease, and immediately ad-
ministering a dose of calomel and jalap every second
day, and paying strict attention to the food of the
patient. He seldom found it necessary to give
more than three doses. He has, however, remarked
that when the disease begins with a flux, it generally
proves fatal. This discharge is brought on by cold,
and by sleeping in damp quarters. He mentions

602 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

having lost several brace of greyhounds from one
night's bad lodging.

Mr Daniel is of opinion that Blaine's medicine is
an effectual remedy : it is made up in packets, marked
with different numbers, i, 2, and 3. For a New-
foundland dog, mastiff, pointer, and setter, No. i
should be used, for fox-hounds, harriers, and other
dogs of a middling size, use No. 2 ; and for cockers,
and all other varieties. No. 3 will prove a sufficient
dose. He found that soon after administering
Blaine's powders, even although the disease had
got to a height, the violence of the symptoms abated,
the spasms became less frequent, and generally
within twenty-four hours they completely subsided,
leaving only a slight discharge from the nose. Our
own experience completely coincides with that of
Mr Daniel, although in some instances it will last
for weeks ; in the event of which I would recommend
strict attention to the state of the bowels, and that
the nose be frequently fomented with pieces of flannel
dipped in hot milk and water.

Colonel Hawker recommends, in the case of a
discharge from the nose, the use of a lotion, made
by mixing half-an-ounce of sugar of lead, and the
same quantity of alum, with a pint of water, and
that the nose should be syringed with it. However
effectual such applications may be in stopping the
discharge, yet I cannot too strongly condemn the
use of them, as having a tendency to bring on other
diseases in the mucous membrane of the nose, and
thereby affect, if not totally destroy, the olfactory
nerves. But the truth is, the discharge from the nose
is by no means an unfavourable symptom : the main
risk the dog runs in this disease is from internal
inflammation, and not from any aflection of the

THE DISTEMPER 603

organ ; and it is a very generally received opinion in
medical practice, that it is not safe to check discharges
suddenly.

When the irritability of the stomach continues,
and it refuses to retain the medicine, the latter should
be mixed up with a small piece of butter, and from
thirty to fifty drops of laudanum added, according to
the age, size, and strength of the dog. Should this
not remain in the stomach, an hour and a half after-
wards the same quantity of laudanum should be given
in a little broth. The powder must also be ad-
ministered, in twenty minutes or half-an-hour, made
into a kind of paste with treacle and flour, or linseed
meal, which will certainly have the effect of allaying
the vomiting. But if the bowels are obstructed,
which generally follows the use of much laudanum,
and the retching still continues, in this case some
active purgative should be had recourse to, such as
twenty grains of jalap, or fifteen grains of calomel,
accompanied with from five to eight drops of
laudanum, to allay the irritation ; either of these
should be made up into a ball, and put down the
dog's throat ; or two tablespoonfuls of castor oil may
be given in their stead. Should these prescriptions
fail, a clyster should next be tried, composed of
oatmeal gruel, salt, and oil ; and when the bowels
are moved by this, the medicine may then be given,
accompanied with a few drops of laudanum.

When there is great alvine flux attending this
disease, from thirty to forty drops of laudanum must
be administered, mixed with an ounce of sweet or
almond oil. It will be of no use to give the powder
until the irritation has somewhat abated, as its effect
will be nearly lost in passing too rapidly through the
intestines.

6o4 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

The following remedies have been found effectual : —
One ounce of Peruvian bark, in a glass of port
wine, to be given twice a day. Norris's drops, to the
extent of a tablespoonful, in the same quantity of port
wine, given three times a day ; the quantity to be
diminished as the dog grows better.

Colonel Hawker recommends the following : —

Opium .... 3 grains.
Emetic tartar ... 5 grains ;

to be administered at night ; and the same dose to be
repeated every third night, until the dog recovers,
taking care to keep him w^arm, and always to feed him
with warm liquid diet, such as broth, gruel, etc.
Dr Taylor, of East Yarmouth, gave : —

Gamboge .... 20 grains,
White hellebore powder . 30 grains ;

made into six balls, one to a full-grown dog, six
successive mornings, or half the quantity to a puppy,
or a small dog, such as a cocker, terrier, etc.

For a half-grown pointer, or other young dog : —

Jalap, in powder . . 20 grains,
Calomel . . . .4 grains ;

made into a ball with treacle.

For a full-grown pointer, or other large dog : —

Jalap, in powder . . 25 grains,
Calomel .... 7 grains ;

mixed as above, and one of the doses given every
second morning, mixed with a little butter ; and if the
dog will not take it in this form, it must be made
into a small ball, and forced down his throat. The
food should always be light and easy of digestion.

I was favoured with the following recipe from a
friend, who has had a great deal of experience in the

THE DISTEMPER 605

rearing of dogs, for upwards of twenty-five years. He
says it has always proved a most effectual remedy, in
all cases in which he has applied it : —

Calomel . , . . i drachm,

Tartar emetic ... 20 grains,
Jalap ..... I drachm.
Gamboge . . . . i drachm;

to be made into six balls, with conserve of roses, and
one to be given every morning for a week.

Care should be taken to support the strength of
the animal by light, nourishing diet, after the in-
flammatory stage is over, and the discharge from the
nostrils fully established. Various authors recommend
the too general use of emetics in the distemper, which,
I conceive, must frequently be attended with evil con-
sequences, as they are, for the most part, inadmissible
in inflammatory diseases.

As the distemper is infectious, those dogs labour-
ing under this malady should be kept apart from
others ; and exposure to the air, when not under the
effects of medicine, will be found beneficial. This dis-
order has an affinity to some human diseases, and
rarely attacks a dog a second time. Fortunately for
humanity, the distemper is not communicable to
man. Neither the effluvia from the diseased dog, nor
the bite, has proved in any instance infectious.

As this disease is a parasitic one, and due to a
specific bacillus which breeds in the lung tissue, pro-
ducing structural changes therein, and is attended with
great bodily debility, and as apparently the disease
cannot be cut short, but must, like other specific dis-
eases, run its course, the treatment prescribed
should be backed up by good nursing, frequent change
of diet, soups, milk, beef-tea, a uniform temperature
(near to a fire), and flannel rugs and bandages.

6o6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

RABIES, OR HYDROPHOBIA.

In the dog this disease is termed " Rabies
Canina," canine madness : in the human subject,
Hydrophobia, from the dread of drinking water, the
sense of suffocation felt in the act being awful. The
dog as a rule laps liquids with facility, but the pouring
of water from one tumbler into another is sufficient in
some persons rabid to bring on powerful spasms of
the muscles of deglutition.

This is a specific disease which develops primarily
(if such an expression or opinion is allowable) in dogs,
wolves, jackals, foxes, and cats, but the specific poison
or organism on which it depends once having de-
clared itself present in these creatures, may by inocu-
lation (bite or abrasion) produce the disease in men,
cattle, sheep, deer, rabbits, horses, swine, etc.

The virus is contained in the saliva, salivary
glands, the tissues of the brain, medulla oblongata,
medulla spinalis, cerebro-spinal fluid, and portions of
the pneumogastric nerves.

Symptoms. — Like all other specific diseases, there
is a period of incubation from the reception of the
virus until symptoms of indisposition are exhibited,
and this period varies widely, from eight days to
several months. The symptoms also vary according
to the form it takes, or, in other words, according to
the structures invaded. In the dog we have two
well-marked forms of the disease — (i) Raging mad-
ness : here the so-called blood poison acts powerfully
on the brain, and the animal barks and bites and
furiously attacks all objects which come within its
range of action. (2) Dumb madness : here the dog
neither barks nor bites, but sits gazing at objects,
his hind limbs being paralysed, as also his lower jaw.

RABIES, OR HYDROPHOBIA 607

The face presents a strange idiotic look, with the
lower jaw hanging down, and the saliva in large
quantity flowing from the mouth. In these cases the
blood poison apparently principally affects the spinal
cord and certain of its nerves.

A very marked symptom of rabies canina is the
strange craving the animal has for seizing and
swallowing all kinds of rubbish, e.g., paper, straw,
hair, wool, wood, stones, nails, etc. etc.

PosT-MORTEM. — There is no specific lesion which
indicates after death the absolute certainty that the
dog was rabid. Generally the tongue is relaxed and
swollen, and the mucous membrane lining the fauces,
pharynx, and larynx, congested or inflamed. The
stomach is congested, and in some cases acutely
inflamed (gastritis), and if the dog has not been
confined, it invariably contains many curious articles.
The membranes of the brain and the spinal cord may
also be congested.

But all these post-mortem appearances, and the
foreign bodies in the stomach, may be found when no
such disease as rabies has existed. Indigestion and
gastric affections are common to the dog, from the
irregularity in feeding and the variety of food of which
the dog partakes when he has to forage for himself,
and, as every one knows, it is stray dogs which are so
frequently seized by the police as rabid animals.

When a dog has suffered from indigestion and
gastric irritation for a time, just like the cow eating
bed-clothes, old leather shoes, etc., and the horse
swallowing sand, stones, and other rubbish, so the
dog commences to swallow rubbish, and sooner or
later becomes raging mad, although not rabid. On
this point Prof Crookshank, in his standard work on
Bacteriology, makes the following remarks : — '* Dogs

6o8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

suffer from symptoms simulating those of rabies, and
formerly when human beings were bitten, it was
impossible to determine whether the dog had been
suffering from rabies or not. We are indebted to
Pasteur for the only reliable test which can be applied,
and we are now in a position, when a human being
is bitten by a dog supposed to be, but not really,
rabid, to remove all cause for the anxiety which
would otherwise remain for months and even years.
** Pasteur found that a dog inoculated under the
dura-mater (covering of brain) with virus from the
spinal cord of a rabid animal will develop rabies as a
rule, within eighteen days. By trephining rabbits
and inoculating the virus, and by, in the same way,
transmitting the virus from rabbit to rabbit, the in-
cubation period gradually shortens, until it is reduced
to six or seven days. The virus has then reached
its maximum virulence in the rabbit, and is ' fixed.*
Pasteur then studied the possibility of producing
immunity. The medulla of a rabbit containing the
virulent virus was suspended in a glass bottle over
caustic potash at a temperature of 25° C. If a
number of spinal cords were thus treated, and ex-
amined from day to day, it was found that they
gradually lost their virulence, becoming completely
inert in from sixteen to twenty days. A series of
cords were thus obtained with diminishing virulence ;
by injecting subcutaneously an infusion of rabid spinal
cord crushed in broth, and beginning with an inert
cord on the first day, and using the next in the series
on the second day, and so on till a fresh spinal cord
could be injected, it was found that dogs were rendered
insusceptible to the strongest virus administered by
inoculation or by exposing them to the bites of rabid
dogs. Dogs have usually an incubation period of

RABIES, OR HYDROPHOBIA 609

several weeks, and Pasteur conceived that it would
be possible to anticipate the symptoms which would
naturally follow in a dog which had been bitten or
inoculated, by giving them a mild form of hydro-
phobia by the injection of attenuated virus of short
incubation period. These experiments showed that
it was possible to do this, and the outcome was the
introduction of a system of protective inoculation in
the human subject. Pasteur succeeded in giving
immunity from hydrophobia to about fifty dogs of
every age and breed.

" In 1885, Joseph Meister, a boy nine years of age,
bitten badly by a mad dog upon the hands, legs, and
thighs, was brought to Pasteur. At a post-mortem
examination of the dog, its stomach was found full of
bits of hay, straw, and wood, and it had been un-
questionably rabid. On 6th July, sixty hours after
Meister had been bitten, a syringe full of marrow from
a rabbit which had died on 21st June, and therefore
fifteen days old, was injected beneath the skin over
the right hypochondriac region. The next morning
Meister was inoculated with a spinal cord fourteen
days old, and so on every day, till on the sixteenth
a cord only one day old was used. So many in-
jections, however, need not have been given, as it
was subsequently found that the spinal marrows in-
jected during the first five days were inert when
tested on rabbits. The marrows of the next five
days showed an ascending scale of virulency, until,
on the last two days of the treatment, Meister had
been inoculated with a virus so virulent that it was
capable of causing hydrophobia in dogs after ten days'
incubation. Meister remained completely free from
hydrophobia. From that time to the present day,
many thousands of patients have been treated in

2Q

6lO MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Paris by slightly modified methods, and it is very
generally believed that a real prophylactic agent has
been discovered."

In dealing with rabies in the dog, or rather a dog
suspected of being rabid (for our experience would
lead us to assert that not one per cent, of the dogs
alleged to be rabid are rabid), the usual practice is
to kill the animal where found. Instead of doing so
the dog should be secured with a lasso and placed
in confinement. If the dog be really rabid, hourly
he will become worse and will be dead in a few days,
whereas, if not rabid and allowed rest and food and
plenty of water to drink, in all probability, the
symptoms which similate rabies so exactly, will
gradually disappear and the animal be restored to
health.

This has been our experience of the disease in
many instances, and if the dog belongs to a person
who values him, it is pleasing, and to say the least,
highly satisfactory and reassuring to the individual
who has been bitten by a dog believed to be
rabid.

Remedies. — Treatment is not allowed in the lower
animals. The rabies order makes it imperative on
reporting to the Local Authority ; and their veterinary
inspector is required to see the animal destroyed.

Precaution. — When a person is bitten by a mad
dog, the wound should be immediately burnt with
lunar caustic ; but the most effectual way to prevent
the poison from getting into the system, is to cut out
the piece of muscle which has been bitten.

BITES OF VIPERS.
If the part is rubbed immediately with sweet oil,

POISON 6ri

the effect of the poison is destroyed ; and the following
composition may be afterwards used : —

Green elder ointment . . i ounce,

Savoin tree . . . . i ounce.

It not unfrequently happens that considerable swell-
mg of the head takes place after the bite of a viper ;
when this occurs, recourse should be had to purgative
medicines. The following must be given, once a
day, until the swelling subsides : —

Jalap 5 grains,

Powdered aloes ... 2 grains,
Calomel J grain.

POISON.

When it has been discovered that a dog has
taken poison, give the following specific as soon as
possible : —

Emetic tartar, dissolved in water , 15 grains,

which will have the effect of producing vomiting ;
and after the retching has subsided, give him two
ounces of castor oil, or ten grains of turpeth mineral,
if a large dog, mixed up in butter, and rubbed on
his nose. If the dog is middle-sized, eight grains ;
and if very small, five grains will have the effect.

Turpeth mineral is useful as an emetic for a dog
upon any occasion ; eight grains of it may be mixed
with a little butter, and rubbed on his nose ; he
will lick it off, and it will operate in about five
minutes.

Warreners very often make use of nux vomica
as a poison, which is not unfrequently concealed in a
piece of meat, to entice foumarts and weasels to eat
it. Hounds and other sporting dogs pick it up,

6l2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

and if no remedy is administered, convulsive fits,
and death itself, will shortly ensue. When dogs are
suspected of having taken such poison, the following
effectual remedy should be instantly applied : — Put
as much common salt into the dog's mouth as can
be got down, hold the head upwards, and force open
the mouth, and by fixing a stick across, prevent the
mouth from shutting, whilst the throat is filled with
salt ; a sufficient quantity, both to prove an emetic
and a laxative, will soon dissolve with the saliva,
and be swallowed. Warm broth should frequently
be given, to prevent faintness, which might, without
nourishment, prove fatal. Two tablespoonfuls of
castor oil would accelerate its action downwards.
When the effects of the salt, etc., have ceased, give
the dog fifteen drops of laudanum.

BLINDNESS.

During the time that dogs are afflicted with the
distemper, they are sometimes subject to diseases of
the eyes ; the most frequent of which is an abscess
in the transparent cornea, which, on its first appear-
ance, is of a blue tinge ; in some instances there is
a darkness of the part affected, in the middle of which
a speck is visible, which gradually assumes the form
of an abscess. This suppurates, leaving an ulcer,
which not unfrequently extends over the entire pupil,
often entirely preventing the animal from distinguish-
ing objects, and having such an appearance, that
no hope of recovery can be entertained. But, how-
ever intense the affection may be, whenever the
distemper ceases, the ulcer dries up, and the animal
gradually acquires its wonted vision. Let the

BLINDNESS 613

eye be washed with the following, twice or thrice
a day : —

White vitriol ... 8 grains,

Burnt alum, powdered . . 10 grains.

Litharge . . . . i drachm,

Distilled water ... 3 ounces.

The same wash may be used for other complaints of
the eye.

CHAPTER 11.
Diseases of the Abdomen, etc.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.

Symptoms. — This complaint is indicated by extreme
restlessness in the dog, getting up and lying down,
frequently changing places, and groaning. Some-
times he will lose the use of his hinder extremities ;
and if his back, over the loins, be touched, he will
exhibit indications of suffering ; if he is moved from
one place to another, he will utter loud screams.
Costiveness frequently accompanies this disease.

Remedies. — Bathing the animal in a tub of warm
water frequently has a salutary effect. He should
be kept in the water for a considerable time, and
well rubbed while he is in it. When taken out let
him be wiped quite dry, and rolled up in a warm
blanket, and kept near a fire, if the weather be cold.
Spring is the time dogs are most liable to attacks
of this kind.

If the animal does not exhibit signs of being
better from this treatment, let him have the following
mixture, which is for a dog of middle size : —

Laudanum .... 20 drops,
Sulphuric aether . . . 25 drops,
Castor oil . . . . i ounce.

This may be facilitated in its operation by the use

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS 615

of a clyster of gruel, butter, and salt. If the above
fails to move the bowels in six or seven hours, then
the following must be given : —

Calomel .... 2 grains,

Aloes J drachm,

Laudanum, or powdered opium i grain ;

to be made into a ball with treacle and linseed
meal, or simply with butter. Should it not operate
in six hours, a like quantity may be given ; and
when the bowels have been moved, they must be
kept open for two or three days.

Should the hinder parts still continue semi-
paralysed, the following stimulant should be used
for rubbing them, which may be done three or four
times daily : —

Spirit of turpentine . . 2 ounces,

Hartshorn .... 2 ounces,

Laudanum .... 2 drachms,

Sweet oil .... 2 ounces.

It is not likely that the animal will suddenly
recover the use of the limbs ; it will, therefore, be
necessary to persevere in the use of the warm bath
every day or two. The animal must, in the mean-
time, be sparingly fed with thin oatmeal-porridge
and milk or other farinaceous food.

Sometimes costiveness is mistaken for the animal's
bowels being in a lax state. This is when the
animal passes its faeces in small balls, accompanied by
a quantity of mucous matter ; but this is a sure sign
of the bowels being really bound up.

When inflammation has its origin in cold, accom-
panied by panting, heat, and thirst, and the dog is
very restless, and the stomach will not retain the food,
accompanied by heat in the belly, redness of the eye-
balls, and there is an alternation of hotness and cold

6l6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

ness of the nose, and the dog groans, it may be
inferred that the inflammation is considerable ; bleed-
ing must, therefore, be had recourse to immediately,
and clysters of castor oil, with from fifteen to twenty
drops of laudanum in them, according to the size of
the dog. If the bowels become costive, they must be
kept open with the following purgative, until the dog
recovers.

Jalap 5 grains,

Aloes, powdered . . . i grain.

If the evacuations are accompanied with blood, and
the bowels in a naturally loose condition, laxatives
must not be had recourse to, but the following used : —
Powdered Colombo . . i drachm,
Prepared chalk . . . i drachm,
Opium, powdered . , i grain,

Gum-arabic, powdered . . i drachm.

The above to be made into from three to six balls,
according to the size of the dog, and given every six
hours, until the bloody symptoms disappear.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.
Symptoms. — Panting and extreme restlessness,
heat in the belly, with swelling and tenderness, are the
indications of this complaint, accompanied by the
urine being voided frequently, and in small quantities,
and in some cases a total suppression of it ; at other
times, it is evacuated by drops, and mixed with
blood.

Remedies. — As the bowels are generally constipated,
the following opening medicine may be given : —
Calomel .... 2 grains.
Extract of colocynth . . 2 grains.

In his drink should be given, twice or thrice a day.

Nitre i drachm,

Powdered gum-arabic . . 2 drachms.

WORMS — INTESTINAL PARASITES 617

If the animal exhibits pain when he voids his
urine, then it will be necessary to give half-a-grain of
powdered opium, put in a little meal and butter, and
forced down his throat. Fomentations applied over
the region of the bladder will have a good effect in
alleviating pain. The food should be bread or biscuits
soaked in gravy, and unlimited supply of milk and
water to drink.

WORMS— INTESTINAL PARASITES.

Of all the domesticated animals the dog is most
frequently affected with intestinal parasites.

Worms are generally classified into tape and cystic
worms, sucking worms, and round worms. Time will
only permit us to mention a few of the more important
of these creatures, which may be found in the in-
testines of the dog.

TAPE-WORMS.

So called because they are broad and expanded
like various sizes of tape.

(i) TcBiiia Serraia. — This tape in its cystic form
is the Cysticercus Pisiformis, and is found in the
rabbit.

(2) TcBuia Coenurus. — Cystic form is the Coenurus
Cerebralis, found in the brain of sheep and cattle.

{3) Tcenia Echinococcus. — In its cystic form it is
found in various animals, and in man.

{4) Tcenia Cucumerina. — Cystic form, also found
in the rabbit.

(5) Tcsnia Marginata. — Cystic form Cysticercus
Tennicollis in the sheep, pig, etc.

6l8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

ROUND-WORMS.

(i) Ascaris Marginata. This perfectly developed
worm is found in the small intestines, and sometimes
in considerable numbers.

(2) Spiroptera Sanguinole^ita. Found in tumours
of the, stomach and oesophagus.

(3) Trichoso7na Plica. Found in the bladder.

(4) Filaria Immitis. Found in the heart.

(5) Eustrongylus Gigas. Found in the kidneys,
bladder, and under the peritoneum.

SUCKING-WORMS.

(i) Holostomum A latum. Found in the intestines.
(2) PentastoTnum Tcsnioides. Found in the frontal
and ethmoidal sinuses.

Symptoms. — The dog, under the influence of
worms, becomes thin and even emaciated ; is dull
and stupid ; his eyes are heavy, and his nose swelled
and dry. He continually rubs his nose with his paws.
In the earlier stages of the disease he eats voraciously,
but afterwards loathes his food. He has an inclination
to move his tongue about in his mouth, and has a
tendency to hang his under jaw. He is often afflicted
with severe pains in the abdomen, which cause him to
scream violently ; during sleep he has spasmodic
twitchings, and frequently draws all his limbs to-
gether : the belly becomes tumid and hard, and saliva
runs from his mouth while asleep. Another symptom
is sitting down on his hind-quarters, and in this
position dragging himself forward with his fore-paws,
while his hind ones continue in a sitting posture ; and
it often happens that his hair stands on end, which is
termed staring by sportsmen.

If a dog has had the distemper and is seized with

WORMS INTESTINAL PARASITES 619

vertigo or giddiness, there is strong reason to suspect
that worms are the cause, and that they have either
become very numerous, or have taken their lodgment
in the upper region of the alimentary canal, or in the
stomach. In the latter case, the disease is generally
attended with sickness, and even violent vomiting.
Worms also produce convulsions and death, from the
extreme irritation of the stomach and bowels. If the
faeces passed by the dog are examined carefully, a
portion of the worm may be seen.

Remedies. — If the dog is infested with tape-worms
allow it to fast for twelve hours, and on the empty
stomach administer : —

Oil of the male shield-fern . . 10 to 20 minims,
Spirits of turpentine , . . 10 to 20 minims,
Spirits of nitric ether . , . 20 to 60 minims.

This may be repeated, but care should be exercised
as to its frequency. A dose of castor oil following
a single administration of the above medicine frequently
effects an expulsion of tape-worm.

For round-worms, a combination of oil of the
male shield-fern and powdered areca-nut, or santonin,
repeated twice a week, and followed by a purgative,
may be prescribed with advantage.

Turpentine is apt to produce an irritation in the
neck of the bladder ; and when the animal urinates,
if a painful straining is noticed, or the urine is voided
frequently, and in small quantities, it will be necessary
to give linseed-tea, boiled up with a little butchers'
meat, to form a kind of soup, and let the animal drink
plentifully of this. When all traces of parts of these
worms disappear, it will be necessary to give tonic
medicines, so as to strengthen the digestive organs,
which will have the effect of preventing more effectually

620 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the recurrence of these worms. The following will be
found beneficial : —

Sulphate of quinine .

.

12 grains,

Carbonate of iron

,

I drachm,

Sulphate of iron

.

12 grains;

to be divided into from six to twelve powders, accord-
ing to the size of the animal, and one given daily, for
a week or ten days, mixed with linseed meal and treacle,
in the form of small balls.

Castor oil and turpentine will be found a valuable
remedy for all worm complaints.

DROPSY.

This disease consists of an accumulation of water
in the abdomen, and is not uncommon in dogs, and
often proves fatal. It generally has its origin in some
disease of the chest or kidneys. It sometimes
manifests itself by a strong, hard cough ; the belly
becomes swelled and tense, and a want of appetite
follows, with quick and difficult breathing, accom-
panied by great thirst, and in the more advanced stages,
a considerable tendency to suffocation. A good way
of testing the existence of dropsy, is to place one
hand on the near side of the body, and strike the
off side with the other hand, when an undulating
motion will be perceived. The following will be found
beneficial : —

Calomel lo grains,

Powdered digitalis . . . . lo grains.
Powdered camphor . . . . 15 grains ;

to be divided into six powders, and one to be given
daily ; but if for a small dog, it must be made into
eight powders. Should the camphor lead to the

COSTIVENESS 621

animal refusing his food, it should be discontinued at
once.

In extreme cases tapping will afford relief, and
may be performed several times, but ought not to be
attempted by any one but an experienced veterinarian.

COSTIVENESS.

Dogs are very liable to costiveness, and the faeces
which they void is sometimes extremely hard, and not
unfrequently of a limy consistence.

Remedies. — Occasional doses of castor oil, varying
from half-an-ounce to two ounces, will be found the
most effectual remedy for this ; and its operation will
be facilitated by giving the animal frequent draughts ol
warm oatmeal gruel or weak broth.

COLIC.

Symptoms. — The animals labouring under this com-
plaint are dull, restless, with inflamed eyeballs, dry
and warm nose, loss of appetite ; and the dog suffers
considerable pain.

Remedies. — The application of stimulating embro-
cations applied to the belly are useful ; and the warm
bath, brought to a considerably high temperature,
often affords relief Half-an-ounce of castor oil should
be given immediately, and six drops of laudanum.
This is given when the habit is costive ; but when the
bowels are lax, give two tablespoonfuls of the follow-
ing mixture every four hours : —

Compound tincture of senna . . 3 drachms,

Sweet spirit of nitre ... J ounce,

Compound tincture of rhubarb . 3 drachms,

Laudanum 2 drachms,

Water i pint.

62 2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

DIARRHCEA, OR LOOSENESS.

During distemper, this is a common malady ; and
when it happens with this complaint every means must
be adopted to check its progress, as it is apt to produce
great weakness, which the animal is ill able to bear,
as want of appetite is too common an attendant upon
distemper ; and when this is the case there is a great
difference in the colour of the excrement, it being
sometimes very dark, at others yellow, and sometimes
of an albuminous character.

The acrimonious state of the faeces produces
inflammation of the anus, and a constant desire to
stool, which some persons erroneously take for consti-
pation ; and under that idea give the animal cathartic
medicines, which have an injurious tendency, the
bowels being already too much relaxed, and not unfre-
quently cause the death of the animal.

Remedies. — When dogs are labouring under this
complaint give the following twice or thrice daily, if
the complaint is at all severe ; but when not so, once a
day will suffice.

Peruvian bark . . i scruple,

Powdered ginger . . i drachm,

Powdered camphor . 4 grains,

Laudanum . . .12 drops.

Rhubarb and magnesia have an excellent effect in
absorbing and carrying downwards the acrid irritating
state of the bowels.

BLEND WATER, OR BLOODY URINE.

Dogs are frequently afflicted with this malady, which
has its origin in a diseased condition of the neck of the
bladder, or a rupture in the vessels of the urethra. It
is also caused by fungiform growths on the penis, in

PILES 623

which case the blood issues in almost single drops at
a time. The irritation during the course of urinating
causes the animal to strain, which presses on the fungi,
and causes blood to issue from them.

Remedies. — When the malady proceeds from any
of the two former causes, the following should be
administered every day until the animal recovers : —

Peruvian bark ....

^ drachm,

Myrrh, in powder

6 grains,

Prepared kali ....

6 grains,

Compound tincture of benzoin .

J ounce ;

the whole to be formed into a ball.

If the complaint arises from fungi, the best plan is
to have recourse to excision of them with a scalpel or
sharp knife ; or they may be reduced by means of
caustic applications. Burnt alum may be first tried,
and if it does not prove effectual, about an eighth of
the quantity of red oxide of mercury should be mixed
with it.

T

PILES.

Cause. — Confinement, heat, and dry, heating food,
as well as frequent costiveness, produce piles.

SvMPTOMS. — The anus is generally protruded, and
red, which is frequently much aggravated by the dog
dragging his hinder parts on the ground, from the
itching and sharp pain of the parts. When they are
habitual, the best appliance is the following oint-
ment : —

Sugar of lead 6 grains.

Tar J drachm.

Elder ointment, or hog's lard . . 3 drachms ;

the part to be anointed with it three or four times a
day.

624 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

FITS.

Dogs are very liable to be afflicted with fits of
several kinds, and arising from a variety of causes.

Epileptic fits. — As in the human being, these are
accompanied by severe convulsions, and they occur at
all ages. The cause of these is not well understood.
However, they are frequently the followers of dis-
temper, costiveness, the presence of worms in the
intestines, teething in puppies, and some affection of
the brain. These are most difficult to cure, if not
incurable in many instances. Bleeding often has the
effect of removing fits, but aperients should always be
administered ; and the following will be found of much
use : —

Calomel 12 grains,

Powdered foxglove . . .12 grains,
Powdered miseltoe ... 2 drachms ;

to be divided into nine, twelve, or fifteen powders,
according to the size of the dog, and one given every
morning. Let them be made up in the form of pills,
with treacle and a little linseed meal, and put down the
animal's throat.

The natural ardour of dogs, more particularly
those used in field-sports, frequently causes them to
have fits, from the great excitement produced by the
sight or smell of game ; more especially at the com-
mencement of the season ; and particularly in such
dogs as have not been sufficiently exercised. When
they are attacked with epileptic fits in the field, the
best and easiest remedy is to plunge them into water
immediately, which will have the effect of rousing
them. Setters are more liable to these attacks than
pointers, from their more ardent temperament ; and

^ITS 625

especially if they have been subjected to severe
chastisement for flushing game, which they are very
apt to do at the commencement of the shooting
season. Costiveness also may produce fits, and when
this is the cause, we need hardly say that active
purgatives are the best and speediest remedies.

It is very imprudent to allow bitches to suckle
many puppies at a time, as they are frequently
attacked with fits in consequence. Two or three at
most are sufficient for an animal to rear. Puppies are
liable to fits from the effects of teething. Worms also
produce fits in them ; and they are sometimes afflicted
with convulsions when the distemper is approaching.

2R

CHAPTER III.
Diseases of the External Parts, etc.

DISEASES OF THE EYE.

Young dogs which are recovering from the distemper
are liable to be afflicted with sore eyes ; but this is
only part of the disease, and he generally recovers
when the disease is fairly eradicated. But should
the eyes continue sore afterwards, then a seton in the
neck, and washes with Goulard's extract, will facilitate
the recovery.

Weak and watery eyes are not of uncommon
occurrence with dogs, which when carefully examined
in a strong light, will be found to be red at the
bottom, as well as on the inside of the eyelids.
When the animals labouring under this complaint
are exposed to a strong light, they exhibit painful
symptoms, as well as a great desire to be freed from
its glare.

The following wash should be used : —

Sugar of lead J drachm,

Rose-water lo ounces.

After the inflammation has somewhat subsided, let
the following be applied : —

White vitriol . . . . lo grains,
Rose-water lo ounces.

The above may also be used for other eye complaints,

EXTERNAL ULCEk OF THE EAR 627

as well as for injuries inflicted from blows, scratches,
or punctures.

Cataract, — This is a disease of the crystalline lens
of the eye, which becomes white and opaque, and
generally of a hard, horny consistence, instead of
being clear and transparent, as in its natural state.
When complete, this disease causes total blindness.
It may be brought on by an injury, and generally only
affects the injured eye. Aged dogs are very subject
to the complaint.

The only remedy for this malady is an operation
which is termed couching ; which should only be
attempted by an experienced veterinary surgeon.
The operation is performed in two different ways.
In the first of these, a needle is introduced, and the
covering of the lens torn, and its contents depressed
into the posterior chamber of the eye, where it is
gradually absorbed by the vessels of the eye, called
the absorbents. The second is called extraction, by
which the lens is entirely taken out, and a small in-
cision made with a knife in front of the eye. The
latter mode is most perfect, and when neatly per-
formed, is done without much hazard to the eye.

Washes are recommended for this complaint, but
they are very unlikely to produce a cure, although
they may keep down inflammation.

EXTERNAL ULCER OF THE EAR.

This disease has by some been mistaken for
canker, but it is very dissimilar. This complaint is
known by a foul ulcer, which is situated on the lower
edge of the flap, or one on both ears, in the form of
a slit. The pain of this sore induces the dog almost
continually to shake his head, which irritates the sore,
and increases the discharge of matter.

628 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

The most frequent remedy is burning out the sore,
by means of a cauteriser, or with some caustic sub-
stances. But the following is more effectual : —

Nitrated mercury

.

2 drachms,

Turner's cerate .

,

2 drachms,

Lard .

.

2 ounces,

Bees' wax .

.

J ounce.

It must be well mixed together, and applied twice a
day. The part must be covered with a cloth, well
secured, otherwise the dog will remove all the oint-
ment by scratching.

The following has also been found effectual : —

Corrosive sublimate . . 4 grains,
Milk of sulphur . . . i scruple,
Turner's cerate . . . i drachm.

The following wash may be applied when the case
is not severe, and will generally prove effectual : —

Corrosive sublimate , , 6 grains,
Rose-water .... 5 ounces.

CANKER IN THE EAR.

This consists of an ulcerating sore, which spreads
widely if not stopped in time.

The treatment consists in syringing the affected
ear or ears out, thereby removing all wax, etc., and
thereafter injecting a mild astringent lotion. If this
does not affect a cure the animal had better be handed
over to the veterinary surgeon for further treatment,

THE COMMON MANGE.

,..^,,This is a common disease among dogs, and is
attributed to filth, want of proper exercise, and foul
feeding. It is a chronic inflammation of the skin,

THE COMMON MANGE 629

sometimes the effect of a morbid constitutional action,
and in others dependent upon a parasite.

Some authors affirm that there are four distinct
kinds of mange, but we know that there are two which
can easily be distinguished, namely, the common, and
red-mange. The latter is more difficult to cure than
the former. We shall first point out that for the more
prevalent form of the disease.

Remedies. — Cleanliness is the first remedy ; and,
whenever it is perceived that the dog is attacked by
the complaint, which will be indicated by his con-
stantly scratching himself, recourse should be immedi-
ately had to the following mixture : —

Train oil .... i pint,
Spirit of turpentine . . ^ pint,
Powdered sulphur . . -^ pound.

The following is another remedy : —

First let the dog be well washed with lime-water,
and when perfectly dry, anoint the parts affected
with the following ointment, which is said to be
effectual in both the common and red-mange : —

Sulphur vivum

4 ounces,

Hellebore powder .

2 ounces,

Bayberry powder .

2 ounces,

Spirit of turpentine

I ounce,

Hogs' lard . . . .

J pound.

The washing and anointing must be repeated
every second day until a cure is effected. But to re-
move the ointment effectually, it will be necessary to
use a strong solution of soda, which of itself will have
a powerful tendency to remove the complaint. Un-
less the state of the dog's system is bad, three or four
applications generally have the effect of performing a

630 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

cure. The bowels of the animal should be kept gently
open with the following alterative, viz : —

Nitre J drachm,

Sulphur .... I drachm.

Mr Mackenzie, of Edinburgh, recommends the
dog to have a powerful laxative every second day,
and to be rubbed all over with soft soap, and allowed
to remain untouched, and then to be well washed with
a scrubbing-brush and hot water ; this two or three
times repeated will generally effect a cure, unless the
disease is of a bad kind. If this fails, an application
of common flour of sulphur, in the proportion of one
ounce to two ounces of hogs' lard, four drachms of
carbolic acid, applied three or four times, will gener-
ally prevail.

We have, however, in obstinate cases, found that
they resisted all the above remedies, which rendered
it necessary to have recourse to mercurial prepara-
tions, which it is always desirable to avoid, if possible.
In such cases the animal must be kept very warm.

White precipitate

2 drachms,

Sulphur

I J ounce.

Hogs' lard .

4 ounces ;

to be rubbed with the above for three or four times,
every second day, first washing the dog with a strong
solution of soda, after the ointment has been applied
for twelve or fourteen hours.

The following ointment has also been successfully
used for mange : —

White hellebore-root, powdered . . 6 ounces,

Sulphur vivum 8 ounces,

Sal ammoniac, finely powdered . . i ounce,

Hogs' lard i pound,

OUve oil ,,,,,, I pint.

THE RED-MANGE 63 I

Rub the parts affected with this, night and morning,
for six or seven days, and the following purgative ball
should be given, and repeated twice after it has oper-
ated, allowing an interval of three days : —

Powdered jalap ... 20 grains,
Calomel .... 3 grains,

Ginger, powdered . . 3 grains.

Syrup of buckthorn . . i drachm ;

to be made into a ball, and concealed in a small bit of
butter. The above doses are for a fox-hound, grey-
hound, setter, and pointer. For larger dogs the
quantity to be increased, and for smaller ones dimin-
ished.

THE RED-MANGE.
As already stated, this is a more obstinate disease
than the common. It is known by a red inflammatory
state of the skin over the whole body, and is accom-
panied by great itching, and the skin feels hot to the
touch. It affects the roots of the hair, so that it falls
off, frequently in large patches, in some instances
leaving the body almost naked. The hair frequently
becomes discoloured. In obstinate cases, ulceration
often takes place ; and when this is observed, after
washing with soft soap, or a very strong solution of
soda, as recommended in the common complaint, the
scabs should be picked off, and the fresh sore rubbed
with the following solution : —

Corrosive sublimate . . J ounce,
Spirit of wine, or strong whisky J pint ;

which should be applied with a small piece of sponge.
The ordinary remedy is the following : —

Strong mercurial ointment . . 4 ounces,
Venice turpentine ... 2 ounces.
Hogs' lard i pound ;

632 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

the turpentine and mercurial ointment to be well
rubbed together until properly incorporated. An ounce
of this to be rubbed on the parts affected daily for
three days. It should be well washed off on the
fourth day ; but if the redness continues on the fifth,
another application will be indispensable.

FOUL COATS.

Sometimes the coats of dogs stare, that is, the
hair stands on end, and assumes an irregular disposi-
tion, which condition is termed foul by sportsmen.
To obviate this the following ointment has been found
effectual : —

Sulphur

I pound.

Train oil . . .

I quart,

Spirit of turpentine

I pint,

Soap ....

\ pound.

Two or three applications of the above will have the
desired effect. It proceeds from an irritability of the
skin. Some sportsmen use the above, as a preventive,
two or three times during the season, and before the
sporting-time particularly.

SORE FEET.

During the hunting and shooting seasons, dogs are
very liable to be affected with sore feet : they should be
frequently washed with strong brine, pot-liquor, or salt
and vinegar, a handful of the former to a pint of the
latter. But as it will be found easier to prevent than
cure the affection, we would recommend that the feet
of dogs should be washed every day, on returning from
the field, with pot-liquor or brine, which will have the
effect of hardening the skin.

When the feet have become sore and continue raw,

WOUNDS 6^^

let them be well washed with a solution of soda, and
then the following mixture applied three or four times
a day with a feather : —

Sulphuric acid ... 6 drops,
Tincture ot myrrh . . , i ounce.

WOUNDS.

Dogs are very liable to be wounded when in
pursuit of game, or in their ardour in ranging to
find it.

When these wounds are of a superficial kind, they
will only require to be washed, and afterwards, by the
dog constantly licking them, they soon heal. But
where they are of a more serious character, other means
must be adopted. The mode of cure will depend upon
the situation and nature of the wound, and other
circumstances.

We would, however, generally recommend that they
should be washed with Friar's balsam, or tincture of
myrrh. But when they are severe, it would be prudent
to have the advice of a veterinary surgeon.

SPRAINS AND BRUISES.

Like wounds, it would be difficult to recommend a
specific which may be generally useful, as these may
vary so much in situation and degree ; therefore
veterinary aid will be necessary ; but when that cannot
be easily obtained, we would recommend the following
applications, to be well rubbed on the parts affected : —

Spirit of turpentine . . . i ounce,
Spirit of wine .... 2 ounces.

Or where there is heat and swelling accompanying the

634 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

sprain, the following lotion will be found the best, if
diligently applied : —

Sugar of lead ... 2 ounces,

Vinegar . . . . i pint;

to be kept on the part with rags well wetted in the
lotion ; and when the inflammation is completely
removed, use the following embrocation : —

Soft soap

I ounce,

Spirit of wine

I ounce.

Spirit of turpentine

I ounce.

Green elder ointment

I ounce.

For a strained leg or foot, the following embrocation
will be found effectual in removing it : —

Camphor .... 2 ounces,
Spirit of wine ... 2 ounces.

When the camphor is dissolved, add to it Goulard's
extract, one ounce, and the gall of an ox, and rub the
part affected twice or thrice a day. Fomentations of
hot water or camomile flowers will also be of much
service. For swelling of the stifle, an ounce of
tincture of cantharides added to the above, will be
found useful to rub the part with.

SCALDS.

The ordinary application of lime and oil is the
best, to be used immediately after the dog has been
scalded, taking care to cover up the part, and secure
it in such a way that the dog cannot lick it off.
Next day, when the heat has subsided, the animal
may be permitted to lick the part, and if the blister
be broken, all that will be necessary is to allow nature
to work her own cure, which will be facilitated by

RICKETS 635

the dog licking the part. When the scalded part
has healed, it will be found denuded of hair.

RICKETS.

This is an affection of the joints of the legs,
which it enlarges, and the limbs become crooked,
and the animals are in consequence called wry-
legged. This complaint is hereditary in some dogs,
and those should not be bred from. It is more
common in the smaller kinds of dogs, such as terriers,
lap-dogs, etc. It attacks them when very young,
soon after they begin to walk. Whenever puppies
can walk properly, they ought to be exposed as much
as possible to the open air, and have plenty of
exercise, good, plain food, and be kept clean and
dry, which will generally have the effect of prevent-
ing rickets.

THORNS.

During the sporting season, dogs are very liable
to get thorns in their feet ; and when these cannot
be picked out, a poultice of ground linseed or boiled
oatmeal may be applied, the surface of which must
be rubbed with butter or lard, to keep it clean.
This will have the effect of sucking out the thorn.
But if it fails to do so on the first application, a
second must be applied.

FLEAS AND TICKS, ETC.

Dogs are very liable to be molested by these
insects, which are very troublesome to them. The
most effectual remedy is to rub the whole animal all
over with train oil allow it to remain from half-an-

636 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

hour to three-quarters, and then wash it off with
salt of tartar, or soda and warm water. Soft soap
made into a thick paste and rubbed over the body-
will have the same effect ; it must be allowed to
remain on an hour before washing it off. Warm
water is all that is required.

CHAPTER IV.
Operations.

BLOOD-LETTING.

The best way to perform this operation on the dog
is to take the blood from the jugular vein. Tie a
ligature pretty tight round the animal's neck, close
to the shoulders, and when the vein has risen enough
to be seen distinctly, take a common lancet and make
an oblique puncture in it, when it will bleed copiously.
When a sufficient quantity has been taken away,
remove the ligature, and the bleeding will instantly
cease ; the incision will heal afterwards without any
application whatever.

METHOD OF GIVING A BOLUS OR PILL.

The method of administering a bolus, pill, or
other medicine to a dog, is to pull the tongue pretty
far out of his mouth, then put the medicine as close
to the root as possible, and when the animal draws
in his tongue, the medicine will descend into his
stomach.

WORMING.

Worming dogs has been considered a preventive

of hydrophobia since the time of Pliny ; but how

such an absurd idea should have prevailed for 1760

years, is quite unaccountable. Dr Blain very

638 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

properly says, it is a custom founded on ignorance,
and should not be perpetuated by publishing written
directions how to perform the operation. Concurring,
as we do, in the opinion of Dr Blain, we abstain from
any description of the operation.

FRACTURES.

Fracture of the thigh-bone is extremely common,
but is by no means so difficult of cure as might be
supposed. If the flesh has been injured by the
fracture, the first thing to be attended to is to get
quit of the swelling and inflammation, which must
be accomplished by means of fomentations of vinegar
and water, until allayed. Then apply a long piece
of wood, in the form of a lath, which must reach
from the foot to a little way above the fracture.
But before applying this, a pitch-plaster sufficiently
large to surround the thigh must be applied, and
then the slip of wood firmly bound over it by means
of a roller of cotton cloth, an inch and a half broad.
But care must be taken not to make it too tight,
otherwise the circulation may be retarded, or entirely
stopped, which will in all probability terminate in
mortification.

If the leg-bone is broken, then several splints of
wood must surround the limb, carefully wrapped
round with a bandage.

When fractures of the limbs are comminuted,
that is, broken in two or more places, then the cure
becomes more difficult and uncertain in its issue, as
it is difficult for an inexperienced person to place the
pieces of broken bone in their proper position. The
safest plan is to have compound fractures set and
attended to by veterinary surgeons.

CROPPING 639

CROPPING.

This is at least a barbarous custom, and extremely
presumptuous in man to attempt to improve nature.
We believe this outrageous practice originated in
the barbarous ages, when dog-fighting formed an
amusement amongst the fashionable. Happily this
is now of rare occurrence ; and we hope the time
is not far distant when this, as well as the brutal
practice of cock-fighting, will be prevented by an
act oi the legislature.

CHAPTER V.

Gestation, Parturition, etc.

OF BREEDING GENERALLY.

From the earliest times great diversity of opinion
has existed respecting the proper age at which dogs
should be allowed to breed, with the view of producing
strong and healthy puppies.

We are informed by Aristotle, who flourished in
the fourth century before the Christian era, that
ancient sportsmen, for the ennobling of their race of
dogs, did not suffer the male to engender till he was
four years of age, and the female three ; and that the
former was only allowed to propagate for eight years
thereafter, and the latter for six years. They conceived
that the progeny of such would be much stronger
than those bred at an earlier age. This opinion does
not, however, hold good, although it is found that the
puppies produced by a female under twelve months,
are generally weak. It is now ascertained, from
patient investigation and experience, that a female
should be fully twelve months old before she is allowed
to engender, and that whelps produced by a dam
about this age, are as good as those at any later period
of the animal's life. The male ought to be at his full
strength and symmetry, but not aged, as the offspring
of such are generally dull and deficient in spirit.

The usual time at which females are first seized

OF BREEDING GENERALLY 64 1

with the/uror uterinus, is at the age of twelve months ;
but there are many instances where it is felt at eight,
and it generally lasts about eighteen days. For the
first four or five days she will not receive the embraces
of the male, but keeps up a sportive dalliance with
him ; after which unbounded vent is given to her
desires, and even with a variety of males ; from the
termination of which period, she is gravid nine weeks
or sixty-three days, and produces from five to twelve
puppies, according to her size.

Breeders are in the habit of restraining the desire
of the female ; and in general only allow her to be
warded two or three times, which proves as effectual
as the most unrestrained commerce. Indeed, it has
been found, that from six to eight puppies have been
the fruits of one coitus, and, in some rare instances, so
many as eleven.

Albertus mentions that he saw a mastiff bitch,
which brought forth at three litters fifty whelps, viz. :
nineteen at the first, eighteen at the second, and
thirteen at the third litter. Some females have been
known to produce puppies three times a year ; but this
generally has the effect of destroying their constitution.
Those, therefore, who have a regard for their dogs,
and wish to preserve a healthy race, will never allow
the female to produce oftener than once a year.

It need hardly be remarked, that if it is wished to
preserve a breed of dogs uncontaminated, all inter-
course with those of different races must be strictly
guarded against. The animals from which a breed is
to be taken should be as perfect in their form as
possible, as it would be in vain to expect handsome
puppies from an ill-made sire and dam ; although it
not unfrequently happens, that in the case of one of
the parents being cross in its make, an elegant progeny

2 s

642 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

are produced, by the other possessing a more perfect
symmetry, more especially when the female is beauti-
fully formed. But this ought never to be depended
upon, unless the sire or dam have very pre-eminent
qualities, which it is desirable to possess. Crosses
should be carefully guarded against.

''Consider well
His lineage ; what his father did of old,
Chiefs of the pack, and first to climb the rock,
Or plunge into the deep."

SOMERVILLE.

In dogs of the chase, care should be taken that the
dog is stout, his shape good, and colour of the right
kind, his nose fine, and that he has a proper method
of hunting. Be sure that he is no babbler or skirter.
The former is the worst fault a hound can have, and
is apt to be followed by others. Those that skeit are
always unsteady and changing, and lose more foxes
than they kill. If the dogs are otherwise good, this
imperfection may be rectified by a more steady parent
of the opposite sex.

Breeding from the same stock is to be strictly
avoided, as it is found that all animals (and even man
himself) soon degenerate by too close a union in blood.
If, therefore, a perfect race is wished, every possible
attention should be paid to obtain alliances betwixt
the sexes by animals not connected by consanguinity,
or at least, not very near.

The time of producing in most animals lies with
the female. In the dog species the spring is the
usual season of desire, commencing generally in
February or March ; and this is certainly the best
time of the year ; for puppies whelped in summer are
always stronger and more likely to be straight and
firm about the joints than those of a winter litter,

OF BREEDING GENERALLY 643

which often suffer materially from the cold, and
become rickety.

Thus far as regards the breeding of dogs generally ;
but in sporting dogs there are various opinions as to
the time at which they should be bred. The strictest
attention, however, should be observed in regard of
both male and female being in good health, and as
perfect as possible in their points of form ; their faculty
of smell should also be in high perfection, although it
sometimes happens that cross, ill-made dogs possess
excellent qualities in this respect ; and when this is the
case, and a breed is desired from them, a good male
or female of the opposite sex should be selected, as
the case may be.

Much vigilance is necessary on the part of the
feeder, to watch the females going to heat, and when-
ever the slightest indication of this becomes apparent,
they should immediately be separated from the rest
of the pack, if dogs of chase, which will prevent
quarrelling among the males. This should also be
attended to with other sporting dogs. From neglect
of this kind, it has not unfrequently happened that
the best dogs of the pack, or the finest pointers and
setters, have fallen victims to these broils. '- t:'jn\^.

While in pup the female should not be hunted
more than the first month, as it often proves injurious
to her as well as her litter. During gestation, how-
ever, moderate exercise will be found of great service
in preserving her health, and is in consequence likely
to give strength to her offspring.

Mr Daniel is of opinion that winter whelps, if they
survive, come in well the following season, and that
they are generally hardy and handsome ; and he re-
commends to have no puppies later than April, as they
seldom thrive in very hot weather ; and that of the

644 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

early puppies, five or six should be kept, and of the
later ones, not more than half that number. We,
however, beg to dissent from this conclusion, for the
reasons stated in a former paragraph.

When the female has littered, and the puppies
have been cleaned by her tongue, it will be proper
to select such as are to be kept, while those that are
deemed superfluous should be immediately drowned.
In the chase a preference should be given to those
having a resemblance to dogs of the pack of established
worth, and possessing at the same time the strongest
make, as the smaller puppies are likely to turn out
weak. If a whole litter is wished to be preserved, and
if it is larger than can be nursed with ease and safety
by the dam, a few should be taken from her and given
to a foster mother. Sometimes, however, it is difficult
to get another bitch to nurse strange puppies. A
method, which has been successfully practised, is to
rub the puppies so selected with a little of the foster-
mother's milk, when, in general, she will carefully lick
them and adopt them as her own.

While nursing, the bitches should be well fed with
flesh, broth, milk, porridge, etc., several times a day.
When puppies are a few weeks old, milk should be
offered them, and they will soon learn to lap it, which
will greatly relieve the dams. By the end of six weeks
they will be able to feed themselves, and may then be
removed from the nursing quarters. These observa-
tions apply to dogs generally.

Many of the most experienced sportsmen, and also
writers on this subject, conceived that hounds may be
hunted while nursing ; but this is an opinion with
which no physiologist or medical man can concur ;
for violent exercise of any kind has a strong tendency

OF BREEDING GENERALLY 645

to injure the quality of the milk, and must, conse-
quently, have a bad effect on the young progeny.

When the puppies of dogs of the chase are three
or four days old, the points of their tails should be
twisted off. This operation is performed by placing
the tail between the fore -finger and thumb ; press the
nail of the latter on the point, and twist the tip of the
tail gently round, and a slight pull will separate it
(but this operation should never be performed on a
setter, springer, or cocker) ; after which the dew claws
must be taken off with scissors.

It is necessary to give physic to females when
their young ones are removed from them. Three of
the following laxative balls, given every alternate day,
will have the desired effect : —

Jalap, in powders . . 20 grains,
Calomel .... 4 grains ;

to be made into a small ball or pill with treacle. But
during the process of drying up the milk, as little
liquid as possible must be given to her, which should
consist entirely of water. Whey is recommended by
some veterinarians, as being a less abrupt transition
from their former diet, and containing but little
nutriment.

In the event of this not proving effectual, the laxa-
tive balls must be continued, and the teats of the
animal rubbed twice a day with a composition of
goose grease and rum, in equal proportions ; or brandy
and salid oil, used in the same way, will have a similar
effect. This treatment, continued for three or four
days, generally answers the purpose. But if, in spite
of strict attention to the above appliances for dispersing
the milk, it accumulates in large quantity, which will
sometimes be the case, it will be necessary to draw off

646 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

some of the milk by means of a nipple-glass or sucking-
pipe, to relieve the animal from the pain of her udder
being distended. A mixture of warm vinegar and
brandy may be also successfully applied to dry up the
milk.

In breeding pointers and setters, some sportsmen
are anxious to have the puppies produced at such a
time as to become fit for breaking in the succeeding
spring, so as to be ready for hunting in the autumn ;
and also that the bitch may not be in case^ so as to
prevent her from running along with the males, or to be
so heavy with young that she cannot work by herself
during the last part of the sporting season. This may
certainly be a saving knowledge, but the opportunity of
saving a breed of a good kind ought not to be sacrificed
for so paltry an object.

PARTURITION, OR PUPPING.

It is no uncommon occurrence for bitches to lose
their lives in pupping. Protracted labour will cause
the death of the young in the womb, in which case
they frequently are not discharged at the time, but
come away piecemeal some days afterwards. Some-
times fits are brought on by tedious labours, in which
case give the following specific : —

Ether . . . i drachm,

Laudanum . . . i drachm,
Strong ale . . . 2 ounces.

CHAPTER VI.

FEEDING, MANAGEMENT, TRAINING, ETC.

The natural food of the dog is flesh, and it is found
that those in a wild state prefer it to any other kind
of nutriment. It is this desire that gives to him the
instinctive property of pursuing other animals ; and
without this craving of nature he never would hunt.
Many have been of opinion that to feed a dog on flesh
destroys the acuteness of his olfactory sense. This
doctrine we most positively deny, and that, too, upon
the most common principles of physiology ; for it is
difficult to conceive how any animal should be formed
with a natural desire for a particular sort of food, the
use of which would prove destructive to some of his
faculties.

Although, however, the dog is strictly a carnivorous
animal, yet he can subsist on many kinds of food ;
which is the case, also, with various other animals more
highly carnivorous in their nature. It has been said of
man himself, that feeding on flesh destroys his sense
of smell in some degree ; and in support of this state-
ment it is alleged, that certain natives of India who
feed entirely on grain, have the olfactory sense in such
a degree of perfection, that they can distinguish the
smell of the water of one spring from that of another.
But such accuracy of discrimination has been satisfac-
torily ascertained to be entirely the result of practice.

648 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

The nutriment best adapted for sporting dogs, so
as to enable them to perform their work well, should
consist of at least two-thirds of flesh, with a judicious
mixture of farinaceous vegetables. It is an established
fact, that dogs in a domesticated state invariably be-
come lean if fed entirely upon flesh.

Good water is of great consequence to the health
of dogs, as they drink frequently and copiously, and
particularly setters ; but the idea that dogs being kept
long without water produces canine madness, is a
vulgar prejudice.

The dog is naturally a voracious animal ; and yet
he can endure hunger for a very great length of time,
and be brought by habit to subsist on a very scanty
meal. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, it
Is mentioned, that a bitch which was forgot in a
country house, where she had access to no other
nourishment, lived forty days on the wool of an old
mattress, which she had torn to pieces.

An extraordinary Instance of a similar kind occurred
with a terrier bitch belonging to a friend of my own.
One day, when following her master through a grass
park near Gilmerton, it happened that she started a
hare. During the pursuit her master suddenly lost
sight of her, and in a few days she was considered
either killed or lost. Six weeks afterwards, a person
happening to look down the shaft of an old coal-pit,
was surprised by hearing a dog howling. He immedi-
ately returned to the village, and having procured a
hand-basket, let it down by a rope into the shaft ; the
dog instantly leapt into it, and on being brought to
the surface. It turned out to be Gipsy, the lost terrier
bitch of my friend, worn to perfect skin and bone.
How she had existed in this subterranean abode it is
impossible to tell.

FEEDING, MANAGEMENT, TRAINING, ETC. 649

Staghounds, foxhounds, harriers, and beagles, are
generally fed on oatmeal ; and the older it is the
better, so that it is not fusty. Store sufficient for
twelve or eighteen months' consumption ought, there-
fore, always to be kept by those who have a pack.
The meal should be well dried and broken into grits,
but not too fine. It is best kept in bins in a granary,
well trodden down. Some persons are in the habit
of using barleymeal, but it is not nearly so nutritious
as the former. Others are of opinion that oatmeal
and barleymeal, in equal proportions, form a pre-
ferable food. But nothing is better than oatmeal-
porridge, with the addition of a little milk, and occa-
sionally the kitchen-offal, such as remnants of butchers'
meat, broth, and soups, the raspings and refuse of
bakers' shops, or hard, coarse, sea-biscuit, well soaked
and boiled with bullocks' liver or horse-flesh. Well-
boiled greens are an excellent addition to the food
of all dogs, and may be given twice a week ; but
this ought to be discontinued during the shooting
season with pointers, setters, cockers, and greyhounds ;
and also during the hunting-season with foxhounds,
harriers, and beagles, as they are apt to render the
bowels too open for hard work. The flesh should be
first thoroughly boiled, and then taken out before the
oatmeal is added to the broth.

Dogs which are regularly worked are better for
having two meals a day ; the principal one, of course,
should be given in the evening. Nothing is better
than good, wholesome horse-flesh (avoiding by all
means such as have died full of drugs ; but let it be
those which have been killed, and in a healthy state),
boiled, and the liquor mixed well with the oatmeal-
porridge, the quantity of each about equal. If horse-
flesh is not to be had, cracklings or greaves are a

650 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

proper substitute, if they are good. They are
generally broken small, and mixed with about half
the quantity of oatmeal, and boiling-water poured on
them, and well stirred together ; or they may be boiled
together like porridge. Dogs, like men, tire of the
same kind of food ; therefore, a judicious feeder, like
a good cook, will contrive to vary his bill of fare.
Porridge and milk, the offal of the kitchen, the offal
of bullocks or sheep, which should be well boiled,
make an excellent variety ; but we would by no means
recommend a too frequent repetition of the latter food.
Potatoes make also a good variety, and although not
so nutritious as oatmeal, they are less heating. Care
should be taken never to present more to a dog than
he will eat with a good appetite ; and when oatmeal
and barleymeal are used, mixed, the former should be
first boiled for twenty minutes, and then the other
added, and boiled only for about eight or ten minutes.
The latter meal should, however, never be given
in the hunting season, as it is too heating, and
occasions the dogs to be perpetually drinking. Their
food should be given to them pretty thick, as thin
porridge does not stay in the stomach so well ; and it
should be well cooled before being presented to them.
The feeding-troughs for hounds should be wide at the
bottom, and not exceeding three feet in length. They
should be thoroughly cleaned out, and scalded with
hot water every second day. Dogs should always
have plenty of fresh water.

During the hunting season, hounds should have
sulphur mixed up with their meals once a week, in the
proportion of three drachms to each. At the end of
the season, the same quantity of sulphur should be
given, with the addition of one and a half drachm of
antimony. After a hard day's work an entire meal of

GREYHOUNDS 65 1

horse-flesh should be given them, and as newly killed
as possible ; and when this cannot be had, bullocks'
paunches or sheep's trotters, both of which ought to
be well boiled.

GREYHOUNDS

Should be fed principally on animal food, such as
sheep's trotters or neats' feet, boiled or stewed down,
and mixed with bread or oatmeal, and given moder-
ately in the morning and afternoon (the dog never
being allowed, on any occasion, to eat a great quantity
at a time), or on other hard meat, as it will enlarge
and strengthen the muscular fibre without increasing
the cellular tissue and adipose substance, which has an
invariable tendency to affect their breathing. The
butcher's meat should be of the best quality. Within
a few days of a coursing-match, some sportsmen give
each dog two or three ounces of beefsteak, moderately
fried in a little brandy, with two or three teaspoonfuls
of assafoetida dropped into it. This braces their
stomachs, and produces other stimulating effects.
After they have been coursed, they should be well
brushed all over, a little oil being used in the opera-
tion.

The kennels of greyhounds should be kept particu-
larly warm and dry, and at the same time they ought
to be properly ventilated. Indeed, pure air is an
essential requisite to the health and vigour of all
animals.

Nothing is of greater consequence to the health
and efficiency of dogs than cleanliness. Their kennels
ought to be frequently replenished with dry and clean
straw, and their apartments well aired. Their beds
should, if possible, be placed on a wooden bench, or,
at least, on some dry place. On attention to cleanli-

652 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

ness also depends the perfection of their olfactory-
nerves, and sense of smelling ; for if accustomed to
disagreeable effluvia, a dog will be ill-adapted to trace
the fail of a deer, or scent of a fox, through greasy
fallows or ground tainted by the grazing of sheep.

OF TRAINING FOXHOUNDS.

The first thing to be attended to in young dogs of
all kinds is to make them understand their names
well, and answer to them, before training, for which
they should be rewarded and caressed. After fox-
hounds have learned to follow freely, they should be
coupled, and led out amongst sheep, deer, etc., and
made to understand that such is not their game. But
when they have arrived at the locality where sheep
and deer are, they must be let loose, and only a few
at a time ; and if they attempt to run after them, they
must be severely chastised, and the cry of 'ware sheep
be often repeated to them, which cry will generally, on
future occasions, have the effect of stopping them from
sheep-running, without the necessity of using the
whip. Great care is necessary at the offset to pre-
vent them from worrying a sheep, which they will
sometimes do under the management of careless
trainers. If they are allowed to taste the blood, it
will be very difficult afterwards to break them off this
bad habit.

Young hounds should be often walked about the
courts of the kennel, followed by the whipper-in, who
ought to rate them after the huntsmen. They should
also be frequently taken out with people on foot, which
teaches them to be more tractable, attentive, and much
more manageable. It is usual to take them out to
their walks in a country where they are to be hunted,

ON TRAINING FOXHOUNDS 653

as the sooner they acquire a knowledge of it the
better ; and when they are thrown out, or left behind,
are more likely to find their way home.

In entering foxhounds, it should always be at their
own game, although some are foolish enough to
begin them with hares, which just requires a second
training to break them from that pursuit. Nothing
is so good for rendering young hounds obedient as
walking them frequently out amongst sheep, hares,
and deer, and restraining their pursuits of these
animals. This probation will teach them to be steady.
A fox-cub should then be turned out before them, in
company of some old hounds, as leaders, which has
the effect of training them in a short time instinctively,
as it were, to hunt themselves. After they have tasted
blood, it will be more difficult to repress their ardour
than to excite it. Every means of encouraging them
should be used in the earlier stages of their training,
and punishment only administered after they have
made some progress. In flogging a hound for a
fault, the whipper-in should use his voice at the same
time ; this teaches him to know for what he is beaten.
It has been recommended, and successfully adopted,
that a live hare should be introduced into the kennel,
and the dogs soundly flogged whenever they attempt
to approach her.

Hounds at their first entering cannot be en-
couraged too much. When they are become hardy, love
a scent, and begin to know what is right, it will be
soon enough to chastise them for doing wrong ; in
which case one severe beating will save a deal of
trouble. It should be recommended to the whipper-
in, when he flogs a hound, to make use of his voice
as well as his whip ; and let him remember that a
smack of the whip is often of as much use as the lash,

654 MANUAL OF MOt)ERN FARRIERV

to one that has felt it. If any are very unsteady, it
will not be amiss to send them out by themselves,
when the men go out to exercise their horses. If
hares are plentiful in the neighbourhood, let some be
found sitting, and turned out before them, and you
will soon find that the most riotous will not run after
them. If they are to be made steady from deer, they
should see them often, and they will not regard them.
Flogging hounds frequently in kennel is a practice
with many huntsmen, but which ought on no account
to be permitted ; it is unreasonable, unjust, and cruel.
Hounds that are old offenders, that are very riotous,
and at the same time very cunning, may be difficult to
catch — such hounds may be excepted — they deserve
punishment, whenever it happens, and huntsmen of
course should not fail to give it them when they can.
This we will allow is a particular case, and necessity
may excuse it ; but let not the peace and quiet of the
kennel be often thus disturbed. When hounds offend,
punish them — when caught in the act, then let them
suffer — and if severity be exercised, let it be just.

TRAINING OF POINTERS AND SETTERS.

One of the earliest lessons which a dog should be
taught is obedience ; this can be accomplished by
walking him out near home, and when he ranges to
too great a distance he must be called back, using the
words here, or come in. To teach him to go behind,
the words back or behind, should be used.

At this period it will be proper to accustom the dog
to be tied up in a stable, but not for too long a time
at the outset, as a dog's growth is apt to be cramped
by confining him too much at an early age. Where
the situation is favourable, dogs under twelve months

VOCABULARY 655

should always be allowed to go at liberty through the
day, taking care to tie them up at night, because in
strange quarters, where this restraint may be neces-
sary, if not used to it they may howl, and disturb a
whole neighbourhood.

Dogs should, if possible, receive their education
in an open moorland country, where there are neither
pheasants nor rabbits. They will then have full scope
for their faculties, acquire a gallant range, and learn
to quarter their ground properly. In this process the
words used should be few and simple, and accompanied
by signs, which ought ultimately to become their sub-
stitutes ; as we hold, that when a dog is thoroughly
made, a whistle or a signal will be sufficient for his
guidance in the field. To the young sportsman, the
Vocabulary and Maxims which follow may be useful,
and tend to impress him with a proper notion of the
business in hand.

VOCABULARY.

Hey away, hey on^ good dog I — is a general en-
couragement to general beat.

Have a care, — A caution when you perceive him
pressing rashly upon his birds, and in danger of
springing them.

Hold up, good dog. — When he is diffident of follow-
ing up his game, or dwelling upon a false haunt.

Take heed, or to-ho ! — A caution to him when he
fixes to his point, and warning to other dogs to back,
accompanied by holding up the right hand, the same
as to down.

Down charge. — The word of command, instantly
after firing, which must be irnperative.

Seek — dead. — A notice for him to go in search of
dead or wounded birds.

656 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Ware bird, or Ware dead. — A check when he
attempts to mouth or snap a dead or dying bird.

Ware chase ! — A challenge (loud and sharp) for
chasing birds upon the wing.

Ware hare ! — A check of decisive recall from an
unlawful pursuit.

Ware lark I — A summons to cease from puzzling
on a worthless haunt.

Gone, gone ! — A notice that birds are away ; and
signal to go on.

Come in, or Come in here. — Or the whistle ; a
summons he should promptly obey, and come in to
heel.

The following should be most strictly attended to : —

MAXIMS.

Never let your dog have a will of his own ; but
impress upon him, from the first, that your command
is to be the rule of his actions ; and

Never allow him to ramble about the neighbour-
hood alone, or at the risk of falling into bad company,
" Evil communications," etc.

Never take the field without your whip : it is the
only legitimate weapon of punishment ; and the sight
of it may, in many instances, save the skin of your
pupil.

Never pass a blunder unnoticed, nor a fault un-
punished : nevertheless, *Move mercy." Keep your
pupil down under lecture till you are friends again,
then hey-on !

Never administer punishment without endeavour-
ing to make him understand the nature of his offence
— ware chase ! take heed ! or down charge / as the case
may be — duly impressed upon him.

Never avenge upon your dog your own errors in

MAXIMS 657

shooting ; neither let your anxiety to bag a bird in-
duce you to join him in a race for the possession
thereof. Footing out-winged birds is the finest
opportunity you have of developing his powers, and
rather lose the bird than the advantage of such a
lesson.

Never permit a race after a hare ; therefore never
be tempted to shoot at one which rises before your
dog. In a case of necessity shoot her in her seat.

Never head your dog, nor let him trifle his time
behind you ; but keep him ahead in his beat, and go
hand-in-hand with him up to his point.

Never allow your dog to break field, that is, make
off into another field before his master, or to hunt out
of your sight at any time. Neither let him take
another dog's point out of his teeth, but make him
back up at a respectful distance ; or, which is better,
lie close till desired to go on.

Never hunt a dog when tired down, lest he become
a dealer in false points, and lose his gallantry of
range.

Do not suffer your dog to ramble when you are
going to or returning from the field, but keep him
strictly to your heel. It is not in the way of business.

By way of preparation for taking the field (which
may be as soon after six months old as convenient),
we trust the master or keeper of young pointers or
setters has betimes accustomed them to know their
names distinctly, and answer to them, and to prostrate
themselves to the imperious down and uplifted hand.
Down charge should also be taught at home, as blink-
ing shot on the field is one of the worst evils which
can befall us. This can be accomplished at small
expense of gunpowder — reward and caresses with
puppies. Sheep and poultry should likewise be made

2 T

658 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

familiar to them, and respected. If a young dog
makes a mistake in the flock or poultry-yard, the whip
will cure him ; but if an old one takes to such practices,
to the gallows with him ! he is never to be trusted.'^
Every sportsman, we presume, will understand the
advantage of giving a young dog the wind, against
which he should take his range, making regular tacks,
like a vessel beating up to windward. If he stretches
too far to the one hand, a whistle, a wave, and
inclination of the body in another direction should
bring him about. In this manner continue to work
him till you see him on the haunt of game ; then
caution him by have a care — take heed ! as he is fixing
to his point, and fix him with a stern, authoritative
down ! Keep him to his point, and if the birds lie,
make a circuit round them, keeping your eye strictly
upon the dog, checking every attempt to move with
the uplifted hand and down ! When you see him
reconciled to lie close, give the word, hold up ! to your
birds. If he is diffident, pat and encourage him with
kind words ; if too forward, check him. When the
birds spring, should he pursue them, ware chase !
must be thundered in his ears, which may perhaps
stop him ; if not, have patience, keep your station,
and he will return after his rioting is over. Beware
of severity now, lest you check him ; but lead him
again to the haunt of the birds, and there lecture him
— take heed, sir ! down ! At this stage of the business
a check-cord, a few yards in length, may be of advan-

* The following specimen of the "tender mercies" of a
reverend sportsman may amuse, if not instruct. — "To break a
sheep-biting dog, take some wool off a sheep's rump, steep it in
train oil, put it in the dog's jaws, and sew up his mouth. For
killing poultry, boil a chicken in its feathers, take it hot from
the boiler, squeeze the water from it, and put it into his jaw?, ind
tie them together ^ — Daniel, iii. p. 337.

MAXIMS 659

tage to prevent him from bolting in or escaping under
punishment. When you have got him steady to his
point, you may proceed to down charge ! to which we
have supposed the pupil ready drilled ; nevertheless,
when a bird drops, he may break in, and this should
be instantly and invariably resisted with down charge f
ware dead! and the application of the whip when
persisted in.

We now come to the important act of bagging the
birds which are down. Seek dead is an easy process
if they are dead ; but, if birds are winged, and run,
your dog will require great indulgence and encourage-
ment in footing them out, till experience teaches him
to distinguish the fail of a wounded bird from that of
one which is not. If he make it out, caress him with
seek dead ! good dog I etc., laying the bird before his
nose and feet ; but never permitting him to mouth or
pull the feathers off it. The perfecting a dog in this
branch of education, which enables him to road out
the scattered birds of a covey through all their
doublings, adds more to the pleasure of a really
scientific votary of the trigger than perhaps any other,
and, therefore, should be patiently and particularly
attended to. When we have got two or more so far
in their course, we may proceed to hunt them in
company, and learn them to back, which will not be
difficult, if they are decidedly subject to the take heed
— down ! Some are in the practice of making their
dogs back up the dog which has the point : we prefer
having them to drop and lie till he makes out his birds,
which he is entitled to do, and ought to show the same
respect in turn. Dogs are not exempt from jealousy,
and often break through the rules when a rival is at
hand. When in company they should hunt in an
independent manner, crossing and quartering their

66o MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

ground In opposite courses, and not following at the
tail of one another. When a dog is found to be
slowish in this respect, he should be hunted with a
strange one, or alone ; he may thus be made to act
for himself.

If in following up this system, we have brought
them to have a gallant range, quarter their ground
properly, point, back, lie-charge, and foot out their
birds correctly, we are in the high road to perfection ;
this, however, is not to be attained in a few weeks, or
months, but is the reward of continued care and
perseverance. But whatever rules may be laid down,
much must be left to the common-sense and discern-
ment of the trainer, as a passionate or stupid man can
never make a first-rate dog.

Spring is the best time for training dogs, as the
birds are then paired, and lie better, and are not so
easily flushed as after the breeding-season. Besides
being less numerous at that season, the game are not
so likely to excite the dog. But a dog cannot be
expected to be rendered quite staunch until a few birds
have been killed before him. After this, and about the
beginning of July, the young dogs ought to be taken
for a few weeks to the moors, to be hunted with steady
dogs, and blank shots fired over them, so as to pre-
pare them for their work when the season commences.
Even old dogs are the better for this occasionally.

It is of great importance to choose a proper day
for training — such a one as the scent lies well with.
The air should be at its mean gravity, rather moist,
but inclining to grow drier, with a mild and gentle
breeze. The moderate gravity buoys up the scent,
and enables the dog more readily to find his game
without lowering his head, or inclining to rake.

A good property in a dog, is to hunt with his nose

MAXIMS 66 I

high, as in this way he will find more birds than when
he rakes, that is, runs with his nose close to the ground
and follows the bird by tracking. Whenever this vice
is observed, he should be called to in an angry tone of
voice to holdup! or up head! This may often flurry
him, but after a little practice he will soon learn to
take the wind of his own accord, and hunt high. If a
dog obstinately persists in raking, there is little hopes
of his ever turning out a good ranger, and he should
be thrown aside. If anything will break him of this
very bad fault, it will be xh^ puzzle. This instrument
is made of a piece of hard-wood or fir, one foot in
length, and an inch and a half in breadth, tapering a
little at one end ; at the broader end there are two
holes running longitudinally, through which the collar
of the dog is put, and the whole is buckled round his
neck : the piece of wood being projected beyond his
nose is then fastened with a piece of leather thong
round his jaw ; by this means the peg protruding seven
or eight inches beyond his muzzle, effectually prevents
him from putting his nose to the ground.

The following is a representation of an iron puzzle,
recommended by Colonel Hawker, which is more con-
venient than a wooden one.

*^-T^

When a dog perfectly knows his game, It is time
to bring him under complete discipline and obedience.
He should be taught, before being brought to the field,

662

MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

to lie down the instant he is desired, by repeating to
him the word down ! If he is unruly, it will be necessary
to use the trash-cord, which is a rope or strong cord,
about twenty yards in length, attached to his collar,
which he is allowed to drag after him while ranging.
Endeavour always to keep within reach of the cord,
and when it is necessary to call him, check him smartly
with it, if he fails to obey. This, repeated several
times, in general has the effect of teaching him to
come at call. When expedient, he should be caressed
and rewarded with a bit of bread, and this should be
done as often as he yields his due obedience.

The check-collar is an excellent instrument for this
purpose, and has been found more effectual in curing
dogs of these bad habits than the trash-cord. The
following representation of one will be easily under-
stood. The whole is made of iron.

-<4 is a screw which keeps the sides of the collar at
the proper distance from each other, and by which they
are adjusted to the thickness of the dog's neck ; it
rests upon the back of his neck, above the collar.
It is necessary to unscrew this, to admit the dog's
head. B B, the sides of the collar. D, a triangle

RETRIEVERS 663

which the rope C is fastened to, and which, being
pulled, draws the sides together, and presses severely
upon the wind-pipe of the dog, by the external pres-
sure. It will be observed that this triangle is attached
to the sides of the collar by small rings, passing
through a hole at the end of each side. The harder
the rope is pulled the more it presses on the dog's
throat.

RETRIEVERS.

Gentlemen who keep large establishments of sport-
ing dogs, generally keep one or two retrievers for the
express purpose of finding lost and wounded game, and
hence their name retrievers. These consist of the
Newfoundland dog, the greater and lesser water-dogs,
and the large water-spaniel. The last is decidedly the
best adapted for general use, from the qualities which
he possesses, and which will be more particularly
described when treating of the specific character of
sporting dogs. Genuine dogs of this last kind are now
very rare in Great Britain. The mode of training is
similar to that employed in teaching a water-dog to
search for, and fetch and carry his game. They ought
to know well the distinction betwixt fur and feather,
otherwise they can never be adepts in retrieving.
They should be carefully instructed and encouraged to
carry kindly , that is, without mouthing their game in
a rough manner, and they should invariably be
instructed to lie charge,

WATER-DOGS.

In the shooting of wild-fowl, various dogs are
used to fetch the birds out of the water as soon as
shot. The above-mentioned dogs, or retrievers, are
all fitted for this sport ; and sometimes the poodle,

664 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

or small water-dog, will be found extremely useful,
particularly if he is tolerably large, as he is a rapid
and expert swimmer and diver, and very ardent in
his temperament. There will be no difficulty in
teaching any of the above varieties to take the
water, as they are impelled by a natural instinct to
do so.

When puppies are five or six months old, they
should be taught to fetch and carry, as a preliminary
to breaking them. This is easily done by throw-
ing a glove or other article to them in the house, or
during a walk, and desiring them to fetch it. With
young dogs, the most gentle means are certainly the
best ; and when any animal proves obstinate, his
correction should be of a moderate kind ; and if he
seems much disheartened by beating, it will be best
to suspend teaching for a time, and in the interim
he may be propitiated with gentle caresses.

A method which has been successfully employed
in training the dogs under consideration is, to get
a rabbit's skin, stuffed, and begin by tossing It about
a room. When the dog, which should have a small
line attached to his collar, takes up the skin, bring
him to you by a gentle pull, with the skin in his
mouth ; encourage him three or four times, and then
take the line off. When the dog begins to enjoy
this sport, take a small line and run it through a
pulley fixed to the ceiling ; then tie the rabbit's skin
to one end of the line, and keep the other in your
hand ; after this, fire a pistol, and let the skin drop.
The dog will soon become fond of the sport, and
will thereafter readily bring every head of game and
wild-fowl that is shot. After some proficiency is
made, take two or three together into a room, fire
the pistol, and order first one dog, and then another

GREYHOUNDS 665

to bring the skin : with a little practice, they will
soon be perfect.

Should all these means prove unavailing, the
task ought to be abandoned until he is old enough
to be broken in ; and he will then be better able to
bear correction, and to understand for what cause
it is inflicted.

Recourse must next be had to throwing a piece
of wood into the water, and desiring the dog to fetch
it out, which he will soon do by a little practice.

GREYHOUNDS.

The varieties and qualities of these dogs will be
pointed out in our specific account of them.

Greyhound puppies should be kept extremely
warm, being very tender dogs. They never grow
straight if exposed to much cold ; and where
gentlemen have not appropriate establishments for
this purpose, we would recommend that they be
allowed to run about the kitchen fireside ; although
in this situation they are liable to accidents.

The time for trying and training greyhounds is
at the age of twelve months, although fifteen months
is soon enough. Some sportsmen enter and try
them at ten months ; but this is by no means to be
recommended, as they are apt to get strained, if the
course should happen to be long and severe, and,
in many cases, they never get the better of an
exertion of this kind at so early an age. They
require but little training, as they are endowed with
an instinctive propensity to course ; and in some
greyhounds their ardour is so great, that it is almost
impossible to restrain them. They ought always
to be entered at first with a trained dog of known

666 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

abilities ; and they should never be allowed to
suppose, after having tasted blood, that a hare can
escape them : and, on this account, ought never to
be slipped at a hare when jaded and exhausted, or
when too far ahead to be overtaken.

When they have been taught properly to know
their game, the next thing to be attended to is to
accustom them to the slips, and when a hare is
found, a distinct stand should be made by their
keepers, and the words so-ho ! several times repeated
in a firm manner ; and the young dogs should never
be slipped until the hare is at some distance, lest,
being over anxious to possess it, they strain their
limbs too much.

The training of a greyhound requires from three
to six weeks, the time, however, depending much
upon the condition and constitution at the commence-
ment. If too fat, it is necessary to begin by ad-
ministering laxatives. The exercise ought to be on
turf, and occasionally on the road, with a horse,
and by hard galloping, to strengthen their wind,
as well as to keep their claws short ; also in the
morning and afternoon, before feeding, at first gently,
and for an hour and a half at each time. As the
training advances, and the condition of the dog
improves, it should be more severe and of shorter
duration, till the greyhound is capable of accompany-
ing a horse at speed for a couple of miles, without
showing any signs of distress. After severe exercise
dogs should be walked for a quarter of an hour, and
then returned to the kennel, and brushed, cleaned,
and fed. The brushing and cleaning removes all
scurf, etc., from the skin, and renders the animal
more cheerful and active.

No remedy has yet been found to prevent a

THE KENNEL 667

greyhound from running false or cunning ; that is,
in place of following close after the hare, and captur-
ing it by superior speed, to endeavour to cut off its
retreat, by making towards a vacant space in a wall
or hole, through which hares are in the habit of
escaping. It is a propensity which greyhounds are
apt to indulge in when they have run frequently
over the same ground ; and as soon as they take
to it, their previous excellence, let it have been ever
so great, becomes a dead letter, as they are no longer
to be depended on in running matches.

THE KENNEL.

We cannot do better than give Mr Beckford's
directions respecting the management of the kennel,
who was one of the most experienced sportsmen of
his day.

" Cleanliness is not only absolutely necessary to
the nose of the hound, but also to the preservation
of his health. Dogs are naturally clean animals ;
they seldom, when they can help it, dung where
they lie ; air and fresh straw are necessary to keep
them healthy. They are subject to the mange, a
disorder to which poverty and nastiness do very
much contribute. This, though easily stopped at
its first appearance, if suffered to continue long,
greatly lessens the power of the animal ; and the
remedies which must then be used, being in them-
selves violent, often injure his constitution : it had
better be prevented. Let the kennel, therefore, be
your particular care.

* Upon some little eminence erect,
And fronting to the ruddy dawn ; its courts
On either hand wide op'ning, to receive
The sun's all-cheering beams, when mild he shines,
And gilds the mountain tops.'

668 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Such as Somerville directs may be the situation ; its
size must be suited to the number of its inhabitants ;
the architecture of it may be conformable to your own
taste.

" However deserving your confidence, still it should
be the care of the master to see the state of the kennel
frequently. Two kennels are absolutely necessary to
the well-being of the hounds : when there is but one,
it is seldom sweet ; and when cleaned out, the hounds,
particularly in winter, suffer both whilst it is cleaning,
and as long as it remains wet afterwards. To be
more clearly understood, I shall call one of these the
hunting-kennel, by which I mean, that kennel into
which the hounds are drafted which are to hunt the
next day. Used always to the same kennel, they will
be drafted with little trouble ; they will answer to their
names more readily, and you may count your hounds
into the kennel with as much ease as a shepherd
counts his sheep out of the fold.

" When the feeder comes to the kennel in the
morning, he should let out the hounds into the outer
court, at the same time opening the door of the
hunting-kennel, as want of rest, or bad weather, may
incline them to go into it. The lodging-room should
then be cleaned out, the doors and windows of it
opened, the litter shaken up, and the whole kennel
made sweet and clean before the hounds return to it
again. The great court and the other kennels are
not less to be attended to, nor should any omission
that is hurtful to the hounds be passed over in silence.

**The floor of each lodging-room should be
bricked, and sloped on both sides, to run to the centre,
with a gutter left to carry off the water, that when
they are washed they may be soon dry. If water
should stand through any fault of the floor, it should

THE KENNEL 669

be carefully mopped up, for as warmth is in the
greatest degree necessary after work, so damps are
equally prejudicial. Orders given without skill are
seldom well obeyed ; and when the master is either
ignorant or inattentive, the servants will be idle.

" Contrary to the usual practice in building kennels,
there should be three doors, two in the front and one
in the back ; the last to have a lattice window in it
with a wooden shutter, which is constantly to be kept
close when the hounds are in, except in summer, when
it should be left open all day. This door answers
two very necessary purposes : it gives an opportunity
of carrying out the straw when the lodging-room is
cleaned, and as it is opposite to the window, will be
the means to let in a through air, which will greatly
contribute to the keeping it sweet and wholesome.
The other doors will be of use in drying the rooms,
when the hounds are out ; and as one is to be kept
shut and the others hooked back (allowing just room
for a dog to pass), they are not liable to any objection.
The great window, in the centre, should have a folding
shutter ; half or the whole of which may be closed
at nights, according to the weather ; and the kennels
by that means may be kept warm or cool."

The two great lodging-rooms are exactly similar,
and having a court belonging to each, are distinct
kennels, situate at opposite ends of the building. In
the centre is the boiling-house and feeding-yard ; a
lesser kennel, either for hounds that are drafted off,
and those that are sick and lame, or for any other
required purpose, is on each side ; at the back of
which, as they are but half the depth of the two
larger kennels, are places for coals, etc., for the use of
the kennel. There is also a small building in the
rear for the accommodation of bitches in heat. The

670 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

inner court floors should be bricked or flagged, and
sloping towards the centre like those of the lodging-
rooms ; and water, brought in by a leaden pipe, should
run through the channel in the middle. In the centre
of each court is a well sufficiently large to dip a bucket
in to clean the kennels : to keep it from wanting repair
it should be faced with stone. A wooden cover should
be fixed over the well of the feeding-yard.

The benches, which must be open to let the urine
through, should have hinges and hooks in the wall,
that they may fold up when the kennel is washed ;
let them be made as low as possible, that when a
hound is tired he may have no difficulty in jumping
up, and at no time should the space under it be so
great that he will be able to creep under.

A large bricked court in front, having a grass
court adjoining, and a brook running through the
middle of it, completes the kennel. This court should
be planted round, and also have some lime and horse-
chestnut trees near the centre for shade ; some posts,
bound round with galbanum, may be placed to prevent
the hounds urining against the trees. The brook may
be used as a cold bath for hounds lamed in the stifle
and strained. A high pale should enclose the whole,
which, to the height of four feet, should be close ; the
other open, two inches wide. At the back of the
kennel should be a thatched house, and fenced up at
the sides, to contain at least a load of straw ; a pit
for receiving the dung, and a gallows for the flesh.
If a piece of ground adjoining the kennel can be en-
closed for such dog-horses as may be brought alive,
it will be of great service, as the disorders of con-
demned horses are not always to be discovered, and
may be dangerous to others ; the hounds may also be
brought into this field to empty themselves after

THE KENNEL 67 1

feeding ; and the draft for the next day's hunting can
be here made with greater accuracy than when con-
fined in the kennel.

Should ticks at any time be troublesome, the
walls of the kennel should be well washed ; if that does
not destroy them, white-washing should then be
adopted.

When the hunting season is over, one kennel will
suffice ; the other, with the grass-yard adjoining to it,
may be allowed to the young hounds. This separa-
tion, which should continue till the season commences,
is necessary, as it prevents many accidents which
might happen at this time of the year. Should there
be conveniences, the dogs being kept separate from
the bitches during the summer months, will be
all the better. When hounds are very riotous, the
feeder may sleep in a cot in the adjoining kennel : if
well chastised at the first quarrel, his voice will be
sufficient afterwards.

CHAPTER VII.

Different Dogs, used in Field Sports and for Domestic
Purposes, Watch-Dogs, etc.

I HAVE already said that dogs, in all their varieties of
form, are but one species, modified and altered by
adventitious circumstances ; climate, feeding, crossing
one breed with another, accident, and education, all
combining to give that almost infinite variety of form
and intelligence now to be met with amongst dogs of
every country and climate. How the distinct races
which have characters and propensities peculiar to
themselves were originally produced it is impossible
now to tell. If care is taken to prevent these from
commingling with spurious blood, it is certain that by
the result of education, the habits to which they have
been trained have become hereditary. Many instances
have occurred where pointer pups have lost their
parent, and been suckled by a bitch of a totally
different breed ; and upon being taken into a field, for
the first time, have pointed game.

The subjugation and domestication of the dog by
man may be esteemed as one of the most important
conquests which he has made in the animal kingdom.

Without the vices of man, nature has formed the
dog with an ardour and purity ot attachment, which
when once matured, appears unsullied and inviolable.
His whole ambition seems a desire to execute the

DOGS ejT,

commands of his master, and to yield implicit obedi-
ence to his every wish ; while he, at the same time,
has a great dread of giving offence. His whole
actions are marked by zeal, vigour, and gratitude, for
the little kindnesses he receives at the hand of his
master. He seems perfectly sensible of favours be-
stowed on him. Under correction, whether deserved
or not, he in general displays a degree of firmness,
by submitting to, and not avoiding chastisement ;
while with conciliating and impressive looks and
supplications he endeavours to allay the wrath of
his chastiser, and will lick the hand by which the
blows are inflicted. Every kindness he receives from
his master is remembered, while his too often unde-
served punishment is speedily forgotten. But, on
the other hand, he will act quite differently with
strangers, as he will boldly protect himself against
an unmerited injury, and will seldom forget it.

To illustrate the services of this faithful animal,
we shall quote the reflections and remarks of Mr
Burchell, given in his Travels in Africa.

'* Our pack of dogs," says he, '* consisted of about
five and twenty, of various sorts and sizes. This
variety, though not altogether intentional, as I was
obliged to take any that could be procured, was of
the greatest service on such an expedition, as I
observed that some gave notice of service in one way,
and some in another. Some were more disposed to
watch against men, and others against wild beasts ;
some discovered an enemy by their quickness of
hearing, others by that of scent ; some were useful
for speed in pursuing game ; some for their vigilance
and barking ; and others for their courage in holding
ferocious animals at bay. So large a pack was not,
indeed, maintained without adding greatly to our care

2 u

674 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

and trouble, in supplying them with meat and water,
for it was sometimes difficult to procure them enough
of the latter ; but their services were invaluable, often
contributing to our safety, and always to our ease,
by their constant vigilance ; as we felt a confidence
that no danger could approach us at night, without
being announced by their barking. No circumstance
could render the value and fidelity of these animals so
conspicuous and sensible as a journey through regions
which, abounding in wild beasts of almost every class,
gave continual opportunities of witnessing the strong
contrast in their habits, between the ferocious beasts
of prey, which fly at the approach of man, and those
kind, but too often injured companions of the human
race. Many times, when we have been travelling
over plains where those have fled the moment we
appeared in sight, have I turned my eyes towards my
dogs to admire their attachment, and have felt a
grateful affection towards them for preferring our
society to the wild liberty of other quadrupeds.
Often, in the middle of the night, when all my people
have been asleep around a fire, have I stood to con-
template these faithful animals lying by their side, and
have learnt to esteem them for their social inclination
to mankind. When wandering over pathless deserts,
oppressed with vexation and distress, at the conduct
of my own men, I have turned to these as my only
friends, and felt how much inferior to them was man,
when actuated only by selfish views. It is impossible
for the naturalist, when taking a survey of the whole
animal creation, not to feel the conviction, that this
friendship between two creatures so different from each
other, must be the result of the laws of nature ; nor
can the humane and feeling mind avoid the belief, that
kindness to those animals, from which he derives con-

THE STAGHOUND 675

tinued and essential assistance, is part of his moral
duty."

SECTION I.— DOGS OF THE CHASE.

THE STAGHOUND.

The staghound is now the largest and most power-
ful of all the dogs which go under the general denomi-
nation of hound. He is held in higher estimation
than any other dog of the chase, and has a most
commanding and dignified aspect.

The staghounds, exclusively devoted to that sport
in the royal establishment in this country, it is well
known, are an improved breed, produced by a cross
between the old English southern-hound, and the
fleeter foxhound, grafted upon the bloodhound.

It has been asserted by the most celebrated
naturalists, that the hound, harrier, turnspit, water-
dog, and spaniel, are all sprung from the same race ;
and there seems to be strong reasons for believing
this to be the case, as their forms and instinctive
properties are nearly allied in all these kinds : the
principal difference consisting in the length of their
legs and the size of their ears, which are in all of them
soft in their texture and pendulous. The head is
large, broad, and shorter in proportion than that of
the foxhound, with wider nostrils, and the hams more
muscular, and he carries his tail high, whether at
rest or in the chase. The hound and harrier are
supposed to be natives of Britain, France, and
Germany ; an opinion which is attended with some
degree of reason, for when transported to warmer
climates they degenerate.

It seems extremely probable that this large, strong,
and bony hound was the primeval stock from which

6*jt MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

all the collateral branches of this race have descended ;
and that all deviations from the original stem have
been the result of crosses and improvements during
many centuries, by those skilled in breeding and
rearing dogs of the chase, and varied in size and
strength, according to the particular sport for which
they were intended. At the present day, it is well
known that the practical breeder, by judicious crosses,
can either enlarge or diminish the stature and strength
of his pack in the course of three or four generations.

The following fact affords a striking proof of the
wonderful spirit of the staghound in supporting a
continuance of exertion. Many years since, a very
large and powerful stag was turned out at Whinfield
Park, in the county of Westmoreland, and was pur-
sued by the hounds till, by fatigue or accident, the
whole pack was thrown out, except two staunch
and favourite dogs, which continued the chase the
greatest part of the day. The stag returned to the
park from whence he set out, and, as his last effort,
leapt the wall, and immediately expired. One of the
hounds pursued him to the wall, but being unable to
get over, lay down and almost instantly died ; the
other was found dead at a little distance.

The length of the chase is uncertain ; but, as they
were seen at Red-kirk, near Annan, in Dumfriesshire
(distant by the post-road forty-six miles), it is conjec-
tured that the circuitous and uneven course they might
be supposed to take would not be less than one hundred
and twenty miles. To commemorate this fact, the
horns of the stag, which were the largest ever seen
in that part of the country, were placed on a tree of
enormous size in the Park (afterwards called '' Hart's-
horn Tree "), accompanied with this inscription : —

" Hercules kill'd Hart o' Greece ;
And Hart o' Greece kill'd Hercules ! "

THE FOXHOUND 677

The horns have been since removed, and are now at
Julian's Bower, in the same county.

THE FOXHOUND.

The muzzle of the foxhound is rather long, and his
head small in proportion to his body ; his ears long
and pendulous, though not so much so as those of the
bloodhound or staghound, and a little lower at the
shoulders, and more slender in his make. His limbs
are very straight, his feet round, and not too large;
his chest is very deep, and breast wide ; his back
broad, his neck thin, with the shoulders lying well
back, and his tail thick and bushy, which he carries
high while in the chase. The ground-colour of his
whole skin is w^hite, variously patched with black and
tan in different parts of the body, as well as the head,
and generally with one at the root of his tail.

No country in Europe can boast of foxhounds
equal in swiftness, strength, and agility to those of
Britain, where the utmost attention is paid to their
breeding, education, and food. The climate also
seems congenial to their nature ; for when taken
to France or Spain, and other southern countries
of Europe, they quickly degenerate, and lose all the
admirable qualities for which they are remarkable in
this country.

" In thee alone, fair land of liberty,
Is bred the perfect hound, in scent and speed
As yet unrivall'd ; while in other climes
Their virtue fails — a weak, degenerate race."

SOMERVILLE.

The chief excellence of a pack of foxhounds is the
head they carry, taken collectively ; and on this and
the fineness of their noses depend their speed. Mr
Beckford says, '* that hounds go, like the horses of the

678 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

sun, all abreast." Five and twenty couples are a
sufficient force at any time to be taken into the field ;
they are a match for any fox, supposing them steady
and their speed nearly equal ; too heavy dogs always
do more mischief than service. Hounds that are
meant to run well together should never have too
many old ones amongst them. Five or six seasons are
sufficient to destroy the speed of most dogs.

Fox-hunting at the present day is not carried to
that extreme which was the custom twenty years ago,
as it then killed many of the finest horses. When
George IV. was Prince of Wales, he hunted with a
pack of hounds which were silent in the chase.

THE HARRIER.

The harrier is considerably less than the foxhound,
and was originally generated in a double cross, between
the beagle and the southern hound and the beagle.
Sportsmen, however, have different sizes of harriers
adapted for the kind of country in which they hunt, as
well as the fancy of the owner of the pack. The
colour and markings are similar to those of the fox-
hound, but frequently the dark colours occupying a
greater extent of surface. It is this dog which is now
almost universally used in Britain and Ireland for
hare-hunting.

The harrier pursues the hare with much eagerness
and swiftness, allowing her but little time to breathe
or double. The keenest sportsman, and well-mounted,
frequently find it difficult to keep up with the pack ;
and when following a strong hare, becomes rather
fatiguing work. The mingled voices of a pack of
harriers produce a cheerful and agreeable harmony.

Mr Beckford justly remarks, that *' harriers, to be

THE BEAGLE 679

good, like all other hounds, must be kept to their own
game : if they are permitted to run a fox, they are
afterwards spoiled, and no reliance can thereafter be
placed upon them. Hounds of all kinds cannot be
perfect, unless used to one scent and one style of
hunting." Somerville says,

*' A different hound for every different chase
Select with judgment ; nor the timorous hare
O'ermatch'd destroy, but leave that vile offence
To the mean, murderous, coursing crew, intent
On blood and spoil."

THE BEAGLE.

The beagle is the smallest of the dogs of the chase.
In form he bears considerable resemblance to the
harrier, but with his limbs proportionally much
shorter, and on that account much inferior to that
dog in point of speed. His sense of smell, however,
is equally acute, and he pursues the hare with inde-
fatigable vigilance and energy. Every winding, and
all her mazes are traced by him with a matchless
degree of exactness, whilst the soft and melodious
tones of the pack afford ecstatic pleasure to the lovers
of the chase, and is thus beautifully described by the
poet of *'The Chase": —

" Hark ! from yon covert, where those towering oaks
Above the humble copse aspiring rise,
What glorious triumphs burst in every gale
Upon our ravish'd ears ! The hunter's shout,
The clanging horns swell their sweet winding notes,
The pack wide opening load the trembling air
With various melody ; from tree to tree
The propagated crj' redoubling bounds,
And winged zephyrs waft the floating joy

Through all the regions near

The puzzling pack unravel, mile by mile,
Maze within maze."

68o MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Colonel Smith is of opinion that the beagle is the
same as the brachet of the Middle Ages ; and thinks
it the only species of long-eared dog known in the
West during the Roman empire, and noticed by
Oppian under the name of Agassus.

THE TERRIER.

It is now impossible to trace from what stock the
terrier has emanated ; but possessing as he does so
many peculiar characteristics, one would be tempted
to consider him a primitive race. There are several
distinct varieties of terriers, but all of them possessing
the same inherent properties and propensities. For
many ages distinct breeds of this kind have been
maintained in purity, by the assiduity of careful
breeders.

Although the pure terrier is a dog of small
stature, he is possessed of wonderful strength and
courage. The rough-haired, or Scotch-terrier of the
pure breed, seldom exceeds twelve or fourteen inches
in height. His body is strong and muscular, his legs
short and stout, his ears small and half-pricked ; his
head rather large in proportion to his body ; and the
muzzle considerably pointed ; and possessing a most
exquisite sense of smell, which enables him to trace
the footsteps of other animals with unerring certainty.
His colour for the most part sandy, and in some black.
If white or pied, it is a sure mark of impurity of the
breed. The hair is rather long, matted, and hard,
over almost every part of his body.

There are three distinct varieties of the Scotch
terrier : viz., the ordinary kind above described ; that
of the Isle of Sky, with long, somewhat flowing hair,
the body long, and the legs short, and bent inwards
at the knees. This kind is somewhat larger than the

THE OTTER-HOUND 68 1

common breed. The third is a larger dog, standing
from fifteen to eighteen inches in height, and with the
hair very strong and stiff, and hence termed wire-
haired.

The name terrier seems to be derived from the
Latin word terra, " the earth," from the avidity with
which he takes the earth in pursuit of all those
animals which burrow.

The terrier, amongst the higher orders of sports-
men, is preserved in his greatest purity, and with the
most assiduous attention ; and it seems of the utmost
importance not to increase its size, which would render
him unsuitable for the purposes in which he is
employed, namely, that of entering to drive out other
animals from their burrows, for which his make and
strength, and invincible ardour, peculiarly fit him.
On this account he is the universal attendant upon a
pack of foxhounds ; and though last in the pursuit, he
is not the least in value. It is when the fox is
supposed to have earthed that the services of the
terrier are more essentially required : he enters with
the utmost eagerness, and soon informs the ear of the
sportsman whether or not the fox is in, and at what
distance from the mouth, when he is speedily dug out.

THE OTTER-HOUND.

This animal is a mixed breed between the hardy
southern hound, and the larger rough, wire-haired
terrier. His head is large and broad, and his ears
long and pendulous ; his size being about that of a
harrier ; his shoulders and quarters are thick ; his
hair strong and wiry, and somewhat shaggy. His
colour is, for the most part, of a sandy hue, although
we have met with good dogs which were white and
with large patches of black. He is a bold and fierce

682 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

dog, with a full and harmonious voice ; he carries his
tail similar to the foxhound.

Otter-hunting is now not a very common sport in
Great Britain, as the animal is now very scarce, from
the population becoming more dense, and cultivation
more widely extended ; and besides, gamekeepers use
all kinds of traps to catch and destroy them.

THE GREYHOUND.

The greyhound is supposed to have had its origin
from the Irish greyhound, but to have acquired its
thinner and more delicate and elegant form by the
influence of climate and culture, and brought to his
present state of high perfection by the persevering
attention of zealous breeders. The strong similitude
of these dogs in shape and general character holds
out good grounds for the adoption of such an idea ;
the smallness of the muzzle, length of neck, and
depth of chest, and the light and graceful airiness of
his whole figure, and especially the length and ele-
gance of his legs, all contribute to render this the
most elegant of the canine tribe.

We owe much of the superiority of the present
breed of greyhounds to the perseverance and judg-
ment of the late Earl of Orford, of Houghton, in
Norfolk ; and it is said he obtained the great depth of
chest and strength of his breed from crossing with
the bull-dog. At his death, his greyhounds were
sold by auction, and some of the best were purchased
by Colonel Thornton ; from one of them. Claret,
which was put to a favourite bitch of Major Top-
ham's, was produced Snowball, the best greyhound
that ever appeared ; although he was nearly equalled
by his brothers, Major and Sylvia, who were all of
the same litter. They were never beaten ; and may

THE GREYHOUND 683

be considered as examples of the most perfect grey-
hound.

The shape, make, elegant structure, and other
characteristics of high blood, were equally dis-
tinguished in all the three ; the colour of Snowball
was a jet black, and, when in good running condition,
was as fine in the skin as black satin. Major and
Sylvia were singularly, but beautifully brindled.
Snowball won ten large pieces of silver plate, and
upwards of forty matches, his master having accepted
every challenge, whatever might be the dogs of
different counties which might be brought against
him. His descendants have generally been also
very successful.

The last match run by this celebrated dog, was
against the famous greyhound. Speed, the property
of Hall Plumber, Esq., of Bilton Park, Yorkshire.
He gained the match ; and so severe was the run,
that Speed died soon after it. This terminated the
career of Snowball's public coursing, as the owner,
in consideration of his age, then declared he should
never run another match.

Snowball was perhaps the fleetest of his race that
ever ran ; and like the Flying Childers, which was
the swiftest of horses, may never be outstripped in
rapidity of movements.

Wynken de Worde, who wrote a work on sports
in 1496, describes what then constituted the most
perfect form of the greyhound in his day, which
holds good still : —

" Headed lyke a snake,

Necked lyke a drake,

Footed lyke a catte,

Taylled lyke a ratte,

Syded lyke a teme,

And chyned lyke a beame,"

684 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

The greyhound is the fleetest of all dogs, and
is the only one who can cope with the hare in speed.
The keenness with which he pursues his game is
thus beautifully described by Somerville : —

" With emulation fired,
They strain to leave the field, top the barred gate,
O'er the deep ditch exulting bound, and brush
The thorny-twining hedge : the ridges bend
O'er their arched necks ; with steady bounds by turns
Indulge their speed, or moderate their pace."

The greyhound never gives tongue, like other
dogs of the chase, when in pursuit of his game.

Greyhounds have been held in much estimation
for many centuries in Great Britain. In the time
of King John they were accepted by him as payment
in lieu of money for the renewal of grants, fines, and
forfeitures due to the crown. There is one fine upon
record, paid to that monarch in 1203, which specifies
*' five hundred merks, ten horses, and ten leashes
of greyhounds ; " and we find another mentioned
in 1 2 10, of "one swift horse, and six greyhounds."

The following curious circumstance is related
by Froissart, of King Richard the Second, when
confined in the castle of Flint ; which we shall give
in the author's words.

**And it was informed me, Kynge Richarde had
a greyhounde called Mathe, who always waited upon
the kynge, and would know no one else. For
whensoever the kynge did ride, he that kept the
greyhounde did let him lose, and he wolde streyght
runne to the kynge, and fawne upon him, and leap
with his fore-fete upon the kynge's shoulders. And
as the kynge and the Erie of Derby talked togyder
in the courte, the greyhounde, who was wont to leap
upon the kynge, left the kynge, and came to the Erie of

SCOTTISH HIGHLAND GREYHOUND, OR WOLF-DOG 685

Derby, Duke Lancaster, and made to hym the same
friendly continuance and chere as he was wont to
do to the kynge. The duke, who knew not the
greyhounde, demanded of the kynge what the grey-
hounde would do? ' Cosyn,' quod the kynge, 'it
is a great good token to you, and an evil sygne
to me.' 'Sir, how know ye that?' quod the duke.
* I know it well,' quod the kynge ; * the greyhounde
maketh you chere this daye as King of England, as
ye shall be, and I shall be deposed ; the greyhounde
hath this knowledge naturally, therefore, take him
to you : he will follow you, and forsake me.' The
duke understood well those words, and cheryshed
the greyhounde, who would never after followe Kynge
Richarde, but followed the Duke of Lancaster."

We have no information why the name "grey-
hound" was given to this dog. It is, in all prob-
ability, a corruption of ** gazehound " ; as a variety,
or probably the same kind, was known in ancient
times by this name, which name it no doubt
acquired from hunting by the eye instead of the
scent.

THE SCOTTISH HIGHLAND GREYHOUND, OR WOLF-DOG.

The Scottish Highland greyhound differs from
the common greyhound in one essential particular,
as he will either hunt in packs or singly. In size
this dog is equal to the Irish greyhound, and very
powerful, with great depth of chest, small loins, and
his back slightly arched, and long legs. His general
aspect is commanding and fierce ; his head is long,
and muzzle rather sharp ; his ears pendulous, but
not long ; his eyes large, keen, and penetrating, half
concealed among the long, stiff, bristly hair, with
which his face is covered. His hair is shaggy aiijd

6S6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

wiry, and his general colour reddish sand-colour,
mixed with white ; his tail is rough, which he carries
somewhat in the manner of a staghound, but not
quite so erect.

It was this noble dog which the Highland
chieftains of Scotland used in former times in their
grand hunting parties. The breed is now ex-
ceedingly rare, and in all likelihood will become
extinct. One of the largest and finest which we
have ever seen was possessed by the late Sir Walter
Scott, Bart., and was an appropriate guardian for
his unique seat of Abbotsford. He was the gift of
the late spirited and high-minded chieftain Macdonnel,
of Glengarry.

This fine specimen of the dog probably brought
on himself premature old age by the excessive fatigue
and exercise to which his natural ardour and love of
sport inclined him, for he had the greatest pleasure
in accompanying the common greyhounds ; and
although, from his great size and strength, he was
not adapted for coursing, yet he not unfrequently
turned and even ran down hares.

The name of this dog was Maida ; and he lies
buried at the gate of Abbotsford, which he long
protected, as he had more the habits of a watchdog
than those of the common greyhound. A gravestone
is placed over him, with the figure of a dog cut
on it, by Mr John Smith, of Melrose, and is thus
inscribed : —

'* Maida, tu marmorea dermis sub imagine, Maidae
Ad januam domini. Sit tibi terra levis ! "

The Scottish Highland greyhound is endowed
w)th an exquisite sense of smell. One of Glengarry's
dogs, named Bran, when held on the leash, followed

SCOTTISH HIGHLAND GREYHOUND, OR WOLF-DOG 687

the track of a wounded stag, and that, too, in most
unfavourable, rainy weather, for three successive
days, at the end of which time the stag was shot.
The present Glengarry wrote me an account of it,
in which he mentions, "he," the stag, "was wounded
just within nine miles of Invergarry-house, and was
traced that night to the estate of Glenmoriston. At
dusk in the evening the deer-stalkers placed a stone
on each side of the last fresh print of his hoof, and
another over it ; and this they did each night
following. On the succeeding morning they removed
the upper stone, when the dog recovered the scent,
and the stag was that day traced over a great part
of Glenmoriston's grounds. On the third day he
was re-traced to the lands of Glengarry, and there
shot."

Glengarry also furnished me with the following
gallant achievement of one of his dogs. He says,
*' My present dog, Comhstri, to great courage unites
the quality of a gentle disposition, with much fidelity
and attachment. Though not so large as some of his
kindred, he is nevertheless as high-spirited and deter-
mined as any of his race, which the following cir-
cumstance will testify : —

" About three years ago, a deer from the wood of
Derrygarbh, whose previous wounds had been healed,
came out of Glengarry's pass, who wounded it in the
body with a rifle bullet. The deerhounds were im-
mediately laid on the blood-track. The stag was
started in the course of a few minutes ; the dogs were
instantly slipped, and the fine animal ran to bay in a
deep pool of water, below a cascade, on the Garyquulach
stream. Comhstri immediately plunged in and seized
the stag by the throat, both went under water, sur-
rounded with the white foam, slightly tinged with the
deer's blood. The dog soon came to the surface to

688 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

recover his breath, and before the stag could do so,
Comhstri dived, and again seized him by the throat.
The stag was soon after taken out of the pool dead."

We think it very probable that the Irish greyhound
is only a variety of the same stock as the Highland
greyhound. The former has much smoother hair than
the Scottish breed.

SECTION II.— DOGS USED IN SHOOTING.

THE ENGLISH POINTER.

The Spanish pointer is the stock from which our
English pointer was derived. He is much lighter in
form, and much more rapid in his movements. He
was originally produced by a cross of the Spanish
pointer and the foxhound, and afterwards re-crossed
with the harrier. He is now to be met with of a
variety of sizes ; but it has been found that when
pointers are too large, they are far less active than
those which are smaller ; but in this particular there
is a variety of tastes.

The pointer is possessed of a beautiful symmetry
of frame ; and in this respect is perhaps the most pro-
portionably formed of all the canine race. His docility
and pliability of temper are truly astonishing. He
enjoys the sense of smelling in an exquisite degree.

In proportion as the breed of pointers diverge in
blood from their Spanish progenitor, the difficulty of
training them is experienced, and also that steadiness
of the original, which renders them staunch for the field.

Pointers are never considered complete in training
unless they are perfectly staunch to bird, dog, and gun ;
which implies, y^>5/, standing singly to a bird or covey ;
secondly, to backing or pointing the moment he per-

THE ENGLISH POINTER 689

ceives another dog to stand at game ; and thirdly, not
to stir from his own point at the rising of any bird, or
the firing of any gun in the field, provided the game is
neither sprung nor started at which he himself origin-
ally pointed. Whenever a pointer is conscious of his
own powers and education, he makes it his whole
business to serve and amuse his master. At the same
time he will also perform his work to others to whom
he may be lent, and is sensible of the duty required of
him the moment he enters the field.

Pointers are seldom used for any other kind of
shooting than that of grouse, partridge, and snipe.

We are informed of Mr Daniel, that he possessed
a pointer which would always go round close to the
hedges of a field before he would quarter his ground ;
the dog being sensible that he most frequently found
his game in the course of this circuit, and therefore
very naturally took the middle road to discover it.

The following interesting fact was communicated
to me by an eye-witness. The circumstance happened
in Forfarshire, and is a strong proof of the reasoning
powers of a dog. **Two or three weeks ago, an
acquaintance and I were out shooting in this neigh-
bourhood, when we saw the most beautiful thing we
ever witnessed in the way of a point : one of our
pointers, a bitch, was going over a stone dyke, about
four feet high, and just as she made the leap, got the
scent of some birds on the other side of the wall. She
hung by her fore-legs until we came up. It appeared
at the distance we were from her, as if her fore-legs
had got fastened amongst the stones in the wall, and
that she could not extricate herself. You may judge
of our delight when coming up to find that it was her
caution, for fear of flushing the birds, that prevented
her from taking the leap. It is impossible adequately

2X

690 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

to convey to you in writing the beauty of this
-point ! '*

Was this mere instinct, or was it reason ?

Sir Charles Stewart Menteath, Bart, of Closeburn,
Dumfriesshire, had an extremely small and beautifully
formed pointer. His length, from the point of the
nose to the tip of the tail, was only two feet and half
an inch. From one fore-foot to the other, across the
shoulders, two feet ; length of the head, six inches ;
girth of the chest, one foot three inches. He was a
most perfect miniature of the best formed English
pointer. His colour was white, with dark liver-
coloured patches on each side of the head, extending
half-way down the neck ; the ears, with some patches
down the back, were also of the same colour ; and
numerous dark liver-coloured spots sprinkled his entire
body. His olfactory sense exhibited itself in a high
degree.

The late Earl of Lauderdale had some of the same
dogs, which were broke in and pointed most admir-
ably. Sir James Colquhoun, Bart, of Luss, had one
of the same kind, which was considerably smaller than
Sir C. Menteath's.

THE ENGLISH SETTER.

This celebrated breed was produced between the
Spanish pointer, the English water-spaniel, and
springer, which, by careful and assiduous cultivation,
has attained a very high degree of perfection as a
sporting dog. His figure is elegant, and his fur presents
a very pleasing diversity of colour, with beautifully
flowing hair, extremely villous on the lower margin of
the tail, and in the middle of the belly.

The setter possesses all the high qualities of the
pointer, with a greater degree of speed and natural

THE ENGLISH SETTER 69 1

vivacity of temper ; he, however, is not so easily-
broken in as the pointer, and requires a certain degree
of training every season to make him continue staunch.
There have been, however, various instances of setters
being self-taught.

The setter ranges with great speed, and is a very
hardy dog. Many prefer him to the pointer ; and if
water is plentiful he is certainly more useful ; for his
feet are much better defended against the sharp cutting
of the heath than those of the pointer, as a great
deal of hair grows between the toes, and round the
ball of the foot, of which the pointer is almost
destitute. Besides, he ranges much faster, and can
endure much more fatigue. He can serve in thick
coverts, where a pointer will not enter, and on this
account is useful in woodcock-shooting, where springers
or cockers are not kept.

Formerly the setter was used for the purpose of
taking partridges with the draw-net ; and was gener-
ally taught to squat down when the game was within
a proper distance — hence the name setter.

The setter, besides his uses in the field, is much
employed in duck-shooting, as he is an excellent
swimmer, and takes the water very readily. He is
naturally of a timid disposition, and much afraid of
correction, which, if inflicted with too much severity,
never fails to render him ever afterwards unfit for
field-sports. He becomes what is termed blinked,
and in this case is so overpowered with fear, when
threatened with correction, that he will sink at his
master's feet, and will steal away, after which it will
be impossible to rouse him to further exertion in
finding game ; consequently it is of much conse-
quence that both breaker and master should cautiously
ascertain the dog's natural character.

6gi MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

The following beautiful stanzas of Somerville finely
depicts the style of ranging by the setter : —

" When Autumn smiles, all beauteous in decay,
And paints each chequer'd grove with various hues,
My setter ranges in the new-shorn fields.
His nose in air erect ; from ridge to ridge
Panting he bounds, his quarter'd ground divides
In equal intervals, nor careless leaves
One inch untried. At length the tainted gales
His nostrils wide inhale ; quick joy elates
His beating heart, which, awed by discipline
Severe, he dares not own, but cautious creeps," etc.

THE SPRINGER.

The Springer is supposed to have had its origin in
Great Britain, although it is now to be met with in
almost all countries. He is much used, and eagerly
sought after in the wild sports of the East.

In form, the true English-bred springer differs but
little from the setter, except in size, the former being
about two-fifths less in height and strength, with a
more delicate form, the ears longer in proportion,
very soft and pliable, covered with long, silky, waving
hair ; the head is larger in proportion to the bulk of
his body, and the nose red or black, the latter, how-
ever, being the surest mark of high-breeding ; the
tail is bushy and pendulous, and is always in motion
when the dog is employed in pursuit of game.

Differently from other dogs used in shooting, both
the springer and cocker give tongue the moment they
either see or smell game, and this is an indication to
the sportsmen, who generally station themselves on
the skirts of the wood or covert, to which pheasants,
woodcocks, and snipes are known to fly, when started.

It will thus be seen how admirably adapted the
different varieties of dogs are for the particular kind

THE SPRINGER 693

of Sport in which they are to be employed. The
dogs of the chase give tongue whenever their game
is started, and continue their cry until the object of
their pursuit is run down, while their mingled and
varied voices produce the most delightful, exhilarat-
ing, and harmonious sounds, so beautifully apostro-
phised by the poet of the Chase, as already quoted at
page 679. The greyhound alone pursues his game
in silence, which could not be otherwise, as every
nerve is strained to outstrip his prey. And here we
find in the springer and cocker, which are required
for driving game, that shelter in thick coverts and
brushwood, from their retreats, where a sportsman
cannot penetrate, barking whenever they find either
of those for which they are trained, and thus affording
a premonitory warning to look out.

From the time the springer is thrown off in the
field, he gives evident proofs of the pleasure he ex-
periences in being thus employed, by the perpetual
motion of his tail, which is termed feathering amongst
sportsmen ; and upon the increasing vibration of
which, the experienced fowler well knows he is getting
nearer to the object of his attraction. The more
closely he approaches the game, the more energetic
the dog becomes in his endeavour to succeed ;
tremulous whispers escape him as a symptom of
doubt ; but the moment this doubt is dispelled, and
the game is found, his clamorous raptures break
forth in full force. He expresses his gratification by
loud and quick barking, which may be relied on as
a proof that he has not sought in vain, leaving the
happy owner exultingly to boast, that " he is in pos-
session of at least one faithful domestic who never
tells a lie."

The following anecdote, related by Mr Blain, is

694 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

one proof among many, showing that dogs are en-
dowed with some wonderful instinctive knowledge, by
which they can traverse with unerring certainty a
country with which they are unacquainted, in pursuit
of their master or former home. He says — *' I took
a spaniel, bred in London, forty-eight miles in the
close rumble-tumble of a chaise into Essex, where
she remained with me some months. During the
journey she was only once taken out of this close
confinement for a few minutes in an inn yard. She
proved useless as a sporting dog, and I gave her
to a friend to breed from, who was on a visit with me.
I accompanied him on his return from Essex, and she
was brought back with us exactly in a similar manner
to that in which she had been before taken ; and it is
most certain, that neither in going nor coming did she
ever see twenty yards of the road. On our arrival in
London she was removed to my friend's kennel, from
whence she contrived to escape during the night, by
digging her way out in a most extraordinary manner,
and travelled the whole forty-eight miles back into
Essex so expeditiously, that a servant found her at
the door of my residence in the country, in the
morning when she arose. The bitch remained at
large during the day ; but finding I was not in the
country, she again set off in the evening, and returned
to London ; and in the morning once more presented
herself at my friend's house in search of me."

THE COCKER.

This dog is considerably smaller than the springer,
and is generally used for woodcock and snipe shooting.
His diminutive size peculiarly fits him for ranging
in low, thick coverts, for which purpose nature seems
particularly to have adapted him,

THE COCKER 695

The form of the cocker is shorter and more com-
pact than that of the springer : his head is rounder
and his muzzle shorter ; his ears are very long, and
the limbs short and strong. The entire ears, neck,
and body are covered with longer and more curled
hair than the springer. He varies also from liver
and white, red, red and white, or entirely liver-
coloured, with tanned legs and muzzle.

This beautiful and lively dog seems to have been
produced originally by a cross between the small
water-spaniel and the springer ; as he not only re-
sembles the figure of the latter, but also possesses
many of his habits, combined with the lively and
active disposition of them both. From the beauty
and temper of the cocker, he has been very generally
diffused throughout the kingdom, and on these ac-
counts he is more frequently a companion of the
parlour than used for the sports of the field.

It is the unalterable nature of the cocker to spring,
flush, or start all the game before them, and they
pursue without distinction, hare, pheasant, partridge,
woodcock, snipe, quail, and plover. It consequently
becomes necessary to hunt them within gun-shot of
covert, and they never should be allowed, if possible,
to go beyond call of the sportsman or his whistle.
The following beautiful passage, from Somerville,
depicts the cocker in field-sports : —

" But if the shady woods my cares employ,
In quest of feathered game my spaniels beat,
Puzzling th' entangled copse ; and from the brake
Push forth the whirling pheasant ; higher in air
He waves his varied plumes, stretching away
With hasty wing. Soon from the uplifted tube
The mimic thunder bursts, the leaden death
O'ertakes him, and, with many a giddy whirl,
To earth he falls, and at my feet expires,"

696 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

THE SMALLER SPANIEL, OR KING CHARLES's COCKER.

This beautiful little dog is considerably less than
the cocker, to which he is closely allied in character
and form ; he has, however, much longer ears, and
the tail is also longer in proportion to the size of his
body. Like the springer and cocker, he is extremely
fond of pursuing birds of all kinds, and like them, also,
he gives tongue in the pursuit. His diminutive size
unfits him for field sports. He is easily tired, and his
legs too short to get through swampy ground.

King Charles the First was much attached to
these dogs, and was always followed by from eight to
a dozen of them. In all the portraits of that monarch
or his family they were introduced ; and in particular
we may allude to the celebrated portrait by Vandyke.

The Dukes of Marlborough have preserved in the
utmost purity this race of dogs ; and the late General
Maxwell, of Parkhill, Stirlingshire, had a beautiful
breed of them. They were black, with the insides of
their ears and legs tan-coloured : their ears were
extremely long.

THE LARGE WATER-SPANIEL.

This dog is somewhat near the size of an ordinary
setter but considerably stronger in the bone, and shorter
in the legs. His head is long, and his muzzle moderately
acute, his face quite smooth as well as his legs in
front ; his ears are long, which, together with his
whole body, is covered with long, curled, crisped hair.
His ordinary hue is dark liver-colour, with white legs,
neck, and belly ; and sometimes, although rarely met
with, entirely black.

His sense of smell is very acute, and he swims
and dives with very great dexterity ; on which account

THE SMALL WATER-SPANIEL, OR POODLE 697

he is very valuable as a retriever in wild-fowl shoot-
ing. He watches with minute observation the actions
of his master, and whenever a bird is killed, he plunges
instantly into the water and fetches it out, and lays it
at the foot of his owner.

This dog is very acute at finding the haunts of wild-
fowl, and is easily taught to fetch and carry articles,
and also to seek articles which have been lost ; which
latter quality obtained for him in former times the
appellation of "the finder."

The native country of this dog is Spain ; but
we conceive that the variety we possess, which is a
very distinct one, is not the pure breed as originally
imported into this country, but that it is the produce
of the large water-dog and the English setter, as it
appears to be intermediate between these, not only in
figure, but also in their united qualities.

THE SMALL WATER-SPANIEL, OR POODLE.

The small water-spaniel is supposed to be the
offspring of the large water-dog and the cocker : he
has all the appearance of the former in shape, and also
in the thickly-coloured silky hairs. No dog whatever
possesses more activity and buoyancy of spirit than
this ; and he is highly susceptible of instruction of
almost any kind. He is a most dexterous diver ; and
so exquisite in his olfactory sense that he will find at
the bottom of a river or pool, a stone which is thrown
in by his master, even where there are many other
stones. The poodle has been taught to perform many
domestic offices, and those, too, with the utmost
accuracy, such as to go errands, shut a door, ring a
bell, fetch his master or mistress's shoes or gloves,
etc. The general colour of this dog is white. He is

698 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

very useful as a retriever, and will fetch anything out
of the water.

SECTION III.— WATCH-DOGS.

THE MASTIFF.

The mastiff is a large and powerful dog, with a
large flat head, and rather long and pendulous ears ;
his forehead large and broad ; his muzzle wide and
obtuse, his lips are full, loose, the upper one hanging
considerably over the lower, at the two extremities of
the mouth ; his aspect is grave and somewhat sullen,
and his bark loud and deep-toned ; his chest is very
wide and deep ; his limbs strong, and the whole
muscles of his frame full and largely developed.

There can be but little doubt but that the mastiff
is a truly British dog, and had his origin in this
country. We are borne out in this opinion by find-
ing that, at so early a period as the time of the
Roman empire, this country was celebrated on account
of its dogs of this kind ; and at the period when
Great Britain was under the Roman yoke, an officer
was appointed to live here, whose sole business was
to breed, select, and send to Rome such as promised,
by their size and strength, to become fit for the
combats of the amphitheatre. Dr Caius informs us
that three mastiffs were reckoned a match for a bear,
and four for a lion.

From the large size and commanding aspect of the
mastiff, he is naturally calculated to intimidate
strangers ; consequently is peculiarly well suited for
the protection of large and extensive premises ; and
he watches them with the most scrupulous care and
assiduity. He is so instinctively impressed with the
importance of his charge, that he will lose his lite

THE MASTIFF 699

rather than abandon it. But with this commanding
aspect, he possesses qualities of the best kind. He
is remarkable for the great mildness of his disposition,
when disencumbered of his charges, and is as solicitous
to gain attention, and as faithfully grateful for favours,
as the most diminutive of the canine race.

The mastiff has one peculiarity in his character
which seems inherent : — his ferocity is always increased
by the degree of restraint under which he is kept. If
kept constantly on the chain, his temper is irritable
and ferocious, and it is consequently dangerous for a
stranger to approach him ; from whence it evidently
appears, that what may be considered a friendly kind-
ness on one side, is always productive of confidence on
the other. He seems conscious of his own great
strength, power, and authority, and will seldom con-
descend to lower his dignity by servile fawning, while
he appears to consider his services as only befitting a
trust of the highest importance. This dog is natur-
ally possessed of strong instinctive sensibility, speedily
obtains a knowledge of all the duties required of him,
and discharges them too with the most punctual
assiduity. In the protection of houses, woodyards,
gardens, and widely-extended manufactories, his
vigilance is very striking : he makes regular rounds
of the whole premises like a watchman, examines
every part of them with a careful eye : his pene-
tration reaches even the remotest corner, and not a
spot is passed by until he is satisfied that all is in a
state of perfect security. During the night he gives
a signal of his presence by repeated and vociferous
barkings, which are increased upon the least cause
of alarm ; and, contrary to the spirit of the bull-dog,
whose invariable practice is to bite before he barks,
the mastiff always warns before he attacks.

700 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

This breed is now exceedingly difficult to be
obtained in purity, from the various admixtures and
experimental crosses which have lately taken place.
The genuine English mastiff is now rarely to be
seen, although we have dogs of various sizes and
colours which go under that name. At Lyme Hall,
in Cheshire, there is a pretty pure breed of these
dogs. The true mastiff has very rarely been known
to attack the human being, except under the most
palpable provocation.

The mastiff usually shows a remarkable and
peculiar warmth in his attachments, and, on the other
hand, he is equally distinguished for inveteracy in his
dislike. If he is once severely corrected or insulted, it
is almost impossible to eradicate the feeling from his
memory, and it is no less difficult to obtain a reconcilia-
tion with him. He seems conscious of his own strength,
power, and authority, and will seldom condescend to
lower his dignity by servile fawning ; nor will he easily
be induced to combat an inferior enemy, as will be
illustrated by the following anecdote : —

A farmer in the neighbourhood of Falkirk had a
large mastiff dog, which used to go regularly to church,
and was always attended by a very small mongrel.
In their way to and from church, in passing through
the principal street, where there were always a number
of butchers' dogs, who used to be very clamorous,
although they never ventured actually to attack the
church-going couple, probably having had proof of
the mastiffs powers. One Sunday, however, the
diminutive cur was induced to give battle to one of
those dogs, which, the mastiff discovering, turned back,
and the butcher's dog scampered off. The mastiff
did not condescend to give chase, but taking up his
little friend with his mouth, by the neck, carried him

THE BULL-DOG JOI

to the extreme end of the town and set him down,
after which they quietly walked home together.

THE BULL-DOG.

There can be little doubt respecting the original
country of this dog, as all authors are agreed in opinion
that it is of British origin. Some writers affirm that
it was the bull-dog and not the mastiff which was held
in such high estimation when the Romans invaded
Britain. But if it was the bull-dog it must have been
a very different animal in point of size from what it is
at the present day, for the best breed is now low in
stature, very deep-chested, and strongly made about
the shoulders and thighs ; the muscles of both of
which are extremely developed. His head is broad,
his nose short and flat, with the under jaw projecting
beyond the upper one, producing a fierce and disagree-
able aspect. His eyes are distant, and prominent, ap-
pearing as if forced out of their sockets, and giving him
a suspicious-like leer, which, with the distention of his
nostrils, produce a contemptuous look ; and in con-
junction with these, the teeth being always exposed,
he has the constant appearance of grinning, while he
is perfectly placid. He is the most ferocious and
unrelenting of the canine tribe, and is, doubtless,
courageous beyond every other animal in the world ;
for no animal, however great in magnitude, will be
exempt from his attack. He is hardly capable of any
education, and seems fitted only for combat and
ferocity. He gives no warning by barking when he
attacks, and holds with such determined pertinacity
the part that he seizes upon, that it is with the utmost
difficulty he can be disengaged. He generally lays
hold of the lip, tongue, or side of the cheek or eye,
which he maintains in spite of the most desperate

702 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

efforts of the animal to free himself from his antagonist ;
and no command of his master will induce him to
desist, which can only be effected by squeezing the
windpipe till he is nearly choked ; and instances have
occurred where he has been mutilated and still main-
tained his grip. The thorough-bred bull-dog always
attacks animals in front, seizing either on the head or
throat, and when they lay hold of any of the extremi-
ties, it is reckoned a degeneracy from the original
purity of blood.

This animal derived its name from his havinof
been employed in former times in assaulting the bull ;
and he is used for the same brutal purpose at the
present day, where such amusements are still practised;
but these are, like cock-fighting, happily on the
decline.

The first bull-baiting, of which we have a well-
authenticated account, took place in the reign of King
John, in 1 209, at Stamford, in Lincolnshire, and had
its origin in the following circumstance : — William,
Earl Warren, Lord Stamford, standing upon the
walls of his castle, saw two bulls fighting for a cow in
the castle-meadow, till all the butchers' dogs pursued
one of the bulls (which was maddened by the noise and
multitude) through the town. This sight so pleased
the Earl, that he gave the castle-meadow, where the
bulls' combat began, for a common to the butchers of
the town, after the first grass was mowed, on condition
that they should find " a mad bull " on a day six weeks
before Christmas, for the continuance of that sport
for ever. At Tutbury, in Staffordshire, about the
year 1374, an establishment of a similar nature was
instituted, which was abolished by the praiseworthy
and humane exertions of the Duke of Devonshire, in
1778, as steward of Tutbury.

THE BULL-DOG 703

There Is a singular will, bearing date May i8th,
1 66 1, by which a person named George Staverton,
gave the whole rent of his dwelling-house, situated at
Staines, in Middlesex (after two lives) to buy a bull
annually for ever, which bull he gave to the poor of
Workingham, in Berkshire, to be there baited, then
killed and equitably divided ; the offal, hide, and gift-
money (collected from the spectators) to be laid out
In shoes and stockings, to be distributed among the
children of the poor. These seem to be the principal
donations mentioned In history upon which the practice
of bull-baiting was unhappily founded originally, and
has been since continued in this country under the
plausible pretext of charity. To give It a still greater
degree of singularity in the town of Workingham,
St Thomas's day is annually dedicated to this sublime
sport.

Many strenuous efforts have been made for the
abolition of this barbarous and Inhuman amuse-
ment ; among these, the Rev. Dr Barry preached a
sermon in the church of Workingham, at the request
of the Rev. Mr Bremner, then resident clergyman of
the parish, on Sunday, the 20th December 1801,
being the day previous to the festival of St Thomas,
which was afterwards published, and from which we
extract the following excellent admonition : —

*' Gracious God ! benevolent Parent of the universe !
what prodigy must he be in a Christian land, who
could thus disgrace his nature by such gigantic in-
famy, at vv^hich the blood of a heathen, of a very
Hottentot, might curdle ! Two useful animals, the
bull, which propagates our food, and the faithful
dog, which protects our property, to be thus tor-
mented ! and for what purpose ? Does it tend, as
some have sald,"^ to keep alive the spirit of the
* Mr Windham, in the House of Commons.

704 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

English character? In answer to this we must re-
mark that the barbarous sport (if sport it can be
called) was totally unknown to the ancient bravery of
our ancestors ; was introduced into this country during
the reign of a bad king ; and earnestly do I pray to
Almighty God that in the reign of a most pious
and benevolent prince it may be for ever set aside.
Cowards, of all men the least unmoved, can both in-
flict and witness cruelties. The heroes of a bull-bait,
the patrons of mercenary pugilists, and the champions
of a cock-fight, can produce, I should think, but few,
if any, disciples brought up under their tuition, who
have done service to their country, either as warriors
or citizens ; but abundant are the testimonies which
have been registered at the gallows, of her devoted
victims, trained up by these pursuits of bull-baiting ! "

THE BULL-TERRIER.

The bull-terrier has now become a fixed variety of
the dog : it was originally propagated by a cross
between the bull-dog and terrier, and in point of form
is handsomer than either of its progenitors. He is a
sprightly and showy animal, and even better adapted
for mischievous sport than either of those dogs from
which he has sprung. He is airy and pleasant
tempered, but possesses great fierceness when his
energies are called into action. His head is rather
square and large, his neck short and thick, his chest
deep, and legs very strong and cleanly formed, his
hair is stiff and hard. This dog has great strength
of jaw, and he has risen into great reputation with
gentlemen of the " fancy ! " but it is to be lamented
that the services of this excellent doe are too often
misapplied, and his prowess turned to the most
wanton mischief, such as fio^hting with other dogs,

THE BULL-TERRIER 705

tearing to pieces the domestic cat, worrying and
maiming unfortunate and starving stray dogs — sports
which cannot fail to be viewed by the humane with
horror, and cannot be too severely reprobated.

Some time ago, no fashionable young man could
appear without a bull-terrier at his heels, which Mr
Egan, a popular and amusing author of the day,
depicted in the following graphic caricature : — " The
new breed," says he, " which has become so truly the
go that no rum or queer kiddy, or man of cash, from
Tothil Street in the west, to north-eastern Holloway,
far less any swell rising sixteen, with a black, purple,
or green Indiaman round his squeeze, the corner of
his variegated dab hanging from his pocket, and his
pantaloons well creased and puckered, but must have
a tike of the new cut at the heels of himself or his
prad. The swells of Brunswick and the adjoining
squares have dropped even the Newfoundland and
the poodle, to be followed by one of a new edition of
the dog."

The late Sir Walter Scott had a very intelligent
dog of this breed, and kindly furnished me with the
following account of him : — " The wisest dog I ever
had was what is called the bull-terrier. I taught him
to understand a great many words, insomuch that I
am positive that the communication betwixt the
canine species and ourselves might be greatly en-
larged. Camp once bit the baker who was bringing
bread to the family. I beat him, and explained the
enormity of his offence ; after which, to the last
moment of his life, he never heard the least allusion to
the story, in whatever voice or tone it was mentioned,
without getting up and retiring into the darkest corner
of the room, with a great appearance of distress.
Then if you said, 'The baker was well paid,* or 'The

2 Y

yo6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

baker was not hurt after all,' Camp came forth from
his hiding-place, capered and barked, and rejoiced.
When he was unable, towards the end of his life, to
attend me when on horseback, he used to watch my
return, and the servant used to tell him 'his master
was coming down the hill, or through the moor,' and
although he did not use any gesture to explain his
meaning, Camp was never known to mistake him,
but either went out at the front to go up the hill, or
at the back to get down to the moor-side. He cer-
tainly had a singular knowledge of spoken language."

THE NEWFOUNDLAND DOG.

The powerful and beautiful dog known by this
name, now plentifully distributed throughout Great
Britain, is not the pure breed, but a race procured by
a mixture with others. The pure Newfoundland dog,
however, differs from the Esquimaux and other wild
races, in his muzzle being much broader, his lips more
hanging, his ears partially pendulous, his back longer,
and more loose in his general structure.

The Newfoundland dog, as now improved in this
country, is unquestionably one of the noblest of the
canine race, both in regard to his majestic appearance,
large size and strength, and surprising intelligence.
The full-sized animal measures from the nose to the
end of the tail about six and a half feet, from the one
fore-foot to the other, over the shoulders, five feet
eight inches ; girth behind the shoulders, three feet
four inches ; round the head, across the ears, two
feet ; round the upper part of the fore-leg, ten inches ;
length of the head, fourteen inches ; his feet are
webbed, or with the membrane connecting the toes
extending to their tips, which enables him to swim
with great ease and dexterity. He is covered with

THE NEWFOUNDLAND DOG 707

long, shaggy, flowing hair, and his fore-legs are
feathered behind, as well as the hinder ones, as far as
the hock-joint. The fur in many is white, with black
or dark brown patches and spots, but they are also
met with plentifully of almost all colours, as chocolate,
fawn-colour, cream colour, and black.

This dog is not remarkable for symmetry of form,
or in the setting on of his legs, and consequently his
motion is somewhat awkward and loose, and therefore
he is not distinguished for speed — a defect which
might be remedied by breeding, were an improvement
in that particular desirable.

The Newfoundland dog is docile to a very great
degree, and nothing can exceed his affection. Natur-
ally athletic and active, he is ever eager to be em-
ployed, and seems delighted to perform any little
office required of him. Nature has given him a great
share of emulation, and hence to be surpassed or
overcome is to him the occasion of great pain. Active
on every emergency, he is the friend of all, and is
naturally without the least disposition to quarrel with
other animals. He seldom or never offers offence,
but will not receive an insult or injury with impunity.
Such is the capacity of his understanding, that he can
be taught almost everything which man can inculcate,
and of which his own strength and frame are capable.
His sagacity can only be exceeded by his energies,
and he perseveres with unabated ardour in whatever
shape he is employed, and while he has a hope of
success he will never slacken in his efforts to attain it.
The amazing pliability of his temper peculiarly fits him
for the use of man, and he never shrinks from any
service which may be required of him, but undertakes
it with an ardour proportionate to the difficulty of the
execution.

708 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Sagacity, and a peculiarly faithful attachment to
the human species, are characteristics inseparable from
this dog ; and hence he is ever on the alert to ward
off from his master every impending danger, and to
free him from every peril to which he may be exposed.
He is endowed with an astonishing degree of courage^
whether to resent an insult or to defend his friends^
even at the risk of his own life.

As a proof of the intellectual superiority of the
Newfoundland dog, we may mention, that innumer-
able instances have occurred of their having saved
persons from drowning, of their own accord, which
the following facts will prove : —

A farmer's servant man, passing a deep water on
horseback, with a woman behind him, the latter
slipped off, and after a few struggles sank to the
bottom, unperceived by the clown, who rode on.
Some spectators at a distance hastened to the water-
side, and beheld the efforts of a Newfoundland dog
which attended the careless servant. The friendly
animal had perceived the woman fall, and instantly
swam to the place and dived after her. At first he
brought her cap to the shore, but looking at it he
dived again, and brought up her cloak : when he
had brought it to the water side, he looked at it for
some moments as if with the anger of disappoint-
ment, and rushed back to the place the third time,
and, to the wonder of the people present, he brought
up the woman, over whom he expressed every de-
monstration of joy. She soon recovered, and was
afterwards housekeeper to a clergyman in Norfolk.

In the summer of 1792 a gentleman went to
Portsmouth for the benefit of sea-bathing. He was
conveyed in one of the machines into the water ; but
being unacquainted with the steepness of the shore,

THE SHEPHERDS DOG 7O9

and no swimmer, he found himself, the instant he
quitted the vehicle, out of his depth. The state of
alarm into which he was thrown increased his danger,
and, unnoticed by the person who attended the
machine, he would inevitably have been drowned, had
not a large Newfoundland dog, which by accident
was standing on the shore and observed his distress,
plunged in to his assistance : the animal seized him
by the hair, and conducted him safely to the land ;
but it was some time before he recovered. The
gentleman afterwards purchased the dog at a high
price, and preserved him as a treasure of equal value
with his whole fortune.

As a proof that dogs understand, in many in-
stances, spoken language, we have seen a Newfound-
land dog fetch any particular thing which his master
asked him. A large assemblage of various articles
were promiscuously piled up in the middle of the
floor of an adjoining room, such as shoes, boots,
gloves, sticks, umbrellas, horse-whips, spurs, hats,
slippers, etc. We were asked what we wished him
to bring, and instantly on it being named, the dog
Avent to the next room and fetched it. We first
requested a pair of slippers to be brought, when
Caesar brought one, laid it down, and returned for
the other. He was next required to fetch a stick ;
he instantly obeyed, and returned with the one his
master invariably used, although there were several
others in the heap.

THE shepherd's DOG.

The shepherd's dog is characterised by his up-
right ears, sometimes slightly drooping at the tips,
sharp muzzle, his long and rather woolly-like hair,
with a great villosity on the under part of the tail,

7IO MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

as well as on the back of the fore-legs. The body
is somewhat elongated, and the legs rather short.
There is a character which pervades most of the
individuals of this race, namely, that their feet are
provided with one, and frequently with two super-
fluous toes, which are destitute of bony adhesion or
muscular action, and hang dangling at the hind part
of the leg more like an unnatural excrescence than
a necessary appendage to the animal. But as
''Nature has made nothing in vain," these must
certainly be destined for some useful purpose with
which we are yet unacquainted. These dew-claws,
as they are termed, are sometimes found in the spaniel,
pointer, and cur-dogs ; in the two former they are
generally cut off at an early age, as they are impedi-
ments in covers, and frequently get torn, thereby
creating sores, and sometimes rendering the dog lame
for days together. The shepherd's dog seldom
reaches two feet in height.

This truly useful and intelligent animal is exceeded
by no other member of the canine race. He is re-
markable for his placid, obedient, serene, and grateful
character. He is ever alive to the slightest indica-
tion of his master's wishes, pron^pt and gratified to
execute them, and he seems to enjoy the highest
delight when employed in any kind of useful service.
Formed by nature with an instinctive propensity to
industry, he is never more pleased than in exerting
his talents for the benefit of man, and in affording
constant proofs of his inviolable attachment.

The inherent calmness, patience, and devoted
faithfulness of the shepherd's dog render him in-
sensible to all attractions beyond the arduous duties
connected with the flock under his care. When once
properly trained, he not only becomes perfectly ac-

THE SHEPHERDS DOG 7II

quainted with the extent of his beat, but also with
every individual in the flock ; he will most carefully
select his own, and drive off such as encroach on
his limits. This appears the more extraordinary,
when we consider the vast extent of mountain country
(especially in Scotland), and the numerous flocks com-
mitted to the charge of a single shepherd, a duty
which he could not possibly perform but for the in-
valuable services of this sagacious animal. A word
or signal from the shepherd will direct the dog so
as to conduct the flock to any point required, and
that signal he will obey with energy and unerring-
certainty.

Some have imagined the shepherd's dog destitute of
the social characters for which most dogs are remark-
able, and that his nature is sullen and sleepy ; these,
however, originate in mistaking the true virti^es of
the animal. Accustomed to the company of his
master alone in those dreary and unfrequented wilds,
he naturally acquires a thoughtful and expressive
gravity ; and, like man himself, when unaccustomed
to society, he becomes habitually taciturn and shy.
This is his character in remote situations ; for where
he is accustomed to see strangers, he exhibits all the
amiable qualities of other dogs. His sagacity, affec-
tion, fidelity, comprehensive penetration and activity
are exceeded by no other dogs ; the frequent ex-
cursions he necessarily makes during the day afford
him sufficient exercise. This is his character all
over Europe.

Of the wonderful susceptibility for training, the
following anecdotes will sufficiently illustrate the in-
telligence of the shepherd's dog.

Few instances of greater sagacity in a dog can be
adduced than the following : — The owner himself

712 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

having been hanged some years before for sheep-
stealing, this fact, among others respecting his dog,
was fully authenticated by evidence on the trial.
When the man intended to steal a sheep, he did not
do it himself, but directed his dog to perform the
business. With this view, under pretence of looking
at the sheep with an intention to purchase them, he
went over the grounds with the dog at his feet, to
whom he secretly gave a signal, so as to let him
know the individuals he wanted, to the number of
perhaps from ten to twenty, out of a flock of some
hundreds ; he then went away, and from a distance
of several miles sent back the dog by himself in the
night-time, who picked out the individual sheep that
had been pointed out to him, separated them from
the rest, and drove them before him the distance of
ten or twelve miles, till he came up with his master,
to whom he delivered his charge.

** My dog Sirrah," says the late celebrated author,
Mr James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd, ''was, beyond
all comparison, the best dog I ever saw : he was of a
surly and unsociable temper — disdaining all flattery,
he refused to be caressed ; but his attention to my
commands and interests will never again, perhaps,
be equalled by any of the canine race. When I first
saw him, a drover was leading him in a rope ; he was
both lean and hungry, and far from being a beautiful
animal, for he was almost all black, and had a grim
face, striped with dark brown. The man had bought
him of a boy somewhere on the border for three
shillings, and had fed him very ill on his journey. I
thought I discovered a sullen intelligence in his
countenance, notwithstanding his dejected and forlorn
appearance : I gave the drover a guinea for him, and
I believe there never was a guinea so well laid out,

THE shepherd's DOG 7 1 5"

at least I am satisfied that I never laid out one to so
good a purpose. He was scarcely a year old, and
knew so little of herding that he had never turned a
sheep in his life ; but as soon as he discovered that it
was his duty to do so, and that it obliged me, I can
never forget with what anxiety and eagerness he
learned his different evolutions. He would try every
way deliberately until he found out what I wanted
him to do, and when I once made him understand
a direction, he never forgot or mistook it again.
Well as I knew him, he often astonished me ; for,
when hard pressed in accomplishing the task that he
was put to, he had expedients of the moment that
bespoke a great share of the reasoning faculty."

Amongst other remarkable exploits of Sirrah's as
illustrative of his sagacity, Mr Hogg relates that,
upon one occasion, about seven hundred lambs, which
were under his care at weaning-time, broke up at
midnight, and scampered off in three divisions, across
the neighbouring hills, in spite of all that he and an
assistant could do to keep them together. " Sirrah,"
cried the shepherd, in great affliction, *'my man,
they're a' awa'." The night was so dark that he
could not see Sirrah ; but the faithful animal heard
and knew the import of his master's words, — words
such as, of all others, were sure to set him on the
alert ; and without more ado, he silently set off in
quest of the recreant flock. Meanwhile the shepherd
and his companion did not fail to do all in their
power to recover their lost charge ; they spent the
whole night in scouring the hills for miles round,
but of neither the lambs nor Sirrah could they obtain
the slightest trace. It was the most extraordinary
circumstance that had ever occurred in the annals of
pastoral life. They had nothing for it, day having

714 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

dawned, but to return to their master, and inform
him that they had lost his whole flock of lambs, and
knew not what was become of them. '' On our way
home, however," says Hogg, "we discovered a lot of
lambs at the bottom of a deep ravine, called the ' Flesh
Cleuch,' and the indefatigable Sirrah standing in front
of them, looking round for some relief, but still true to
his charge. The sun was then up, and when we first
came in view, we concluded it was one of the divisions
which Sirrah had been unable to manage, until he
came to that commanding situation. But what was
our astonishment, when we discovered that not one
lamb of the whole flock was wanting ! How he had
got all the divisions collected in the dark is beyond my
comprehension. The charge was left entirely to him-
self, from midnight until the rising sun ; and if all the
shepherds in the forest had been there to have assisted
him, they could not have effected it with greater pro-
priety. All that I can further say is, that I never felt
so grateful to any creature under the sun as I did to
my honest Sirrah that morning."

THE COACH-DOG, OR DALMATIAN.

This dog, once so common an attendant upon
gentlemen's carriages, has now become exceedingly
scarce. Some authors have confounded him with
the Danish dog. Bufifon and others imagine him to
be the harrier of Bengal ; but his native country is
Dalmatia, a mountainous district of European Turkey.

In Britain the Dalmatian has only been used for
ornament, while in Italy he was long the harrier of that
country, and used for upwards of two centuries as a
dog of the chase. He has also been used as a pointer,
for which he has been found even more adapted than
for hunting ; and many instances have occurred where

THE COACH-DOG, OR DALMATIAN 715

he has turned out very staunch. His form is hand-
some, as if a medium between the foxhound and
pointer ; his head, however, is more acute than that
of the latter, and his ears fully longer ; his general
colour is white, and his entire skin covered with small
black or reddish-brown spots. The pure breed has
tanned cheeks and black ears. In size he is consider-
ably smaller than the Danish dog. A barbarous
opinion prevailed at one time in this country, that
the Dalmatian looked better with his ears cropped ;
and we remember the time when hardly one that we
met with but had been denuded of those elegant
appendages, but happily this depraved taste has now
become nearly extinct.

Lord Maynard lost a dog of this kind in France,
which he in vain endeavoured to recover while in that
country. He returned to England, where he had not
long arrived before the dog appeared at his residence ;
but the mode of his return has remained for ever
unexplained, though it is probable that the dog's
sagacity, when he had made his escape from confine-
ment, prompted him to go to the sea-coast, where he
must have found means to get on board some vessel
bound tor the opposite shore.

APPENDIX.

RULES OF RACING.

These Rules apply to all meetings held under the sanction of the
Jockey Club, and to all races run at such meetings.

Interpretation of Words and Phrases.

I. A " recognised meeting " is a meeting held under the sanction of the Jockey-
Club, or other Turf authority, of the country in which it is held, or (where no such
authority exists) under these rules.

The Turf authorities of the United Kingdom are : —
The Jockey Club.
The National Hunt Committee.
The Turf Club of Ireland.

The Irish National Hunt Steeple Chase Committee.
The Channel Islands Racing and Hunt Club.

"Stewards." — Wherever the word " Steward " or " Stewards" is used, it means
Steward or Stewards of the meeting, or their duly appointed deputy or deputies.

Ireland, the Channel Islands, and the Isle of Man are not included in the ex-
pression " Great Britain," but they are in the expression *' the United Kingdom."

The ** Registry Office " is the office for the time being appointed as the registry
office by the Jockey Club.

" Registered " and " Registration " mean '• Registered " and *' Registration "
at such office.

N.B.^The Present Registry Office is Messrs Weatherby's Office, 6 Old Bur-
lington Street, London, W., and at Newmarket.

The " Racing Calendar," comprising the " Sheet Calendar," the " Monthly
Calendar," the " Book Calendars," of "Races Past" and of "Races to Come,
and the " Stud Book " are the works published under those names respectively by
authority of the Jockey Club.

A "horse " includes mare, gelding, colt, and filly.

A " maiden " is a horse which has never won a race (other than a match or
private sweepstakes) at any recognised meeting in the United Kingdom, or in any
other country. A maiden means a maiden at the time of the start.

A " race " means plate, cup, sweepstakes, private sweepstakes, or match, but
not steeple chase, hurdle race, or hunters' race on the flat.

A " plate " is a race to be run for money or other prize without any stake being
made by the owners of the horses engaged.

A " sweepstakes " is a race in which stakes are made by the owners of three cr
more horses engaged, to be paid to the winner or other horses placed, and any
such race is still a sweepstakes when money or other prize is added.

A " private sweepstakes" is one to which no money is added, and which has
not been advertised previous to closing.

A match or " catchweights " means one for which the riders need not weigh
before or after the race.

7i8

MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

A ** cup " is any prize not given in money.

The " Forfeit List " is a record of arrears published under the sanction of the
Turf authorities of the United Kingdom.

A " handicap " is a race in which the weights to be carried by the horses are
adjusted by the handicapper for the purpose of equalising their chances of
winning.

A '* free handicap " is one in which no liability for stake or forfeit is incurred
until acceptance.

A " Nursery handicap " is one confined to two years old horses.

A " post race " is a race for which a person may, under one subscription, enter
two or more horses, and run any one or more of them as the conditions prescribe.

A " produce race '' is one to be run for by the produce of the horses named or
described at the time of entry.

A *' selling race " is one, the conditions of which require that every horse run-
ning, if a loser, may be claimed, and if the winner, must be offered for sale by
auction, or be liable to be claimed.

A " weight-for-age " race is any race which is not a handicap or a selling race.

The "nominator" is the person in whose name a horse is entered for a race.

'* Owner " includes *' part owner " or " lessee."

" Authorised agent" means an agent appointed by a document signed by the
owner and lodged at the Registry Office, or, if for a single meeting only, with the
Clerk of the Course. " Authorised agent " includes sub-agent, if authority to ap-
point a sub-agent, is provided by the document.

" Arrears " are any sums unpaid .in respect of fines, compensation, fees, entrance
money, stakes, subscriptions, forfeits, and purchase money in races with selling
conditions.

The " time of entry " means the time fixed for closing.

*' Started " — Every horse shall be considered as having started which is under
the Starter's orders when the advance flag has been raised.

Calculation of Time.

2. When the last day for doing anything under these rules falls on a Sunday, it
may be done on the following Monday, unless a race to which such act relates is
appointed for that day, in which case it must be done on the previous Saturday.

3. " A Month " means a calendar month : " a Day " means twenty-four hours.

4. Racing Season. — No race shall be run earlier than in the week which includes
the 25th of March unless that be the one next before Easter Sunday, in which case
races may be run in the week preceding, nor later than in the week which includes
the 22nd of November, but in the interval between the last and first named weeks
the Jockey Club will sanction weight-for-age races for four years old and upwards
over a distance of two miles and upwards, with a minimum weight of Qst ylb, and
of not less value than ;^200, such races not to be selling races, and to be under the
authority of the National Hunt Committee.

Stewards of Meetings.

5. There must be at least two Stewards for every meeting.

6. Each Steward may appoint a deputy at any time, or if there be only one
Steward present he shall, in case of necessity, appoint one or more persons to act
with him. If none of the Stewards are present, the Clerk of the Course shall
request two or more persons to act during the absence of such Stewards.

7. Powers of the Stewards. — The Stewards of a meeting have full power to make
(and if necessary to vary) all such arrangements for the conduct of the meeting as
they think fit, and, under special circumstances, to put off any races from day to
day until a Sunday intervene.

8. The Stewards have control over, and they and the Stewards of the Jockey
Club have free access to, all stands, rooms, enclosures, and other places used for
the purposes of the meeting.

9. They shall exclude from all places under their control : —
(i.) Every person who is warned off Newmarket Heath.

APPENDIX 719

(ii.) Every person whose name has been published in the Unpaid Forfeit List,
until the default is cleared.

(iii.) Every person who has been reported as a defaulter under Corrupt Practices,
etc., until it has been officially notified that his default is cleared.

(iv.) Every person who has been declared by the Turf authorities of, or by the
Stewards of, any recognised meeting in this or any other country, to have been
guilty of any corrupt or fraudulent practice on the turf.

(v.) They have power to exclude at their discretion any person from all or any
places under their control.

10. The Stewards have power to regulate and control the conduct of all
officials, and of all trainers, jockeys, grooms, and persons attendant on horses.

11. They have power to punish at their discretion any person subject to their
control with a fine not exceeding ;^5o, and with suspension from acting or riding
at the same meeting, and to report to the Stewards of the Jockey Club should
they consider any further fine or punishment necessary.

12. The Stewards have power to determine all questions arising in reference to
racing at the meeting subject to appeal under Disputes, Objections, etc., and should
no decision have been arrived at by the Stewards, within seven days of an objection
being lodged, the Clerk of the Course shall then report the case to the Stewards
of the Jockey Club, who may at their discretion decide the matter, and, if they
consider there has been any negligence, may order any additional expense arising
therefrom to be defrayed out of the funds of the meeting at which the case
occurred.

13. The Stewards have power to call for proof that a horse is neither itself dis-
qualified in any respect ; nor nominated by, nor the property, wholly or in part, of
a disqualified person ; and in default of such proof being given to their satisfaction
they may declare the horse disqualified.

14. The Stewards have power at any time to order an examination by such
person or persons as they think fit, of any horse entered for a race, or which has
run in a race.

15. The Stewards, as such, shall not entertain any disputes relating to bets.

16. Powers of the Stewards of the Jockey Club. — The Stewards of the Jockey
Club may inipose any fine not exceeding £\qo.

17. The Stewards of the Jockey Club have power, at their discretion, to grant,
and to withdraw, licences to Officials, Jockeys, and Race Courses, to fix the dates
on which all meetings shall be held, to make inquiry into, and deal with, any
matters relating to racing, and to warn any person off Newmarket Heath.

18. The Stewards of the Jockey Club take no cognisance of any disputes or
claims with respect to bets, but they will give effect to an official report of default
made to them by the Committee of the Subscription Rooms, at Newmarket, or at
Tattersall's.

Officials.

19. The following officials shall be appointed for every meeting, subject to the
approval of the Stewards, viz., Clerk of the Course, Handicapper, Stakeholder,
Clerk of the Scales, Starter, and Judge, each of whom, as a qualification for his
office, requires a licence to be granted annually by the Stewards of the Jockey
Club. No two offices, except those of Clerk of the Course and Stakeholder, shall
be held by one person unless by special permission.

20. In case of emergency, the Stewards may, during a meeting, appoint an un-
licensed substitute to fill any of the above-named offices for that meeting only.

21. Every complaint against an official shall be made to the Stewards in writ-
ing, signed by the complainant.

22. Clerk of the Course. — The Clerk of the Course, or his authorised substitute,
is the sole person responsible to the Stewards for the general arrangements of the
meeting, and shall see that all courses are properly measured and marked.

23. The Clerk of the Course shall arrange for the publication, under the
sanction of the Stewards, of a daily official card of the races, containing the condi-
tions of each race, as published in the Racing Calendar, the names, or other
description, of the horses engaged with a number attached to each and such
further particulars as the Stewards may require. A horse may appear on the card

720 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

in the name of the owner instead of that of the nominator, and the Stewards may,
under special circumstances, grant permission for a horse to run in the name of
the trainer. The Cleric of the Course shall, in such latter case, make a report to
the Registry Ofifice, stating the grounds upon which the permission was granted.

24. The Clerk of the Course shall make a return to the Registry Office of any
Deputy Steward or official appointed, of all complaints to and decisions of the
Stewards, of all fines inflicted, and of all horses sold or claimed.

25. The Clerk of the Course shall have in his possession, for the information
of the Stewards, a list of persons warned off Newmarket Heath, and of suspended
jockeys, and also a copy of the latest Monthly Forfeit List, and he shall not allow
any horse which, or the owner or nominator of which, is in the Forfeit List to
start for any race.

26. Handicapper. — The Handicapper shall append to the weights for every handi-
cap the day and hour from which winners will be liable to a penalty, and no alteration
shall be made after publication, except that, by express permission of the Stewards,
a weight may be affixed to a horse duly entered whose name or weight has been
omitted from the handicap.

27. No handicapper shall handicap at any other meeting held during the same
week, except by express permission of the Stewards of the Jockey Club. He must
attend the meeting either personally or by licensed deputy. The name of the
handicapper attending the meeting shall appear in the Calendar containing the
report.

28. Stakeholder. — The Stakeholder shall not allow a jockey to be weighed out
for any horse until such horse's stake for that race, and the forfeits for every horse
belonging to the same owner, or standing in his name, the jockey's fee, and any
arrears claimed under these rules, have been paid, or the Stakeholder shall himself
be liable : Provided that he shall not be liable for arrears in respect of a meeting
elsewhere than the place at which the race is run, unless notice of such arrears
being overdue has been published in the Forfeit List, or delivered in writing,
signed by the party claiming the arrears, to him, and to the person indebted,
before ten in the evening preceding the race.

29. The Stakeholder shall at the expiration of fifteen days after the meeting
render an account and pay over all stakes and added money to the persons entitled,
and at the same time notify at the Registry Office all arrears, and one month
before the publication of the next available Forfeit List he shall further notify at
the Registry Office all arrears then remaining unpaid, for publication therein.

30. Clerk of the Scales. — The Clerk of the Scales shall exhibit the number (as
allotted on the official card) of each^horse for which a jockey has been weighed out,
and shall forthwith furnish the starter with a list of such numbers, and the numbers
shall not be taken down till the horses are started.

31. If extra, or special, weight be declared for any horse, such weight shall be
exhibited with the number, also any declaration to win, or alteration of colours.

32. He shall in all cases weigh in the riders of the horses placed by the Judge
and report to the Stewards any jockey not presenting himself to be weighed in.

33. The Clerk of the Scales shall always put 2lb extra into the scale to prove
that the horse has not carried too much weight.

34. He shall at the close of each day's racing send a return to the Registry
Office of the weights carried in every race and the names of the jockeys, specifying
over-weight if any.

35. The Starter. — The Starter shall give all orders necessary for securing a fair
start. The horses must be started from a walk, and also, as far as possible, in a
line, but they may be started at such reasonable distance behind the starting post
as the Starter thinks necessary.

36. Any jockey presuming to start, or even to put his horse into a trot or
canter, with a view to take any advantage, before the flags are dropped, wilfully
turning his horse round, not starting when the flags are dropped, hanging behind,
or refusing to obey the commands of the starter in any respect whatever, shall be
reported to the Stewards.

37. A start in front of the starting-post, or on a wrong course, or before the ap-
pointed time, is void, and the horses must be started again as soon as practicable.

38. The Starter shall report to the Stewards the time at which each race was

APPENDIX JCti

started ; and shall also report by whom, or by what cause, any delay was occa-
sioned.

39. The Judge. — The judge, or his authorised substitute, must occupy the
judge's box at the time the horses pass the winning post. He must announce his
decision immediately, and such decision shall be final, unless an objection to the
winner, or any placed horses, is made and sustained : Provided that this rule shall
not prevent a judge from correcting any mistake, such correction being subject to
confirmation by the Stewards.

40. The judge shall, at the close of each day's racing, sign and send a report
of the result of each race to the Registry Office.

Regulations for Race Meetings.

41. All Race-courses mast be licensed, and all meetings sanctioned, by the
Stewards of the Jockey Club.

42. The conditions of every race before closing, and the full programme of
every meeting, before it takes place, must be advertised in the " Racing
Calendar," and no alteration can be made in the conditions of any race after the
last advertisement.

43. The last rule shall not preclude the addition of more money to a race be-
fore the time of closing, or of a new race to the programme of a meeting subse-
quent to the publication of the last Calendar issued previous to the meeting being
held.

44. The Stewards of the Jockey Club may at their discretion prohibit the
advertisement of any race or meeting in the " Racing Calendar," or call upon the
Stewards to alter or expunge any conditions, even after advertisement,

45. At every meeting advertised in the " Racing Calendar," one-half at least
of the total amount guaranteed for prizes shall be apportioned to races of a mile
or over for three-years-old or upwards, and of this half not less than a moiety
shall be for races of a mile and a quarter or upwards ; but where more than one
Meeting is held at the same place during the current racing season the apportion-
ment may be calculated over each Meeting, or over all the Meetings ; pro-
vided that in the case of Meetings where races are already closed, the Stewards of
the Jockey Club shall have power to relax the above Rule as to the apportion-
ment of the money. No two-years-old shall run in any race with more than 200
sov. added before the ist of June.

46. There shall be no race of less distance than five furlongs.

47. The programme of each day shall be subject to the following regula-
tions : —

(i) There shall be at least two races of a mile or upwards of the minimum
aggregate distance of two miles and a half. These races must differ at least
one furlong in distance, and they shall fill with five entries. Neither of these
races shall be open to two-years-old ; and one of them shall be neither a handicap
nor a race with selling conditions.

(ii) There shall not be more than two races, to which three-years-old or
upwards are admitted, of less than seven furlongs, and of these two races only one
may be less than six furlongs.

(iii) Of the races confined to two-years-old, there shall not be more than two
races a day before September ist, nor more than three a day at anytime.

(iv) Matches and private sweepstakes may be sanctioned by the Stewards, in-
dependent of the above regulations.

48. The advertisements must state the days on which the meeting is to be
held, the dates for closing the stakes, the names of the persons to receive nomina-
tions and declarations of forfeit, and a place or places for the entry for every race,
the dates when weights for the handicaps will be published and when forfeits will
be due, and, before the time fixed for closing (races for future years excepted), the
names of two or more persons as Stewards, and of the Judge, Starter, Clerk of the
Course, Handicapper, Stakeholder, and Clerk of the Scales.

2Z

72 J MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Omitted Conditions.

49. When the weights are omitted from the advertised conditions of any race,
ihe colts shall carry gst, and fillies 8st iilb, subject to penalties and allowances.
If the horses be of different age, the weight shall be fixed by the sanctioned scale
appended to these rules.

50. When no course is mentioned, it shall be as follows : —

If two years old, six furlongs.

If three years old, one mile.

If four years old, two miles.

If five years old, or upwards, four miles.
And if the horses be of different age, the course shall be fixed by the ngfe of the
youngest.

At any meeting where there are two or more courses of the same distance, the
special course shall be selected by the Stewards.

51. When no day is fixed for a race, it shall be run on the last day of the
meeting, unless otherwise agreed by all the parties engaged, and sanctioned by
the Stewards.

Special Rules applicable to Handicaps, Produce Races, and Selling
Races. — H andicaps.

52. The top weight to be allotted in a handicap shall not be less than gst.

If in a handicap for which there is a minor forfeit declared by a fixed time, the
highest weight accepting was originally less than gst, it shall be raised to that
weight, and the other acceptances equally.

It shall be in the power of Stewards, by notice in the programme, to extend
this last-mentioned Rule to the highest weight left in at ten o'clock the preceding
evening in handicaps for plates and stakes, where there is no declaration of forfeit,
provided the weights are fixed the night before running.

53. In handicaps there shall be no clause permitting an alteration of the
weights after publication by the claim of a selling allowance.

54. Produce Races. — If the produce of a mare is dropped before the 1st of
January, or if there is no produce, or if the produce is dead when dropped, a de-
claration to that effect by the time prescribed in the conditions renders the entry
of such mare void ; if twins are dropped, the nominator shall at the same time
declare to which of them the engagement attaches.

55. Selling Races. — All lads who, while under age, have, of their own free will,
and with the consent of their parents or guardians, bound themselves to a trainer
for a term of not less than three years, are permitted during their apprenticeship
to claim 5lb allowance in all selling races which are not handicaps, provided no
horse carry less than 6st. They will be entitled to this 5lb allowance for one year
(or 365 days) after winning their first race in any country.

56. In no selling race shall the lowest selling price be less than 50 sov.
Every horse running shall, if the winner be liable to be claimed for the selling

price by the owner of any other horse engaged in the race, or his authorised
agent, but if it is a condition of the race that the winner is to be sold by auction,
the sale shall take place immediately after the race, and the surplus over the
selling price shall be divided between the owner of the second horse and the race
fund.

If sold, or bought in, the horse shall not leave the place of sale without per-
mission of the auctioneer, and a written order given for his delivery ; and if the
horse be not paid for, or the price secured to the satisfaction of the auctioneer
within a quarter of an hour, he may put the horse up a second time, and the
purchaser at the first sale shall be responsible for any deficiency arising from the
second, and shall be treated as a defaulter until it is paid.

Whoever issues the delivery order for a horse sold, bought in, or claimed, is
responsible for the money, and shall, if required, pay the same over to the person
entitled the day after the horse is delivered.

57. All other horses starting may be claimed for the selling price plus the

APPENDIX 723

value of the stakes or plate by the owners of horses running in the race, or their
authorised agents.

(i) Owners of horses placed shall have priority of claim in the order of their
places, and if the owners of two or more horses having equal rights claim, they
are to draw lots. The owner of the winner has the last claim.

(ii) No person can claim more than one horse.

(iii) Every claim must be made in writing to the Clerk of the Scales within a
quarter of an hour after the winner has passed the scale, but subject to the Rules
in cases of objection.

58. The price of every horse claimed must be paid to the Stakeholder, and an
order given by him for the delivery of the horse.

In the case of a horse being claimed, if the price be not paid before seven
o'clock in the evening of the day of the race, the claimant forfeits his right. But
the owner may insist on the claimant taking and paying for the horse, and if he
refuse or neglect to do so, he shall be treated as a defaulter in respect of the
price.

59. If a horse walk over (or there be no second horse placed) for a selling race,
the winner is still liable to be sold, but any surplus above the selling price will go
to the fund.

60. The foregoing Rules relating to claiming and selling races, in cases where
the horse placed first is objected to, are subject, when practicable, to the following
provisions : —

(i) If an objection be made before the horse has been sold, the time for selling
and claiming shall be fixed by the Stewards.

(ii) Where the objection is made and sustained after the horse has been sold
or bought in, the sale or buying in, and any claim in respect of the horse placed
second, shall be annulled, and all moneys paid thereunder returned. The horse
disqualified shall be liable to be claimed as a beaten horse, and the Stewards shall
fix a time for the exercise of such'right of claiming, and a time and place for the
sale of the horse adjudged to be the winner.

Should the Stewards find the above provisions impracticable they shall make a
report to the Registry Office.

(iii) In the case of a dead heat, the time for claiming or selling is postponed
until the dead heat is run off. In case of a division, each of the horses dividing is
a winner for the purposes of the Rules relating to claiming and selling, and if an
auction race, both shall be put up to auction, and any surplus shall be divided,
half to go between those horses, and half to the Race Fund.

61. In all other races with selling conditions only such horses as run to be sold
shall be liable to be sold or claimed; but, with this exception, and the allowance
to apprentices, the foregoing rules relating to selling races shall apply.

Race-Horses. — Age.

62. The age of a horse shall be reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January^in
the year in which he is foaled.

63. Yearlings shall not run for any race.

64. Two-years-old shall not run more than six furlongs before the 1st of July,
nor shall they run for handicaps before the 1st of September, nor in handicaps with
older horses.

65. Names of Horses. — (i) A name can only be claimed for a horse by applica-
tion at the Registry Office in London, with the description according to rule, when,
if there is no other horse of the same name, the name will be registered and pub-
lished in the first Sheet Calendar after it has been claimed, and will, from the date
of publication, be the horse's name under these rules.

(ii) In the case of a horse which has been entered elsewhere than in Great
Britain, under the same name as one already registered, the name may be claimed for
him if accompanied by a numeral, and the name with the numeral will then be
registered and published as his name.

(iii) If the same name be simultaneously claimed for two or more horses, the
order of priority shall be determined by lot at^the Registry Office.

724 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

66. Disqualifications of Horses. — If a horse run at any unrecognised meeting*,
he is disqualified for all races to which these Rules apply.

67. No horse is qualified to be entered or run which is wholly or partly the
property of, or in any way under the care or superintendence of, a disqualified
person, or to run in any race so long as any disqualified person has any interest in
the horse's winnings in that race.

68. Any horse which has been the subject of fraudulent practice may, at the
discretion of the Stewards of the Jockey Club, be disqualified for such time and for
such races as they shall determine.

69. Foreign Horses. — A horse foaled out of the United Kingdom shall not be
qualified to start for any race until there have been deposited at the Registry
Office, and a fee of 5s paid on each certificate (i) such a foreign certificate, and (2)
such a certificate of age as are next mentioned, that is to say : —

The foreign certificate must state the age, sex, pedigree, and colour of the
horse, and any mark by which it may be distinguished, and must be signed by the
secretary or other ofificer of some approved racing club of the country in which the
horse was foaled, or by some magistrate, mayor, or public officer of that
country.

The Stewards of the Jockey Club may from time to time approve any racing
club for the purposes of this Rule, and prescribe the magistrate, mayor, or public
officer, by whom a foreign certificate must be signed. They may also require any
further proof or confirmation in any particular case, and may declare any horse
disqualified in default thereof.

The certificate of age must be signed by a veterinary surgeon in the United
Kingdom, approved for this purpose by the Stewards of the Jockey Club, either
by general order or in the particular case.

70. A horse which has been out of the United Kingdom (otherwise than as a
foal at the foot of his dam) before having run in Great Britain, shall not be quali-
fied to start for any race until a certificate of age, signed as in the last Rule men-
tioned, has been deposited at the Registry Office.

Note. — The Stewards of the Jockey Club have approved generally of certifi-
cates given by the Members of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons and by
persons holding the Highland and Agricultural Society's diploma.

Entries, Subscriptions, Declarations of Forfeit, and Acceptances for

Races.

71. Every entry shall close, and every declaration of forfeit or of acceptance
shall be fixed to be made at 10 P.m., and upon Tuesdays only, except in the case
of races closing within four days of their being run.

All entries for handicaps for which the weights are to appear before the week
in which a Meeting is held, must be in the Sheet Calendar at least one week before
the weights are published, and for those handicaps for which the weights are to
appear during the week of the Meeting, the entries shall close at least twenty-four
hours before the publication of the weights.

No declaration of forfeit shall be fixed to be made for races for two-years-old
only, between the second Tuesday in October, when they are yearlings, and the
last Tuesday in March in the following year.

72. A horse is not qualified to run for any race unless he is duly entered for
the same.

73. All entries made elsewhere than at the Registry Office (except entries
made during the week of, or on the Saturday preceding, the Meeting) shall be
lodged at that office within forty-eight hours, or, if intended for publication in the
next Calendar, within twelve hours after the day of closing.

In default of observance of this rule, the receiver of nominations shall be re-
ported to the Stewards of the Jockey Club, and unless the nominator can prove to
their satisfaction that the entry was made in due time, it shall be void.

74. The list of entries shall be closed at the advertised time, and no entry shall
be admitted on any ground after that time.

75. An entry or subscription may, before the time of closing, be altered or
withdrawn.

APPENDIX 725

76. Allowances, when practicable under the conditions of the race, must be
claimed at the-time of entry, or they shall not be allowed.

77. Form of Entry or Nomination. — Entries shall be made in writing, signed
by the owner of the horse, or his authorised agent, and declarations of forfeit in like
manner by the owner of the engagement or his authorised agent, subject to the
rules relating to sales with engagements. Entries made by telegram shall be
equally binding, but must be confirmed in writing. Declarations of forfeits made
by telegram shall be confirmed in writing, or the forfeit shall not be saved. The
above confirmations must be made as soon as possible, and, if the Stewards consider
that there has been any unnecessary delay, they may inflict a fine.

78. A horse cannot be entered in the real or assumed name of any person as his
owner unless that person's interest or property in the horse is at least equal to that
of any other one person, and has been so registered.

79. The entry shall be in the name, or assumed name of one person, and
shall state the name, or assumed name, of the owner, the name of the horse, if
registered, or his description, according to rule, if name not registered.

80. In entering a horse whose name has not been registered, it shall be
described by stating the age, the colour (when possible), and whether a horse,
mare, or gelding, and the registered or Stud-book names or description of its
sire and dam. If the dam was covered by more than one stallion the names of all
must be stated. In all cases such pedigree and description must be given as
will clearly distinguish the horse entered from all other horses, and if the pedi-
gree of the sire or dam be unknown, such further particulars must be given as to
where, when, and from whom it was purchased, or obtained, as will identify it.

81. Whenever the name under which a horse has run at any recognised Meet-
ing in any countr}' is changed, 01 abandoned, his old name, as well as his new
name or description, must be given in every entry until the change has been
published in two Monthly Calendars or the Book Calendar, and a fee of £% paid.

82. No alteration or addition shall be made in any entry after the time fixed
for closing, except in cases expressly sanctioned by these rules.

83. In the event of a horse being entered for a race with an incorrect or im-
perfect description according to the rules of entry, such error or omission may, ii
accidental, be corrected on payment of a fine of ^TS at any time before the horse's
number is exhibited for that race, provided that the identity of the horse be
satisfactorily proved.

If the above correction be not made, or the horse struck out, within seven days
after the error has been officially brought to the knowledge of the owner, or his
agent, or if any horse runs without the prescribed correction having been made,
the Stewards of the Jockey Club may inflict fines upon, or otherwise deal with
any persons responsible for such errors.

Note. — The omission, under fine, of horses from races for which they are not
qualified, is now dealt with under Rule 108.

84. When, subsequently to the time fixed for closing, a registered name has
been published for any horse entered, the entry may be amended by inserting
such name in addition to the name or description given in the original entry.

85. A subscriber to a race may transfer the right of entry under his sub-
scription to any other person.

86. Subscriptions and all entries or rights of entry under them become void
on the death of the subscriber, and entries (except such as are made under
another person's subscription) become void on the death of the person in whose
name they are made.

87. If either party to a match die the match is off.

88. An acceptance of the weight for a free handicap shall be considered as
equivalent to an entry, but if the horse be wrongly described the acceptance shall
be void.

89. In making an entry for a produce race, the produce is entered by
specifying the dam and sire, or sires.

90. No horse shall be considered as struck out of any of his engagements until
the owner, or some duly authorised person, shall have given notice in writing, or
by telegraph to be confirmed in writing, at the Registry Office or to the Clerk of
the Course where the horse is engaged.

726

MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

The notification of the death of a horse shall be equivalent to a declaration ot
forfek.

Sale with Engagements.

91. When a horse is sold with his engagements, or any part of them, the seller
cannot strike the horse out of any of such engagements, and, on default of the
purchaser, remains liable for the amount of the forfeits in each, but should the
horse, or his owner, appear in the Forfeit List, the seller may, at any time before
their names are removed from the list, strike the horse out of any engagement, if
he can by this means reduce his liability.

92. Sales, with engagements, by private treaty must be registered to entitle
either seller or purchaser to avail himself of the conditions of the preceding rule ;•
but when the horse is sold by public auction or claimed out of a selling race the
advertised conditions of either the race or sale are sufficient evidence. If certain
engagements only be specified those only are sold with the horse.

Note. — The following are known and recognised as " Lord Exeter's Con-
ditions " : —

' * The horses are sold without their engagements, but the purchaser has the
right of running for any of them by paying half the stake, and in the event of the
horse winning, or being entitled to second or third money, one-third shall be paid
to the vendor, but the vendor reserves to himself the right of striking the horse
out of any race, in time to save a minor forfeit or discount, unless the purchaser
shall give notice that he wishes to run for any particular race, when he will
become liable for half the stake or forfeit. Horses purchased under Lord Exeter's
conditions cannot be re-sold under the same conditions without the written
consent of the original vendor."

Assumed Names and Partnerships.

93. An assumed name cannot be used unless annually registered, and the fee
paid. A registration continues effectual only during the current year.

(i) A person cannot register more than one assumed name at the same time,
nor can he use his real name so long as he has a registered one.

(ii) An assumed name may be changed at any time by registering a new
assumed name.

(iii) A person cannot register as his assumed name one which has been already
registered by any other person, or the real name of any owner of race-horses.

(iv) Any person who has registered an assumed name may at any time
abandon it by giving written notice at the Registry Office ; such notice of can-
cellation shall be published in the next Racing Calendar, after which all entries
which have been made in the assumed name, shall be altered to the real name of
the owner.

94. Partnerships^ etc. — All partnerships and the name and address of every
person having any interest in a horse, the relative proportions of such interest,^
and the terms of any sale with contingencies, lease, or arrangement, must be
signed by all the parties, or their authorised agents, and lodged at the Registry
Office, or with the Clerk of the Course for transmission to the Registry Office^
before a horse sold with contingencies, or leased, or which is a joint property, can
be entered or start for any race, and the document shall state with whom the
power of entry or declaration of forfeit rests, and all partners shall be jointly and
severally liable for every stake or forfeit. No part owner shall assign his share
or any part thereof in a horse without the consent of his partners. A fee of
I sov. shall be paid on each horse, and all partnerships, sales with contingencies, or
leases, shall be published in the real or assumed names in the next available
Racing Calendar. Any termination or severance must be notified within fourteen
days to the Registry Office for publication, or a second fee will be incurred.

Jockeys' Licenses, etc.

95. (i) No jockey or apprentice shall, after the last day of the week in which
he shall have first ridden, ride in any race until he shall have obtained a license
from the Stewards of the Jockey Club. Such license must be applied for annually,.

APPENDIX 727

■with full name and address, at the Res:istry Office, and will only be granted on
the condition that a jockey is not an owner of any race-horse. Under exceptional
circumstances, leave may be granted to jockeys, who are also trainers, to own one
or more horses, provided that such horse or horses are trained in their own
stables.

(ii) Any person who shall employ a jockey, in contravention of this rule, shall
be liable to be fined by the Stewards of the Jockey Club.

(iii) A list of the licensed jockeys shall be published annually in the Racing
Calendar.

(iv) Every jockey shall pay I sov. ,and every apprentice los, for his license,
to be applied as his subscription to the Bentinck Benevolent and Provident
Fund.

(v) No jockey whose license has been withdrawn, or refused on the ground of
misconduct, will be eligible to ride trials, or be allowed in any weighing-room,
stand, or enclosure, during the time his suspension from riding continues.

96. Any gentleman wishing to ride in races on even terms with jockeys shall
obtain a permission, current till revoked, from the Stewards of the Jockey Club,
and make a donation of £s to the Bentinck Benevolent Fund.

97. Jockeys^ Retainers. — In the absence of special agreement, a jockey's retainer
terminates at the end of the racing season. Half the agreed retaining fee must
be paid in advance, and the remainder at the termination of the retainer.

98. Every jockey at the termination of his apprenticeship is free to form en-
gagements for himself, irrespective of any which have been made for him during
such apprenticeship.

The terms of all agreements shall be registered, and a fee of 5s paid.

99. Employers retaining the same jockey have precedence according to the
priority of their retainers.

100. The Stewards of the Jockey Club may adjudicate between persons claim-
ing the services of any jockey, and on disputes between jockeys and their em-
ployers, and have power to cancel any agreement between them.

loi. Jockeys' Fees. — In the absence of special agreement to ride for a lower
sum, the fee to a winning jockey shall be ;^5, 5s, and to a losing jockey ;^3, 3s,
and no further charge shall be made, except when requested to leave home for the
purpose of riding, in which case the cost of travelling expenses, and £1 a day for
living, shall be charged to the owner, or divided between the owners, at whose
request he left home.

ia) In the case of a dead heat, if the owners divide, each jocke)' shall be paid
a winning fee. In case of a run off, no additional fee shall be paid; but when
either horse is ridden by a fresh jockey, the rider on each occasion is entitled to
the prescribed fee.

All jockeys' fees shall be paid to the Stakeholder at the same time as the
stakes.

Every jockey sending in a charge for expenses at a meeting shall state at the
same time what charge has been made to other owners for attending the same
meeting.

102. Stable Lads. — (i) No trainer shall engage any stable servant who has
previously been in a training stable without referring to his last employer, and
receiving a satisfactory reply in writing.

(ii) Any trainer infringing this rule and continuing to employ such servant
after notice has been served on him by the late employer or through the
Registry Office shall be reported to the Stewards of the Jockey Club.

(iii) Any servant prevented by this rule from obtaining or retaining employ-
ment shall have the right of appeal to the Stewards of the Jockey Club.

Racing Colours.

103. Racing colours shall be registered either annually on payment of 5s, or
for the life of the person registering on payment of 5 sov. Colours so registered
shall not be taken by any other person.

All disputes as to the right to particular colours shall be settled by the
Stewards of the Jockey Club.

728

MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

104. Any person running a horse in colours other than those registered in his
own or assumed name, without a special declaration over-night to the Clerk ol
the Course (at a time to be prescribed), shall be fined not less than i so v., nor
more than 10 sov.

A special declaration is also required where the owner is not the nominator.

Entrance Money, Forfeits, and Stakes.

105. Entrance money, forfeits, stakes, and arrears, must be paid in cash (if so
required) to the Clerk of the Course, or authorised stakeholder, and entrance
money must (if so required) be paid at the time of entry.

106. Entrance money shall go to the race fund of the meeting, unless other-
wise specified in the conditions of the race and subject to the application of
surplus under Prizes (see p. 73 1)-

107. Entrance fees, subscriptions, stakes, and forfeits shall be in pounds, not
guineas.

108. The nominator is liable, as well as every partner in the horse at the time
of nomination, for the entrance money and stake or forfeit. A person making a
wrong nomination is equally liable, but where a horse has been accidentally
entered for a race for which he is not qualified, he may be withdrawn on payment
of a fine, in lieu of forfeit, of 5 sov. at any time before the race, the fines under this
rule to go as the forfeits.

A subscriber to a sweepstakes is liable for the stake or forfeit ; but if he transfer
the right of entry to any other person he is liable only in case of default by the
transferee.

109. A person taking an entry under another person's subscription, where
forfeit must be declared by a particular time shall, if he do not declare forfeit by
that time, be considered to have taken the engagement upon himself, and it shall
be transferred to his name.

no. A jockey shall not be weighed out for any horse for a race unless there
have been previously paid (i) any stake, forfeit, entrance money or fee payable
by the owner or nominator, in respect of that race ; (2) all arrears due from any
person for such horse, or due for the same or any other horse from any person by
whom such horse is wholly or partly owned, or in whose name or under whose
subscription he is entered ; and (3) the jockey's fee.

The Unpaid Forfeit List.

111. An Unpaid Forfeit List shall be kept at the Registry Office, and shall be
published in the Sheet Calendar after the Newmarket July Meeting, and again at
the conclusion of the Racing season in every year. It shall include all arrears
which have been notified by the Stakeholder of any recognised meeting in the
United Kingdom, or as otherwnse provided under these rules, and shall state the
real name or names, and also the assumed name or names (if anj') of the persons
from whom, and the horses in respect of which, the same are due. " Arrears "
which have been so published must be paid directly into the Registry Office, with
fees according to rule, and until so paid shall not be removed from the list.

112. Where a person is prevented by these rules from entering or starting a
horse for any race without paying arrears for which he would not otherwise be
liable, he may, by paying the same, enter or start the horse and place the arrears
on the Forfeit List as due to himself, and in like manner the seller of a horse with
engagements may, if compelled to pay them by the purchaser's default, place the
amount on the Forfeit List, as due from the purchaser to himself.

113. So long as the name of a person is in the Forfeit List, no horse can be
entered by him or under his subscription for any race, whether acting as an agent
or otherwise, and no horse which has been entered by him, or in his name, or
under his subscription, or of which he is, or was at the time of entry, wholly or
partly the owner, can run for any race ; and no horse which shall be proved to the
satisfaction of the Stewards to be directly or indirectly under the care, training,
management, or superintendence of a person whose default has been twice pub-
lished in the Racing Calendar, shall be qualified to be entered or run for any race.

APPENDIX 729

So long as any horse is in the Forfeit List, such horse shall not be qualified to be
entered or run for any race.

This rule shall not prevent the entry for a Produce stake of mares and stallions
that are in the Forfeit List.

The disabilities under this rule extend to all arrears officially notified by a
recognised Turf authority of any country.

114. A corrected alphabetical Index of the horses and owners in the last For-
feit List and Irish Forfeit List shall be published in the first Calendar of every
month during the racing season. Such monthly list shall commence not less than
three years before the time at which it is published, and shall be carried down to
and include the latest Forfeit List which has been published in the Sheet Calendar
as above mentioned.

115. If a horse which, or the owner of which, is in the Forfeit List be entered
for any race in contravention of these rules, the nominator of such horse may be
fined £50.

Weights, Penalties, and Allowances.

116. No horse shall carry less than 6st in any race.

117. Penalties. — In estimating the amount a horse has won in any one or more
races, account shall be taken of all cups or moneys, whether derived from stakes,
bonus, or any other source, gained by him for his owner or of any other person,
deducting only his own stake and interest.

118. Winnings during the year shall include all prizes to the time appointed
for the start, and apply to all races in any country, and include dividing, walking
over, or receiving forfeit.

Penalties for winning a fixed sum shall be understood to mean for winning it in
one race unless specified to the contrary.

119. No horse shall carry extra weight for having run second, or in any lower
place in a race,

120. Extra weights shall not be incurred in respect of matches or private
sweepstakes.

121. Penalties are not cumulative unless so declared by the conditions of the
race.

122. When any race is in dispute both the horse that came in first and any
horse claiming the race shall be liable to all the penalties attaching to the winner
of that race till the matter be decided.

For penalties on dividing after dead heats (see Dead Heats, p. 730)'

123. All penalties and allowances shall be calculated according to the amount
of the value of each race as reported in the Racing Calendar.

124. Allowances. — Allowances must be claimed at the time of entry where
practicable (see Entries, Subscriptions, etc., p. 724), but omission to claim is not
a source of disqualification, and a claim for allowance to which a horse is not en-
titled does not disqualify unless carried out at scale.

125. No horse shall receive allowance of weight, or be relieved from extra
weight, for having been beaten in one or more races ; provided that this rule shall
not prohibit maiden allowances, or allowances to horses that have not won within
a specified time, or races of a specified value.

126. Allowances to the produce of untried horses or mares are for the produce
of horses whose produce never won a race in the United Kingdom, but these allow-
ances can only be claimed for horses bred in the United Kingdom.

127. Allowances are cumulative unless otherwise specified.

Weighing out. Exhibiting Numbers, etc.

128. The Weighing- Room. — No person shall, without special leave from the
Stewards, be admitted to the weighing-room except the owner, trainer, and jockey,
or other person having the care of a horse engaged in the race, and any person
refusing to leave shall be reported to the Stewards.

129. Weighing out, — Every jockey must be weighed for a specified horse by the
Clerk of the Scales, at the appointed place, not less than a quarter of an hour
before the time fixed for the race, and the numbers shall then be exhibited as soon

730 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

as possible. In exceptional cases, or where the delay of a previous race has ren-
dered punctuality impossible, the Stewards may extend the time allowed for
weighing, declaring weight, and for exhibiting the numbers.

130. When the numbers have been exhibited, no alteration or addition can be
made without the leave of the Stewards, whose reasons for such permission shall
be reported at the Registry Office. Should any horse not start whose number has
been exhibited, the owner and any other person responsible may be fined, or
otherwise dealt with, at the discretion of the Stewards.

131. If a jockey intend to carry over-weight, he must declare the amount
thereof at the time of weighing out, or, if in doubt as to his proper weight he may
declare the weight he intends to carry.

132. It is optional for the jockey to weigh out or in with his bridle, and the
Clerk of the Scales shall, if requested, allow lib for a curb or double bridle, but if
a horse run in a hood, muzzle, martingale, breastplate, or clothing, it must be put
into the scale, and included in the jockey's weight.

133. No whip or substitute for a whip shall be allowed in the scales.

Starting.

134. The horses must be started by the ofUcial Starter or his authorised
substitute.

135. Every horse shall be at the post, ready to start, at the appointed time.

136. All jockeys, on arrival at the starting post, must immediately place them-
selves under the Starter's orders.

137. No horse, when once under the Starter's hands, shall go back, except in
the case of an accident.

138. The horses shall (so far as is practicable) be drawn up before the start in
an order to be determined by lots to be drawn by the jockeys at the time of weigh-
ing out.

Running and Walking Over.

139. An owner running two or more horses in a race may declare to win with one
of them, and such declaration must be made at scale. A jockey riding a horse
with which the owner was not declared to win, must on no account stop such horse,
except in favour of the stable companion on whose behalf declaration to win has
been made.

140. (i) A horse which crosses another in any part of the race so as to interfere
with that or any other horse's chance is liable to disqualification, unless it be
proved that he was two clear lengths in front when he crossed.

(ii) If a horse or his jockey jostle another horse, or jockey, the aggressor is dis-
qualified unless it be proved that the jostle was wholly caused by the fault of some
other jockey, or that the jostled horse or his jockey was partly in fault.

(iii) If a horse run the wrong side of a post he must turn back and run the
course from such post.

141. If a race has been run by all the horses at wrong weights, or over a wrong
course, or distance, or before the appointed time, or if the Judge is not in the box
at the time the horses pass the winning post, the Stewards shall order the
race to be run again the same day if practicable, but if otherwise, it shall be
void.

142. Walking Over. — When one horse pays forfeit for a match, the other need
not walk-over, but for a sweepstakes even if all the horses but one, have declared
forfeit, that horse must walk-over, except by the written consent of the persons
who pay forfeit ; in the case of a plate, the consent of the Stewards is necessary.

143. On a division after a dead heat it shall not be necessary for a horse to walk-
over.

Dead Heats.

144. Every horse running a dead heat for first place shall be deemed the
winner of the race until the dead heat is run off or the owners agree to divide, and,
if the owners agree to divide, each horse which divides shall be deemed a winner

APPENDIX 731

of the race, and liable to any penalty for the full amount he would have received
if he had won.

145 (i) A dead heat for the first place shall be run off on the same day at a
time to be appointed by the Stewards, unless the owners agree to divide. The
other horses shall be deemed to have been beaten, but they shall be entitled to
their places (if any) as if the race had been finally determined the first time.

(ii) In running off a dead heat, the rules as to declaration of over-weight,
weighing out, and weighing in, shall apply, but the same jockeys need not ride.

(iii) If, in running a dead heat off, either horse should be disqualified, it shall
be decided by the Stewards whether the disqualification shall extend to the loss of
the second place, and if so, the horse that originally ran third shall be entitled to
the second place.

146. When a dead heat is run for second place, and an objection is made to the
winner of the race, if such objection be declared valid in time for the dead heat to
be run off on the day of the race, the Stewards may direct it to be run off accord-
ingly : otherwise the horses which ran the dead heat shall divide.

147. If a dead heat be run by two or more horses for second or any lower place
in a race, the owners shall divide, subject to the provisions of the last preceding
rule.

148. When owners divide they shall divide equally all the moneys or other
prizes which any of them could take if the dead heat were run off.

149. If the dividing owners cannot agree as to which of them is to have a cup
or other prize which cannot be divided, the question shall be determined by lot
by the Stewards who shall decide what sum of money shall be paid by the owner
who takes such cup or other indivisible prize to the other owners or owner.

150. On a dead heat for a match the match is off.

Weighing In.

151. Every jockey must, immediately after pulling up, ride his horse to the
place of weighing, dismount, and present himself to be weighed by the clerk of the
scales : Provided that, if a jockey be prevented from riding to the place of weigh-
ing by reason of accident or illness, by which he or his horse is disabled, he may
walk or be carried to the scales.

152. If a horse carry more than two pounds over his proper or declared weight
he is disqualified, unless the Stewards be satisfied that such excess of weight has
been caused by wet.

153. If a jockey do not present himself to weigh in, or be short of weight, or
be guilty of any fraudulent practice with respect to weight or weighing, or dismount
before reaching the scales, or touch (except accidently) any person or thing other
than his own equipments before weighing in, his horse is disqualified, unless he
can satisfy the Stewards that he was justified by extraordinary circumstances.

Prizes.

154. The value of prizes not in money must be advertised.

155. Prizes, stakes and forfeits in a race belong to the winner, except as other-
wise declared in the conditions.

156. No plate or sweepstakes shall be run for unless the clear value to the
winner (calculated as in Weights, Penalties, etc., p. 729), in case the race be run
by two or more horses, will amount to j/Tioo. But if the value would amount to
j£ 100, if the race were so run, ahorse may walk over, although he thereby receives
less than /"loo.

157. In all races with not less than 5 entries, the second horse shall at least
save his stake and entrance.

158. When a sweepstakes has been so reduced by the death of subscribers that
the payments to second or other horses, according to conditions, would reduce the
value, if run for, to less than ;^ioo, the winner shall receive a clear ;^ioo, and
only the balance, if any, be divided proportionally between the other horses
entitled to participaie in the stakes.

ii>9. h\ ail races, should there be any surplus from entrance or subscription

732 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

over the advertised value it shall be paid to the winner, unless provided by the
conditions to go to other horses in the race. A race may be declared void provided
the number of entries required by advertisement be not obtained, but the value of
a prize once advertised shall not be reduced.

1 60. When a cup or plate or any added money is advertised to be run for, it
shall be given in the event of a walk-over.

When a walk-over (except after a dead heat) is the result of arrangement by
the owners of horses engaged, neither a cup nor any portion of the advertised
money need be given.

161. Any money or prize which by the conditions is to go to the horse placed
second, or in any lower place, shall, if the winner have walked over or no horse has
been placed second, be dealt with as follows, namely : —

(i) If part of the stakes or plate it shall go to the winner ; or

(ii) If a separate donation from the race fund, or any other source, it shall

not be given at all ; or

(iii) If entrance money for the race, it shall go to the race fund of the

meeting.

162. No prize shall be given to any but to the first four horses placed.

163. No deductions shall be made from the value of any race except such as
are gained by other horses in the race, and except Clerks, stakeholding, and
weighing fees, as fixed by rule, or any sums assigned, under the conditions of a
race to the Bentinck Benevolent or Rous Memorial Funds.

164. If a race be never run or be void, stakes, forfeits, and entrance money
shall be returned.

165. A race may be declared void if no qualified horse cover the course
according to rule.

Disputes, Objections, Appeals, etc.

166. Every objection shall be decided by the Stewards, but their decision
shall (if they are not the Stewards of the Jockey Club) be subject to appeal to
the Stewards of the Jockey Club, so far as relates to points involving the inter-
pretation of these rules, or to any question, other than a question of fact ; on
which there shall be no appeal unless by leave of the Stewards and with the
consent of the Stewards of the Jockey Club. Notice of appeal must be. given
in Avriting to the Clerk of the Course within forty-eight hours of the decision
being made known.

167. All disputes, objections, and appeals referred to or brought before the
Stewards of the Jockey Club for their decision, shall be decided by the three
Stewards ; if only two Stewards be present they shall fix upon a third person,
being a member of the Club, in lieu of the absent Steward, but the Stewards
may call in any other members of the Jockey Club to their assistance, or may,
if they think the importance or difficulty of the case requires such a course,
refer it to a general meeting.

168. Objections^ when and how made. — (i) If an objection to a horse engaged
in a race be made not later than half-past ten in the morning of the day of the
race, the Stewards may require his qualification to be proved before the race ; and
in default of such proof being given to their satisfaction, they may declare him
disqualified.

(ii) An objection to the distance of a course officially designated must be
made before a race.

(iii) An objection to any decision of the Clerk of the Scales must be made at
once.

(iv) An objection to a horse, on the ground of a cross, jostle, or any act on the
part of his jockey, or of his not having run the proper course, or of the race
having been run on a wrong course, or of any other matter occurring in the
race, must be made within a quarter of an hour after the winner has weighed in,
unless, under special circumstances, the Stewards are satisfied that it could not
have been made within that time.

(v) An objection on the ground,

(a) That the horse which ran was not the horse which he was represented

APPENDIX 733

to be at the time of entry, or that he was not qualified under the conditions
of the race, or

(3) That he has run in contravention of the rules of partnership,
may be received within fourteen days of the conclusion of a meeting.

(vi) An objection on the ground that a horse is disqualified by reason of any
default entered in the Forfeit List, may be received within six months after the
race.

(vii) In any other case an objection must be made within twenty-four hours of
the race being run, exclusive of Sunday, save in the case of any fraud, or wilful
mis-statement, when there shall be no limit to the time for objecting, provided
the Stewards are satisfied there has been no unnecessary delay on the part of the
objector.

169. Every objection shall be in writing, and must be signed by the owner of
some horse engaged in the race, or by his authorised agent, trainer, jockey, or
groom, and must be made to one of the Stewards, to the Clerk of the Course, or
Clerk of the Scales ; the objector shall, at the time he makes the objection,
deposit in the hands of the Stakeholder the sum of 5 sov., and on an appeal, an
additional sum of 10 sov. shall be lodged by the appellant. If the case be
decided against the depositor, his deposit shall be forfeited to the Bentinck
Benevolent or Rous Memorial Funds, unless the Stewards who heard the case, or
the Stewards of the Jockey Club on the appeal, shall certify that there was good
and reasonable ground for the objection of the appeal.

170. An objection may also be made without deposit by a Steward or licensed
official of a meeting in his official capacity.

171. An objection cannot be withdrawn without leave of the Stewards.

172. No horse shall be disqualified on account of any error or violation of
rule in the entry, which might have been corrected on payment of a fine, but the
Stewards may inflict fines upon, or otherwise deal with, any persons responsible
for such errors.

173. If an objection to a horse which has won, or been placed in a race, be
declared valid, the horse shall be regarded as having been last in the race, and the
other horses shall take positions accordingly.

174. All costs and expenses in relation to determining an objection or con-
ducting an enquiry, and any reasonable compensation for outlay incurred, shall be
paid by such person, or persons, and in such proportions, as the Stewards shall
direct.

175. Pending the determination of an objection, any prize which the horse
objected to may have won or may win in the race, shall be withheld until the
objection is determined, and any forfeit payable by the owner of any other horse
shall be paid to and held by the Stakeholder for the person who may be entitled
to it.

Corrupt Practices and Disqualifications of Persons.

176. (i) If any person corruptly give or offer, or promise directly or indirectly,
any bribe in any form to any person having official duties in relation to a race or
race-horse, or to any trainer, jockey, or agent, or to any other person having
charge of, or access to, any race-horse ; or

(ii) If any person having official duties in relation to a race, or if any trainer,
jockey, agent, or other person, having charge of. or access to, any race-horse
corruptly accept or offer to accept any bribe, in any form ; or

(iii) Wilfully enter or cause to be entered or to start for any race a horse
which he knows or believes to be disqualified ; or

(iv) If any person be proved to the satisfaction of the Stewards of the Jockey
Club to have surreptitiously obtained information respecting a trial from any
person or persons engaged in it, or in the service of the owner or trainer of the
horses tried, or respecting any horse in training from any person in such
service ; or

(v) If any person be guilty of or shall conspire with any other person for the
commission of, or shall connive at any other person being guilty of any other
corrupt or fraudulent practice in relation to racing in this or any other country ;

734 i MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Every person so offending shall be warned off Newmarket Heath and other
places where these Rules are in force.

177. If any person be reported by the Committee of the Subscription Rooms
at Newmarket or at Tattersall's as being a defaulter in bets, he shall be warned
off as in the last rule mentioned so long as his default continues.

178. When a person is warned off Newmarket Heath and so long as his
exclusion continues, he shall not be qualified, whether acting as an agent or
otherwise, to subscribe for or to enter or run any horse for any race either in his
own name or in that of any other person, and any horse of which he is the
nominator, or is (or was at the time of entry) wholly or partly the owner, or
which (after the fact of his being warned off has been twice published in the
Racing Calendar) shall be proved to the satisfaction of the Stewards to be, or
to have been, directly or indirectly, under his care, training, management, or
superintendence, shall be disqualified.

Fees and Fines.

179. The Stakeholder shall be allowed to retain, out of the stakes in his
hands, the following fees, viz. : —

For every match, one pound.

For every subscription or sweepstakes where the lowest forfeit amounts to
20 sov. ^ per cent, on the whole stake, and on all other races i per cent.

180. There shall also be payable the following maximum fees : —
For every entry, a Clerk's fee of 2s. 6d.

For weighing, a Clerk's fee of 2s. 6d.
For registration of a horse's name, a Clerk's fee of 2s. 6d.
The following fees are also payable : —
Registration Fees,

181. (i) For registration of authority to act generally on behalf of an owner,
five shillings.

(ii) For every registration or change of an assumed name, ;i^30.
(iii) For every registration of partnership, and on every change thereof one
sovereign for each horse.

(iv) For every annual registration of colours, five shillings.
(v) For every registration of colours for life, five sovereigns.
(vi) For registration of foreign and veterinary certificates, five shillings,
(vii) For registration of an agreement with a jockey, five shillings.
(J)) On fixtures being granted to a meeting, the following fees shall be paid
(unless the Stewards of the Jockey Club shall see fit in any case to remit the
same) : — All meetings having four days consecutively, or six da)^s at any time,
100 sov.; all others, 5 sov. a day.

182. Except where otherwise provided, all fees and fines shall be paid to the
credit of the Jockey Club, all fines to be afterwards transferred, either wholly or
in such proportions as the Stewards may direct, either to the Bentinck Benevolent
Fund or the Rous Memorial Fund.

New Rules.

183. Every new rule (in which term is included the repeal or alteration of an
existing rule) must be advertised three times in the Sheet Calendar, with the
date of the meeting of the Jockey Club at which it is to be proposed, and be
submitted to the Rules Committee, before it is brought up for discussion.

184. Every new rule must be confirmed at a meeting subsequent to that at
which it is passed, and be then twice adveitised in the Sheet Calendar, but
shall not come into operation until the 1st of January following, unless urgency
be declared by the Stewards on confirmation.

APPENDIX 735

NATIONAL HUNT RULES.

Definitions and Application of these Rules.

I. (i) A "recognised meeting" is a meeting held under the sanction of the
National Hunt Committee, or other Turf authority, of the country in which it is
held ; or (where no such authority exists) under these rules.

The Turf authorities of the United Kingdom are —
The National Hunt Committee.
The Jockey Club.
The Turf Club of Ireland.

The Irish National Hunt Steeple Chase Committee.
The Channel Islands Racing and Hunt Club.

"Stewards." — Wherever the word " Steward " or " Stewards" only is used, it
means Steward or Stewards of the meeting, or their duly appointed deputy or
deputies.

liie expression "United Kingdom" includes Great Britain, Ireland, the
Channel Islands, and the Isle of Man.

The "Registry Office" is the office for the time being appointed as the
registry ofhce by the National Hunt Committee.

" Registered " and " Registration " mean " Registered" and " Registration " at
such office.

N.B. — The present Registry Office is Messrs Weatherby's Office, 6 Old Burlington
Street, London^ U'., and Newmarket.

The "Racing Calendar," comprising the "Sheet Calendar "and the ''Book
Calendar" of "Steeple Chases Past," and the "Stud Book" are the works
published under those names respectively by authority of the National Hunt
Committee or the Jockey Club.

The " Forfeit List "is a record of " arrears," published under the sanction of
the Turf authorities of the United Kingdom.

A "horse" includes mare, gelding, colt, and filly, save when the context
requires otherwise.

A "welter flat race" is a weight-for-age race, of not less value than 200 sov.,
for four-years-old and upwards, sanctioned by the Jockey Club to be run under
these Rules, during the close time of Flat Racing only, at a minimum weight of
gst 7lb, and over a distance of not less than two miles.

A " maiden " is a horse which has never won a steeple chase, hurdle race, or
National Hunt flat race (other than a match or private sweepstakes) at any
recognised meeting in the IJnited Kingdom, or in any other country. In welter
flat races the word " maiden " signifies a horse which has never won a race of that
description or any race to which the Rules of Racing apply. A maiden means a
maiden at the time of the start.

A horse which has " never started " is one that has never started for a steeple
chase, hurdle race, or National Hunt flat race (other than a match or private
sweepstakes^ in any country.

A " race means plate, sweepstakes, cup or match, but refers only, under these
rules, to steeple chases, hurdle races. National Hunt flat races, or welter flat races.

A " plate " is a race to be run for money or other prize without any stake
being made by the owners of the horses engaged.

A " sweepstake " is a race in which stakes are made, or a fixed sum subscribed
for, by the owners of three or more horses engaged, and any such race is still a
sweepstakes, when money or other prize is added,

A " private sweepstakes " is one to which no money is added, and which has
not been publicly advertised previous to closing.

A "cup " is any prize not given in money.

A " handicap " is a race in which the weights to be carried by the horses are
adjusted by the handicapper for the purpose of equalising their chances of winning,

A "free handicap" is one in which no liability for stake or forfeit is incurred
until acceptance.

A " post race " is a race for which a person may, under one subscription, enter

IZ^

MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

two or more horses, and run any one or more of them, as the conditions
prescribe.

A " produce race " is one to be run for by the produce of the horses named at
the time of entry.

A " selling race " is one in which any horse running " to be sold," if a loser,
may be claimed, and if the winner, must be offered for sale by auction, or be liable
to be claimed.

A " weight-for-age " race is a race in which weights are apportioned to horses
according to their ages, and remains a weight-for-age race, even if there are
penalties and allowances.

A match at " catch weights " means one for which the riders need not weigh
before or after the race.

The "nominator" is the person in whose name a horse is entered for a race.
'• Owner " includes " part-owner " or " lessee."

*• Arrears " are any sums unpaid in respect of fines, compensation, fees,
entrance money, stakes, subscriptions, forfeits, and purchase money in races with
selling conditions.

The expression " disqualified person " includes —

{a) Every person who is warned off Newmarket Heath or other courses.
(^) Every person whose name is in the For'eit List or list of arrears officially
notified by a recognised Turf authority of any country until the
default is cleared.
{c) Every person who has been reported as a defaulter in bets under
Corrupt Practices, etc., until it has been officially notified that such
default is cleared.
{d) Every person who has been declared by the Turf authorities of, or by
the Stewards of, any recognised meeting in the United Kingdom or
any other country to have been guilty of any corrupt or fraudulent
practice on the Turf,
(ii) These Rules apply to all meetings held under the sanction of the National
Hunt Committee, and to all races run at such meetings, but they do not apply to
(a) Yeomanry races confined to chargers and troop horses, and held during
the time of the annual training, under the Stewardship of the Com-
manding Officer,
(3) Point to point steeple chases held under the Stewardship of the Master
of Foxhounds or Staghounds, or of a Master of Harriers (being a
member of the Association of Masters of Harriers), of the country in
which they are run, of which notice shall have been given at the
Registry Office (on a form to be obtained therefrom) not less than
seven days before the holding thereof, with a fee of ios.,and for
which a certificate in form i of Appendix C to these Rules, and signed
by such Master as aforesaid, shall be lodged at the Registry Office
within fourteen days after the holding thereof.
All other meetings, to which the public are admitted, not held under the
sanction of the National Hunt Committee or other Turf authority of the country
in which they are held, are " unrecognised meetings," and every horse which has
run at such meeting is disqualified for all races under these rules.

Calculation of Time.

2. A meeting shall be deemed to commence at ten in the morning of the day
for which the first race is advertised, and to conclude at ten in the evening of the
last day of the races.

3. When the last day for doing anything under these rules falls on a Sunday,
it may be done on the following Monday, unless a race to which such act relates
is appointed for that day, in which case it must be done on the previous Saturday.

4. A " month " means a calendar month ; a "day " means twenty-four hours.

Stewards of the National Hunt Committee and their Powers.

5. (i) The Stewards of the National Hunt Committee for the time being have
full power to sanction or prohibit any meeting to which these Rules apply, or any

APPENDIX ^2il

alteration in the date of holding such a meeting-, and to supervise and make such
alterations as they may think advisable in the programme of, or the conditions of,
any race at a meeting.

(ii) They have also the following powers : —

(a) To grant, withdraw, or suspend jockeys' licenses ;

(/5) To prohibit any person from acting in any ofhcial capacity in connec-
tion with a meeting ;
(c) To investigate any case which appears to them to require their inter-
ference (whether or not referred to them by the Stewards of a meet-
ing), and to give a final decision thereon ;
id) To entertain and determine appeals from the Stewards of a meeting, as

provided by Disputes, Objections, etc. ;
(<?) To receive reports from the Stewards of a meeting and other persons, as

provided by these Rules, and to act thereon ;
(/) To impose any fine not exceeding 50 sov., and to warn off any person
from all Courses where these Rules are in force for such period as
they think fit ;
and generally to exercise any of the powers specifically conferred upon them by,
or which they think necessary for the cariying out of, any of these Rules.

6. Stewards of Meetings. — There must be at least two Stewards for every
meeting.

7. If only one Steward is present on any day of a meeting, the Clerk of the
Course shall, before the running of the second race, request such Steward to
appoint some person to act as a deputy Steward, and if no Steward is present, the
Clerk of the Course shall appoint two or more deputy Stewards, and shall notify
conspicuously such appointment.

8. Powers of the Stewards. — The Stewards of a meeting have full power to
make all such arrangements for the conduct of the meeting as they think fit,
and, subject to the provisions of Regulations for Race Meetings, to postpone any
races for any time not later than the week following that for which they were
originally fixed, and all nominations and subscriptions shall stand good as if the
race had taken place on the day originally fixed.

9. The Stewards have control over, and they and the Members of the National
Hunt Committee have free access to, all stands, rooms, enclosures, and other
places used for the purposes of the meeting.

10. The Stewards shall exclude from all places under their control any " dis-
qualified person," and they have power in like manner at their discretion to
exclude any other person or persons.

11. The Stewards have power to regulate and control the conduct of all officials,
and of all trainers, riders, grooms, and persons attendant on horses.

12. They have power to punish at their discretion any person subject to their
control with fine not exceeding 50 sov., and with suspension from acting or riding
at the same meeting, and to report to the Stewards of the National Hunt Com-
mittee should they consider any further fine or punishment necessary.

13. The Stewards have power to determine all questions arising in reference
to racing at the meeting, subject to appeal under Disputes, Objections, etc.

14. Betting. — The Stewards of the National Hunt Committee take no cognis-
ance of any disputes or claims with respect to bets, nor shall the Stewards of a
meeting, as such, entertain any disputes relating thereto. But the Stewards of
the Nadonal Hunt Committee will give effect to an official report of default made
to them by the Committee of the Subscription Rooms at Newmarket, or at
Tattersall's, by warning persons so reported off all Courses where these Rules are
in force.

Officials.

15. One or more Inspectors of Steeple Chase Courses shall be annually
appointed by, and will receive their instructions from the Stewards of the
National Hunt Committee,

16. The following officials shall be appointed for every meeting, subject to the
approval of the Stewards, viz.. Clerk of the Course, Handicapper, Stakeholder,
Clerk of the Scales, Starter, and Judge.

.^ A

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MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

17. In case of emergency, the Stewards may, during a meeting, appoint a
substitute to fill any of the above-named offices for that meeting only.

18. Every complaint against an official shall be made to the Stewards in
writing, signed by the complainant.

19. Clerk of the Course. — The Clerk of the Course, or his authorised substitute,
is the sole person responsible to the Stewards for the general arrangements of the
meeting,

20. The Clerk of the Course shall arrange for the publication, under the
sanction of the Stewards, of a daily official card of the races, containing the
conditions of each race, as published in the Racing Calendar, the names of the
horses engaged, with a number attached to each, and such further particulars as
the Stewards may require. A horse may appear on the card in the name of the
owner, instead of that of the nominator, and the Stewards may, under special
circumstances, grant permission for a horse to run in the name of some other
person. The Clerk of the Course shall, in such latter case, make a report to the
Registry Office, stating the grounds upon which the permission was granted.

21. The Clerk of the Course shall, at once, make a return to the Registry
Office of any Deputy Steward, or official appointed, of all complaints to, and
decisions of, the Stewards, of all fines inflicted, and of all horses sold or claimed.

22. The Clerk of the Course shall have in his possession, for the information
of the Stewards, a list of persons " warned off," and of suspended jockeys, and also
a copy of the latest Monthly Forfeit List, and he shall not, under a penalty not
exceeding 10 sov., allow any horse which, or the owner or nominator of which, is
in the Forfeit List to start for any race.

23. Handicapper. — The Handicapper shall append to every handicap the day
and hour from which winners will be liable to a penalty.

24. The top weight to be allotted in a handicap shall not be less than I2st
7lb, nor the lowest weight less than lost, except in handicap steeple chases of
three miles and a half or upwards, when the lowest weight may be gst 7lb.

25. Stakeholder. — The Stakeholder shall not allow a rider to be weighed out
for any horse until such horse's entrance money and stake for that race, and the
forfeits for every horse belonging to the same owner, or standing in his name, the
jockey's fee, and any arrears claimed under rule, have been paid, or the Stake-
holder shall himself be liable : Provided that the Stakeholder shall not be liable
for arrears in respect of a meeting elsewhere than at the place at which the race
is run, unless notice of such arrears being overdue has been published in the
Forfeit List, or delivered in writing, signed by the person claiming the arrears to
the Stakeholder and to the person indebted, before ten in the evening preceding
the race.

26. The Stakeholder shall, at the expiration of fifteen days after the meeting,
render an account and pay over all stakes and added money to the persons en-
titled, and at the same time notify at the Registry Office all arrears then unpaid,
and one month before the publication of the next available Forfeit List he shall
further notify at the Registry Office all arrears then remaining unpaid, for
publication therein,

27. Clerk of the Scales. — The Clerk of the Scales shall exhibit the number (as
allotted on the official card) of each horse for which a rider has been weighed out,
and shall forthwith furnish the starter with a list of such numbers, and the
numbers shall not be taken down until the horses are started.

28. If extra, or special, weight be declared for any horse, such weight shall be
exhibited with the number, also any declaration to win, or alteration of colours.

29. The Clerk of the Scales shall in all cases weigh in the riders of the horses
placed by the Judge, and report to the Stewards any rider not presenting himself
to be weio:hed in.

30. He shall always put 41b extra into the scale for steeple chases and hurdle
races, and 2lb extra for National Hunt flat races and welter fiat races, to prove
that the horse has not carried too much weight.

31. He shall at the close of each day's racing send a return to the Registry
Office of the weights carried in every race and the names of the riders, specifying
over-weight, if any.

32. The Starter. — The Starter shall give all orders necessary for securing a fair

APPENDIX 739

start. The horses must be started from a walk, and as far as possible in a line,
but they may be started at such reasonable distance behind the starting post as
the Starter thinks necessary.

33. Any rider misconducting himself at the post, or refusing to obey the com-
mands of the Starter in any respect whatever, shall be reported to the Stewards.

34. A start in front of the starting post, or on a wrong course, is void, and
the horses must be started again.

35. The Judge. — The Judge, or his authorised substitute, or a Steward, must
occupy the Judge's box at the time the horses pass the winning post, or the race
must be run again. He must announce his decision immediately, and such
decision shall be final, unless an objection to the winner, or any placed horses, is
sustained : Provided that this Rule shall not prevent a Judge from correcting any
mistake, such correction being subject to confirmation by the Stewards.

36. The Judge shall, at the close of each day's racing, sign and send a report
of the result of each race to the Registry Office.

Reg^ilations for Race Meetings.

37. All meetings under these Rules must be sanctioned by the Stewards of
the National Hunt Committee.

38. The conditions of every race before closing, and the full programme of
every meeting, before it takes place, must be advertised in the Racing Calen-
dar, and no alteration can be made in the conditions of any race after the last
advertisement.

39. The preceding rule shall not preclude the addition of more money to a
race, or of a new race to the programme of a meeting subsequent to the publi-
cation of the last Calendar issued previous to the meeting being held.

40. The advertisement must state that the meeting is to be subject to the
National Hunt Rules, the days on which it is to be held, the dates for closing the
stakes, the names of the persons to receive nominations and declarations of forfeit,
and a place or places for the entry of every race, and, before the time fixed for
closing (races for future years excepted), the names of two or more persons as
Stewards, and of the Judge, Starter, Clerk of the Course, Handicapper, Stake-
holder, and Clerk of the Scales.

41. The Stewards of the National Hunt Committee may at their discretion
prohibit the advertisement of any meeting or race in the Racing Calendar, or call
upon the Stewards to alter or expunge any conditions, even after advertisement.

42. At every meeting advertised to take place solely under these Rules, there
shall be in each day's programme at least two steeple chases, one of which must
be of three miles or upwards ; and, of the total amount guaranteed for prizes, one
half at least shall be apportioned to steeple chases.

But this rule shall not apply in the case of Yeomanry races held during the
annual training, and conjointly under Regimental and National Hunt Rules, the
programmes ot which have been submitted to, and approved by, the Stewards of
the National Hunt Committee.

43. There shall be no race less than two miles.

44. In all Steeple Chase Courses there shall be at least twelve fences (exclusive
of hurdles) in the first two miles, and at least six fences in each succeeding mile.
There shall be a water jump at least twelve feet wide and 2 feet deep, to be left
open, or guarded only by a perpendicular fence not exceeding 2 feet in height.
There shall be in each mile at least one ditch 6 feet wide and 3 feet deep on the
taking off side of the fence, which ditch may be guarded by a single rail, or left
open, and which fence must be 4 feet 6 inches in height, and, if of dead brushwood
or gorse, 2 feet in width.

45. In all hurdle race courses there shall be not less than eight flights of
hurdles in the first two miles, with an additional flight of hurdles for every quarter
of a mile or part of one beyond that distance, the height of the hurdles being not
less than 3 feet 6 inches from the bottom bar to the top bar.

46. No pony or Galloway race shall take place at any meeting held under these
rules.

740 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

47. There shall be no restrictions with regard to training stables in the con-
ditions of any race.

48. Alterations of Dates and Postponements. — The following provisions apply to
any alterations in the dates of holding a meeting, and to postponements —

(i) The date for holding a meeting cannot be altered without the sanction of
the Stewards of the National Hunt Committee, unless the weather or ground be in
an unfit state for running, when a meeting or race may be postponed by the
Stewards of the meeting for any time not later than the end of the following week.

(ii) In the latter case a certificate must be drawn up containing the reason for
postponement, and stating the day and hour when such decision was arrived at,
which shall not be before noon on the day preceding that on which the meeting
or race has been advertised to take place, or to which it may have been previously
adjourned ; such certificate must be signed by two of the Stewards, or by one
Steward and the Clerk of the Course, and at once dispatched to the Registry
Office.

(iii) The meetings set out in Appendix A, shall not interfere with each other
by postponement except with the sanction of the Stewards of the National Hunt
Committee, who have the power to vary the list.

Omitted Conditions.

49. When the weights are omitted from the conditions of any race, the horses
shall carry I2st 7lb each, subject to penalties and allowances. If the horses be of
different age, the weights shall be fixed by the sanctioned scale given in Appendix B

50. When no course is mentioned, it shall be as follows : —

If for three-years-old, two miles.
If for four-years-old, two miles and a half.
If for five-years-old, three miles.
If for six-years-old or upwards, four miles.

If for horses of different ages, the course shall be fixed by the age of
the youngest.

51. When no day is fixed for a race, it shall be run on the last day of the
meeting, unless otherwise agreed by all the parties engaged, and sanctioned by
the Stewards.

Special Conditions applicable to Handicaps, Produce Races, and
Selling Races.

52. Handicaps. — If in a handicap for which there is a minor forfeit declared
by a fixed time, the highest weight accepting was originally less than I2st ylb, it
shall be raised to that weight, and the other acceptances equally.

53. In handicaps there shall be no clause permitting an alteration of the
weights after publication by the claim of a selling allowance.

54. Produce Races. — If the produce of a mare is dropped before the 1st of
January, or if there is no produce, or if the produce is dead when dropped, the
entry of such mare is void if it is declared by the time prescribed in the conditions ;
if twins are dropped the nominator shall at the same prescribed time declare to
which of them the engagement attaches.

55. Selling Races. — In a selling race, the lowest selling price shall in no case
be less than £'^0.

56. (i) Any horse running for any race " to be sold," shall, if the winner, be
liable to be claimed for the entered selling price by the owner of any other horse
starting in the race.

(ii) If it is a condition of the race that the winner is to be sold by auction, the
sale shall take place immediately after the race, and the surplus, if any, over the
entered selling price shall be equally divided between the owner of the second
horse and the Race Fund. Any such sale by auction shall be subject to a right to
bid for, or to buy in such horse, on behalf of the seller.

(iii) If sold, or bought in, the horse shall not leave the place of sale without
the written permission of the Clerk of the Course, and if the horse be not paid for,
or the price secured to the satisfaction of the Cierk of the Course within a quarter of

APPENDIX 741

an hour, he may order the horse to be put up a second time, and the purchaser
at the first sale shall be responsible for any deficiency arising from the second, and
shall be treated as a defaulter until it is paid.

57. (i) All other horses starting "to be sold" may be claimed for the entered
selling price, plus the value of the stakes or plate by owners of horses running in
the race.

(ii) Owners of horses placed, other than the winner, have priority of claim in
order of their places, and if the owners of two or more horses having equal rights,
claim, they must draw lots ; the owner of the winner has the last claim.

(iii) No person can claim more than one horse.

(iv) Every claim must be made in writing to the Clerk of the Scales within a
quarter of an hour after the winner has weighed in, but subject to the rules in
cases of objection.

58. The price of every horse claimed must be paid to the Clerk of the Course,
and a written order given by him for delivery of the horse.

In the case of a horse being claimed, if the price be not paid before seven
o'clock in the evening of the day of the race, the claimant forfeits his right. But
the owner may insist on the claimant taking and paying for the horse, and if he
refuse or neglect to do so, he shall be treated as a defaulter in respect of the price.

59. In selling races where a horse walks over, or there is no second horse
placed, the winner is liable to be sold, and any surplus above the entered selling
price will go to the fund ; but where a horse walks over and the whole of the added
money is not given, he shall not be liable to be sold or to be penalised for such
walk-over in cases where selling race winners are exempted from penalties.

60. In cases where there are not the required number of starters, and the
added money is reduced according to the conditions, the race ceases to be a selling
race, the winner is exempt from sale, and the remaining horses cannot be claimed.

61. In the cases hereafter mentioned, the following provisions as to claiming
and selling shall apply —

(i) Where a horse is objected to —

(a) If such objection is made before the horse has been sold or delivered,
the time for selling or delivering him shall be postponed until such time
after the determination of the objection as the Stewards appoint.

(^) Where the objection is made and sustained after the horse has been
sold or bought in, the sale or buying in, and any claim in respect of the
horse placed second, shall be annulled, and all moneys paid thereunder
returned. The horse disqualified shall be liable to be claimed as a beaten
horse, and the Stewards shall fix a time for the exercise of such right of
claiming, and a time and place for the sale of the horse adjudged to be
the winner.
Should the Stewards find the above provisions impracticable, they shall make
a report to the Registry Office.

(ii) In the case of a dead heat, the time for claiming or selling is postponed
until the dead heat is run off. In case of a division, each of the horses dividing is
a winner for the purposes of the Rules relating to claiming and selling, and if an
auction race, both shall be put up to auction, and any surplus shall be divided,
half to go between those horses and half to the Race Fund.

Race Horses.

62. Age. — The age of a horse shall be reckoned as beginning on the ist of
January in the year in which he is foaled.

63. No horse shall run under four years of age for a steeple chase pr National
Hunt flat race, or for a hurdle race until the 1st of September of the year in which
he is three years old.

64. Disqualifications of Horses. —

(i) No horse («) which has run at an unrecognised meeting in the United
Kingdom or any other country, or

(/;) which is nominated by, or is wholly or partly the property of a " dis-
qualified person," or is in any way under the care, training, management,
or superintendence of any person whose name has been twice published in
the Racing Calendar as being in default, or as being warned off, or

742 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

(c) which is in the Forfeit List or list of arrears officially notified by a
recognised Turf authority of any country, or

(d) which is the property of a partnership, sold with contingencies,
leased, or the subject of any other joint arrangement, unless such partner-
ship, sale with contingencies, lease or other joint arrangement has been
registered in accordance with the Rules relating to partnerships and other
joint interests

is qualified to be entered to start for any race under these Rules —

(ii) (^a) No horse not dul}' entered or in whose entry any mis-statement,
omission, or error has occurred and has not been corrected on payment of
a fine as hereinafter provided, or which is not qualified according to the
conditions of the race.

(/>) No foreign horse, until the certificates required by these Rules have
been deposited at the Registry Office, and

(c) No horse in whose winnings in such race any disqualified person has
any interest,
is qualified to start for any race under these Rules.

Provided always that if in any of the cases occurring under sub-sections (i) or (ii),
any such horse has been allowed to be entered and start for any race, it may be
declared disqualified after such a race as hereinafter provided.

(iii) The following horses shall also be disqualified under these Rules —

{a) Any horse ridden by a "disqualified person," or by a person not
qualified according to the conditions of the race.

Q/>) Anjr horse whose owner or rider has run or ridden a horse at any un-
recognised meeting within the preceding twelve months.

(c) Any horse with regard to which any infringement of these Rules as to
weighing, riding, or running, has occurred, entailing disqualification.

65. Any horse which has been the subject of fraudulent practice may at the
discretion of the Stewards of the National Hunt Committee be disqualified for
such time and for such races as they shall determine.

66. The Stewards may either —

(i) Themselves call for proof that any horse is not disqualified, and at any
time order an examination by such person or persons as they think fit of any horse
entered, or which has run in a race, or

(ii) On objection made to them in accordance with the provisions of Disputes,
Objections, etc, decide whether any horse is disqualified.

If the Stewards come to the conclusion that any grounds of disqualification are
proved, or that any objection made as aforesaid is valid, they may declare the horse
to be disqualified ; such horse will then either be unable to start, or, if the race has
been run, and he has won, or been placed, he will be regarded as having finished
last, and the other horses shall take positions accordingly.

67. Foreign Horses. — (i) A horse foaled out of the United Kingdom shall not
be qualified to start for an)' race until there has been deposited at the Registry
Office, and a fee of 5s. paid on each certificate.

{a) A foreign certificate stating the name (if an}'), age, sex, pedigree, and
colour of the horse, and any mark by which it may be distinguished, signed by the
secretar)' or other officer of a racing club of the country in which the horse was
foaled, approved by the Stewards of the National Hunt Committee, or by some
magistrate, mayor, or public officer of that country prescribed by them.

(/5) A certificate of age, signed by a Veterinary Surgeon in the United
Kingdom, approved for this purpose by the Stewards of the National Hunt Com-
mittee either by general order or in the particular case.

(ii) The Stewards of the National Hunt Committee may also require any
further proof or confirmation in any particular case, and may declare any horse
disqualified in default thereof.

(iii) A horse which has been out of the United Kinq:dom (otherwise than as a
foal at the foot of his dam) before having run in Great Britain, shall not be quali-
fied to start for any race under these Rules until such a certificate of age has been
deposited at the Registr}' Office.

Note — The Stewards of the National Hunt Committee have approved
generally of certificates given by the Members of the Royal College of Veterinary

AI>PENDIX 743

Surgeons, and by persons holding the Highland and Agricultural Society's
diploma.

Entries, Subscriptions, Declarations of Forfeit, and Acceptances
for Races.

68. Every entry shall close, and every declaration of forfeit or acceptance shall
be fixed to be made at lO P.M., and upon Tuesday only, except in the case of races
closing within four days of their being run.

69. All entries made elsewhere than at the Registry Office (except entries made
during the week of, or on the Saturday preceding, the meeting) shall be lodged at
that office within forty-eight hours, or, if intended for publication in the next
Calendar, within twelve hours, after the day of closing.

In default of observance of this rule, the receiver of nominations shall be
reported to the Stewards of the National Hunt Committee, and unless the nomi-
nator can prove to their satisfaction that the entry was made in due time, it shall
be void.

70. The list of entries shall be closed at the advertised time, and no entry shall
be admitted on any ground after that time.

71. An entry or subscription may, before the time of closing, be altered or
withdrawn.

72. In any race where there shall be any particular conditions required as a
qualification to start, such conditions shall extend to the time of starting.

73. Form of Entry or Nomination. - (i) Entries and declarations of forfeit shall
be made in writing, or by telegraph (which shall be equally binding), to be con-
firmed in writing, and shall be signed by the owner of the horse, or of the engage-
ment, or by some person authorised by him.

(ii) (fl) An entry by telegraph must be confirmed in writing before the time
of weighing, or the horse shall not be qualified to start.

(J)') A declaration of forfeit by telegraph must be confirmed in writing at the
earliest opportunity, or the forfeit shall not be saved.

74. A horse cannot be entered in the real or assumed name of any person as
his owner unless that person's interest or property in the horse is at least equal to
that of any other one person, and has been so registered.

75. In entering a horse for the first time for any race under these rules he
shall be described by stating a name, the colour (when possible), and whether a
horse, mare, or gelding, and the Calendar or Stud-book names of his sire and
dam. If the dam was covered by more than one stallion the names of all must
be stated. If the sire or dam has no name in the Calendar or Stud-book, such
further pedigree and description must be added as will clearly distinguish the
horse entered from all other horses, and if the pedigree of the sire or dam be
unknown, such further particulars as to where, when, and from whom the horse
was purchased or obtained must be given as will identify him.

Note. — Any horse for which a name has been registered under the Rules of
Racing shall be run under the same name under these Rules, subject to provisions
of Rule 79.

76. The entry shall be in the name or assumed name of one person, and shall
state the name, or assumed name, of the owner, the name of the horse, and the
age he will be at the time of the race.

77. The name and description of the horse must be repeated in every entry
until he has run under these rules, and a report of the race has been published in
the "Racing Calendar." In any entry after such publication it will be sufficient
to enter him by his name and with his age only.

78. When entering under a new ownership, a horse which has run previously
under these rules, the name of the person who last ran the horse must be attached
to every entry until the horse has run again under these rules.

79. Whenever the name of a horse which has run at any recognised meeting
in any country is changed, his old name as well as his new name and his descrip-
tion, must be given in every entry until the change has been published in the
Book Calendar of Steeple Chases Past.

80. An entry of a horse for a race with the wrong age, or an incorrect or

744 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

imperfect description according to the rules of entry, may be corrected on pay-
ment of a fine of 5 sov., provided that it be proved to the satisfaction of the
Stewards, or the Stewards of the National Hunt Committee, that the error was
accidental, and provided also that the correction be made within seven days of
the publication of the Calendar in which the wrong entry appeared. The correc-
tion, if it relate to a race, the entries for which have not been published in the
Racing Calendar, must be made before the numbers are exhibited for that race.

On payment of the fine, an entry may, within the like time, be omitted from a
race for which the horse was not qualified, but no other horse may be substituted.

81. No other alteration or addition shall be made in any entry after the time
fixed for closing, except when the name of the horse has been changed, or an
assumed name of the nominator has been abandoned.

82. A subscriber to a race may transfer the right of entry under his subscrip-
tion to any other person.

83. Subscriptions and all entries or rights of entry under them become void on
the death of the subscriber, and entries (except such as are made under another
person's subscription) become void on the death of the persons in whose names
they are made.

84. If either party to a match die the match is off.

85. An acceptance for a free handicap shall be considered as equivalent to an
entry, but if the horse be wrongly described the acceptance shall be void.

86. In making an entry for a produce race, the produce is entered by speci-
fying the dam and sire, or sires.

87. No horse shall be considered as struck out of any of his engagements,
until the owner or some authorised person, shall have given notice in writing, or
by telegraph, to be confirmed in writing at the earliest possible opportunity, at
the Registry Office or to the Clerk of the Course where the horse is engaged.

The notification of the death of a horse shall be equivalent to a declaration of
forfeit.

Sale with Engagfements.

88. When a horse is sold with his engagements, or any part of them, the
seller cannot strike the horse out of any of such engagements, but, on default of
the purchaser, remains liable for the amount of the forfeits in each.

89. In all cases of sale by private treaty, the written acknowledgment of both
parties that the horse was sold with the engagement is necessary to prove the fact,
but when the horse is sold by public auction or claimed out of a selling race, the
advertised conditions of either the race or the sale are sufficient evidence. If
certain engagements only be specified, those only are sold with the horse.

Note. — The following are known and recognised as "Lord Exeter's Con-
ditions":—

" The horses are sold without their engagements, but the purchaser has the
right of running for any of them by paying half the stake, and in the event of the
horse winning, or being entitled to second or third money, one-third shall be paid
to the vendor, but the vendor reserves to himself the right of striking the horse
out of any race, in time to save a minor forfeit or discount, unless the purchaser
shall give notice that he wishes to run for any particular race, when he will be-
come liable for half the stake or forfeit. Horses purchased under Lord Exeter's
conditions cannot be re-sold under the same conditions without the written consent
of the original vendor.''

Assumed Names, Partnerships, and other Joint Interests.

90. Assumed Names. — Assumed names can only be used subject to the
following provisions —

(i) An assumed name must be annually registered, and a fee of 10 sov. paid.
A registration continues effectual only during the current year.

(ii) A person cannot register more than one assumed name at the same time,
nor can he use his real name so long as he has a registered one.

(iii) A person cannot register as his assumed name one which has been already
registered by any other person, or the real name of any owner of race horses.

APPENDIX 745

(iv) An assumed name may be changed at any time by registering a new
assumed name.

(v) Any person who has registered an assumed name may at any time abandon
it, by giving written notice at the Registry Office ; such notice of cancellation
shall be published in the next Racing Calendar, after which all entries which
have been made in the assumed, shall be altered to the real, name of the owner.

91. Partnerships^ Sales with Contingencies^ Leases^ etc. — (i) In the case of
partnerships, a document stating (a) the name and address of every person
having an interest in a horse ; (Ji) the relative proportions of such interest ; and
if) with whom the power of entry and declaration of forfeit rests, must be signed
by all the parties, and lodged at the Registry Office, or with the Clerk of the
Course, for transmission to the Registry Office, before a horse which is partner-
ship property can be entered or start for any race. All partners shall be jointly
and severally liable for every stake or forfeit, and no part owner shall assign his
share or any part thereof, in a horse without the consent of his partners.

(ii) In the case of a horse sold with contingencies, leased, or the subject of
any other joint arrangement, a document stating the names and addresses of
all the parties interested, shall be signed by them and lodged as above, and
shall state fully the terms of such sale with contingencies, lease, or other joint
arrangement before any such horse shall be entered or start for a race.

(iii) In all the above cases a registration fee of i sov. shall be paid on each
horse.

(iv) If partnerships, sales with contingencies, leases, or other joint arrange-
ments existing either at entry or at the time of the race, have not been registered
as above, a horse shall be disqualified.

(v) All partnerships, sales with contingencies, leases, and other joint arrange-
ments, shall be published, in the real or assumed names in the next available
Racing Calendar, and any termination or severance must be notified at once to
the Registry Office for publication.

Riders, Gentlemen Riders, Qualified Riders, Jockeys, etc.

92. (i) Persons who have never ridden for hire, and who are not otherwise
disqualified under these rules, need no qualification to ride in Steeple Chases or
Hurdle Races unless the conditions of any such steeple chase or hurdle race require
a particular qualification, but for welter flat races riders must be "Qualified
Riders " or Jockeys holding licences under these Rules.

(ii) "Qualified Riders" under these Rules are persons who have never ridden
for hire, and who are qualified either

(a) as Gentlemen,

(^) as Farmers,

\c) by Election,

(d) Yeomen when riding at their own regimental meeting.
(a) Riders qualified as Gentlemen must be members of the National Hunt
Committee, the Irish National Hunt Steeple Chase Committee, or of one of the
following Clubs — The Jockey Club, Turf Club of Ireland, Croxton Park, Bibury,
Southdown and Ludlow Race Clubs, the New Rooms at Newmarket, the Jockey
Club of Paris, Berlin and Vienna, the Army and Navy, Junior Army and Navy,
Arthur's, Turf, Boodle's, Brooks, Carlton, Junior Carlton, Guards', Cavalry,
Pratt's, Travellers', United Service, Junior United Service, East India United
Service, the Union, White's, the Conservative, the Oxford and Cambridge, the
Naval and Military, the Oriental, the Badminton, the Devonshire, the New
University, the Windham, the St. James' or the United University Club ; the
Kildare-street, Sackville-street, Hibernian United Service, or Stephen's Green
Clubs in Dublin ; the Western Meeting (Ayr), or the New Club, Edinboro* ; or
that they be Officers on full pay in the Army or Navy, or persons holding Com-
missions under the Crown, or bearing titles in their own right or by courtesy.

{b) Riders qualified as farmers must be now farming at least 100 acres of land,
and their Sons if following the same occupation, and for the purposes of this rule
a "Farmer" shall be understood to mean one who resides permanently on
his farm, working it himself, and deriving therefrom his principal and ostensible
means of subsistence.

74^

MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV

{c) Persons not qualified as ** Gentlemen Riders " or " Farmers," who are
desirous of becoming " Qualified Riders," must send their names in for election,
with the names of their proposer and seconder, who must be members of the
National Hunt Committee, to the Registry Office for publication in at least one
Calendar before the day of election. The names of persons elected must be
submitted annually to the Committee, at the General Meeting on the second
Monday in December, for re-election. The fee to be paid on election, or re-
election, is I sov.

93. Should any Qualified Rider subsequently ride for hire, or appear in the
Forfeit List, or be reported by the Committee of the Subscription Rooms at New-
market, or at Tattersall's, as being a defaulter for bets lost on horse racing, he
will lose his qualification, and if a qualified rider by election, his name will be
erased from the list of Qualified Riders.

94. Jockeys' Licences^ etc. — (i) No jockey shall, after the last day of the week in
which he has first ridden, ride in any race until he shall have obtained a licence
from the Stewards of the National Hunt Committee. Such licence must be
obtained annually, on application with full name and address, at the Registry
Office, and will only be granted on the condition that a jockey is not an owner, or
part owner, of any race horse. Under exceptional circumstances, leave may be
granted to Jockeys who are also trainers, to own one or more horses, provided that
such horse, or horses, are trained in their own stables.

(ii) Any person who shall employ a jockey in contravention of this rule shall
be liable to be fined by the Stewards of the National Hunt Committee.

(iii) A list of the licenced jockeys shall be published annually in the Racing
Calendar,

(iv) Every jockey shall pay i sov. for his licence, to be applied as his subscrip-
tion to the Bentinck Benevolent and Provident Fund.

(v) No jockey whose licence has been withdrawn, or refused on the ground of
misconduct, will be eligible to ride trials, or be allowed in any weighing room,
stand, or enclosure, during the time his suspension from riding continues.

95. Jockeys' Retainers. — In the absence of special agreement, a jockey's retainer
terminates at the end of the current year. The agreed retaining fee must be paid
in advance in respect of each year.

The terms of all agreements shall be registered, and a fee of 5s. paid.

96. Employers retaining the same jockey have precedence according to the
priority of their retainers.

97. The Stewards of the National Hunt Committee may adjudicate between
persons claiming the services of any jockey, and upon disputes between jockeys
and their employers, and have power to cancel any agreement between them.

98. Jockeys' Fees. — In the absence of special agreement to ride for a lower sum,
the fee to a winning jockey shall be 10 sov. in steeple chases and hurdle races, and
5 sov. in welter flat races, and to a losing jockey, 5 sov., and 3 sov. respectively,
and no further charge shall be made, except when requested to leave home for the
purpose of riding, in which case the cost of travelling expenses, and i sov. a day
for living may be charged to the owner, or divided between the owners, at whose
request he left home.

All jockeys' fees shall be paid to the Stakeholder at the same time as the stakes
except under a private arrangement with the jockey, in which case notification
must have been previously made at the Registry Office, or to the Stakeholder, for
transmission thereto.

99. Stable Lads. — (i) No trainer shall engage any stable servant who has pre-
viously been in a training stable, without referring to his last employer, and
receiving a satisfactory reply in writing.

(ii) Any trainer infringing this rule and continuing to employ such servant
after notice has been served on him by his late employer, or through the Registry
Office, shall be reported to the Stewards of the National Hunt Committee.

(iii) Any servant prevented by this rule trom obtaining or retaining employ-
ment shall have the right of appeal to the Stewards of the National Hunt
Committee.

APPENDIX 747

Racing Colours.

IOC, Racinj^ colours may be registered either annually, on payment of 5s., or
for the life of the person registering, on payment of 2 sov.

All disputes as to the right to particular colours shall be settled by the
Stewards of the National Hunt Committee.

loi. Any person running a horse in colours other than those registered in his
own or assumed name without a special declaration over-night to the Clerk of the
Course (at a time to be prescribed) shall be fined not less than i sov., nor more
than 10 sov.

A special declaration is also required where the owner is not the nominator.

Entrance Money, Stakes, Forfeits, and Arrears.

102. Entrance money, stakes, forfeits, and arrears, must be paid in cash (if so
required) to the Clerk of the Course or authorised stakeholder, and entrance money
must (if so required) be paid at the time of entry.

No entrance money or forfeit to any fund but that devoted to horses running
in the race shall exceed 5 per cent, on the added money, or value of other prize.
Entrance fees, subscriptions, stakes, and forfeits shall be in pounds, not guineas.

103. A person entering is liable, as well as the nominator, and every partner
in the horse at the time of nomination, for the entrance money and stake or forfeit.
A person making a wrong nomination is equally liable.

A subscriber to a sweepstakes is liable for the stake or forfeit ; but if he trans-
fer the right of entry to any other person he is liable only in case of default by the
transferee.

104. A person taking an entry under another person's subscription, where
forfeit must be declared by a particular time shall, if he do not declare forfeit by
that time, be considered to have taken the engagement upon himself, and it shall
be transferred to his name.

105. Every horse whose number has been exhibited shall be liable for his
whole stake.

106. A rider shall not be weighed out for a race unless there have been
previously paid (i) any stake, forfeit, entrance money, or fee payable by the
owner or nominator in respect of that race ; (ii) all arrears due for the horse, or
from his rider, or due for the same or any other horse from any person by whom
such horse is wholly or partly owned, or in whose name or under whose
subscription he is enteied ; and (iii) the jockey's fee.

The Unpaid Forfeit List.

107. An Unpaid Forfeit List shall be kept at the Registry Office, and shall
be published annually in the Sheet Calendar. It shall include all arrears which
have been notified by the Stakeholder of any recognised meeting in the United
Kingdom, or as otherwise provided under these rules, and shall state the real
name or names, and also the assumed name or names (if any), of the persons
from whom, and the horses (if any) in respect of which the same are due.
" Arrears " which have been so published must be paid direct to the Registry
Office, and until so paid shall not be removed from the list.

108. Where a person is prevented by these rules from entering or starting a
horse for any race without paying arrears, for which he would not otherwise be
liable, he may, by paying the same, enter or start the horse, and place the arrears
on the Forfeit List as due to himself, and in like manner the seller of a horse with
engagements may, if compelled to pay them by the purchaser's default, place the
amount on the Forfeit List as due from the purchaser to himself.

109. So long as the name of a person is in the Forfeit List, no horse can be
entered by him, or under his subscription, for any race, whether acting as an
agent or otherwise, nor can any horse be ridden by hira for any race, and no
horse which has been entered by him, or in his name, or under his subscription, or
of which he is, or was at the time of entry, wholly or partly the owner, can run
for any race ; and no horse which shall he proved to the satisfaction ot the

748

MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Stewards to be directly or indirectly under the care, training, management, or
superintendence of a person whose default has been twice published in the
Racing Calendar, shall be qualified to be entered or run for any race, and so
long as any horse is in the Forfeit List, such horse shall not be qualified to be
entered or run for any race. The disabilities under this rule extend to all arrears
officially notified by a recognised Turf authority of any country.

no. A corrected Alphabetical Index of the horses and owners in the last
Forfeit List shall be published in the first Calendar of every month. Such
monthly list shall commence not less than three years before the time at which
it is published, and shall be carried down to and include the latest Forfeit List
which has been published in the Sheet Calendar as above mentioned.

111. If a horse which, or the owner of which, is in the Forfeit List be entered
for any race, the nominator of such horse shall be liable to a fine not exceeding
50 sov.

Weights, Penalties, and Allowances.

112. Weights. — (i) No horse shall carry less than lOst in a Hurdle Race or
Steeple Chase (except in a Handicap Steeple Chase of three miles and a half, or
upwards, when the lowest weight may be gst 7lb), nor less than list in a
National Hunt flat race.

(ii) Catch weights are only permissible for matches or private sweepstakes.

113. Penalties. — In estimating the amount a horse has won in any one or
more races, account shall be taken of cups or moneys, whether derived from
stakes, bonus, or any other source, gained by him in steeple chases, hurdle races,
and National Hunt flat races, in any country, of the value of 20 sov. or upwards,
but in the case of welter flat races, only of winnings in such races and in others
to which the " Rules of Racing " apply, deducting only his own stake and
entrance. Winnings during the year shall include all prizes from the 1st of
January preceding, to the time appointed for the start, and winning shall include
dividing, walking-over, or receiving forfeit.

A Challenge Cup is not estimated in the value of a race until it is finally won,
provided the sweepstakes or added money amount to 20 sov. or upwards, but when
won outright the winner must carry a penalty in respect of the full value of the
Cup and money prize.

Penalties for winning a fixed sum shall be understood to mean for winning
it in one race unless specified to the contrary.

114. No horse shall carry extra weight for having run second, or in any lower
place in a race.

115. Extra weight shall not be incurred in respect of matches or private
sweepstakes.

116. Penalties are not cumulative unless so declared by the conditions of the
race.

117. Where winners of selling races are exempted from penalties, only such
horses as have run to be sold, shall be entitled to the exemption.

118. When any race is in dispute, both the horse that came in first and any
horse claiming the race, shall be liable to all the penalties attaching to the
winner of that race until the matter be decided.

For penalties on dividing after dead heats, see Dead Heats.

119. All penalties and allowances shall be calculated according to the
amount of the value of each race as reported in the Racing Calendar.

120. Allowances, — No horse shall receive allowance of weight or be relieved
from extra weight, for having been beaten in one or more races ; Provided that
this rule shall not prohibit maiden allowances, or allowances to horses that have
not won within a specified time, or races of a specified value.

121. Allowances to the produce of untried horses are for the produce of horses
whose produce never won a race in any country.

122. Allowances are cumulative unless otherwise specified.

123. No horse shall be entitled to allowance of weight for being half-bred.

Weighing Out, Exhibiting Numbers, etc.

124. The Weighing Room. — No person shall, without special leave from the

APPENDIX 749

Stewards, be admitted to the Weighing-room, except Members of the National
Hunt Committee, the owner, trainer, and rider, or other person having the care of a
horse engaged in the race, and any person refusing to leave shall be reported to
the Stewards.

125. Weighing Out. — Each rider must be weighed for a specified horse by the
Clerk of the Scales, at the appointed place, not less than a quarter of an hour
before the time fixed for the race, and the numbers shall then be exhibited as soon
as possible. In exceptional cases, or where the delay of a previous race has
rendered punctuality impossible, the Stewards may extend the time allowed
for weighing, declaring weight, and for exhibiting the numbers.

126. When the numbers have been exhibited, no alteration or addition can be
made without the leave of the Stewards, whose reasons for such permission shall
be reported at the Registry Office.

Should any horse not start whose number has been exhibited, the owner and
any other person responsible may be fined, or otherwise dealt with, at the
discretion of the Stewards.

127. If a rider intends to carry over-weight, he must declare the amount
thereof at the time of weighing out, or, if in doubt as to his proper weight, the
weight he intends to carry.

128. It is optional for a rider to weigh out or in with his bridle, and the Clerk
of the Scales shall, if requested, allow lib for a curb or double bridle, but if a horse
run in a hood, martingale, breastplate, or clothing, it must be put into the scale
and included in the riders' weight.

129. No whip or substitute for a whip shall be allowed in the scales.

Starting.

130. The horses must be started by the official starter or his authorised
substitute.

131. Every horse must be at the post ready to start at the appointed time ; any
owner, trainer, or rider making default herein may be fined at the discretion of the
Stewards a sum not exceeding 5 sov.

132. All riders, on arrival at the starting post, must immediately place them-
selves under the Starter's orders, and no horse, when once under his orders, shall
go back, except in the case of an accident.

Running and Walking Over.

133. Running. — An owner running two or more horses in a race may declare
to win with one of them, and such declaration must be made at scale. The rider
of a horse with which the owner has not declared to win, must on no account
stop such horse except in favour of the horse on whose behalf declaration to win
has been made.

134. (i) In a National Hunt flat race or welter flat race a horse which crosses
another in any part of the race is disqualified, unless it be proved that he was two
clear lengths ahead of the other when he crossed.

(ii) In a steeple chase or hurdle race a horse shall be disqualified if his rider,
by foul riding, jeopardised the chance of success of any other horse in the race,
and in the run home from the last hurdle or fence, section (i) of this rule shall
apply ; the Stewards have power to fine a rider for the above offence any sum not
exceeding 50 sov. In all cases the Stewards have power of suspending a rider
until the expiration of the meeting, or, should they consider such punishment
insufficient, until the case can be heard and decided by the Stewards of the
National Hunt Committee.

(iii) If a horse or his rider jostle another horse or rider, the aggressor is dis-
qualified, unless it be proved that the jostle was wholly caused by the fault of some
other rider, or that the jostled horse or his rider was partly in fault.

(iv) If a horse run the wrong side of a post he must turn back and run the
course from such post.

135. If a race has been run by all the horses at wrong weights, or over a wrong
course or distance, or if the Judge, or his authorised substitute 01 a Steward is

750 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

not in the box at the time the horses pass the winning post, the Stewards shall
order it to be run again on the same day if practicable, if otherwise the race shall
be void.

136. Walking Over. — A walk-over shall in no case be deemed necessary. It
shall be sufficient if a horse be weighed out for, mounted, and proceed to the start-
ing post, when, if no competitor appear in due time, he shall be the winner.

Dead Heats.

137. Every horse running a dead heat for the first place shall be deemed the
winner of the race until the dead heat is run off or the owners agree to divide, and,
if the owners agree to divide, each horse which divides shall be deemed a winner
of the race, and liable to the penalty for the full amount he would have received
if he had won.

138. A dead heat for the first place shall be run off on the same day at a time to
be appointed by the Stewards, unless the owners agree to divide. The other
horses shall be deemed to have been beaten, but they shall be entitled to their
places (if any) as if the race had been finally determined the first time.

If, in running a dead heat off, either horse should be disqualified, it shall be
decided by the Stewards whether the disqualification shall extend to the loss of
the second place, and, if so, the horse that was originally placed third shall be
entitled to the second place.

139. When a dead heat is run for second place, and an objection is made to
the winner of the race, if such objection be declared valid in time for the dead heat
to be run off on the day of the race, the Stewards may direct it to be run off
accordingly ; otherwise the horses which ran the dead heat shall divide.

140. If a dead heat be run by two or more horses for second or any lower
place in a race, the owners shall divide, subject to the provisions of the last pre-
ceding rule,

141. When owners divide they shall divide equally all the moneys or other
prizes which any of them could take if the dead heat were run off.

142. If the dividing owners cannot agree as to which of them is to have a cup
or other prize which cannot be divided, the question shall be determined by lot by
the Stewards, who shall decide what sum of money shall be paid by the owner
who takes such cup or other indivisible prize, to the other owner or owners.

143. On a dead heat for a match the match is off.

Weighing In.

144. Every rider must, immediately after pulling up, ride his horse to the
place of weighing, dismount and present himself to be weighed by the Clerk of
the Scales: Provided that, if a rider be prevented from riding to the place of
weighing by reason of accident or illness, by which he, or his horse is disabled, he
may walk or be carried to the scales.

145. If a rider do not present himself to be weighed in, or be short of weight,
or be guilty of any fraudulent practice with respect to weight or weighing, or dis-
mount before reaching the place of weighing, or touch (except accidentally) any
person or thing other than his own equipments before weighing in, his horse is
disqualified, unless he can satisfy the Stewards that he was justified by extra-
ordinary circumstances.

146. If a horse carry more than four pounds over his declared weight for a
steeple chase or hurdle race, or two pounds for a National Hunt flat race or welter
fiat race, he is disqualified unless the Stewards be satisfied that such excess of
weight has been caused by wet or mud.

147. If a rider be unable to draw his weight with the one pound allowed for
the curb or double bridle, he shall have the option of weighing in with his bridle ;
but no weight shall be allowed for a snaffle bridle unless it is put into the scales
before the horse is led away.

Prizes.

148. The value of prizes not in money must be advertised.

149. Prizes, stakes, and forfeits in a race belong to the winner, except as other-
wise declared in the conditions.

APPENDIX 751

150. No plate or sweepstakes shall be run for unless the clear value to the
winner (calculated as in Weights, Penalties, etc.), in case the race be run by two
or more horses, will amount to 20 sov. But if the value would amount to 20 sov.,
if the race were so run, a horse may walk over, although he thereby receives less
than 20 sov.

151. When a sweepstakes has been so reduced by the death of subscribers that
the payments to second or other horses, according to the conditions, would reduce
the value, if run for, to less than 20 sov., the winner shall receive a clear 20 sov.,
and the balance only, if any, shall then be divided proportionately between the
other horses entitled to participate in the stakes,

152. In all plates or sweepstakes (private sweepstakes excepted) the second
horse shall at least save his stake and entrance.

153. When a cup (other than a Challenge Cup) is advertised to be run for it
shall be given, even in the event of a walk-over.

154. When a walk-over (except after a dead heat) is the result of arrangement
by the owners of horses engaged, neither a cup nor any portion of the advertised
money need be given.

155. Any money or prize which by the conditions is to go to the horse placed
second, or in any lower place, shall, if the winner has walked over or no horse has
been placed second, etc., be dealt with as follows, namely : —

(i) If part of the stakes or plate, it shall go to the winner,
(ii) If a separate donation from the Race-fund, or any other source, it shall not
be given at all.

(iii) If entrance money for the race, it shall go to the Race-fund of the meeting.

156. No deductions shall be made from the value of any race except such as
are gained by other horses in the race, and except Clerks', stakeholding, and
weighing fees, as fixed by rule.

157. If a race be never run or be void, stakes, forfeits, and entrance money
shall be returned.

Disputes, Objections, Appeals, etc.

158. All disputes, objections, and appeals referred to or brought before the
Stewards of the National Hunt CJommittee, shall be determined by them (three to
form a quorum) ; if only two Stewards are present, they shall appoint a third
person, being a member of the Committee, in lieu of the absent Steward, but they
may call in any other members of the Committee to their assistance, or may, if
they think the importance or difficulty of the case requires such a course, refer it
to a general meeting.

159. Objections. — (i) Every objection shall be determined by the Stewards, but
should no decision be given by them within seven days of an objection being
lodged, the Clerk of the Course shall report the case to the Stewards of the
National Hunt Committee, who may at their discretion decide the matter, and
if they consider there has been any negligence order any additional expense
arising therefrom to be defrayed out of the funds of the meeting at which the
case occurred,

(ii) The decision of the Stewards on any objection shall be subject to appeal
to the Stewards of the National Hunt Committee through the Stewards or the
meeting, and with their consent, and that of the Stewards of the National Hunt
Committee, and not otherwise.

(iii) Every objection shall be in writing, and must be signed by the owner of
some horse engaged in the race, or by his deputed agent, trainer, or rider, and
must be made to one of the Stewards, to the Clerk of the Course, or Clerk of the
Scales ; the objector shall, at the time he makes the objection deposit in the hands
of the Stakeholder the sum of 5 sov., which, if the case be decided against him,
shall be forfeited to the National Hunt Fund, unless the Stewards shall certify
that there was good and reasonable grounds for the objection ; and in the event of
the objection being decided to be frivolous or vexatious, it shall be in the power of
the Stewards to find the objector any additional sum not exceeding 20 sov,

(iv) An objection may also be made without deposit by a Steward or official of
a meeting in his offic"al cipacity.

(v) An objection cannot be withdrawn without leave of the Stewards.

752 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

i6o. (i) If an objection to a horse engaged in a race be made not later than
half-past ten in the morning of the day of the race, the Stewards may require his
qualification to be proved before the race ; and in default of such proof being given
to their satisfaction, they may declare him disqualified.

(ii) An objection to any decision of the Clerk of the Scales must be made at
once.

(iii) An objection to a horse, on the ground of a cross, jostle or foul riding, or
of his not having run the proper course, or of any other matter occurring in the
race, or on the ground of any irregularity on the part of a rider at the scales or
before weighing in, must be made within a quarter of an hour after the winner has
weighed in, unless, under special circumstances, the Stewards are satisfied that it
could not have been made within that time,
(iv) An objection on the ground,

(a) Of mis-statement, omission, or error in the entry under which a horse
has run, or

(b^ That the horse which ran was not the horse, or of the age, which he
was represented to be at the time of entry, or that he was not qualified under
the conditions of the race, or

(c) That he has run in contravention of the rules as to registration of
partnerships, or other joint interests, or

(d^ That he has run at any unrecognised meeting, or that his owner or
rider has run or ridden a horse at any unrecognised meeting during the
preceding twelve months ;
may be received within fourteen days of the conclusion of a meeting.

(v) An objection on the ground that a horse is disqualified by reason of any
default entered in the Forfeit List, may be received within six months after
the race.

(vi) An ODJection on the ground of carrying wrong weight, or on any other
ground not specified in the foregoing sections of this rule, must be made within
twenty-four hours of the race being run, exclusive of Sunday, save in the case of
fraud, or wilful mis-statement, when there shall be no limit to the time for objecting.
i6i. All costs and expenses in relation to determining an objection or conduct-
ing an enquiry, and any reasonable compensation for outlay incurred, shall be
paid by such person, or persons, and in such proportions, as the Stewards, or the
Stewards of the National Hunt Committee, shall direct,

162. Pending the determination of an objection, any prize which the horse
objected to may have won, or may win in the race, shall be withheld until the
objection be determined, and any forfeit payable by the owner of any other horse
shall be paid to and held by the Clerk of the Course for the person who may be
entitled to it.

163. Appeals. — When leave of appeal has been granted the appellant shall
forthwith notify in writing to the Clerk of the Course, for transmission to the
Registry Office, his intention of appealing, and at the same time deposit the sum
of 10 sov. ; in all cases, except where fraud or wilful mis-statement is alleged, such
notice and deposit must be received at the Registry Office within seven days of the
decision of the Stewards having been given or the appellant shall forfeit his right.

Should an appeal be decided to be frivolous or vexatious, the deposit shall be
forfeited to the National Hunt Fund, or if otherwise, returned to the appellant.

Disqualifications of Persons and Corrupt Practices.

164. No " disqualified person " shall act as a Steward or in any other official
capacity in relation to a meeting, nor nominate, enter, run, or ride any horse in any
race under these rules, and any horse so nominated, entered, run, or ridden by a
" disqualified person " shall be disqualified.

165. Any person riding or running a horse for any race whatever in Great
Britain, not advertised to be run under the Rules of Racing, or the National Hunt
Rules, and not specially exempted from the operation of these rules under Defini-
tions and Application of these Rules, shall be disqualified from riding or running

APPENDIX 753

a horse where the National Hunt Rules are in force, for twelve months from the
date of such offence, but this rule shall not apply to

(a) Races at Meetings confined to Resident Members of the Universities
of Oxford and Cambridge.

(d) Pony or Galloway races at Meetings confined to Pony or Galloway
racing.

166. (i) If any person corruptly give or offer, or promise directly or indirectly,
any bribe in any form to any person having official duties in relation to a race or
race-horse, or to any trainer, rider, or agent, or to any other person having charge
of, or access to, any race-horse ; or

(ii) If any person having official duties in relation to a race, or if a trainer,
rider, agent, or other person, having charge of, or access to, any race-horse,
corruptly accept or offer to accept any bribe in any form ; or

(iii) Wilfully enter or cause to be entered or to start for any race a horse
which he knows or believes to be disqualified ; or

(iv) If any person be proved to the satisfaction of the Stewards of the
National Hunt Committee to have surreptitiously obtained information respecting
a trial from any person or persons engaged in it, or in the service of the owner
or trainer of the horses tried, or respecting any horse in training from any person
in such service ; or

(v) If any person be guilty of, or shall conspire with any other person for the
commission of, or shall connive at any other person being guilty of, any other
corrupt or fraudulent practice in relation to racing in this or any other country.

Every person so offending shall be warned off all courses where these Rules
are in force.

167. If any person be reported by the Committee of the Subscription Rooms
at Newmarket or at Tattersall's as being a defaulter in bets he shall be warned off
as in the last Rule mentioned, so long as his default continues.

168. When a person is warned off all courses where these Rules are in force,
and so long as his exclusion continues, he shall not be qualified, whether acting as
an agent or otherwise, to subscribe for, enter, run, or ride any horse for any race
either in his own name or in that of any other person, and any horse of which he
is the nominator, or is (or was at the time of entry) wholly or partly the owner, or
which after the fact of his being warned off has been twice published in the Racing
Calendar, shall be proved to the satisfaction of the Stewards to be, or to have
been, directly or indirectly, under his care, training, management, or superintend-
ence, shall be disqualified.

Qualification for National Hunt Flat Races.

169. The following provisions apply to National Hunt Flat Races —
(i) A horse to qualify to run for a National Hunt Flat Race must have been
placed by the Judge first, second, or third in a steeple chase in Great Britain or
Ireland, after having jumped all the fences, and completed the whole distance of
the race to the satisfaction of at least two of the Stewards, to whom previous
notice shall have been given in writing through the Clerk of the Course.

(2) Such Stewards shall give a certificate to the above effect in the form 2 of
Appendix C.

(3) Such certificate, or in the case of a horse qualified in Ireland, a copy of
such certificate, signed by the Secretary, and countersigned by a Steward of the
Irish National Hunt Steeple Chase Committee, must be lodged at the Registry
Office one clear week before running, with a fee of 5s. for registration.

(4) Any certificate is invalidated by the disqualification of the horse for the
race in which it was obtained.

(5) Horses for National Hunt Flat Races must be ridden by Qualified Riders.
They cannot be handicapped, but shall not carry less than list.

(6) The provisions of Running and Walking Over as to running shall be in
force in National Hunt Flat Races so far as applicable.

754 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Special Rules relating to Steeple Chases and Hurdle Races.

170. (i) In steeple chases and hurdle races, any horse getting away from his
rider may be remounted in any part of the field or enclosure in which the occur-
rence took place, but should such horse not be caught until he shall have entered
another field, then he shall be ridden or brought back to the one in which he
parted from his rider. Any rider so losing his horse may be assisted in catching
him and remounting him without risk of disqualification ; and in the event of a
rider being disabled, his horse may be ridden home by any person of sufficient
weight, provided he be qualified according to the conditions of the race. No
penalty shall be exacted for carrying overweight in this instance.

Note. — In artificially constructed steeple chase courses, and in hurdle races,
the spaces between the fences or hurdles are considered as fields or enclosures for
the purposes of this rule.

(ii) If any flag, post, or boundary mark be placed in the course or altered
after the riders have been shown over the ground, or had the course pointed out
to them, it shall not be considered binding or of any effect unless such addition
or alteration shall have been particularly named, previous to starting, to all the
riders in the race, by one of the Stewards, the Clerk of the Course, or by their
representatives.

(iii) If a horse refuse any fence, or hurdle, in a race, and it can be proved to
the satisfaction of the Stewards that he has been led over it by any of the by-
standers, or has been given a lead over by any horseman not riding in the race,
the horse shall be disqualified.

Fees and Fines.

171. Fees. — The Stakeholder shall be allowed to retain, out of the stakes in his
hands, the following fees, viz. —

For every match, i sov.

For every subscription or sweepstakes where the lowest forfeit amounts to
20 sov. \ per cent, on the whole stake, and on all other races i per cent., the
minimum fee to be i sov.

172. There shall also be payable the following fees —

(i) For every entry a maximum Clerk's fee of 5s., to include weighing.

(ii) On election or re-election as Qualified Rider, i sov.

(iii) For every registration or change of an assumed name, 10 sov.

(iv) For every registration of partnership, and on every change thereof I sov.
for each horse.

(v) For every annual registration of colours, 5s.

(vi) For every registration of colours for life, 2 sov.

(vii) For registration of foreign and veterinary certificates, 5s. on each
certificate.

(viii) For registration of National Hunt Flat Race Certificates, 5s.

(ix) For registration of Point to Point Steeple Chase Certificates, los.

(x) For registration of an agreement with a jockey, 5s.

173. Fines. — All fines shall be paid to the funds of the National Hunt
Committee.

New Rules.

174. No new rule can be passed, nor can any existing rule be rescinded or
altered, without being previously advertised three times in the "Sheet Calendar,"
and without notice being given of the meeting of the National Hunt Committee
at which it is to be proposed ; and no new rule, or repeal or alteration of a rule,
shall take effect until it has been twice subsequently published in the " Sheet
Calendar." Any owner of race-horses, or persons affected by such proposed new
rule, recission, or alteration, may, before it is made, petition the National Hunt
Committee through the Secretaries. All such petitions shall be laid before the
meeting before the question is put.

APPENDIX 755

APPENDIX A.— List of Meetingfs Referred to in Regulations for Race

Meetings.

[The Stewards of the National Hunt Committee have power from time to time to
alter or extend this list.]
Birmingham, Cardiff", Derby, Folkestone, Gatwick, Hawthorn Hill, Hurst
Park, Keele Park, Kempton Park, Leicester, Lingfield, Manchester, Newmarket,
Nottingham, Plumpton, Sandown Park, Sheffield and Rotherham, Southwell,
Warwick, Windsor, Wolverhampton (Dunstall Park), Wye.

APPENDIX B.— Scale of Weight-for-Age (see Omitted Conditions)

The Committee recommend the following scale of weight-for-age : —
For Steeple Chases of three miles and

upwards.
From 1st Jan. to 30th June, inclusive :

4 ys 5 yrs 6 and aged

lost 3lb list 81b I2st sib

From 1st July to 31st Dec, inclusive :
4 yrs 5 yrs 6 and aged

list list I2lb I2st 3lb

For Steeple Chases of less than three

miles.
From 1st Jan. to 30th June, inclusive :

4 yrs 5 yrs 6 and aged

lost lolb list lolb I2st 3lb

From 1st July to 31st Dec, inclusive :

For Hurdle Races.
From 1st Jan. to 31st Aug., inclusive :
4 yrs 5 yrs 6 and aged

list list lolb I2st

From 1st Sept. to 31st Dec, inclusive :

3 yrs 4 yrs 5, 6 and aged
lost 7lb list I2lb I2st 3lb

For National Hunt Flat Races.

From 1st Jan. to 30th June, inclusive :

4 yrs 5 yrs 6 and aged
iistylb I2st3lb I2st ylb

From 1st July to 31st Dec, inclusive:

4 yrs 5 yrs 6 and aged ; 4 yrs 5 yrs 6 and aged

list 61b I3st I2st 3lb I I2st i2st 5lb I2st 7lb

APPENDIX C— Form i.

Point to Point Steeple Chase Certificate (see Definitions, Application, etc).

I hereby certify —

1. That bona fide Point to Point Steeple Chases took place at

on

2. That not more than three steeple chases, and no other races of any descrip-
tion, took place there on that day.

3. That the course was un flagged, except at the winning post, and at*

other places where, in the opinion of the Stewards, flags were absolutely necessary
for the general guidance of the riders.

* Number specified, not exceeding three.

4. That no money was taken at any gate, or at anj^ stand or enclosure in connec-
tion with the races.

5. That the winning flag was placed within the limits of the country hunted
over by my hounds. (Signed)

Master of the Hounds and Stewards.

Date 189

*^^* This Certificate must be signed by a Master of Foxhounds or Staghounds
or by a Master of Harriers (being a Member of the Association of Masters of
Harriers), and must be lodged with Messrs Weatherby and Sons, 6 Old Burlington
Street, London, W., within fourteen days of the day of the races.

75^

MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY

Form 2.

Certificate of Qualification for National Hunt Flat Races (see Qualification
for National Hunt Flat Races).

We, the undersigned, Stewards of the Meeting, hereby certify

that Mr 's has this day been placed in the

Steeple Chase, and has jumped all the fences and completed
the whole distance of the race to our satisfaction.

Signed,
Date . 1 8 Address,

Signed,
Address,
%* This certificate must be lodged with Messrs Weatherby and Sons, 6 Old
Burlington Street, London, W., one clear week before the horse is to run, with a
fee of 5s. for registration.

RULES ON BETTING.

Although the Stewards of the Jockey Club take no cognisance of betting, yet,
for the convenience of such persons as are interested in the subject, we subjoin a
copy of the Rules as re-arranged by the Committee of the Subscription Rooms,
at Tattersall's, on February 8, i886.

The Committee of Tattersall's and the Committee of the Newmarket Rooms
have authority to settle all questions relating to bets, to adjudicate on all cases of
default, and, ai their discretion, to report defaulters and persons guilty of any mal-
practice to the Jockey Club. In the following rules the words " the Committee "
refer to either of those bodies.

2. In all bets there must be a possibility to win when the bet is made : " you
cannot win when you cannot lose." No betting first past the post will be recog-
nised by either of the Committees.

3. All bets are P.P. — play or pay — with the following exceptions — i. When
the nominator dies before the decision of the race. 2. When the race is post-
poned to a future week, or the conditions are altered after the bets are made. 3.
Bets on matches. 4. Bets made after the running numbers are telegraphed about
a horse that is not subsequently under the starter's orders.

4. If no objection is lodged within seven days of the race, exclusive of the day
on which the race was run, bets go to the horse placed first by the Judge, and the
settling, except in cases of fraud, shall not be disturbed. If an objection is made
within the said time, bets go with stakes.

5. Bets made on one horse against another, or that one horse beats another,
are determined if either of them should win : unless agreed by the parties, it is not
indispensable that both horses should start. Bets made between horses i, 2, 3 are
determined by the places assigned by the Judge — it is not necessary to say the
best of I, 2, 3.

6. If odds are laid in running or immediately after the horses pass the post,
and a dead heat is the result : and in " double events," if either is decided in the
backer's favour, and the other results in a dead heat, the money betted must be
put together and equally divided. As, according to racing custom, matches
which result in a dead heat are void, bets are void also.

7. If a bet is made on one of the horses that runs a dead heat against a beaten
horse, and the owners agree to divide, he who backed the horse that ran the dead
heat wins half his bet. "if odds are laid on one horse against another 1,2, 3, and
they run a dead heat for either place, the money betted must be put together and
equally divided.

8. The person who lays the odds has the right to choose a horse or the field ;
when a person has chosen a horse, the field is what starts against him. If odds
are laid without mentioning the horse before the race is over, the bet must be
determined by the state of the odds at the time of making it.

APPENDIX 757

9. Bets made after a race that the winner will be disqualified, stand, even if
no objection be made.

10. Any bet made from signal or indication when the race has been determined,
shall be considered fraudulent and void.

11. AH bets on matches and private sweepstakes depending between any two
horses shall be void if those horses subsequently become the property of the same
person, or of his avowed confederate.

12. Double event bets are determined when the first event is lost.

13. Bets made on horses winning any number of races within the year shall
be understood to mean between the ist of January and the 31st of December.

14. Money given to have a bet laid shall not be returned, though the race be
not run.

15. In the event of a race being ordered to be run over again, starting price
bets shall be regulated by the price current at the time the race was first run.
Bets in favour of any horse which started on the first but did not go to the post
on the second occasion are lost.

16. Confirmed bets cannot be declared off except by mutual consent, but on
any allegation of fraud or corrupt practice, the Committee will investigate the
case and may declare the bet void. Either of the bettors may demand stakes to
be made on proving to the satisfaction of the Committee that he has just cause
for doing so. If ordered^ the bets must be covered oi- sufficient security offered,
and a person refusing to cover shall be expelled the Subscription Room at
Newmarket and at Tattersall's.

17. The Committee will not necessarily enforce the settlement of a compromised
account. Before giving a decision they may require the books of the debtor and
a statement of his accounts to be submitted to them ; but they have authority, in
all such cases, to order the account to be settled if they think a reasonable offer is
made.

18. If a debtor does not satisfy the claims of his creditors within twelve months
he shall not be entitled to receive any debts which may be due to him ; but if he
does so within the prescribed time, viz., " one year," i.e.^ 365 days, inclusive of the
day when the money was won, the Committee will support his just claims to
receive payment from his debtors.

19. If any extraordinary occasion should arise, or in cases of notorious and
palpable fraud, any of the before-mentioned rules may be suspended by the
Committee.

20. The Stewards of races have no authority ex officio to take cognisance of
any disputes or claims with respect to bets.

[INDEX

INDEX

Abdomen, diseases of—

cattle

,

.

449

dogs

,

,

614

horses ,

,

,

449

sheep

,

.

542

Abdomen, diseases of, dogs .

.

614

Abdomen of the horse

.

239

diaphragm

.

241

,249

peritoneum

.

.

240

Abortion —

cattle

,

,

501

horses .

,

,

307

African horses .

.

410

Agalactia .

.

,

500

Age of horses

164,

185

,187

sheep

562

American horses

.

,

412

Anatomical structure of the horse

161

Anthrax

,

467

cleansing and disinfection

472

disposal of carcases .

471

procedure

.

470

symptoms of .

.

468

Arabian horses .

,

403

breeding from .

,

304

Arm of the horse

,

87

Asiatic horses

^

403

Ass, the .

,

416

Asthma, dogs

,

596

Attachments in front of the

past

em

bones, horse

•

217

B

Bar-shoe .

371

Barb horse

.

410

Barley for food .

,

314

Barnacles .

.

282

Beagle, the

,

679

Beans for food .

,

313

Betting, rules on

,

756

Bit ... .

,

349

Bites of vipers .

,

610

Biting

,

349

Blackleg .

,

474

Bladder, inflammation of-

_

cattle

452

dogs

.

616

horses , ,

,

72

Bladder of the horse . .

252

stone in

73

Bleeding, horses

284

sheep

561

Blend-water, dogs

622

Blindness and imperfect vision —

dogs ....

612

horses .... 3

7, 180

sheep ....

535

Blistering, horses

288

Blood-letting, dogs .

637

Blood-striking, swine .

584

Bloody water, dogs

622

Bog-spavin

. 119

Bolus, method of giving

. 637

Bone-spavin

. 115

Boots, water

. 374

poultice ....

. 374

Bots, the .

. 81

Bowels, entanglement of .

. 79

Bowels, inflammation of —

cattle ....

• 449

dogs ....

. 614

horses ....

• 75

Brain, inflammation of, cattle

. 426

Biaxy or sickness, sheep

• 544

Breeding dogs .

. 640

horses ....

• 304

swine ....

. 586

Breeds of the horse .

. 388

African horse .

. 410

American horse

. 412

Arabian horse

403

Asiatic horse .

403

Barb ....

410

British horse .

395

charger, the .

399

Cleveland bays

. 400

coach horse, the

. 400

draught horse .

. 401

Egyptian horse

. 411

hackney, the .

397

hunter, the

. 396

Nubian or Dongola horse

. 411

Persian horse .

. 408

Suffolk punch-horse

402

Tartar horse .

408

Toorkoman horse .

409

Turkish hor^e ♦ ,

409

INDEX

759

Breeds of horned cattle •

. 521

Costiveness, cattle

. 463

Galloway breed . .

. 523

dogs ...

. 621

Kyloes, or Highland

. 523

Cough, cattle, .

. 444

long-horned cattle .

523

dogs

• 595

milch cows

. 524

Cow-houses

. 516

short-horned, or Holstein

S2I

Cow-pox

. 480

Breeds of sheep

580

Cramp of the legs

• ^li

British horses

395

Cranium of the horse .

. 166

Broken wind , ,

58

Crib-biting

. 357

Bronchitis

56

Cropping . . . .

• 639

Bruises, dogs

633

Crupper

. 324

Bull-dog, the .

701

Curb ....

. 113

terrier, the .

704

Cuticle, the

. 261

C

Cutis, the .

. 262

Calf-bed, falling down of

504

D

Calves, rearing of

510

Dalmatian . . . ,

. 714

Calving .... 49

2, 505

Defects of the fore-leg

. 217

Canker, dogs

628

Dentition of cattle

. 514

horses .... 2

7, 152

Diabetes . . . ,

. 74

Capped hocks .

no

Diaphragm of the horse

. 241

Carrots for food

314

Diarrhoea or looseness —

Cartilages of the foot

228

cattle . . . .

. 458

Castrating lambs . .

571

dogs . . . .

. 622

Cataract dogs .

627

sheep . . . .

. 546

Catarrhal mammitis .

496

Diseases of the abdomen-

Catarrh, or common cold, cattle

442

cattle . . . .

421, 449

horses ....

56

dogs . . . .

. 614

sheep ....

536

horses . . . .

. 68

Cattle, breeds of .

521

sheep . . . .

. 542

dentition of .

514

Diseases of the chest —

diseases of

421

cattle . . . .

. 432

feeding of . . .

516

dogs . . . .

. 593

Cavesson ....

320

horses . . . .

. 46

Chaps ....

500

sheep . . . .

. 538

Charger, the . . .

399

Diseases of dogs

. 591

Chest, diseases of —

Diseases of the external par

ts—

cattle ....

432

cattle . . . .

. 479

dogs ....

593

dogs . . . .

. 626

horses ....

46

horses . . . .

. 84

sheep ....

538

sheep . . . .

. 549

Choking ....

428

Diseases of the eye-

Chronic cough .

60

dogs . . . .

. 626

Cleaning horses .

355

horses

. 32

Clipping ....

Diseases of the head-

Clips of the shoe

372

cattle . . . .

. 426

Clothing of the horse

338

dogs

. 593

Coach horse

400

horses . . . .

5

dog ....

714

sheep

. 533

Coats, foul

632

Diseases of the

Cocker, the ...

694

hind legs

. 2l8

Coffin-joint, sprains of

104

horse . . . .

5

Colic, dogs

621

lips . . . .

. 32

horses ....

76

mammary gland or udder

. 494

sheep ....

547

neck

. 40

Collar, slipping the . r

359

sheep

• 531

Congestion of the mammae .

495

skin of the horse

. 261

Contagious pleuro-pneumonia

434

swine . . .

. 581

Contraction ,

133

teeth

. 30

Corns , , ,

. 149

tongue , , ,

» 29

76o

INDEX

Distemper —

Fistulous wither. ,

. . 6^

dogs . . ,

. 597

Fits, dogs .

. 62.

horses .

. 6i

horses

i^

Diuretic medicines

. 251

Fleas.

. 63:

Docking .

. 299

Fluke, or liver roL

. 53^

Dogs —

Fog sickness

. 44c

breeding . ,

• . 640

Food for cattle .

• 51^

diseases of

. 591

dogs

. .645

feeding .

. 647

horses .

. 31c

of the chase .

. 675

sheep

• 575

used in shooting

. 688

Foot, bones of the horse's

. 215, 218

watch- .

. 698

cartilages of the

. 228

Domestication of the horse

. 389

diseases of

. i2g

Draught horse .

. 401

external parts of

. 223

Drifting snow

. 573

integuments of

. 218

Drink for horses .

. . 316

nerve, vein, and artery 0

. 216

Dropsy, dogs

. 620

rot, sheep

. 555

Dysentery —

Fore legs .

. 84

cattle .

. 460

Foul coats, dogh

. . 632

sheep

. 547

Fouls, the .

. 482

Founder, acute .

. i2g

E

chronic .

. 133

Ear-

Foxhound .

. . 677

canker in, dogs

. 628

training the .

. 652

ulceration of .

594, 627

Fracture of the skull, horse

s . 39

Egyptian horse .

. 411

tuberosities of the hauncb

I . 107

Elbow, enlargement of

. ^1

Fractures, dogs .

. 638

fracture of . . .

. 87

sheep

. 560

Epilepsy, horses .

. 14

Epileptic fits, dogs

. 624

G

Erysipelas, sheep . ,

. 553

Ewe, the .

. 568

Gadflies, cattle .

. 483

Exercise of the horse

. 336

horses . . . .

. 82

Eye, diseases of —

Galloway breed .

- . 523

dogs . . . .

. 626

Gargut, or distended udder .

. 585

horses . . . .

. 32

Gauchos . . . .

• 413

Eye, its visual structure

. 178

Gestation, cattle .

. 492

muscles of, etc.

. 174

dogs . . . .
sheep . . . .

. 640

Eyelashes of the horse

. 175

. 565

Eyelids, eruption of ,

. 36

swine . . . .

. 586

Gibbing . . . .

. 345

F

Glanders . . . .

. 16

Falling down of the calf-bed

I . 504

Grass-ill . . . .

. 540

False quarter

Farcy . . . .

Fardel-bound

. 141

21

Grease . . . .
Greyhounds

• 123

651, 682

. 463

Scottish Highland .

. 685

Fattening of sheep

. 578

training . . . .

. 665

Febrile diseases .

• 467

Gripes . . . .

• 455

Feeding cattle .

. 516

Grogginess

. 100

cow-house . . .

. 517

Grooming . . . .

. 337

dogs . . . .

. 647

Gullet, obstruction of .

. 43

horses . . . .

. 310

Gutta serena

. 36

sheep . . . .

. 573

Feet of the horse, managem(

jnt of 334

H

Feet, sore, dogs .

. 632

Fetlock . . . .

. 215

Hair of the 'horse , . «.

. 266

sprain of the .

. lOI

colour of the .

. 270

cutting of the .

. 102

Harrier, the

. 678

Fever . . . .

• 52

Haunch and hind legs, disea

ses of 107

Firing , . . ,

. 292

Haw of the eye .

35» 178

INDEX

r6i

Hay for food . . . .

310

Head of the horse, external ana-

tomy

171

internal anatomy

166

Head, diseases of —

cattle

426

dogs

593

horses

5

sheep . . . . .

531

Heart of the horse

233

Heat and flies ....

575

Hernia

70

Hide-bound . . . .

274

Highland cattle . . . .

523

Hind legs

107

diseases of ... .

218

Hinder-shoe . . . .

372

History of the horse .

388

Hocks, capped ....

no

enlargement of

112

lameness in ... .

214

Hock-joint, structure of

211

Hoof, preparation for shoeing of

362

Hoose or husk ....

445

Horses —

abdomen of .

239

age of . . . 164,185

,187

anatomical structure of .

i6r

bladder

252

bleeding ....

284

blistering ....

288

breeding of .

304

chest of . .

231

dental indications of age .

187

diaphragm, or midriff
docking

249
299

drink for ....

316

exercise of ....

336

eye and its visual structure

178

feeding of ... .

310

feet, management of

334

firing .....

292

grooming ....

337

hair .....

266

heart of

233

how to buy ....

376

internal organisation of .

230

intestines ....

253

kidneys .....

250

lady's

386

liver of

247

lungs of

230

muscles and eye

174

neurotomy ....

294

nicking

300

not lying down

358

omentum or caul of.

248

palate and teeth

171

pancreas of .

249

pulse cf

236

Uor?,ts— continued

skin

spleen of

stable

stomach of

teeth

training .

vices of .
Hoven

How to buy a horse
Hunter, the
Hunting shoe
Husk
Hydrophobia

261

248
328

243
184

319
340
440
376
396
370
445
606

Inflamed udder .

. li'ya

Inflammation of the

bladder, cattle . . . , 452

dogs .

. 616

horses .

72

bowels, cattle .

. 449

dogs .

. 614

horses.

75

brain, cattle .

. 426

eye, horses

. 32

kidneys, cattle.

. 451

horses .

71

liver, cattle

439

horses

68

lungs, cattle .

432

dogs .

595

horses

6, 203

sheep . ,

540

swine .

583

mucous membrane,

horse

75

stomach, cattle

438

womb, cattle .

452

Influenza .

61

Intestinal worms

80

parasites

617

Intestines of the horse.

253

intussusception of .

79

stones in

79

Interstitial mammitis, cattle 496, 498

Intussusception of the intestines . 79

J

Jaundice, or yellows —

cattle 447

horses ..... 69

sheep 541

Jockey's licenses, etc. . . . 726

K

Kennel, the . . . .667

Kicking 347

Kidneys, inflammation of, cattle . 451

of the horse .... 250

inflammation of .

.

.

71

762

INDEX

Knees, complaints and injuries of 88

Muscles of the limbs , ,

. 202

Knee-tied .

. 95

thigh ....

. 208

Kyloes, or Highland cattle . . 523

Musty grain

. 312

L

Mucous membrane

. 75

Lady's horse

. 386

N

Lampas

. 24

Nasal gleet

22

Lambing .

. 568

National Hunt Rules .

• 735

Lambs, weaning

• 570

Navicular-joint disease

• 139

castrating

. 571

Neck, diseases of

40

Lasso

. 413

Nerve, cutting of a .

. 294

Leaping .

. 566

Neurotomy ... 2
Newfound and dog

[6, 294

Leg-evil, sheep .

. 554

. 706

Legs, fore, horses

. 217

Nicking ....

. 300

hind

. 107, 218

Nostrils of the horse .

. 169

swelled .
Lice .

. 120
. 486

Nubian and Dongola horses

. 411

Light in stables .

• 334

0

Limbs, muscles of

. 202

Lips, the diseases of

: ; • 32
, cattle . 439

Oats for food

. 310

Liver, inflammation oj

Omentum or caul of the horse

. 248

of the horse .

• 247

Operations —

inflammation of

. 68

dogs ....

. 637

Liver rot .
Locked-jaw, cattle
horses

. . 538
. 429
. 13

f_ • • '''

horses ....
Ophthalmia

282

33

Ossification of the back sinew

105

Long-horned cattle .
Lungs, inflammation 0

of the cartilages
Otter-hound, the

157
681

cattle

. 432

P

dogs

. 595

horses

46, 203

Palate of the horse

171

sheep

. 540

Palsy

15

swine

. . 583

Pancreas of the horse .

249

Lungs of the horse

. 230

Parturient apoplexy .
Parturition —

476

M

cattle . . . .49

2, 505

Madness —

dogs

640

dogs

. 606

horses

308

horses

12

sheep

565

Mad staggers

II

swine

586

Mallenders

. Ill

Pastern and foot, their bones and

Malformation of the fo

ot . . 158

integuments

218

Mammitis, or mastitis

• 495

nerve vein and artery of .

261

catarrhal

. 496

Pasteur, Dr . . . .

608

interstitial

• 496, 498

Pawing

359

Mammary gland, disea

ses of . 494

Pease for food . . . .

313

Management of dogs .

. 647

Pelt-rot, sheep . . . .

553

Mange, dogs —

Pelvis

107

the common

. 628

Peritoneum of the horse

240

the red ,

. . 631

Persian horse . . . .

408

horses ,

. 278

Piles, dogs. . . ■. .

623

Mastiff, the

. 698

Pill, method of giving

637

Maxims, useful in trair

ling dogs . 656

Pinding, sheep . . . .

548

Megrims .

5

Pin-toed horses . . . .

378

Midriff of the horse .

. 249

Pleurisy

50

Milch cows e

. 524

Pleuro-pneumonia

434

Milk fever .

. 476

Pneumonia . . . .

432

Mortification

. . 465

Prick or wound in the sole .

146

Mounting horses

. 353

Pointer, the English .

688

Mule, the ,

. . 418

how to train . . . ,

652

INDEX

763

Poison

Poisonous plants

Poll evil .

Polypus

Poodle

Pores of the skin

Post-mortem,

Poultice boot

Puffing the glims

Pulse of the horse

Pupping .

Quinsy
Quittor

611

315
40
24
697
265
607

374
165
236
646

. 583
144, 225

Rabies-

horses

12

Race-horses, age

. 723

Racing colours .

. 727

rules of .

• 7

17,735

shoe

. 371

Ram, the .

. 565

Rearing

• 344

of calves

. 510

Red -water, cattle

. 453

Red-water blibes, sheep

• 543

Regulations for race meetin

gs

. 721

Resp or red-water, sheep

. 542

Restiveness in horses

34

0, 353

while shoeing

356

Rete mucosum, the

265

Retrievers .

663

Rickets .

635

Ringbone .

104

Roaring

42

Rolling

360

Rules of racing .

71

7,735

on betting

756

Running away, horses

350

Rupture, or hernia

70

of the suspensory ligament

100

S

Saddle-galls .... 66

Safety-shoe

373

Sallenders .

III

Sand-crack

135

Scab or itch, cattle

479

sheep

549

Scalds

634

Scurf, scab

479

Setter, the English

690

how to train ,

654

Setons

298

Shearing .

577

606

Sheep, age of, as indicated by the

teeth 562

breeds of .... 580

diseases of . . . -531
fattening of . . . . 578
feeding of ... . 573

food for 577

shelter for . , . .573

washing 576

Shelter for sheep . . -573

drifting snow .... 573

effects of rain . . . .575

heat and flies .... 575

Shepherd's dog .... 709

Shoeing 361

bar shoe 371

clips of the shoe , . . 372
concave-seated shoe , , 366
expanding shoe . . , 370
hinder shoe .... 372
hunting shoe .... 370
preparation of the hoof for . 362
putting on of the shoe . . 364
racing shoe .... 371-
restiveness while . . . 356
safety-shoe .... 373
seated shoe .... 369
tips . . . . .373

Short-horned or Holstein breed

of cattle r . . .521
Shoulder, muscles of , . • 202

Shying 350

Side line 283

Sight of the horse, testing the, . 182

Sinew, ossification of the back . 105

sprain of the back . . '95

Singeing 269

Sinuses, frontal .... 167
Skeleton of the horse . , . 161
Skin of the horse . . . 261

Skull, fracture of . . '39
Snores ..... 430
Soles, felt or leather . . . 375
Sore feet, dogs .... 632
Spaniel, water .... 696
Spavin, bone . , . 'US

bog 119

Speedy cut . . ■ . .94

Sprains and bruises, dogs . . 633

of the back sinews, horses . 95

of the coffin-joint . . . 104

of the fetlock .... loi

of the round bone . . . 107

of the shoulder ... 85

of the stifle-joint . . . 108

Spleen of the horse . • . 248

Splenic apoplexy . , . 467

Splent, or splint ... 92

Springer, the . . . . 692

Staggers or apoplexy, horses , 8

764

INDEX

Staggers or apoplexy

, sheep

. 533

Udder, swelling of

.

J

. 494

Stables ....

. 328

swine 585

light in .

. 334

Ulceration of the ear, dogs . 594, 627

Staling of blood .

74

Ulcerated teats .... 500

Stomach of the horsfi .

. 243

Stomach or grass staggers, cattl

2 446

horses ....

53

V

Stomach, inflammation of the

. 438

Vein, inflammation of the jugular 44

Stones in the bladder .

73

TT . Jo T^T

Vermin 558

Stones in the intestines

79

Vices of the horse . . . 340

Strains and bruises
Strangles ....

487
24

Vipers, bites of, in dogs . . 610

Strangury ....

493

Stnng halt

114

W

Suffolk punch-licrse .

Surfeit

402
276

Warbles .
Warts

. 66

36. 281

Swelled legs ....

Swelling of the i dder .

Swine, diseases of . . .

120
494
581

Washing sheep .

Watch-dogs

Water-boot

. 576
. 698
. 374

T

Water-dogs

. 663

Water-dropwort .

. 315

Tares 314

Water-parsley .

. 315

Tartar horse

. 408

Water-spaniel, large

. 696

Teats, ulcerr ted .

. 500

small

. 697

Teeth, sheep

. . 562

Weakness of the foot

158

horses .

30, 184, 171

Weaning lambs .

570

Terrier, the

. 680

Weaving .

360

Tetanus

13

Wheat for food .

313

Thick wind

57

Wildfire .

553

Thigh, muscl s of the

. 208

Wind, broken .

58

Thorns

. 635

thick .

57

Thorough-pin

. 109

Wind-galls

99

Throat, sore

. 430

Wind-sucking .

358

Thrush

• 153

Wintering cattle

518

Ticks, etc. .

. 635

Withers, fistulous

64

Tips .

. 373

Wolf-dog .

685

Tongue

. 29

Womb, inflammation c

f

452

Toorkoman horse

. 409

Wood-evil .

554

Training dogs .

. 647

Worming .

637

foxhounds

. 652

Worms

617

horses .

. 319

Wounds, cattle .

487

pointers .

. 654

dogs

633

setters .

• 654

horses .

27

Travis

. 282

sheep

559

Tread, or oveneich .

. 143

Wurbles, or wormals .

483

Tripping .

. 360

Tuberculosis

. 524

Turkish horse .

. 409

Y

Turnips for food

. 314

Yellows, cattle .... 447

U

horses 69

sheep 541.

Udder, diseases of

•

•

494 1

Yew ....

.

.

315

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