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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BUREAU OF EDUCATION

BULLETIN, 1917, No. 53

THE CONIFERS
OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES

By J. E. KIRKWOOD

PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1918

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION FOR 1917.

re. — With the exceptions indicated, the documents named below will be sent free
of charge upon application to the Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. 0. Those
marked with an asterisk (*) are no longer available for free distribution, but may be
had of the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, p, < '..
upon payment of the price stated. Remittances should be made in coin, currency, or
money order. Stamps are not accepted.

A complete list of available publications will be sent upon application.

*No. 1. Monthly record of current educational publications, January, 1917.

5 cts.
*No. 2. Reorganization of English in secondary schools. A report of the Com-
mission on Secondary Education. James F. Hosic. 20
*No. 3. Tine-needle basketry in schools. William C. A. Hammel. 5 cts.
No. 4. Secondary agricultural schools in Russia. W. S. Jesien.
*No. 5. Report of an inquiry into the administration and support of the Colo-
rado school system. Katherine M. Cook and A. C. Monahan. 10 etc.
No, 6. Educative and economic possibilities of school-directed home gardening

in Richmond, Ind. J. L. Randall.
No. 7. Monthly record of current educational publications, February, 1017.
No. 8. Current practice in city school administration. W. S. Deffenbaugh.
No. 9. Department-store education. Helen R. Morton.
No. 10. Development of arithmetic as a school subject. W. S. Monroe.
*No. 11. Higher technical education in foreign countries. A. T. Smith and

W. S. Jesien. 20 cts.
No. 12. Monthly record of current educational publications, March, 1917.
No. 1.3. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1917.
No. 14. A graphic survey of book publication. 1890-1916. F. E. Woodward.
No. 15. Studies in higher education in Ireland and Wales. Geo. E. MacLean.
No. 10. Studies in higher education in England and Scotland. Geo. E. Mac-
Lean.
No. 17. Accredited higher institutions. S. P. Capen.

;No. 18. History of public school education in Delaware. S. B. Weeks. 20 cts.
No. 19. Report of a survey of the University of Nevada.
No. 20. Activities of school children in out-of-school hours. C. D. Jarvis.
No. 21. Monthly record of current educational publications. May, 1917.
No. 22. Money value of education. A. C. Ellis.

*No, 2& Three short courses in home making. Carrie A. Lyford. 15 cts.
No. 24. Monthly record of current educational publications— Index, Feb., 1916-

Jan., 1917.
No. 25. Military training of youths of school age in foreign countries.

W. S. Jesien.
No. 26. Garden clubs in the schools of Englewood, N. J. Charles O. Smith.
No. 27. Training of teachers of mathematics for secondary schools. It. C. Arch-
ibald.
No. 28. Monthly record of current educational publications, Juue, 1917.
No. 29. Practice teaching for secondary school teachers. A. R. Mead.
No. 30. School extension statistics, 1915-16. Clarence A. Perry.
No. 31. Rural-teacher preparation in county training schools and high schools.

H. W. Foght.
No. 32. Work of the Bureau of Education for the natives of Alaska, 1915-16.
No. 33. A comparison of the salaries of rural and urban superintendents of
schools. A. C. Monahan and C. H. Dye.

[Continued on page 3 of cover.l

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BUREAU OF EDUCATION

BULLETIN, 1917, No. 53

THE CONIFERS
OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES

By J. E. KIRKWOOD

PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1918

ADDITIONAL OOPTF.S

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON, D. C.

AT

15 CENTS PER COPY

CONTENTS.

Page.

Letter of transmittal 5

Letter to teachers G

Note__ 6

Chapter L— The forests 7

Chapter II.— The species 19

The pines 21

The latches - . 29

Spruce - 33

Hemlocks 37

Douglas spruce 41

Firs 45

Arbor vitse 49

Junipers 53

The yew !___ 57

Chapter III. — Directions for the study of the conifers 59

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.
Fig. 1. Typical stand of Yellow Pine in western Montana. Scene in the

Lolo Valley in August. A southern slope Frontispiece.

2. Mature Western Yellow Pine, with undergrowth mainly of Doug-

las Spruce. Bottom lands of Lolo Valley. Montana 8

3. Near view of the trunk of the Western Yellow Pine. Tree about 3

feet in diameter ; young Yellow Pine in the foreground 10

4. A forest of Lodgcpole Pine in the Glacier National Park. August- 12

5. White Pine, in the Flathead Valley, Montana. July 14

6. White Pine, on Priest River, northern Idaho. Tree over 3 feet in

diameter ; young Western Hemlocks in the foreground. July 16

7. Whitebark Pine, in Glacier Park. About 16 inches in diameter;

altitude about 6,500 feet 18

8. Limber Pine. On an exposed ridge east of the Divide 20

9. Southern Longleaf Pine. Illustrating position of staminate and

ovulate flowers. Upper left, a branch with staminate cones;
right, a branch with cones of three ages; at the top are two
small cones at time of pollination ; midway two cones a year
older; below, cones approaching maturity 22

10. Pine cone, open. Below, to the left, lower side of seed-bearing

scale showing bract ; to the right, the upper side showing seeds ;
above to right and left, seeds with wings . 22

11. Western Yellow Pine. A branch taken in July. The small cones

in the center above were pollinated in May preceding ; the larger
cones below are a year older, and would have ripened in late
August. About one-third natural size 24

3

4 ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.
Fig. 12. Three western Montana trees near Flathead Lake. Left, Western

Larch ; center, Douglas Spruce ; right, Lodgepole Pine 2G

13. Western Larch, in the Flathead Valley 28

14. Lyall's Larch, on Mount Lolo. Trees a foot or less in diameter;

about 8,000 feet altitude. August 30

15. Western Larch. A, Branch two years old; B, cone; C, a young

seed-bearing scale and bract. About two-thirds natural size 31

16. Engleraann Spruce, in Glacier National Park. Scene on creek bot-

tom in August 32

17. Englemann Spruce, in the upper Bitter Root Valley, Montana .". I

18. Englemann Spruce. A, Mature cone; B, leaf; C, seed; D, portion

of twig; about natural size 35

19. Western Hemlock, in Glacier National Park 3G

20. Western Hemlock. A, Twig and cone; B, seed-bearing scale;

slightly enlarged 37

21. Mountain, or Black Hemlock, in the St. Joe Mountains of northern

Idaho ; on the extreme left an Alpine Fir 38

22. Mountain Hemlock, about 4 feet in diameter 40

23. Top of a young Douglas Spruce 41

24. Grand Fir, typical form * 42

25. ^Douglas Spruce. A, Cone; B, leaf; C, bract and lower side of

seed-bearing scale; D, seed 43

26. Grand Fir. In young trees the bark is smooth, but it grows

rougher with age : 44

27. Grand Fir. A, Twig and cone in natural position; B, bract and

lower side of seed-bearing scale ; C, seed 45

28. Branch of Grand Fir. Condition in July 46

29. Alpine Fir. A, Twig and cones in natural position; B, bract, at

a, and lower side of seed-bearing scale; C, upper side of seed-
bearing scale with seeds in position 47

30. Alpine Fir, in Glacier National Park [ 48

31. Alpine Fir. The smooth bark is characteristic, even to maturity— 50

32. Arbor Vitae. A, Twig and cone; scalelike leaves; B, scale; C,

seed 51

33. Arbor Vitae. Scene in St. Joe Mountains in Idaho 52

34. Junipers. Left, Rocky Mountain Juniper, with immature cones

at A and mature ones at B. Leaves scalelike. Right, Dwarf
Juniper, twig and fruit; D, seed; C, fruit (cone) in section,
showing two seeds 53

35. Rocky Mountain Juniper, on Flathead Lake 54

36. Dwarf Juniper, in Glacier National Park__ 56

37. Western Yew. Branches showing fruits in various stages of

development. July___ 57

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

Department of the Interior,

Bureau of Education,
Washington, December 8, 1917.
Sir: Forest trees of all kinds have interest for all people.
Familiar and affectionate knowledge of them has culture value of
a very fine kind. For the people of some sections of the country a
scientific study of the trees of. the forest has much practical and
commercial value as well. This is particularly true of the forested
region of the Rocky Mountains. I therefore recommend that the
accompanying manuscript on the conifers of the northern Rockies,
by J. E. Kirkwood, professor of botany in the University of Mon-
tana, be published as a bulletin of the Bureau of Education for dis-
tribution among the teachers in the schools of this section and for
sale in quantities by the Superintendent of Documents for the use
of pupils in the schools. There is great need for such a guide for
teachers and students in this subject, which, with the help of such
a manual as this, will add much to the richness of the school work.
It is, I am sure, quite within the province of this bureau to assist
in this way the people of the country as a whole, or any part of it,
to improve their schools.
Respectfully submitted.

P. P. Claxton,

Commissioner.

The Secretary of the Interior.

5

LETTER TO TEACHERS.

To the teachers of the northern Rockies:

This bulletin of the Bureau of Education has been prepared by
one who knows well the cone-bearing trees of the forests of the
section in which you live, and the needs of teachers and children
who would study these trees. The text of this bulletin is not intended
to be conned and recited as textbooks too often are ; it is intended to
be used as a suggestive guide in the out-of-door study of the trees
themselves. Should pupils in the schools or other people want
copies of the bulletin, they can be had from the Superintendent of
Documents, Washington, D. C, for 15 cents.

P. P. Claxton, Commissioner.

NOTE.

The purpose of this bulletin is to enable persons not technically
trained in botany to identify the coniferous species of the northern
Kocky Mountain region lying within the United States.

Nothing is published at present, so far as can be ascertained, which
presents with adequate illustrations and in nontechnical language
descriptions of the trees of the northern Eocky Mountain region.
That some such publication is desirable is indicated by the frequent
inquiries for literature on this subject in definite, concise, and popular
form. This need is felt by teachers of nature study in the public
schools scattered throughout the northern Rocky Mountain country,
as well as by foresters, farmers, and others whose work or pleasure
takes them out of doors.

Acknowledgments are due to Prof. M. J. Elrod, of the University
of Montana, for some of the photographs used herein, and to Mr.
E. E. Hubert, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, who has made most
of the drawings.
6

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROOKIES.

I. THE FORESTS.

The forest appeals strongly to the human mind and heart. It has
a deeper hold in our sentiment than all other forms of the earth's
vegetation. In song and story, in the pages of romance, in the litera-
ture of history, of religion, and of science, thoughts of the forest
have quickened the facile pens of many writers. The genesis of man-
kind was in the forest, and in the forest man lived and fought and
grew ; the trees he venerated and in the groves worshipped. The in-
fluence of the forest in the distribution of the human race can never
be reckoned. From the first venturing upon a clumsy raft bound
with roots and vines to the hulls of sturdy oak that breasted unknown
seas, the history of settlement and conquest, of occupation and de-
velopment, is inseparable from the story of the forest use.

The economic value of the forest can hardly be told, for when we
have reckoned in terms of board feet and dollars and cents, there re-
mains the less obvious but not the less real influence, far reaching into
all manner of conditions and impossible of calculation. When the*
forest goes, there go with it the forest animal life, the game and the
fish, the fur-bearing denizens of the woods, the clear streams, the
storage of waters for power and irrigation, and last but not least the
influence of the forest itself upon the soil whereon it grows, tend-
ing ever to greater richness and depth. We are told that the forests
of Montana alone, if converted into lumber at the present prices,
would exceed in value all the precious metals mined in the State since
the discovery of gold over 50 years ago. But this vast wealth is far
surpassed by the value of the great streams to manufacturing and
agriculture. It is stated upon authority that more power can be de-
veloped in seven miles of the Missouri at Great Falls than is possible
at several other populous cities whose wealth and influence are
largely dependent upon their power sites.

The Rocky Mountain forest is one of the distinct vegetation regions
in North America at the present day. It is conspicuously coniferous,
evergreen; everywhere the somber influence of the fir and pine.
But while the conifers or softwoods are in the ascendency as to
numbers, as species the hardwoods far exceed them. The latter, of
course, are more abundant along streams and in other situations
where soil moisture is adequate the year round.

30408°— IS 2 7

8

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

The forests of the northern Rocky Mountain region contain 5 or 6
species of pine, 1 of spruce, 2 of larch, 2 hemlocks, 1 Douglas spruce,

Fig. 2.— Mature Western Yellow Pine, with undergrowth mainly of Douglas Spruce. Bot-
. torn lands of Lolo Valley, Montana.

2 firs, 1 arbor vitae, 4 junipers, and 1 yew. Among the hardwoods
are 5 cottonwoods or poplars, 30 willows (of which only 7 or 8 are

THE FORESTS. 9

found in tree form), 3 species of alder, 4 of birch, 3 of cherry, 1 of
plum, 4 of hawthorns, 1 of mountain mahogany, 1 of maple, 1 of
mountain ash, 1 of dogwood in tree form, and 1 of cascara. The
Rocky Mountain forests, however, are more noted for things which
they lack than for things which they have. Genera which are con-
spicuous east or west are either wholly lacking or at least very spar-
ingly represented here. There is no native oak, hickory, elm, walnut,
chestnut, sycamore, or locust. Of the many and vigorous kinds of
birch, alder, maple, plum, cherry, and hawthorn of the eastern and
western forests, there are only the few and inferior species mentioned.

The northern Rockies have a composite flora, not only with refer-
ence to forests but also in the lesser vegetation. That is, few species
of trees seem really to be indigenous, and these are mingled with the
majority which have migrated in from other sources during long
periods of time. To get a better idea of what this means, it is neces-
sary to review some of the earlier conditions.

All vegetation of the earth has been subject to periodic change
and influence in relation to geology. Long ages ago,1 in the early
Cretaceous period, a continuous forest of conifers and cycads cov-
ered the North American Continent. In the late Cretaceous the
land became divided by an arm of the sea which extended north
from the Gulf to the Arctic through what is now Texas and Mon-
tana. During this period was the beginning of the marked differ-
entiation of the eastern flora from that of the West. In the East
are the elm, hickory, chestnut, persimmon, sassafras, tulip, Osage
orange, and magnolia, which are not found on the Pacific coast; in
the West are the Sequoias, cypress, and giant cactus, which do not
occur east of the Rocky Mountains. Oaks are on both coasts, but
not the same species of oaks; the same to a large extent is true of
maples, alders, pines, firs, and many others. Toward the close of
the Cretaceous there entered many hardwood types of modern form.
The eastern slope of the Rockies was more humid in the Cretaceous
and Tertiary than now, as one may judge by the petrified forests
scattered from the Yellowstone Park to Arizona, and the remains of
holly, oaks, elms, chestnuts, Sequoias, and other trees in the Floris-
sant shales of Colorado.

In the Tertiary age the East and West were again united by land.
But this was a period of successive uplifts and depressions. Areas
became submerged and their forests destroyed. Other areas were
subjected to severe changes locally. Erosion and other disturbances
must have greatly modified the character, proportion, and distri-
bution of the species.

With the advent of the glacial period great fields of ice pushed
southward, carrying destruction to the forests before them. Smaller

1 Ilarshberger, John W. Phytogoographic Survey of North America. Leipzig, 1911.

10

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

intermountain glaciers worked destruction in forests not touched
by the main sheet. Evidence of such glaciers is abundant through-

Fig. 3.— Near view of the trunk of tbe Western Yellow Pine. Tree about 3 feet in diameter;
young Yellow Pine in the foreground.

out the whole region. It is probable that some survived in advance
of the ice, but modifications of climate during this period must have

THE FORESTS. 11

been so profound as to affect severely all the forest growth within a
considerable radius. Arctic vegetation preceded the glaciers and
retired with them, but the descendants of some of the species are
still found upon mountain peaks.

With the final recession of the ice, vegetation reoccupied the area
in successive waves. First the circumboreal plants, driven by the
rising temperatures, followed close upon the retreating feet of the
glaciers. In the hollows were lakes and ponds which were soon oc-
cupied by a swamp flora. Following these came the conifers, to
rehabilitate the land with a forest covering.

About six regions of North America are now regarded as ancient
centers of plant migration. From these the northward movement
began at the close of the glacial age, and some of them furnished the
material for replanting the land denuded by the ice. Two of these
are important in the present discussion. The Arctic flora has already
been mentioned as having left its traces on the tops of the highest
mountains, but it is hardly represented by any woody species except
a few dwarf willows and heaths.

Two centers of distribution remain to be considered. One of these
occupied a strip of the Pacific coast from northern California to
Washington west of the Cascades. From it species moved southward,
northward, and eastward. Some have now reached the Bitter Root
Mountains and the Flathead Valley, others have passed on as far as
the Black Hills. Those trees which have arrived from the Pacific
center are the grand fir, the Douglas spruce, the western larch, the
white pine, the hemlocks, the arbor vitaei, the yew, the mountain ash,
the black cottonwood, the cascara, the flowering dogwTood, several
willows, and many lesser plants.

The other source of the Rocky Mountain flora lies in the far-off
Appalachians of the Carolinas and southward, where the flora is
one of great antiquity. Some of its species have stayed at home, but
others have wandered far afield. Those which have gone farthest
are those most easily aided by the wind in the distribution of their
seeds. From the Appalachian country some plants moved into Texas
and Kansas, others followed the Atlantic coast northward and oc-
cupied the country of the St. Lawrence and the region east of Hud-
son Bay. Still others wandered far to the Northwest, following the
streams across the plains or north into Canada and thence across the
continent, reaching the Pacific shores at Cook Inlet. In the Rocky
Mountains some of these moved southward, as the white spruce,
said to occur in a few places in Montana, but common throughout
Canada and the northeast. Among other trees from this source
might be mentioned two species of dwarf juniper, the common cot-
tonwood of the Missouri Valley, the balsam cottonwood and the

12 THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

aspen, the box elder and the paper birch, besides a number of wil-
lows and lesser shrubs.

4i9

t

*JjjB

i

1

Fit-

Fig. 4.— A forest of Lodgepole Pine in the Glacier National Park. August.

With these two centers in mind as the contributors to our flora
in the most liberal way, there remain to consider some which are

THE FORESTS. 13

indigenous, supposed to be relicts of a previous age when, owing to
a more humid climate, they were more widely distributed than now.
Among such are the Engelmann spruce, alpine fir, yellow and lodge-
pole pines, all very common and widely distributed species.

Thus it will be seen that in the northern Rocky Mountain country,
the eastern and western floras overlap, and there, mingled with both,
are the remnants of an ancient indigenous flora and the traces of an
Arctic migration.

Among the several climatic factors which influence vegetation
undoubtedly the most important are rainfall and evaporation. Tem-
perature is likewise important, but within the area under discussion
its influence is seen more in the distribution of species within certain
limits of altitude than of latitude. Important as the annual rain-
fall is in determining the character and extent of the forest, more
important still is the seasonal distribution of rain. The forests of
the Ohio Valley are deciduous, broad-leaved woods of oak, hickory,
maple, and other species demanding ample supplies of water, which
are provided in an annual precipitation of 40 to 50 inches, much of
which falls in the summer. Here also is a relatively low rate of
evaporation. On the other hand, the forests of western Oregon are
mainly coniferous and evergreen; the total rainfall is 50 to 100
inches, but it occurs mostly outside the growing season. The sum-
mers are usually too dry for anything but hard-leaved trees, except
where soil waters are near the surface. The Rocky Mountain region
is, in these respects, similar to the west coast, especially in its most
heavily timbered sections.

Contrary to a somewhat prevalent theory, the forest follows the
rain; not the rain the forest. There is no evidence at present that
the forests have any influence on precipitation. The relation of
forest crops to climate has long been an object of thorough research
in Germany, and many facts are nowT well established.

The southeastern States of the Union have a rainfall of 50 to TO
inches a year. East of an irregular line from eastern Texas to Maine
is a region having 10 to 50 inches a year. Westward the annual
rainfall decreases to 10 to 20 inches, including the plains country,
roughly from Canada to Mexico and from the eastern line of the
Dakotas to the Cascade Mountains. The higher altitudes of the
Rockies are favored with somewhat more, and are marked by the
heavier forest formations. Fifteen inches a year is about as little
as will allow forest growth, except by the mitigation of certain fac-
tors, as lower temperatures, less wind, higher relative humidity, and
lower rate of evaporation. The areas of lowest precipitation are
either prairie or desert.

Throughout the mountain country there is more or less definite
relation between topography and local forest distribution. The

14

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

forested and the unforested slopes do not always stand in the same
relation to the points of the compass. The conditions which occur

Fig. 5— White Pine, in the Flathead Valley, Montana. July.

about Missoula may be cited as an illustration. Here it is noticeable
that all the highest points are forested and most of the lower slopes

THE FORESTS. 15

are grassland; and somewhere between, the forest and the grassland
merge; also that the northern and eastern slopes are wooded to the
base, w;hile the others are bare. These features are purely a response
to the distribution and storage of soil waters. Southern and western
slopes exposed to sun and wind are too dry for the growth of trees;
the northern and eastern exposures are more favorable, for there the
snow lies later in the spring, the heat is less intense in summer, and
at all times evaporation proceeds more slowly. The drier slopes, if
wooded at all, are usually clothed sparsely with yellow pine and
Douglas spruce ; the other slopes with larch and Douglas spruce and
lodgepole pine. Thus it appears that not only the features of local
forest distribution are under topographic control, but also the com-
position of the forests and the proportions of the various species.

One is impressed by the fact that the forest species themselves
diifer much in their requirements. Some are like the meek; they are
modest in their demands and they inherit the earth ; others maintain
a sort of aloofness, circumscribed by rigid demands of their own
organization to a particular set of conditions. As an example of the
latter is the western whke pine ; limited by requirements of moisture
in soil and air, by a scant production of seed and by peculiar habits
of growth from the seed, by a relatively narrow range of favorable
temperatures, by a marked susceptibility to disease and to injury by
fire, its distribution is restricted to the Cascade Mountains and
especially favorable situations in the northern Rockies. On the
other hand its relative, the yellow pine, easily satisfied with soil
and moisture conditions, enduring a temperature range of 160 de-
grees or more, early and prolific in bearing seeds of good vitality
and germinative power, resistant to fire and disease, is found from
the British Possessions to Mexico and from the Black Hills to the
shores of the Pacific.

Thus might be summarized the nature and habits of any forest
species, and it would be found that such facts bear an intimate
relation to its geographic distribution; and conversely the distribu-
tion of a species indicates the range of its requirements and adapta-
bility.

Among the most significant and interesting facts of forest distri-
bution are what are known as vegetation cycles or succession of types.
A given forest may not be the permanent or final type of forest
which is to occupy the area. An example may be found in the
transition from grassland to heavy forest evident in various places
in the intermountain region. The prairie is gradually invaded by
the forest and ultimately yields to it fully. The pioneer in this
invasion is the common yellow pine, closely followed by the Douglas
spruce. Through centuries the forest increases, and the soil, enriched
by the deposits of vegetable matter, becomes more capable of retain-
30408°— 18 3

16

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

ing moisture. When this condition has been reached other trees are
able to maintain a foothold, and being more tolerant of shade than

Fig. 6.— White Pine, on Priest River, northern Idaho. Tree over 3 feet in diameter;
young Western Hemlocks in the foreground. July.

the pines, grow up among them and gradually crowd them out.
The grass and the first growth of shrubs entirely disappear, and a

THE FORESTS. 17

forest of entirely different aspect achieves dominance over the whole
area. Along the shores of Flathead Lake are forests of fir, larch,
and spruce, mixed with some hardwoods, which can be traced back
to the beginnings of pines and grassland.

Slide-rock areas are common everywhere in this region. They
vary from the clear gray of freshly broken rock fragments of the
talus to forested slopes in all stages of development. Thus the rocks
support a lichen crust which is gradually replaced by mosses. Under
disintegrating influences affecting the surface layers of the rock and
the accumulation of vegetable matter a foothold is given for small
herbs, and then for bushes, and at last for the forest.

Similarly, changes are slowly transforming ponds into bogs and
bogs into solid ground, with corresponding changes in the plant
covering. River deltas and bars first occupied by the sand-bar
willow increase in height and area by the augmenting influence of
the willow itself, giving place to cottonwood, alder, and birch, and
finally to spruce and other species.

Examples might be cited indefinitely, illustrating the march of
forest development through changes by insensible degrees which
pass unnoticed from generation to generation. The tendency is
toward a climax type, which, so long as the climate does not change,
will maintain a balance among its constituent species, among which
some will be dominant and others dependent. In the climax forest
they will always be shade-enduring species, for so long as the stand
is open, as it must be with species intolerant of shade, just so long
may other and more tolerant ones enter. Traits of a species which
give dominance in a forest society may be rapid growth in height,
tolerance of shade, simplicity of soil requirements — either of these
or all of them taken collectively. But even in a climax forest there
is no truce to the warfare ; there is merely balance of the contending
forces. Disturb this balance by the removal of a part, and battle is
again joined, with the advantage to one side or the other.

Looking, then, into the distant future, we might expect changes to
come which, if left untouched by human agency, would end in com-
plete forest covering of the land and growth in density as well as in
area. Such changes, however, are in their nature and progress like
geological changes of erosion and deposition, of elevation and sub-
sidence, always toward a more or less certain and definite conclusion.
But with the forests the hand of man can affect the result and is most
sure to do so.

18

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

Fig. 7.— Whitebark Pine in Glacier National Park. About 16 inches diameter; altitude

about 6,500 feet.

II. THE SPECIES.

The conifers are members of the pine family. Those of this region
are, with one exception, evergreens. The majority are needle-leaf
trees which bear cones and seeds provided with thin, wing-like ap-
pendages, which facilitate their distribution by the wind. The seeds
are produced on the upper surface of a flat, scale-like structure,
though in some cases not obviously so. The exposed position of the
seeds is a mark of one of the primary divisions of the seed-bearing
plants, viz, the gymnosperms ; the other one of the primary divisions,
the angiosperms, is characterized by the production of seeds inclosed
in a pod, capsule, or other structure. The flowers of the pine family
are simple, inconspicuous structures, which open early in the season.
They are always of two kinds ; one kind, which are relatively few in
number, ultimately matures the seeds; the other kind is produced
in far greater numbers and bears the pollen. Members of the pine
family are all woody plants; most of them, the largest of our forest
trees, have straight central shaft and symmetrical growth; others are
more or less irregular in form and of low and spreading habit.

The flowers, and later the cones, consist of a central axis upon
which are closely arranged scale-like structures in spiral or circular
order. The male or pollen flowers vary from an eighth of 1 inch to
2 inches in length, and on the lower surface of each scale are two or
more minute sacs, in which the pollen in produced. This pollen is
usually discharged in May or June, and the flowers then usually drop
off, though often they may be found dry and withered, clinging to
the branch. The pollen of many species is produced in such quanti-
ties that it issues from the crowns of the trees, when stirred by the
slightest breeze, in clearly visible clouds, dustlike, and settles on the
surrounding vegetation as a yellow powder, or washed by rivulets
into golden windrows. Some of this pollen falls, perchance, upon
the female or seed-producing flowers, where it effects fertilization.
Pollination of the flowers is thus left solely to chance through the
agency of wind, and the fact of so much waste necessitates the pro-
duction of a vastly greater quantity of the pollen than is actually
used. The male germ cell in the pollen grain must unite with a fe-
male germ cell in another flower, in order that a seed may be pro-
duced, and one such union is necessary for each seed. The female

19

20

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

flowers, so called, also possess a central axis, though in this case there
are two series of lateral members instead of one. One series is called
the scales; these bear the potential seeds upon their upper surfaces,
and later form the principal material of the cone. The other series

Fig. 8.— Limber Pine. On an exposed ridge east of the Divide.

is known as the bracts, one of which is situated below each scale..
In the earlier condition of the cone the bracts are usually conspicu-
ous and surpass the scales, but later the scales outgrow the bracts and
in the majority of cases conceal them.

THE SPECIES. 21

The cone fruit is matured in one or two years. Some species then
spread apart the scales of the cone upon drying and allow the seeds
to fall out; they are carried away by tihe wind. Seeds thus dis-
tributed are usually provided with an ample and thin membranous
wing and a kernel of oily material that is somewhat lighter in weight
than starch, a common reserve material in seeds distributed by other
means. Seeds of this group of plants have usually a hard outer shell
inclosing a mass of rich oily food material, in the center of which
is embedded the germ or embryo. The latter is the young tree, con-
sisting of a cylindrical stem terminated at one end by the initial root
structure, and at the other by seed leaves or cotyledons to the number
of two or more. The food material serves the young plant until it
becomes established in the soil; the seed leaves then spread apart
and remain throughout the first season as leaf-like structures.

The seeds of most conifers under proper conditions germinate in
one to two wTeeks. With some exceptions they are of transient via-
bility. Conifers as a class have leaves of hard or leathery texture,
which lessens the amount of moisture they impart to the air ; conse-
quently they are often found in situations too dry for broad-leaved
trees. They are trees of hardy nature, are widely and abundantly
distributed over the earth, and are plants of ancient origin, whose
ancestors were a dominant type of vegetation in earlier periods of
the earth's history.

The members of the pine family are classified mainly upon the
basis of the form and structure of the leaves and cones, though other
features, such as the arrangement of the leaves, qualities of the wood,
and the characters of the bark, are likewise important. Beyond these
characters each species has its own peculiar limitations as to light,
temperature, moisture, and other factors which influence, or deter-
mine, its local and general distribution.

THE PINES.

The pines are easily recognized by the form and arrangement of
their leaves, which are usually from 2 to 6 inches in length, needle-
like and clustered in twos, threes, or fives. They are borne thus on
short lateral branches, accompanied by a scale or bract inserted on
the main branch just below the position of the short lateral. Some
species shed these bracts early ; others retain them for several years.
Species also differ in the length of time during which they retain
their foliage leaves. All are bound to fall at some time, but new
leaves come out every spring while the leaves of other years are still
upon the branch, so that the tree is never without leaves. On some
pines the leaves remain for 2 years, in others for 3, 4, 5, or even 12
years. When they fall they take with them the small twig on which

22

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

they grew, so that the pine leaves on the forest floor are in clusters, as
they were upon the tree. Small, round scars remain upon the branch
from which the clusters have broken awav.

Fig. 9. — Southern Longleaf Tine. Illustrating position of staminate and ovulate flowers. Upper left,
a branch with staminate cones; right, a branch with cones of throe ages; at the top are two small cones
at time of pollination; midway two cones a year older; below, cones approaching maturity.
After Mohr. By permission of U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Fig. 10.— Pine cone, open. Below, to the left, lower side of seed-bearing scale showing bract; to the right,
the upper side showing seeds; above to right and left, seeds with wings.
After Mohr. By permission of U. S. Department of Agriculture.

The buds produced at the ends of branches appear to consist of
narrow overlapping scales, covered with gum or resin. Beneath each
scale is a small green body which is the rudiment of a leaf cluster
for the following season. The growth in length of the branch in any
season is but the elongation and enlargement of the structures pre-

THE SPECIES. 23

viously seen in the bud, and the bracts that accompany each lateral
twig are the erstwhile bud scales.

The cones of the pines are produced at the outer ends of the
branch growth for each season. They appear there in an inconspicu-
ous form at first, but as their maturity requires two seasons, they
appear when ripe at the end of the growth of the season next pre-
ceding. The pollen flowers, on the other hand, appear at the base of
the shoot of the season. The mature cones of the pine are oval or
oblong in form, hard, woody, and vary greatly in size among the
native species.

There are two series of pines, commonly known as white and yel-
low. The former, among the species of the northern Rockies, is rec-
ognized by leaves borne in clusters of .five and by the smoother points
of the cone scale ; the wood of the white pine is usually softer, lighter
in weight and color, and less resinous than that of the yellow pine.
The leaves of the yellow pines are in twos or threes; the cone scales
are prickly, and the wood darker and more resinous.

The western yellow pine. — The most common and widespread of
the pines of the northern Rockies is the one known as the Western
Yellow Pine {Pinus ponderosa). It is found, in fact, all over the
western half of North America, from the Black Hills to the coast and
from British Columbia to Mexico, in some places forming splendid
forests, in others reduced to scattered and impoverished specimens
along the rim rock of the Missouri and the Yellowstone. It is the
most drouth resisting of our forest trees. It gradually invades the
grasslands and covers them with forests. It is a tree that demands
a great deal of light, hence it never forms dense forests, but more or
less open stands with grass and some shrubs beneath. Its seeds are
scattered far and in great numbers.

This tree is recognized by its leaves, cones, and bark. The leaves
are about 6 inches in length, the longest of any of the Montana pines.
They are usually found in clusters of three. The cones are oval,
about 4 inches in length, firm, dark brown or purplish, and each
scale is armed at the end with a sharp recurved barb or pickle, which
later falls off. As in all pines, there are two seeds on the upper sur-
face of each scale, and below the scale a very small and inconspicuous
bract. The cones open in August or September to discharge their
seeds. Squirrels are very fond of the seeds and cut off and store great
quantities of the cones; several bushels may sometimes be thus stored
away beneath a pile of logs or brush, where tell-tale piles of scales
reveal the secret, and may lead to the loss of the store if some seed-
hunting forester happens by.

But some seeds escape the squirrels, and perchance also the birds
and mice, and, if they fall on good ground and are favored with
moisture and warmth, in time bring forth young trees. At first there

30408°— 1S 4

24

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

appears a short stem topped by a circle of small seed leaves whose
tips are still bound within the coat of the seed, whence they are draw-
ing food for the young tree until it becomes firmly rooted in the soil.
After a few days the seed drops off, the seed leaves spread wide apart,
and out of the center of the circle arises a tender stem with delicate
pale green leaves, much like the seed leaves, but shorter. As the stem
grows longer, its leaves are single, are not arranged in a circle, but
are alternate. The small stem with its tender leaves is the beginning
of the huge trunk of later years. The first summer it grows only an

v^^^38a8SMl/i! Ill mm /fj? S &"' S&y

~^^8||||

il^gg

^*

Sfes: ' ';-*•-. "^^

^ia

Fig. 11.— Western Yellow Pine. A branch taken in July. The small cones in the center
above were pollinated in May preceding; the larger cones below are a year older, and would
have ripened in late August. About one-third natural size.

inch or two above the seed leaves, and closes the season with a straight
stem and no branches, but its root has gone deep into the soil, where
the earth seldom dries out. At this stage the small top above ground
needs little water, but the young tree is getting ready its roots to feed
the larger top which is soon to come. No buds are formed the first
season. The next season the stem renews its groAvth, and the roots are
extended farther into the soil. The stem lengthens in early summer,
if conditions are favorable, to several times the growth it made in the
first season, and ends with the formation of a terminal bud and sev-
eral lateral buds close under the terminal one. These lateral buds
are the forerunners of the first of the circles of branches which are
formed at intervals and characterize the growth of this and other
species.

THE SPECIES. 25

The trunk of the tree may reach a diameter of 5 or 6 feet and a
height of 150 feet. Its bark is yellowish in color, divided by deep
grooves into oblong areas of fairly uniform size.

The wood of this tree is of large importance commercially, and
lumber from it is the principal product of many mills throughout
the timbered portion of the State of Montana. It is strong and
durable, and is much used in buildings and in various forms of
heavier construction.

The rock pine (Pinus scopulorum) closely resembles the western
yellow pine, and there is considerable doubt as to whether it should
stand as a separate species. Some authors regard it as merely a
variety of Pinus ponderosa, while others consider it merely the
mountain form of this species. It is found from the Yellowstone
Park southward and mainly on the eastern side of the Divide.

This tree may reach a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 5 or 6
feet. The bark is deeply furrowed. The leaves occur in clusters
of 2 or 3, usually 3, are 4 to 6 inches long, and are bunched near the
ends of the branches. The cones may reach as much as 5 inches in
length, with scales thickened at the ends and armed with a sharp
recurved prickle.

The lodgepole pine. — Next among the pines from the standpoint
of distribution is the lodgepole (Pinus contorta). It occurs from
Alaska and the British possessions southward into Colorado and
California. It is found in all parts of the State of Montana west
of the Divide; in the central and eastern part more sparingly,
scattered in diminishing numbers along the river banks and the
higher elevations of land in the plains region. Its demands upon
soil moisture are somewhat greater than those of the yellow pine;
hence it flourishes upon northern slopes, on high ridges where win-
ter's snows lie deep, and far to the northward it forms dense
thickets around the mountain lakes. One of the characteristics of
the lodgepole forest is its density. It grows while young in almost
impenetrable thickets, but thins gradually with age to a stand of
clean and slender poles, and attains sometimes a foot or two in
diameter and a height of 50 to 100 feet.

The leaves of the lodgepole pine are 2 to 3 inches long and are borne
in pairs. The cones are usually less than 2 inches in length, rather
sharply tapering and one-sided, the scales prickly. The cones hang
with persistency to the branches and open very slowly. Branches
may be found with the cones of 10 or more years still in position and
unopened. The reason appears to be that these cones do not always
dry sufficiently on the branch. Sometimes a fire singes the tops of
the trees. The heat, or the drying which follows the killing of the
tree, opens the cones and allows the seeds, which are small and light,
to be carried far and wide by the wind. The seeds of the lodgepole

26 THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

are thus sown sometimes within two days of the passing of the fire,
and being early on the ground and in great numbers are enabled often
to preoccupy the ground to the exclusion of everything else. The

Fig. 12.— Three western Montana trees near Flathead Lake. Left, Western Larch; center,
Douglas Spruce; right, Lodgepole Pine. The Lodgepole is about a foot in diameter. July .

seeds thus released are not one crop merely, but the combined fruitage
of several years. The uniform density of lodgepole reproduction
over wide areas is a natural result of wind sowing.

THE SPECIES. 27

The bark of the lodgepole is thin and scaly, except sometimes at
the base of older trees where it breaks up into rectangular blocks.
The wood is highly resinous, but not very durable. It is used to
some extent for railroad ties, mine timbers, and telephone poles, and
where treated with wood-preserving agencies serves these purposes
wrell. It is not as a rule manufactured into lumber.

The western wMte pine (Pinws monticola) is found only in the
somewhat narrow range from the British possessions south on the
west slope of the Eocky Mountains into Montana and Idaho and in
the Cascade Mountains into California. Its range in Montana is
confined to the western end of the State, where it seeks the better
watered localities, either along stream bottoms, where it reaches its
best development, or on the windward sides of the mountains where
the precipitation is abundant. A tree less sensitive to shade than the
others, it contends well with other species in its earlier years, grows
rapidly in height, and overtops its rivals. Its seeds are provided with
ample wings and are scattered far, though in rate of reproduction it
is much behind the lodgepole and yellow species. It is much subject
to disease and pests, and is easily injured by fire. These characteris-
tics combine with other factors to limit its distribution.

This species may be recognized by its leaves alone. These are five
in each cluster, 3 or 4 inches long, very slender, and of a pale green
color. The twigs are smooth, and the bracts are shed early. The
cones are nearly cylindrical, 8 to 10 inches long, and about 1J inches
in thickness. The scales of the cone are large, rather thin, and light
brown in color. In its earlier years the tree has a smooth, light-
colored bark, but with age this changes to a darker gray, broken up
into small rectangular areas.

This is the most valuable of the forest trees of Montana and Idaho.
White pine lumber, owing to its soft, even grain, clear color, strength,
and desirability for many purposes, has a high commercial value.
The best forests of this species are found in northern Idaho.

The whitebark pine {Pinus albicaulls) in its general range extends
from Canada southward to Wyoming in the Rocky Mountains and to
southern California through the Cascade Range and the Sierras. It
is a tree of the higher altitudes, being found in Montana usually
above 5,000 feet, and from there up to the timber line, where it be-
comes reduced in the bleaker situations to straggling and decrepit
forms. In the more sheltered places where sufficient soil moisture
is available it grows to a diameter of 4 or 5 feet, though usually much
smaller, and may reach a height of about 60 feet. In places it forms
pure forests, but often occurs in mixture with fir and spruce.

The form of the tree is characteristic. Its branches have a strong
upward curvature, which gives the crown of the tree a candelabrum-

28

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

like effect by which the older ones can be recognized almost as far as
they can be seen. One of the features of the tree is its frequent habit
of growing in groups, sometimes five or six stems appearing to come
from the same root. This is evidently due to the fact that the cones

Fig. 13.— Western Larch, in the Flathead Valley.

of this species do not open naturally to discharge the seeds from
the tree top, but fall to the ground and disintegrate from the center.
The result of this behavior is that a number of seeds are liberated on
one spot and may give rise to a cluster of several trees. In time the

THE SPECIES. 29

competition between the members of a group results in an advantage
to some and the suppression of others, so that they vary greatly in
size, and would seem to be of different ages. Examination of the
stem, however, will usually show them to be of the same age.

The botanical characteristics of the species are rigid leaves about
2 inches in length, in clusters of five, and rather densely crowded
toward the ends of the twigs. The cones are about 3 inches long,
purple, with thick heavy scales. The seeds are relatively large, and,
owing to the habit of the cones above mentioned, are almost devoid
of wings. The squirrels frequently extract the seeds from these
cones while they are still on the tree. The bark of the tree is thin,
scaly, and light gray. The wood is often much twisted in the grain,
and is soft, of even texture, and light colored. The small size and
the inferior form of the trunk, and the usual inaccessibility of its
habitat render the tree of little commercial value.

The limber fine. — Another species which is characteristic of the
higher altitudes is the limber pine (Pinus flce'dis), the general range
of which is from Alberta to Arizona and southern California. In

00

Montana this tree is confined to the eastern slope of the Continental
Divide and to some of the outlying ranges. Ordinarily it reaches a
diameter of 2 feet, more or less, and a height of about 50 feet, though
in sheltered canyons it sometimes assumes much better form. When
it descends among the dry and grassy foothills, it may be stunted
and dwarfed.

Botanically it is similar to the preceding species, and its leaves and
twigs are scarcely distinguishable from it. The cones, however, are
somewhat longer and narrower, tan colored, and have thinner scales.
The cones, when dry, spread apart to liberate the seeds. The wood is
light in color, though fine grained, owing to the slowness of its
growth. It is of no commercial importance.

THE LARCHES.

The larches are deciduous conifers. In the fall the leaves turn
yellow, and in the winter the trees are devoid of foliage. Leaves to
the number of 10 to 40 are borne in brushlike clusters. On the young-
est shoots the leaves are always singly arranged and equally distributed
along the branch, but at the close of the first season lateral buds ap-
pear here and there in the axils of these single leaves, and these buds
give rise in the next season to clusters of leaves. The clusters are
thus borne upon short, lateral branches, as in the pine, with this
difference that in the larch the number of leaves is indefinite, such
lateral branches are fewer in number, and they continue to grow
slowly during the period in which they bear leaves. There comes a
time, of course, when, owing to the elongation of the branch, they
are left in the shade and perish.

30

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

In the early spring erect bright red flowers here and there may be
found on the growth of the second season preceding; these are the
seed-bearing flowers. In somewhat greater numbers on the same

year's growth are smaller yellow flowers, which bear the pollen.
Upon fertilization the red flowers turn downward ; the pollen flowers
wither and fall. The fruit of the larch is matured in one season.
The cone is small, an inch and a half or less in length and

THE SPECIES.

31

less than an inch in thickness. The scales are thin and the bracts
protrude slightly. The seeds are less than an eighth of an inch in
length, with wings three or four times the length of the seed, that
provide for their wide distribution on even moderate winds.

The early growth
of the larch is much
like that of the pine.
It grows rapidly un-
der normal condi-
tions, rising 1 to 3
feet a year. It needs
considerable light
and water. The form
of the larch is nar-
rowly conical in out-
line, with a thin open
crown and numerous
slender twigs. The
species of the larch
are few. There are
but /four in North
America, and two of
them occur in Mon-
tana. The larches arc
partial to cold regions.

The western larch
(Larix occiden talis )
is found only in
northwestern North
America. ' It is also
known as Tamarack,
and occurs in the
Rocky Mountains
south to northern
Idaho and northwest-
ern Montana, and in
the Cascades to Ore-
gon; its northern ex-
tension lies w i t h i n
British Columbia. In Montana it is found west of the Continental
Divide in the Flathead, Blackfoot, Clark's Fork, and Bitter Root
Valleys and reaches its best development in Flathead and Lincoln
Counties. In the drier portions of its range it is found on north
slopes, which provide lower c temperature and greater soil moisture.

Id. 15. — Western Larch. A, Branch two years old; the
older portion bearing pollen flowers at a, and clusters of
leaves on short spurs. Last year's growth with leaves
arranged singly. B, A cone ; C, a young seed-bearing
scale and bract. About two-thirds natural size.

32 THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

The western larch sometimes reaches a diameter of 5 to 6 feet and a
height of nearly 200 feet. Its thick bark below is a protection against
small fires that would prove! fatal to species less favored.

Fig. 16.— Engelmann Spruce, in Glacier National Park. Scene on creek bottom in August.

The leaves of this species, which are usually less than 2 inches
in length, are triangular in form. The number in a cluster varies
greatly. The cones are oval, an inch to an inch and a half in length,
and of a brown Color. The scales are the conspicuous parts, the tips

THE SPECIES. 33

of the bracts projecting beyond their ends. The scales of the cones
spread apart when ripe, to allow the seeds, which are borne on the
upper surface of each scale, to disperse. The tops of older trees are
scraggy and unsymmetrical. The bark is flaky, gray, or sometimes
resembling that of the yellow pine in its oblong yellowish blocks.
The wood is firm, light in color, but turns darker upon exposure
to light. It is much used for construction and interior finish. It
has considerable commercial importance and forms the chief output
of a number of mills in the northwestern part of Montana.

Lyaffls larch {Larix LyaMii) is also called Alpine Larch. Its
range geographically is about the same as that of the other species,
but it is restricted to higher altitudes, a fact which greatly circum-
scribes the area that it covers. It is found at altitudes of 7,000
feet or more, sometimes in pure uniform stands. It may attain a
diameter of 2 feet and a height of 50 feet, but such dimensions are
exceptional.

The marks by which Lyall's larch is recognized are the woolly
coating on the growth of the last year or two, and the purple color
of the cones, which are somewhat larger than those of the other
species and have more prominent bracts. The bark of the tree is a
light gray, thin and scaly. The wood is hard and of very fine grain,
a feature, however, which is common to many species of the high
mountains where growth is slow. The tree is of no value commer-
cially.

SPRUCE.

A spruce tree is readily recognized by a few conspicuous marks.
As a rule, it is a tree of rather dense foliage, with short, rigid, single
leaves alternating in position. The points of the leaves are sharp;
this causes the branch to present a prickly sensation to the touch.
The loaves, moreover, are usually four-angled in transverse section.
AVhen the leaves fall from the branch they leave a prominent peg-
like- elevation, by which a spruce branch may be identified even in
the absence of the leaves. The cones of spruces vary in size with
the different species, but they agree in the suppression of the bracts
and the drooping attitude which they assume upon the branch. Two
seeds are borne on the upper surface of each scale, and these, when
liberated, are provided with ample wings. The spruces are partial
to moist soils and cooler climates. Some of the species are much
used for paper pulp and produce lumber of fine quality. The Nor-
way spruce, an introduced species, is commonly cultivated in many
parts of the United States.

Engelmann spruce (Picea Engelmannii) is the only native species
in Montana. Opinions of botanists differ somewhat in this matter,
some holding that another species, Picea Columbiana, also occurs.

34

THE CONIFERS OP THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

Observation, however, has borne the conviction that there are no
real or constant marks distinguishing the two species. This tree has
an extensive range. It is found from the Yukon to Arizona and

Fig. 17.— Engelmann Spruce, in the upper Bitter Root Valley, Montana.

New Mexico, over the higher elevations of the Rocky Mountains, and
in the Cascades to northern California. In Montana it occurs at
altitudes from 3,000 feet to timber line, where it often forms dwarfed

THE SPECIES.

35

and stunted specimens. It seeks wet soil, is abundant around lakes,
where it sometimes forms pure forests, and along stream bottoms, and
again on high slopes where the moisture from melting snows is peren-
nial. Owing to its moderate demand for light, it often forms dense
forests, excluding every other form of plant life. It grows also at
higher elevations, mixed with fir and pine, and on lower ground may
reach a diameter of 4 and a height of over 100 feet.

The botanical characters of
Engelmann spruce are seen in
its various parts. Its leaves
are about 1 inch long, and
often covered with a whitish
bloom, especially in younger
specimens. They are sharp
pointed and stand out in all
directions from the twig. The
cones are produced in num-
bers near the ends of the
branches. They are about 2
inches in length and three-
fourths of an inch in diam-
eter, with thin scales, and
bracts only minutely visible
at the base of the scale. When
ripe the scales of the
spread apart, and the seeds
from the tree tops are carried

great distances. The bark of the tree is thin, scaly, and gray. The
wood is light in weight and color. At present lumber is not exten-
sively manufactured from spruce in Montana.

The white spruee is reported as extending southward along the
Rocky Mountains into northern Montana. This species extends
across the continent from the Atlantic coast northward to Alaska.
It is probable that the white spruce is very sparingly distributed in
the Rocky Mountains within the United States, and is, of course, un-
important. It is described as a tree ordinarily less than 75 feet in
height, with a diameter of 1 foot, more or less. The foliage has
a light green color, with a whitish tinge, and the }Toung shoots
have a fetid odor when crushed. The leaves are somewhat shorter
than those of Engelmann spruce, and the cones, usually less than 2
inches in length, are soft to the touch. The bark of the tree is
brownish in color and broken into thin scales. This is botanically
known as Picea Canadensis.

The blue spruce (Picea pungens) is found chiefly in the central
Rocky Mountain region, but occurs as far north as the Yellowstone

COne Fig. IS. — Eugelmano Spruce. .1. Mature cone;
B, leaf ; C, seed ; D, portion of twig ; about
natural size.

36

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

\

f .^'v

E^KL- *■»" ill ~* J.JI

* *

>

1"

-**■■ B.V

^AkT Wmtn i/f 1

IT ..V'1

*

'JtiLy A*'

i

;

- r..;

^iwifli

■ v ' '

Fig. 19.— Western Hemlock, in Glacier "National Park. The moist conditions are indicated
by the lichen, Alectorij, hanging from the branches.

THE SPECIES.

37

Park. It is called " blue spruce," because of the blue-green cast of
its foliage, and is of some interest as being the " State tree " of Colo-
rado. It is also known as Picea Parryana.

The blue spruce is a small tree and differs from Engelmann spruce
in having smooth instead of pubescent twigs. In its growth it usually
preserves a conical form, but often spreads its branches wide, and
may be reduced to a shrubby form at high altitudes. The bark is
gray, usually smooth and firm, in older trees becoming hard and
thick. The twigs are shiny and smooth and the leaves about 1 inch
in length and sharp pointed. Cones are usually plentiful, borne
singly or in clusters, and 3 or 4 inches long.

The wood of this tree is of little importance commercially, but the
trees are exploited much by horticulturists for ornamental planting
and are widely grown throughout the country.

HEMLOCKS.

Four species of hemlock are native to North America. Twto of
these occur on the Atlantic coast and two on the Pacific. The hem-
locks, like the spruces, prefer a cool climate and moist soil ; they are
also partial to regions of relatively high atmospheric moisture.
They are trees that endure much shade and often grow in great
numbers under other trees in a forest ; veritable thickets of young
trees sometimes occur in such situations. In form the hemlocks have
some features that are distinctive. The leading shoot of the tree
has a more or less horizontal or nodding habit for a foot or two of
its length; the branches, at least the secondary ones, usually droop,
and there are many small twigs which, though originating on sev-
eral sides of the
branch, come to be
distributed in a
more or less flat

spray.

In its botanical
aspects the tree
may be described
as f o 1 1 o w s : Its
leaves are usually
much flattened and
at the base nar-
rowed into a stalk

that becomes FlG- 20- — Western Hemlock. A, Twig and cone ; B, seed-bearing
. . 1 scale ; slightly enlarged.

twisted in order to

bring the upper surface of the leaf into the plane occupied by the
spray of branches. The leaves are short and usually lighter colored
beneath ; they fall from the branch rapidly upon drying and leave a

38

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

small protuberance, similar to that found in the spruces, but not so
prominent. The fruit of the hemlocks is a small cone with thin scales

Fig. 21.— Mountain, or Black Hemlock, in the St. Joe Mountains of northern Idaho; on the
extreme left an Alpine Fir; altitude about 6,000 feet.

and very inconspicuous bracts. The seeds mature in one year, are
small, light, and well winged. The bark of hemlocks is dark colored,
hard, and rough, -and less than '2 inches in thickness. The bark,

THE SPECIES. 39

moreover, contains a large amount of tannin and is much used in
tanning. The wood is usually hard, brittle, and not very durable
upon exposure to the weather. The flowers of both kinds occur on
the smaller twigs in great numbers, opening early in the spring.

The western hemlock {Tsuga heterophylla) is found from Alaska
southward to northern California, and in the Rocky Mountains to
western Montana and northern Idaho. Its range in Montana is
confined to a few places in the northwestern portion of the State,
in the Flathead Valley, the Glacier National Park, and in the better-
watered situations westward. The roots of this tree spread thickly
interwoven in the surface layer of the soil, so that the slightest
ground fire is fatal to it. The seeds germinate readily upon old
rotten logs and stumps and on whatever surface sufficient moisture
is retained, and the roots ultimately reach the soil. In regions espe-
cially favorable to the growth of this species it is not uncommon to
find trees 2 feet or more in diameter, with their roots astride some
fallen log, or perched upon a stump 12 or 15 feet high; occasionally
the destruction of its early support leaves the tree resting upon stilt-
like roots. The young trees spring up in enormous numbers in the
deeper forests, and their tops extend characteristically in a more
or less horizontal spray. •

The western hemlock does not reach its best development in the
Rocky Mountains, but in -western Washington and British Columbia,
where it reaches a diameter of 5 feet or more and a height sometimes
of 200 feet. The wood is useful for many purposes. Large quantities
are used in the manufacture of paper. It has, however, no impor-
tance in Montana mills.

The leaves of this species vary a great deal in size, some a fourth,
others 1 inch in length, with a median groove on the upper side ; they
are thickly produced in alternate arrangement along the slender
twigs. The cones are less than 1 inch long and one-fourth to three-
eighths of 1 inch in thickness, pendent from the ends of the twigs.
The bark is hard and rough, and exceedingly rich in tannin.

The mountain hemlock {Tsuga Mertensiana), also called Black
Hemlock, is sometimes regarded by botanists as belonging to a dif-
ferent genus. It bears, however, sufficient resemblance to the hem-
locks to be discussed here. It is a native of the higher altitudes and
is found from Alaska through the Cascade range to California, and
in the Rocky Mountains to northern Idaho and western Montana.
It is found in Montana only in the extreme western portions of the
State. It is found at timber line and also at lower altitudes, where
it is mixed in larger forests with pine and other species. The tree
may attain a diameter of 4 feet, and a height of 60 feet, and bears
a dense and narrowly pyramidal crown, the branches of which are
sometimes heavily loaded with cones.

40

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

The leaves of this species are more pointed than those of the pre-
ceding and have a low ridge instead of the groove on their upper

Fig. 22.— Mountain Hemlock, about 4 feet in diameter.

surface. The dense foliage is dark green. The cone is about an inch
and a half in length and about half an inch in thickness, cylindrical,
and has thin scales. The seeds are small and possess ample wings,

THE SPECIES.

41

by which they are carried far. as the cone opens on the tree. The
bark is gray, coarse, and roughened by long ridges. The wood is
firm and fine grained but of no importance.

DOUGLAS SPRUCE.

The genus to which this tree belongs is known to botany as Pseudo-
tsuga, which means " false hemlock." It bears little resemblance,
however, to the hemlocks, spruces, or firs, except in its general
aspect. Two species are known, one of which is restricted in its
distribution and of little value; the other is found throughout the
Rocky Mountain region from British Columbia to Mexico and west
to the coast, and is of immense importance economically. As but
one species is to be considered in this discussion, the description of the
genus will be included in that of the species.

^\X ^•..jpytfT/'' y^ ^7

*

mt

"~^mk ' ^m fir

Im^E^SHWI * EST

Ftg. 23.— Top of a young Douglas Spruce.

The scientific name of this species is Pseudotsuga taxifolia. Sev-
eral popular names are in common usage: Douglas spruce, Douglas
fir, Oregon fir, red fir, yellow fir, Oregon pine, etc. The name Doug-
las spruce is here chosen, since the tree bears more resemblance to
the spruce than to the fir.

This tree is found in practically all of the coniferous timbered
regions of the northern Rockies. It furnishes a considerable part
of the lumber manufactured in this region. It is often found grow-
ing with yellow pine in the drier situations, and it is one of the most
drouth-resistant species. It grows much larger, however, where it

42

THE CONIFERS OP THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

has abundant moisture, and on the coast whore the rainfall is ample
reaches great size. In that region trees of this species are some-

Si

S3& bbSAl*

K& r~ .#» ■•* '^B

-*j

Jf| Br vfi<- ^

5- i $

"

■

Fig. 24.— Grand Fir, typical form. A Pacific coast tree uncommon in the Rocky Mountains.
Tree about 100 feet high in this case, but much larger ones are to be found.

times found with a diameter of 12 feet, and it is not uncommon
to find trees over 200 feet in height.

THE SPECIES.

43

The Douglas spruce is given to the formation of forests so dense
in places as to shut out all direct sunlight from the soil. The abun-
dant seeds produced by this species and the facility with which they
are scattered by the wind result in the rapid reforestation of cleared
land. The young trees come up in great numbers, sometimes in
impenetrable thickets, in which the gradual suppression of the weaker
members brings about in time a forest of tall, straight, and clear trees.
The large amount of waste which naturally accumulates upon the
ground and its resinous quality make fire risks imminent, and vast
areas of fine timber have thus been lost. This tree is found from
sea level in Oregon to altitudes of 5,000 feet or more in Montana, but

Fig. 25. — Douglas Spruce. A, Cone; 11, leaf; C, bract and lower side of seed bearing

scale ; I), seed.

is found only at altitudes of 8,000 or 9,000 feet in the southern limits
of its range.

In habit this tree presents a straight central shaft and a crown
somewhat oval in outline except for the sharp point of the conical
top. The limbs droop, curving upward at the ends. The leaves are
about an inch in length, flat, blunt, and paler beneath. They arise
alternately on all sides of the smooth twigs. When the leaves fall
they usually leave small protuberances on the branch, as in the
hemlock: they fall less readily, however, in drying. The cones are 2
to 3 inches long, usually less than an inch in thickness, and have thin
scales,' on the upper surface of each of which two seeds are normally
borne. One conspicuous and significant feature of the cones is in
the bracts, which are three-pointed and project prominently beyond
the end of the scale. This alone is sufficient to identify the tree in
this region. The cones hang downward on the branch, and open on
the tree to discharge the seeds.

44

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

The greenish, seed-bearing flowers appear erect on the young
branches early in the spring, and the yellow pollen flowers appear
near by in the axils of the leaves. The cones are matured in one

Fig. 26.— Grand Fir. In young trees the bark is smooth, but it grows rougher with age.

season. The bark of the tree becomes rougher with age, furrowed by
long intersecting grooves. In its internal structure the bark reveals
yellow streaks alternating with red or brownish ground tissue that
may also serve as a mark of identification.

THE SPECIES.

45

The Douglas spruce has been planted in the Eastern States and
cultivated largely in Europe. Its wood is of great importance in
heavy construction, for ship building, for masts and spars, for inte-
rior finish, and a great variety of uses.

FIRS.

Most of the true firs are large forest trees. They are natives of the
cooler regions and are partial to moist soils. For these reasons they

Fig. 27.-

-Grand Fir. A, Twig and cone in natural position; B, bract and lower side of
seed-bearing scale ; C, seed.

are found in northern latitudes and the higher elevations of moun-
tains and reach their best development on river bottoms, in canyons,
and on mountain slopes close to perennial snows. Many of them are
shade-enduring species and grow for years in the shelter of thickets.
Under favorable conditions they grow rapidly, reproduce plentifully,
and are widely distributed, sometimes in pure, sometimes in mixed
stands.

The distinctive marks of the firs are usually recognized with ease.
The leaves are flat, blunt at the apex, and somewhat narrowed at
the base. They arise equally from all sides of the twig in alternate

46

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

order, but by torsion come to lie nearly in the plane of the flat branch-
ing system of twigs. When detached they leave :i small round or
oval scar, smooth, and not elevated as in the spruce and some other

Fig. 28.— Branch of Grand Fir. Condition in July.

genera. The leaves on the topmost branches usually curl sharply and
rigidly upward, and so often appear in contrast to those below. The
younger stems and branches are usually smooth, with prominent gum
blisters. Flowers of both kinds are borne on twigs of the previous

THE SPECIES.

47

year, the seed-bearing rather few, the others numerous in the axils
of the leaves. The pollen is scattered early, and the fruit is matured
in one season. The cone always stands erect upon the branch, and
its length, in different species, varies from 2 to 6 or 8 inches; it is
cylindrical or oval in form. The cones of firs at maturity disintegrate
upon the tree, so that seeds, scales, and bracts are liberated together,
and the axis of the cone, like a spike, is left standing upon the branch.
Two seeds are borne
on the upper surface
of each scale. The
bracts in both Mon-
tana species are en-
tirely covered by the
scales in the ripe cone,
though they are easily
found when the cone
is broken up. The
cones are hard and
compact, though the
scales are thin. The
wood of most of the
firs is light in weight
and color, soft, and
not durable when ex-
posed to the weather.
The lumber of some
species is good for
certain purposes, but
the species native to
Montana are of no
importance for lum-
ber. There are two
species of fir found in
this region.

The lowland or
grand -fir (Abies

grandis) reaches its best development in Montana in the Flat-
head country and the moister valleys in the western end of the
State and the panhandle of Idaho. Its general distribution, how-
ever, is more extensive, and reaches from British Columbia to
northern Idaho and Montana west of the Divide, and in the Cas-
cades to northern California. In western Oregon and Washington,
along the river bottoms, the tree often reaches a diameter of 5
and a height of 200 feet or more, with as much as 75 or 100 feet
clear of limbs.

Fig. 29. — Alpine Fir. A, Twig and cones in natural posi-
tion ; B, bract, at a, and lower side of seed-bearing scale ;
C, upper side of seed-bearing scale with seeds in position.

48

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

In its younger state the grand fir has a conical form; as it ap-
proaches maturity the outlines of the tree become more cylindrical,
owing to the drooping of its lower branches. A habit of the tree fro-

Fig. 30.— Alpine Fir, in Glacier National Park, at an altitude of about 6,000 feet,
like form is charact prist ic

The spire-

quently seen is the presence of several erect stems in the tops of older
crowns; these develop usually after the destruction of the original
leader. The leaves are an inch, more or less, in length, with lighter
color on the lower surface, and a tendency to come into a lateral flank-

THE SPECIES. 49

ing position on the twig by the torsion of their short stems. The
twigs also have a habit of spreading horizontally, and those which
originate above or below bend into a horizontal position to conform
with the rest. The cones of the grand fir are green at maturity,
about 3 or 4 inches in length and 1 inch or more in thickness, com-
posed of broad, closely overlapping scales. The bark of this species
is smooth in youth, but gradually it becomes broken by furrows,
which deepen with age ; in old trees the bark is about 2 inches thick,
with uniformly narrow ridges and deep grooves, grayish on the
surface, but a deep brick-red within.

The alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) , often called balsam fir, in Mon-
tana is more common. It is not the true balsam fir, however, as that
species is a native of the northeastern part of the continent and dif-
fers from this in some very important features. The range of the
Alpine fir extends from Alaska to Alberta in the north, and south-
ward through the Cascades to California and in the Rocky Moun-
tains to Arizona and New Mexico. In Montana it is common on all
the higher altitudes, not only of the main but also of the outlying
ranges. In some places it occurs as low as 2,000 feet, as in the north-
western part of the State, along the Kootenai River, but for the most
part it occurs from 5,000 feet up to timber line, where it is mixed
with Engelmann spruce and whitebark pine.

One of the striking features of this tree is its form, by which a
normal specimen can be distinguished as far as it can be seen. Its
typical shape is that of a very narrow spire. It seldom has much
clear length, owing to its habit of growing in open groups. The
bark is smooth, seldom rough, even in old specimens. The leaves are
shorter and darker colored than those of the grand fir. The cones
are oblong, dark purple, and 1J to 3 inches in length. This tree
may attain, under the best conditions, a height of 150 feet and a
diameter of 3 or more feet. Owing to its usual inaccessibility and
its inferior form, the alpine fir is of no importance commercially.

ARBOR VITAE.

The arbor vitse is commonly called a cedar, although that
appellation is applied to several other genera as well. Two species
of this genus occur in North America, one on the Atlantic, the other
on the Pacific coast. They are trees which endure shade, require a
good deal of moisture, and a moderately cool climate.

In all of the preceding genera the leaf arrangement is alternate
or spiral; in the arbor vitae and juniper the arrangement is oppo-
site or cyclic. This applies to the cone members as well as to the
leaves. The stem of the arbor vitaa is a straight central shaft, ex-
tending through the crown. The branches droop conspicuously, and

50

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

the twigs are arranged in a flat spray or branching system, the ulti-
mate divisions of which are almost contiguous laterally. The leaves
would hardly be recognized as such by the uninitiated ; they are very
small scales, less than an eighth of an inch in length, closely applied
to the surface of the slender twig which they entirely cover. The
leaves stand opposite in pairs and lengthwise of the twig are arranged

Fig. 31.— Alpine Fir. The smooth bark is characteristic, even to maturity.

in four ranks. An interesting feature of the arbor vte is the fact
that in its seedling stage the first season it produces flat, sharp-
pointed, outstanding leaves, a fourth of an inch or more in length.
In an axil of an upper one of these a branch appears which bears
leaves that are scalelike and continue so in the subsequent growth.

THE SPECIES.

51

On the ends of the ultimate twigs the small flowers are borne, each
kind consisting of a few pairs of scales, each pair at right angles to
the one above or below. The cones, which are often produced in great
numbers,' are half an inch or less in length, each of the fertile scales
producing one or more seeds. These seeds, unlike those of the preced-
ing species, are surrounded by the wing; they are oval in form, a
quarter of an inch or less in length. The trunk of the tree is usually
much folded at the base, with buttress-like roots. The bark is 1 inch,
more or less, in thickness, light gray, and divided by long furrows ;
it is strongly fibrous, separating,
upon proper manipulation, into
long, ribbonlike strips.

The western arbor vital {Thuya
plicata) is found from southern
Alaska to northern California
along the coast, in the Cascades
through Washington and Oregon,
and in the Rocky Mountains to
Montana and Idaho. It reaches
its best development in the deep,
moist soils of the lowlands along
the coast of Washington and Brit-
ish Columbia, where large speci-
mens are found 10 to 15 feet in di-
ameter, some of them with a height
of 200 feet or more. The lumber of
this tree is of high value, being-
light, soft, easily worked, and very

durable. Especially is the latter true of older trees, the growth
of which has been very slow as they approached maturity, resulting
in a fine and uniform grain. One may often find in the forests of the
coast region prostrate trunks in sound condition which have lain so
long that other forest trees to a diameter of several feet have grown
on top of them, with huge roots reaching down on either side. This
timber is used almost exclusively, in the Xorthwest, for telegraph
poles and shingles; the lumber is useful also for many other pur-
poses. The tree is capable of enduring deep shade, and grows often
in mixtures with other species. In Montana the arbor vitse is found
only west of the Divide, where it attains a diameter of several feet
in the river bottoms and deep canyons under conditions of perennial
moisture.

This tree is recognized by its flat sprays of small twigs that form
a compact system. The twigs are distinctly flat, and the leaves in
pairs, forming four ranks of closely overlapping scales. The cones
are three-eighths or half an inch long, borne on the ends of the

Fig. 32. — Arbor Vita?. A, Twig and cone
scale-like leaves ; B, scale ; C, seed.

52 HIE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

twigs, and composed of three to five pairs of scales. In form the cone
is a narrow oval. The cone is matured in one season, and the seed is
easily scattered to a great distance.

Fig. 33. — Arbor Vitae. Scene in St. Joe Mountains in Idaho.

THE SPECIES.
JUNIPERS.

53

The junipers are not readily recognized as conifers by those not
familiar with the more minute structure of the flower and fruit. The
fruit has the appearance of a berry and is commonly so called. In
reality, however, the fruit is a cone of a very few scales that have
become fleshy and united, their identity being distinguishable only
by small points on the surface of the fruit. These fruits are usually
globular or oval and contain few seeds. The junipers are sometimes

Fn;. 34. — Junipers. Left, Rocky Mountain juniper with Immature cones at A and mature
ones at B. Leaves scalelike. Right, dwarf juniper, twig, and fruit; D, seed; C, fruit

(cone) in section, showing two s ]s.

dioecious, i. e., the pollen and the seed flowers are borne on separate
trees. In either case the flowers are very small and inconspicuous.
Some of the junipers mature their fruit in one season, others require
two. The wood is fine grained, aromatic, and durable. In its smaller
forms it is used for posts, but it is useful otherwise in many ways. A
species of wide distribution through the Atlantic region is much
used in the manufacture of pencils.

The Rocky Mountain jumper (Jwrdpe? us scopvUorum) is the
most common of the Montana species and occurs in many parts of the
State east and west of the Divide. It is found scattered with yellow
pine along the rim-rock of the Yellowstone and its tributaries, on
slopes and crests high up toward the summit of the main range
of the Rocky Mountains, and west of the Divide appears commonly
in all forested portions of the country, and attains a diameter of
nearly 2 feet and a height of 30 feet or more in the better-watered
parts of the Flathead Valley. Beyond this State its range extends
northward in the Rocky Mountains into Alberta and southward into

54

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

Arizona; it is found in the Black Hills, and westward reaches the
coast of Washington and British Columbia and to the eastern part of

^^■Jpr * i»jflHfc^[^H^Kj|

* '^^'le*

bcmKT^* s

Kv^m" ^Ly

.4

* V r **2

JH^dS

/

.

/

. 1

Fig. 35.— Rocky Mountain Juniper, on Flathead Lake.

Oregon and Nevada. This tree is able to grow in dry uplands, but
like many other plants does much better where soil moisture is
abundant.

THE SPECIES. 55

Where it grows unhindered the form of the tree is that of a blunt
cone ; under other conditions the top is often open and irregular. The
younger trees show a straight central shaft which becomes less con-
spicuous later by the development of several strong branches and the
ultimate stunting of the leader in old crowns. The bark is reddish
brown, thin, and separates in strips of considerable length. The wood
is light in weight, compact, red or light brown, and very durable.
Owing to its small size and poor form, it is useful only for minor
purposes. The ultimate branches of this tree are great numbers of
short cylindrical twigs, along which minute, scalelike leaves in close
order are arranged in alternating pairs. The " berries " are terminal
on the twigs, are oval in form and blue in color, usually contain-
ing two seeds. In this, as in other junipers, the fruits are sought by
birds and animals, that scatter the seeds undigested. The junipers
have no means of dissemination by the wind, but some of the species
are very widely distributed.

The shrubby red cedar (Juniperus sabina) occurs in the northern
part of Montana. It is a prostrate shrub, forming in mats, and is
seldom more than 2 feet high, but usually about 1. The appearance
of its twigs is much like that of the preceding species, and so is the
fruit; in both structures, however, they differ in points which are
more readily appreciated by the technical botanist. This species has
a very extensive distribution, being found not only in the more
northerly latitudes of North America, but in those of Europe and
Asia as well.

The western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) occurs in the south-
ern part of the region included within the scope of this paper, par-
ticularly in the Yellowstone Park. Mr. Sudworth1 describes this
tree as being usually from 15 to 20 feet in height, with a diameter of
16 inches, more or less. Trunks are straight, with prominent ridges
and low branches. The bark is a clear, light cinnamon brown, dis-
tinctly cut by wide, shallow furrows. Leaves pale, ashy-green, and
prominently marked on the back by a glandular pit, whitish with
resin. The fruit is one-fourth to one-third of an inch long, mature
about September of the second year, bluish black, and covered with
a whitish bloom, and slightly marked at the top by projecting points,
the tips of the flower scales. The flesh is scanty and dry and con-
tains from two to three seeds, which are pitted and grooved.

This tree has closely fitting and scale-like leaves, and in its general
form resembles somewhat the" Rocky Mountain juniper.

The dwarf juniper (Juniperus communis) is easily distinguished
from the other junipers by its distinct, outstanding leaves, in circles
of three. The fruit matures at the end of the second season, is dark

1 Sudworth, George B. Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope. Superintendent of Docu-
ments, Government Printing Office, Washington, I). C, 1908.

56

THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

blue, about a quarter of an inch long, with three points at the apex.
The leaves are one-fourth to one-half inch in length, flat, sharp-

pointed, and somewhat paler beneath. In Montana the habit of this
species is that of a prostrate shrub. It often forms dense mats over
several square rods, but usually in clumps several feet across. It

THE SPECIES.

57

seldom is higher than 2 or 3 feet. In some parts of the United States
the dwarf juniper attains tree form, 20 feet or more in height and a
diameter of several inches.

In Montana this species occurs at altitudes from 3,000 to 6,000
feet or more, and is widely distributed through the mountainous
regions of the State. It is one of- the most widely distributed plants
of the northern hemisphere. It is found across the continent from
Greenland to Alaska, and south to Pennsylvania and Nebraska, and
in the mountains to Texas and Arizona. It occurs also in Europe and
Asia.

THE YEW.

The yew (Taxus hrevifolia) is not a conifer nor a member of the
pine family, but, as it is the most nearly allied to these in the Mon-

Fig. 37.— Western Yew. Branches showing fruits in various stages of development. July.

tana flora, it will be mentioned here. It possesses certain features
which suggest the conifers, viz, the form of its leaves and its ever-
green habit. The leaves are alternately arranged, flat, sharp-pointed,
about three-fourths of an inch in length, and horizontally disposed.
The branches also have a strong tendency to form in flat sprays.
The fruit is distinctive. It consists of a single exposed seed, which
is partly enveloped by a fleshy collar (aril) which turns red when
mature. These fruits in all stages of development may be found on
the same branch. When ripe the aril is about a quarter of an inch
in diameter, round, and slightly flattened apically.

58 THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

The yew in Montana, except in' the most favorable situations, is a
mere shrub, growing in thick forests in the shade of other trees. In
the region about Flathead Lake it attains a height of 20 feet and a
diameter near the ground of 1 foot or more, although the stem
divides low into several stout branches. Farther west, in the moister
places on the coast, it grows much larger and with better form. The
bark of the yew is thin, red, and flakes off in large scales. The wood
is moderately hard, of very fine grain, dark in color, and of groat
resiliency. It is much used for the manufacture of bows for archery.
A relative X)f this species, the English yew, was long ago famous in
history for the bows which were fashioned from its wood.

The western yew is found in Montana west of the continental
divide and north from the head of the Bitter Root Valley to the
west. Its range at large extends from southern Alaska into Cali-
fornia and the mountains of eastern Washington and Oregon.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF MONTANA CONIFERS.

1. Leaves in clusters of two, three, or five Pines.

2. Leaves in clusters of ten or more Larches.

3. Leaves borne singly:

Leaves alternate —

Leaves sharp-pointed, rigid Spruce.

Leaves softer, blunt or rounded on the end —

Cones erect, solid , Firs.

Cones pendent —

Bracts conspicuous, three-pointed Douglas spruce.

Bracts entirely concealed Hemlocks.

Leaves mostly scale-like, opposite or in circles —

Sprays flat, cones dry Arbor vita?.

Sprays bushy, cone berry-like Junipers.

III. DIRECTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF THE CONIFERS.

Observe the tree as it stands; it is differentiated into stem, crown,
and roots. Is the stem discernible as a continuous straight shaft
through to the top of the crown ? In most conifers of normal growth
it does so appear, though in stunted specimens, and in some old ones,
the main stem dissolves into a few large branches. At a convenient
distance compare- several trees of the same species as to the profile
of the crown, as to the habit of branching, as to the attitude of the
main branches and also the lesser ones. Can you recognize and de-
fine any peculiarities of outline which mark the particular species?
Observe the tree nearer at hand and notice whether the branches
seem to be grouped in circles at intervals. This is a common feature
of the branching of certain species, and if clearly defined the circles
of branches may be taken to indicate where one season's growth has
ended and another begun. The distance between successive whorls
may usually be considered one year's growth. Such intervals do
not lengthen after the first season. Make special observations of
the bark — its color and surface, whether rough or smooth ; the depth
and direction of the channels, and the form and size of the areas they
inclose; the manner of scaling off, and its thickness. Notice the
bark of trees of different ages in the same species. Follow the
changes which take place as to color, surface, etc. Is the same series
of changes noticeable from the younger to the older parts of the
main stem of the same tree ?

The branches. — Do the branches show the same characteristics as
the main stem? Are the features of the bark the same? Do other
branches tend to arise from the main one in circles? Look for ring-
like markings on the branch. They may be found in most cases at
intervals of an inch to a foot or more, and indicate the limits of the
season's growth, like the whorls of branches on the main stem. Do
the whorls of twigs on a branch stand in relation to such markings?
Are there buds on the tips or the sides of the branches ? Remove the
scales from one of them. Do you find a small green elevation just
above and at the base of each scale? They are present in winter
buds and are the beginnings of leaves for the next season. What is
the arrangement of the bud scales? Refer to the branch just below
the bud and see what has become of the bud scales. Determine by a
series of observations during the summer when the buds are formed
and the amount of development which takes place in one season pre-

59

60 THE CONIFERS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKIES.

paratory for the next. Watch the unfolding of buds in the spring
and the appearance of the various parts. How long does it require
for the main growth in length to be accomplished ?

The leaves. — Observe closely a single leaf. Is it uniform in color,
rigid or flexible, sharp or rounded at the point? Cut across a leaf
and notice the outline of its section. Are the leaves borne singly
or in clusters? The pines have leaves in twos, threes, or fives, and
the larches in bunches of from 10 to 40. In the pine observe the short
spurs upon which the leaves are borne; these are short branches.
Compare with those found in the larch. Determine at what age
the leaves fall. To do this, count the number of years back from
the end of the branch to where the leaves are about all shed from the
branch. Try this method on other branches and compare. This mat-
ter stands in relation to the density of the branching, and it will be
found that in some trees the leaves are shed earlier than in others.
The leaves succumb and drop off when they are shaded. Can you by
examining the leaves learn something as to the needs of the tree with
reference to light? Another method of determining the age at which
leaves are shed is to cut through the branch at the place where the
leaves have fallen and count the rings in the wood, one for each
year's growth. If the branch has been of slow growth, this may re-
quire the aid of a lens. Observe whether the position and attitude
of the leaves are the same in all species. In what trees do the leaves
occur in alternate or spiral arrangement? Are there any in which
they are in circles, or opposite ?

The -flowers. — The flowers of the conifers appear early in the sea-
son, before the new leaves have fairly expanded on the same branch.
The flowers of these trees are always of two kinds. Look for the
ovulate or seed-bearing flowers on or near the ends of the branchlets.
These are erect and usually red and consist ordinarily of a compact
series of outstanding scales on a short central axis. The pollen
flowers, in much greater numbers, are usually a little farther back
from the ends of the branches and are either pendent or projecting in
all directions, except in the case of arbor vita3 and most of the
junipers, in which they are terminal on short branches. What do
you observe as to the relative numbers of the flowers of both kinds?
Compare, if possible, various members of the pine family as to the
position of the flowers on the branch. Examine the parts of the
flowers. Look for the young seeds at the base of the scale on the
upper side. Find the source of the pollen. In many cases the flowers
of pines and other members of this group are on high branches and
out of reach from the ground, but old trees may sometimes be found
with spreading and low-hanging branches on which cones have been
produced in previous years ; they will usually be found in flower at
the right seaspn.

DIRECTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF THE CONIFERS. 61

The fruit. — Observe the position of the cones or fruit. Does the
cone stand in the same position as the flower? How much growth
has intervened? Are there younger and smaller cones on the tree
at the same time? What do you infer as to the length of time re-
quired for the maturing of the fruit? Examine cones of different
species and note differences of size, form, color, hardness, surface
markings, and other features. What trees mature their cones in one
year? Which in two? Take a closed ripe cone from the tree and
keep it in a dry place. Observe the manner in which it opens. Ex-
amine the structure of the cone. Is there more than one series of
organs? Notice in most cases the bract just below the seed-bearing
scale. Compare different species as to the relative development of
scale and bract.

The seed. — What is the position of the seed in the cone? How
many seeds are borne on each scale? In what position on the scale?
What facilities for distribution do the seeds possess? How effective
as a means of distribution are the wings found on some seeds ? Let
fall some seeds having wings from a height of several feet. Is the
rate of its fall controlled by the wing? Of what use is such retarda-
tion of fall among seeds disseminated by the wind? Estimate the
average number of seeds to the cone. Kemove the coat of a seed and
observe the fleshy contents. In the center of the fleshy mass lies the
embryo, a cylindrical or club-shaped body with a root rudiment, or
radicle, at the smaller end, and at the larger a circle of small mem-
bers, the seed leaves or cotyledons; the young stem is the middle
portion. The fleshy material surrounding the embryo is called the
endosperm, and serves as food for the seedling until it becomes
established in the soil. Soak a few pine seeds in water for a day,
and then sow in light soil in boxes or out of doors, keep slightly
moist, and watch for the appearance of the young plants. Observe
the behavior of the young plants with reference to the seed coat and
endosperm. What purpose do the cotyledons serve first? L<ater?
Compare seeds of different members of the pine family as to their
form and their behavior during germination.

REFERENCES.
The following books will be found helpful for a further study of the Rocky
Mountain trees:

Britton, N. L. North American Trees.
Howell, Thomas. Flora of Northwest America.
Nelson, Aven. New Manual of Rocky Mountain Botany.
Rydberg, P. A. Botany of the Rocky Mountains.
Sargent, C. S. Manual of the Trees of North America.
Sudworth, George B, Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION FOR 1917.

[Continued from page 2 of cover.]

No. 34. Institutions in the United States giving instruction in agriculture.

A. C. Monahan and C. H. Dye.
No. 35. The township and community high-school movement in Illinois.

H. A. Hollister.
No. 36. Demand for vocational education in the countries at war. Au.ua T.

Smith.
No. 37. The conference on training for foreign service. Glen L. Swiggett.
No. 38. Vocational teachers for secondary schools. C. D. Jarvis
No. 39. Teaching English to aliens. Winthrop Talbot,

No. 40. Monthly record of current educatioual publications, September, 1917.
No. 41. Library books for high schools. Martha Wilson.
No. 42. Monthly record of current educational publications, October, 1917.
No. 43. Educational directory, 1917-18.
No. 44. Educational conditions in Arizona.
No. 45. Summer sessions in city schools. W. S. Deffenbaugh.
No. 46. The public school system of San Francisco, Cal.
No. 47. The preparation and preservation of vegetables. Henrietta W, Calvin

and Carrie A. Lyford.
No. 48. Monthly record of current educational publications, November, 1917.
No. 49. Music in secondary schools. A report of the Commission on Secondary

Education. Will Earhart and Osbourne McConathy.
No. 50. Physical education in secondary schools. A report of the Commission

on Secondary Education.
No. 51. Moral values in secondary education. A report of the Commission on

Secondary Education. Henry Neumann.
No. 52. Monthly record of current educational publications, December, 1917,
No. 53. The conifers of the northern Rockies. J. E. Kirkwood.
No. 54. Training in courtesy. Margaret S. McNaught.

in