~~ es au, EERVATION ATLAS” GE» = Africa’s forests are being depleted at a faster rate than ) those of any other continent. A major increase in the population growth rate began after World War II and it is now running at an annual rate of 2.9 per cent, resulting in massive demands for agricultural land, water, fuelwood and other products. The message of this book is that forest conservation must be part of a broader process of managing the landscape. The forests of Africa present a complex picture. The most striking picture to emerge is that only Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Zaire still retain more than half of their original forest cover; most of the other 32 countries have less than one-fifth remaining. Nature conservation, and in particular protected areas, have had strong political support in recent years, and Africa entered the 1980s with a strong network of national parks and forest reserves. By 1991, 38 African countries had committed themselves to the Tropical Forestry Action Plan which supports conservation of ecosystems. Many other international initiatives have focused attention on the forests of Africa. The Atlas is divided into two parts. Part I describes the issues: history of forests and climate; biological diversity; conservation of large mammals; forest peoples; links between population, environment and agriculture; the timber trade; forest management; protected area systems; and the future for Africa’s forests. Part II is a country-by-country survey of the forests of Africa. The forest maps have been compiled from satellite and radar imagery and aerial photography, and were provided by forest departments, development agencies and international organisations. FAO and UNEP in particular have provided much appreciated co-operation, and both text and maps have been been written, compiled and reviewed by a broad spectrum of specialists. They represent the best published maps of Africa’s forests available today. As the Atlas makes clear ‘the knowledge and resources are now available and the time has come to translate the many plans and strategies into practical action. It is against this that our descendants will judge the success or failure of our conservation efforts.’ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge http:/Awww.archive.org/details/conservationatlag2saye THE CONSERVATION ATLAS O TROPICAL FORESTS AFRICA SIMON ANSTEY, WWF-International, Gland, Switzerland E.O.A. AsiBpeEY, World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA SERGE BAHUCHET, Centre Nationale de Recherche Scientifique, Paris, France RoBeERT BalLey, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles, USA ANDREW BALMFORD, Large Animal Research Group, University of Cambridge, UK R.K. BAMFO, Forestry Commission, Accra, Ghana RICHARD Barnes, Wildlife Conservation International, University of California, San Diego, USA RICHARD BARNWELL, WWF, Godalming, Surrey, UK JosEPH B. BESSONG, Forestry Department, Yaounde, Cameroon NEIL Birp, ODA, Kumasi Ghana A. BLom, WWF, Epulu, Zaire K.T. BoaTENG, Forestry Department, Accra, Ghana DENYS BOURQUE, Quebec, Canada NEIL BurGEss, RSPB, Sandy, Bedfordshire, UK PETER BurGEss, Suffolk, UK JOHN BuRLISON, Nature Conservancy Council, Balloch, Scotland Tom ButynskI, Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project, Uganda G. CaBALLE, Institut Botanique, Montpellier, France JULIAN CALDECOTT, Cambridge, UK PIERRE CAMPREDON, IUCN, Bissau, Guinea- Bissau RICHARD CARROLL, WWF, Dzanga-Sangha, Central African Republic JAVIER CASTROVIEJO, Asociacion Amigos de Donana, Seville, Spain KEVIN CLEAVER, World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA NonIE COULTHARD, RSPB, Sandy, Bedfordshire, UK MICHAEL Crossy, ICBP, Cambridge, UK ALAN Cross, UNEP/GRID, Geneva, Switzerland GLyn Davies, ODA, Nairobi, Kenya JEAN-PIERRE D’HuaART, WWF, Brussels, Belgium CHARLES DOUMENGE, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland FRANCOISE DOWSETT-LEMaIRE, Liege, Belgium JosEPpH DuDLEyY, Department of Biology and Wildlife, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, USA Pat DuGan, IUCN Wetlands Programme, Gland, Switzerland Curis Ettiotr, WWF-International, Gland, Switzerland JOHN FA, Irish Town, Gibraltar JuLIA FALCONER, ODA, Kumasi, Ghana J. H. FRANCOISE, Forestry Department, Accra, Ghana K. FRIMPONG-MENSAH, Institute of Renewable Resources, Kumasi, Ghana STEVE GARTLAN, WWF, Douala, Cameroon K. GHaRTEY, Forestry Department, Accra, Ghana DONALD GORDON, WCMC, Cambridge, UK il Contributors ARTHUR GREEN, WWF, Korup National Park, Cameroon GLEN GREEN, Geology Department, Macalester College, Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA MICHAEL GREEN, WCMC, Cambridge, UK JOHN HALL, School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, Bangor, UK ALAN C. HAMILTON, WWF, Godalming, Surrey, UK ALEXANDER HaARCourRT, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis, USA JOHN Hart, Wildlife Conservation International, Project Okapi, Epulu, Zaire TERESE Hart, Wildlife Conservation International, Project Okapi, Zaire WILLIAM HawTHoRNE, ODA, Kumasi, Ghana PHILIPPE HECKETSWEILER, Institut Botanique, Montpellier, France BARRY HEWLETT, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA PETER HowarD, Kampala, Uganda Mark INFIELD, WWF-International, Gland, Switzerland GIL IsaBIRYE-BasuTA, Kibale, Uganda MarTIN JENKINS, Cambridge, UK ANDY JOHNS, Kibale, Uganda PETER JONES, Department of Natural Resources and Forestry, Edinburgh University, UK Scorr Jones, Bristol, UK Curis JUSTICE, NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, USA FRANCIS KasiIs1, WWF-International, Gland, Switzerland RONALD Keay, Cobham, Surrey, UK JACKIE KENDALL, NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, USA OLIVIER LANGRAND, WWF, Antananarivo, Madagascar NIGEL LEADER-WILLIAMS, Large Animal Research Group, University of Cambridge, UK DAMIEN Lewis, London, UK MICHEL LOUETTE, Musée Royal de l’Afrique Centrale, Belgium RICHARD Lowe, Botany Department, University of Ibadan, Nigeria PETER Lowry, Missouri Botanical Garden, St Louis, USA H.F. Marrre, Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne, France CLAUDE MartTIn, WWF-International, Gland, Switzerland JAMES Mayers, WWF, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania MANKOTO MA MBAELELE, Zaire Institue for Nature Conservation, Kinshasa, Zaire JEFF MCNEELY, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland TOM MCSHANE, WWE-US, Libreville, Gabon ERICA MCSHANE-CALUZI, WWF-US, Libreville, Gabon JEAN-BONIFACE MEMVIE, Forest Service, Libreville, Gabon HADELIN MERTENS, WWF, Kinshasa, Zaire ALAIN Monrort, Liége, Belgium Don Moore, US Geological Survey, Eros Data Center, Sioux Falls, USA TH. MULLER, National Herbarium and National Botanic Garden, Harare, Zimbabwe DOMINIQUE N’Sosso, Ministry of Forest Economy, Brazzaville, Congo JOHN Oates, Hunter College, City University of New York, USA KATIE OFFERT, Nyungwe Forest Conservation Project, Rwanda NICOLA O’NEILL, Swansea, Wales J.G.K. Owusu, Insitute of Renewable Resources, Kumasi, Ghana Risto PAIVINEN, FINNIDA, Finland PRINCE PALMER, Forestry Division, Sierra Leone ALEXANDER PEAL, Forestry Development Authority, Liberia JEAN-YVES PIROT, IUCN Wetlands Programme, Gland, Switzerland ROGER POLHILL, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Surrey, UK DEREK PoMEROY, Zoology Department, Makerere University, Uganda G. PUNGESE, Department of Game and Wildlife, Accra, Ghana S.J. QUASHIE-SAM, Institute of Renewable Resources, Kumasi, Ghana SIMON RIETBERGEN, ITED, London, UK ANNE ROBERTSON, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya ALAN RODGERS, Cambridge, UK ALISON ROssER, Cambridge, UK PER RYDEN, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland JACQUELINE SAWYER, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland Gotz SCHREIBER, World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA HEINRICH STOLL, Bremen, Germany Davip STONE, Begnins, Switzerland SIMON STuaRT, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland ROBERT SUSSMAN, Anthropology Department, Washington University, St Louis, Missouri, USA IAN THORPE, School of Biology, University of East Anglia, UK RAPHAEL TsILA, Ministry of Forest Economy, Brazzaville, Congo K. TuFour, Forestry Commission, Accra, Ghana CAROLINE TUTIN, Lopé Reserve, Gabon Amy VEDDER, Wildlife Conservation International, New York, USA FRED VOOREN, Forestry Department, University of Wageningen, Netherlands JoHN WauGu, IUCN, Washington, D.C., USA Cuiive Wicks, WWF, Godalming, Surrey, UK ROGER WILSON, FFPS, London, UK Ron Witt, UNEP/GRID, Geneva, Switzerland PETER Woop, RSPB, Sandy, Bedfordshire, UK IPALAKA YOBWA, Forest Inventory and Management Service, Kinshasa, Zaire In addition authors and reveiwers are acknowl- edged at the end of each chapter. THE CONSERVATION ATLAS OF TROPICAL FORESTS AFRICA Editors JEFFREY A. SAYER International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland CAROLINE S. HARCOURT World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK N. MARK COLLINS World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK Editorial Assistant: Clare Billington - Map Editor: Mike Adam World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge £ q) The World [ ny % } Conservation . A Union WORLD CONSERVATION MACMILLAN MONITORING CENTRE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This atlas was produced under the Forest Conservation Programme of IUCN, The World Conservation Union.. TUCN’s work in tropical forests receives financial support from the government of Sweden. Much of the research, editing and map preparation was done at the World Conservation Monitoring Centre which is supported by IUCN, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); the Centre is also part of UNEP’s Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) towards which this atlas is a contribution. IUCN is especially indebted to The British Petroleum Company p.l.c. for the original idea for the atlas and for the generous fund- ing which has enabled the research for the project to be undertaken. Thanks also go to IBM, for providing a computer which was used for running the geographic information system (GIS) needed to compile the maps, and to the Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) of California which provided the ARC/INFO soft- ware for the project. Petroconsultants Ltd of Cambridge kindly made available ‘MundoCart’, a world digital mapping database which proved invaluable in the preparation of this atlas. Copyright © Contributors to the atlas are listed earlier and their labours are much appreciated. A work of this nature, however, inevitably rep- resents the labours of hundreds of people who have painstakingly documented the forests, researching their ecology and wildlife, and who have laboured over the production of the maps from field work to final printing. Heartfelt thanks are offered by the editors to all these unnamed people. The editors would also like to thank all their colleagues at IUCN and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, without whose dedicated work this project would not have been possible. In WCMC, particular thanks go to Harriet Gillett and Donald Gordon for information on conservation areas, to Simon Blyth and Gillian Bunting for work on the maps and to Barbara Brown, James Culverwell, Brian Groombridge and Martin Jenkins for much appreciated and varied assistance. At IUCN, invaluable help was provided by Ursula Senn, Jacqueline Sawyer and Jill Blockhus. Finally, Paul Woodman at the Royal Geographical Society gave us considerable aid with, among other things, correct spellings of ever-changing place names. IUCN 1992 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with wnitten permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licencing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published in the United Kingdom by Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1992 Distributed by Globe Book Services Ltd Brunel Road, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hants RG21 2XS British Cataloguing in Publication Data Sayer, Jeffrey A. The Conservation atlas of tropical forests. Africa. I. Title II Harcourt, Caroline S. III Collins, N. Mark 574.5022 ISBN 0 333 57757-4 Acknowledgement of Sources The sources of the country maps are given at the end of each chapter. The sources of the illustrations and maps are given in footnotes and captions. Designed by Robert Updegraff. Map Production by Lovell Johns, Oxford Typeset by BP Intergraphics, Bath, Avon. Printed and bound in Singapore Contents Foreword ParRT I: THE ISSUES Introduction History of Forests and Climate Biological Diversity Case Studies in Conserving Large Mammals Forest People Population, Environment and Agriculture Timber Trade Forest Management The Protected Areas System A Future for Africa’s Tropical Forests OMAIDM &BWN —_ =) PART II: COUNTRY STUDIES 11 Benin and Togo 12 Burundi and Rwanda 13 Cameroon 14 Central African Republic 15 Congo 16 Cote d’Ivoire 17 Eastern Africa Djibouti Somalia Ethiopia Sudan Kenya Tanzania 18 Equatorial Guinea 19 Gabon 20 The Gambia and Senegal 21 Ghana 22 Guinea 23 Guinea-Bissau 24 Indian Ocean Islands Comoros Reunion Mauritius Seychelles 25 Liberia 26 Madagascar 27 Nigeria 28 Sao Tomé and Principe 29 Sierra Leone 30 Southern Africa Angola Mozambique Malawi Zimbabwe 31 Uganda 32 Zaire Acronyms Glossary Index of Species General Index 102 110 119 125 133 143 161 168 WS) 183 193 NwONHN DN WH nS io) Foreword The loss of the world’s tropical forests is one of today’s most publicised, debated and least understood environmental issues. Some articles give the impression that the destruction is so rapid and catastrophic that by the end of the century there will be only scattered remnants of forest in increasingly embattled national parks. More than half the species that live on land are inhabitants of the tropical forests and a simple extrapolation leads to dire conclusions about what forest clearance means for the world’s biological diversity. But the situation is far more complicated than that. The statistics of total forest loss - 17 million hectares a year, an area considerably bigger than Switzerland - mask an intricate pattern of variation from country to country. The causes of forest loss also vary, though clearance for cultivation is generally the most important. Deciding what policy to pursue is not easy for tropical governments who are striving to meet the needs of growing populations and to secure economic growth that will allow them to end degrading poverty and provide food security, health care, education and employment. For such nations, forest resources are vital. For many people the forests are the only homes they have ever known. Used sustainably for meat, nuts, fruits, gums, wild rubber, fibre, medicines, rattans and carefully extracted timber, tropical forests can provide a continuous supply of materials and income to human communities and at the same time maintain local climate, regulate the run-off of rainfall and lock up some of the carbon dioxide, the accumulation of which is causing climatic change. Used destructively the forests may give Gross National Product a quick boost but often leave local communities ruined. Governments everywhere are reviewing their policies and moving towards sustainable management. They are negotiating international conventions to conserve biological diversity and halt climate change. Conventions on Forests and Biodiversity are also being discussed. Wise use is central to all these initiatives but conventions cannot work without sound knowledge of the forests themselves: where they are, what species exists in them and what essential services they provide. It is a remarkable and disconcerting truth that we lack much of this essential knowledge today. In 1974 Reider Persson wrote, in a ground-breaking survey of the world’s forest resources, “we know quite a lot about the moon, but we do not know how much of the earth is covered by forests and woodlands.’ His words are still true. The problem is particularly acute for Africa. Although we have the capacity to use remote sensing to monitor in considerable detail what is happening in tropical forests, no forest map has ever been produced for some countries and for many the statistics available from different sources are contradictory. This atlas is an attempt to present the facts on forest extent and loss in Africa. It addresses the issues central to forest conservation and sustainable use. What are the real causes of loss? What are the values of the forests to the people of Africa? How can these values be translated into tangible benefits for the poor rural societies who live in and around the most diverse forests? The volume begins with an analysis of ecological history. Contrary to popular belief that tropical forests are ancient and unchanging, those of Africa have changed a great deal with the past few tens of thousands of years in response to alterations in climate and sea level. These dynamics need to be understood. The later chapters analyse the characteristics of today’s forest, the ways forest-dwelling peoples use them and the implications of agricultural and social trends. The role of the timber industry as a potential force for conservation or destruction is evaluated. The maps are the heart of the atlas. They have been much more difficult to compile than in our previous volume on the forests of the Asia/Pacific region. Those for most of West Africa and large parts of Central Africa have never before been published. These maps are based on satellite imagery obtained in the past few years and they give a new picture of the dramatic decline in the forests of these areas. The continent is losing its forests faster than any other region. Thirty per cent have already gone and the remainder are being eroded at 1 per cent per year. In Central Africa, where very large tracts of forest remain, they are being fragmented and encroached upon by small farmers. Even light disturbance makes them very vulnerable to fire. Finally, most of Africa’s closed forest occur under rainfall regimes which are marginal for this type of vegetation and as a consequence they are more vulnerable to disturbance or small changes in climate than those of other regions. This atlas is offered to all concerned with conservation and sustainable living in the forested zone of Africa. Those processes will only come about if they are a priority of the peoples of Africa. Conservation programmes that seek to impose external views are doomed to failure. There is a new emerging generation of African conservationists who are well aware of the materials and cultural value of the forests to African societies. Many of them have contributed to this atlas. We hope that the atlas will be of value to them and to their nations in ensuring that Africa’s wonderful forests, and the diverse animal life they support, remain a prized asset in the 21st century. MARTIN HOLDGATE Director General IUCN - The World Conservation Union vi Peiab, al Geological Time Scale Eon Era Period Epoch Time (Ma) Quaternary erate 0.1 ih sia Pleistocene Pliocene re Zea 5 Neogene Miocene Cenozoic 26 570- Tertiary Oligocene 37 Eocene Palaeogene 53 | Palaeocene 1000 - 65 late Cretaceous Cretaceous 100 early Cretaceous Phanerozoic 136 Mesozoic late Jurassic Jurassic middle Jurassic he early Jurassic 76 190 Triassic - 2000- Permian 280 Pennsylvanian Carboniferous 315 Mississippian 345 2500- Palaeozoic Devonian 395 Silurian 430 i Ordovician a 500 Combrian 570 Vendian 650 late Riphean Proterozoic Riphean 900 Pre- middle Riphean 4000- combrian early Riphean lei 1600 early Proterozoic 2500 Archaean Archaean 4550 4550- Vill 1 Introduction Africa is, essentially, a continent of woodlands and grasslands; it contains more than twice as much open woodland as closed canopy forest. Indeed, satellite images of Africa show clearly that this is the driest of the three main tropical continents (National per cent of the land area. Africa’s rain forests represent slightly less than one-fifth of the total remaining global resources, while Asia holds slightly more than a fifth and Latin America still contains almost three-fifths. Asia’s rain and monsoon forests are depleted by half (Collins et al., 1991), while those of tropical America remain more intact covering at least four-fifths of their early 20th century extent. The figures in this Atlas reveal that the forests of Africa are the most depleted of all with only one-third or so of their historical extent still remaining. (See Table 10.1, which assumes that areas classified by White (1983) as forest/savanna mosaics were once completely forested.) Furthermore, West Africa’s forests are being lost faster than those of any other region. In the 1990s Africa’s forests are under severe and growing pres- sures. Annual deforestation rates in Africa’s closed canopy forests for the years 1976-80 were estimated to be about 0.61 per cent of the total closed forest area in 1980 (FAO/UNEP, 1981). FAO has yet to finalise its statistics to a 1990 baseline but moist forest loss is likely to be about | per cent per year (FAO, 1990). Annual defor- estation is more serious in West Africa (2.1 per cent) than in Central Africa (0.6 per cent). There are indications that unplanned deforestation, and environmental degradation in general, are close correlates of human population growth. As chapter 6 of this vol- ume reveals, Africa’s population growth rate is now running at 2.9 per cent (doubling time 24 years), an expansion that is resulting in massive demands for agricultural land, water, fuelwood and other natural products. Notwithstanding this, as chapter 2 relates, the forests of Africa are even now considerably more extensive than they were during the most recent high latitude glacial advance around 18,000 years ago. FORESTS OF THE REGION The limits of African tropical forests shown in this Atlas are based on the recent definitive vegetation classification provided by F. White’s memoir and 1:5 million scale map (1983). As in the Asia—Pacific Atlas (Collins et a/., 1991), only the closed canopy tropical forests are mapped. Selected forest types are shown, gen- eralised from White (1983), in Figure 1.1. Africa’s closed canopy tropical moist forests run from the man- groves of Senegal on the west coast of the continent to the mon- tane forests of Jebel Hantara near the eastern tip of Somalia. Most of the countries of West Africa were once clothed in forest from the coastline to deep inland, but agricultural and urban expansion have led to large-scale deforestation and fragmentation, graphically presented in Figure 1.2. The relict blocks of forest left at Gola in Sierra Leone (chapter 29), Sapo in Liberia (chapter 25) and Tai in Cote dIvoire (chapter 16), are now of global importance as the last significant remnants of the structurally complex, species-rich forests of the Upper Guinea zone. In Central Africa there still remains a vast, more or less contin- uous expanse of rain forest. Although whittled away by fire and agriculture on its borders, and by exploitation along the banks of the great rivers of the region, large areas of little-disturbed forest remain. Indeed around 80 per cent of the rain forest on the cont- nent is concentrated in this region, particularly in Zaire. As Figure 1.3 indicates, this area of the continent still has the opportunity for strategic planning for conservation and economic development. To the south, the main forest block gives way to dense miombo woodlands with scattered patches of dry deciduous forest. In East Africa the moist forest peters out as the climate gradu- ally becomes more arid. Increasingly, forest occurs only in strips bordering rivers, along the tops of mountains, or on the wet coastal hills. These fragmented forest patches share problems of severe encroachment and exploitation, yet they harbour a high propor- tion of plant and animal species which are found nowhere else in the world. Many of these forests are the subject of individual con- servation programmes, which are rearguard actions to save the last remnants of pristine forest lands. Forest Classification White’s memoir and map, published by Unesco, was the result of some 15 years of cooperation between Unesco and the Association pour l’Etude Taxonomique de la Flore de l’Afrique Tropicale (AETFAT). AETFAT’s Vegetation Map Committee, whose members compiled the materials from which White worked, included many distinguished authorities. Building upon earlier works such as the well-known Yangambi classification of tropical Africa (Trochain, 1957) and Keay’s (1959) vegetation map of Africa, White’s classification has withstood scrutiny for almost a decade, and looks set to do so for several more. The greatest threat to its boundaries, predictably, is the rapid expansion of anthropic landscapes at the expense of natural vegetation. White’s classification identifies 16 major vegetation types or for- mations, all based on structure and physiognomy without recourse to climatic or other environmental considerations (Table 1.1). There is a wide diversity of woody vegetation types, including for- est, thicket, shrubland, Afroalpine vegetation, scrubland, man- grove and bamboo; woodland being the most widespread (White, 1983, p. 47). Africa differs from tropical Asia in the occurrence of 9 INTRODUCTION 2 "Fg J ZS | ALGERIA 3 K x A Ss MAURITANIA sed | MALI A THE \ GAMBIA GUINEA- BISSAU PRINCIPE AND <, SAO TOME Notes: 1 Three of the four forest types shown (lowland, montane and swamp) comprise a combination of White’s (1983) forest and forest mosaic categories, as explained in detail in Table 1.2. The map represents the potential outer limits of moist forest vegetation in the recent past, but note that the areas around the edge of the main forest block were mapped by White (1983) as forest/grassland mosaics, and may never have been totally forested. 3 To the east of the swamp forests of the Cuvette Cenwrale in Zaire, White (1983) portrayed a mosaic of swamp forest and lowland rain forest. In this map it has been included in the lowland rain forest category. The location of this zone is shown in Figure 32.3. This atlas is concerned with tropical forests, therefore the montane forests of temperate southern Africa, which are shown here for completeness, are not considered within it. te cs yan EQUATORIAL GUINEA LIBYA EGYPT DJIBOUTI CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC kg oF RWANDA A a Sy — BURUNDI BOTSWANA a = CS a = Ss = Ss = = NAMIBIA Sa] Lowland forest i ee Montone forest Fd Mangrove see Table 1.2 for a full explanation of the forest types included SOUTH AFRICA rs 10 Figure 1.1 The distributional limits of the forest types from which selections have been made for this Atlas (generalised from White, 1983) numerous closed canopy woody vegetation types which do not contain trees, but shrubs or bushes instead. For this reason the four major categories of Schimper (1903) which were broadly applied in the Asia—Pacific volume of this Atlas, are inadequate here. In the Unesco memoir the 16 formations are sub-divided into 80 mapping units (White, 1983, Table 4). Table 1.2 sets out in detail the Unesco mapping units that have been selected and combined to delimit the classification used on the maps appearing in Part II of this book and Figure 1.1 shows them in a generalised form. Table 1.2 should be studied in detail to appreciate the context of the maps within this Atlas, but a few words of explanation are needed: In the main, the limits of forest lands covered by this Atlas are defined by the tropical rain forests and montane forests found within the boundaries of White’s ‘Forest’ and ‘Forest Transition Table 1.1 Formations of Regional Extent 1 Forest INTRODUCTION and Mosaics’ (i.e. categories 1-5, 8, 9, and 11-19). Added to these are forests in the tropical altimontane category (category 65 of White) and mangroves (category 77). Forest types excluded from the coverage are dry forests (categories 6 and 7 of White), dry for- est mosaics (categories 21 and 22) and forests outside the tropics (10, 20 and 33). Dry evergreen forests in the Zambezian region (category 6) are separated from the rain forests by a broad swathe of miombo wood- land. Although they were once probably extensive (Aubréville, 1949), they are today confined to tiny, mostly disturbed fragments in a matrix of wooded grassland. Dry forest also occurs in West Africa where it is virtually confined to deep riverine ravines in Mali, and to the coastal plain of Ghana (White, 1983, p. 46). Mali is not covered in this Atlas, and any relicts of dry forest remaining in Ghana cannot be distinguished from the rain forests. At the scale The main vegetation types of Africa, as described by White (1983, Tables 1 and 3) A continuous stand of trees at least 10 m tall, their crowns interlocking. 2 Woodland An open stand of trees at least 8 m tall with a canopy cover of 40 per cent or more. The field layer is usually dominated by grasses. 3a Bushland An open stand of bushes usually between 3 and 7 m tall with a canopy cover of 40 per cent or more. 3b Thicket A closed stand of bushes and climbers usually between 3 and 7 m tall. 4 Shrubland An open or closed stand of shrubs up to 2 m tall. 5 Grassland Land covered with grasses and other herbs, either without woody plants or the latter not covering more than 10 per cent of the ground. 6 Wooded grassland Land covered with grasses and other herbs, with woody plants covering between 10 and 40 per cent of the ground. 7 Desert Arid landscapes with a sparse plant cover, except in depressions where water accumulates. The sandy, stony or rocky substrate contributes more to the appearance of the landscape than does the vegetation. 8 Afroalpine vegetation Physiognomically mixed vegetation occurring on high mountains where night frosts are liable to occur throughout the year. Transitional Formations of Local Extent 9 Scrub forest Intermediate between forest and bushland or thicket. 10 Transition woodland Intermediate between forest and woodland. 11 Scrub woodland Stunted woodland less than 8 m tall or vegetation intermediate between woodland and bushland. Edaphic Formations 12 Mangrove Open or closed stands of trees or bushes occurring on shores between high and low water mark. Most mangrove species have pneumatophores or are viviparous. 13 Herbaceous fresh-water swamp and aquatic vegetation 14 Halophytic vegetation (saline and brackish swamp). Formation of Distinct Physiognomy but Restricted Distribution 15 Bamboo Unnatural Vegetation 16 Anthropic landscapes (Source: White, 1983) INTRODUCTION —_ — 7 pra {he DoT , os vs Us “ETA d — | u Dip as as: ae, P fF Ap eatt a f 8 S 1989) Figure 1.3 Rain forests of Central Africa 12 o a5 uo) g oj a vo & 5 Flas] i oS Lo] 1S) Eel R= 77 S| |e F a ¥ Lee 3 f o g ta GaSe = i a : 2 O 2 : E S A S re ie) y ate, = pS S x Se aa o||.8 = f=) Oo] |g i ° & = 2 [4 A) , ~. : Forest regeneration can occur if cleared areas are subsequently undisturbed. This ts the trace of the main Itombwe road, abandoned in the early 1960s, but still marked on maps of Zaire as a major road. _ R. Wilson of CILSS (Inter-Governmental Committee for Drought Relief in the Sahel), SADCC (Southern Africa Development Cooperation Conference) and IGADD (Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Development in Eastern Africa) had all embarked upon regional TFAPs. The results of the national TFAPs have been variable. Critics claim that they have not recognised the need for change and that they are simply advocating more of the same forestry assistance policies that have not succeeded in the past. The failure to address the needs of forest dwelling peoples in TFAPs and the neglect of biological diversity issues have come in for strong criticism (Colchester and Lohmann, 1990; Winterbottom, 1990). Advocates of TFAPs point out that having a process in place to increase and harmonise aid to forestry in 38 countries in five years is a considerable achievement. They note that governmental forestry institutions are conservative and bringing about change in these organisations is inevitably a slow process. In reality some TFAPs have been more effective than others, reflecting the fact that some countries are more amenable to change than others. Cameroon chose the path of expanded industrial logging and received very little donor support, whereas Tanzania adopted a strong social forestry and conservation line and was well sup- ported by the donors. 88 There can be no doubt that the TFAP has given forest conser- vation and sustainable forestry a much higher profile in the pro- grammes of both governments and aid agencies. For all its possi- ble shortcomings, the TFAP has certainly done far more good than harm. In addition, it now exists as a process and can provide a framework for greater policy change and greater conservation efforts in the future. Other Initiatives Several other international initiatives are now focusing attention on the forests of Africa. National Conservation Strategies (NCS) are In preparation or exist in ten African countries and are under consideration in a further eight (Table 10.3). The NCS aims mainly to help countries re-examine their own policies on the conservation and sustainable development of natural resources. Environmental Action Plans (EAPs) are being prepared by the World Bank for 19 countries (Table 10.4). They are intended to identify projects for grants or loans to address important conser- vation issues. The EAP for Madagascar has already resulted in sig- nificant investments in forest conservation. The new Global Environment Facility (GEF) being administered by the World Bank, UNDP and UNEP has US$250 million avail- able for grants and soft loans to support biological diversity; Cameroon is one of six African countries which has been identified as a recipient. US$25 million is available for conservation schemes in Cameroon’s forests. Several bilateral agencies have pledged greatly increased support for forest conservation and forestry. The question that still remains largely unresolved is how all the new money can be spent effectively to ensure a future for Africa’s forests. The Future for Protected Areas The first law of conservation must be to ensure the integrity of existing protected areas and bring other sites of known value for biological diversity under conservation management. This means more trained and equipped forest managers and guards, more political support for protected areas and more measures to recon- cile conflicts between protected areas and the traditional users of the forests. Several projects exist in Africa which attempt to pro- tect critical forest sites while using development assistance to help local communities meet their needs in a sustainable, non-destruc- tive way. Notable examples are the WWF Korup Project in Cameroon (see case study in chapter 13), the IUCN East Usambaras project in Tanzania (see case study in chapter 17), and the Wildlife Conservation International (WCI) gorilla conserva- tion project in the Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda (see case study in chapter 12). Much work has also been done to identify important sites of bio- logical diversity. Many national studies are cited in the country chapters of this Atlas. A regional study of the Central African for- est block carried out by IUCN on behalf of the EEC identified 104 sites in the seven countries of that region (UICN, 1989). Less than half of these sites have any conservation management at present. Considerable information on other sites is given in several IUCN publications (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986; Stuart et al., 1990 etc). Figure 10.2 and Table 10.5 show forest sites in Africa which are known to have special importance for conserving bio- logical diversity. Many others will eventually be identified. If all of these known sites, covering perhaps 10-15 per cent of Africa’s forests, could be managed in a natural or near-natural state for bio- logical diversity conservation, then the immediate future of most of Africa’s forest flora and fauna would be safe (Sayer and Stuart, 1988; Sayer et a/l., 1990). Supporting protection of these sites could be the best way for the aid agencies to help conservation. A FUTURE FOR AFRICA’S TROPICAL FORESTS Table 10.3 Status of National Conservation Strategies, at February 1991 Country Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde CAR Chad Comoros Congo Cote d'Ivoire Djibouu Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Réunion Rwanda Sao Tomé and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe TOTALS Completed x ww In Preparation Table 10.4 Status of Environmental Action Plans, at February 1991 Country Benin Burkina Faso Burundi Congo Cote d’Ivoire Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Lesotho Madagascar Mali Mauritius Nigeria Rwanda Seychelles Somalia Togo Uganda TOTALS Completed ria X Pott Under Discussion Palias Pala Under Preparation Suspended ~ mK Under Discussion Xx 4 Ph PS AAA ° No Progress Pte em MM MM MM re PM re ~~ mA 8 Pea (Source: IUCN data, 1991) (Source: UCN data, 1991) 89 A FUTURE FOR AFRICA’S TROPICAL FORESTS However, if these protected areas are merely islands of conserva- tion in a totally transformed or degraded landscape then their long- term future will not be secure (Sayer and Whitmore, 1991). Many existing protected areas are small and their plant and animal popula- tions are isolated. These small, fragmented populations are prone to extinction from a variety of chance factors and from genetic deterio- ration resulting from inbreeding (Whitmore and Sayer, 1992). Conservation objectives can be met only if very extensive areas out- side parks and reserves are retained under some sort of forest cover. The conservation value of these forests depends upon how closely they resemble the native forests of the region, how diverse they are and how many indigenous species they contain. The better these criteria are fulfilled, the better the forests will act as buffers, protecting the core conservation areas in the national parks and equivalent reserves. This is where development aid, the TFAP, the EAPs, and the GEF have their greatest role to play. They must support uses of forest which are compatible with biological diversity conservation. This may involve sustainable management of forests for timber, but it can also be management for many other food, fibre or medic- inal products. Many of these products are already more valuable to forest dwelling peoples than timber whose value accrues mainly to urban entrepreneurs or foreign companies. Figure 10.2 Critical forest sites in the Afrotropical region, listed in Table 10.5 90 Within Africa, some regions are in much greater need of con- servation action than others. In the central forest block of Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and Zaire there is still ime for careful zoning of forest land. Zoning plans should establish areas for pro- tection, for timber production and for intensive agricultural devel- opment. In coastal West Africa, eastern Africa and Madagascar the destruction of the forests has advanced so far that a major effort should be made to conserve every remaining patch of native for- est. But population pressure is such that it will not be possible to give total protection to these forests. Their conservation will only be achievable if it involves their careful, sustained use to produce the various products and services needed by people. Aid agencies have a major role to play in supporting development of such uses. There have been innumerable studies of the plants and animals of Africa’s forests. Their biological diversity is far better docu- mented than that of Asia or South America. Virtually all the coun- tries of the region have made a political commitment to conserve their fauna and flora. The richer countries of the north want to help Africa conserve its forests. The knowledge and resources are now available and the tme has come to translate the many plans and strategies into practical action. It is against this that our descen- dants will judge the success or failure of our conservation efforts. Table 10.5 Critical forest sites in the Afrotropical region Sites DJIBOUTI 1 Day SOMALIA 2) Daloh ETHIOPIA 3 Neghelli region KENYA 4 Lower Tana Riverine Forests 5 Sokoke 6 Shimba hills 7 Taita hills 8 Kakamega and Nandi TANZANIA 9 Usambara mountains 10 ~~“ Pugu hills 11 Nguru mountains 12. Ukaguru mountains 13 Uluguru mountains 14. Uzungwa mountains 15 Southern highlands MOZAMBIQUE 16 Mount Namuli 17. Mount Chiperone 18 Inhamintanda 19 Dondo 20 Gorongosa mountains MALAWI 21 Mt Mulanje 22 Mt Chiradzulu 23. Mt Soche 24 = Mt Thyolo 25 Nyika Plateau ZIMBABWE 26 Vumba highlands 27. ~=Chimanimani hills 28 Chirinda forest SOUTH AFRICA 29 Ngoye forest ANGOLA 30. ~—- Bailundu highlands 31 Amboin region 32 Northern Angolan region 33 ~Cabinda enclave RWANDA 34 Nyungwe 40 Volcanoes UGANDA 35 Impenetrable (Bwindi) 36 = Semliki 37 Kibale 38 Rwenzori 39 =Mr Elgon BURUNDI 41 Bururi Description national park forest reserve unprotected part in reserves forest reserve, part nature reserve national reserve national forest forest reserve, part nature reserve national forest reserves national forest reserves national forest reserves national forest reserves national forest reserves national forest reserves national forest reserves ?unprotected ?unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected protection forest reserve protection forest reserve protection forest reserve part protection forest reserve national park botanical reserves national park botanical reserve controlled by KwaZulu government unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected reserve, part national park national park forest reserve, part natural reserve forest reserve, part animal sanctuary forest reserve, part natural reserve forest reserve forest reserve natural forest reserve A FUTURE FOR AFRICA’S ‘TROPICAL FORESTS SUDAN 180 Imatong Hills ZAMBIA 181 Nyika Plateau ZAIRE 42 Azandes 43 Garamba 44 Mondo 45 Gangala-na Bodio 46 Maika-Penge 47 Epi 48 Bili Uere 49 Okapi (Itur1) 50 Rub1-Tele 179 =Abumonbazi 51 Semliki 52. Mt Hoyo 53 - Virunga 54. Masako 55 Kongolo 56 Yangambi 57 Maiko 58 Tongo 59 Rutshuru 60 = Area west of L. Kivu 61 Shushu 62 Irangi 63 Kahuzi-Biega 64 Maniema 65 Itombwe 66 ~~ Uvira 67 Mt Kabobo 68 Luama 69 Lomami-Lualuba 70 Kundelungu 71 Lufira 72 Basse Kando - Bena Mulumbu 73 Lubudi-Sampwe 74 Upemba 75 Kyamasumba-Kolwezi 76 Bushimae VU Swa-Kibula 78 Mangai 79 ~=Salonga 80 Luo 81 Lomako 82. = Ngiri 83 Eala 84 Botende 207 Lake Tumba 85. Mai-Mpili 86 Bombo Lumene 87 Ngaenke 88 Nsele 89 Kisantu 90 Luki 91 Mangroves CONGO 92 Patte d’Oie 93 Tsiemeé 94 Lefini 95 Bangou 96 Loudima 97 Dimonika/Londela-Kayes 98 Conkouati unprotected national park hunting reserve national park hunting reserve hunting reserve hunting reserve hunting reserve hunting reserve unprotected hunting reserve unprotected unprotected reserve national park reserve reserve biosphere reserve national park unprotected hunting reserve unprotected unprotected unprotected national park unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected hunting reserve unprotected national park biosphere reserve hunting reserve hunting reserve national park unprotected hunting reserve hunting reserve hunting reserve national park unprotected unprotected unprotected botanical garden reserve unprotected unprotected hunting reserve unprotected unprotected botanical garden biosphere reserve unprotected unprotected unprotected faunal reserve unprotected faunal reserve biosphere reserve faunal reserve 91 A FUTURE FOR AFRICA’S TROPICAL FORESTS 99 Boko-Songo 100 Tsoulou 101 Sces Ogooue-Zanaga 102. Nyanga Nord 103. Mt Fouari 104. Nyanga-Sud 105 Mt Mavoumbu 106 Bowe de Kouyi 107. Kelleé-Oboko II 108 M’boko 109 Lekoli-Pandaka 110 Odzala 111 Likouala and Lac Telé 112. Nouabale 113. Ibenga-Motaba 114. Mt Nabemba GABON 115 Leconi 116 Soungou-Milongo 117. Moukalaba-Dougoula 118 Mts Doudou 119 Setté-Cama 120 Ozouri 121 Wonga-Wongue 122 Ogooue-Onangue 123. La Lope 124 Forét des Abeilles 125 Mingouli 126 Ipassa-Makokou 127 Mts de Belinga 128 Grottes de Belinga 129 Djoua 130 Minkebe 131 Tchimbéle 132 Sibang 133, Mondah 134. Akanda SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE 136 137 Sao Tome Principe CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC 140 Bangassou 141 Kotto remnants 142 Kaga-Bandoro remnants 143 Basse-Lobaye 144. Ngoto and Mbaere-Modingue 145 Dzanga-Sangha 146 Nana remnants CAMEROON 147 Lobéke 148 Boumba Bek 149 Nki 150 Dja 151 Mbam and Djerem 152 Tchabal Mbabo 153) Mt Oku 154. Bonepoupa 155 Mt Manengouba 156 Bayang Mbo 157 Mawne 158 Takamanda 159 Nta Ali 160 Ejagham unprotected faunal reserve unprotected faunal reserve faunal reserve faunal reserve hunting reserve unprotected unprotected hunting reserve faunal reserve national park unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected reserve unprotected reserve unprotected reserve national park reserve unprotected unprotected reserve unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected unprotected biosphere reserve ?unprotected ?unprotected unprotected faunal reserve unprotected unprotected faunal reserve national park unprotected protected by prefectural orders forest reserve unprotected forest reserve forest reserve forest reserve forest reserve forest reserve 161 Mts Bakossi 162 Mt Nlonako 163 Bonepoupa 164 Douala-Edea 165 Campo 166 Korup 167 Mt Koupe 168 Barombi Mbo 169 Rumpi mountains 170 Mokoko 171 Mt Cameroun EQUATORIAL GUINEA 172. Mongomo 173. Acurenam-Ns 174 Rio Ntem-Rio Uolo 175 Mont Alen 176 Monte Mitra 177. Bata Rio-Uolo 178 Rio Muni Estuary 135 Annobon 138 Caldera de Luba 139 Pico Basile SIERRA LEONE 182. Gola 183 Freetown Peninsula 184 Loma Mountains LIBERIA 185 Sapo 186 Mt Nimba* 187 Grand Gedeh County/Grebo 188 Lofo-Mano * shared with Guinea and Cote d’Ivoire GUINEA 208 Fouta Djalon Plateau COTE D’IVOIRE 189 Tai-N’Zo GHANA 190 Bia 191 Nin-Suhien NIGERIA 192. Okumu 193 Obudu Plateau 194 Stubbs Creek COMOROS 195 Mt Karthala MADAGASCAR 196 Montagne d’Ambre 197 Tsaratanana massif 198 Marojejy massif 199 Masoala peninsula 200 Ankarafantsika 201 Zahamena 202 Perinet-Analamazaotra 203 Ranomafana 204 Andohahela 205 Zombitse 206 Analabe (Source: YUCN data, 1991) unprotected unprotected forest reserve faunal reserve faunal reserve national park protected by local taboo forest reserve part forest reserves forest reserve part forest reserve unprotected unprotected protected protected protected unprotected protected protected protected protected forest reserves forest reserve forest reserve national park national forest and nature reserve national forest national forest part biosphere reserve national park and faunal reserve national park national park forest reserve forest reserve forest reserve unprotected national park and special reserve natural reserve natural reserve classified forest natural reserve natural reserve special reserve classified forest natural reserve classified forest special reserve References Aubreéville, A. (1949) Climats, Foréts et Désertification de l'Afrique Tropicale. Société d’Editions Géographiques, Maritimes et Coloniale, Paris, France. Colchester, M. and Lohmann, L. (1990) The Tropical Forestry Action Plan: What Progress? World Rainforest Movement, London, UK. Deshler, W. (1963) Cattle in Africa, distribution, types and problems. Geographical Review 53: 52-8. Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (1989) The flora and phytogeography of the evergreen forests of Malawi. I: afromontane and mid-altitude forests. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique National de Belgique 59: 3-131. Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (1990) The flora and phytogeography of the evergreen forests of Malawi. II: lowland forests. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique National de Belgique 60: 9-71. Fage, J. D. (1969) A Atstory of West Africa. University Press, Cambridge, UK. FAO (1985) Tropical Forestry Action Plan, Committee on Forestry Development in the Tropics. FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO (1988) An Interim Report on the State of Forest Resources in the Developing Countries. FAO, Rome, Italy. Goodall, J. (1988) The Chimpanzees of Gombe. Belknap/Harvard Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. Green, G. M. and Sussman, R. W. (1990) Deforestation history of the eastern rain forests of Madagascar from satellite images. Science 248: 212-15. Guillaumet, J. L., Conturier, G. and Dosso, H. (1984) et Aménagement en Milieu forestier Tropical Humide; le Projet Tai de Cote d'Ivoire. Document Technique MAB No. 15. Unesco, Paris, France. Howard, P. C. (1991) Nature Conservation in Uganda’s Tropical Forest Reserves. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 330 pp. IUCN (1963) Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in Modern Afmcan States. \UCN new series No. 1. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986) Review of the Protected Area System in the Afrotropical Realm. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Martin, C. (1991) The Rainforests of West Africa, Ecology, Threats and Conservation. Birkhauser, Basel, Boston, London. Newby, J. E. and Sayer, J. A. (1976) Wildlife, National Parks, Tourism and Recreation. Paper presented at a consultation on the role of forestry in a rehabilitation programme for the Sahel, CILSS/UNSO/FAO, Dakar, Senegal. Paivinen, R. and Witt, R. (1989) The Methodology Development Project for Tropical Forest Cover Assessment in West Afnica. Unpublished report. UNEP/GRID, Geneva, Switzerland. Cambridge Recherche A FUTURE FOR AFRICA’S TROPICAL FORESTS Poore, D. and and Sayer, J. A. (1991) The Management of Tropical Moist Forest Lands: Ecological Guidelines. 2nd edition. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Sayer, J. A. and Stuart, S. N. (1988) Biological diversity and tropical forests. Environmental Conservation 15(3): 193-4. Sayer, J. A., McNeely, J. A. and Stuart, S. N. (1990) The con- servation of tropical forest vertebrates. In: Vertebrates in the Tropics. Peters, G. and Hutterer, R. (eds), pp. 407-19. Museum Alexander Koenig, Bonn, Germany. Sayer, J. A. and Whitmore, T. C. (1991) ‘Tropical moist forests: destruction and species extinction. Biological Conservation 55: 199-213. Schaller, G. B. (1963) The Mountain Gonlla, Ecology and Behaviour. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA. Shaw, T. (1978) Nigeria, its Archaeology and Early History. Thames and Hudson, London, UK. Stuart; S27 Ni; “Adams; 9Ro Je sand Jenkins) “Me D: (1990) Buodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands: Conservation, Management and Sustainable Use. Occasional Papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 6. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. UICN (1989) La Conservation des Ecosystémes forestiers d’Afrique Centrale. UICN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. UICN (1990) La Conservation des Ecosystémes forestiers du Gabon. Basé sur le travail de C. Wilks. UICN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 215 pp. Unesco (1987) Makokou, Gabon. Unesco, Paris, France. WCED (1987) Our Common Future. World Commission on Environment and Development. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. White, F. (1983) The Vegetation of Africa: a descriptive memotr to accompany the Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. Unesco, Paris, France. 356 pp. Whitmore, T. C. and Sayer, J. A. (1992) Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction. Chapman and Hall, London, UK. Winterbottom, R. (1990) Taking Stock, The Tropical Forestry Action Plan after Five Years. The World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, USA. WRI (1985) Tropical Forests, A Call for Action. Parts I-III. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, USA. Authorship Jeff Sayer at IUCN, Gland, Switzerland with contributions from Claude Martin and Francis Kasisi of WW F-International, Gland, Jeff McNeely of IUCN and Martin Jenkins, Cambridge, UK. 93 > Diwttal - :, ‘ c oe me | iLeosm ’ ees | . : | 7 t Ld i ie = a wi! i er a ld Pbk : —- = oe See — - 4 a : 7) Ut a lees Paemna : ; Ai ja ane we : . ' a APOE ? ee ear ce, | 7 > : = wee i Sy 4 4 + tHE Tren wl 7 - aol boii i , : wihrawe ae g y a = ~ y rr <2 . ue carat t : A « , 4.F rah alu term ss - Hig |-& ia y 447) : eV ore tn powny a 7 ne -* 4 i ? 5 pack 9 : { 4 bebag! tee ¢ 4y on" git a t 17 - = ~ i a - are - - “ee ' — m , Lice” AiG — a 40) chug ory aolsitiicis ee . . PbS veritas A, — = lair gos - = em - nia home > 1 ims : ittieain ee a he E ie on ma 4 PE Ws tai arta, rate eu2!'s 4 egy ee | “4 ’ , = y nd ' = Me in Gatnid et ; ~ ie : si near je" perl i; o~* " = = ; rad v s? a5 y © ® J : = ' ’ a ; ww iio - , = 4 3 e — “ = ® . o ; aw ® - i 1 —— . imat Ff ad oe = Yu soc i= = NS 7 be - » 2a ys = ‘ a ’ =a beercetee. =~ _ - f = ¢ hs q —— 7 3 > 7 - = = ee - > Te Som b ; . 2 vr F be es — 7 = iv ¥ *] ; = 7 7 4 “~nttiedy a 7 7 - * . Soy — S - Pr. 7 a a oe - legen nel DH 11 Benin and Togo BENIN Land area 110,620 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 4.7 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.2 per cent Population projected to 2020 11.7 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS340 Rain forest (see map) 424 sq. km Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)" 470 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)* 125g. km Industrial roundwood productiont 262,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst nd Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 4,738,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 11,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst nd 1060 Land area 54,390 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 3.7 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.6 per cent Population projected to 2020 9.9 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS370 Rain forest (see map) 1360 sq. km Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)’ 3040 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)* 21 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 183,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst nd Fuelwood and charcoalt 683,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 5000 cu.m Processed wood exportst nd * FAO (1988) t 1989 data from FAO (1991) A long history of intense human activity, coupled with a relatively dry climate, meant that most of the closed forests of both Benin and Togo had already been lost when colonial administrations were imposed late in the 19th century. Now only tiny relict forest patches remain and the flora and fauna of both countries are seriously endangered. INTRODUCTION Benin and Togo are small, elongated countries that lie in the area where savannas have for a long time interrupted the forests which bordered the rest of the West African coast. This interruption in the forests, the so-called Dahomey Gap, may result directly from the dry climate (cold sea currents create an area of low rainfall along the 150 km coastline), or possibly from the concentration of human activity in an area where the drier conditions favour agri- culture (Robbins, 1978). Benin, the larger of the two countries with an area of 112,620 sq. km, lies between 6°15' and 12°25'N and between 0°40' and 3°45'E. It is bordered by Nigeria to the east and by both Niger and Burkina Faso in the north. Its western neighbour, Togo, covering an area of only 56,790 sq. km, lies between latitudes 6°10' and 11°10'N and longitudes 0°4'W and 1°40'E. Ghana is on its western border. In Togo, the sandy coastal plain rises gently until the 200 m contour is reached where a chain of mountains (Chaine de Togo) enters the country from the west and crosses the interior obliquely. This same chain also crosses Benin (Chaine de |’Atakora), reach- ing an altitude of around 650 m; a bit lower than in Togo where the highest peak is about 1000 m. In Benin the coastal plain is bro- ken by the Lama Depression, a swampy clay plain between Abomey and Cotonou, as well as by a number of other river val- leys. In the north of both countries, the land surface dips down again to the broad valley of the Pendjari River. The coastal areas of the Dahomey Gap receive less than 1000 mm of rainfall, and their sandy soils may never have supported closed forest. Further inland, rainfall rises somewhat but never exceeds 1500 mm, and there is a marked dry season. The dry, dusty Harmattan wind blowing from the Sahara now seems to reach fur- ther south in the dry season, a phenomenon associated with drought and deforestation in the Sahel. Temperatures in the south are relatively constant throughout the year with daily maxima and minima close to 34°C and 22°C. In the north, daytime tempera- tures can reach as high as 43°C and fall to below 10°C at night. In both countries, most people live in the coastal zone; indeed, in Togo, population density rises to 300 inhabitants per sq. km near the coast compared to five people per sq. km inland (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Around 60 per cent of the people in Benin and nearly 80 per cent of those in Togo live in rural areas. The population growth rate in both countries is more than 3 per cent, slightly higher in the more densely populated Togo (with a mean density of 68 people per sq. km) than in Benin (42 inhabitants per sq. km). The Dahomey Gap was once occupied by powerful African kingdoms. Later, a succession of commercial and colonial settle- ments from Europe was installed on the coast. England, Holland, Portugal, France and Germany all established trading posts, with slaves and ivory the main commodities. When the European powers established the boundaries of their colonies in the 1890s, Germany acquired Togo, while the present-day state of Benin, then known as Dahomey, was included in French West Africa. After the First World War, Togo was placed under British and French administration. In 1956, the eastern part of Togo passed to the French and the western part joined the Gold Coast, now Ghana. After independence in 1960 the countries took different paths. The intellectual Beninois enjoyed a remarkable succession of coups, finally settling for the Marxist-Leninist regime of Matthieu Kérékou in a 1972 military takeover, and adopting the name People’s Republic of Benin in 1975. Togo took a more pragmatic, market-oriented, pro-western path and, aided by the export of rich phosphate deposits, enjoyed a degree of economic prosperity exceeding that of several of its neighbours whose territories are more richly endowed with mineral and agricultural resources. Neither country has contained extensive closed evergreen forests in recent times but the riparian strips and isolated patches of more humid forest are the habitat of a variety of forest animals and plants and sull contribute significantly to both countries’ wood requirements. 97 BENIN AND TOGO The Forests The predominant vegetation of both Benin and Togo was origi- nally a dense semi-evergreen or deciduous forest. Small islands of more evergreen types occurrred on moist soils and in narrow strips of riparian forest along the rivers. Many of the small patches of closed forest now remaining in oth- erwise intensively cultivated landscapes, are considered sacred and are protected by strong local traditions. None of these sacred for- est patches covers more than 5 sq. km and most are less than 1 sq. km. The largest remaining natural forest area is the Lama Forest in south-central Benin. This covers an area of about 50 sq. km to the south of the city of Abomey. The forest grows on very heavy clay soils which are waterlogged in the rainy season and thus unattractive to farmers. Even so, it is much reduced from the orig- inal 163 sq. km forest reserve gazetted in 1946. Forest trees in the Lama Forest Reserve include Trplochiton scleroxylon, Antiaris africana, Milicia excelsa, Afzelia africana, Ceiba pentandra, and Diospyros mespiliformis (FAO/UNEP, 1981). The other forest fragments in both countries contain these species together with the West African mahogany Khaya grandifo- liola, and species such as Cola grandifolia, Ceiba pentandra and species of Celtis, Holoptelea, Vitex and others more commonly asso- ciated with the savanna zone. The original forests of Togo and Benin are described in more detail in Aubréville (1937). Most of the forest patches occur between 7° and 9°N, roughly between Savalou and Bassila in Benin and between Kpalime and Fazao in Togo. However, where topography and soils are suitable a few fragments persist up to 11°N and relict populations of forest species such as Geoffrey’s black-and-white colobus monkeys Colobus polykomos vellerosus existed in such areas at least until recently. The Precambrian mountain chain running north-east from Kpalimé in Togo and extending as the Atakora range in northern Benin has some local impact on climate and supports relict patches of forest with submontane characteristics. The finest examples of these lie at altitudes of 800-900 m on the Danyi plateau and on the Togo, Agou and Haito mountains. Some of the best preserved of these forests are on steep, rocky hillsides, unsuitable for cultivation. Chimpanzees Pan troglodytes were said to persist in some of these areas until the 1970s. Mangroves Coastal currents have built up extensive sand bars along the shores of both countries. These protect brackish lagoons which are quite extensive in Benin. Small areas of mangrove exist in these lagoons and around the estuaries of the Mono and Ouémé rivers. Map 11.1 indicates that 69 sq. km remain in Benin, while none is shown in Togo. The mangroves are subject to considerable illegal hunting and fuelwood gathering and are under serious threat. Small pop- ulations of sitatunga Tragelaphus spekei occurred, at least until recently, and manatees Trichechus senegalensis may still survive in small numbers in remote parts of the lagoons (Sayer and Green, 1984). Although not important at the regional level, the mangroves are important in preventing coastal erosion and are significant nature conservation sites at the national level. Forest Resources and Management In 1980 FAO estimated that in Benin only 470 sq. km or 0.4 per cent of national territory remained under natural cover of closed broadleaved forest, while in Togo it was esumated that 3040 sq. km of closed broadleaved forest remained at that time. Only 140 sq. km of forest in Benin and 470 sq. km in Togo were considered to be undisturbed. However, these figures give an excessively favourable picture of the situation, particularly for Togo. In re- 98 Table 11.1 Estimates of forest extent in Benin and Togo Area (sq. km) % of land area BENIN Rain forests Lowland 355 0.3 Mangrove 69 <0.1 Totals 424 0.4 TOGO Rain forests Lowland 1,360 25 Totals 1,360 PN) (Based on analysis of Map 11.1. See Map Legend on p. 101 for details of sources.) ality there are only tiny areas of forest in either country where there is even a remote chance of retaining the full range of natural flora and fauna. Map 11.1 shows that in 1979 there were 355 sq. km of dryland forest remaining in Benin but, as indicated on the source map (see Map Legend), all the forest patches are degraded. In con- trast, the UNEP/GRID satellite imagery which has been used to plot the forest remaining in Togo, showed no areas of forest left in Benin, or none big enough to be depicted at the scale used. Map 11.1 indi- cates that 1360 sq. km of forest remain in Togo (see Table 11.1). The forests of both countries are evidently seriously endangered. Benin has extensive classified forest reserves, some 21,440 sq. km in 1980 (FAO/UNEP, 1981). This includes 7750 sq. km of national parks and reserves (managed for sport-hunting). Forest reserves are open to specified uses by local people and to controlled logging. Local uses extend to clearance for temporary cultivation, on condition that forest is allowed to regenerate in the fallow period. Permits to fell timber are allocated on an individual tree basis by the Forest Department. In reality much of the forest reserve land lies in the savannas of the centre and north of the country. These areas were, until recently, infested with tsetse flies, the insect vector of sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis), and simuliid flies, which transmit river blindness (onchocerciasis). This, coupled with the low fertility of the soils, made the areas unattractive to settlers and afforded protection to the forests. International campaigns to eliminate river blindness and the availability of drugs to treat trypanosomiasis in cattle, have removed this protection and the forests are now under more serious threat of agricultural conversion. Togo has three national parks and 3360 sq. km of forest reserves where exploitation and cultivation are illegal. In addition an unspecified area is considered as ‘protected forest’ where some log- ging and agriculture are allowed under Forest Department con- trol. In fact, the Forest Department tolerates a considerable level of activity in both categories of land, but does attempt to control the felling of certain more valuable timbers. Much of the use of forest products occurs in the villages and is not recorded in national statistics. The volume of timber passing annually through the larger and better monitored sawmills in Benin was about 20,000 cu. m in the early 1980s (FAO/UNEP, 1981). This was mainly composed of West African mahogany, iroko Mulicia excelsa and Afzelia africana. Most is used locally for con- struction and furniture manufacture. Some timber is exported ille- gally from Benin to Nigeria. Togo has been a net importer of tim- ber for the past 20 years and Benin now relies largely on imports. It is difficult to relate timber production figures to forest area. A relatively large proportion of timber in both countries comes from trees growing in farmland, along roadsides and as shade for cacao and coffee. A rather small proportion comes from forests that BENIN AND TOGO BURKINA FASO 12°N S he : S XQ # Fosse aux Lions. i BENIN angashie { 10°N f { P) , e / .,Diambe } Djougou / wr | 5 f Aledjo e iS Se aes NIGERIA Monts Kauffe / { 2 7 a 4°E Us i 7 Plateau eam Savalou \ oi ) ( 3 eh / \ Peary! “ie VL a Mount S Haito f a Abomey \ 5 all Moun t | Lama DApgéssion Y Haho-Yoto \ Lama Fort a Sh ( ® . = “S PORT ROY Lake & Cam 7 = Tog Cofonou g LOME Bight of Benin A 2°E oe Map 11.1 Benin and Togo Rain Forest lowiand Conservation areas existing Non Forest 1:3,000,000 0 50 A st 0 50 miles BENIN AND TOGO are in a natural condition. Considerable amounts of charcoal and firewood are harvested in forests, savannas and in agricultural areas. Both countries are attempting to strengthen their forest protec- tion and to concentrate timber production in plantations. The sea- sonal climate and deep, well-drained soils of the south-central parts of both countries are suitable for teak Tectona grandis production. Annual yields from plantations in Benin have attained levels of 15—24 cu. m per ha, equal to the best yields obtained in Southeast Asia. Benin had 78 sq. km of teak plantations in 1980 (FAO/UNEP, 1981), managed by a parastatal forestry corporation. Togo had 73 sq. km of teak plantations, some of them dating back to the German colonial period at the beginning of the century. They are dispersed in numerous small plantings, many of which have been poorly main- tained and have been encroached upon and degraded. Attempts have ben made to establish plantations of numerous other species in both countries but these have hardly left any traces although some Cedrela is grown in association with teak in Benin. The only natural forests under silvicultural management for tim- ber production are small-scale experimental areas whose manage- ment is supported by aid agencies. Projects in Benin supported by FAO and German bilateral assistance have attempted some enrich- ment planting and more carefully controlled logging on a pilot scale. A similar scheme with German assistance is now operating in Togo. A further German-supported project to protect the cen- tral 30 sq. km core of the Lama Forest in Benin and to establish plantations and intensively managed forest in buffer zones in the peripheral part of the forest reserve, is one of the more promising forest conservation and development activities in the two countries. Deforestation As early as 1937 it was reported that most of Benin’s coastal forests had already disappeared (Aubréville, 1937). For the years from 1981 to 1985, FAO (1988) estimated an annual net deforestation rate of 12 sq. km for Benin and 21 sq. km for Togo. Agriculture, particularly near the coast, was one of the chief causes of the disappearance of the forests. Those inland, in the Manzoc is an important crop in Togo, it is frequently grown on land from which forest has been cleared. G. Martin‘ WWF/BIOS 100 more humid regions, initially remained relatively undisturbed. In addition, fire has had a major impact. Vast areas that would once have been covered by dry deciduous forests have been converted to open wooded savannas by centuries of dry-season burning. The active economy of Togo has generated demand for timber and this has greatly depleted such limited forest resources as the country enjoyed. Togo has been importing timber for two decades. Benin’s economy, meanwhile, has not been totally stagnant. Even doctrinaire socialism could not resist the opportunities offered by an excellent port facility and a long, permeable border with densely populated, oil-rich Nigeria. Smuggling liquor and cigarettes to adjacent Moslem states is said to be a significant economic activ- ity of the country. Nigerian cacao moves in the other direction; Benin was once one of Africa’s major exporters of this commodity in spite of having an extremely modest domestic production. Timber and other forest products cross the weakly controlled bor- der to meet the needs of the dense populations of adjoining parts of Nigeria. Thus, for totally different reasons the forests of Benin are also sadly depleted. Biodiversity There are no comprehensive studies of the fauna or flora of either country. Raynaud and Georgy (1969) describe the species in Benin, but in rather general terms and they focus mainly on the mammals of the savanna zone. Benin has around 2000 species of plants, but the number of endemics is unknown; of the 2300 plants species in Togo at least 20 are found only there (Davis er a/., 1986). Numbers of mammals in the two countries are estimated at 187 in Benin and 196 in Togo (Stuart er a/., 1990). These include about ten species of primates in each, with the endangered white-throated guenon Cercopithecus erythrogaster probably occurring in Benin. There may be as many as 17 species of antelope in each country but forest species such as bongo Tragelaphus euryceros and duikers Cephalophus spp. are rare and declining. The Fosse aux Lions Forest Reserve in northern Togo has a population of about 150 elephants Loxodonta africana, while those in “W’ National Park in Benin form one of the largest remaining elephant populations in West Africa. Sayer and Green (1984) give maps of the distribution of larger mammals in Benin. There are reported to be 630 bird species in each country (Stuart et al., 1990). Only one threatened species, the white-necked rock- fowl Picathartes gymnocephalus, is resident in Togo. There are sev- eral studies of the birds of the protected areas in the north of Benin (e.g. Green and Sayer, 1979). The countries do not contain any sites known to be of critical importance for forest biological diversity conservation at a regional level. However, the isolated forest patches in central and southern Benin contain populations of a reasonable variety of primates which would make them important conservation sites at the national level. Conservation Areas As in much of Africa, conservation programmes have focused almost exclusively on the savanna areas whose populations of large mammals are a tourist attraction. Both countries have extensive national parks in the dry north (Table 11.2) which are quite well managed. Unul recently there were no protected areas whose objective was to conserve natural closed forest. The recent pro- gramme to establish a reserve in the Lama Forest in Benin is the first of its kind in either country. Several forest reserves would be important areas for conservation if the laws governing their pro- tection were properly applied. There has been considerable inter- est over the years in establishing a forest national park in the area Table 11.2 Conservation areas of Benin and Togo Classified forests, forest reserves and hunting zones are not included. For data on Biosphere reserves see chapter 9. Area (sq. km) BENIN National Parks Boucle de la Pendjari 2,755 W du Bénin 5,680 Total 8,435 TOGO National Parks Fazao-Malfakassa 1,920 Fosse aux Lions 17 Keran 1,636 Faunal Reserves Aboulaye 300 Akaba 256 Aledjo 8 Djambe 7 Galangashie 75 Haho-Yoto 180 Kpessi 280 Ou Mandouri 1,478 Togodo 310 Total 6,477 No areas contain significant closed moist forest. (Sources: IUCN, 1990; WCMC, im litt.) of the Monts Kouffé Forest Reserve in central Benin. The Forest Department has never had the resources to pursue this project and the area has continued to be degraded by loggers, poachers and farmers (Green and Sayer, 1978). Initiatives for Conservation The European Economic Community is supporting major con- servation programmes in the protected savanna areas in the north of both countries. The most important of these projects aims to improve the management of the Pendjari and ‘W’ National Parks in Benin, including an outlying area of gallery forest adjacent to the Pendjari National Park (see Verschuren er al., 1989). The Fazao-Malfakassa National Park in central Togo contains some riparian forest and relict patches of forest on steep hillsides. A Swiss-based foundation is supporting the protection of this park. A major project to bring the Keran National Park under manage- ment is at present being prepared with support from South Africa. There are several projects in both countries to establish planta- tions and promote the use of agroforestry techniques. These will all help to relieve the pressure on natural forests but in only one case is conservation of biological diversity a primary objective. The exception is the German project for the conservation management of the Lama Forest in Benin. Togo has embarked upon a national Tropical Forestry Action Plan and Benin has indicated its intention of doing so in the near future. Togo is also preparing an Environmental Action Plan with assistance from the World Bank. BENIN AND TOGO References Aubréville, A. (1937) Les foréts du Dahomey et du Togo. Bullezin Comité d’Etude Historique et Scientifique d’Afrique occidentale Frangaise 20: 1-112. Davis, S. D., Droop, S. J. M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C. J., Villa-Lobos, J. L., Synge, H., and Zantovska, J.(1986) Plants in Danger: What do we know? YUCN, Gland and Cambnidge. FAO (1988) An Interim Report on the State of Forest Resources in the Developing Countries. FAO, Rome, Italy. 18 pp. FAO (1991) FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1978-1989. FAO Forestry Series No. 24 and FAO Statistics Series No. 97. FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO/UNEP (1981) Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project. Forest Resources of Tropical Africa. Part II Country Briefs. FAO, Rome, Italy. Green, A. A. and Sayer, J. A. (1978) La Conservation des Ecosystémes forestiers dans la Région des Monts Kouffé. FAO/PNUD BEN 77/011 Document du Travail No. 4, Cotonou. Pp. 1-37 plus annexes. Green, A. A. and Sayer, J. A. (1979) The birds of Pendjari and Arli National Parks (Benin and Upper Volta). Malimbus 1(1): 14-28. IUCN (1990) 1989 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 275 pp. Raynaud, J. and Georgy, G. (1969) Nature et Chasse au Dahomey. Sécretariat d’Etat aux Affaires Etrangeres, Paris. Pp.1—323. Robbins, C. B. (1978) The Dahomey Gap —A re-evaluation of its significance as a faunal barrier to West African high forest. Bulletin of Carnegie Museum of Natural History 6: 168-74. Sayer, J. A. and Green, A. A. (1984) ‘The distribution and status of large mammals in Benin. Mammal Review 14(1): 37-50. Stuart, S. N., Adams, R. J. and Jenkins, M. D. (1990) — Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands: Conservation, Management and Sustainable Use. Occasional Papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 6. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Verschuren, J., Heymans, J.-C. and ODelvingt, W. (1989) Conservation in Benin. Oryx 23(1): 22-6. Authorship Jeff Sayer, IUCN with contributions from Arthur Green, Korup National Park, Cameroon and Denys Bourque, Quebec, Canada. Map 11.1 Forest cover in Benin and Togo Data on total forest cover for Togo and mangroves in Benin were taken from 1989-90 UNEP/GRID data, which accompanies an unpublished report The Methodology Development Project for Tropical Forest Cover Assessment in West Africa (Paivinen and Witt, 1989). UNEP/GEMS/GRID, with aid from the EEC and FINNIDA, have developed a system to delimit fores/non-forest boundaries in West Africa by mapping and using 1 km resolution NOAA/AVHRR-LAC satellite data. Higher resolution satellite data (Landsat MSS and TM, SPOT) and field data from Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire and Nigeria were also drawn upon. Forest and non-forest data have been categorised into five vegetation types: forest (closed, defined as greater than 40 per cent canopy closure); fallow (mixed agriculture, clear- cut and degraded forest); savanna (includes open forests in the savanna zone and urban areas); mangrove and water. Areas obscured by cloud are also portrayed. The forest and mangrove types and cloud-obscured areas have been mapped in this Atlas. The UNEP/GRID data set showed no dryland forest in Benin. The information on this vegetation type in Benin shown on Map 11.1 has been taken from the Ecological Map of the Vegetation Cover of Benin (FAO, 1979) atascale of 1:500,000. This map was prepared in 1978 by the Pilot Project on Tropical Forest Cover Monitoring (People’s Republic of Benin, UNEP, FAO) from interpretation of Landsat images (recorded between 1973 and 1976) and ground surveys. Conservation areas for Benin are taken from a 1:600,000 scale map République Populaire du Bénin published by the Institut Géographique National, France in 1984 portraying national parks, hunting zones and classified forests. Protected areas for Togo were extracted from two maps: an unpublished blueline map Foréts Classées du Togo at a scale of 1:200,000 (nd) and a published map produced by the Institut Géographique National in 1977 Togo at a 1:500,000 scale. 101 12 Burundi and Rwanda BURUNDI Land area 25,650 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 5.6 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.2 per cent Population projected to 2020 13.7 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS230 Rain forest (see map) 413 sq. km Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)* 150 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)* 45g. km Industrial roundwood productiont 49,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst nd Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 4,034,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 3000 cu. m Processed wood exportst nd RWANDA Land area 24,950 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 7.3 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.4 per cent Population projected to 2020 19.7 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS310 Rain forest (see map) 1554 sq. km Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)* 1010 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)* 28 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 240,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst nd Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 5,602,000 cu.m Processed wood productiont 15,000 cu.m Processed wood exportst nd * FAO (1988) t 1989 data from FAO (1991) Burundi and Rwanda, located in the equatorial highlands of east-central Africa along the Western Rift, are two of the small- est countries on the continent. They each straddle a major portion of the Zaire—Nile Divide: a rugged mountainous region of the Rift which is thought to have served as a refugium for moist forest species during dry climatic periods of the Pleistocene. Although interconnected at times in the past, the mountain forests of the region have become disconnected to form an archipelago of forest islands, allowing for the separate evolution of species. These factors, in combination with a large range of topographic, edaphic and climatic characteristics represented in a small area, have resulted in montane forests of unusual species richness as well as high levels of local endemism and species rarity. These biological attributes are found in a human context of high population density and growth, low per capita supplies of both natural and financial resources and weak institutions. In both countries, 90-95 per cent of the population relies on subsistence farming and virtually all the lands with arable potential have been converted to agriculture. The forest estate has consequently declined to approximately 1.4 per cent in Burundi and 5 per cent in Rwanda. Population pressure is cur- rently driving people to convert marginal lands and seek alternative sources of subsistence goods, especially fuelwood, and commercial products such as timber and gold. This puts additional pressure on the remaining forests. Despite growing pressures, strong forest conservation programmes have developed. All major montane forests in both coun- tries are now gazetted as either national parks or reserves. Conservation and management of these areas have not always been effective, however. The challenge lies in designing and implementing sustainable management schemes for existing reserves. INTRODUCTION Burundi Vhis small, landlocked country in east-central Africa stretches 232 km from north to south between 2°20'S and 4°28'S and 203 km from west to east between 29°E and 30°58'E. Zaire and Lake Tanganyika lie to the west of the country, while Tanzania and Rwanda are on its eastern and northern borders respectively. There are four natural ecological regions in Burundi (White, 1983a). The Imbo region in the west is a narrow subsidence plain extending along the Rusizi River and the north bank of Lake Tanganyika, lying between altitudes of 780 m and 1000 m. Remnant savanna and a small patch of Guineo-Congolian forest are situated in this region. The elongated, folded ridges of the Zaire—Nile massif rise some 1500 m above the Imbo plains and then merge into the Central Plateau in the east at around 2100 m. There are four summits higher than 2500 m in this area. Lower montane rain forest remains along the highest reaches of the massif. The Central Plateau is a hilly region above 1500 m, where more than half of Burundi’s population lives. Finally, in the east of the country lie the lowlands, including extensive wetlands, of the Mosso. Burundi has an equatorial montane climate, characterised by mild and stable temperatures and moderate rainfall which varies with 102 altitude. Typically there is a short dry season from December to January, relatively heavy rains from February to May, low precipi- tation between May and October (June-August may be completely dry), followed by substantial rains from October to December. Precipitation levels vary considerably from region to region (500-2000 mm per annum). Mean annual temperatures on the cen- tral plateau are around 21°C with summer maxima of about 33°C and winter minima of approximately 6°C (below 2000 m altitude). Burundi’s original inhabitants were probably the Batwa, a forest-living people who now make up less than | per cent of the population. Later, Bahutu agriculturalists and Batutsi pastoralist groups moved into the country and they now consttute 99 per cent of the population. With a mean of 193 persons per sq. km, Burundi’s population density is second only to that of Rwanda on the African continent. The current population is estimated to be 5.6 million, growing at 3.2 per cent per year, with 95 per cent of the people living in rural areas (PRB, 1990). Wheat, sorghum, maize, beans, peas, cassava and bananas are the main subsistence crops, while coffee is the most important commercial crop (Wilson, 1990). Rwanda This hilly country is situated between 1°4'S and 2°51'S and 28°50'E and 30°53'E, along the eastern lip of the Western Rift Valley. Stretching only 185 km north to south and 225 km east to west, it is bounded by Zaire to the west, Uganda to the north, Tanzania to the east and Burundi to the south. Ecological zones have been described for Rwanda (Sirven et al., 1974; Delepierre, 1982) and can be summarised as follows. The south-west corner of the country is the lowest in altitude and is an extension of the Imbo region of Burundi. To the east the Kivu slopes run along the western edge of Rwanda, an area known as the Impara. This area consists of extremely rugged hills, averaging 1900 m in altitude, now entirely converted from forest to agriculture. Rising to the east is the Zaire—Nile Divide, forming a prominent backbone along the length of the country from north to south. This region contains all of Rwanda’s remaining montane forests, except for the tiny (less than 0.5 sq. km) Ndiza forest in the district of Gitarama (A. Monfort, 77 litt.). The greater part of the Divide lies above 2000 m and was formed by upthrust during the formation of the Western Rift. The northernmost portion, Virunga, is of volcanic origin and includes three of Africa’s higher mountains. Less rugged hills and lava plains descend eastward to the Central Plateau, a high- land area (1500-2000 m) dissected by many rivers, where most Rwandans live. Finally, in the eastern and south-central portions of the country lie the more sparsely populated savanna regions of the Akagera basin and the Bugesera. These areas are of lower altitude (generally 1300-1600 m) and end in extensive wetland and papyrus marsh at their respective international borders. Rwanda experiences an equatorial climate, moderated by its high elevation. Temperatures are generally mild and stable, with annual means between 14°C and 21°C depending on altitude, although frosts may occur in the Zaire—Nile Divide and snow falls periodically on the highest peaks of the Virunga mountains. Rainfall in Rwanda is related to altitude, with annual means of 2400 mm on the Zaire—Nile Divide, 1200 mm in the Central Plateau and as little as 650 mm in the eastern savannas. Over most of the country there are four seasons: a major dry season from June to September, a short rainy season from October to December, a relatively dry season from January to February and a long rainy sea- son from March to May (Sirven et al., 1974). Rwanda’s current population is estimated to be 7.3 million or 286 inhabitants per sq. km, which is the highest density on the African continent. Numbers are increasing at approximately 3.4 per cent each year. More than 90 per cent of the people depend primarily on farming for a living and virtually all arable land is now under cultivation (Fossey, 1983; Harcourt, 1986; WRI, 1990). Ethnic composition is similar to that of Burundi: the original inhab- itants, the Batwa pygmies, now number less than | per cent of the population; the Bahutu, who occupied the country sometime between the 7th and 10th centuries, make up around 90 per cent of the population while the Batutsi, who migrated there in the 14th or 15th century, comprise the remainder. The Forests Itis estimated that one-third to half of Burundi and Rwanda was orig- inally montane forest (Weber and Vedder, 1984; Runyinya, 1986), which was found mostly in the western highlands of the Zaire—Nile Divide and the slopes leading to Lake Tanganyika and Kivu. Almost all the remaining forest in the two countries is in the highest reaches of the Zaire—Nile massif where it is now subdivided into six major dis- continuous patches. Apart from these, one very small patch (a few sq. km) of lower altitude closed forest survives at Kigwena along the banks of Lake Tanganyika in Burundi. This is one of the easternmost patches of Guineo-Congolian forest and thus is of special interest. BURUNDI AND RWANDA Burund: The montane forests of Burundi are chiefly closed forest, but they vary with altitude and latitude due to changes in temperature and length of dry season respectively. Bururi forest is located at the southern tp of the Zaire—Nile Divide. It contains a unique assemblage of species, some more typically found in the savanna regions to the east, some from the lowland forests of Zaire and others common to other montane forests of the region (Weber and Vedder, 1983; Weber and Vedder, 1984). More than 90 tree species are present, six of which are deciduous due to the long dry season. The lowest lying regions (1600-1900 m) are dominated by Anthonotha pynaerti, Albizia gummifera, Parinari excelsa, Newtonia buchananu, Croton macrostachyus and Tabernaemontana stapfiana (Project Bururi-Rumonge-Vyanda, 1990). Epiphytes and ferns are numerous. The upper regions (1900-2300 m) include Albizia and Tabernaemontana as listed above but are characterised by Chrysophyllum — gorungosanum, Symphoma _ globulifera and Entandrophragma excelsum (Weber and Vedder, 1983). Under favourable conditions in Bururi, Entandrophragma individuals emerge from the canopy to reach as high as 65 m. Kubira forest, along the divide to the north, is at a higher alti- tude (1000-2660 m) and is more humid. It is contiguous with the Nyungwe forest of Rwanda. Primary forest constitutes about 20 per cent of these areas; the rest is secondary due to such human disturbances as past burning, tree-felling and cattle raising. Bamboo Arundinaria alpina is mixed with both the primary and secondary forests. The primary forest is tall closed canopy forest dominated by species such as Parinart excelsa, Entandrophragma excelsum, Cassipourea ndando, Albizia gummifera and Syzygium Secondary forest stages include the tree species Macaranga kilimandschanca, Neoboutonia macrocalyx, Polyscias fulva and Hagema abyssinica (Trenchard, 1987; Nduwumwami, 1990). In the past, this forest was used as a royal hunting ground and some areas today hold almost magical qualities for the local people and thus are left undisturbed (Wilson, 1990). The small patch of evergreen forest at Kigwena lies at an alti- tude of 780-800 m. Exceptionally large (some are over 10 m high) and spectacular Dracaena steudnesi plants occur in the forest along with a wide variety of trees including Maesopis eminu, Newtonia buchananu and Pycnanthus angolensis (Wilson, 1990). guineense. Rwanda Nyungwe forest, located in the south-west, and contiguous with Kibira forest in Burundi, is Rwanda’s largest and most diverse montane forest. Dowsett-Lemaire (1990) estimates that it now covers 900 sq. km. Ranging in altitude from 1600 m to 2950 m, itis a dynamic mosaic of closed forest (with Parinan excelsa, Strombosia schefflen, Chrysophyllum sp., Entandrophragma excelsum, Symphonia sp., Newtonia buchanani, Podocarpus spp. and Ocotea spp.), secondary forest, drier forest ridges, swamp forest (dominated by Carapa grandiflora, Syzygium guineense and Anthocleista grandiflora), large homogeneous stands of bamboo and openings filled with herbaceous plants (J.-P. Van de Weghe, i litt.; Bahigiki and Vedder, 1987). Most of the openings and secondary forest are thought to be the consequence of landslides rather than human disturbance. The Mukura, Gishwati-south and Gishwati-north forests are found further along the Divide. Except that a far greater percentage of the forest cover is in secondary forest (due largely to cattle pas- turing) and is generally more impoverished in character, all three are similar to portions of Nyungwe forest at equal altitude (D’Huart, 1983). The dominant secondary species is Neoboutonia macrocalyx. The forests of the Virunga mountains, in the north-west corner of the country, stretch from 2400 m to 3500 m. The lowest slopes of the dormant volcanoes (2500-3200 m) are carpeted with bamboo 103 BURUNDI AND RWANDA which covers approximately 35 per cent of the forest. Patches of Dombeya goetzenii and Neoboutomia are found but the Prunus africana forest once located below the bamboo has been converted to agriculture. Higher up, from 2600 m to 3500 m, particularly on the more humid slopes of the east and south, Hagenia-Hypericum forest predominates. This open forest, reaching heights of only 10-12 m, covers approximately 30 per cent of the area and is accompanied by lush growth of terrestrial herbaceous vegetation with many grassy, waterlogged clearings. Rocky ridges frequently carry a more diverse tree community and these grade into erica- ceous heath leading up from the forest to the sub-alpine zone. This zone is found above 3500 m and is dominated by giant Lobelia and Senecio. The mountains are topped by Alchemilla, sedge and grass meadows in the alpine zone. Forest Resources and Management At present, only 360 sq. km (1.4 per cent) of Burundi’s land area remains covered in forest, while about 5 per cent of Rwanda is forested. Map 12.1 shows slightly higher forest areas, with 411 sq. km (1.6 per cent) of montane forest remaining in Burundi and 1554 sq. km (6.2 per cent) in Rwanda (Table 12.1). FAO (1988) gives lower figures than suggested here, particularly in Burundi where it estimates only 150 sq. km remains. Map 12.1 shows the extent of Kigwena forest to be only 2.4 sq. km although it is reported to be 5 sq. km in area. The montane forests of Rwanda and Burundi form an archipelago of high-altitude islands surrounded by a sea of inten- sive agriculture. This exacerbates both the threats to the forests and the importance of them to their host countries. The value of these forests lies not in the commercial extraction of timber, since as montane forests they harbour only low densities of valuable hardwoods. Instead, their greatest value is realised through the eco- logical services performed by the forest cover: regulation of the entire region’s hydrological system, prevention of soil erosion and reduction of flooding downstream. For instance, the forested areas of the Virungas provide 10 per cent of Rwanda’s water catchment area although they cover only 0.6 per cent of its land area (Harcourt, 1986; Weber, 1987). More easily quantifiable are tangible economic returns from a variety of forest resources. First among these is tourism, which has proved to be an important source of foreign exchange in Rwanda (Weber, 1989). Initially based on visits to mountain gorillas in the Volcanoes National Park (see case study), spin off programmes Table 12.1 Estimates of forest extent in Burundi and Rwanda Area (sq. km) % of land area BURUNDI Rain forests Lowland 2 <0.01 Montane 411 1.6 Totals 413 1.6 RWANDA Rain forests Montane 1,554 6.2 Totals 1,554 6.2 Based on analysis of Map 12.1. See Map Legend on p. 109 for details of sources.) 104 Montane forest, note the lichen and moss draping the trees, in the Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. C. Harcourt have begun in the Nyungwe (see case study in chapter 9), Gishwati and Kibira-Teza forests. It is estimated that Rwanda earned US$17 million of foreign exchange in 1989 from its tourist indus- try (Monfort, 1990). However, the civil war is presently (1991) having a devastating effect on tourist income. Although not tourism per se, the establishment of research centres in some of the forests (Volcanoes National Park, Nyungwe and Kibira-Teza) provides benefits in the form of local employment and foreign exchange earnings. More important in the long term, these centres provide the capability to train host-country students and profes- sionals. Forest products play an important direct economic role in the lives of local people. Major products include fuel and construction wood, timber, bamboo, honey, medicinal plants, thatch and bushmeat (Bahigki and Vedder, 1987). These resources provide subsistence goods for the people surrounding the forest and some form the major source of income for the harvester. At present, extraction of these products is illegal and frequently involves over- exploitation such that product availability declines. In order to conserve these resources, each of the remaining forests of Rwanda and Burundi is classified as either national park or reserve. Various management strategies have been adopted in each of these areas, ranging from total protection to multiple use (see Conservation Areas on p. 107). Deforestation Although forest conversion began more than 2000 years ago, it was not until the first half of this century that the destruction became significant. During the 1920s the forest edge was pushed back at the rate of nearly one kilometre per year along the entire Zaire—Nile Divide (Weber and Vedder, 1984). Despite the fact that the THE MOUNTAIN GORILLA PROJECT Only six other areas in Africa reach the 4000m altitudes found in the Virunga Volcano region of Rwanda, Uganda and Zaire. Probably no other forest at these altitudes — the forest stretches up from 2500 m — is as well protected as the montane forest of Rwanda’s Volcanoes National Park (Parc National des Volcans) and Zaire’s Virungas National Park (Parc National des Virungas- Sud). Mountain gorillas are the reason. They possess all the attributes required ofa species to raise public sympathy, and through them some of the world’s rarer forest habitat has been saved. In the mid-1970s the situation looked bleak for the gorillas and the forest (Harcourt and Fossey, 1981). Repeated censuses indi- cated that the size of the Virunga gorilla population had not only declined markedly from the estimated 450 of the early 1960s, but that a trade in infants and heads had started. In addition, in the late 1960s, about 20 per cent of the forest had been excised for pyrethrum Tanacetum cinerariifohum plantations, with further appropnations planned for cattle ranches. The killing of animals in Dian Fossey’s famous study groups in 1978 signalled a nadir. The attacks shocked the world conservation community, and so was born the Mountain Gorilla Project (MGP). Four international conservation organisations (WWF, FFPS, The African Wildlife Foundation and the Peoples Trust for Endangered Species) joined forces and, along with the Belgian foreign aid programme, pro- vided funds, personnel and expertise to help Rwanda protect its Volcanoes National Park and the mountain gorilla. The level of funding required was high — at least US$150,000 per year for the first five years was spent in Rwanda alone. Starting in 1979, the MGP supplied equipment to the park guard force; it helped the Rwandan Office of Tourism and National Parks (ORTPN) to habituate three gorilla groups to visits by tourists and to establish a strictly controlled tourism programme; and it instituted a country-wide conservation awareness campaign that reached all levels of the community from the local people, through primary and secondary schools, to government officials and diplomats. Until then, the only sig- nificant improvement in management of the whole Virunga area had occurred in 1976, when Rwanda increased its guard force and expelled all livestock from the park. Later censuses showed that the improvement in Rwanda’s gorilla population stemmed from this date, a momentum maintained and augmented by the Mountain Gorilla Project (Harcourt, 1986). After ten years’ operation, the Mountain Gorilla Project was by any standards a success: e An eighty-fold increase in park revenue from US$10,000 to more than US$800,000. e A five-fold increase in number of visitors to the park. e A doubling of park guards. e Newly built park headquarters and visitors’ accommodation. e No gorilla killed by poachers since 1983. e A drop from 50 per cent of the local farmers to less than 20 per cent who think the park should be made available for agri- culture (Harcourt er al., 1986). e About a 15 per cent increase in the gorilla population since the mid-seventies, from around 270 to 310, due to increased immature recruitment to the population (Harcourt, 1986). A vital reason for the success of the gorilla conservation pro- gramme in Rwanda was the previous two decades’ biological study of the gorillas in the region. Building on George Schaller’s studies in Zaire in the late 1950s, Dian Fossey established in 1967 in the Volcanoes National Park the field camp that was to BURUNDI AND RWANDA become the Karisoke Research Centre. Her work (Fossey, 1983) and that of others there has since provided one of the best compendiums available of knowledge and understanding of the behaviour, ecology and population dynamics of a tropical mam- mal species. The speed with which Rwanda’s new park man- agement policies were formulated and implemented was largely due to this knowledge. In recognition of the importance of bio- logical research to effective management, the Mountain Gorilla Project and ORTPN have always kept separate the research and tourist areas in the park, despite the large financial gain possi- ble from taking groups of tourists to the habituated study groups. The Centre is now funded by the American foundation the Digit Fund, and in 1989 the Rwandan government agreed to a five-year, several hundred thousand dollar USAID project with the Centre to fund research on aspects of the park’s ecol- ogy other than gorillas (sadly neglected to date) and to strengthen ties between the Centre and other institutions in Rwanda concerned with conservation. Initially the situation improved only in Rwanda; in Zaire and Uganda it worsened. In 1985, former personnel of the Mountain Gorilla Project moved to Zaire to cooperate with the Zaire Institute for the Conservation of Nature (IZCN) in establishing an equivalent programme there with international funding from WWE and Frankfurt Zoo. The continued health of the gorillas and the forest now owes as much to Zaire’s efforts as to Rwanda’s. If the Virunga gorillas are to continue to multiply and thrive, conservation projects in the area are surely going to have to involve themselves directly in alleviating the ever increasing pressure on the surrounding land from a rapidly growing pop- ulation and its demands for agricultural expansion. This has happened in Zaire, with afforestation now an intrinsic part of management of the region. However, the authorities in Rwanda have yet to integrate conservation of the Volcanoes National Park with agricultural development in the community. Source: Alexander Harcourt The mountain gorillas have proved an ideal species for attracting tourists and thereby ensuring the protection of their habitat. C. Harcourt BURUNDI AND RWANDA Virunga Modntains SY Gish Forest BUJUMBURA Bururi Forest Nikura Forest Gitarama 2°S Bugesera es a & Qe wR Lac Rwihinda TANZANIA Buia CENTRAL|PLATEAU ASU | Map 12.1 Burundi/ Rwanda Rain Forest lowland montane * Conservation areas existing Non Forest * Taken from White (1983) 1:1,500,000 25 50 km 25 miles 106 Rwandan forests were declared national reserves in 1933 by the Belgian colonial authorities, enforcement of the regulations was irregular and often lax. Reserve declaration resulted in relatively stable boundaries for many years, though it rarely prevented some degree of internal degradation. As population densities increased, however, greater pressure was put on the forest reserves, pushing the boundaries back both legally and illegally. For example, 40 per cent of the Volcanoes National Park was excised in the late 1960s for conversion to a large-scale agricultural settlement project. At the same time, the Nyungwe forest reserve declined by 170 sq. km due to encroachment by individual farmers (Harroy, 1981). Similar trends were taking place in Burundi. By the late 1970s, both countries recognised the problem and took action to stabilise reserve borders. In particular, this involved increased patrols and buffer tree plantations. Subsequently, effort has been placed on controlling illegal activities within the reserves. Notable successes include the exclusion of cattle, the destruction of thousands of snares set for antelope and the control of wood and bamboo cutters in the Volcanoes National Park. Cattle have also been effectively excluded from Kibira National Park, but problems of small-scale hunting and tree-felling continue, as they do in the Nyungwe forest (Nduwumwami, 1990). A comparatively new threat in both Kibira and Nyungwe forests is the invasion of thou- sands of gold miners who clear forest patches for their camps and denude the stream banks in their search for alluvial deposits. Historically this activity has caused a great reduction in numbers, or even extinction, of large mammals in all the forests (with the excepion of particular regions of the Volcanoes National Park). Most affected are elephant Loxodonta africana, buffalo Syncerus caf- fer and duikers (Cephalophus mgrifrons, C. sylvicultor, C. weynsi and possibly C. monticola). Though there has been improved protection of forests in recent years, the Gishwati Reserve is an exception. From 1980 to 1986, more than 100 sq. km of this forest was converted for cattle ranch- ing and umber production, thereby cutting the forest into two iso- lated sectors (Vedder, 1985). FAO (1988) estimated deforestation in Rwanda to be 28 sq. km per year and in Burundi to be 4 sq. km per year, a rate of around 2.7 per cent per annum in both countries. However, the present rate of deforestation of the montane forests, in Rwanda at least, is probably zero. Biodiversity There are approximately 2500 plant species in Burundi and 2150 in Rwanda (Davis et al., 1986). Many of the animal taxa have not been catalogued, but there are considered to be 633 bird species in Burundi and 669 in Rwanda and 103 mammal species in Burundi (Stuart ez a/., 1990) and at least 168-174 in Rwanda (A. Monfort, im /itt.). Wilson (1990) gives information about some of the larger mammals in Burundi. The number of species endemic to each country is undoubtedly low, due largely to the small area in question. However, the montane forests are home to many species endemic to the Kivu-Rwenzori Highlands (or Central African Highlands), which are limited in distribution but are located on the international boundaries of Uganda, Zaire, Rwanda and Burundi (White, 1983b). The high proportion of endemic species and the unusual species richness, are used as evidence for the claim that this region was part of the most significant Pleistocene forest refugium in Africa (Hamilton, 1982 and see chapter 2). The best-known Afromontane species are certainly the pri- mates, a number of which are threatened. A well-studied popula- tion of mountain gorillas Gorilla gorilla berengei is found in the BURUNDI AND RWANDA Virunga mountains, shared between Rwanda, Zaire and Uganda. They number approximately 310 individuals but the population has been rising during the past nine years after a long period of decline (Vedder and Weber, 1990). Other rare or threatened pri- mates include the owl-faced monkey Cercopithecus hamlyni, golden monkey C. muitis kandn, L’Hoest’s monkey C. /hoesti, Rwenzori black-and-white colobus Colobus angolensis ruwenzoru and chim- panzee Pan troglodytes (Storz, 1983). The last four are also found in Burundi. The threatened Uganda red colobus Procolobus [badius] rufomitratus tephrosceles, is also present in Burundi. Both countries contain the threatened Grauer’s swamp warbler Bradypterus grauerl, papyrus yellow warbler Chloropeta gracilirostris and Kungwe apalis Apalis argentea (Collar and Stuart, 1985). The rare, little-known Albertine owlet Glaucidium albertinum is also recorded from Rwanda. There are 394—400 butterfly species in Rwanda, of which three (Charaxes turlim, Bebearia dowsetti and Acraea turlim’) are endemic, while another 12 endemic subspecies are also found only in Rwanda (A. Monfort, 27 litt.). The vulnerable cream-banded swal- lowtail Papilio leucotaema occurs only in the forests of south-west Uganda, north-east Zaire, Rwanda and western Burundi. The Nyungwe forest of Rwanda is the single most important locality (Collins and Morris, 1985). The combination of great species richness, a high proportion of species endemic to the Central African Highlands and significant numbers of rare and threatened forms has caused IUCN to rate the montane forests of the Albertine Rift in the highest priority grouping for conservation in Africa (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986). Conservation Areas Burundi It was only in 1980 that a decree allowed for the establishment of national parks and nature reserves in Burundi. At that time two national parks, two nature reserves, three forest reserves and two national monuments were proposed (IUCN, 1987). In 1982, conservation efforts began in the Kibira National Park (379 sq. km) and the Bururi Forest Reserve (16 sq. km) along with several other, non-forested, protected areas. In 1983, a management plan for Bururi was developed under the direction of the Burundian Institute for Nature Conservation with the assistance of USAID. Itinvolved protection of the remaining forest, natural reafforestation of clearings, development of woodlots and agroforestry plots around the reserve and a preliminary study of the area’s tourist potential (Weber and Vedder, 1983; Weber and Vedder, 1984). Much of this plan has now been implemented. Protection activities for the Kibira National Park have included the planting of extensive plantations of exotic trees on the eastern border, organisation of park patrols and a study of resident chim- panzees to assess their conservation status and the possibility of chimp-focused tourism (Trenchard, 1987). Although the area has park status, commercial timber species have been planted in the forest to generate revenues for park management. Rwanda Only two national parks have been gazetted (Table 12.2), Akagera (2500 sq. km) and the Volcanoes (150 sq. km), yet they occupy over 10 per cent of the nation’s territory. Moist forest is found in only the latter. Although small in itself, the Volcanoes National Park is contiguous with the Virunga National Park of Zaire and the Uganda Gorilla Game Reserve. The Volcanoes National Park was originally part of Albert National Park, which included the entre area of the volcanoes. This was set up in 1925 under the Belgian colonial regime and was the first national park to be gazetted in Africa. The Zaire and Rwanda sectors were divided in 107 BURUNDI AND RWANDA Table 12.2 Conservation areas of Burundi and Rwanda Conservation areas are listed below. Forest reserves and natural forest reserves are not included or mapped. For data on Biosphere reserves see chapter 9. Area (sq. km) BURUNDI National Parks Kibira* 379 Ruvubu 436 Managed Nature Reserves Lac Rwihinda 4 Rusizi 52 Total 871 RWANDA National Parks Akagera 2,500 Volcans (Volcanoes)* 150 Total 2,650 (Sources: UCN, 1990; WCMC, in litt.) * Area with moist forest within its boundaries according to Map 12.2. 1960 when Zaire became independent. The Volcanoes National Park is currently the best protected of the reserves of Rwanda and Burundi due to the high profile of, and economic return from, mountain gorilla tourism (Weber, 1989; Vedder and Weber, 1990 and see case study). It was declared a Biosphere reserve in 1983. The forest reserves of Mukura (55 sq. km) and Gishwati (North, 70 sq. km; South, 80 sq. km) are being managed as multiple-use zones, except for a 50 sq. km portion of the latter which is planned as a nature reserve. A buffer of exotic tree plantations is being planted round each and various options for natural forest man- agement are being considered (particularly selective logging and enrichment planting). Further commercial timber plantations are planned inside Gishwati forest (Vedder, 1985). A general management plan has been prepared for the Nyungwe Forest Reserve (970 sq. km). It designates three zones to be treated in different manners: one to be protected as a wilderness (40 per References Bahigki, E. and Vedder, A. (1987) Etude Socio-Economique et Propositions Ecologiques sur la Forét de Nyungwe. Unpublished report, World Bank. 213 pp. Collar, N. J. and Stuart, S. N. (1985) Threatened Birds of Africa and Related Islands. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book Part 1. ICBP/IUCN, Cambridge, UK. 761 pp. Collins, N. M. and Morris, M. G. (1985) Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. The IUCN Red Data Book. 1UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 401 pp. Davis, S. D., Droop, S. J. M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C. J., Villa-Lobos, J. L., Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986) Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Delepierre, G. (1982) Les régions agroclimatiques en rélation avec l’intensité de l’érosion du sol. Bulletin Agricole du Rwanda 15(2): 87-96. D’Huart, J. P. (1983) Conservation et Aménagement des Foréts 108 cent), the second to be cleared and replanted with commercial tree species (10 per cent) and the last to be managed for sustainable umber production and possibly local non-timber product extrac- tion (50 per cent). In addition, a buffer of tree plantations is being established entirely to surround the forest reserve. Plantings of indigenous species may take place in limited areas of the buffer zone, while mixed forestry and cattle-raising activities are being implemented in another limited portion. Finally, a multi-pronged approach to general forest conservation is in progress consisting of: e An inventory of forest habitats and species. e Studies of their distribution and abundance. e Monitoring of human use of the forest. e Development of a tourism programme centred on visits to selected monkey groups and scenic forest trails (see case study in chapter 9). e Public awareness discussions with people living around the forest. Initiatives for Conservation Since all significant blocks of montane forest in Burundi and Rwanda are within designated conservation areas, the remaining challenge is chiefly that of management. Legislation regarding forest conservation is up to date, but the means effectively to enforce regulations are inadequate. Enforcement capability is severely constrained by the lack of trained professionals, such as biologists, wardens, foresters and managers. Initiatives in both formal and informal training are sorely needed (Weber, 1987; Vedder and Weber, 1990). Although financial self-sufficiency in reserve management is the ultimate objective, external assistance will be necessary, at least for some time to come. Support for forest conservation efforts has been provided by sev- eral international conservation organisations during the past 12 years in Rwanda and five years in Burundi. These organisations include WCI/NYZS, FFPS, USAID, WWF, US Peace Corps, Belgium aid and AWF. Renewal of support from USAID has recently been negotiated in both countries, which will allow for a continuation and expansion of current conservation efforts. Finally, regional coordination efforts were initiated at the first of a series of workshops on conservation and management of Afromontane forests of Rwanda, Burundi, eastern Zaire and south- western Uganda. Future coordination is planned in the form of fur- ther meetings, site visit exchanges for reserve personnel, exchange of reports and information and a regional training programme. Naturelles de la Créte Zaire-Nil au Rwanda. Unpublished report, IUCN. Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (1990) Physionomie et végétation de la forét de Nyungwe, Rwanda. Turaco Research Report 3: 11-30. FAO (1988) An Interim Report on the State of Forest Resources in the Developing Countries. FAO, Rome, Italy. 18 pp. FAO (1991) FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1978-1989. FAO Forestry Series No. 24 and FAO Statistics Series No. 97. FAO, Rome, Italy. Fossey, D. (1983) London, UK. Hamilton, A. C. (1982) Environmental History of East Africa: A Study of the Quaternary. Academic Press, London, UK. 328 pp. Harcourt, A. H. (1986) Gorilla conservation: anatomy of a cam- paign. In: Primates: The Road to Self-Sustaining Populations. Benirshke, K. (ed.), pp. 31-46. Springer Verlag, New York, USA. Gorillas in the Mist. Hodder and Stoughton, Harcourt, A. H. and Fossey, D. (1981) The Virunga gorillas: decline of an ‘island’ population. African Fournal of Ecology 19: 83-97. Harcourt, A. H., Pennington, H. and Weber, A. W. (1986) Public attitudes to wildlife and conservation in the Third World. Oryx 20(3): 152-4. Harroy, J. P. (1981) Evolution Entre 1958 et 1979 du Couvert Forestier. Assistance International pour le Developpement Rural. Brussels, Belgium. IUCN (1987) The IUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xix + 1043 pp. IUCN (1990) 1989 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 275 pp. MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986) Review of the Protected Areas System in the Afrotropical Realm. \UCN/UNEP, Gland, Switzerland. 259 pp. Monfort, A. (1990) Rapport Annuel du Projet Tourisme et Parcs Nationaux. ORTPN, Kagali, Rwanda. Nduwumwami, D. (1990) Protection des foréts de montagne: le Parc National de la Kibira. In: Proceedings from the First International Workshop for the Conservation and Management of Afromontane Forests: June 19-23, 1989. WCI/NYZS. PRB (1990) 1990 World Population Data Sheet. Population Reference Bureau, Inc., Washington, DC, USA. Project Bururi-Rumonge-Vyanda (1990) Développement rural: project Bururi-Romonge-Vyanda (Burundi). In: Proceedings from the First International Workshop for the Conservation and Management of Afromontane Forests: June 19-23, 1989. WCI/NYZS. Runyinya, B. (1986) L’Ecology et Conservation de Massif Forestiers de Rwanda. PhD thesis, unpublished. Universite Libre, Brussels, Belgium. Sirven, P., Gontanegre, J. F. and Prioul, C. (1974) Géographie du Rwanda. Editions A. DeBoeck, Brussels, Belgium. Storz, M. (1983) La Forét Naturelle de Nyungwe et sa Faune. Kibuye, Projet Pilote Forestier, Rwanda. Stuart, S. N., Adams, R. J. and Jenkins, M. D. (1990) Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands: Conservation, Management and Sustainable Use. Occasional Papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 6. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Trenchard, P. (1987) Ecology and Conservation of the Kibira National Park, Burundi. Report to INCN, Wildlife Conservation International/New York Zoological Society, Bujumbura, Burundi. 85 pp. Vedder, A. (1985) Rwanda Agro-sylvo-pastoral Project — Phase I: Ecological Aspects of the Project and Natural Forest Conservation. Report to the World Bank/Direction Generale des Foréts (Minagri). Kigali, Rwanda. 59 pp. Vedder, A. and Weber, A. W. (1990) Mountain Gorilla Project (Volcanoes National Park) — Rwanda. In: Living with Wildlife: BURUNDI AND RWANDA Wildlife Resource Management with Local Participation in Africa. Kiss, A. (ed.). World Bank, Washington, DC, USA. Weber, A. W. (1987) Socioecological factors in the conservation of Afromontane forest reserves. In: Primate Conservation in the Tropical Rain Forest. Marsh, C. W. and Mittermeier, R. A. (eds). Monographs in Primatology, Vol. 9, pp. 205-29. Alan R. Liss, New York, USA. Weber, A. W. (1989) Conservation and Development on the Zaire—Nile Divide: an Analysis of Value Conflicts and Convergence in the Management of Afromontane Forests in Rwanda. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA. Weber, A. W. and Vedder, A. (1983) Socio-ecological Survey of the Bururt Forest Project Area. Report to USAID. Bujumbura, Burundi. 111 pp. Weber, B. and Vedder, A. (1984) Forest conservation in Rwanda and Burundi. Swara 7(6): 32-5. White, F. (1983a) The Vegetation of Africa: a descriptive memoir to accompany the Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. Unesco, Paris, France. 356 pp. White, F. (1983b) Long-distance dispersal and the origins of Afromontane flora. Sonderbd. Naturwiss. Ver. Hamburg 7: 87-116. Wilson, V. J. (1990) Preliminary Survey of the Duikers and Other Large Mammals of Burundi, East Africa. Chipangali Wildlife Trust, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. WRI (1990) World Resources 1990-91. Prepared by the World Resources Institute, UNEP and UNDP. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, and New York, USA. Authorship Amy Vedder, Biodiversity Program Coordinator, WCI, with con- tributions from John Hall, School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, Bangor; Alexander Harcourt, University of California at Davis; Alain Monfort, Belgium and Roger Wilson, FFPS. Map 12.1 Forest cover in Burundi and Rwanda Forest and protected area data for Burundi were taken from a tourist map Burundi (1984), at a 1:250,000 scale, prepared by the Institut Geographique National — France, Paris, in collaboration with the Institut Géographique du Burundi, Bujumbura. The map was financed by Fonds d’Aide et de Coopération de la République Frangaise (French Aid). The ‘Forét’ category and ‘Limite de parc ou réserve’ were digitised from this map. Vegetation cover data were then overlain on White (1983) to delimit montane and lowland forest, as shown on Map 12.1. Remaining indigenous forest in Rwanda and national parks were extracted from a published map République Rwandaise, Carte Administrative et Routiére (nd), at a scale of 1:250,000, published by the Service de Cartographie, Kigali and financed by the Administration Belge dela Cooperation au Developpement. On Map 12.1 the ‘Forét Naturelle’ category has been digitised and mapped as montane forest as categorised by White (1983). 109 Land area 465,400 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 11.1 million Population growth rate in 1990 2.6 per cent Population projected to 2020 23.5 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS1010 Rain forest (see map) 155,330 sq. km Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)* 179,200 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)* 800 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 2,708,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst 457,000 cu. m Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 10,142,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 733,000 cu.m Processed wood exportst 82,000 cu. m * FAO (1988) t 1989 data from FAO (1991) 13 Cameroon The Republic of Cameroon is one of the most important countries in Africa in terms of the biodiversity of its forests. It contains montane, submontane, lowland evergreen and semi-deciduous forests. The rich biological diversity of the low- land forests is attributable to their very stable existence even during periods of cool, dry weather such as occurred in the Pleistocene during which rain forests were considerably reduced elsewhere. High endemism occurs in the montane forests, which were isolated from one another during these same periods. The different forest types are subject to different pres- sures. The most highly endangered are the montane, coastal evergreen and semi-deciduous forests. The evergreen forests of the south-east were less endangered until the recent announcement of a government plan to increase logging. Timber is an important component of the Cameroon economy, both for export income and for domestic consumption of building and firewood. Current production of industrial wood is 2.7 million cu. m and the government plans to double this by the year 2000. Those forests that are legally gazetted (nine different categories including production and protection forests, national parks and faunal reserves) are strictly controlled. Other forests on so-called ‘national’ land, where most commercial log- ging occurs, have fewer controls. They are often encroached upon and degraded. There is a need for legal control of the national lands but also a need to provide commercial loggers with enough resources for the sawmills they are obliged to construct. Logging activities, agricultural encroachment (encouraged by the present laws) and fire are the major causes of forest degradation and destruction in Cameroon. INTRODUCTION Cameroon is roughly triangular in shape with a base of some 700 km and a height of 1200 km and an area of 475,440 sq. km. It hes between latitudes 2° and 13°N and between longitudes 8° and 16°E. It is bounded to the south by Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo, to the north by Chad, to the east by the Central African Republic and to the west by Nigeria and the Atlantic Ocean. The coastline is 590 km and is highly indented. The coastal plain decreases in width from 100 km in the north to 30 km in the south and hills rise abruptly from this plain to a vast plateau block (500-1000 m above sea level). A mountain ridge, oriented south-west to north-east, continues inland from the oceanic vol- canic ridge, extends along the north-western side of the interior plateau, along the Nigeria border and then east across the coun- try in the Massif de |’ Adamaoua. The highest point in Cameroon, which is part of the ridge, is Mt Cameroon (4095 m). Drainage is very complex, with nine major river basins. The largest river in Cameroon, the Sanaga, drains much of the central highland region before reaching the sea at a delta on the Bight of Biafra. North of the Sanaga River is the Wouri which rises in the coastal mountains of the great south-west to north-east ridge and reaches the coast at Douala. South of the Sanaga, the principal rivers are 110 the Nyong, Lokoundjé and Ntem. The south-eastern and south- central parts of the plateau drain to the Zaire River System and much of the north drains into Lake Chad (Hughes and Hughes, 1991). Many of Cameroon’s forests are subject to an equatorial climate with four seasons per year (a long and a short dry season and a long and short rainy season), but the coastal and montane forests tend to have an anomalous climate with only two seasons (a long wet season and a short, albeit often severe, dry season). Most of the coastal plain has more than 4000 mm of precipitation annually and at Debundscha, at the foot of Mt Cameroon, rainfall regularly exceeds 10,000 mm. Mountains receive more rain than lowlands at similar latitudes so that montane forest islands are often sur- rounded by relatively dry savanna (Génieux, 1961). Cameroon had, in 1990, a population of 11.1 million people and, if the present annual growth rate of 2.6 per cent is main- tained, the population will double in less than 30 years. Fifty per cent of the people are of working age (15-64), while most of the rest are below it. The population is very unevenly distributed with concentrations in the west, south-central and the Sudan savanna zone in the north, while in the Adamaoua plateau and in the south and east densities tend to be low. Mean population density is 24.3 persons per sq. km while the mean rural population density is 13.1 persons per sq. km. The country is divided into two major religious, social and cul- tural zones. The people of the humid forest zone in the south of the country are farmers and cultivators. They constitute about 33 per cent of the population and have been profoundly influenced by Christianity and by the European introduction of an externally oriented economy with plantations, commercial agriculture, forestry, railways, urbanisation, some oil production and some industrialisation. The pastoral and sedentary people of the north, on the other hand, are either Muslim (16 per cent) or animist (51 per cent) and have largely retained their traditional ways of life. Consequently the south is much more developed than the north, both economically and socially, although the government has made efforts to reduce this regional disparity. The capital, Yaoundé, with an estimated population of 750,000, is located in the centre-south while the main port of Douala (pop- ulation 1,000,000) is located on the Wouri estuary. Much of their recent growth is the result of migration from rural areas. The rural exodus intensified in 1983/4 following severe drought with heavy losses of both food and cash crops. The percentage of rural village dwellers dropped from 71.4 per cent in 1976 to 61.8 per cent in 1986 and continues to fall rapidly (WRI, 1990). This is of great concern to the government for two reasons: first, the loss of peasant farmers who produce most of the cash crops and second, the degradation of the cities with overcrowding, high rates of crime, disease and unemployment. Before 1977, the economy of Cameroon was based principally on agriculture. The major exports were cocoa, coffee, timber, cotton, rubber, palm oil, bananas, tobacco and tea. By 1980, petroleum was the country’s primary export and in 1985 produc- tion peaked, bringing in US$1617 million. By 1987, this income was more than halved to US$783 million (Jeune Afrique, 1988). However, this fairly modest production gave a major boost to eco- nomic growth, helping to sustain real growth rates of 7-8 per cent between 1980 and 1985. Prudently, the strength of agriculture was maintained and in 1984 an estimated 79 per cent of the working population was engaged in this sector. With the exception of rub- ber and palm oil, peasant farmers dominate agricultural export pro- duction. In contrast, in spite of efforts to build up Cameroonian participation, timber production and export remain dominated by large foreign firms. The Forests Comprehensive accounts of the forest vegetation in Cameroon are given by Letouzey (1968, 1985). Much of the information in this section is derived from these publications. Cameroon contains moist forest of two of Africa’s four major biogeographical regions: the Afromontane and the Guineo-Congolian (White, 1983). The Afromontane region comprises two major domains, Afro-subalpine grassland and montane forest, both of very limited extent. This region covers about 725 sq. km, or less than | per cent of the land area of the country. The Guineo-Congolian region, which includes submontane forest and extensive dense, humid, evergreen forest as well as semi-deciduous forest of middle and lower elevations, cov- ers a total of 267,000 sq. km, or 56 per cent of the land area of the country; about 66 per cent of the region remains forested. The height of the trees in the montane forest is around 15-25 m, the crown is evergreen, the leaves leathery, and there are few lianes. The understorey tends to be open and lichens and mosses are common. Five species of tree characterise the montane zone: Nuxia congesta, Podocarpus latifolius, Prunus africanus, Rapanea CAMEROON melanophloeos and Syzygium staudtu. Arundinaria alpina also occurs and Olea hochstetten is found in the drier montane forests. Other montane species include Crassocephalum mannu, Hypericum lance- olatum, Myrica arborea, Philippia manni and Schlefflera abyssinica. While levels of endemism are fairly high, species diversity is low. It seems likely that this phenomenon may correlate with the severe reduction in the area of the forest which occurred during dry cli- matic periods (see chapter 2). The submontane forest zone is found between 800 and 2200 m in the south of the country and from 1200 to 1800 m in the north. It is characterised by floral uniformity and an abundance of plants of the family Guttiferae. It covers about 3775 sq. km, or about 1 per cent of national land. At lower altitudes, the species structure of the forest is similar to that of the adjacent lowland forests; as ele- vation increases the epiphytic flora, principally orchids and mosses, increases and tree species not found in lowland forests (e.g. Caloncoba lophocarpa, Crotonogynopsis manniana, Dasylepis race- mosa, Erythrococca hispida, Prunus africanus and Xylopia africana) begin to appear. The submontane forests are very poorly known biologically compared to both the lowland and montane types. Medium and low altitude forests are found from sea level to 800 m in the south and from sea level to 1200 m in the north of Cameroon. Within this domain, the dense, humid, semi-decidu- ous forest is often fragmented and it is seriously endangered by brush fires set during the dry season. This forest type covers around 40,000 sq. km or about 8.6 per cent of national land. The dense humid evergreen forest covers about 27.5 per cent (128,000 sq. km) of the country’s land area and is made up of two principal zones: evergreen Cameroon-Congolese forest and evergreen Atlantic forest. The evergreen Cameroon-Congolese zone of medium altitude forest covers about 81,000 sq. km or 17.4 per cent of the national land. The floristic diversity of this zone tends to be lower than that of the Atlantic coastal forests. Principal affinities are with the Congo basin forests with such species as Lannea welwitschii, Cletstopholis patens, Xylopia staudtu, Bombax buonopozense, Cordia platythyrsa, Swartzia fistuloides, Irvingia grandifolia and Entandrophragma utile. With the notable exception of Gilbertiodendron dewevrei this forest, unlike parts of the Atlantic zone, is not characterised by gregarious Caesalpiniaceae. Associations found within this zone include the swamp forests of the Upper Nyong with Sterculia subviolacea and Macaranga spp., swamp forests with Phoenix reclinata and Raphia monbuttorum and flooded forests with Guibourtia demeuset. The evergreen Atlantic (or Nigerio-Cameroon-Gabon) zone of the low and medium altitude forest covers about 47,000 sq. km or 10.1 per cent of national land. The floristic diversity here is very high and there is marked endemism. The flora has affinities with the forests of South America. For instance, the trees Erismadelphus exsul and Sacoglottis gabonensis belong to families poorly represented in Africa, but which are abundant in South America. Andira inermis, which has a very local distribution in this forest zone, is another species that is also found in South America. This zone is the centre of diversity for various plant taxa including the genera Cola, Diospyros, Garcina and Dorstena. In addition, many narrow endemics occur in the forest including Hymenostegia baker, Soyauxia talbotn, Deinbollia angustifolia, D. saligna, Ouratea duseniu and Medusandra richardsiana. The forest shares species with the Ituni for- est of eastern Zaire (e.g. Diospyros gracilescens), with the forests of the Congo basin (e.g. Oubanguia alata, Afzelia bipindensis and Enantia chlorantha) and with those of Upper Guinea (e.g. Diospyros kamerunensis and D. piscatoria). These species shared with other regions are evidence of past connections between the forests. 111 CAMEROON Mangroves Map 13.1 indicates that in 1985 there were 2434 sq. km of man- groves remaining in Cameroon. Two major areas, together cover- ing some 2300 sq. km, lie on the coast east and west of Mt Cameroon (SECA/CML, 1987). The red mangrove Rhizophora racemosa makes up 90 to 95 per cent of the mangrove area. It can reach 25 m in height while the other two Rhizophora species, R. harrisoni and R. mangle rarely exceed 6 m. The white mangrove Avicennia nitida also occurs. The mangroves and the adjacent coastal waters of up to 50 m in depth nurture and protect a major fishery resource of great economic and nutritive importance for Cameroon. The annual fish produc- tion of the Rio del Rey and the Cross River estuary is about 12,800 metric tonnes and at least one-third of this, with a value of US$8 million, comes from the Cameroonian sector. There is currently little information on the actual status of mangroves although there are signs of local damage. For instance, the pesticides and fertilisers used on the large industrial plantations (chiefly of rubber, oil palm and bananas) which are one of the features of the coastal area of Cameroon, drain into the mangroves and have a deleterious effect on them. The fertilisers cause eutrophication and algal growth which _ interferes with mangrove transpiration, and the pesticides accumu- late in the trophic chain. There is also pollution from the offshore oil operations. Very little of Cameroon’s mangrove forest is protected apart from a small area in the northern part of the Douala-Edea Faunal Reserve, and even this is threatened with degazettement. Forest Resources and Management The most recent comprehensive accounts of the organisation of the forestry sector in Cameroon are given in FAO (1990) and HED (1987). According to these reports, the forests in Cameroon cover around 175,200 sq. km or 37.6 per cent of the country’s land area. The dense humid evergreen and semi-deciduous forests, covering 168,000 sq. km, make up the majority of this. Map 13.1 shows, in 1985, a total rain forest cover of 155,330 sq. km, a slightly lower area than that reported by FAO (1990) and ITED (1987). The types of forest making up this total are shown in Table 13.1. The Forestry Directorate, under the administrative authority of the Ministry of Agriculture, is charged with the establishment and implementation of forest policy, with the preparation of regulations and the coordination of management plans. It is also responsible for the application of the forestry legislation as it concerns the pro- duction and protection forests and the supervision and control of forestry exploitation at both central and regional levels. The Office National de Régénération des Foréts (ONAREF) has responsibility for forest inventories, the development of man- agement plans, the promotion of wood and wood products, forest regeneration and increasing forest productivity. However, its responsibility for land management and regeneration is limited to state lands. Although ONAREF has carried out an important for- Table 13.1 Estimates of forest extent in Cameroon Rain forests Area (sq. km) % of land area Lowland 147,480 Bai Montane 3,186 0.7 Mangrove 2,434 0.5 Swamp 2,230 0.5 Totals 155,330 33.4 (Based on analysis of Map 13.1. See Map Legend on p. 118 for details of sources.) 112 est inventory of almost 110,000 sq. km, it has provided manage- ment plans for very few of the state forests. Most of ONAREP’s reforestation activities have focused on the creation of plantations (usually of fast-growing exotic species) in savannas and for desertification control. Only 30 sq. km have been reforested annually in recent years and only one-third of that has been in the dense forest zone. On the national lands, where most logging occurs, there is no requirement for management and there is a range of different options for exploitation. These options and the regulations controlling them tend to be minutely detailed but mainly in economic terms. The requirements of the reporting sys- tem and the system of log measurements are demanding but in the forest controls are weak. A further problem on national land is a concession licence system which allows locals to log small areas of forest for a three-year period. Concessions are granted without approval from any form of technical committee and there is little or no field supervision of the operations. There is no obligation for the licence holder to construct a sawmill or a wood processing unit and the wood is often sold to existing (expatriate) mills. Indeed, some expatriate companies rely on this source to provide sufficient throughput to operate their mills. Of the 49 tree species officially recognised as commercial, only about 30 are used and three species (ayous Trplochiton scleroxylon, sapele Entandrophragma cylindricum and azobe Lophira alata) account for almost 60 per cent of production. Ayous (known as obéché or samba in West Africa) is a white wood, while azobé is a hard, heavy, red wood. Cameroon is currently the seventh largest exporter of tropical tim- ber in the world and third in Africa after Cote d’Ivoire and Gabon. Timber occupies fourth place in order of importance of Cameroon’s exports, after petroleum, coffee and cocoa beans. However, the diminishing petroleum resource and the falling world prices for coffee and cocoa combine to put pressure on the forestry sector to make good the difference. Indeed, the present government policy is to increase the amount of logging so that timber production will replace petroleum as the engine that drives the Cameroonian econ- omy. The production target is 4 million cu. m by the year 2000 and 5 million cu. m by the year 2010. In 1988/9, the export of wood rep- resented an income of some US$190 million. The sector engages about 20,000 persons in full-time employment, represents 9 per cent of the total industrial production and provides 4 per cent of the GNP. The logging industry of Cameroon is under the effective control of foreign companies. In 1987/8 there were 67 foreign exploitants with a total of 54,000 sq. km of concession area and 49 nationals with a total area of only 12,000 sq. km. The smaller national com- panies tend to concentrate on the more accessible areas. Average yield in Cameroon is about 5 cu. m per hectare, which is low by standards elsewhere in the tropics and indicates that logging is very selective. The volume of timber exports is approximately 1.2 mil- lion cu. m per year, of which 62 per cent is raw logs and the rest processed wood. Countries of the EEC, principally Belgium, France, Germany, Greece and Holland, take 85 per cent of the exported logs and 91 per cent of the processed wood. Over half of the production comes from the semi-deciduous and Cameroon- Congolese moist forests in the east of the country. Government policy is that 60 per cent of logs are processed locally. It is likely that this will rise to 70 per cent with the possibility that eventually the export of unprocessed logs will be banned alto- gether. One problem with this is the inefficiency with which logs are transformed and the lower prices paid (often as much as 50 per cent less) for the processed logs. The average recovery of timber from raw logs processed for export is about 30 per cent, but can be as low as 20 per cent. Furthermore, it is estimated that as much as 20-35 per cent of each felled tree is lost at the logging site. As a result, the waste from felled tree to sawn product is as high as 65 to 75 per cent. Part of the reason for this is that concessions are granted for a five-year renewable period and, under the current rules, sawmill-based concessions have a working life of only nine years before their licence expires. This does not make it econom- ically viable to invest in expensive, efficient machinery. Instead, old, outdated and inefficient machines tend to be used. About 10.1 million cu. m of wood are used for fuel, mostly as firewood with only about 10 per cent of this being made into char- coal. Firewood represents a value of more than US$200 million per year. There is little control of this resource and taxes on its harvest are rarely collected. Concessions have been granted on at least 80,000 sq. km of forest, that is on more than half the land area officially classified as exploitable. By 1992, 50 per cent of production forests will have been logged at least once and some will have been logged three or four times. Deforestation Deforestation in Cameroon is difficult to quantify. Clear-felling in the context of logging operations does not occur within the coun- try. The main problem is an insidious and fast-growing degrada- tion of the forests. Logging, agricultural encroachment (which is encouraged by the present legal framework) and fire are the major causes of forest degradation and destruction in Cameroon. Eliminating seed dispersers such as elephants Loxodonta africana and duikers Cephalophus spp. from a forest whose tree species have co-evolved with them, will initiate a process of ecological succession towards a forest with a different species composition (see chapter 4). This is occurring in most of Cameroon’s ecologically valuable coastal and montane forests. Forest clearing, even in the absence of human settlement, can be followed by invasion of the aggressive weed, Eupatoria chlorantha, which suppresses the forest regeneration cycle. Some of the forests have been repeatedly logged, their species com- position is essentially secondary and all the mammals, except for a few squirrels, rats and mice, have been eliminated from them. These forests may be further damaged by fire, which is also an increasing threat to the semi-deciduous forests of the Eastern province. Partly because of the differences in definition and partly because of the difficulties in assessment, estimates of loss of forest cover, or of deforestation, vary considerably. For instance, FAO (1988) gives a figure of 800 sq. km lost per year during 1981—5, while HED (1987) estimated an annual loss of 1500 sq. km. These figures give an annual loss of forest of 0.5—1 per cent. Of even greater concern is that the rate of forest degradation (for instance, intact forest which has lost one or two key mammal species) is much higher and true primary forests are now virtually restricted to a few areas in the south-east of the country. Deforestation affects the different forest domains differently. Montane forests, which are usually located on fertile volcanic soils, are seriously threatened by clearance for agriculture and by fire. Indeed, burning has caused much of the natural vegetation to be replaced by secondary grassland. The submontane forests are sub- ject to similar pressures. The coastal Atlantic forests have been heavily logged (often several times), cleared for plantation agri- culture, subjected to agricultural encroachment and over-hunted. The semi-deciduous forests on the northern margins of the Congolese forests are threatened by human settlement, heavy hunting pressure and by fire. The Congolese forest is the only forest type of which substantial areas remain intact, but it is being targeted for increased logging. Most logging occurs on state lands where post-logging protec- tion and management is not mandatory. In fact, on completion of CAMEROON logging, the forest is subject to usage rights by the local people. This directly encourages forest invasion and is an outcome actively supported by the government. Biodiversity Cameroon is one of the most ecologically diverse countries in Africa (see for example Gartlan, 1989). The main reason for the high biodiversity of the forests is that they are an ancient and very stable system, particularly in the lowland coastal forests. Present evidence suggests that the coastal forests persisted even in the cool, dry climate of around 18,000 years ago (see chapters 2 and 3) when the forest biome was much reduced. There are 9000 species of plants in the country, with at least 156 endemics including 45 on Mt Cameroon alone. A recent study found more than 200 species of woody plants in a sample site of 0.1 ha, a level of diversity com- parable with the highest in the world. Well over 1000 butterfly species have been recorded from the forests of the Bight of Biafra. This area is also a centre of diversity for frogs — eight genera are limited largely to the region. Cameroon contains some 297 species of mammal and 848 species of birds (Stuart ez al., 1990). The Cameroon forests are a major centre of endemism for the gin- ger and arrowroot family (Zingiberaceae). One species, Aframomum giganteum, also found in Gabon, has fronds reaching up to 6 m and is the tallest ginger plant in the world. Cola lepidota and C. pachy- carpa, small trees bearing large, edible fruit, are also endemic to Cameroon. The yam, Dioscorea, is indigenous to the forests of the Bight of Biafra. There are several species within the genus but all protect their tubers with toxins. People learnt to destroy these poi- sons (by peeling, fermenting and cooking the tubers) many centuries ago, thus acquiring a staple crop that enables large numbers of peo- ple to live within the forest zone. Cameroon’s forests are the centre of dispersion for the world’s premier oil-producing plant, the oil palm Elaeis guineensis, and its major pollinator, Elaezdobius kamerunt- cus, is endemic to Cameroon. This weevil was exported to Southeast Asia in 1981 where, within one or two years of its introduction, oil production rose by almost 20 per cent. The montane forests of Cameroon, though not as rich in num- ber of bird species as the lowland forests, are particularly impor- tant for the 22 endemic bird species they support (Stuart, 1986). Bannerman’s turaco Tauraco bannermani, is restricted to the mon- tane forests, while Mt Cameroon has an endemic francolin Francolinus camerunensis. The Mount Kupe _ bush-shrike Malaconotus kupeensis, another montane species, is one of the rarest birds in Africa (see case study on ICBP Conservation Projects). Endemism in this area is also high among animals that are poor dispersers such as amphibians and invertebrates. The lowland forests of Cameroon are of particular importance for the conservation of primates. With 29 primate species, the country is the second richest in Africa in this respect. It contains such rare and threatened species as the drill Mandrillus leucophaeus and the mandrill Mandrillus sphinx. Other species of conservation concern in the country include the gorilla Gorilla gorilla and chim- panzee Pan troglodytes, the black colobus Colobus satanas, Preuss’s guenon Cercopithecus preusss and the red-eared guenon Cercopithecus erythrotis. Cameroon is a major squirrel centre in Africa and includes endemics such as Paraxerus cooper, which are restricted to the mon- tane forest of Mt Cameroon. The flightless scaly-tailed squirrel Zenkerella insignis is also endemic to Cameroon and is a very rare mammal belonging to the family which, 30 million years ago, con- tained the dominant rodents in Africa. All other members of the fam- ily, the anomalures, are gliders with broad membranes between their legs but Zenkerella has no such membrane and is probably close to 113 CAMEROON | SSS bese jy River Estuary Mount Ca (4095m) Debundscha~ BIOKO (EQUATORIAL GUINEA) Bight of Biafra NIGERIA y) Ss = "Gy Mbakaou Reservoir { . -9 FS I “** YAOBNDE ee) EY. q 8°E EQUATORIAL GUINEA GABON 12°E 114 CAMEROON al ) No =| Map 13.1 Cameroon Rain Forest lowland montane * = a : nnd swamp | Conservation areas existing proposed Non Forest f 6°N | * See map legend at the end of the chapter 1:3,000,000 CENTRAL AFRICAN Orsiat Oya 0 50 100 150 km | PECUBLIC 0 50 100 miles eos | MA A é, f C = \ Y 4°N , t e ; b- J i) Gi 2N @) a 14°E 16°E ‘ CAMEROON ICBP CONSERVATION PROJECTS IN CAMEROON The montane forests of Cameroon and Bioko island (see chapter 18) and the adjacent region of Nigeria support 22 endemic species of bird (see Figure 13.1), and many other endemic animals and plants. Two of these birds, Bannerman’s turaco and the banded wattle-eye Platysteira laticincta, are restricted to the Bamenda- Banso Highlands, where they are under serious threat from forest clearance. The only extensive area of forest remaining here is on Mt Oku, where ICBP, together with the government of Cameroon, is running a forest conservation project. The aim is to encourage sustainable use of the forest by the people of the sur- rounding villages, by helping to market forest products and plant trees to replace those cleared for firewood and umber. Another endemic bird, the Mount Kupe bush shrike is known only from this one mountain. A recent survey by an ICBP team located eight pairs of these birds and collected valuable infor- mation on the habitat of the species. The long-term aim is to develop a new project here, following the Mt Oku model. ICBP is mapping the distributions of all bird species in Africa whose overall range size is estimated at 50,000 sq. km or less. Areas with concentrations of such species are considered priorities for conservation action. Source: Michael Crosby Nigeria Og cH Tchobal Mbaba Mambila Plateau Obudu Plateau ia a Oo Cameroon : Mt Manengubo Rumpi Hill Mt Nionako Key = Mt Kupe Ornenenasens = HB 10+spp Mt Cameroon >>. HB 5-9 spp SN 2-4 spp BB Bioko \ fel igo The distribution of endemic birds in the (Source: Stuart et al., 1990) Figure 13.1 Cameroon Highlands the primitive condition. Additional information on the biogeogra- phy of Cameroonian mammals is given in Kingdon (1990). The present diversity, and thus the conservation priority, of the various forests in Cameroon depends on their history. The coastal Biafran forests are a high priority, as are the submontane and the montane forests. The Congolese forests are also important, although marginally less diverse than the coastal forests. They are currently less degraded but are scheduled for logging and are thus in danger. The semi-deciduous forests are the least important for biodiversity. Conservation Areas The national protected area system comprises the seven national parks and eleven faunal reserves under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Tourism (Table 13.2). There are, in addition, approximately 125 forest reserves under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Agriculture (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986; Gartlan, 1989). The national parks cover an area of 10,319 sq. km, only 1260 sq. km of which is in the dense forest zone, faunal reserves cover more than 10,372 sq. km (there is no data available on the size of the Sanaga Faunal Reserve) and the forest reserves cover an area of around 18,593 sq. km. The present total for the protected area system is thus at least 4.4 per cent of the country’s land area (or over 8.4 per cent if the for- est reserves are included). The national goal, as set by the law of 1981, is 20 per cent. Apart from the listed areas, there is legal protection of river banks and watercourses. The law requires no environmentally destructive activities for 50 m along each river bank and for 100 m around springs. There is, however, little enforcement of this law. Under 1981 legislation, most forest reserves on state lands will be reclassified as production forests although a few will be reclassified as protection forests. A protection forest is an area which protects a watershed, a steep slope or other physical feature. Current proposals for protection forests cover in total only about 50 sq. km of the coun- try. It is intended that they will be few in number and rather small. Most of the protected areas of biological significance are, there- fore, the national parks and faunal reserves. The national parks are, 116 Table 13.2 Conservation areas of Cameroon Existing and proposed conservation areas are listed below. Hunting reserves (which offer little or no protection) and forest reserves are not listed. For data on World Heritage sites and Biosphere reserves see chapter 9. Existing area Proposed area National Parks (sq. km) (sq. km) Benouet 1,800 Bouba Ndjidaht 2,200 Farot 3,300 Kalamalouet 45 Korup* 1,260 Mozogo-Gokorot 14 Wazat 1,700 Faunal Reserves Bafiat 420 Campo* 2,712 Dja* 5,260 Douala-Edea* 1,600 Kalfout 40 Kimbi 56 Lac Lobéke* 430 Lac Ossa 40 Mbam et Djerem 33532 Mbi Crater* 4 Nanga Eboket 160 Ngorot 270 Sanagat nd Santchout 70 Totals 20,691 4,222 (Source: WCMC, in litt.) * Area with moist forest within its boundaries according to Map 13.2. Tt Not mapped — location data not available for this project, or area located in the northern savanna zone of the country. by and large, found in the savanna zones, while the faunal reserves tend to be in the dense forest or transitional zones. Korup National Park is the only park in the dense forest zone; created in 1986 it covers 1260 sq. km or 12 per cent of the land area under this cate- gory of protection (see case study). While the legal protection of the faunal reserves is, theoretically, fairly robust, there have been problems. The Campo Faunal Reserve, established by the French colonial government in 1932 and protecting biologically important forests in the coastal zone, covers an area of 2712 sq. km. In 1968, logging activities covering 2370 sq. km were permitted on a 25-year licence. No special requirements for logging procedures in a faunal reserve were imposed and the current biological value of the reserve must be questioned. It is apparently the intention of the logging com- pany to request a prolongation of the licence when it expires in 1993. Other faunal reserves have been degraded to the point of disap- pearance. Examples include the Sanaga River Faunal Reserve, estab- lished in colonial times to protect the hippopotamus, but destroyed by dam construction, and the Nanga Eboke Faunal Reserve which has been hunted out. Others are being actively invaded. For instance, 45 per cent of the Santchou Faunal Reserve in the Western Province has been converted to farms and plantations. Yet another problem is the proposed declassification of some areas. For example, the faunal reserve of Douala-Edea has a particular biological importance as it is bisected by the Sanaga River and has different species and subspecies on each bank. Yet development plans to the north of the reserve area are leading to pressure to declassify the northern section. The law requires that, in such a case, an area of equal size be added to the pro- tected area, but it will be impossible to add an area of equal biologi- cal value and the danger is that repeated declassification and reclas- sification will result in completely degraded forest. A major problem with the faunal reserves has been an inadequate budget and infrastructure. The boundaries are neither cleared nor marked. There are few guards and they are ill-equipped. The faunal reserves have not been developed as tourist attractions and they thus receive a much lower budgetary and infrastructure priority than do the national parks. Realistically, in the dense forest zone, only the Korup National Park, Dja Faunal Reserve (also a Biosphere reserve and a World Heritage site) and the southern section of the Douala- Edea Reserve are protected. These (including all of Douala-Edea) total 8120 sq. km or 1.7 per cent of Cameroon’s land area. The coverage of protected areas is inadequate. Montane, sub- montane and semi-deciduous forests are barely represented. The coastal forests need additional protection because much of the area has already been logged-over and degraded; parts of the Douala-Edea References FAO (1988) An Interim Report on the State of Forest Resources in the Developing Countnes. FAO, Rome, Italy. 18 pp. FAO (1990) Tropical Forestry Action Plan: Joint Interagency Planning and Review Mission for the Forestry Sector, Cameroon. FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO (1991) FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1978-1989. FAO Forestry Series No. 24 and FAO Statistics Series No. 97. FAO, Rome, Italy. Gartlan, S. (1989) La Conservation des Ecosystémes foresters du Cameroun. UICN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Génieux, M. (1961) Chmatologie du Cameroon. Atlas du Cameroun. ORSTOM, Yaounde, Cameroon. Hughes, R. H. and Hughes, J. S. (1991) A Directory of Afrotropical Wetlands. (UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya/W/CMC, Cambridge, UK. ITED (1987) Le Terntoire Forestier Camerounais: les Ressources, les Intervenants, les Politiques d’Utnlsation. WED, London, UK. Jeune Afrique (1988) Economie du Cameroun. Hors série Collection CAMEROON and the Campo Reserves have been effectively lost. The Congolese forests are under-protected. A scheme for extending protection for adequate coverage of the dense forest zone was presented by IUCN (Gartlan, 1989). It is clear that if the intention is to double the out- put of timber, then it is even more important to implement an ecologically sound and effective scheme for the protection of all the various types of forest that make up the dense forest zone. Initiatives for Conservation A major initiative towards promoting conservation in Cameroon was the opening, in 1990, of a World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) national office for the country. Cameroon was selected as one of five focal countries in Africa for the development of a national conser- vation programme. The implementation of such a programme can be expected to make a substantial difference to public awareness of environmental matters. One of the first actions of the country office has been to appoint a national coordinator to develop a programme for environmental education. The WWF Korup Project (see case study) integrates environmental protection and community devel- opment. The project has received support from several multilateral and bilateral development agencies. The WWF Mount Kilum Project (on Mt Oku) is designed to protect the highly endangered montane forest. To reduce pressure on the forest it encourages local communities to produce honey and supports farmers’ cooperatives. A scheme to develop the Dja Faunal Reserve as a national park on broadly similar lines to the Kilum and Korup projects was recently initiated by the European Development Fund. This scheme should protect an exceptionally important forest in the Cameroon- Congolese forest type. An EEC-funded buffer zone project will also promote agroforestry around the Dja Biosphere Reserve. The Ministry of Tourism was created in April 1989 and has the responsibility for the protection and management of the country’s national parks and protected areas. The existence in the north of the country, at Garoua, of a school for the training of wildlife tech- nicians for the whole of francophone Africa has been a very useful tool for the dissemination of environmental information through- out much of the continent. Joint projects are being developed between the Wildlife School and WWF. One of the most encouraging recent developments in Cameroon has been the formation of a number of indigenous NGOs with an interest in the environment. This has been partly a result of internal political developments, but also a reaction to the global situation. The trend for conservation in Cameroon is now more positive, with considerably greater awareness than just a few years ago. Marchés Nouveaux. Paris, France. Kingdon, J. S. (1990) Island Africa. Collins, London, UK. 287 pp. Létouzey, R. (1968) Etude Phytogéographique du Cameroun. Encyclopédie Biologique LXTX. Paul Lechevalier, Paris, France. Létouzey, R. (1985) Notice de la Carte Phytogéographique du Cameroun au 1:500,000. Institut de la Carte Internationale de la Vegetation, Toulouse, France. MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986) Review of the Protected Areas System in the Afrotropical Realm. YUCN/UNEP, Gland, Switzerland. 259 pp. SECA/CML (1987) Mangroves d’Afnque et de Madagascar: les mangroves du Cameroun. Société d’Eco-aménagement, Marseilles, France and Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Leiden, The Netherlands. Unpublished report to the European Commission, Brussels. Stuart, S. N. (ed.) (1986) Conservation of Cameroon Montane Forests. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. 117 CAMEROON Stuart, S. N., Adams, J. R. and Jenkins, M. D. (1990) Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands: Conservation Management and Sustainable Use. Occasional Papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 6. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. White, F. (1983) The Vegetation of Afnca: a descriptive memoir to accompany the Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. Unesco, Paris, France. 356 pp. WRI (1990) Yorld Resources 1990-91. Prepared by the World Resources Institute, UNEP and UNDP. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, and New York, USA. Authorship Steve Gartlan, WWF, Cameroon with contributions from Joseph B. Besong, Forestry Department, Yaoundé, Michael Crosby, ICBP, Cambridge, Charles Doumenge, IUCN, Gland and Clive Wicks, WWE-UK. Map 13.1 Forest cover in Cameroon The data showing remaining forest cover in Cameroon were extracted from a published vegetation map Carte Phytogéographique du Cameroun (1985), prepared by R. Letouzey for the Institut de la Carte Internationale de la Vegetation, Toulouse, France and the Institut de la Recherche Agronomique (Herbier National), Yaoundé, Cameroon. At a scale of 1:500,000 the national map has been separated into six sections and is published in six sheets. Sheet numbers 3, 4, 5 and 6, covering the southern, moist region of Cameroon, were digitised for Map 13.1. Some 267 phytogeographical types have been categorised by Létouzey; of these, classes 159-68, 185-90, 199, 203-7, 215-19, 228-33, 247-50, 266 have been harmonised into the lowland rain forest category portrayed on Map 13.1; classes 108 and 117 into montane forest; classes 155-7, 178-80, 193-7, 211, 223, 224, 242, 243, 256, 259-61 into swamp forest and classes 262—5 into the mangrove category. Protected areas were taken from a tourist map Road Map of Cameroon (1988) at a scale of 1:1,500,000 published by Macmillan and from spatial data held within WCMC files. KORUP PROJECT The Korup project aims to conserve a unique and biologically important forest through a programme of sustainable develop- ment, extension and conservation education which will raise the standard of living of the local people and provide them with a better future. The area managed within the project is situated in the dense evergreen humid Atlantic Biafran coastal forest in the south-west corner of Cameroon. It consists of the Korup National Park, a fully protected area of 1260 sq. km, and a support zone of 3200 sq. km. The national park was created by Presidential decree in 1986 and is currently the only rain forest national park in Cameroon. The project is contiguous with the proposed Oban National Park in Nigeria (see case study in chapter 27). Most of the original rain forest west of Korup and the Oban Hills has either been destroyed or severely disturbed and the large mammal fauna has essentially disappeared. Indeed, the entire for- est block along the 1500 km stretch of coastline between the Niger River and Cote d’Ivoire has virtually vanished. Korup itself is part of a Pleistocene refuge and the forest is over 60 million years old. It has been largely untouched by man, mainly because of the iso- lation of the forest and its generally poor soils. Korup contains over 3000 species of plants and vertebrate animals. The Korup project takes the view that no protected area can survive without the active support of the community that lives in or around it. One key principle is that, ‘for every restriction imposed by the project in the interest of conservation, an equal opportunity should be provided’. The aim is to reconcile the people and their social and economic development with the pro- tection of the natural resource base. The main threats to the park came from the expanding popu- lation of Nigeria, many of whom cross into Cameroon to farm and hunt. The park is also threatened by the hunters in the six small villages inside the park and the 27 villages containing around 12,000 people that live within 3 km of its boundaries. The villages inside the park are inhabited by approximately 750 people, who depend on hunting and slash and burn agriculture. They kill some 12,000 animals, with a total weight over 140,000 kg, each year. These are sold in towns in Cameroon and Nigeria. Efforts have been made to find alternative sustainable sources of income for these villages. However, as they are situated on very poor acidic soils and are isolated both from each other and from any poten- tial markets for other cash crops, this has proved unsuccessful. The villagers want the same level of development as in other vil- lages outside the park, including road access to towns, hospitals and schools. As this cannot be provided inside the park, they have agreed to move to more fertile areas outside. Road systems are planned to allow development of these areas of better soil some distance from the park. The local people will still stay within their tribal area and within the Korup forest which has been their home for many years. All resettlement is voluntary and the people are being helped to build their own villages on sites of their own choice. The objective of the rural development programme is to replace the income and the protein obtained from unsustain- able hunting by other sources of income, and also to help the local community to develop sustainable land use systems, including agroforestry. The principle is to develop sustainable farming systems using the minimum amount of imported equip- ment and materials and thus minimise destruction of the forest. The Ministry of Tourism is responsible for the project. World Wide Fund for Nature with financial support from the British and the US governments and the EEC has provided the main technical support. Other institutions, including the United Kingdom Natural Resources Institute, Wisconsin Primate Center, Missouri Botanical Garden and Wildlife Conservation International, have provided staff, finance or scientific advice. With contributions from aid agencies, WWF has already spent over US$2 million on the surveys needed to determine the views of the local people and to prepare a detailed manage- ment plan for the area, the implementation of which will cost about US$30 million. In addition, WWF has built the park headquarters and equipped it, an education centre has been established with an education officer employed to run it, a boundary line has been cut round the park and a 120 m sus- pension bridge has been built over a river into the park. Tourist and scientific camps have been set up. Two rural artisan train- ing centres and a women’s institute have been provided with equipment. WWE has also supplied eight vehicles, motor cycles, outboard engines and garage equipment. The project will be judged a success when the villagers leave the park and are happily settled on good soils outside and when the local people provide the main protection for the park because they are convinced of its importance to them and their successors. Source: Clive Wicks 118 14 Central African Republic Land area 622,980 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 2.9 million Population growth rate in 1990 2.5 per cent Population projected to 2020 5.9 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS390 Rain forest (see map) 52,236 sq. km Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)* 35,900 sq. km |. Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)* 50 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 400,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst 28,000 cu. m Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 3,055,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 56,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst 25,000 cu. m * FAO (1988) + 1989 data from FAO (1991) The sparsely populated Central African Republic contained, until recently, some of the most spectacular wilderness areas in Africa. The larger mammals in the north have now been decimated by heavily armed bands of poachers from neigh- bouring Chad and Sudan, but the forests in the south still shelter a very rich fauna. These forests contain some of Africa’s richest stands of valuable hardwoods, protected in part by the enormous cost of transporting the tmber to the sea for export. The timber trade has declined in recent years in the face of competition from cheaper timbers from other African and Asian countries and it may continue to do so in spite of the threat posed by the construction of a major highway link- ing the capital, Bangui, with the Atlantic Ocean. The dense forests of the south-west are the scene of one of Africa’s most interesting forest conservation projects: an attempt by WCI and WWF to achieve forest protection and wise use in an area occupied by Aka pygmies. The project is supported by the World Bank and USAID. INTRODUCTION The Central African Republic (CAR), as its name suggests, is situ- ated in the heart of the African continent between 2°13' and 11°O1'N and 14°25' and 27°27'E. It is bordered by Chad to the north, to the east by Sudan, to the south by Zaire and the Congo, and by Cameroon to the west. The country is an immense rolling plain oriented on a south- west to north-east axis. The altitude of this plateau varies between 500-700 m, but it is bordered on the west and east by two moun- tain ranges. To the west the Massif du Yade and Mont Pana, an extension of the Adamaoua highlands of Cameroon, reach 1410 m in height at Mont Ngaoui. In the east, the Massif des Bongo and the Massif du Dar Chala attain a height of 1330 m. In the south, there are sedimentary formations with sandstones and quartz forming a hilly region with many streams and rivers. In the north near Bria, a floodplain extends toward the Chad basin. Two large watersheds divide the country: one runs from west to east across the centre separating the Zaire and Chad basins, while the other, along the east- ern border of CAR, separates the Chad, Zaire and Nile basins. Four principal climatic zones are distinguishable, with rainfall decreasing from south to north. The Congolese Equatonial climate, occurring in the region south of Bayanga and in the forest around Bangassou, is characterised by the absence of a true dry season, although there is less rainfall during January and February. Annual precipitation is over 1500 mm and temperatures here are around 26°C with little seasonal or daily variation. Slightly further north, annual precipitation is still over 1500 mm and there is high humid- ity throughout the year, but there is a dry season of at least three months each year (subequatorial climatic zone). Temperatures in this region are much more variable: extreme values of 13°C in January and 40°C in March and April have been recorded. The Sudano- Guinean climate is characterised by annual rainfall of around 1400 mm and a three to six month dry season. Lastly, in the far north, with a tropical-Sahelian climate, there is less than 1200 mm precipitation annually and the dry season is more than six months long. Vegetation broadly follows the climatic zones. In the south is the dense forest zone with both evergreen and deciduous trees. In the Sudanian zone there is dry forest with an upper canopy of decid- uous trees and a clear understorey. Elsewhere wooded savanna occurs with abundant grass cover and many trees and shrubs. The savanna-park zone is limited to the alluvial depressions south of the Chad basin and is composed of vast grasslands with small groups of trees. Finally, the Sudano-Sahelian zone contains few trees and much open grassland. Boulvert (1986) provides a more detailed description of the vegetation zones in CAR. Population density in CAR, at around four people per sq. km, is low compared to that in most other African countries. In the forests, the density is even lower, at only one person per 2 sq. km. Permanent settlements within the forest are few and localised but the entire area is used to a certain degree, particularly by the pyg- mies (generally referred to as Aka pygmies; see chapter 5) that live there, as well as by Bantu farmers. The Forests The common species of the dense evergreen forests are Pycnanthus angolensis, Lophira alata, Manilkara mabokeensis, Pericopsis elata, Trichilia heudeloti, heudeloti, Calamus spp.,; Petersianthus macrocarpus, Lovoa trichilioides, Afzelia bipendensis, Ricinodendron Guarea cedrata, Entandrophragma angolense, Monodora myristica, Piptadeniastrum africanum and Piper guineense. Throughout there are forests of Diospyros spp., and in Mbaéreé and Lobaye there are forests of Heisteria parvifolia and of Uapaca guineensis with Amphimas pterocarpoides and Pentaclethra macrophylla. 119 CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC The semi-deciduous dense forest is characterised by two major types. The first, the forest of Celtis spp. and Triplochiton scleroxy- lon, is the most widespread. The other characteristic species of this type are: Celtis adolfi-friderici, C. zenkeri, C. philippensis, C. mild- braedi, Gambeya perpulchra, Aningeria altissima, Funtumia elastica, Mansonia Holoptelea grandis, Pterygota macrocarpa, Nesogordonia kabingensis, Antians africana and Teclea grandifolia. The herbaceous plants include species such as Olyra latifolia, Leptaspis cochleata, Streptogyna crinita and Amorphophallus spp. The second type of semi-deciduous forest, the forest of Aubrevillea kerstingu and Khaya grandifoliola, forms the edge of the forest zone and the forest islands in savannas. Tripochliton sclerox- ylon is always abundant, while other species characteristic of the type include Afzelia africana, Albizia coriaria, Parkia filicoidea, Berlinia grandiflora, Blighia unyugata and Chaetacme anstata. Mansonia altissima, Gambeya perpulchra and the various Celtis species are rare or absent. This forest type is very limited in the Carnot sandstone region, but is extensive in the Lobaye and Ombella-Mpoko areas. It is also common in the Mbomou district. The forests on the Carnot sandstone are thought to be little dis- turbed. Characteristics species of secondary forests, such as Milicia excelsa and Ceiba pentandra, are either absent or occur only in low densities. It is probable that this is because streams in the area are few and far apart and most of them dry up from December to March so villages were never established in the region. In contrast, the forests of the Haute-Sangha and Basse-Lobaye districts on Precambrian geologic formations appear to be secondary forest. This characteristic is confirmed by the abundance of Mimosaceae (in particular various Albizia spp.), as well as Ricinodendron heudelotu, Alstonia boone: and Ceiba pentandra. The most common commercial species in the Haute-Sangha forests are Tripochhton scleroxylon, Terminalia superba and Mansomia altissima. altissima, Forest Resources and Management The northern limit of the dense forest has receded in the past cen- turies as a result of a general drying of the climate. According to Aubréville (Sillans, 1958) the former northern limits followed a line connecting Zemio, Bakouma, Bambari and Boda then passed 100 km north of Carnot before crossing the Cameroonian border. Recent Landsat imagery has been used to map the current extent of the forest zone (Boulvert, 1986), as shown on Map 14.1. Boulvert (1986) estimated the total amount of forest of all types in CAR to be 92,200 sq. km or close to 15 per cent of the coun- try’s land area. This was made up of 37,500 sq. km of dense ever- green forest in the west, 10,000 sq. km of dense semi-deciduous forest in the east, 6500 sq. km of dry deciduous forest in the Sudanian zone (woodland in White’s 1983 classification) and 38,200 sq. km of semi-humid, dry forests and gallery forests. FAO (1988) estimated that closed broadleaved forest covered only 35,900 sq. km of the country at the end of 1980 but it is not clear which of Boulvert’s forest types were included in this figure — pre- sumably only the dense evergreen and semi-deciduous forest. Map 14.1, which has been produced from the map that accompanies Boulvert’s report (see Map Legend on p. 124) and includes his dense evergreen and semi-deciduous forest as lowland rain forest (Table 14.1), indicates that there are 47,405 sq. km of this forest type and 4831 sq. km of inland swamp forest in the country. Commercial forest exploitation in CAR began in 1945 ona small scale, and until 1970 was limited to the Lobaye Prefecture, within a 130 km radius of Bangui. The first forestry permits were allo- cated in the Haute-Sangha Prefecture in 1967 after a forest inven- tory had been carried out by the French Centre Technique Forestier Tropical (CTFT, 1967). Indeed, CAR was the only 120 Table 14.1 Estimates of forest extent in the Central African Republic Area (sq. km) % of land area Rain Forests Lowland 47,405 7.6 Swamp 4,831 0.8 Totals 52,236 8.4 (Based on analysis of Map 14.1. See Map Legend on p. 124 for details of sources.) African country to have undertaken a substantial inventory of for- est resources before issuing exploitation permits. It was also the first francophone country in Africa to have established detailed forestry regulations and management schemes before beginning logging. In addition, in contrast to other African countries, CAR encouraged the transformation of raw wood; as early as 1970, 72 per cent of the timber was processed within the country. In 1970, the Central African Republic Forest Service estimated that 80 per cent of the southern dense forest was economically exploitable (24,000 sq. km). In CAR the principal tree species being cut are ayous 7Jnplochiton scleroxylon, limba Terminalia superba, sipo Entandrophragma utile, sapele E. cylindricum, tiama E. angolense, eyong Eribroma oblonga, and dibeétou Lovoa trichilioides. Ayous comes mostly from the northern area of the forest, where it is found at a density of 80-90 stems (dbh greater than 60 cm — the minimum diameter for felling any of these commercial tree species) on a 25 ha plot. This tree has a white wood and is principally used for plywood. Limba is also cut for plywood, but is found at much lower densities — 15 or more stems per 25 ha plot is considered rich for this species. Sipo, sapele, tiama, and dibétou come from the southern area. Sipo is very rare, on average one stem over 60 cm dbh per 25 ha plot, and is the most expensive timber. Its rich red wood is used in making fine furniture. Sapele, also a red wood, is used mostly for planks and veneers of high quality. Each tree cut represents approximately 12-14 cu. m of timber. The estimated volumes of the principal tree species cutin 1970 are shown in Table 14.2. Germany has provided the greatest market for wood from CAR, followed by Romania, Spain, Portugal and Poland. There are currently eight forestry companies in the country, four in the Lobaye Prefecture and four in Haute-Sangha and Sangha- Mbaéré Prefectures. Even though the forests of Central Africa have great potential commercial value, production is limited by the dis- tance from the international markets. Transportation from Bangui to the Atlantic Ocean at Pointe Noire is a journey of 1210 km by Table 14.2 Estimated volumes of tree species cut in CAR in 1970 Species Volume (1000 cu.m) Limba (Terminalia superba) 24,900 Sapele (Entandrophragma cylindricum) 23,600 Ayous (Triplochiton scleroxylon) 16,900 Beté (Mansomia altissima) 2,400 Mukulungu (Autranella congolensis) 2,300 Tiama (Entandrophragma angolense) 1,700 Iroko (Milicia excelsa) 1,700 Kosipo (Entandrophragma candollei ) 1,500 Sipo (Entandrophragma utile) 1,500 Dibétou (Lovoa trichilioides) 1,400 Doussie (Afzelia spp.) 700 Khaya (Khaya ivorensis) 600 river and 515 km by rail. The logging companies in the west of the country (Sangha-Mbaéré Prefecture) are 1250 km from Pointe Noire by the Sangha and Congo rivers and, again, 515 km by rail. There are only a few months of the year when river levels permit exportation and there is a great deal of loss in stockage and trans- port. Transport costs account for 60 per cent of the final product price and, as fuel costs rise rapidly, many companies have been forced out of business in recent years. Production has, indeed, been declining because of these high overheads (Figure 14.1). The ‘4th Parallel’ road, which will eventually link Bangui with the Atlantic port of Kribi in Cameroon, has been completed from Bambio to Yamendo (40 km north of Nola) and most companies are turning towards road export of logs by way of Cameroon. Although this road will facilitate the export of logs from CAR, a vast increase in production will be necessary to justify the con- struction costs of the road. The road could be the salvation of the wood industry in CAR but a disaster for the forest, its wildlife and people. Already there is evidence of unregulated exploitation and lack of control along the road. Logging companies have con- structed unauthorised feeder roads and have begun felling and transportation without the consent of the Forestry Department. The only control of exploitation and poaching along the road is by two guards posted at Bambio and they have no means of transport. Logging is the third largest export industry in CAR after dia- monds and coffee. Between 1980 and 19835, its annul contribution to the national economy was approximately US$8 million, that is, between 3.8 per cent and 5.5 per cent of national export earnings. In 1981, logging provided 15.5 per cent of direct employment (forestry is the largest employer in the country) and 12 per cent of all salaries in the ‘modern sector’. In spite of its obvious impor- tance to CAR, it is necessary to examine the ecological and social costs associated with commercial logging. Economic analyses of the forestry sector have not looked at the value of the intact forest to the local population who depend on many non-timber forest products for food, medicines and other materials. Little attention has been given either to the consequences of the rapid extermina- tion of forest wildlife or the loss of the ecological benefits of the intact forest. The benefits and losses need to be carefully re-eval- uated, taking all these factors into consideration. Due to the high costs associated with logging, only the most valuable trees are selectively extracted from the forest, removing only a few large trees per hectare. However, considerable distur- bance to the forest is caused by the roads constructed to extract this wood. If there is a sufficient density of commercially valuable trees in a sector, a grid system of roads is laid out. This grid con- sists of a principal road with parallel secondary roads cut each kilo- metre perpendicular to the principal road. A skidder path is cut between each secondary road (every 500 m), parallel to them, and another series of skidder paths is cut every 250 m perpendicular to the secondary roads and connecting them. The principal road is clear-cut and graded to approximately 50 m in width, while the sec- ondary roads are cut and graded to around 40 m wide. Skidder paths are ungraded, but are clear-cut to approximately 25 m in width. The selective logging itself removes a relatively small number of trees, but many more are cut down in the process of making the roads. These roads also provide easy access for hunters: the large num- bers of transient workers, who come long distances to work in the log- ging operations, provide a ready market for the meat. Primates, including gorillas Gorilla gorilla and chimpanzees Pan troglodytes, are prime targets for hunters. The Aka traditionally hunt monkeys with crossbows with poison tipped arrows, but the advent of the shotgun has meant that many more individuals can be killed. Duikers Cephal- ophus spp. are also widely sought after for food by Aka as well as by CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC 600 4 g S 500 5 = 400 + = 300 + T T T i Ta T al 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 Year 1977-88 (Source: FAO, 1990) Bantu hunters and they, particularly the blue duiker C. monticola, are the most common species sold in local markets. The principal means of trapping these animals is with snares, even though this is illegal. The snares were originally of rope made from vegetable matenial, but are now made predominantly from metal cable. The cable is often derived from strands unwound off larger cables discarded by the logging firms, or is made from motor-cycle brake cables. The snares are set along game trails and catch the passing animal by the leg. Duikers can also be driven into large nets strung through the underbrush. Even snakes are eaten and tortoises Kinixys spp. are frequently a major food of Aka hunting parties. Hunting for subsistence using traditional methods such as those practised by the Aka (for example, using spears, nets and rope snares) is permitted for all non-protected species. Deforestation The only figure for deforestation rate in CAR is that of FAO (1988) which estimated that 50 sq. km of closed broadleaved forests were lost annually between 1981 and 1985. Much more extensive areas of open forest (500 sq. km) are thought to be lost each year. However, there are accounts of a major fire in the forest areas west of Bangui in 1983. The fate of these forests after burning is not known. Rural populations are increasing only slowly as population growth is counteracted by migration to towns, but it is likely that some forest may be at risk from people moving into the forest belt to avoid drought and desertification in the Sahelian and Sudanian zones to the north. Hearsay accounts by specialists with long experience in the country suggest that forests are encroaching on savannas in areas where roads have fallen into disuse and people have moved away. The 4th parallel road will certainly attract people into the forest areas that it crosses and will provoke some deforestation. The overall situation appears to be one of relative equilibrium between localised forest loss in more accessible areas and gain in depopulated forest zones. The major threats come from new infrastructure, large scale population movements and fire in disturbed forest areas. The latter threat may be exacerbated by regional and global climate changes. Biodiversity The flora of the Central African Republic is very poorly known. At least 3600 plant species have been recorded but there are proba- bly nearer 5000 in the country (Davis et a/., 1986). There is a con- centration of endemic species on the hills of the north-east. There are 19 or 20 species of primate recorded in CAR (Oates, 1986), of which 16 are recorded in the forest. They range in size from the tiny (60 g) dwarf galago Galagoides demidoff, to the huge 180 kg gorilla. They include the chimpanzee, six species of 121 CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC Cercopithecus and the crested and grey-cheeked mangabey, Cercocebus galeritus and C. albigena respectively. The striking black- and-white colobus monkey Colobus guereza, and the red colobus Procolobus [badius] rufomitratus are also found in the forests. Two subspecies of the African elephant occur in CAR, Loxodonta africana africana in the northern savanna zone, and L. a. cyclotis in the lowland forest. In some forests, the elephants make trails which crisscross the area and these open corridors through the dense undergrowth are the major thoroughfares of the Aka peo- ple. However, elephants remain in significant numbers only in the forests of south-western CAR in the newly created Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Faunal Reserve which incorporates Dzanga-Ndoki National Park. In most other areas of the forest elephants have been virtually eliminated by ivory poachers. Similarly, the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis longipes, has been reduced almost to extinction. In 1970, it was estimated that there were 3000 rhinos in the country but, by 1984, only 170 remained (Western and Vigne, 1985) and now just a few scattered individuals persist. Forest antelopes found within CAR include bongo Tragelaphus euryceros, sitatunga T. speker, chevrotain Hyemoschus aquaticus and six species of duiker. A dwarf form of the African buffalo Syncerus caffer nanus is found in the lowland forests. Two species of wild pigs are found in the dense forest, the giant forest hog Hylochoerus meinertzhagem and the bushpig Potamochoerus porcus. Approximately 700 species of birds have been recorded for the country (Carroll, 1988), over 400 in the forested regions. The first breeding record of the rare brown nightjar Caprimulgus binotatus was made in the Bayanga region (Carroll and Fry, 1987). Only one bird species is listed as threatened in CAR, the shoebill Balaeniceps rex, and this inhabits swamps, not forests (Collar and Stuart, 1985). Hau €-Sanghe a CAMEROON 14°E Several spectacular reptiles are found in the dense forest zone. Most notable are the highly venomous gaboon and rhinoceros vipers (Bitis gabonica and B. nasicornis respectively). The huge African python Python sebae is also found in the forest. Conservation Areas An autonomous organisation, the Centre National pour la Protection et l’Ameénagement de la Faune (CENPAF) within the Department of Wildlife and National Parks is responsible for pro- tected area management. Reserves cover 10 per cent (Table 14.3) of the country’s land area but, in general, management and pro- tection of them is poor. The creation of Dzanga-Sangha Reserve and the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, December 1990 has added a considerable extent of forest to the protected areas system. The Biosphere reserve of the Basse-Lobaye, on the border with the Congo, is one of the few other protected areas of forest. It was established for ethnographic studies of the pygmies. Large mam- mals have been exterminated from it by heavy hunting and parts of this reserve are currently being logged. Initiatives for Conservation Following wildlife surveys in the Bayanga region of south-west CAR, conducted by teams supported by Wildlife Conservation International (WCI) and WWF, the Dzanga-Sangha Reserve and the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park were created (see case study). The management of this reserve and park system has been sup- ported by WWEF-US/USAID as a ‘Wildlands and Human Needs’ project, and has received additional support from the World Bank. As part of a regional conservation programme the EEC will be sup- porting a project in the Mbaéré-Bodingué-Ngoto forest region. This ) \ ? \ Ombella- © < =| Table 14.3. Conservation areas of the Central African Republic Existing and proposed conservation areas are listed below. Forest reserves are not listed or mapped. For data on Biosphere reserves and World Heritage sites see chapter 9. Note that only the moist, southern half of the Central African Republic is mapped in this Atlas, therefore Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Faunal Reserve is the only conservation area shown on Map 14.1. National Parks André Feélixt Bamingui-Bangorant Manovo-Gounda-Saint Florist Dzanga-Ndoki*' Strict Nature Reserves Vassako-Bolot Existing area (sq. km) 1,700 10,700 17,400 1,287 860 ‘Map 14.1 Central Conservation Areas Tri-National Rainforest*} (CAR, Cameroon, Congo) Special Reserves Eastern CAR Elephantt is an important conservation effort as this forest is traversed by the newly completed 4th parallel road. The project aims to protect the for- est after logging and manage it to encourage regeneration of valuable timber trees. A core area will be totally protected as a nature reserve. At the time of writing, surveys are being undertaken by WWF, WCI and the Experiment in International Living to create a tn- national conservation area centred around the Dzanga-Sangha area in CAR. The aims of the project are to conserve and manage the for- Proposed area (sq. km) 10,500 200,000 Faunal Reserves CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC Existing area (sq. km) Aouk-Aoukalet 3,300 Bahr Oulout Gribingui-Baminguit 4,380 Koukourou-Baminguit 1,100 Nan-Baryat 2,300 Ouandjia-Vakagat 1,300 Yata-Ngayat 4,200 Zemongot 10,100 Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest* 4,359 Private Reserves Avakaba Presidential Parkt 1,750 Totals 63,449 (Sources: WCMC, m lut.; R. Carroll, pers. comm.) * Area with moist forest within its boundaries. Proposed area (sq. km) 3,200 213,700 + Not mapped ~ no location data available, or areas located in northern savanna zones of the country Dzanga-Ndoki National Park is situated within Dzanga-Sangha Faunal Reserve; its area is therefore not included in the total area est in the contiguous areas of northern Congo, in the Nouabale region, and in south-eastern Cameroon in the Lake Lobeke forests. This would encompass an area of over 10,000 sq. km of forest with up to 15,000 elephants and a rich forest fauna. It is anticipated that these areas would be managed in an integrated fashion with core areas, multiple use zones and community development zones. WWF is funding a survey of the forests in the Bangassou region to assess their conservation potential. This survey began in early 1991. Une ae e Bambari at q& ¢ See \ F) ¢ ; ? i VON @ 2 : a $s — is \ 9 Si, CZ, QR \ Bc tie 20°E African Republic Rain Forest lowland inland swamp Conservation areas existing Non Forest 1:3,000,000 0 50 100 150 km Et 7 tt 50 100 miles — aan 4 Bakouma g AA, 22°E ZAIRE 24°E CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC FORESTS OF THE DZANGA-SANGHA REGION The Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Faunal Reserve and the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park system cover approximately 4350 sq. km of dense forest in the southern part of CAR, with 1287 sq. km gazetted as national park and the rest as a multiple use reserve. This system is managed to integrate conservation and regional development. The area contains the last unlogged for- est and intact fauna in the country. Elephants reach very high densities (0.9 individuals per sq. km), with major points of con- centration around the marshy clearings with saline deposits. One such clearing, Dzanga, means, according to the Aka, the village of elephants. Several other such large clearings occur throughout the forest and are all connected by a network of ele- phant trails. These clearings offer excellent wildlife viewing and with proper management, have great potential for tourism development. Lowland gorillas reach population densities of between 0.2 and 11 per sq. km in various habitats, being most frequent in secondary forest and light gaps, but also occurring in primary forest and marshy areas. Chimpanzees and 16 other species of primates are found throughout the park/reserve area. Bongo, dwarf forest buffalo and six species of duiker are common in the Dzanga-Sangha forest. The aims of the Dzanga-Sangha project are the conservation of the forest and its wildlife, sustainable use of these resources, and the development of options for economic development con- sistent with the conservation goal. Management of hunting in the reserve allows for sustainable offtake by traditional hunters, References Boulvert, Y. (1986) République Centrafricaine. Carte Phyto- géographique a 1:1,000,000. Notice explicative # 104. ORSTOM, Paris, France. Carroll, R. W. (1988) Birds of CAR. Malimbus 10: 177-200. Carroll, R. W. and Fry, H. (1986) A range extension and prob- able breeding record of the brown nightjar (Caprimulgus binota- tus Bonaparte) in south-western CAR. Malimbus 9: 125-7. Collar, N. J. and Stuart, S. N. (1985) Threatened Birds of Africa and Related Island. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book Part 1. ICBP/IUCN, Cambridge, UK. 761 pp. CTFT (1967) Inventaire forestier dans le Secteur de Nola. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne, France. Davis, S. D., Droop, S. J. M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C. J., Villa-Lobos, J. L., Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986) Plants in Danger: What do we know? TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. FAO (1988) An Interim Report on the State of Forest Resources in the Developing Countries. FAO, Rome, Italy. 18 pp. FAO (1990) FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1977-1988 FAO Forestry Series No. 23, Statistics Series No. 90. FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO (1991 ) FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1978-1989. FAO Forestry Series No. 24, Statistics Series No. 97. FAO, Rome, Italy. Oates, J. F. (1986) Action Plan for African Primate Conservation 1986-90. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Stony Brook, New York, USA. 124 while community development activities such as health and sani- tation programmes, fisheries development, agroforestry, and small enterprise development attempt to provide alternatives to over-harvesting the wildlife population. Payments from tourism and safari hunting are made directly to the reserve managers and divided between the community and management of the reserve. In this way, the people receive direct financial benefits from the conservation of their wildlife, and therefore realise that | it is worth supporting the effort. Bongo Tragelaphus euryceros, am elusive forest antelope, at a salt lick in the Dzanga-Sangha National Park. G. Renson Sillans, R. (1958) Les Savannes de l’Afrique Centrale. Essai sur la Phystognomome, la Structure et le Dynamisme des Formations Végétales Ligneuses des Régions Séches de la RCA. Lechevalier, Paris, France. Western, D. and Vigne, L. (1985) African rhinos. Oryx 19: 215-20. The deteriorating status of Authorship Richard Carroll, in Dzanga-Sangha, CAR. Map 14.1 Forest cover in the Central African Republic Forest data shown on Map 14.1 were extracted from a published map Carte Phytogéographique de la République Centrafricaine (1985), ata scale of 1:1 million. The map was prepared for ORSTOM (Institut Francaise de Recherche Scientifique pour le Developpement en Coopération), Bondy, France, by Y. Boulvert and published in association with the Ministére des Relations Extérieures (France) Service de la Coopération et du Développement Fonds d’Aide et de Coopération. The vegetation shown on this map has been categorised into 149 phytogeographical types. Categories 137-143 (IV.B. Secteur Congo-Guinéen de la forét dense humide) have been digitised and are depicted on Map 14.1 as lowland rain forest; categories 144 (Foret ripicole a mondation prolongée a Uapaca heudelotii et Cathormion altissimum) and 145 (Forét a inondation temporaire) have been harmonised into the swamp forest category, also shown on Map 14.1 The mapped conservation area, Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Faunal Reserve, has been taken from an unpublished manuscript, WWF-US and New York Zoological Society Création, Développement, Protection et Aménagement du Sanctuaire de Forét Dense de Dzanga-Sangha et Pare National Dzanga-Ndoki, République Centrafricaine (1987) 15 Congo Land area 34] ,500 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 2.2 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.0 per cent | Population projected to 2020 5.0 million | Gross national product per capita (1988) USS930 Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)’ 213,400 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)’ 220 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 1,524,000 cu. m | Industrial roundwood exportst 961,000 cu.m Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 1,776,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 100,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst 53,000 cu. m * FAO (1988) t 1989 data from FAO (1991) The Congo exhibits a considerable diversity of landscapes and natural environments and hosts an impressive array of both plant and animal species. As in neighbouring Zaire, the forests have remained relatively intact so that today the Congo is the second most densely forested country in the Afrotropical realm. It contains large areas of both lowland and swamp for- est. Up to the 1970s, umber was the main source of revenue for the country, although this has since been surpassed with the discovery of oil. Nonetheless, the forests of the Congo have considerable importance and potential. The authorities recognise the value of forests for the economy and have invested heavily in forestry planning and in several successful plan- tation schemes. At the time of preparing this Atlas no comprehensive map of the forests existed and the editors have been obliged to use a sketch map prepared by IUCN staff based on local kmowledge. INTRODUCTION The Congo — or People’s Republic of Congo — was formerly one of four territories included in French Equatorial Africa, along with the Central African Republic, Chad and Gabon. The Congo strad- dles the Equator between latitudes 3°34'N and 5°S and longitudes 11°11'E and 18°35'E, and is bordered by Gabon to the west, Cabinda (Angola) to the south, Zaire to the south and east, and Cameroon and the Central African Republic to the north. A 200 km Atlantic Ocean coastline in the extreme south-west of the coun- try gives access to the sea. The coastal plain, about 60 km wide with an altitude of 0-200 m above sea level, is covered in mixed savanna and forest. This rises to low hills and then to the Mayombe massif which crosses the country on a south-east to north-west incline. The low-lying savanna plain of Niari separates this massif, which rises to around 1000 m, and the more northerly Chaillu massif (400-900 m). Both these massifs are still forested. Further north is a central savanna zone with the Bateke and Cataractes plateaux, which are between 400 and 800 m in altitude. In the north-west is the massif of Sangha, another heavily forested region, which rises to 1000 m near Souanke. Finally, in the north-east the “Cuvette Congolaise’ is a vast area of swamp forest at an altitude of between 200 and 400 m above sea level (see Figure 15.1). Rainfall is generally highest in the north of the country and decreases towards the south. The coastal region receives around 1200-1700 mm of rain per year and has a four or five month dry season between May and September; in the central area annual rainfall is between 1600 and 2000 mm and the dry season is one to three months long. In the north, precipitation is around 1800 mm and there is no totally dry month (UICN, 1990). Mean annual temperatures are between 23° and 27°C. The Congo is home to more than two million people and has an annual population growth rate of 3 per cent; approximately 67 per cent of the country’s inhabitants are less than 20 years of age. The average population density is six people per sq. km but about half the population live in an urban environment, with the vast major- ity of these living in the capital, Brazzaville, and in Pointe Noire on the coast (UICN, 1990). Indeed, around 82 per cent of the population live in the region between Brazzaville and the coast. Northern Congo is among the most sparsely populated regions of Africa with an average of only 1—3 persons per sq. km. Rural com- munities tend to concentrate along main access routes, such as rivers, roads or the railway line from Brazzaville to Pointe Noire. Aka and Bakola pygmies live in the forests of northern Congo and there are smaller numbers of Babango pygmies in the south. Farming is the main activity of rural people and in 1986, 13.6 per cent of the population were engaged in agriculture. Approximately 2000 sq. km are currently cultivated, but it is esti- mated that some 100,000 sq. km (30 per cent of the country) has potential for traditional forms of farming. Agriculture falls into three categories: traditional, state-operated and private industrial ventures. The traditional farmers exploit about 70 per cent of the existing agricultural land and produce approximately 98 per cent of the country’s basic foods, such as manioc, bananas, plantains and maize. However, the difficult life in many village communities and the attractions of employment in the cities, are causing an exo- dus from rural areas. This is not in keeping with the state’s plan to achieve self-sufficiency in food requirements by the year 2000. The state-owned sector exploits only 27 per cent of the cultivated land, but uses 95 per cent of the budget allocated for agriculture and employs just 5 per cent of the country’s agricultural work force. The main products of the state sector are palm oil and sugar cane. Offshore fishing is slowly developing as a small industry, while coastal and riverine fishing is conducted largely on a subsistence basis. As recently as the 1970s, timber was the main export and source of revenue for the Congo. However, this has changed in recent years with the discovery of oil, which is now the main export. Timber and veneer are the next most important exports. CONGO Dryland forest —— Swamp forest (I Grassland/forest mosaic Predominantly ~ grassland —= aa Cuvette Equator k— Congolaise | rN Pan | 0 100 Chaillu Massif Cotaractes Plateau i Mayombe Figure 15.1 The regions of the Congo (Source: UICN, 1990) The Forests There are two main types of moist forest in the Congo: swamp forest and dry lowland forest. The latter is found mostly on the massifs of the Mayombe and Chaillu in the south and in Sangha in the north-west. The swamp forests are found in the north-east in the Cuvette Congolaise. In the south, the forests of the Mayombe are mostly semi-decid- uous and account for almost 3 per cent of Congo’s territory. They are biologically extremely rich, and contain important timber species such as Aucoumea klaineana, Staudtia gabonensis, Dacryodes spp., Nauclea diderrichi and Pycnanthus angolensis, which are widely dis- tributed. Terminaha superba, Berlinia grandifola and Oxystigma oxy- phyllum are also important, but are more restricted in distribution. Forests on the Chaillu massif are partially deciduous and comprise 11 per cent of the country. These forests are dominated by Aucoumea klaineana, Terminalia superba and Entandrophragma utile. This region also has a particularly high abundance of Lovoa tnichihoides. The rain forests of northern Congo are also partially deciduous and are rich in the following groups of plants: Meliaceae (Entandrophragma cylindricum, E. candollet, E. utile, E. angolense, Khaya anthotheca, Guarea spp.), and Leguminosae (Piptadenias- trum africanum, Pterocarpus soyauxu, Erythrophleum spp.). Other groups, such as Irvingiaceae, are distributed throughout the forest, while species such as Terminalia superba (fraké) and Triplochiton scleroxylon (ayous) are locally abundant. These forests, which occupy 31 per cent of the country’s surface area, present a number of interesting transition zones with the semi- deciduous Sterculiaceae-Ulmaceae forests of Cameroon, the mesophile forests of central Congo and the swamp forests of the Congo basin. Evergreen forests include some pure stands of Gilbertiodendron dewevrei while, in other areas, this species is asso- ciated with other rainforest and swamp forest species (Bégué, 1967). An understorey dominated by Marantaceae and Zingiberaceae is widespread, for example in the Odzala National Park (IUCN, 1991). 126 Inland swamp forests are well developed along several rivers in the country, as well as in the Cuvette Congolaise. They are complex forests, characterised by an abundance of such species as Entandrophragma palustre, Uapaca heudelotii, Manilkara_ spp., Garcinia spp., Sterculia subviolacea and Alstonia congensis. The forests of the Cuvette are similar to those of the central Zaire Depression. The northern forests have a canopy 25-30 m high with emergents above that, while those in the south tend to have a canopy of about 20 m. Raphia palms occupy significant areas within the inland swamp forests. On the banks of certain large rivers and on the islands of north- ern Congo, there are several stands of Guibourtia demeusei (copal tree), which occur on only the highest reaches above the flood plain. In addition, stretched along the length of the littoral zone there are relict coastal forests which are rich in species such as Symphonia globulifera, Pentaclethra macrophylla, Pycnanthus angolensis and Chrysobalanaceae spp. However, in most of the coastal area only thickets, bush and mangroves remain. There are also dry, semi-evergreen forests, characteristic of regions further north, scattered throughout the savannas in the centre of the country. Principal tree species are Millettia laurentii, Pentaclethra eetveldeana, Staudtia gabonensis, Petersianthus macro- carpus and Trichilia heudelotu. Mangroves The mangrove Rhizephora racemosa occurs in association with Phoemx reclinata in the Conkouati Wildlife Reserve, in the extreme south-western corner, bordering Gabon. The extent and size of these mangroves has not been determined and the conservation status of mangroves, in general, in the Congo is poorly known; thus they have not been mapped in this Atlas. Mangroves certainly occur elsewhere along the coastline and at the mouths of some of the major rivers, including the Noumbi, Loémé and Kouilou, but there is little information on the extent or status of these. Some of the mangroves have been cleared in forestry operations and the timber is widely used for fuelwood. Forest Resources and Management One of the most striking features of the Congo is the sheer extent of its forests. Just over 213,000 sq. km of land, some 65 per cent of the country is still forested (IUCN, 1990). In Africa, these forests are rivalled in extent only by those in Zaire. The Congo has almost 10 per cent of the continent’s closed forest and 12.3 per cent of that of Central Africa (UICN,1990). The lowland forests occupy approxi- mately 45 per cent of the country’s total area, while the swamp forests occupy around 20 per cent. Map 15.1 has been digitised from a gen- eralised hand-drawn original (see Map Legend on p. 132) and con- sequently the figures derived from it may be unreliable. As a result, a figure for rain forest cover has not been quoted at the beginning of this chapter, nor has a table of forest extent been presented here. However, for the reader’s interest, Map 15.1 shows 62,521 sq. km of swamp forest and 234,752 sq. km of lowland rain forest. On the basis of an FAO/UNEP (1981) survey, the forests of the Congo have been broadly divided into various categories, accord- ing to their status and potential for future exploitation (Table 15.1). ‘“Unproductive forests’ include savanna scrub, flooded for- est, stands of Raphia palms, and those in areas where exploitation is not possible because of access problems or dangerous relief. FAO/UNEP (1981) estimated that in 1980 there were 136,900 sq. km of exploitable forest in the Congo: 40 per cent of the country or 61 per cent of the total forested area. The main species of timber which are exploited include okoume Aucoumea kilaineana, sapele Entandrophragma cylindricum, sipo E. utile, niové Staudtia gabonensis, limba Terminalia superba, bilinga Table 15.1. Area of forest cover in the Congo (sq. km) South North/Central Total Forest category Region Region Intact closed forest 5,500 97,800 103,300 Exploited closed forest 32,400 1,200 33,600 Total productive forest 37,900 99,000 =: 136,900 Unproductive closed forest — for physical reasons 5,500 69,700 75,200 — for legal reasons 0 1,300 1,300 Total unproductive forest 5,500 71,000 76,500 Totals (all forest) 43,400 170,000 213,400 (Source: FAO/UNEP, 1981) Nauclea diderrichn, moabi Baillonella toxisperma, 1roko Miulicia excelsa, tiama Entandrophragma angolense and longhi Gambeya spp. Forest exploitation in the country is divided among four sectors: the state, national and foreign private sectors, and a mixture of these. The most active operators of this group in recent years have been the private foreign investors who, in 1986, accounted for the production of 58 per cent of the unprocessed logs, 82 per cent of the sawn timber and 35 per cent of veneer exports. State-operated and private national enterprises contribute a very small proportion of total production. The Congolian output of unprocessed logs has increased gradu- ally since the world umber crisis in 1974, but has not yet recovered to the levels of exploitation achieved in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 1986 the Congo exported 286,973 cu. m of uncut logs, CONGO compared with 205,714 cu. m in 1982. However, due to the increase in the price obtained for the wood, forest products contributed 3.5 per cent of the gross domestic product in 1986, compared with just 1.1 per cent in 1982. The major buyers are Portugal, France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Japan and the Soviet Union. The first area of forest to be exploited was the Mayombe, chiefly because it was more easily accessible by road and rail from Pointe Noire. The main species extracted there were limba and okoumé. Later, exploitation moved to the dense forests of central and north- ern Congo, where two different species — sapele and sipo — were heavily exploited. Since 1984, okoumé and sapele have made up between 60 and 65 per cent of the unprocessed logs exported. In general, small and less valuable species are not exploited to any great extent. There are 25 registered sawmills which produced 53,658 cu. m and 46,113 cu. m of umber during 1988 and 1989, respectively. In recent years, 50-55 per cent of the wood has been locally processed. There are four veneer factories in the Congo: two were fully opera- tional during 1989, another was working at one-third of its normal capacity and the fourth had been closed for the past three years. The quality and output of timber from the Congo has increased during the past three years, largely as a result of the establishment of logging agencies, the availability of modern logging materials and a reduction in taxes on timber exports and on imported equipment. (See also the case study on Forest Management Units.) However, despite this growth, the future of the umber industry is uncertain, as umber from the Congo is generally more expensive than that, for example, from Southeast Asia. This is mainly because of the high cost of transporting timber from the north of the country to the coast. The forests of the Congo fulfil an important need for the peo- ple of the country, especially the subsistence agriculturalists who are generally unable to obtain enough food from their farmed land FOREST MANAGEMENT UNITS The Republic of Congo has more than 200,000 sq. km of for- est and a population of only two million people. The forests are relatively rich in commercial timber species and, especially in the north, there is little pressure to clear forests for agriculture. The situation appears suitable for a sustainable and highly prof- itable timber industry. With help from FAO, the Congo authorities have divided up the national forest estate into forest management units (Unites Forestiéres d’Aménagement, UFA), each of sufficient size to support an independent forest industry. In principle, each industry is required to conduct an inventory of its UFA and pro- pose a management plan for ministerial approval. The plans should provide for selection felling on a 25-year cycle with a minimum diameter limit of 60 cm. These calculations were based upon an annual girth increment of 0.8 cm per year observed in trial plots in similar forest types in Gabon. Twenty- five years is the period required for all trees in the 40-60 cm diameter class to pass into the exploitable 60-80 cm class. Extraction is subject to three-year exploitation permits which prescribe the maximum area to be logged and the minimum vol- ume of timber to be produced. Limited selective elimination of non-commercial species was planned in order to encourage the regeneration of valuable species but this has not been applied on an operational scale. The UFA system developed in the Congo could have pro- vided a sound basis for a sustainable forest industry but various factors have meant that it has never been put into practice prop- erly. First, the government never invested sufficiently in field staff for the forestry service fully to supervise the UFAs. Second, and more important, all forest land is the property of the state and all citizens enjoy constitutional rights to use this land. The Forest Administration does not have the authority to curtail these rights even in an area under management for timber. Customary rights of subsistence hunting or collecting non- timber forest products do little harm to the forest’s timber potential. However, customary rights also allow local people to burn the forest and grow their crops on the cleared land. The result has been that in the more densely populated and access- ible south of the country many of the UFAs have been invaded by shifting agriculturalists and potential timber yields have been seriously reduced. In the sparsely populated, inaccessible north, the forests remain largely undisturbed after logging and regen- erate well. Valuable timber crops are likely to be available after the 25-year logging rotations. Thus, in two parts of the same country, subject to the same laws and administration, the potential for sustainable manage- ment of the forests for timber is radically different. In the south, sustainability can probably be achieved only in intensively man- aged plantations taken out of state ownership. In the north, cyclical selective logging appears eminently sustainable and maintains a ‘near-natural’ forest which is excellent habitat for many wildlife species. Source: Jeff Sayer 127 CONGO Mangroves (Rhizophora sp.) 172 Conkouati Faunal Reserve. C. Doumenge and who, therefore, depend on the forest for fruit and roots, as well as for building materials, medicinal plants and bushmeat. The lat- ter is the most important source of protein for a large part of the population. The forests are also important as the home of the pyg- mies. Small numbers occur throughout the forested parts of the country. They sull frequent the forests of the Odzala National Park. Since the 1970s, there has been an active programme of plan- tation establishment in the Congo, particularly in the savannas. Near Pointe Noire, for example, the Unité d’Afforestation Industrielle du Congo (UAIC) has created plantations of Eucalyptus sp. (320 sq. km) and Pinus sp. (10 sq. km). In addition, the Service National de Reboisement (National Reforestation Service) has established more than 100 sq. km of pine and Eucalyptus on the savannas and around 80 sq. km of limba planta- tions in forests. Within the next decade, the UAIC aims to have planted in the region of 1000 sq. km of Eucalyptus, mostly in the coastal region. UICN (1990) estimates that between 5000 and 10,000 sq. km of savanna are suitable for the establishment of fast growing plantations. If these are developed they would be an important economic resource for the country. Deforestation FAO estimated that 220 sq. km of forest were lost each year in the Congo in 1981—5 (FAO, 1988). No alternative estimates are avail- able. In countries such as the Congo with extensive forests and few people the question of deforestation rates is secondary to that of qualitative changes in the forest cover. Even though deforestation is low, the degradation of forest by accelerating cycles of shifting cultivation and over-hunting of wildlife is a major problem in south Congo. Some forest areas of great biological interest such as the coastal forests in and around the Conkouati Faunal Reserve and on the Chaillu and Mayombe massifs are at special risk. Sibona (1985) has proposed that within the southern part of the country, each cultivator clears approximately 0.5 ha each year for 128 agriculture. On a countrywide basis, it has been estimated that almost 20,000 sq. km are cleared, mostly in the densely populated south. However, much of the clearance is in secondary scrub and forest regenerating from previous cycles of shifting cultivation. Land exposed to these cycles of shifting agriculture will lose many of the animal and plant species adapted to primary forest and may be exposed to erosion. But when the fallow period is long enough, forest does regenerate and figures for the annual extent of shifting cultivation cannot be equated with deforestation. Unfortunately in the south of the Congo the cycles are often too short to allow ade- quate regeneration and the fallow phase is dominated by annual weeds and scrub. When shifting agriculture succeeds logging the impact on the residual stand of timber trees is disastrous. Large tracts of the savanna grasslands are burned each year. This prevents recolonisation of this habitat by woody species and fire encroaches on the peripheral zones of the forests. The result is that small islands of grassland or savanna within the forest zone will gradually increase in size as fires penetrate a few metres further into the forest each year. Such fires are usually set by hunters and have a major impact on the forests even in areas where the population density is low. The problem is especially severe in areas with sandy soils, for instance on the Batéké Plateau. Timber concession areas increased in 1986 with the granting of a further 71,073 sq. km of forest (39,079 sq. km in the north, 31,994 sq. km in the south). This was again increased in July 1988 with the granting of an additional 39,079 sq. km in the north and 37,835 sq. km in the south, representing altogether 34.3 per cent of the total forest cover in the Congo (UICN, 1990). Most logged areas in the north regenerate satisfactorily, but encroachment of logged- over forests by farmers is a major problem in the south (see case study). Nonetheless the Congo is an example of a country where logging has been environmentally benign and in many areas, even in the absence of post-logging management, logging is sustainable and compatible with the conservation of biological diversity. Biodiversity The flora of the Congo has been little studied but a few recent surveys have contributed a great deal of information on the range of species that occur in the country. To date, over 4000 plant species have been recorded (Bouquet, 1976), and UICN (1990) estimates that there are probably as many as 6000 species of plants within the country. Much of this diversity is accounted for by the varied topography, tropical climate and the frequent mixing of forest and savanna ecosystems in the southern and central parts of the Congo. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to assess the level of species endemism. There has been no systematic survey of the fauna of all the Congo, although Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire had, in February 1991, just completed intensive surveys of the flora and fauna (birds, mammals, fish, snakes, frogs, lizards and butterflies) in the western Mayombe, the coastal forests and savannas in the country (F. Dowsett-Lemaire, mm litt.). Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire (1989b) give a preliminary list of the larger mammals in the country and they now estimate that there is a total of 132 mammal species in the Congo (F. Dowsett- Lemaire, 77 litt.). Some of these, such as the African wild dog Lycaon pictus, bongo Tragelaphus euryceros, gorilla Gorilla gorilla, lion Panthera leo, elephant Loxodonta africana, giant pangolin Manis gigantea and manatee Trichechus senegalensis are fully protected legally but they are rarely able to be protected in reality. The forests of the Congo are home to at least 14 species of antelope, and are particularly rich in primates — 22 species in all. These include one endemic subspecies, Bouvier’s red colobus monkey Procolobus [badius] pennanti bouvierit, which has been found only in the Lefini Faunal Reserve (Oates, 1986; Lee er al., 1988). The avifauna within the forests is also diverse. After a study of the literature and museum specimens and completing a short sur- vey in the Mayombe forest, Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett (1989) recorded 223 species in the forest, 16 of which were only in the Zaire section of the Mayombe. While the total number of species inhabiting all the forests is still unknown, it is estimated that there are at least 700 bird species in the Congo (F. Dowsett-Lemaire, in litt.). About 500 of these have been listed by Dowsett and Dowsett- Lemaire (1989a). Only one threatened species is recorded from the Congo and that, the black-chinned weaver Ploceus nigrimentum, is probably not a forest species. An investigation of the reptile diversity in the Mayombe forests alone, revealed 45 species (Unesco/PNUD, 1986). Three species of endangered marine turtles — the loggerhead Caretta caretta, green Chelonia mydas, and the olive ridley Lepidochelys olivacea — have been recorded on Congo’s coastline (Groombridge, 1982). Three species of crocodile still survive in the country, but are heavily hunted (F. Dowsett-Lemaire, im litt.). Few data exist on the diversity of fish or invertebrates, although two rare species of swallowtail butterfly — the African giant swal- lowtail Papilio antimachus and Graphium aurivilliusi, the latter known only from a few specimens — have been recorded from the Congo (Collins and Morris, 1985). In addition, the dragonfly Aethiothemys watuliki has been recorded only in Mambili forest (Stuart et al., 1990). Conservation Areas The establishment of protected areas in the Congo dates back to 1935, with the creation of the Odzala National Park. At present this is still the only national park in the country and no exploita- tion is allowed within it. There are also two other kinds of pro- tected areas: faunal reserves, where hunting is totally prohibited but other traditional rights of usage are permitted, and hunting reserves, where hunting is allowed with a big game hunting per- mit, which limits the number of animals that can be taken. There are two Biosphere reserves in the country, namely Odzala National Park and the Dimonika reserve. Details of the protected areas are given in Table 15.2. The administration of wildlife and conservation in the Congo is the responsibility of the Ministry of Forest Economy, within which the protected areas are the responsibility of the Hunting and Wildlife Service. In recent years, management of protected areas has been placed under the direction of the Wildlife Inventory and Management Project (DPIAF). DPIAF is seriously understaffed, having only 43 guards to cover the entire network of protected areas, which means that each person is responsible for more than 300 sq. km. IUCN considers 10 sq. km to be the most that can be properly patrolled by an individual guard. In addition, field per- sonnel are poorly equipped and inadequately trained. As an indi- cation of the poor protection of some of these reserves, it has been reported that concessions have been granted for logging and mining operations in Conkouati Faunal Reserve, and that there are many people living in the reserve who are commercial hunters (F. Dowsett-Lemaire, 17 /itt.). At present, there is no programme to protect threatened or endangered flora in the Congo. Insufficient data exist either on a regional or specific taxonomic basis accurately to assess the status of a given species. However, it is certain that many species are in need of protective measures, especially near towns where increas- ing population pressures result in rising rates of forest clearance for agriculture, fuelwood and building materials. Useful tree species may be depleted. For example, the wood of wenge Millettia lau- rentil, widely used for decoration and wood carving, is now becom- CONGO Table 15.2 Conservation areas of the Congo For data on Biosphere reserves see chapter 9. Area (sq. km) National Parks Odzala* 1,266 Faunal Reserves Conkouati* 3,000 Lefini* 6,300 Lékoli-Pandaka* 682 Loudimat 60 Mont Fouari 156 Nyanga Nord Ul Tsoulou 300 Hunting Reserves M’boko* 900 Mont Mavoumbou 420 Nyanga Sud 230 Total 13,391 (Sources: IUCN, 1990; WCMC, in litt.) * Area with moist forest within its boundaries according to Map 15.1. + Not mapped. ing extremely difficult to locate near Brazzaville, although it is stll found elsewhere in the Congo. As in other West African countries, illegal hunting and poach- ing for bushmeat is widespread, even in ‘protected’ areas. Hunting provides a lucrative source of income and is also the main protein source for a large section of the population. Initiatives for Conservation The Congo has developed conservation policies with support from international organisations such as FAO, EEC, IUCN, WWE and Unesco/UNDP. National organisations, as well as the French Tropical Forestry Centre (CTFT) are conducting reforestation programmes, largely in the southern section of the country. These are, however, mostly of Eucalyptus. Additional scientific study is being conducted by the French overseas research agency ORSTOM. In 1988, a joint Unesco/UNDP project led to the establishment of the Dimonika Biosphere Reserve, the country’s first reserve of this kind. A management plan is currently being prepared and, to promote the ideals of this project among local people, the Mayombe Development Committee has been created. The EEC is currently coordinating an integrated scheme for conservation and rural development among seven Central African countries, of which the Congo is one. Within this scheme, a demonstration project will be established within the Odzala National Park and surrounding areas to illustrate how conserva- tion and the sustainable exploitation of forest products can bene- fit local people. USAID and the EEC are supporting the establishment of a large, new protected area in the Nouabaleé area on the northern border of the Congo, adjoining the Central African Republic. This project is being coordinated by Wildlife Conservation International, the conservation arm of New York Zoological Society. IUCN is developing a project at Conkouati to improve management of the reserve by working with local communities. 129 CONGO Nov ONMand3y NVOIdsV WeLN3O NOOYANVO SalW OOL _ SSS Wy OSI 0 000°000'€: | }Sa104 UON Bulsixa seaje UOljeAaSuOg dwems pue|u! pUE|MO} jsau04 wiley OSUO0D I's], dep ie Te 130 391 | Job 131 CONGO NVIIO JUNVILY AYIVZ dy POTION JULOT Pat e{Saloeefeg LOSS LO mls SQ SS; Bae png ebuekys eo efuely noquinonew can uenoy qwow = JISSEN nIIe4O “ey { { = PAIETG) 4a) ddlvZ CONGO References Bégué, L. (1967) Les foréts du nord de la République du Congo (Brazzaville). Bois et Foréts des Tropiques 111: 63-76. Bouquet, A. (1976) Etat d’avancement des travaux sur la Flore de Congo-Brazzaville. In: Comptes Rendus de la VIIIe Réunion de VAETFAT, 2 vols. Proceedings of the 8th plenary meeting of AETFAT in Geneva, 16-21 September, 1974. Miége, J. and Stork, A. L. (1975, 1976) (eds). Appendix 1, p. 581. Collins, N. M. and Morris, M. G. (1985) Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. The IUCN Red Data Book. (UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 401 pp. Cusset, G. (1989) La flore et la végétation du Mayombe Congolais. Etat des connaissance. In: Revue des Connaissances sur le Mayombe, pp. 103-36. Unesco/PNUD, République Populaire du Congo. Descoings, B. (1969) Esquisse phytogéographique du Congo. In: Atlas du Congo. ORSTOM, Paris, France (1 carte couleurs 1:2 million, 2 pages de texte). Descoings, B. (1975) Les grandes régions naturelles du Congo. Candollea 30: 91-120. Dowsett, R. J. and Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (1989a) Liste prélimi- naire des oiseaux du Congo. Turaco Research Report 2: 29-51. Dowsett, R. J. and Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (1989b) Liste prélimi- naire des grands mammiféres du Congo. Turaco Research Report 2: 20-8. Dowsett-Lemaire, F. and Dowsett, R. J. (1989) Liste commen- tée des oiseaux de la forét du Mayombe (Congo). Turaco Research Report 2: 5-16. FAO (1988) An Interim Report on the State of Forest Resources in the Developing Countries. FAO, Rome, Italy. 18pp. FAO (1991) FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1978-1989. FAO Forestry Series No. 24 and FAO Statistics Series No. 97. FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO/UNEP (1981) Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project. Forest Resources of Tropical Africa. Part II Country Briefs. FAO, Rome, Italy. Groombridge, B. (1982) The IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia Red Data Book. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. IUCN (1990) 1989 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 275 pp. Koechlin, J. (1961) La Végétation des Savanes dans le Sud de la République du Congo (Capitale Brazzaville). ORSTOM, Paris, France. 310 pp. Lee, P. C., Thornback, J. and Bennett, E. L. (1988) Threatened Primates of Africa. The IUCN Red Data Book. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Oates, J. F. (1986) Action Plan for African Primate Conservation: 1986-1990. ITUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Stony Brook, New York, USA. Sibona, F. (1985) Rapport Final en Sociologie Rurale (Projet ‘Développement Forestier Sud-Congo’). FAO, Rome, Italy. 156 pp. Stuart, S. N., Adam, R. J. and Jenkins, M.D. (1990) Biodiversity im Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands: Conservation, Management and Sustainable Use. Occasional Papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 6. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. UICN (1990) La Conservation des Ecosystémes forestiers du Congo. Basé sur le travail de P. Hecketsweiler. UICN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 187 pp. UICN (1991) Le Pan National d’Odzala, Congo. Basé sur le travail de Hecketsweiler, P., Doumenge, C. and Makolo Ikonga, J., UICN, Gland Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xvi + 334 pp. Unesco/PNUD (1986) Le Mayombe. Description de la Région et Présentation du Projet sur les Bases Scientifiques de son Développement Intégre. Plaquette Unesco/PNUD. République Populaire du Congo. Unesco/PNUD, Paris, France. 41 pp. Authorship Dominique N’Sosso in Brazzaville and Philippe Hecketsweiler in Montpellier with contributions from Raphael Tsila in Brazzaville, Frangoise Dowsett-Lemaire in Brussels, David Stone in Begnins, Switzerland and Jeff Sayer, IUCN. Map 15.1 Forest cover in the Congo Vegetation data were digitised from an ONC 1:1 million map on which the extent of the forests had been hand drawn by Philippe Hecketsweiler, one of the authors of this chapter. He was able to produce a map from data gathered from field work during 1989 and 1990 and from numerous reports (Koechlin, 1961; Bégué, 1967; Descoings, 1969, 1975; Cusset, 1989). It shows four vegetation categories: Foréts Denses de Terre Ferme (lowland rain forest), Foréts Inondées Marécageuses (inland swamp forest), Formations Herbeuses Séches (a dry grassland/bush formation) and Formations Herbeuses Marécageuses (a swamp grassland/bush formation). Of these, lowland rain forest and inland swamp forest are shown on Map 15.1. Conservation areas are taken from a 1:1 million map République Populaire du Congo (1990) produced by Centre de Recherche Géographiques du Congo (CERGEC), Brazzaville and from spatial data held within files at WCMC. Land area 318,000 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 12.6 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.7 per cent Population projected to 2020 35.4 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS740 Rain forest (see map) 27,464 sq. km Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)" 44,580 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)* 2900 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 3,413,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst 550,000 cu. m Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 9,830,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 1,041,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst 558,000 cu. m * FAO (1988a) t 1989 data from FAO (1991) 16 Cote d’Ivoire Since independence in 1960, Cote d’Ivoire has shown rapid economic development based mainly on timber, cocoa and coffee exports. For the past 30 years the country has had a remarkable degree of political stability and now has one of the best infrastructures and one of the highest GNP per capita in West Africa. In contrast to this excellent record, deforesta- tion in Cote dIvoire has been between 2800 and 3500 sq. km per year for the past 35 years. Indeed, it is predicted that, without stringent protective measures, all the rain forests will have disappeared by the turn of the century. The country has experienced diminishing total rainfall and irregular rainfall patterns, problems which many people con- sider to be caused by the severe deforestation. Widespread public concern awoke in 1984 when, after successive dry years, the hydroelectric supply was interrupted and bush fires ravaged the country. It became clear that emergency measures were needed to reduce the rampant deforestation and to avoid the prospect of Cote d’Ivoire becoming a timber importing coun- try. As a result, the 1988-2015 National Forestry Plan was developed, which outlined a long-term strategy of forest resource protection and management and an immediate action plan for rehabilitation of the forestry sector by 1995. President Felix Houphouét Boigny also proclaimed 1988 the National Year of the Forest with the aim of improving public participation in nature conservation, tree planting and fire prevention. In April 1990, a World Bank loan of US$90 million was agreed for Cote d’Ivoire to implement a project for protection and rational management of the country’s remaining tropical forests. For the first time, environmental sustainability seemed to be addressed but northern non- governmental organisations (NGOs) now accuse this project of contributing to further deforestation. INTRODUCTION Situated between latitudes 4°20' and 10°45'N and longitudes 2°40' and 8°30'W in the central part of the Upper Guinea forest block, Cote d’Ivoire originally must have been predominantly tree covered. Its rolling uniform landscape, intersected by four main rivers running north-south, slowly rises from the Gulf of Guinea to about 400 m above sea level at the northern savanna plateau. The only moun- tainous region is at the border with Guinea in the Nimba region, where there are peaks of up to 1750 m. Smaller chains of rock out- crops, called inselbergs, occur in the south-western and south- eastern regions, relieving the otherwise monotonous, undulating landscape. The country has a total area of 322,460 sq. km and it can be divided into two main bioclimatic zones: the tropical moist forest belt in the south, with average rainfall ranging from 1400 to 2500 mm per year and a biannual dry season which does not exceed three to five months in total, and the inland savanna zone which was originally covered with more open, dry forest formations. Temperatures in the forest belt are remarkably constant through- out the year, averaging around the middle to high twenties (°C). Total population in Cote d’Ivoire has increased from five mil- lion in 1970 to almost 13 million in 1990; the annual growth rate, at 3.7 per cent in 1991, is one of the highest in Africa. Mass immi- gration from drought-stricken Sahelian countries, particularly in the 1970s and early 1980s, is responsible for some of this popula- tion increase. About one-third of the people live in the northern savanna regions, while the remaining two-thirds are in the more densely populated forest zone in the south. There are also more people in the eastern and central parts of the southern region than in the western section. The differences in population density are the result of important historical and contemporary movements of the inhabitants (Lena, 1984). Approximately 55 per cent of the people still live in rural areas, but the general trend of migration to urban areas, recently stimu- lated by the drop in cocoa and coffee prices and hence farmers’ incomes, is likely to continue. Two million people are concentrated in the large urban district of Abidjan and there are some 750,000 people in and around the second largest city, Bouaké. Further important concentrations occur near Korhogo in the north, at Yamoussoukro, which is the newly established capital in the centre of the country, and at Man, Danané and Daloa. Government policies in the past 25 years have tended to encour- age people to move from more densely populated rural regions to relatively unpopulated areas. Farmers are offered incentives to establish new coffee and cacao plantations in the areas to be devel- oped. Some uncontrolled land settlement has been caused by the large numbers of migrants from the Sahel, which has resulted in widespread deforestation and anarchic land occupation in pro- jected industrial plantation areas and forest reserves. 133 COTE D’IvoIRE The Forests From south to north of Céte d’Ivoire, a range of successively drier vegetation types can be distinguished. However, gradual changes and strong topographical influences prohibit rigorous definition and exact cartographic representation of each type. Grading from evergreen moist forest in the south-west and south-east, to semi- deciduous forest that fragments into a forest savanna mosaic in the centre of the country (e.g. in Marahoué National Park), the sequence ends up in open Sudan-type savanna land with pockets of dry forest near the border with Mali and Burkina Faso. The moist forest belt or, more accurately, the fragmented rem- nants of the moist semi-deciduous and evergreen forest types, shows scattered but omnipresent evidence of early human habita- tion with pottery fragments and charcoal layers in the soil. As a result, the occurrence of truly virgin forest sites can almost be excluded. Chevalier (1908) suggested their presence in the early years of this century, but if they do still exist they must be limited to some remote areas in the interfluve of the Cavally and Sassandra rivers, for instance in the Tai National Park. However, the degree and extent of vegetation change caused by early human interfer- ence remain unknown and now almost impossible to detect due to the subsequent large-scale forest destruction. Forest composition is associated with soil and climatic condi- tions. The moderate rainfall regime to which the major part of the moist forest belt is subject (less than 2000 mm rain and a main dry season of at least two to three months) results in forest which is characterised by a high frequency of large trees, towering 55—60 m high, a dense intermediate canopy and a relatively open under- growth which shows a typically crooked and tortuous habit, induced by drought stress. These general features contrast with overall differences in tree species composition between evergreen and semi-deciduous forest types. Characteristic tree species of the latter do not occur, or are only sparsely represented, in the former and vice versa. Typical semi-deciduous tree species (cf. Aubréville, 1957) include mem- bers of the well represented Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae, Ulmaceae and Moraceae families, for example, Celtis spp., Mansonia altissima, Pterygota macrocarpa, Nesogordonia papaverifera, Sterculia rhinopetala and Milicia excelsa. Less characteristic are Triplochiton scleroxylon and Terminalia spp. (Combretaceae); these are common in secondary formations of the evergreen forest. Moist evergreen forest shows a dominance of Mimosaceae and Caesalpiniaceae, including species such as Piptadeniastrum africanum, Parkia bicolor, Erythrophleum worense and Anthonotha spp. Parinan. excelsa (Chrysobalanaceae) and Klainedoxa gabonensis (Irvingiaceae) are also dominant tree species. The famous African mahoganies or redwoods (Entandrophragma spp. and Khaya spp.), which attain huge dimensions, can be encountered in both evergreen and semi-deciduous forests. Their relatively high frequency in both formations make these forests extremely attractive for logging. The boundary between evergreen forest formations and semi- deciduous forest can be traced only approximately. Deciduousness is difficult to assess and local site differences (type of rock, soil and drainage) often play a dominant role in the extent of one forest type or another. For instance, moist formations penetrate along water courses into drier zones and typical elements of drier formations occur on sites with poor water retention capacity inside the ever- green zone. Thus, large transition areas exist where both forest types occur, each in its specific topographical position in the undu- lating landscape. For mapping purposes, however, an approximate division can be fixed that fairly closely fits the 1700 mm isohyet. ‘The marked seasonality of climate, with four alternating dry and wet seasons in the moist forest belt and two distinct seasons in the 134 northern savannas, excludes the widespread occurrence of a per- humid forest type. This vegetation type, with strong dominance of the Caesalpiniaceae family in the tree flora (such as Cynometra ananta and Gilbertiodendron spp.), is limited to the extreme south- west and south-east corners of Cote d’Ivoire where there is more than 2100 mm rainfall per annum. It once covered extensive areas in neighbouring Liberia (Voorhoeve, 1979). There is a wedge shaped intrusion of savanna woodland (characterised by Borassus palms) into the moist forest belt in the central part of the country. This so-called “Baoulé-V’ is most often explained by a rain shadow effect arising from a change in orien- tation of the West African coastline (Aubréville, 1949). While Liberia is exposed to a frontal arrival of the prevailing south-west- erly monsoon winds and hence receives average yearly rainfall of up to 4500 mm, a sudden change in coastline direction to a near parallel orientation occurs after Cape Palmas. This provokes a rather sharp drop in rainfall from 2500 to 1400 mm in the south- western region of Cote dIvoire. Recurving of the coastline towards Cape Three Points in Ghana restores higher rainfall (up to 2300 mm) in the south-eastern part of the country. This central woodland wedge divides the moist forest belt into eastern and western parts. The southern extension of the savannas approaches to within about 150 km of the coast and it probably facilitated deep penetration into the country by expanding savanna tribes (Malinké and Ashanti) invading from the north and east in the 14th century. Unequal population densities in the east and west partly explain today’s situation of nearly total deforestation in the east while there is still some forested land remaining in the west. Forest composition also differs between east and west Cote dIvoire in the occurrence of endemic plant species which spread out from their respective Pleistocene refuge areas around Cape Three Points and Cape Palmas. Mangenot (1955) and Guillaumet (1967) described the south-western endemics with the term “‘Sassandriennes’ after their geographic boundary, the Sassandra river. According to a recent revision by Hall and Swaine (1981), 72 plant species originated in this important centre of diversity. Another Pleistocene refuge area probably existed in the Nimba mountains. These are nowadays covered by predominantly Parinari excelsa forests and submontane woodland (Schnell, 1952). Mangroves Mangrove formations, dominated by Rhizophora and Avicennia spp., Originally occupied most of the lagoon shores, river deltas and estuaries. This tidal vegetation can still be encountered along the Ebrié lagoon, which stretches from Abidjan to Grand-Lahou, and in other smaller lagoon areas. The mangroves are being cut for firewood and are declining rapidly as a result. Indeed, Map 16.1 indicates that only 29 sq. km of mangrove remain in Cote dIvoire, though it is possible that there are other areas in the country which are too small to appear on a map of this scale. Forest Resources and Management An accurate and up-to-date estimate of total remaining forest cover in Céte dIvoire is difficult to establish because of the rampant deforestation (Bertrand, 1983) and the low reliability of the avail- able data. Explanation of what is covered by the term ‘forest resources’ is often lacking or, at best, is ambiguous. Further con- fusion arises by indiscriminate use of figures for total gazetted for- est land (which often includes deforested and non-wooded areas) as an indication of remaining forest cover. As a result, most recent available estimates from reports of the Ministry of Forests (1988) and the FAO (1988b) and data used in reports of the World Bank (1990) show large discrepancies. Table 16.1 Estimates of forest and woodland cover in Cote d'Ivoire (forest fragments of less than 1 sq. km excepted) Moist forest Savanna Total zone zone area Total land area 132,220 190,145 322,365* Total estimated forest cover (1966)! 86,150 88,660 174,810 (1980)° 44,580 53,760 98,340 (1987) 21,950 24,720 46,670 (1990)* 13,000 18,000 31,000 Permanent Forest Domain (before 1978: ‘Foréts Classées’) (1956)° 43,000 25,000 68,000 (1966) 27,840 25,340 53,180 (1974) 28,986 13,000 41,986 (1978)° 24,043 12,222 36,265 (1987)° 16,000 13,000 29,000 National Parks and Fauna Reserves (1974) 5,480 11,750 17,230 (1982)’ Re /17/ 13,670 19,387 (Areas in sq. km) * NB: this figure for country area, supplied by the author, is slightly different from that given by FAO. Guillaumet, J. L. and Adjanohoun, E. (1966). Vegetation de la Cote d'Ivoire. Mapping (1:500,000) after aerial photographs of 1965. ~ FAO/UNEP (1981). Ministére des Eaux et Foréts (1988). Plan Directeur Forestier 1988-2015. Annexe 2 (aerial survey 1986) and table 1. Estimate by extrapolation of mean deforestation rates of 3000 sq. km per year in moist forest and 2000 sq. km in savanna. Arnoud and Sournia (1980), pp. 69 and 70. NB: ‘Foréts Classées’ of 1956 and 1966 include national parks and fauna reserves Permanent Forestry Domain, gazetted 15 March 1978. Yamoussoukro (1982). Working document, Conference on ‘La forét au service du developpement’. Estimates based on extrapolation of the forest and woodland cover regression rates of the past 30 years (Table 16.1) indicate a remain- ing total area of 31,000 sq. km (10 per cent of national territory). However, of this only 13,000 sq. km is closed broadleaved forest in the forest zone; the remaining 18,000 sq. km is dry woodland in the savanna zone. It should further be emphasised that most of this is fragmented and timber-depleted forest. Map 16.1 indicates that, in 1987, total remaining moist forest cover (excluding mangroves) was 27,435 sq. km (see Table 16.2), a somewhat higher figure than that calculated from forest regression rates in Table 16.1. Faced by the spread of slash and burn agriculture and anarchic forest exploitation, the colonial forest service created so-called ‘Foréts Classées’ (forest reserves) as early as 1926. These were to ensure future timber production. The total gazetted area of 240 forest reserves was as much as 68,000 sq. km in 1956 (Table 16.1), but the reserves lacked distinctively marked boundaries and efficient protection. Consequently, by 1987, agricultural encroachment had caused the area to shrink to only 29,000 sq. km in 147 reserves. Within this area, productive timber stands were thought to occupy no more than 15,000 sq. km (FAO, 1988b). Satellite data are to be compiled for an assessment of the remaining productive area in the 1978 gazetted Permanent Forestry Domain. Preliminary surveys already indicate an alarming 25 per cent further loss of productive umber area due to anarchic land occupation. COTE D’IVOIRE The first acajou Khaya iworensis logs were exported from Cote d'Ivoire to France in 1885, to replace rapidly declining Szretenia mahogany stocks from the French colonies in the West Indies (Alba, 1956). Contrary to common belief, it was English companies that started trading the precious cabinet timber from the hinterlands of Assinie and Bassam and they continued to control the acajou market until the First World War (Arnoud and Sournia, 1980). Exports of this wood to France, England and Germany steadily increased from 22,850 cu. m in 1909 to some 60,000 cu. min 1913 (Meniaud, 1922). Acajou remained the only exported timber species until 1920 and the most important one until 1951. In 1920, 50,000 cu. m of acajou was sent overseas, but also 14,000 cu. m of tiama Entandrophragma angolense, iroko Milicia excelsa, makoré Tieghemella heckelu, bossé Guarea cedrata, badi Nauclea didernichit and niangon Heritiera utilis were shipped. Like other precious cabinet timbers such as sipo Entandrophragma utile and makoré, acajou has been logged to such an extent that the species is close to commercial extinction. A forced shift to medium density sawnwood species like framiré Terminalia ivorensis, fraké/limba Terminalia superba and samba Triplochiton scleroxylon, has taken place and these have formed the bulk of timber exports since 1970. The total number of traded species rose from 28 in 1973 to 36 in 1988. Timber exports increased rapidly after independence in 1960 (Table 16.3), funding the economic development of the country. Subsequently, total log production for industrial use went up almost fivefold and peaked in 1977 at 5.3 million cu. m. The onset of resource exhaustion became evident after 1980 (see Figure 7.1 on p. 59). Fuelwood and charcoal consumption is difficult to assess, but was estimated by Catinot (1984) to amount to some 6 million cu. m in 1985 while the World Bank (1990) estimated 10 million cu. m for that year and predicted it would reach 14 million cu. m in 1995. Firewood need will further increase with population growth and is already considered to be a major cause of deforestation in the savanna regions and in the vicinity of urban centres. If the offi- cial estimates are correct, wood for domestic use (including minor quantities of utensil wood) has outstripped industrial wood con- sumption since 1980. Forest legislation, enacted in June 1912, allotted logging rights to private companies after payment of exploration and exploitation taxes. Timber concessions, parcelled out in blocks of 25 sq. km along the major rivers and the railway, extended in 1921 to over 6500 sq. km of acajou-rich forests in the south-eastern hinterland. Besides the annual permit fees, the Supplementary Forest Act of 1920 imposed species-indexed stumpage fees and reforestation taxes. Reforestation, however, rarely occurred because of the reluc- tance of timber companies to replant and because there was a lack of knowledge of appropriate methods and species requirements (Alba, 1956). At that time, agricultural encroachment was not a problem and the need for reforestation was less apparent. Table 16.2 Estimates of forest extent in Céte dIvoire Area (sq. km) % of land area Rain forests Lowland 26,890 8.5 Montane 138 0.04 Swamp 407 0.1 Mangrove 29 <0.01 Totals 27,464 8.64 (Based on analysis of Map 16.1. See Map Legend on p. 142 for details of sources.) COTE D’IvoIRE Table 16.3 Changes in volume of timber logged annually for industrial use (volumes in cu. m) Year Total log Log exports Processed‘ _ Processing production logs percentage 1900 8,750 8,750 ~ _ 1910 17,200 17,200 - - 1920 93,000 78,000 15,000 16 1930 138,800 113,800 25,000 18 1945° 80,800 11,300 69,500 86 1950 227,700 133,700 93,600 41 1955 372,600 208,300 164,300 44 1960° 1,034,000 823,000 211,000 20 1965 2,560,000 1,905,000 655,000 26 1970 3,548,000 2,511,000 1,037,000 29 1973' 5,169,000 3,497,000 1,672,000 32 1975 3,960,000 2,419,000 1,541,000 39 1977” 5,321,000 3,335,000 1,986,000 37 1980 4,969,000 3,064,000 1,905,000 38 1985 3,227,000 1,394,000 1,813,000 56 1986 3,020,000 1,020,000 2,000,000 66 1987 3,252,000 1,231,000 2,021,000 62 (Source: F. Vooren) : Logs delivered at processing plants. End products represent only 50 per cent of this volume. For example, in 1987, 2,021,000 cu. m of logs were processed to 998,000 cu. m of finished wood products (60 per cent for the export market and 40 per cent for domestic use; World Bank, 1990). War recession. Year of independence. Record year of log exports. Record year of total log production. uv Ben The revised Forestry Acts of 1935 and 1965 retained the prin- ciples of area taxation and volume fees, but stimulated domestic wood processing through a system of variable permit-renewal periods that favoured forest exploitation enterprises with process- ing facilities. Log exportation quotas linked to volumes of pro- cessed wood products were introducd in 1972 further to increase domestic processing (Table 16.3). The export quota system, how- ever, stimulated the maintenance of inefficient processing plants, kept up in order to obtain the required 40 per cent local process- ing and so continue the more profitable log exports. Currently, fis- cal reforms are proposed in an effort to eliminate inefficient and wasteful logging and processing operations (FAO, 1988b; World Bank, 1990). Past forest management efforts include silvicultural trials with different tree species (e.g. Martineau, 1932) and forest enrichment with line plantation techniques developed by Aubréville in the 1930s (Catinot, 1965). Trials with natural regeneration techniques were conducted in the 1950s but did not prove satisfactory. It was not until 1966 that industrial forest plantations were established. At the same time, a state reforestation service (SODEFOR) was created to pursue large scale reforestation programmes. Up to 1976, 224 sq. km of forested and cleared land had been planted with various tree species (mostly teak Tectona grandis), with vari- able success. Around 170 sq. km of plantation is estimated to remain from this planting period. From 1976, plantations were established mainly on clear-felled lands by removal of residual sec- ondary forests. High yielding, short rotation species such as fraké and cédréla Cedrela odorata received priority (Table 16.4). The first yields of timber from plantations were expected in 1990. 136 Forest management techniques have been developed on a pilot scale over the past ten years (see case study in chapter 8) and con- sist of progressive elimination, by poison girdling, of undesirable species in order to encourage growth in merchantable trees (Berthault, 1986). This treatment is said to favour regeneration of saleable species and is expected substantially to improve future umber production. The question remains, however, as to whether there are enough production forests left with sufficient residual stocks of saleable trees to make it worthwhile applying the treat- ment (FAO, 1988b). There are further concerns about the genetic erosion caused by destruction of the other tree species (including potentially merchantable ones) and about the future stem qualities of the trees growing in the open conditions created by the poison- ing programme. It is anticipated that this treatment will be initially applied to 5000 sq. km of production forests in the south-western region (World Bank, 1990). Village tree planting is also planned in the savanna zone, prin- cipally to meet the region’s future firewood needs. An initial pro- gramme of planting 100 sq. km of village woodlots was foreseen within the scope of the 1988 ‘Year of the Forest’ project. Earlier village forestry programmes established some 20 sq. km of teak plantations in the north of Cote d’Ivoire (FAO, 1988b). Deforestation Every study of deforestation in the tropics has concluded that Cote dIvoire has experienced the most rapid deforestation rate in the world (Gillis, 1988). As elsewhere in West Africa, there is hardly any stretch of natural, unmodified vegetation left in the country. Woodlands have been severely altered or degraded by past and present human activities such as burning, farming and grazing of animals; this probably started as early as 3000 years BP (Sowunmi, 1986). Savanna grasslands with patches of shrub and open wood- land remain; these can be considered a type of fire climax. The 11,500 sq. km of Comoe National Park in the extreme north-east constitutes a fine example of such anthropogenic woodlands. A mosaic of small forest patches is all that remains of the moist for- est belt in the densely populated south-eastern and central parts of the country. Intensive logging operations in the rain forest, in search of the highly valued Meliaceae (mahoganies) and other merchantable hardwood species, began shortly after 1950. Log exports rose to a peak of 3.5 million cu. m in 1973 and brought Cote d’Ivoire into fourth place among tropical timber exporting countries. There was no attempt to manage the land to obtain a sustainable yield of trees. Instead, the opening up of timber concessions was generally fol- lowed by total conversion of forested land by invading slash and Table 16.4 Industrial plantations by SODEFOR Species 1966-76 1977-81 Total ha Teak 8,851 8,432 17,283 Niangon, okoumé 2,295 48 2,343 Cédréla 403 8,886 9,289 Framiré, samba 4,535 4,681 9,216 Frakeé 1,869 20,112 21,981 Sipo, acajou, makoré 4,185 1 4,186 Others 241 1,984 2,225 Total ha 22,379 44,144 66,523 (Source: adapted from FAQ, 1988b) see. This is a view from Mt Nienokoue over the Hana River and Tai National Park. F. Lauginie/ WWF burn agriculturalists. Smallholder coffee and cacao plantations were also a major cause of large-scale forest clearance. Indeed, throughout this period, government policies actively encouraged the conversion of the forest to these plantations. In the mid-1970s, the process accelerated through a cacao and coffee boom and affected the still largely forested south-western part of the country. Mass immigration from impoverished and drought-stricken Sahelian countries further contributed to a rapid spread of cultivated areas. South-west Cote d’Ivoire, however, still possesses around 10,000 sq. km of forest in gazetted reserves and this includes the 3500 sq. km Tai National Park. Conservation efforts should be directed at preserving this Upper Guinea Refuge Area as it is exceptionally rich in endemic plant and animal species. Biodiversity Cote d’Ivoire contains some of the most important sites for bio- logical diversity in West Africa. Of particular importance is the Tai National Park and the contiguous N’Zo Faunal Reserve. These include the largest area of undisturbed lowland rain forest in West Africa and are an important centre of diversity for many species of plants and animals. Around 4700 species of plant occur in the country, including 90 or so endemics (Davis et al., 1986). Mt Nimba, with over 2000 species, is particularly rich, while some 1300 plant species have been recorded in Tai. There are 17 species of primate in Cote dIvoire (Oates, 1986) and five of them are listed as threatened (Lee er a/., 1988). These COTE D’ IVOIRE include the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes of which there is a well- known tool-using population in Tai National Park. Other threat- ened primates are the red-capped mangabey Cercocebus torquatus, the olive colobus Procolobus the western red colobus Procolobus [badius] badius and the diana monkey Cercopithecus diana. Cote d'Ivoire holds important populations of a number of large mammals, including around 3600 elephants Loxodonta africana, and other threatened species such as the manatee 77ichechus sene- galensis and pygmy hippopotamus Choeropsis liberiensis. Two rare viverrids, Johnston’s genet Genetta johnston and Leighton’s linsang Poiana richardsoni lhiberrensis occur in the forest zone. The threat- ened zebra and Jentink’s duikers (Cephalophus zebra and C. jentinki), found in the south-west of the country, are among the 19 antelope species that have been recorded in Cote d’Ivoire (Roth and Hoppe-Dominik, 1990). Of the 668 species of bird recorded for Cote dIvoire (Stuart et al., 1990), seven are listed as threatened. All of these are forest species (Collar and Stuart, 1985) and all have been recorded in Tai National Park. This park, listed by Unesco as a Biosphere reserve, may be one of the last strongholds for the white-breasted guineafowl Agelastes meleagrides. Two endemic amphibians, Bufo danielae and Kassina lamotte1, are restricted to the forests in the south-west. There are eight amphibian species of conservation concern in the country verus, badius Conservation Areas and Initiatives Between 1968 and 1974, Cote d’Ivoire issued a series of decrees to conserve some of its biotic diversity in national parks and nature reserves (Table 16.5). Six per cent of the land area is covered by such conservation areas. Considerable efforts are made to set aside a balanced sample of the major vegetation types and thus to pre- serve some of the country’s genetic capital. Biodiversity in plant and animal communities locally attains relatively important levels through the fact that some major Pleistocene refuge areas were located near or on the country’s territory. Mention has already been made of the Cape Palmas and Cape Three Point refuges and the Nimba mountain areas. Also of special value are some biotopes that can be found in the lagoon district, in the forest-savanna eco- tone and in the arid savannas. Zebra duiker Cephalophus zebra, zs a threatened forest species found only in Cote dIvoire, Liberia and Sierra Leone. F. Lauginie/WWF COTE D’IVOIRE I Map 16.1 Céte d'Ivoire Rain Forest lowland 2 montane * inland swamp mangrove 10°N Conservation areas existing Non Forest * Taken from White (1983) 1:3,000,000 0 50 100 150 km GUINEA _- >" 0 50 100 miles 8°N : Mont Sangbe Mont Nimba 2 Ses LIBERIA ee2 Si Fa Mount Kopel 2 i (424m) eS 0 4 a Bo gq —, 6°W 8°W 10°W 138 COTE D’IvVoIRE BURKINA FASO utBandama " ‘ = WEF OF GUINEA GHANA Macias Sa 9° 139 COTE D’ IVOIRE Table 16.5 Conservation areas of Cote d’Ivoire Forest reserves are not included or mapped. For data on Biosphere reserves and World Heritage sites see chapter 9. Area (sq. km) National Parks Azagny* 190 Bancot 30 Comoé 11,500 Iles Ehotile* 105 Marahoueée* 1,010 Mont Pekoe* 340 Mont Sangbe* 950 plain 3,500 Strict Nature Reserves Mont Nimba* 50 Fauna and Flora Reserves Haut Bandama 1,230 Botanical Reserves Divo 74 Partial Faunal Reserve N’Zo'* 950 Total 19,929 (Sources: TUCN, 1990; WCMC, im Mitr.) * Area with moist forest within its boundaries according to Map 16.1 t Banco National Park does contain some moist forest but not enough to appear on Map 16.1. Pa80 sq. km of N’Zo reserve has now been inundated by Buyo reservoir. Conservation areas are, however, under severe human pressure and they still lack efficient protection and management. Furthermore, it has become increasingly evident that conservation strategies that rely heavily on legal measures and police action have little or no effect. Active involvement of the local populations in, for instance, buffer zone management (currently being investigated for Tai (see case study) and Marahoué national parks), may offer better possibilities to limit poaching and illegal settlement. Hunting was officially closed in 1974 by a presidential order and a ban on logging activities in the entire savanna region was decreed References Alba, P. (1956) Le développement de la foresterie en Afrique Occidentale Frangaise. Journal of the West African Science Association 2: 158-71. Arnoud, J. C. and Sournia, G. (1980) Les foréts de Céte dIvoire. Essai de synthése géographique. Annals of the University of Abidjan, series G (Géography) YX: 5-93. Aubreville, A. (1949) Climats, Foréts et Désertification de l'Afrique Tropicale. Société d’Editions Géographiques, Maritimes Coloniales, Paris, France. Aubreville, A. (1957) Ala recherche de la forét en Cote d’Ivoire. Bois et Foréts des Tropiques 56: 17-32; 57: 12-27. Berthault, J. G. (1986) Etude de l’Effet d’Interventions Sylvicoles sur la Régénération Naturelle au Sein d’un Périmétre Expérimental d’Aménagement en Forét Dense Humide. Unpublished thesis, University of Nancy, France. Bertrand, A. (1983) La déforestation en zone de forét de Céte d'Ivoire. Bois et Foréts des Tropiques 202: 3-18. 140 in 1982. Notwithstanding these measures, elephant populations have been reduced from 10,000 animals in 1950, to 5000 in 1980, to current estimates of 3600 individuals (see chapter 4); savanna woodlands continue to be cut down for fuelwood needs. Hunting activities are also still widespread. Indeed, bushmeat from forest duikers Cephalophus spp., antelopes, monkeys, bushpigs Potamochoerus porcus and smaller game such as porcupines Hystrix cristata and cane rats Thryonomys swinderianus, is highly appreci- ated and is traded at local markets and served in numerous popu- lar restaurants in Abidjan. An attempt to undermine bushmeat traffic was initiated in 1988 by the creation of the Abokouamékro game farm near Yamoussoukro. This project aims to combine wildlife tourism with bushmeat production. A World Bank loan recently contributed to improving the infra- structure and tourist potential of Comoé and Azagny national parks. A further proposed loan will support rehabilitation and man- agement operations in Tai, Marahoueé and Banco national parks. Besides wildlife and nature tourism, scientific research (for instance, on the still unexploited potential of their genetic resources) and education have been deemed as major objectives for these conservation areas. Recent conservation initiatives include an African Development Bank study of a fairly undisturbed forest region in the coastal area of Fresco. Some 450 sq. km of mangrove habitats — containing major populations of wetland birds, nesting sea turtles and mana- tees, together with fauna-rich inland forests — are proposed for pro- tection in a regional park. The hinterland of Tabou in the south-western region deserves further attention. This was once covered by the most humid type of evergreen forest in Cote d’Ivoire and, as a Pleistocene refuge, is exceptionally rich in endemic plant and animal species (Aubréville, 1957; Guillaumet, 1967). Most of the area is now lost to agro- industrial oil palm and rubber plantations, active timber exploita- tion and slash and burn agriculture. A last, virtually intact, but unprotected, remainder of this unique biome can be found in the Mounts Kopé-Hagle hilltop range, located near the Tai National Park. Rare or unique tree species such as Brachystegia spp., Didelotia unifoholata and Cynometra ananta can still be found on these inaccessible hilltops where forest exploitation has not occurred. However, slash and burn cultivators, forced uphill by the expanding oil palm plantations, are taking possession of the steep hillsides and threaten the continued existence of this last per- humid forest sanctuary in Cote d’Ivoire. Catinot, R. (1965) Sylviculture tropicale en forét dense africaine. Bois et Foréts des Tropiques 100: 5-18; 101: 3-6; 102: 3-16; 103: 3-16; 104: 17-31. Catinot, R. (1984) Appui a Sodefor pour!’Implantation d’un Programme de Protection Contre les Incendies de Foréts. Rapport en sylviculture et ameénagement FO: TCP/IVC/2304 (T). FAO, Rome, Italy. Chevalier, A. (1908) La forét vierge de la Céte d'Ivoire. La Géographie 17: 201-10. Collar, N. J. and Stuart, S. N. (1985) Threatened Birds of Africa and Related Islands. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book Part 1. ICBP/IUCN, Cambridge, UK. 761 pp. Davis, S. D., Droop, S. J. M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C. J., Villa-Lobos, J. L., Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986) Plants in Danger: What do we know? YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. FAO (1988a) An Interim Report on the State of Forest Resources in the Developing Countries. FAO, Rome, Italy. 18 pp. Tal NATIONAL PARK BUFFER ZONE The Tai National Park covers an area of 3300 sq. km in south- western Cote d’Ivoire. It was established as a national park in 1972 and declared a World Heritage site in 1982. It is the largest fully protected area in the Upper Guinea forest block and pes- simists would say that it is the only area that is sufficiently large and secure to guarantee the survival of the numerous animal and plant species endemic to this region. Species such as the pygmy hippopotamus, Jentink’s and zebra duikers and chimpanzees, rare elsewhere in the Upper Guinea zone, are comparatively numerous in Tai. IUCN’s review of the protected area systems of the Afrotropical realm ranked the Tai National Park as the sin- gle highest priority for rain forest conservation in West Africa. The area has been the subject of many long term ecological studies (Summarised in Guillaumet er a/., 1984). The Tai is now a focal area for the Dutch Tropenbos scheme which promotes ecological research for wise use of rain forests throughout the tropics. WWF also supports conservation through the provision of equipment for the staff, the preparation of a management plan and help with the demarcation of the boundaries. However, the Tai National Park suffers from acute problems. The Tai region has experienced spectacular population growth in the last few decades. Baoulé and Dioula peoples from the north of the country have moved into the forest to grow cof- fee and cacao, initially with encouragement from the govern- ment. This deprived the traditional forest dwelling Gur and Oubi peoples of their community forests and forced many of them into illegal land settlement and poaching. Forced reset- tlement of various peoples in response to changing buffer zone boundaries has built up considerable resentment among the local populations. At present any agricultural activity even in the Tai buffer zone is regarded by the authorities as a direct threat to the integrity of the protected area. The problems of the buffer zones of Tai National Park have been particularly contentious. Some people feel that the buffer zone should be totally protected and should be a de facto exten- sion of the park itself. Others see that sustainable use of the buffer zone forest to meet the needs of local communities is the highest priority, so as to relieve pressure on the central area. One of the more interesting schemes proposed for the buffer zone by the Dutch Tropenbos programme is to promote the COTE D’IVOIRE Giant snails Achatina sp. are widely harvested for food in West Afnca. There is a proposal to promote their use in the buffer zone around Tai National Park. I. and D. Gordon sustained yield management of populations of the African giant snail Achatina achatina. These snails provide a protein rich food —_ | which is highly appreciated by the local population. It is esu- mated that 8000 tons were sold in Cote d’Ivoire in 1986. The | snails are easy to catch, can be kept alive for up to a week, and come ready packed for transport in their own shells. Each snail provides 100-300 grams of meat with no waste. The snails pro- | duce up to 200 eggs per year and grow rapidly. They live in forested areas and in regenerating second growth around farms. | The Dutch believe that by introducing measures to limit the off- take of these snails and to promote their reproduction, they could become a major economic justification for the local people to maintain forest in the buffer zone around Tai. Source: Jeff Sayer FAO (1988b) Cote d'Ivoire. Programme Sectoriel Forestier. Rapport de Préparation. Volumes 1 and 2 14/88 CP-IVC 22. FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO (1991) FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1978-1989. FAO Forestry Series No. 24 and FAO Statistics Senes No. 97. FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO/UNEP (1981) Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project. Part 2: Country Briefs. FAO, Rome, Italy. Gillis, M. (1988) West Africa: resource management policies and the tropical forest. In: Public Policies and the Misuse of Forest Resources. Repetto, R. and Gillis, M. (eds), pp. 299-351. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Guillaumet, J. L. (1967) Recherches sur la végétation et la flore de la région du Bas-Cavally (Cote d'Ivoire). Mémoire ORSTOM 20: 1-247. Guillaumet, J. L., Conturier, G. and Dosso, H. (eds) (1984) Recherche et Aménagement en Milieu forestier Tropical Humide: le Projet Tai de Cote d’Ivoire. MAB Technical Notes No. 15. Unesco, Paris, France. Hall, J. B. and Swaine, M. D. (1981) Distribution and ecology of vascular plants in a tropical rain forest. Forest vegetation in Ghana. Geobotany 1. Lee, P. J., Thornback, J. and Bennett, E. L. (1988) Threatened Primates of Africa. The IUCN Red Data Book. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Lena, P. (1984) Le développement des activités humaines. In: Recherche et Aménagement en Milieu forestier Tropical Humide: le Project Tai de Cote d’Ivoire. Guillaumet, J. L., Couturier, G. and Dosso, H. (eds), pp. 58-112. MAB Technical Notes No. 15. Unesco, Paris, France. Mangenot, G. (1955) Etudes sur les foréts de plaines et plateaux de Cote d'Ivoire. IFAN, Etudes Eburnéennes 4: 5-61. Martineau, A. (1932) Etudes sur l’accroissement des arbres en Cote d'Ivoire. Actes et Comptes Rendus de l’Association Colonies- Sciences 9: 183-7. 141 COTE D’ IVOIRE Meniaud, J. (1922) La Forét de la Cote d'Ivoire et son Exploitation. Publications Africaines, Paris, France. Ministére des Eaux et Foréts (1988) 1988-2015. République de Cote d'Ivoire. Oates, J. F. (1986) Action Plan for African Primate Conservation 1986-1990. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Stony Brook, New York, USA. Paivinen, R. and Witt, R. (1989) The Methodology Development Project for Tropical Forest Cover Assessment in West Africa. Unpublished report. UNEP/GRID, Geneva, Switzerland. Roth, H. H. and Hoppe-Dominik, B. (1990) Ivory Coast. In: Antelopes Global Survey and Regional Action Plans. Part 3: West and Central Africa. East, R. (ed.). (UCN, Gland, Switzerland. Schnell, R. (1952) Végétation et Flore de la Région Montagneuse des Monts Nimba. IFAN, 22, Dakar, Senegal. Sowunmi, M. A. (1986) Change of vegetation with time. In: Plant Ecology in West Africa. Lawson, G. W. (ed.), pp. 273-307. John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA. Stuart, S. N., Adams, R. J. and Jenkins, M. D. (1990) Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands: Conservation, Management and Sustainable Use. Occasional Papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 6. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Voorhoeve, A. G. (1979) Liberian High Forest Trees. 2nd Edition. Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands. World Bank (1990) Forestry Sector Project, Republic of Cote d'Ivoire. Staff appraisal report No. 7421-RCI. Plan Directeur Forestier Authorship Fred Vooren, Forestry Department, University of Wageningen, The Netherlands with contributions from Jeff Sayer, IUCN. Map 16.1 Forest cover in Cote d’Ivoire Information on Cote d’Ivoire’s remaining moist forests was digitally extracted from 1989-90 UNEP/GRID data which accompanies an unpublished report The Methodology Development Project for Tropical Forest Cover Assessment in West Africa (Paivinen and Witt, 1989). Forest and non-forest boundaries for West Africa have been mapped by UNEP/GEMS/GRID. Together with the EEC and FINNIDA, they have delimited these boundaries using 1 km resolution NOAA/AVHRR-LAC satellite data. These data have been generalised for this Atlas to show 2 x 2 km squares which are predominantly covered in forest. Higher resolution satellite data (Landsat MSS and TM, SPOT) and field data from Ghana, Cote dIvoire and Nigeria were also used. Forest and non-forest data have been categorised into five vegetation types: forest (closed, defined as greater than 40 per cent canopy closure); fallow (mixed agriculture, clear-cut and degraded forest); savanna (includes open forests in the savanna zone and urban areas); mangrove and water. This dataset also portrays areas obscured by cloud. The ‘forest’ and ‘mangrove’ classification and cloud obscured areas have been mapped here. Montane, lowland rain forest, mangrove and swamp forest, as shown on Map 16.1, have been demarcated by overlaying White’s vegetation map (1983) on to the UNEP/GEMS/GRID ‘forest’ and ‘mangrove’ categories. Protected area spatial data are taken from two sources, namely a blue-line 1:1 million map (no title, nd) showing the delimitation of forest classes, which includes conservation areas, and a 1:800,000 scale map Cote d'Ivoire (1988) published by Michelin, Paris showing national parks and reserves. li7 seastern Africa SUDAN | Land area 2,376,000 sq. km | Population (mid-1990) 25.2 million Population growth rate in 1990 2.9 per cent Population projected to 2020 54.6 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS340 Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)’ 6,400 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)’ 40 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 2,087,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst nd Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 20,112,000 cu.m Processed wood productiont 15,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst nd | ETHIOPIA Land area 1,101,000 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 51.7 million Population growth rate in 1990 2.0 per cent Population projected to 2020 126 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS120 Rain forest (see Map 17.1) 47,256 sq. km Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)° 27,500 sq. km+ | Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)* 60 sq. km | Industrial roundwood productiont 1,756,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst nd Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 37,884,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 49,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst nd SOMALIA Land area 627,340 sq. km | Population (mid-1990) 8.4 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.1 per cent Population projected to 2020 18.7 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS170 Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)* 14,800 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)° 30 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 90,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exports{ nd Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 6,896,000 cu. m DJIBOUTI Land area 23,180 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 0.4 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.0 per cent Population projected to 2020 1 million Gross national product per capita (1988) nd Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)° 10 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)° nd Industrial roundwood productiont nd Industrial roundwood exports nd Fuelwood and charcoal productiont nd Processed wood productiont nd Processed wood exportst nd KENYA Land area 569,690 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 24.6 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.8 per cent Population projected to 2020 60.5 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS360 Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980) 6900 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5) 110 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 1,766,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst nd Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 33,884,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 237,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst 1000 cu.m TANZANIA Land area 886,040 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 26 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.7 per cent Population projected to 2020 68.8 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS160 Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)* 14,400 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)’ 100 sg. km Industrial roundwood productiont 1,989,000 sq. km Industrial roundwood exportst nd Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 31,114,000 cu. m * FAO (19880) t 1989 data from FAO (1991) Processed wood productiont 14,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst nd Processed wood productiont 171,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst 6000 cu.m $ Figure includes coniferous and bamboo forest, estimated by FAO (1988q) to cover 16,000 sq. km in 1980 The East African nations form a cohesive unit in discussions on moist forests as they share the problems of small, fragmented areas of forest under extreme pressure of encroachment and exploitation. Yet these forest patches, in most countries making up less than 2 per cent of the land area, have great significance for both water catchment and for the con- servation of biological diversity. While East Africa has long been noted for its excellent network of protected areas, these were usually developed for savanna animals — not for forest biota. Despite high diversity and endemism among plants, birds, mammals and other taxa, few forest areas are included in the national parks network. Forest reserve status, while no longer allowing clear-felling, does permit heavy levels of exploitation and often cannot prevent encroachment. With the deteriorating economic situation there has been a reduction in management capability and it is likely that the biodiversity of East Africa’s forests will be increasingly at risk in the future. INTRODUCTION The six East African nations of Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti, Kenya and Tanzania share many similarities with respect to their for- est cover. For instance, their very restricted closed canopy moist forests have all suffered severe deforestation in the past hundred years. The remaining forest patches are often isolated, biologically diverse and contain numerous local endemics, often of less mobile taxa. Nevertheless, the forests have surprising levels of similarity in structure and species composition. In addition, most of the forests are under intense pressure from high and growing populations, all of whom need land, fuel, poles and other resources. Lastly, forest products are not major export items in any of these countries. Forests In chapter 1 the limitations of the forest types considered within this Atlas are described. In East Africa it becomes particularly important to appreciate these limits, since there is a wide variety 143 EASTERN AFRICA of forest and bushland types, some of which will not be included even though they may be dense, to the point of having a closed canopy. The maps in this chapter indicate lowland and montane rain forest, swamp forest and mangrove, but exclude those closed and open canopy formations that occur in drylands (such as Acacia-Commiphora woodlands). Table 17.1 is a summary of the formations occurring in eastern Africa that lie within the scope of this Atlas, with some indication of their original extent. As may be seen, lowland rain forests occur only in Kenya-— except for relict inland forest mosaics with grassland in Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania — and as coastal forest mosaics in Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania. Swamp forests occur only in Tanzania. Montane rain forests are extensive as mosaics with other vegetation in all countries except Djibouti, while mangrove is represented in all countries. East African forests usually require at least 800 mm rainfall for full development, and do not grow above 3000 m altitude (Lind and Morrison, 1974). There is similarity in forest structure and, to some extent, species composition across geographically wide areas in the region. For example, the Imatongs of Sudan, Gambella of Ethiopia, Cheranganis of Kenya and Mt Meru of Tanzania have similar forest communities at corresponding altitudes. Local conditions of exposure, geology, soil depth, mist frequency and seasonality of rain- fall all lead to a finer pattern of community differentiation than White (1983) was able to portray. No standardised detailed classification is available for eastern Africa and communities are best described by dominant species and environmental features. The mangrove flora of East Africa is richer and totally different from that of West Africa. Nine tree species occur, all with wide Indo-Pacific ranges; all are found in Kenya and Tanzania, but only three reach the Red Sea coasts of Sudan and Ethiopia (White, 1983). Mangrove distribution is very fragmented, with concentra- tions at the mouths of larger rivers such as the Rufiji. Table 17.1 Forest type Sudan Ethiopia Lowland dryland rain forests De Guineo-Congolian rain forests: drier types lla. Guineo-Congolian mosaic of rain forest and grassland 22,800 16. East African coastal mosaic: (a) Zanzibar Inhambane (b) forest patches 17. Cultivation and secondary grassland replacing upland and montane forest 12,700 Lowland wetland rain forests 8. Swamp Montane rain forests 19a. Afromontane vegetation 4,200 213,400 65. Altimontane vegetation 23,200 Mangrove 77. Mangrove Forest Resources and Management Forestry has long been a major land use activity in eastern Africa. In Kenya and Tanzania, the forestry services were established, many reserves gazetted and resources documented by 1905 (Rodgers, in press). Reservation was for maintaining timber value and, in many regions, for water catchment. Early forestry was not conscious of the need for biological diversity conservation, and the development of the national park concept focused almost exclusively on the large mam- mal faunas of the savanna woodlands and grasslands, not the forests. However, forestry has changed in its attitude to natural forest resources. Until the 1960s much natural forest, after selective log- ging, was converted to large scale exotic monoculture plantations (Pinus patula and Cupressus lusitanica were common choices). This was due to the perceived low proportion of favoured indigenous species, such as Ocotea, and inadequate regeneration. However, all nations have now formally renounced such practices and the remaining forests are seen as providing a multiplicity of benefits: climate buffering, water, timber (from a much greater mix of species) and genetic resource conservation. High rainfall forest land is also important in providing environ- mental services in support of agriculture. But forest lands can pro- duce high income cash crops such as tea and coffee and support dense populations. In Kenya only 12 per cent of the land is suitable for rain-fed agriculture and one-quarter of this is forest reserve. The human population is largely dependent on agriculture (88 per cent) and is growing at 3.8 per cent per annum. The pressures on forest land are thus immense and increasing. This is mirrored throughout East Africa (Rodgers, in press; Hallsworth, 1982). These pressures will, in the long term, materially affect the ability of the forest sector to maintain goods and services. Encroachment for agricultural land remains a major threat, as described by Kokwaro (1988) for Kakamega Forest in Kenya. Moist forest types and their distribution in Eastern Africa, with figures giving the estimated original extent of each type (in sq. km) Somalia Kenya Tanzania Djibouti 2,900 11,500 12,700 18,200 28,400 97,700 4,600 600 800 1,200 28,900 50,300 1,800 1,200 1,800 3,100 5,300 300 (Sources: forest types: from White, 1983; forest extent data: MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986) 144 Garnett’s bushbaby Galago garnettil, is a? common in Diani forest on the coast of Kenya. zocturnal primate that 1s C. Harcourt Slowly forestry departments are recognising that protection by force cannot maintain forest cover in the long run. In many areas protection measures have failed, largely as a result of economic problems. Tanzania, for example, no longer has the field capabil- ity to protect forests. This is reflected in the lack of convictions for forest offences. Governments, often assisted by international aid agencies, are attempting to develop sustainable land use practices in key forest areas so as to reduce pressure on forest resources. Projects usually involve a combination of community agroforestry techniques for fuelwood production, improved agricultural pro- ductivity, conservation awareness and increased forest protection. Tanzania, Kenya and Ethiopia have either completed or have begun a Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP) and a National Conservation Strategy (NCS). The intention of such plans has been to reinforce the long-term strategic importance of natural forests in agriculture, water and energy. The TRAP views com- mercial use as a secondary activity wherever there are environ- mental concerns, and calls for industrial wood needs to be met from plantations on non-forest land. Such programmes have, how- ever, met with mixed success. The Tanzanian TFAP forest sector review, for example, contrasts markedly with the Kenya review in its detailed coverage of environmental issues. Detailed planning is still inadequate and few natural forests have working or management plans. Mapping is incomplete, resource inventories and documentation usually poor. There is a need for much greater investment in the natural forest if it is to survive and continue to provide resources in the face of growing land pressure. Surveys of forest status can be found in FAO/UNEP (1981) and are further summarised in FAO (1988a). The World Bank has provided status reports on the forestry sector for many countries, although these do not always comment on natural forest or bio- diversity. MacKinnon and MacKinnon (1986) provided a compre- hensive review of conservation needs for protected areas of Africa based on White’s vegetation types. Descriptions of exisung protected areas — regrettably, these are rarely forests — are found in IUCN (1987a, b). Patterns of biodiversity are detailed in Stuart ez al. (1990). {RN AFRICA SUDAN Rain forests in Sudan are restricted to forest and grassland mosaics on the Imatong, Dongotona and Didinga mountains on the southern bor- der of the country, and to the wetter south-western border with Zaire (see Figure 17.1; it has not been possible to obtain a recent, accurate veg- etation map of Sudan showing ‘actual’ closed moist forest). Mangroves occur only in small and scattered patches on the Rad Sea coast, the principal species being Avicennia marma, Rluzophora and Bruguiera. The Southern Mountains are in three main blocks, Imatong, Dongotona and Didinga, comprising a total mountain area of 60,000 sq. km. The highest point is 3187 m at Kinyeti on the Imatongs, Mt Lotuke is 2963 m on Didinga and Dongtona reaches 2800 m (Jackson, 1956). Receiving an annual rainfall of 1500 mm the mountains have great catchment value and support cash crops such as tea, a growing agricultural population, and both natural forest and plantation logging industries. The area above 2500 m has never been cultivated (Jenkins et a/., 1977). The Imatongs are by far the largest mountains, and Jenkins ez al. (1977) described lowland, lower montane and upper montane forest zones on them. The lowland forests are scattered patches of Milicia, Khaya and Albizia trees, while the lower montane forests are more diverse with Croton, Olea, Ocotea, Podocarpus, Prunus, Syzygium and Teclea. The upper montane forests have Hagenia, Maesa and Podocarpus species merging into Gnidia-Hypericum heath. Upper montane forest is found on Didinga, which has only tiny patches of this type, while the Dongotona massif has a 17 sq. km relict of it. Tropical rain forest (the drier type of Guineo-Congolian rain forest) exists in small patches in the west and south of Sudan, e.g. around Talanga, Lott, Lamboni at the foot of the Imatongs, Azza in Meridi District and Yambio on the Aloma plateau. Annual rainfall exceeds 1300 mm and emergent trees can reach 50 m. Celtis, Chrysophylluun Figure 17.1. Approximate ecological zones of Sudan. Rain forests are restricted to the south and south-west Source: Hillman, 1985 % 2 % Desert ~Sudd Swamps Floodplain Rain Forest SBA 7 Moritarie}Forest 145 EASTERN AFRICA Table 17.2. Major forest protected areas of eastern Africa SUDAN Existing Protected Areas Size (sq. km) Protected Area Formally Size (sq. km) Proposed by Government Bengangai GR 170 Imatong Mountains NCA 1,000 Bire Kpatuos GR 5 Jebel Marra Massif NCA 1,500 Further Requirements: Red Sea Hills; upgrade forest GRs and NCAs to full NP ETHIOPIA Bale Mountains NP 2,471 Gambella NP 5,061 Simen Mountains NP Small forest area Nechisar NP Small forest area Further Requirements: Upgrade Gambella GR to NP; Illubabor forests (lower forests); Gara Ades Mount (dry montane forest); Lakes Asaita and Gargori (riverine forest); Belleta Sai and Gore to Tepi forests (for coffee and for upland forest); Tiro Boter (medium alti- tude forest); Neghelli-Arero forest patches SOMALIA AND DJIBOUTI Forét du Day NP 100 Daalo Forest NP 2,510 Gaan Libaah NP 500 Further Requirements: Libaah Xeela Helleh as a national park; Ahl Mescat Mts and Wagger Mts as a reserve; Juba and Scebeli rivers (riparian forest); Jowhar-Warshek (Mogadishu GR) KENYA Aberdare NP 766 (part forest) Marsabit NP 360 Mt Elgon NP 169 (part forest) Diani Marine NP Complex (may have forest) Mt Kenya NP 715 (part forest) Kakamega NP+ 45 (part forest) Nairobi NP 117 (part forest) Arabuko-Sokoke NR 43 South-Western Mau NR 430 Nandi North NR 34 Boni National NaR 1,339 (little forest) Marsabit NaR 21 (little forest) Masai Mara NaR 1,510 (little forest) Shimba Hills NaR 193 (little forest) Tana River Primate NaR 169 (little forest) Further Requirements: Nature reserve or park status for: part of Cheranganis, much more of Kakamega, part of Ngurimans, Taita Hills, more forest for Mt Kenya TANZANIA* Arusha NP <50 Uzungwa NP 500 Gombe NP <10 Kilimanjaro NP <20 Mahale Mountain NP <200 Rubondo 180 Ruhaha 20 Mt Meru 1000 Mikumi NP <10 Ngorongoro CA <200 Selous GR <100 (+1000 thicket) Further Requirements: Itigi Thicket; Southern Highlands; Minziro; Uluguru Mts; E and W Usambara Mts; Rufiji Delta mangroves GR: Game Reserve NaR: National Reserve + Exists as a NaR, proposed as a NP NP: National Park CA: Conservation Area Sizes given here are estimates of closed forest extent within existing and proposed protected areas NR: Nature Reserve NCA: Nature Conservation Area. 146 Bahr el’ Arab Figure 17.2. Conservation areas of Sudan (Source: Hillman, 1985) albidum, Erythrophleum, Entandrophragma angolense, Holoptelea grandis, Khaya, Maesopsis eninu and Milcia are typical canopy species and genera. There are no recent reliable estimates of forest cover in Sudan. The World Bank (1986) gives an overall forest area estimate of 940,000 sq. km, with 16,200 sq. km of tropical high forest, all in south Equatoria Province. FAO (1988a) estimates a total of 6400 sq. km of closed forest, based on data in FAO/UNEP (1981) from a sur- vey in the 1970s. Persson (1975) quoted figures of 12,000 sq. km of gazetted forest reserve, of which 3000 sq. km was in high forest. Imatong Central Forest Reserve alone is 1032 sq. km (Jenkins er al., 1977). Deforestation is said to be rapid, estimated at 40 sq. km per annum for the years 1981—5 (FAO, 1988a). The World Bank (1986) stressed the severe consequences of deforestation for agriculture. Biodiversity There is little information on the biodiversity of Sudan’s forest. Brenan’s (1978) review of plant diversity and endemism in Africa, suggests overall diversity is low: about 3200 species of which fewer than 50 (thatis, less than 1.5 per cent of the total) are endemic. These are mainly dryland species and include 11 endemics of the Jebel Marra massif (Wickens, 1976), an example of which is Kickxza dibolo- phylla. The Imatong Mountains are recognised as being of outstand- ing biological importance, on account of their geographical position and the variety of plant and animal life in the forest and non-forest habitats. A subspecies of spotted ground-thrush Turdus fischeri maxis was recently named from the Lotti Forest on the south-west Imatongs (Collar and Stuart, 1985). EASTERN AFRICA Table 17.3. Conservation areas of Sudan Existing and proposed areas are listed below. Marine national parks and bird sanctuaries are not listed. For data on Biosphere reserves see chapter 9. For locations see Figure 17.2. Existing area Proposed area Number National Parks (sq. km) (sq. km) Bandingilo 16,500 1 Boma 22,800 2 Dinder 8,900 3 Lantoto 760 4 Nimule 410 5 Radomt+ 12,500 Shambe 620 6 Southern 23,000 U Wildlife Sanctuaries Arkawitt 820 Arkawit-Sinkatt 120 Khartoum Sunt Forest} 15 Game Reserves Abrocht nd Ashana 900 8 Bengangai 170 9 Bire Kpatuos 5 10 Boro 1,500 11 Chelkou 5,500 12 Fanyikango Island 480 13 Juba 200 14 Kidepo 1,200 15 Machart nd Mbarizunga 10 16 Meshra 4,500 17 Mongallat 75 Numatina 2,100 18 Rahadt 3,500 Sabalokat 1,160 Tokart 6,300 Wadi Howart nd Zerat 9,700 19 Nature Conservation Areas Imatong Mountains 1,000 20 Jebel Elbat 4,800 Jebel Marra Massif 1,500 21 Lake Ambadit 1,500 Lake Not nd Totals 116,985 15,560 (Source: IUCN, 1990b; WCMC mm itr.) t+ Not mapped — no location data available to this project. Areas with moist forest are listed in Table 17.2 Conservation Areas While Sudan already has a large area gazetted as national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves (see Figure 17.2), with others proposed, there is little protection for the forests. The Imatongs and other southern mountain forests are forest reserves and so still open to legal exploitation. Their gazettement as full national parks is a major priority (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986). The Red Sea Hills and Jebel Marra also need protection. Two game reserves, Bengangai and Bire Kpatuos totalling 175 sq. km, protect mammals in the south-western lowland forest, but no information is available on the effectiveness of this protection for the total forest ecosystem. Details are given in Tables 17.2 and 17.3. 147 EASTERN AFRICA ETHIOPIA Ethiopia has extensive and varied montane rain forests (Table 17.1, Map 17.1). Nine distinct associations each with several con- stituent communities, are recognised (Friis and Tadesse, 1988). Humid, mixed forests occur in southern Ethiopia and Harerge province, with genera of the species Podocarpus, Croton, Olea and Schefflera, and Hagenia at higher altitudes. In the south-west, broadleaved forests with Ugandan affinities are found. Aningeria adolfi-friedericit is the main emergent, reaching a height of 40 m. In addition, some riparian forests occur along water courses in the lowlands. Small areas of mangrove (mainly Avicenmia) occur in shallow bays on the Eritrea coast. Historical estimates suggest some 87 per cent of the Ethiopian highlands had forest and woodland cover, but this was reduced to 40 per cent by 1950 and just 5.6 per cent by 1980 (IUCN, 1990a). Forest in the entire country declined from an original cover of 35 per cent to 16 per cent by 1952, 3.6 per cent by 1980, 2.7 per cent by 1987 and an estimated 2.4 per cent in 1990. Deforestation rates estimated from Pohjonen and Pukkala (1990) are shown in Table 17.4 but these figures are for wood- land and thicket as well as ‘forest’ as defined in this Atlas. This forest loss and the subsequent marginal agriculture have led to some 270,000 sq. km of the 540,000 sq. km plateau area having moderate or serious erosion, causing a soil loss of 1.5 billion tonnes per annum. Forests are destroyed for fuelwood, and an estimated 10,000 sq. km of fast growing plantations are needed to prevent con- tinued loss of natural forests. Today there are 3100 sq. km of plantation, but some of these contain slow growing species such as Cupressus lusitanica, and many are poorly stocked. If villagers were to change from cow dung fuel to wood, and so restore soil fertility, then some 20,000—30,000 sq. km of plantations would be needed. If the population reaches 70 million people by the year 2000 (almost 52 million today and 2 per cent growth) then 30,000—40,000 sq. km would be needed. Continuous defor- estation, therefore, seems inevitable (Pohjonen and Pukkala, 1990). Map 17.1 shows 47,256 sq. km of closed canopy forest, all of it montane (for sources see legend for Map 17.1 on p. 160). In com- parison with the estimates made by FAO (1988a) this figure is gen- erous and is taken to include not only broadleaved forest (the FAO 1980 figure is 27,500 sq. km) but also coniferous forest (FAO 1980, 8000 sq. km) and bamboo. Most of the estimated 27,500 sq. km of closed broadleaved forest is in the south-west, and 60 per cent is in the Illubabor Administrative Region. This area has some 140 million cu. m of standing timber of which 50-60 per cent was considered to be merchantable species (Chaffey, 1979). Wood use is estimated at 24 million cu. m per annum, which is 60 per Table 17.4 Deforestation rates for the Ethiopian Highlands Year Forest area Deforestation (sq. km) Loss rate per annum (sq. km) 1900 530,000 = 1950 210,000 6,400 1965 90,000 8,000 1985 35,000 2,750 (Source: Pohjonen and Pukkala, 1990) 148 Table 17.5 Conservation areas of Ethiopia Conservation areas are listed below. Marine national parks and controlled hunting areas are not included or mapped. For data on World Heritage sites see chapter 9. Area (sq. km) National Parks Abyatta-Shalla Lakes 887 Awash! 756 Bale Mountains* 2,471 Gambella 5,061 Mago 2,162 Nechisar 514 Omo* 4,068 Simen Mountains! 179 Yangudi Rassa 4,731 Wildlife Reserves Alledeghi 1,832 Awash West 1,781 Bale* 1,766 Chew Bahr 4,212 Gash Setit 709 Gewane 2,439 Mille Sardo 8,766 Nakfa 1,639 Shire 753 Tama* 3,269 Yob 2,658 Sanctuaries Babile Elephant 6,982 Senkelle Swayne’s Hartebeest 54 Yavello 2,537 Totals 60,226 (Sources: IUCN, 1990b; WCMC, in litt.) * Area with moist forest within its boundaries according to Map 17.1. "Awash and Simen are the only two legally gazetted national parks. The remainder are ‘managed’ as national parks but are not yet gazetted. cent more than the sustainable cut of 15 million cu. m which could be achieved with good management; therefore there is a loss of 1600-2000 sq. km of forest and woodland per annum (IUCN, 1990a). Forestry and wildlife matters are within the State Forest Conservation and Development Department in the Ministry of Agriculture. Traditionally much of the forest was not on govern- ment land and so there has not been a long history of control and management planning. The preliminary Tropical Forestry Action Plan for Ethiopia (FAO, 1988b) identified 37 priority forest areas totalling 36,000 sq. km, of which 16,000 sq. km are in the Illubabor Region. All were in urgent need of protection and man- agement. Montane (Juniper) Forest Mangrove 0.0 oF Montane (Juniper) Forest Sub Desert SOMALIA Acacia Woodland Mogadishu Mangrove Forest Mosaic Figure 17.3 Vegetation types of Somalia. Moist forests include the montane forests in the north, the coastal mosaic in the south and coastal mangrove patches (Map compiled from various sources on file at "CMC. No map of actual forest extent is available.) Biodiversity IUCN (1989) reviews overall biodiversity levels in Ethiopia, which are relatively high in many animal groups and plants. Hamilton (1989) considers Ethiopia to be a minor core area for endemism and biodiversity, while Brenan (1978) suggested plant endemism, based on a part sample of the flora, to be over 20 per cent. More recent work, for instance by Friis (1982), puts the figure between 10 and 20 per cent. One major centre of endemism is the Ogaden desert, with several endemic genera, but there are also four recog- nisable centres of endemism in the high mountain regions. Egziabher (1990) discusses the importance of the south-western forests of Tepi, Didessa, Gore and Harenna for conserving rapidly dwindling wild gene-pools of Coffea arabica. Of the mammals, 22 of Ethiopia’s 242 species (9 per cent) are endemic, though few are forest forms. Twenty-seven of 847 bird species are endemic (3.2 per cent) including several forest species, the highest level of any mainland country of Africa. One such species is Prince Ruspoli’s turaco Tauraco ruspolu, which is endemic to forest patches near Neghelli (Collar and Stuart, 1985). Several reptile and amphibian species, especially tree-frogs, are localised endemics in different forest blocks. EASTERN AFRICA Conservation Areas Table 17.2 lists four national parks with closed forest; three of them, Bale, Gambella and Nechisar, do not have full legal pro- tection. Consolidation of Gambella National Park and creation of further protected areas in the Illubabor and Gore to Tepi forests must be the highest forest conservation priorities in Ethiopia. Beals (1968) discussed conservation needs in detail, while proposed pro- tected areas are summarised in MacKinnon and MacKinnon (1986) and Table 17.5 lists existing and proposed conservation areas in the country. SOMALIA AND DJIBOUTI Somalia has coastal mosaic forest in the extreme south, small areas of montane forest in the northern hills and some coastal mangrove patches (see Figure 17.3). The montane forests are in ranges rising to 2500 m, with evergreen thicket (mainly Buxus hildebrandtit) and relict patches of juniper forest above 1300 m. Deforestation has been severe and the vegetation is grossly over- grazed. In the south, the northernmost limits of White’s (1983) coastal mosaic forests occur in the Kismayo depression, known as the Holawajir Forest (Douthwaite, 1987). Riparian forests on the Juba and Scebeli rivers are of importance but are rapidly being felled. There are no recent reliable estimates of closed forest cover or deforestation rates. For Somalia FAO (1988a) estimates 14,800 sq. km of closed forest, although much of this is not forest in the sense used here. Forest reserves total 4000 sq. km, but a good deal of this area is believed to be scrub and wood- land. Biodiversity The northern forests do have some bird and plant species com- munities of interest. Collar and Stuart (1988) and IUCN (1987b) mention the Day Forest of the Goda Mountains (1983 m above sea level) in Djibouti, which is ostensibly a national park, but little managed. This has the endemic Djibouti francolin Francolinus ochropectus and near-endemic palm Livistona carinen- sis; both are very rare. These documents stress the value of Daalo (Daloh) Forest Reserve, which is in good Funiperus-Olea forest in north Somalia. It has an endemic bird, the Warsangali linnet Carduelis johannis and an isolated leopard Panthera pardus popu- lation. Conservation Areas Little attention has been paid to forest relicts in Somalia; indeed, Madgwick (1989) is exceptional in detailing the decline and destruction of riverine forests. Table 17.2 lists two proposed parks in the northern mountains, Gaan Libaa and Daalo, and suggests that three more, plus patches of riparian forest, are needed to pro- tect forest values. The Mogadishu Game Reserve, which should have been included in the proposed national park of Jowhar- Warshek (IUCN, 1987b), reputedly no longer exists. Parker (1987) describes patches of relatively undisturbed forest on the Juba River at Shoonto and Barako, but Arbowerow forests on the lower Scebeli River have disappeared. All were suggested for strict nature reserve status by Sale (1989). The Forét du Day National Park of Djibouti has little protection, and as a consequence forest cover is degrading rapidly. Table 17.6 lists proposed and existing conservation areas in Somalia and Djibouti: Figure 17.4 shows those protected areas for which data were available. 149 EASTERN AFRICA oy al Map 17.1 V Ethiopia a Rain Forest = : ¢ | Conservation areas fe He existing ; Be Py D Non Forest R E D S EA c * Taken from White (1983) D 1:5,000,000 0 100 km Shire 5 0 50 100 miles i> y Mount Dashen Tigre Simen Mountains ee Simen Mountains r Lake Tana SS ‘ ° ye Babile| Elephant S a ay e Harer BS Gambella 8°N >, Ogaden Desert ~ Mount Dulla Senk g (7 * ~(3686m) Swayne’s Hartebeest Lake Awasa Wa \\ Mea Lake wag 29 Sry, fo SUDAN Yavello WES om Zi 150 EASTERN AFRICA Table 17.6 Conservation areas of Somalia and Djibouti Existing and proposed conservation areas are listed below. Controlled hunting areas are not recorded. For locations see Figure 17.4. Existing area Proposed area Number Existing area Proposed area Number (sq. km) (sq. km) (sq. km) (sq. km) SOMALIA DJIBOUTI National Parks National Parks Forét du Day 100 23 Angole-Farbiddu nd 1 Awdhegle-Gandershe 800 2 Integral Reserves Daalo Forest 2,510 3 Maskali Sudt nd Gaan Libaah 500 4 Gezira Lagoont 50 Parks Har Yiblanet nd Musha Territorial} nd Jowhar-Warshek 2,200 5 Lag Badana-Bushbush 3,340 6 Total 100 Lag Dere 5,000 7 Las Anod-Taleh-E] Chebet 8,000 8 (Source: IUCN, 1990b) Rus Guba nd 9 * Area with moist forest are listed in Table 17.2 Nature Reserves + Not mapped — no spatial data available to this project. Alifuuto (Arbowerow) 1,800 10 nd no data Balcadt 2 Game Reserves Bushbusht 3,340 Geedkabehleh 104 11 Manderat nd padre, ete ei tion Ba! Bete Ss a Mogadishu nd 12 Partial Game Reserves Belet Wein nd 13 Bulo Burtit nd Jowhart nd Oddur}t nd Wildlife Reserves Boja Swamps 1,100 14 Eji-Oobale nd 15 El Hammure 4,000 16 Far Libaht nd Far Wamo 1,400 17 Haradere-Awale Rugno 2,500 18 Harqan Dalandoole 8,000 19 Hobyo 2,500 20 Qurajot nd Ras Hajun nd 21 Zeila 4,000 22 Totals 5,246 45,900 Figure 17.4 Conservation areas (existing and proposed) of Somalia and Djibouti (Sources: Kingdon, 1990; Stuart er al/., 1990) EASTERN AFRICA KENYA Kenya has the most diverse forests in East Africa, with lowland rain forest in western Kenya, montane forest in the central and west- ern highlands and on higher hills and mountains along the south- ern border. In addition, there are some coastal mosaic forests and fairly extensive mangroves, particularly at Lamu and at the mouth of the Tana River. Despite the long history of managed forestry in Kenya there has been little published synthesis of the variety of forest vegetation types unul recently. The major forest blocks of Mt Kenya, the Aberdares and Mau have sparse descnptons of vegetation and floristics. Lind and Mormison (1974) give a general account of East African forests including those of Kenya; Hamilton and Perrott (1981) describe Mt Elgon in detail; Coetzee (1967) and Zamierowski (1975) give an introduction to Mt Kenya; Beentje (1990) provides an overview, recognising 21 forest types (excluding mangroves). Map 17.2 shows closed forest to be widely but sparsely dis- tributed across most of Kenya except the north-east. Forests can be summarised in six main blocks: 1 The volcanic mountains: Elgon, Kenya and associated high ranges of the Aberdares, Cherangani, Mau; 2 The western plateau: Kabarnet, Kakamega, Nandi, Trans-Mara; 3. The northern mountains: Ndotos, Mathews, Leroghi, Kulal, Marsabit; 4 The coastal forests: Arabuko-Sokoke, Tana, Kayas, coral rag; 5 The southern hills: Taita, Taveta and Shimba, Nguruman, and 6 The riverine forests: Tana and tributaries, Ewaso-ngiso, Kerio, Turkwell. The most widespread montane associations are the moist Ocotea-Polyscias and drier Podocarpus-Cassipourea forests. Juniperus-Olea dominate upper slopes, while the lowland forests are extremely diverse. All forests are under pressure, being the only lands suitable for expansion of rain-fed agriculture (Young, 1984; Polhill, 1988; Beentje, 1990). The World Bank (1988) recognises the central problem of watershed protection, the failure of which threatens agriculture and hydroelectric schemes and, consequently, the national economy. Unul a Presidential Directive in 1984 reversed the practice, indigenous forest was cut for plantations of exotic species. Kenya’s forests are being over-exploited by excessive legal harvesting as well as by illegal pitsawyers (Young, 1984; World Bank, 1988). The Mau forest block, which is the largest single block of forest in East and Central Africa with some 2440 sq. km, has lost 30 per cent of its forest cover to illegal encroachment in recent years. Kokwaro (1988), describing in detail the biologically important Kakamega Forest, reports a decrease from 238 sq. km to 100 sq. km in the past 30 years due to serious encroachment and contin- ued overuse for timber, charcoal, firewood, cash crops and forest plantation. The adjacent Nandi Reserve decreased by 7 per cent in the 1970s. The impact of a further Presidential Directive ban- ning the cutting of natural trees, in 1988, remains to be seen. Estimates of closed forest vary, depending on definition. FAO’s 1980 data describe 6900 sq. km of broadleaved closed canopy for- est, 2500 sq. km of coniferous forest and 1650 sq. km of bamboo, a total of 11,050 sq. km, or some 2 per cent of the country. Beentje’s estimate of evergreen forest, as opposed to deciduous open forest or woodland, is 5856 sq. km (Beentje, 1990), virtually all of which is in Kenya’s 206 gazetted forest reserves. These reserves total 17,000 sq. km, but not all are forest or even wood- land, and some are plantation. Part of this closed forest resource is further protected as nature reserves (526 sq. km), national reserves or national parks (less than 180 sq. km). The country’s protected forest areas are listed in Table 17.2. | KayA FORESTS OF THE KENYAN COAST | The Kaya forests of the Kenyan coast are relict patches of the once extensive and diverse Zanzibar-Inhambane lowland forests of eastern Africa. The word ‘Kaya’ means a homestead in several Bantu languages and historically these forest patches sheltered fortified villages or Kayas which were set up by the | Mijikenda people who were fleeing from enemy groups in the | north. During the last century, the villages moved outside the forest patches and Kayas have come to mean the forest patches which have survived and been protected by the traditions and customs of elders who used the old Kaya clearings for cere- monies. Over the past few decades an increasing disregard for traditional values and a decline in respect for the elders has led to damage to these small forests and associated sacred groves. All areas of unprotected forest and woodland in coastal Kenya are under extreme threat because of the rising population and an ever increasing need for more land on which to grow food and the demand for more building poles and fuelwood. The rapidly expanding tourist industry has also given rise to a demand for wood for hotel construction, furniture and carvings. This is met partly by tree poaching from gazetted forest reserves, which are inade- quately protected by the overstretched and underfunded Forestry Department, and partly by unlicensed tree cutting in ungazetted areas. There are also serious threats from developing commercial activities such as lead ore mining at Kaya Kauma, marble quarry- ing at Pangani and Kambe, a proposed lime factory at Pangani and the planned reopening of the rare earth mines on Mrima Hill. The Kayas and groves are often on hill tops protecting water catchments and they are also important as representative forest remnants supporting a diverse flora and often containing many rare plants. Those on Jurassic limestone outcrops are particu- larly interesting: in one or two of these the endemic African vio- let Saintpauha rupicola is just surviving. There has been increasing national and international concern over these forests, particularly as it became known that the village elders were worried over their inability to care for their sacred places and sources of medicinal plants. The National Museums of Kenya (NMK) and WWF have supported studies of the Kayas. A survey carried out in 1986/7 listed about 35 Kayas and impor- tant sacred groves, the largest being no more than 1.5 sq. km, and information on a few more has been obtained since then. They occur in the two southern coastal districts, Kilifi and Kwale, scat- tered in the 30-40 km wide coastal strip from just north of the Sabaki River and Malindi to the border with Tanzania. After some debate over whether the Kayas should be protected as National Monuments under NMK, involving the elders and the local community in their protection and rehabilitation, or whether they should be forest reserves, it was decided that the former is more appropriate. A few of the Kayas in Kwale District occur in existing forest reserves and are thus theoretically pro- tected, although legal and illegal tree cutting takes place. As a result, the elders are denied their traditional use of these Kayas. NMkK will now be involved with the protection of these Kayas in Kwale District and donor funding is being sought to support this challenge in conservation. Source: Anne Robertson _ VI bo The area around Mau forest in Kenya is being cleared to make a buff ito the forest, seen on the left side of this photograph in the distance. The forests depicted on Map 17.2 cover approximately 19,141 sq. km. The main source is a 1983 land-use map produced by the Kenya Rangeland Ecological Monitoring Unit. A degree of uncertainty was introduced by the difficulty in identifying plantation forests from the Landsat imagery used (Young, 1984). The map and statistics are gen- erally considered to over-estimate the present extent of natural moist forest. Although the vegetation category Dense Natural Forest from the source map has been mapped on Map 17.2, more open forma- tions may also be included in this category. FAO estimated a total for closed and open broadleaved forest to be 19,450 sq. km in 1980. Biodiversity Many of Kenya’s largest forested mountain blocks are of recent vol- canic ongin and hence are relatively species poor (Rodgers and Homewood, 1982). Highest diversities are in the coastal forests, the western plateau forests such as Kakamega (Kokwaro, 1988) and espe- cially the tiny, geologically older mountains at the northern end of the Eastern Arc of block mountains — the Taita and Taveta Hills (Beentje, 1988a). Table 17.7 summarises Kenya’s biological diversity. The figures for numbers of species and endemism are very much lower than those for Tanzania, which has the bulk of the Eastern Arc forests (Lovett, 1988). Details of plant endemism are given by Brenan (1978) who highlights the importance of the coastal forests. Beentje (1988b) analysed the distribution of rare trees in Kenya. The distribu- tion and proportion of endemics are shown in Table 17.8 which again stresses the value of coastal and Eastern Arc forests for biodiversity. Table 17.7 Biological diversity in Kenya Species Endemics Plants 6,500 265 Mammals 307 8 Birds 860 9 Snakes 106 | Amphibia 97 + (Source: WCMC, 1988 zone of tea plantations. It is hoped that this will stop further encroachment EASTERN AFRICA C. Harcourt The Taita Hills have less than 3 sq. km of closed forest, rising to 2200 m asl, but have 13 totally endemic plant species including four woody plants and one of the African violets, Saimtpaulia tettensis. There are three butterfly endemics; several reptiles, including Amblyodipsas teitana; some amphibia, e.g. Afrocaecilia teitana; and three or four bird species (depending on taxonomy), of which the Taita thrush Turdus helleriis one. The area has been documented recently (Beentje, 1988a) and is desperately in need of strong conservation programmes. Kakamega Forest is considered to be the easternmost outlier of the Guinea-Congolian forest, and has many species not found elsewhere in Kenya including L’Hoest’s monkey Cercopithecus lhoesti. Sixty-two birds are restricted to this area in Kenya. Turner’s eremomela Eremomela turnen. and Chapin’s flycatcher Muscicapa lendu are two globally threat- ened species (Collar and Stuart, 1985, 1988) which occur there. However, floristic diversity and endemism are relatively low. The coastal forests are diverse and not easy to classify. There are several endemics, and birds, mammals and plants all have thor- ough studies devoted to them. Collar and Stuart (1988) consider Sokoke the second most important forest for birds on continental Africa. Two bird species are endemic: the Sokoke scops owl Orus treneae and Clarke’s weaver Ploceus golandi and six species are rare or threatened. The golden-rumped elephant-shrew Rhynchocyon chrysopygus is an almost endemic small mammal. Other significant coastal areas are: the Shimba Hills, where there are wetter forests with endemic plants (e.g. Dichapetalum fructuo- sum) and frogs (e.g. Afrixalus sylvaticus); the ‘Kayas’, which are Table 17.8 Distribution and number of rare trees in Kenya and number of endemics Total no. of No. which are Area rare species endemic Coastal a2 12 Taita Hills (Eastern Arc) 10 7 Central Dry Forest 9 6 Central Moist Forest 3 Central Riverine 5 3 Non-forest 29 2 Source: Beentje, 1988b EASTERN AFRICA SUDAN ‘eee Sires ons) . S222 Sibiloi Central Island)” So uth Island a) Leroghi Forest a Maralai *: e Kabarnet G Kulal Forest y— Samburi Ndotos Forest Mathews Forest Buffalo Sp -Marsabit ETHIOPIA Kakamega., -Kakamega vs [ee Victolni Nairobi- es "=O! Donyo Sabuk ‘, & NAIROBI TANZANIA Q pi aa ° ~ Map 17.2 Kenya Rain Forest lowland [7 CSséONNon Forest ee ; ae 2 * Taken from White (1983) weet So 5 ao nn oars areas = 0 100 0 50 100 200 km miles Tsavo East GE = Arabuko-So Forest. aot Arabuko Sokoke Shimba 2 : ° “/ Mombasa rama spate Hi _ & Diahi Forest 3 > } :Tana River ‘Primate Malindi SOMALIA INDIAN OCEAN 4°S Table 17.9 Conservation areas of Kenya EASTERN AFRICA Existing and proposed conservation areas are listed below. Forest reserves and marine parks are not included or mapped. For data on Biosphere reserves see chapter 9. Existing area Proposed area (sq. km) (sq. km) National Parks Aberdare* 766 Amboseli 392 Arabuko-Sokoke 6 360! Central Island 5 Chyulu 471 Hell’s Gate 68 Kora 1,788 Lake Nakuru 188 Longonot 52 Malka Marit 876 Meru 870 Mt Elgon* 169 Mt Kenya* 715 Nairobi 117 Ndere Island} 4 Ol Donyo Sabuk 18 Ruma 120 Saiwa Swamp 2 Sibiloi ES yell South Island 39 Tsavo East 11,747 Tsavo West* 9,065 Nature Reserves Arabuko-Sokoke* 43 Cheptugen-Kapchemutwat <1 Kaimosi Forestt : (1991) Bhodiversity of Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands: Conservation, Management and Sustainable Use. Occasional Papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 6. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. UN (1987) Inventaire de Foréts en Casamance et en Senegal Oneental et Aménagement de Foréts Classées. FO: DP/SEN/82/027. FAO, Rome, Italy. USAID (1982) Gambia—Senegal: A Country Profile. Country Profiles - USAID (Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance). 123 pp. White, F. (1983) The Vegetation of Africa: a descriptive memoir to accompany the Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. Unesco, Paris, France. 356 pp. A Field Guide to Authorship Scott Jones, Bristol University. Map 20.1 Forest cover in The Gambia and Senegal Information on rain forests in The Gambia and Senegal is taken from a digital map entitled Ravige and Forest Resources of Senegal ata 1:1 million scale (n.d.). The map was prepared for the US Agency for International Development (USAID) by the US Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, EROS Data Center. The digital map is based on a generalisation of the Map of Vegetation Cover from the report entitled Mapping and Remote Sensing of the Resources of the Republic of Senegal (1986) prepared by the Remote Sensing Institute, South Dakota State University under contract to USAID, for Senegal’s Direction of Land Use Planning, Ministry of Interior (unseen). The map was compiled from the interpretation of Landsat imagery of different dates and from extensive ground surveys. In this Atlas only the ‘Forests’ and ‘Mangroves’ datasets were digitised out of the 31 rangeland and forest types shown. This map was kindly made available to the project by the EDC International Projects department of the EROS Data Center. Protected areas for The Gambia are mapped from a 1:350,000 (c.) Tourist Information and Guide Map The Gambia (1987). Protected areas for Senegal are digitised from a 1:1 million Institut Geographique National map Sénégal and from spatial data held within files at WCMC. 21 Ghana Land area = 230,020 sq. km Population (mid-1990) Population growth rate in 1990 3 | per cent Population projected to 2020 33.9 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS400 Rain forest (see map) 15,842 sq. km Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)’ 17,/80 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)* 220 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont | ,101,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst 20) 000 cu. m Fuelwood and charcoal productiont = 16,068,000 um Processed wood productiont 590,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst 1/0000 cu. m * FAO (1988) t 1989 doto from FAO (1991 5 million Present-day Ghana covers the area of the ancient Ashanti kingdoms of pre-colonial Africa. They were among the most developed civilisations of the forest belt and traded gold for salt produced in mines in the Sahara to the north. Ghana’s forests were thus probably subject to relatively intense human influences several centuries before those of other parts of Africa. Ghana attained independence on 6 March 1957 but suffered serious economic decline in the post-independence period. The total collapse of Ghana’s economy in the late 1970s was followed by the Economic Recovery Programme of 1983 and a period of increased foreign investment. This led to an upturn in timber exports — traditionally a major source of foreign revenue — sawmills and logging operations were modernised and ports for log exports were rebuilt resulting in the recovery of the umber trade which had been declining. The timber industry is now contributing to improved economic conditions in the country but there must be concern that this will be at the expense of Ghana’s forests. INTRODUCTION The Republic of Ghana lies between 4°45'N and 11°11'N latitude and between 1°14'E and 3°07'W longitude. The rectangular- shaped country, with a total area of 238,540 sq. km, extends 675 km inland with a coastline of 567 km. Céte d’Ivoire is on the western border, Burkina Faso to the north and Togo to the east. The topography of Ghana is undulating with prominent scarps seldom exceeding 600 m, occurring at Akwapim, Kwahu, Mampon, Ejura and Gambaga. The highest hills (880 m) run in a north-east to south-west direction between the Volta River and the Togo border (FAO/UNEP, 1981). To the west of this range is Lake Volta, formed in 1964 through the damming of the Volta River. This is the largest artificial lake in Africa with an area of 8500 sq. km (Owusu er al., 1989). Prominent rivers found west of the Volta, which drain the wet- ter south, are the Ankobra, Pra and Tano (FAO/UNEP, 1981). The two predominant ecological zones in Ghana are the closed forest zone, covering an area of 81,342 sq. km (or 35 per cent of the land area) and the savanna zone, including Lake Volta, cover- ing 156,300 sq. km (Hall and Swaine, 1981; Silviconsult, 1985). The closed forest zone is found mainly in the south-western third of the country with a section extending into the northern part of the Volta Region. Rainfall in this zone follows a bimodal pattern with peaks in June and October, and an annual range of 1000-2100 mm. The forest zone, comprising seven vegetation types, supports two-thirds of the country’s population and the majority of its eco- nomic activities, including timber, cacao, oil palm, rubber, cola and mineral production (Foggie, 1951; Owusu er a/., 1989). The savanna zone covers the northern two-thirds of the coun- try and there Is also a savanna coastal band which extends from the Accra area to the Togo border (Owusu er al., 1989). Three vegetation types are recognised within this zone: coastal savanna, interior (Guinea) savanna and north-east (Sudan) savanna. Major economic activities of this zone include livestock production and annual crops, such as maize, millet, cassava, groundnuts, bam- barra nuts and cotton (Foggie, 1951; World Bank, 1988). Temperatures in the country range from minima of 15—24°C to maxima of 33—43°C, with August being the coolest month in the forest zone. Harmattan winds from the Sahara blow between December and February, lowering humidity and temperatures and bringing dust to the northern parts of the country. Agriculture, both subsistence and cash crop, is the major eco- nomic activity in Ghana. It has been estimated that about half of the economically active population is involved in agriculture and lives in rural settlements of less than 5000 people (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Cacao, first introduced in 1878, is the main export crop and is the leading Ghanaian commodity export, although output has fallen considerably since the 1970s due to poor prices and the ageing of trees (Asibey and Owusu, 1982). Other commercial crops such as copra, oil palm, coffee and citrus, and subsistence crops including maize, plantain, cassava, yams and millet are cul- tivated mostly by individual farmers (FAO/UNEP, 1981). The forestry and logging sector has, since the early 1970s, accounted for 5-6 per cent of total GDP and ranks third behind cacao and the minerals bauxite, diamonds and gold among commodity exports (World Bank, 1988; Abbiw, 1989). In 1987, export earnings for this sector were approximately US$100 million and it employed 70,000 people (World Bank, 1988). The forests not only produce um- ber, they also provide 75 per cent of the country’s energy requirements. The people of Ghana are distinguished mainly by language and, to a lesser degree, by their political, social and cultural institutions. The Akan, centred around Kumasi, makes up more than half the country’s population. In the forest zone, population densities (1984) range from 30 people per sq. km in the Brong Ahafo Region to 117 people per sq. km in the Central Region. The Upper East Region is one of the most densely populated areas in the savanna 183 GHANA zone, with 87 people per sq. km (World Bank, 1987). The capital of Ghana is Accra, while other major cities are Kumasi and Takoradi in the south, and Tamale, Wa and Bolgatanga in the north. The Forests The two main vegetation types in Ghana are the closed forest and the savanna ecosystem. The latter is characterised by an open canopy of trees and shrubs with a distinct ground layer of grass. The Ghanaian forests are part of the Guineo-Congolean phyto- geographical region; the flora has strong affinities with the forests of Céte dIvoire, Liberia and Sierra Leone and a lesser affinity with the Nigerian rain forests from which they are separated by the arid Dahomey Gap (W. Hawthorne, pers comm. and see chapter 11). The classification by Hall and Swaine (1981) recognises seven vegetation types within the closed forest (Table 21.1 and Figure 21.1), each with distinct associations of plant species and corre- sponding rainfall and soil conditions. Wet evergreen forest occurs in the extreme south-western corner of the country and enjoys the highest annual rainfall (1500-2100 mm). It is floristically rich and closely corresponds to Taylor’s Lophira-Tarmetia-Cynometra ‘Rainforest’ Association (Hall and Swaine, 1981). Timber species logged from this forest type include dahoma Piptadeniastrum africanum, kaku Lophira alata, wal- nut Lovoa mchilioides and niangon Heritiera utilis (Owusu et al., 1989). The moist evergreen forest is transitional between the wet ever- green and moist semi-deciduous forests. Although not as rich as wet evergreen, this type has great floristic diversity and a greater number of commercial timber species (Hall and Swaine, 1981). Annual rainfall is 1500-1700 mm. The moist semi-deciduous forest is subdivided into the north-west and south-east subtypes and has the Kwahu and Mampon scarps and hills of western Ashanti as prominent topographical features. Rich forest soils and annual rainfall of 1200-1800 mm give nse to tree heights which often exceed 50 m and are the tallest in the Ghanaian forest (Hall and Swaine, 1981). Occupying 40 per cent of the closed forest zone, the moist semi-deciduous forest is considered to be the most important for timber production and is characterised by such species as utile Entandrophragma utile, African mahogany Khaya ivorensis and wawa Trplochiton scleroxylon (Owusu et al., 1989). The north-west subtype harbours more elephants Loxodonta africana than any other part of Ghana’s forest (Hall and Swaine, 1981). The dry semi-deciduous forest type is found as a peripheral band around the moister forest types to the south and is adjacent to the Guinea savanna zone to the north (Hall and Swaine, 1981). This forest type is widespread in West Africa, has lower tree heights than those found in the moist semi-deciduous forest and receives rain- fall in the order of 1250-1500 mm per annum. It is comprised of a wetter subtype, characterised by species such as Hymenostegia afzelu, and a drier subtype containing species such as Diospyros mespiliformis and Anogeissus leiocarpus (Owusu et al., 1989) The upland evergreen forests occur as outliers from the main evergreen forest block on the high ground (500-750 m) of the Atewa Range, Tano Ofin Forest Reserve and Mt Ejuanema near Nkawkaw. Although surrounded by moist semi-deciduous forest, they are floristically similar to the moist evergreen type. The most characteristic species are herbaceous rather than woody, with epi- phytes and ground ferns being both abundant and diverse (Hall and Swaine, 1981). Deciduous trees are relatively rare and the soils tend to be bauxitic in composition (Owusu et al., 1989). The southern marginal forest type is found as a narrow band from west of Cape Coast to Akosombo. Precipitation is relatively low at 1000-1250 mm per annum and the soils tend to be shallow. Forests occur in isolated patches as most of the land has been converted to 184 Figure 21.1 Distribution of forest types (Sources: Hall and Swaine, 1981; Forest Resources Management Project, Kumasi, i /itt.) WE wet evergreen. ME moist evergreen. MS moist semi-deciduous. (NW north-west subtype, SE south-east subtype). DS dry semi-deciduous (FZ fire zone subtype, IZ inner zone subtype). UE upland evergreen. SM southern marginal. Ma mangrove (source for mangrove zone: Forest Resources Management Project, Kumasi). Forest is stippled. Table 21.1 Forest zone types and their coverage in Ghana Type Area (sq. km) Percentage of total forest zone area Wet evergreen 6,570 8.1 Moist evergreen 17,770 21.8 Moist semi-deciduous 32,890 40.4 Dry semi-deciduous 21,440 26.4 Upland evergreen 292 0.3 Southern marginal 2,360 2.9 South-east outliers 20 0.02 Total 81,342 (Sources: Hall and Swaine, 1981; Silviconsult, 1985) thickets, farms and savanna (Hall and Swaine, 1981). Trees are sparse and small in stature, while species such as Hildegardia barten and Talbotiella gentu show a high degree of gregariousness. The south-east outliers represent the driest of forest types (rain- fall of 750-1000 mm per annum) and are the least extensive, occu- pying an area of approximately 20 sq. km in small scattered patches (Hall and Swaine, 1981). South-east outliers are found predomi- nantly on the Accra plain, one notable example being at Shai Hills Game Production Reserve. This forest type is characterised by a low floral diversity and trees with low canopies. Typical species include Millettia thonningn, Talbotiella gent and Drypetes parvifolia (Hall and Swaine, 1981; Owusu et a/., 1989). Within this forest type, there are several very rare tree species and few commercial timber species. Mangroves Along the coastline of Ghana, mangrove stands are best developed on the western coast between Cote dIvoire and Cape Three Points. These stands are restricted in area and are usually found as thickets at river mouths and on some lagoons (Hughes and Hughes, 1991). Map 21.1 shows an area of only 3 sq. km of mangrove remaining in the country, but this is because other patches are too small to be mapped at this scale. The total remaining area is unknown, though it is certainly not large. Typically, Lagunculana racemosa and Rhizophora racemosa are found on the seaward side of saline lagoons while Avicennia nitida occurs on the landward side of the swamps (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Ghanaians use mangroves in a number of ways. Oysters, crus- taceans such as crabs and prawns, as well as birds, reptiles and mammals found in the mangrove habitat are all collected for sub- sistence purposes, while wood is commonly used for dock pilings and as building poles. The wood of Rhizophora and Avicennia is used for firewood or converted to charcoal for domestic purposes (Fiselier, 1990) and large quantities are also used in a salt extrac- tion process (SECA/CML, 1987). This process has led to the almost complete disappearance of mangroves in Ghana (SECA/CML, 1987). Salt extraction occurs predominantly in Accra and the surrounding area (Toth and Toth, 1974). Other threats to the mangrove and wetland system include plastics and oil pollution, urban landfill (Toth and Toth, 1974) and reclama- tion of land as rice paddies (Hughes and Hughes, 1991). Forest Resources and Management At the turn of the century, it was estimated that Ghana had 88,000 sq. km of forest. By 1950, this had fallen to 42,000 sq. km and by 1980 it was estimated at 19,000 sq. km (Fnmpong-Mensah, 1989). This corresponds closely to the FAO (1988) estimate of 17,180 sq. km for 1980. The current area of intact closed forest is about 15,000 sq. km. Map 21.1 shows 15,839 sq. km of lowland rain forest remain- ing in the country (Table 21.2), a figure that agrees well with other estimates and shows a reduction, in seven years, of less than 1500 sq. km from other figure estimates. This reduction also accords well with FAO’s annual deforestation estimate of 220 sq. km (FAO, 1988). Concern for the effects of deforestation and its impact on the environment of Ghana stretches back to the beginning of this cen- tury with the passing of the Timber Protection Ordinance in 1907 and an assessment of the forest estate by H. N. Thompson. This was followed by the establishment of the Forestry Department in 1909, the passing of the Forest Ordinance (Cap. 157) in 1927, introduction of the taungya system for reforestation in 1928 and the systematic selection, demarcation and reservation of forest in the 1920s and 1930s to create permanent forest estate. At that time, forest reserves there were established to meet local needs for forest products, to create a suitable climate for agriculture, and to prevent environmental deterioration (Foggie, 1951; Hall and GHANA Table 21.2 Estimates of forest extent in Ghana Area (sq. km) % of land area Rain forests Lowland 15,839 6.9 Mangrove 3 <0.01 Totals 15,842 6.9 (Based on analysis of Map 21.1. See Map Legend on p. 192 for details of sources.) Swaine, 1981). With emphasis placed on timber extraction after the Second World War, reserves became increasingly important for maintaining the viability of the timber industry (Taylor, 1960). The latter half of the 1980s and early 1990s have marked a return to the sustainable use and conservation of forest within reserves. Today, there are approximately 280 forest reserves, 100 of which serve a protection function. In addition, within most of the production forest reserves there are areas serving a predominantly conservation function where logging is supposedly prohibited (Ghartey, 1989). These areas, or protection working circles, make up 30 per cent of the forest reserves. Two-thirds of all forest reserves are located in the closed forest zone, representing 21 per cent of the area in that zone (Owusu et al., 1989). Approximately 14,100 sq. km of intact closed forest is currently protected by for- est reserves, with as little as 1000 sq. km being found outside them. Hawthorne (1990) has estimated that less than 1 per cent of for- est cover is found outside forest reserves, much of it in small, scat- tered patches in swamps and sacred groves (see case study on the Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary). An unspecified amount of BOABENG-FIEMA MONKEY SANCTUARY Conservation of forests and wildlife in Ghana has a long tra- dition and has expressed itself through local customs, prac- tices and taboos. These include protection of snails Helix sp., tree and plant species in sacred groves, protection of the Nile crocodile on Katorgor Pond and the establishment of a mon- key sanctuary at Boabeng-Fiema in Brong-Ahafo Region. The Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary is 2.6 sq. km in area and represents the driest extreme of forests, being dominated in part by Khaya grandifoliola and Aubrevillea kerstingu (Haw- thorne, 1989; Owusu ez a/., 1989). Although representing an isolated stand in the savanna, where fire and other disturbances are prevalent, this area remains intact as a consequence of the | relationship that local residents have with their environment. A stream and the surrounding forest are considered sacred due to the presence of the god Abujo and the stream spirit Dawaro (Nuhu, 1986). The mona monkey Cercopithecus monaandwest-_ | ern black-and-white colobus Colobus polykomos are said to be children of Abujo and Dawaro and are revered and protected as such. These species cannot be hunted, access to and use of their habitat is restricted and offences are dealt with by the tra- ditional council (Nuhu, 1986). Upon death, these monkeys are | afforded the same funeral rites as human community members. | This harmonious relationship between man and his envi- ronment has resulted in a stable ecosystem and an area of growing interest to national and international visitors alike. In recognition of the cultural and biotic significance of Boabeng-Fiema, it was given legal protection in 1974 under | Section 52 of the Local Government Act of 1971. | | 185 GHANA secondary forest is developing throughout much of southern Ghana, making for a complex mosaic of various land cover types. The export of timber from Ghana began in 1888 when African mahoganies were shipped overseas to a number of foreign markets. The mahoganies accounted for 98 per cent of all timber exports until the Second World War (Asibey, 1978; Francois, 1987). From that time until the 1970s, eight timber species were sold abroad: white mahogany Khaya anthotheca, K. ivorensis, gedu nohor Entandrophragma angolense, sapele E. cylindnicum, E. utile, afror- mosia Pericopsis elata, baku Tieghemella heckelu and Triplochiton scle- roxylon. Together with cacao, these timbers accounted for 75 per cent of the country’s overseas earnings. Today, of the approxi- mately 126 forest tree species which grow to timber size, 50 are considered merchantable, 23 of which are commercially important for logs, sawn timber or for processing into veneers and plywoods, or furniture (Frangois, 1987; Frimpong-Mensah, 1989). Of these, ten or so species account for around 75 per cent of sawlog pro- duction (Addo-Ashong, 1989). Since the late 1940s, more than 90 per cent of the country’s closed forest have been logged (Asibey and Owusu, 1982). It has been estimated that the gross national standing volume of timber in the closed forest is 188 million cu. m, of which 102 million cu. m is in trees greater than 70 cm dbh (Ghartey, 1989). Timber cutting is permitted through long-term concessions and short-term licences. The structure of the industry is such that there are no fewer than 500 logging companies, 85 sawmills, 13 veneer slicing plants and in excess of 200 furniture firms (World Bank, 1988; Frimpong-Mensah, 1989). Logging and wood-processing are centred at Kumasi, while Takoradi is the main port of export. In 1987, 320,000 cu. m of logs and 200,000 cu. m of processed wood were exported, mainly to Britain and West Germany, at a value of approximately US$100 million (World Bank, 1988). The industry provides employment for 1400 people in the industrial operations and many others in the rural sector. Following a peak in the timber industry in the 1970s, there was considerable decline in all sectors with the collapse of Ghana’s economy at the end of that decade. Under the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) of 1983, the timber industry has been revi- talised and timber production has grown dramatically. The pro- duction of logs increased by approximately 59 per cent from 560,000 cu. m in 1983 to 890,000 cu. m in 1986, while sawn tim- ber production rose by about 23 per cent from 189,000 cu. m to 232,000 cu. m over the same period (Frimpong-Mensah, 1989). Over-exploitation of a limited number of timber species led to a ban on export, in log form, of 14 primary species in 1979 and an additional four in 1987. Among these are odum Miailicia excelsa, Khaya ivorensis, emeri Terminalia ivorensis, and afrormosia. This has been complemented by the increased use of secondary species such as kyenkyen Antians africana, oprono Mansonia altissima and kyerere Prerygota macrocarpa (Friar, 1987). Initiatives aimed at long-term sustained yield management have included the Ghana Forest Simulation Model (GHAFOSIM) which provides for assessment of current and alternative exploitation practices, and the introduction of a 40-year felling cycle (Ghartey, 1990). Proposals include rationalisation of working plans and stock maps for areas to be logged, tighter control of logging activities and a reduction in wastage of logs through stronger forest management under the Forest Resources Management Project (World Bank, 1988). The development of plantations is one alternative for providing domestic and industrial wood requirements. In Ghana, plantations date back to the first decade of this century when they were situ- ated in the Guinea-savanna woodland (FAO/UNEP, 1981). 186 Between 1948 and 1961, plantation activities were well organised with the establishment of permanent nurseries (FAO/UNEP, 1981; Bennuah, 1987). In 1960, the FAO proposed a national for- est plantation estate of 59,000 sq. km, commencing with the plant- ing of 50 sq. km per annum in 1968 (FAO/UNEP, 1981). This was reviewed by the Land Use Planning Committee in 1979 with a recommendation that 110 sq. km be planted annually to meet domestic and industrial demand by the year 2030. Between 1968 and 1977, 400 sq. km were planted through the conversion of nat- ural forests in logged-over forest reserves. As a consequence of poor funding and management, however, current planting has fallen to just 10-20 sq. km per annum, much of which is used to rehabili- tate failed plantations (World Bank, 1987; Owusu et al., 1989). In 1980, it was estimated that there was a total of 263 sq. km covered by industrial plantations and 490 sq. km covered by fuelwood plan- tations (FAO/UNEP, 1981). A second estimate lists a total plan- tation area of 760 sq. km, 520 sq. km of which is used for the pro- duction of sawn timber, while the other 240 sq. km are woodlots and plantations in the savanna zone (Silviconsult, 1985). Indigenous tree species planted include Terminalia ivorensis, Heritera utilis and Khaya ivorensis. Exotics planted include teak Tectona grandis, Cedrela odorata, Eucalyptus spp. and Pinus spp. (FAO/UNEP, 1981). The choice of species planted has been dependent upon end use, with 7riplochiton scleroxylon planted for timber production, Gmelina arborea for pulp and paper and teak for fuelwood and, increasingly, for telephone and construction poles (FAO/UNEP, 1981; Friar, 1987). At the present time, little systematic management of plantations occurs. Under the auspices of the Forest Resources Management Project, the approximately 300 sq. km of industrial forest planta- tions is to be surveyed and rehabilitated. A long-term plan for industrial plantations outside reserves is also to be drawn up, the goal of which is to alleviate pressure on the natural forest. In addi- tion, considerable support is being provided for the establishment of district and local village nurseries to help meet domestic wood demand (World Bank, 1988). Of the minor forest products used in Ghana (see case study), bushmeat is one of the most important. It has been estimated that 75 per cent of the country’s population relies on bushmeat for protein and that in some rural areas, local residents rely exclu- sively on fish (mostly dried) and bushmeat for their animal protein (Asibey, 1974; MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986; World Bank, 1988). In the closed forest zone, all species of mam- mal, including primates, are eaten. The favourite is probably the cane rat Thryonomys swinderianus. In one survey, it was found that more than 12 million cedis (or US$202,000) worth of bushmeat was sold from a single market in Accra in 1985. Three-quarters of this trade involved the cane rat (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1987). In another six-year survey of one Accra market, Asibey (1987) reported that at least 79,000 kg of bushmeat was traded every year. Apart from subsistence use and local trade, there is a lucra- tive export market for wildlife species. In 1985, approximately 21,000 live animals were exported at a value of US$344,032 (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1987). In Ghana, there is a strong tradition of group hunting, the exer- cise of which is often tied to customary rites and practices. The Aboakyer (bushbuck) festival of the Efutus in Winneba is an annual hunt to determine whether the next year will be one of peace and abundance or war and famine (Akyempo, n.d.). The outcome is determined by which of two hunting parties is the first to capture a bushbuck and present it live to the local chief. From its incep- tion, this festival has moved from sacrificing a human being, to a leopard, then to the bushbuck of today (Akyempo, n.d.). GHANA eT Map 21.1 Ghana <6 Boren Rain Forest Zz O P aise lowland = Zz Gambaga® mangrove = ue a Conservation areas 3 existing c 2 nati proposed 40°N Zé a I x Non Forest o Obscured by cloud a: pete 1:3,000,000 Oe \ 0 50 100 km 4 ay ee eed ) } 3 0 50 miles ae ~) S Sl =a 5 COTE hs TOGO D'IVOIRE 5 eae 8°N ] See mi o Aa a Prong Ahafo SE uBoab inom = Boabeng-Fiema__ \ S fe ‘pl igs) —Kogyae AT A a pEjura ©@ matsa ASINEMI eg Bomfobiri — or Doles Kumasi No;Orin Za umasi | (a e Forest d = i e ©) “Nkawkaw — KiaflnPlatead \ \ qh , Mount IS) wh Ejuanema wv | & ? a Oo i J Ke 7 ae Le f Atewa Range Akwap 9) "7 4 5 SS = = mh ee pyr as Cape Coast sil Takoradi 2°W ap ( / & Fe ; Shai Hills > ACCRA ~Winneba (he 187 GHANA MINOR FOREST PRODUCTS The use of minor forest products has had a long history in Ghana. As early as 1850, oil palm was collected and exported, followed by gum copal Daniellia ogea in the 1870s. By the 1920s, trade in cola nuts Cola nitida exceeded 10,000 tons, the major- ity of which was collected from wild trees IUCN, 1988). Today, close to 100 per cent of rural people and 60 per cent of the urban population rely on traditional medicine as their main source of health care. Most of this medicine is derived from forest plants (World Bank, 1988). Traditional medicine is so important that | research centres have been established such as that at Mampon. | Many small-scale rural industries depend on minor forest products for their existence. Carvers of drums and utensils, weavers of baskets and cane furniture, and manufacturers of tools and musical instruments are typical examples. The trade | in these items also provides a livelihood for thousands of res- | idents throughout the country. It has been estimated that there | are roughly 700 people employed full-time in the forest prod- | uct trade in Kumasi’s central market alone (Falconer, 1990). Several tree species are used in the production of canoes. African pear wood Manilkara obovata, asoma Parkia bicolor | and onyina Ceba pentandra are commonly used in making | fresh-water boats, while Trplochiton scleroxylon is used for sea- | going vessels (World Bank, 1988; N. O’Neill, pers. comm.). Hundreds of different plant and animal species are used by the local people. Approximately 300 forest species provide wild fruit, while plant beverages include tea, coffee, cocoa and palm wine (Abbiw, 1989). Thaumatococcus daniellit, a rhi- zomatous herb, is reported to be 20,000 times sweeter than ordinary sugar. Between 1975 and 1980, 288,800 kg of this herb in the form of fresh fruit was exported for use in coun- tries such as the UK (Ent, n.d.). Ahensaw Momordica angus- tfoha is a forest climber that is used as a bathing sponge, demmere Calamus deeratus, a climbing palm, is used to make baskets, while Garcinia spp. are sought after as chewing sticks and the seeds of Griffonia simplicifolia are taken to reduce high blood pressure (Abbiw, 1989; Enti, n.d.). Animal species, such as the pangolin Manis sp. and genet Genetta sp. are valued in the preparation of various medicines as well as pro- viding substantial quantities of meat (World Bank, 1988). Deforestation The World Bank (1988) has estimated that closed forest has been reduced at an annual rate of 750 sq. km since the turn of the cen- tury, while FAO (1988) reported a deforestation rate of 220 sq. km per annum for the period 1981-5. The current deforestation rate is probably negligible as very little closed forest remains out- side the reserve network. The major causes of deforestation are fire damage, over-logging, shifting cultivation and an ever increasing demand for fuelwood. These, coupled with a rapidly increasing population, are issues of national concern. Fire damage There are reports that fire damage in Ghana, following the drought of 1982-3, altered the structure and composition of about 30 per cent of the forest remaining in the semi-deciduous forest zone, and led to the loss of 4 million cu. m of high quality umber. Indeed, this is now the greatest single threat to the long- term survival of forest in the country. In recent years, fire damage has progressively expanded southwards and heavily logged and previously burnt areas are at a higher risk from subsequent fires . 188 Over-logging Particularly when coupled with fire, over-logging is a contributing factor to deforestation. It has been predicted that an annual allowable cut of 1.1 million cu. m for commercial timber species could be sustained for the foreseeable future (World Bank, 1988). This would comprise 720,000 cu. m from reserved forests, 120,000 cu. m from unreserved forests and 260,000 cu. m from plantations. However, with log production in the region of 1.35 million cu. m per annum and wastage of merchantable wood at 25-50 per cent, it has been estimated that the actual cut is in the range of 2.0 to 2.7 million cu. m per annum, or 1.6 to 2.5 times the sustainable cut (World Bank, 1988). Compounding the problems caused by this unacceptably high extraction rate, the timber industry has concentrated on a limited number of tree species. It is believed that unless a more balanced approach to exploitation is undertaken, species such as odum, afrormosia and sapele will become virtually extinct as commercial timber species within two or three decades (Alder, 1989). Shifting cultivation Traditionally, shifting cultivation has accounted for up to 70 per cent of deforestation. The most serious effects have been felt in areas outside legally protected reserves (Agyeman and Brookman-Amissah, 1987). Furthermore, the land tenure system permits the renting of land and encourages an attitude of maximising short-term returns; natural forest has been replaced by plantation and cash crops, while high densities of such domestic stock as cattle, sheep and goats exist in the forest zone. All these factors have contributed to both deforestation and land degradation (World Bank, 1987). Fuelwood demand Woodfuels, in the form of both fuelwood and charcoal, account for more than 75 per cent of all energy consumed in Ghana and an even higher percentage of energy for household cooking and water heating in rural and urban areas alike (Owusu et al., 1989). In one study, it was found that approximately 84 per cent Bundles of firewood for sale by the roadside near Kumasi. D. and 1. Gordon “30% 6,200 Swamp forest (fresh water) 220 Mangrove 190 0.2 Plantations 1,670 Le Farmland and regrowth 45,410 47.2 Non-forested swamp 80 0.1 Savanna 360 0.4 Grassland 210 0.2 Other 360 0.4 Subtotal — Land Area 96,180 100.0 Subtotal — Inland Water Area 760 Grand Total 96,940 (Source: FDA/IDA, 1985) Definitions: High forest is defined as ‘forest of a primary or old secondary nature occurring on drier sites with a closed or almost closed canopy exceeding 30 metres in height’. Swamp forest is ‘high forest but located on swampy or periodically inundated sites’. Mangrove includes ‘all areas covered by mangrove irrespective of canopy or tree height’. Plantation includes ‘forest, oil-palm and rubber plantations’. Farmland and regrowth includes ‘presently farmed lands for subsistence cropping and regrowth resulting from such previ- ously farmed areas. In addition it includes regrowth arising from transitional changes to grassland and low palm/tree cover of coastal formations.’ Swamp includes ‘all lands per- manently or seasonally inundated with water other than those supporting swamp forest or mangrove’. Savanna includes ‘mixed tree/grassland formations with a continuous dense grass layer’. Grassland includes ‘natural grass areas that contain less than 10 per cent woody vegetation cover’. Other includes urban areas, bare ground, non-wooded coastal dunes, mining areas, etc. NB: This report does not mention any montane forest present in the coun- try, while Map 25.1 shows this vegetation type but no swamp forest remaining. year. A peacekeeping force was formed from the armed forces of several West African states with the objective of facilitating the installation of an interim government. The future for the forests, as for the people of Liberia, remains uncertain at the time of writing. The Forests Liberia was originally almost completely covered in tropical moist forest, the exception being an area of about 1000 sq. km of Guinea savanna to the north of Mt Wituvi in the north-west. Today, most rain forest is found in two regions, one in the north-west and one in the east and south-east of the country. Two types of rain forest can be broadly distinguished: the evergreen forests of the wetter south and central areas and the moist semi-deciduous forests found in the drier north-western parts of the country, chiefly in upper Lofa County. In addition, a small area of montane forest is still present on Mt Nimba. Characteristic tree species of the mixed evergreen forests are ekki Lophira alata, niangon Hentiera utilis, Sacoglottis gabonensis, Calpocalyx aubrevillei and Dialhum spp. Often there is a dominance of a single species in one or all storeys such as Gilbertiodendron preussu, Tetraberlinia tubmaniana or Parinari excelsa. The moist semi-deciduous forests have a greater abundance of the Meliaceae such as Entandrophragma spp. and Khaya spp. although these are increasingly logged out. It appears that there was a period around 300 years ago when the country was more densely populated than at present and there was considerably less forest cover. It may be appropriate therefore to consider the majority of existing closed forest in Liberia as late secondary forest (Voorhoeve, 1965). LIBERIA Mangroves Liberia does not have extensive wetlands along its coast, but man- groves do occur at all river mouths and the Forest Development Authority (FDA/IDA, 1985) estimated the total area of these to be 190 sq. km in 1979-82. The Mafa River has some mangroves 7 km upstream from the sea and these are separated from those at the mouth by a small block of terrestrial forest. There are other areas of mangrove around Lake Piso, which is actually a large open lagoon on the coast rather than a lake. The mangroves are best developed at creek mouths and are backed by Raphia swamps. An extensive area of mangrove of some 60 sq. km exists around the Mensurado Creek close to Monrovia, although this has suffered considerably in recent years from road-building, land-fill and fuel- wood collection. Other fairly extensive areas of mangrove are at the confluence of the Bo and Junk rivers, along the Mechlin and Benson rivers, at the mouth of the Joda River and on the Decoris, Cestos and Senkwen rivers (Hughes and Hughes, 1991). Note that Map 25.1 indicates only 6 sq. km of mangrove; the area around Mensurado Creek appears to be mostly a savanna or urban area now. Other regions may be too small to show on the scale used for this map. No fresh water swamp forest can be distinguished on the map. All three species of crocodile occur in the swamps; the Nile and African dwarf crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus and Osteolaemus tetraspis) are found in the mangroves, although they are not common, while the slender-snouted crocodile Crocodylus cataphractus occurs in fresh water. The African manatee Trchechus senegalensis is also found in very small numbers in some estuaries. Hunting and fishing pressures are intense in the mangroves as is their exploitation for fuelwood, while clearing of the forests for rice cultivation and settlements is increasing. At present none of the mangroves is protected although the proposed nature reserve at Cape Mont will include this habitat. Forest Resources and Management Figures for forest cover in Liberia varied widely until 1985 when the government’s Forestry Development Authority (FDA), with sup- port from the International Development Authority of the World Bank, mapped forest cover from aerial photographs taken between 1979 and 1982 (FDA/IDA, 1985). These data, by far the most com- prehensive and accurate up to that date, gave a total dryland forest extent of 47,900 sq. km or 49.8 per cent of Liberian lands (Table 25.1). Map 25.1 shows lowland rain forest covering 41,177 sq. km and montane forest covering 55 sq. km (Table 25.2), giving a total dryland moist forest coverage of 41,232 sq. km, or 43 per cent of land area, remaining in early 1987. The figure estimated by FAO (1988) for the end of 1980 was based on only partial aerial photo- graph coverage and, as a result, underestimated the forest cover. All but an insignificant fraction of forest lands are under state ownership. About 30 per cent of this forest is currently accorded legal protection as national forests or national parks, but several Table 25.2. Estimates of forest extent in Liberia Area (sq. km) % of land area Rain forests Lowland 41,177 43 Montane 55 <0.1 Mangrove 6 <0.01 Totals 41,238 43 (Based on analysis of Map 25.1. See Map Legend on p. 220 for details of sources.) LIBERIA A log collecting area in a Liberian forest. significant blocks remain which are essentially unprotected. Virtually all national forest land and unprotected forest is subject to concession agreements with commercial logging companies. In the late 1980s, with declining revenues from Liberia’s economic mainstay of iron ore, pressure was exerted on the forestry sector to generate foreign exchange to help alleviate Liberia’s foreign debt which stood at one billion dollars by 1988. Timber represented 15 per cent of exports in 1986-7 but this had risen to 25 per centin 1989. The production of logs increased tenfold between the early 1960s and the early 1970s and by 1979 total production stood at 800,000 cu. m. Production declined in the first half of the 1980s but rose rapidly again in the latter half to the official record of 1,186,000 cu. m in 1989. In the same year, of the 68 registered umber companies, 36 were actively operating under various types of lease agreement with the government. Almost all companies are foreign-owned; the largest 1s Israeli, several are Lebanese and most of the remainder are European. In 1989, 14 companies accounted for 82 per cent of total umber production. The major destinations for log exports in 1989 were France (34 per cent), Portugal (14 per cent), Italy (13 per cent) and Germany (9.2 per cent). Currently, eight species account for 70 per cent of total produc- ton with niangon alone accounting for almost 30 per cent. New reg- ulations in 1987 created some incentives for the use of ‘lesser known species’ and made it mandatory for logging companies to convert a greater proporuon of their production into sawn timber and for export shipments to contain a minimum of 5 per cent processed wood. However, most investments in the processing industry are seen by timber exploiters as necessary overheads so that they can continue their extremely profitable log exports (Repetto and Gillis, 1988). Thus, despite an increase to 28 sawmills and four veneer or plywood plants, the increase in processed wood has been compara- uvely slight. There are hearsay accounts of some logging and timber exports continuing in spite of the civil unrest in the country. However, this must be at a very reduced level. The 1953 Forest Act provides for the creation of forest reserves but does not distinguish between production and protection forest. The 1976 act creating the Forestry Development Authority detail the objectives of the FDA which include: “To devote all publicly-owned forest lands to their most productive use for the permanent good of 216 the whole people considering both direct and indirect values.’ In gen- eral terms, the rules for sustained-yield management of the forests are present in the legislation; the problem lies in how they are applied. The FDA’s management of timber exploitation is based on a country-wide forest inventory carried out in the 1960s by the Bureau of Forests and Wildlife Conservation (BFWC) in cooper- ation with the German Forestry Mission (GFM) to Liberia (Sachtler and Hamer, 1967). GFM has a small silvicultural research programme in the Gola National Forest in the west (Jordan, 1983; Poelker and Wolf, 1989) and in the Grebo, Cavally and Krahn Bassa areas in the east (Woell, 1986; Zwuen, 1988). Their findings point to the need for a felling cycle minimum of 40 years and suggest certain silvicultural practices which might assist in achieving a sustained yield of timber. However, in reality timber exploitation in Liberia has had little respect for the demands of silviculture. For example, the felling cycle is set at 25 years which therefore gives an annual coupe of 4 per cent of the area within any one concession. It is estimated that there are about 26,000 sq. km of loggable forest in Liberia, yet the total area of land leased to logging companies in 1989 was about 53,000 sq. km. Part of the explanation for this lies in the prolifera- uon in recent years of salvage permits for non-forest areas. There are also anumber of timber concession areas in which more than 50 per cent is inaccessible forest or farmland. As the annual coupe is cal- culated on the total area of the concession, rather than the area of producuve forest within it, this means that the annual 4 per cent por- tion of the concession can be a much higher percentage of the pro- ductive forest (Reitbergen, 1989). It appears then that at a national level the felling cycle is in practice reduced to about 12 years. In addition, the output per hectare is low. In 1989 there was an estimated average output of 6.3 cu. m per hectare (FDA, 1990), a decrease from the 1974 level of 7.5 cu. m per hectare (FAO/UNEP, 1981). This fall occurred despite the supposed increase in pro- cessing facilities and reduction of the forest area available. It is estimated that 1260 sq. km of land were logged-over each year between 1984 and 1989. Logging taxes are high compared with other countries in the region and are collected directly by the FDA. The total assessed forest fees in 1989 were esumated at US$20 million. These levies include a ‘conservation tax’ which has generated revenue for the recent remarking of the boundaries of some of the national forests. It appears, though, that the timber companies lessen their tax bur- den by illegally lowering the declared value of the timber exported. For example, the actual quantity of timber loaded on to a ship may be under-declared; the recorded quality or species value of the tim- ber may be downgraded; or the prices quoted to the Liberian gov- ernment may be less than those negotiated with the foreign buyer. The net effect of these practices is a huge loss of revenue to Liberia and corresponding profits for the timber companies. For instance, the value of logs leaving Liberia for EEC countries (about 80 per cent of all log exports from Liberia) in 1989 was recorded by the FDA as approximately US$80 million — their value assessed on arrival in Europe was nearer US$200 million. In short, the FDA in the 1980s manifested the contradictions inherent in a government body responsible for both forest conservation and generation of maximum revenue from timber extraction. Under the regime of President Samuel Doe, the tim- ber companies controlled an industry that was beyond jurisdiction and fundamentally corrupt. Forest wildlife is a crucial food source for the majority of rural Liberians. A large variety of bush and forest animals are hunted for meat. The preferred species are antelopes, especially duikers, bush-pigs Potamochoerus porcus and primates (Anstey, 1991). Despite a ban on all hunting announced by the President in 1988 and the passing of a more pragmatic Wildlife and National Parks Act later that year, hunting continues essentially unchecked in many forest areas. A decrease in hunting of large game animals occurred in the 1980s, but this was more a result of the decline in their populations and military restrictions on the availability of guns and cartridges than enforcement of wildlife regulations. In early 1990, a questionnaire survey of perceptions about con- servation, wildlife and bushmeat was carried out in Monrovia by the WWE/FDA Wildlife Survey and the Society for the Conservation of Nature of Liberia. Extrapolating from respondents’ estimates of their expenditure, the survey found that Monrovia spends a minimum of US$12 million annually on bushmeat. For the whole of Liberia, a conservative estimate (given the greater dependence of rural people on bushmeat) would give the annual sale value of bushmeat at US$66 million (Anstey, 1991). Clearly, the value of the forests to Liberia is much more than the sum of tmber revenues obtained from them. It remains to be seen whether a new government in Monrovia will approach the management of the forests with this in mind. Deforestation FAO estimated the annual rate of deforestation for the years 1981—5 to be 460 sq. km. This estimate appears to be based on extrapolat- ing from a sample of air photographs. The FDA/IDA (1985) figures together with unpublished estimates from the author J. Mayers, give an annual rate of deforestation of 946 sq. km for the years 1983-9, which is an annual forest loss of about 2 per cent. This figure accords well with the decline in amount of forest from the 1979-82 infor- mation of FDA/IDA (1985) to that shown on the 1987 satellite images from which Map 25.1 has been drawn. The principal source of deforestation in Libena has histoncally been smallholder agriculture. This accounted for over 95 per cent of all national forest clearing in the survey of 1982 (FDA/IDA, 1985). Shifting agriculture includes a variety of practices, some of them quite complex associations of crops and trees, but most commonly involving the cut- ung and burning of all vegetation in small areas (tens of hectares) before planting upland rice. The rice is cultivated for one or two years and is followed by the planting of root crops, especially cassava. The land is then left fallow for 8-15 years before the cycle begins again. LIBERIA Libena’s population is low and unevenly distributed. Although the national growth rate is currently about 3.2 per cent, the rural growth rate is expected to average only about 1.7 per cent until 1999. Moreover, existing rural population densities in the three counties (Grand Gedeh, Sinoe and Lofa) with the greatest remaining blocks of relatively undisturbed forest average only about 6.5 people per sq. km at the present time. Deforestation rates in these areas are therefore low. Road development, especially construction of logging roads, has had a major but variable impact on deforestation in Liberia. In regions characterised by high economic opportunity and high net immigra- tion potential (e.g. the Monrovia—Nimba corridor), such roads have led to an increase in deforestation rate by providing better access to forest lands. Conversely, in areas characterised by low economic opportunity and where more people are leaving than moving in (e.g. Grand Gedeh and Sinoe), the impact of such roads appears to be one of redistributing the regional pressure so that deforestation increases in road corridors but reduces in non-cornridor areas. Logging operations are inextricably linked to the deforestation ultimately caused by shifting agriculture. Agriculture gains a foothold in the logging camps, which could be anything between 30 and 500 houses in size, as about 50 per cent of workers move their families into the camps (MPEA, 1983) and continue to rely on shifting agriculture and hunting for subsistence. Many of the families settle permanently after the logging companies move on. In addition, farmers appear to prefer logged forest for clearing since some of the larger trees have already been removed. This will inevitably influence the species composition of the regrowth forest. Biodiversity During the Pleistocene ice ages Africa’s westernmost rain forest refuge was probably centred in present-day Liberia (Diamond and Hamilton, 1980; see chapter 2). Some of the forest flora (Kunkel, 1965; Voorhoeve, 1965), and many of the rain forest animals in Ghana, Cote dIvoire, Sierra Leone and Liberia are derived from this Upper Guinean refuge population. Considering the extent of deforestation in the other countries of the region, the forests of Liberia could be regarded as present-day refugia and represent the most substantial existing areas of the Upper Guinean biogeo- graphical zone (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986). The bird list for Liberia currently stands at 590 species (Gatter, 1989), a large proportion of which are found in rain forest. Nine of these are regarded as threatened, while 13 are endemic to the Upper Guinean forest (Thiollay, 1985). These include the white-breasted guineafowl A gelastes meleagrides which is ‘one of the most threatened birds in continental Africa’ (Collar and Stuart, 1985), the Gola mal- imbe Malimbus ballmanni and the white-necked rockfow! Picathartes gymnocephalus (Collar and Stuart, 1985; Carter, 1987). Liberian mammals mentioned in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN, 1990) include Jentink’s duiker Cephalophus jentinki, which is the world’s rarest duiker, and another strikingly marked duiker endemic to the Upper Guinean Forest, the zebra duiker Cephalophus zebra. Also endemic to this zone are the pygmy hippopotamus Choeropsis liberiensis, diana monkey Cercopithecus diana and the Liberian mongoose Libeructus Ruhnu. The latter is known only from a few locations in Liberia and from the Tai National Park, Cote d'Ivoire (Taylor, 1988). Elephant Loxodonta africana probably number less than 2000, but there are good populations of giant forest hog Hylochoerus meinertzhagent, chimpanzee Pan troglodytes and the forest dependent primates, red colobus Procolobus [badius] badius and western black-and-white colobus Colobus polykomos. Bongo Tragelaphus euryceros, leopard Panthera pardus and golden cat Felis aurata celidogaster are also sparsely but widely distributed. LIBERIA Sol OOL seueg ade> 000°000'€: 1 (8861) a)1YM Woy Uayel , 12104 UON pasodoid Buisixa Seaie UONeAJaSU0D aaosGuew . auR|UOW pue|mo} jsaio4 uley ueueyong Mads elaqry] ['¢z dey AYIOAI.G ALOO hl t / yaa Modh YIAONNOWS %2NSUANI ANOJ1 VeualS VANIND 218 Conservation Areas Liberia had 12 nominally protected national forests, but two have been completely deforested. These cover an area of 14,358 sq. km but have not been shown on Map 25.1 as they are not totally pro- tected. There is only one national park (Table 25.3). The national forests were created by Presidential decree in the late 1950s and early 1960s in areas identified by the then Bureau of Forest and Wildlife Conservation. The 1976 act creating the FDA reaffirmed that the national forests were ‘a permanent forest estate made up of reserved areas upon which scientific forestry will be practised’. The boundaries declared at the time of creation excluded all human settlement and agriculture was banned. On the ground, the national forests were demarcated by a cleared line three metres wide and patrolled by forest guards. In the 1970s and early 1980s, however, the protected area sys- tem existed on paper only (Verschuren, 1983). In 1987, the FDA began a major effort to reestablish the national forests using funds generated by the new conservation tax on logging. This realised about US$2 million in 1988. By the end of 1989, the resurvey and cleaning of the boundary lines was complete for the Gola, Gbi, East and West Nimba, Kpelle, Gio, Lorma and North Lorma national forests. A Forest Protection Section was set up in 1987 which in 1989 had 110 forest guards, or one guard for every 127 sq. km of national forest. These guards are under-trained and poorly equipped for the policing job expected of them. Sapo National Park (see case study), in south-eastern Liberia, was created by the People’s Redemption Council Decree No. 73 in 1983. Since the production of a management plan in 1986 (FDA/IUCN, 1986), WWE has been working with the Wildlife and National Parks section of the FDA in the management and development of Sapo National Park and surrounding areas. Initiatives for Conservation If the national forests could be effectively conserved, and if the pro- posed reserves were gazetted, Liberia would have a reasonable net- work of protected habitats. In the late 1980s there was some recognition at various govern- ment and non-governmental levels in Liberia that survival of the References Anstey, S. G. (1991) report to WWF. Carter, M. F. (1987) Initial Avifaunal Survey of Sapo National Park, Liberia. Report to WWE and FDA. Forestry Development Authority, Monrovia. 34 pp. Collar, N. J. and Stuart, S. N. (1985) Threatened Birds of Africa and Related Islands. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book Part 1. ICBP/IUCN, Cambridge, UK. 761 pp. Diamond, A. W. and Hamilton, A. C. (1980) The distribution of forest passerine birds and Quaternary climatic change in Africa. Fournal of Zoology 191: 379-402. FAO (1988) An Interim Report on the State of Forest Resources in the Developing Countries. FAO, Rome, Italy. 18 pp. FAO (1991) FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1978-1989. FAO Forestry Series No. 24 and FAO Statistics Series No. 97. FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO/UNEP (1981) Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project. Forest Resources of Tropical Africa. Part II: Country Briefs. FAO, Rome, Italy. FDA (1990) Annual Report 1989. Forestry Development Authority, Monrovia, Liberia. 32 pp. Wildife Unhsation in Libera. Unpublished LIBERIA Table 25.3 Conservation areas of Liberia Existing area Proposed area National Parks (sq. km) (sq. km) Cape Mount'* 224 Sapo* 1,308 Wologizi Area** 202 Wonegizi Area** 261 Totals 1,308 687 (Source: WCMC 1m litt.) * Area with moist forest within its boundaries according to Map 25.1 Reported to contain mangroves, but these are not shown on Map 25.1 It is proposed that these three areas, with the 435 sq. km Lorma National Forest form the Loma Conservation Area; the planned status of this area is uncertain at present (S Anstey, pers. comm.) forests required more than just controlling logging. The policing by forest guards simply antagonised other forest users. Forest con- servation had to be part of a broader strategy for national land use. In early 1990 this led the FDA to embark upon a Tropical Forestry Action Plan for Liberia. Among the objectives identified in this exer- cise were, first, the need for local land-use management units, linked to national forests, which would formulate and implement manage- ment plans with the FDA; and, second, the need for substantial im- provement of training programmes at all levels to foster conservation expertise. It was felt that much could be learned from the Sapo National Park project. The Society for the Conservation of Nature (SCN) was formed in 1986 and has played a key role in questioning the ways in which Liberia has been exploiting its forests. The SCN now imple- ments field projects and is an effective advocate for conservation. A nationwide survey of large mammal populations and their use was initiated by WWF and FDA in 1989. The aim of this survey was to produce information on which to base decisions about the revision of hunting regulations and the creation of further pro- tected or managed areas. Initial results on distributions and hunt- ing were presented (Anstey, 1991) before the survey — and most other work in the Liberian forests — was curtailed by the civil war. FDA/IDA (1985) Project Report on Forest Resource Mapping of Liberia. Report to the Forestry Development Authority. FDA, Monrovia. 18 pp. FDA/IUCN (1986) Integrated Management and Development Plan for Sapo National Park and Surrounding Areas in Libena. IUCN/WWYF, Gland, Switzerland. 66 pp. Gatter, W. (1989) The Birds of Liberia: a preliminary check list with status and open questions. Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Technische Zusammenarbeit, Eschborn, Germany. Hughes, R. H. and Hughes, J. S. (1991) A Directory of Afrotropical Wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UR/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya/WCMC, Cambridge, UK. IUCN (1990) 1990 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. (UCN, Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland. Jordan, J. W. (1983) Fundamentals of Natural Forest Management in the Gola Forest (Liberia). Unpublished Masters thesis, University of Goettingen, Germany. Kunkel, G. (1965) The Trees of Liberia; Field Notes on the More Important Trees of the Liberian Forests, and a Field Identification Key. Report No. 3 of the German Forestry Mission to Liberia. Bayerischer Landwirtschafts Verlag, Munich. 270 pp. 219 LIBERIA SAPO NATIONAL PARK Sapo National Park (1308 sq. km), in south-eastern Liberia, consists almost entirely of intact rain forest. Characterised by a predominance of the overstorey timber tree Tetraberlinia tub- maniana, the forest contains viable populations of most of the forest mammals of Liberia. Sapo is located in Sinoe County which has the lowest population density (six persons per sq. km compared with the national density of 27 people per sq. km) and growth rate (1.6 per cent) in the country (MPEA, 1983). The park itself contains no human settlements, so that pressure on it is mostly brought on by the logging concessions which sur- through the increased hunting and farming activities necessary to provide for the labour force. Given the reckless pace of logging in Liberia during the latter half of the 1980s and the political pressure that is at the heart of the concession system, it is remarkable that Sapo has survived intact. This is due to the commitment of a few local and foreign conservationists. Because Sapo is the only national park in Liberia it has been possible for the Wildlife and National Parks section of the Forestry Development Authority to concentrate all its efforts on Sapo. The 30 or so FDA staff have been suc- cessful in protecting the area from encroachment. This has been achieved by emphasising extension and education rather than by rigorous policing and with steadily increasing benefits perceived by the people as originating from the existence of the park. Some villages to the west of the park benefit from a development fund generated from canoe tours for visitors on the Sinoe River round it MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986) Review of the Protected Areas System in the Afrotropical Realn. YUCN/UNEP, Gland, Switzerland. 259 pp. MPEA (1983) Republic of Liberia Planning and Development Atlas. Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs, Monrovia. Poelker, D. A. and Wolf, R. (1989) Annual Report No. 1 Forest Management Unit. German Forestry Mission. FDA, Monrovia. Reitbergen, S. (1989) Africa. In: No Timber Without Trees, Sustamability in the Tropical Forest. Poore, D. (ed.). Earthscan Publications, London, UK. Repetto, R. and Gillis, M. (eds) (1988) Public Policy and Misuse of Forest Resources. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Sachtler, M. and Hamer, K. (1967) Inventory of Krahn-Bassa National Forest and Sapo National Forest. Technical Report No. 7 of the German Forestry Mission to Liberia. Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit, Eschborn, Germany. Taylor, M. E. (1988) Searching for a mongoose. Species 11: 17. Thiollay, J. M. (1985) The West African Forest Avifauna: A Review. ICBP Technical Publication No. 4. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. Verschuren, J. (1983) Recommendanons for Wildlife Conservation and National Parks. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 47 pp. (1965) Liberian High Forest Trees. Centre for Agricultural Publications and Documentation, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Woell, H. (1986) wood’ Conservation of Tropical Rainforest in Liberia; Voorhoeve, A. G. Formation of the Forest Management Unit in ‘Bomi Deutsche Zusammenarbeit, Eschborn, Germany. Concession. Gesellschaft fiir Technische 220 organised by the Sapo staff. But the major generation of local sup- port for the park since 1987 has come from the Sapo Agriculture | Project which has been supported by WWF and the Society for the Conservation of Nature of Liberia. This project involves village and farm-level groups or individuals in cash crop and food crop tree nurseries and bean farms from which benefits accrue according to labour put in. The project aims, through farmer-managed research, to improve living standards by generating local solutions to the envi- ronmental problems of shifting agriculture. By 1990 there were 23 villages around Sapo participating in the tree nursery and bean farm project, some of them receiving no material inputs from the pro- ject team — a good sign that this approach is beginning to catch on. The research camp in Sapo National Park. | | A. Dunn Zwuen, G. (1988) m Southeastern Results of the Permanent Sample Plots in Rainforest Research Report No. 2. Forestry Development Authority, Monrovia. Liberia. Authorship James Mayers, WWF with contributions from Simon Anstey, WWF- International and Alexander Peal, FDA, Liberia. Map 25.1 Forest cover in Liberia Remaining rain forests of Liberia were digitally extracted from 1989-90 UNEP/GRID data which accompany an unpublished report The Methodology Development Project for Tropical Forest Cover Assessment in West Africa (Paivinen and Witt, 1989). UNEP/GEMS/GRID together with the EEC and FINNIDA have developed a methodology to map and use 1 km _ resolution NOAA/AVHRR-LAC satellite data to delimit fores/non-forest boundaries in West Africa. These data have been generalised for this Atlas to show 2 x 2 km squares which are predominantly covered by forest. The study has also made use of higher resolution satellite data (Landsat MSS and TM, SPOT) and field data from Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria. Forest and non-forest data have been categorised into five vegetation types: forest (closed, defined as greater than 40 per cent canopy closure); fallow (mixed agriculture, clear-cut and degraded forest); savanna (includes open forests in the savanna zone and urban areas); mangrove and water. In addition this dataset shows areas obscured by cloud. In this Atlas, UNEP/GRID’s ‘forest’ and ‘mangrove’ classifications have been mapped. Delimitation of ‘types’ of forest shown on Map 25.1 have been made by overlaying White’s vegetation map (1983) on to the UNEP/GRID dataset. Existing and proposed protected areas are taken from an unpublished sketch map produced by the Forestry Development Authority National Forest and Parks (Liberia) at a scale of 1:2 million and from spatial data held within files at WCMC Land area 581,540 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 12 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.2 per cent Population projected to 2020 29.6 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS|80 Rain forest 41,715 sq. kmt Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)’ 103,000 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)° 1500 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 807,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst 2000 cu. m Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 7,049,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 239,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst nid * FAO (1988) t 1989 data from FAO (1991) $ Figure partly derived from Map 26.1 ond portly from information in Green and Sussman (1990) 26 Madagascar Once described as the ‘naturalists’ promised land’, Madagascar is now considered by some to be the world’s most threat- ened natural area. This is not only because of the extreme richness and unusual diversity of its flora and fauna, most of which is endemic to the island, but because of the acute problem caused by increasing levels of forest clearance. Rain for- est is now confined to the east and north of the island, with some small patches remaining in the Sambirano region in the north-west. It is calculated that, within the next 35 years, all but the most inaccessible patches of this forest will have been lost. Deforestation in the country is mostly a result of shifting or ‘tavy’ cultivation. In recognition of the importance of Madagascar, there is now considerable conservation activity within the country. The government has developed a National Conservation Strategy and an Environmental Action Plan is being implemented. In support of this, substantial funds have been provided by outside donors to help ensure that Madagascar’s unique biologi- cal diversity 1s not lost. INTRODUCTION With a length of 1600 km and a maximum width of 580 km, Madagascar is the world’s fourth largest island, after Greenland, New Guinea and Borneo. It lies in the southern Indian Ocean, sep- arated from mainland Africa by at least 300 km of the Mozambique Channel and extends from 11°57'S to 25°35'S and from 43°14'E to 50°27'E. Because of its large size and diverse climate, geology and vegetation and especially because the island lies on its own continental plate, Madagascar is often regarded as a microconti- nent. The origins of the country are still disputed (see Tattersall, 1982 for a brief review). It may have broken away from Africa as long as 165 million years ago and arrived in its present position around 121 million years ago (Rabinowitz er al., 1983). Broadly, the central part of the island consists of an elevated plateau with a mean altitude of around 1200 m. This has been deeply eroded in some places and built up by volcanic activity in others. The highest peak, at 2876 m, is Mt Maromokotra in the Tsaratanana massif. The rugged central plateau falls off sharply to the east where a strongly eroded escarpment gives way to a narrow (mostly less than 30 km wide) but continuous coastal plain. The slope to the west is generally less steep and this region is composed of numerous sedimentary plateaux that range in elevation from sea level to about 800 m. Madagascar’s climate is highly variable, though predominantly tropical (Donque, 1972). In the east and the Sambirano district of the north-west, annual rainfall is around 2000 mm (but may reach over 5000 mm in places), with little seasonal variation except that September and October may be slightly drier. Mean annual tem- perature in the lowland areas of these regions is 26°C, though this generally declines from north to south. The Central Plateau has a lower annual rainfall, around 1500 mm, and lower mean temper- atures (16—20°C). In addition, for areas above 1300 m, a drop in temperature of 0.6°C for every 100 m rise in altitude occurs. Annual rainfall in the western part of the island declines from around 1500 mm in the north to 500-1000 mm in the south and most of this, as in the centre of the island, falls between October and Apnil. Temperatures are generally a little higher on the west coast than at the same latitude on the east. The extreme south of the island is hot and semi-arid with infrequent rainfall averaging around 300-500 mm per year. The prevalence of cyclones is of considerable environmental importance in Madagascar. The great majority occur between mid- January and mid-March, with most hitting the island along the north-eastern coast. They can cause great devastation with winds up to 300 km per hour and rainfall of 600-700 mm falling in four or five days. Massive destruction of crops and forests, as well as large scale flooding, are often the result of these cyclones. The origins of the Malagasy people are complex and incom- pletely understood. They appear to have arrived as recently as 2000 years ago in waves of migration from both Indonesia and Africa. There have been Arab influences in the country since the 12th cen- tury and contact with Europeans since the 16th century. The pop- ulation of Madagascar is estimated to be increasing at a rate of 3.2 per cent; it has more than doubled in 30 years, from 5.4 million in 1960 to 12 million in 1990 and it is calculated that there will be around 30 million people in the country by 2020. Distribution of this population is very uneven, with a density of more than 100 inhabitants per sq. km on the east coast, approximately 60 people per sq. km on the central highlands (although many of these are concentrated in urban areas) and falling to only five or so per sq. km on the west coast. Around 80 per cent of the population live in rural areas though the capital, Antananarivo, contains over one million inhabitants. bo bo — MADAGASCAR The Forests Opinions are divided as to whether Madagascar was totally covered in forest when man arrived on the island. It appears likely that there was an area of savanna and woodland in the Central Plateau (MacPhee et a/., 1985) but some authors, following Perrier de la Bathie (1921) and Humbert (1927), consider that the entire surface of the island was more or less completely covered in forest as recently as 2000 years ago. Very briefly, the country can be divided into two major floristic zones, a moister Eastern Region and a dry Western area (Perrier de la Bathie, 1936; Humbert, 1959; White, 1983) and within these is a wide range of habitats. The Eastern Region covers just over half the island, extending westwards from the east coast to cover the central highlands; it also includes a small enclave, the Sambirano Domain, on the north-west coast. This unit, which contains the only forest type to be considered in this Atlas, was prob- ably originally all forested, but much of it has now been replaced by a mosaic of cultivation and secondary or degraded formations. The Western Region extends from the flat plains on the west coast east- wards up to about 800 m. Within this area are the dry deciduous forests, less dense and with a lower, more open canopy than in most of the moister eastern forests (Figure 26.1). Lusher forests grow alongside rivers. Included within the Western Region biogeograph- ical zone is the semi-arid Southern Domain. This is characterised by thickets or forests of bushy, drought-resistant vegetation, with Euphorbiaceae and the endemic Didiereaceae families predominat- ing; it is frequently referred to as ‘spiny forest’ (Figure 26.1). In the east there is low altitude dense rain forest (originally from sea level to 800 m) with a canopy at around 25-30 m or less. Large emergent trees are uncommon. The most widely represented families here are the Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, Sapindaceae, Anacardiaceae, Arecaceae, Fabaceae, Flacourtiaceae and Lauraceae (Koechlin, 1972). There is also a middle stratum of small trees and large shrubs composed of families such as Ochnaceae, Araliaceae, Violaceae and Tiliaceae. Epiphytes, par- ticularly ferns and orchids, are common. Generally, the forests in this region are very rich in species and no individual plant species dominates. The structure of the forest in the Sambirano region is similar though the floristic composition is slightly different; there are, in particular, numerous Sarcolaenaceae (Koechlin, 1972). The medium altitude (or moist montane, to use White’s 1983 category) rain forest grows chiefly between 800 and 1300 m asl but may reach 2000 m in sheltered places. This is a dense formation composed of a large number of species most of which are ever- green. The canopy at 20-25 m in height is not as high as in the lowland forest and there is an undergrowth with more plentiful shrubs and herbaceous plants. In the top stratum, Tambourissa, Weinmanma, Symphonia, Dalbergia and Vernonia are among the best represented genera (Koechlin, 1972). Epiphytes, including mosses, lichens, ferns and orchids, are abundant and are a striking feature of this forest type. At higher altitudes (generally 1300-2000 m or above), sclero- phyllous montane forest predominates. Composed of small- leaved, very twisted trees of only 10-13 m in height, its structure is intermediate between forest and thicket. Mosses and lichens coat the trees and carpet the ground. Dicoryphe viticoides, Tina isoneura, Alberta minor and Rhus taratana are some of the species typical of this region (Koechlin, 1972). Gymnosperms (Podocarpus spp.) and bamboo may form pure stands in some places. This type of forest is only slightly less susceptible to fire than the bushy vegetation at higher altitudes. This sclerophyllous montane vegetation has not been differentiated from the moist montane forest on Map 26.1. The montane vegetation, above 2000 m, on large isolated mass- ifs such as Tsaratanana, Marojejy, Ankaratra and Andringitra, is 222 Key Ae Dry deciduous forest BR Noist torest eerie ‘Spiny’ forest [dal pail Non forest Figure 26.1 Vegetation types in Madagascar showing the western dry deciduous forest and the southern spiny forest as well as the moist forest. Mangrove has been excluded. The eastern rain forest in this figure has been derived from Green and Sussman (1990), while other vegetation types are from Faramalala (n.d., see Map Legend). Her vegetation categories no. 7: “Foréts denses séches’ (dry deciduous forests) and-no. 27: ‘Forét dense séche a Didierea et Euphorbia’ (spiny forest) are shown here. generally composed of ericoid bush or herbaceous plants which are adapted to the extremes of humidity and temperature that they experience at this altitude. Mangroves Of the estimated 3300 sq. km of mangrove (Keiner, 1972) in Madagascar, most (97 per cent) are found along the west coast. They are located mainly between Morombe and Antsiranana with some sites in the south-west around Toliara and in the north-west near Iharana. The largest area, of about 460 sq. km, is in the Bay of Bombetoka. The Mangoky, Tsiribihina and Mahajamba rivers also have large areas of mangroves at their mouths. Along the east coast, there are only 11 mangrove sites of any size, the largest, of around 22.2 sq. km, being in Rodo Bay (SECA/CML, 1987). Map 26.1 shows 3315 sq. km of mangrove on the west coast but almost none remaining on the east coast. However, on the source map for mangroves (see Map Legend on p. 229), most of the east coast was obscured by cloud. The mangroves in Madagascar are floristically more diverse than those in continental Africa. Six plant genera are widespread within the mangrove areas: Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Avicennia, Sonneratia, and Carapa (SECA/CML, 1987). The mangroves are important for inshore fisheries, serving as nursery areas for many species of fish and crustacea. They are also resting and nesting areas for a number of bird species including the Madagascar fish eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides and the swift tern Sterna bergit (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). The largest of Madagascar’s fruit bats, Pteropus rufus, forms large colonies within the mangroves. Madagascar’s mangroves, unlike those of mainland Africa, are not at present exploited to any great extent (SECA/CML, 1987; Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). The greatest threat is that they are becoming silted-up as the extensive inland erosion is resulting in large quantities of soil being carried down the rivers into the man- groves. A shortage of fuelwood may mean that the mangroves are cut for this purpose, especially in areas of moderate to high popu- lation density. None of the mangrove sites is protected. Forest Resources and Management Even now, there are no accurate figures for the extent of surviving tree cover in Madagascar, though it is usually said that approxi- mately 20 per cent of the island is covered with forest. This is the figure estimated by Guichon (1960), based chiefly on aerial sur- veys made in the late 1940s. Chauvet (1972), deriving his figures from Guichon’s work, calculated that there were 61,500 sq. km of ‘eastern type’ forest remaining at that time. In 1981, FAO/UNEP gave a figure of 69,550 sq. km of forest left in the east and Sambirano region. The much higher figure given by FAO (1988) of 103,00 sq. km includes all closed broadleaved forest. It thus includes dry deciduous forest in the west and gallery forest throughout the country, as well as the moist forests. The only recent figure for remaining forest area is from a study by Green and Sussman (1990) covering the eastern forests but excluding the Sambirano. Using satellite imagery, they estimated that, in 1985, only 38,000 sq. km of forest remained in the east of Madagascar. Including the Sambirano would not increase this figure to any great extent as recent reports indicate that the forests of this region do not exceed 350-400 sq. km in area and that they are fragmented and rapidly decreasing in size (see, for example, Nicoll and Langrand, 1989; Andrews, 1990). The eastern rain forests shown on Map 26.1 were digitised from a copy of a map in Green and Sussman (1990). The map indicates 25,820 sq. km of lowland rain forest and 23,000 sq. km of mon- tane forest, giving a total of 48,820 sq. km of dryland forest remain- ing in 1985. However, this figure is some 28.5 per cent higher than that which Green and Sussman derived from the same data. The discrepancy results from the poor quality of the source map and the consequent generalisation of the forest cover that occurred when it was digitised. Due to the unreliability of the data, the statis- tic for forest area shown at the beginning of this chapter is only approximate, and there is no table of extent of rain forest types within the chapter. A figure of 41,715 sq. km of moist forest remaining in the country has been calculated for Tables 9.6 and 10.1 by adding to Green and Sussman’s (1990) figure of 38,000 sq. km of eastern forest, an estimated area of 400 sq. km of forest around Sambirano and 3315 sq. km of mangroves measured from Map 26.1. Legal protection of forests in Madagascar began around 200 years ago. In King Andrianapoinimerina’s reign (1787-1810) MADAGASCAR those deforesting an area were liable to be punished. Later, under the ancient Hova Kingdom, anybody found cutting down trees was condemned to be chained in irons. The Direction des Eaux et Foréts is now responsible for the management of the forests and generally employs less drastic punishments. Reforestation projects have been undertaken for several decades, especially on the Central Plateau. One of the earliest pro- jects was the planting of Eucalyptus along the railway from Antananarivo in 1910 to provide fuelwood for the locomotives. A 1981 FAO/UNEP report estimated that there were 1120 sq. km of plantations, composed mainly of pines, with the trees being used for industrial timber. In addition, the report calculated that there were 1540 sq. km of plantations where the timber was used mostly for firewood; these were frequently composed of broadleaved trees. There has been no significant replanting of native trees. Deforestation In their recent report on the eastern rain forests, Green and Sussman (1990) calculated that between the years of 1950 and 1985 the rate of deforestation in this region alone has been 1110 sq. km per year (see Figure 26.2). The estimated figure given by FAO, 1500 sq. km per year, is for all closed broadleaved forests and is, therefore, prob- ably an underestimate. Green and Sussman (1990) consider that, if destruction of forests continues at the present rate, only those on the steepest slopes will survive the next 35 years. Figure 26.2 Distribution of rain forest in Madagascar originally, in 1950 and in 1985 (Source: Green and Sussman, 1990) Original Extent ine} bdo Qe MADAGASCAR These logs were all cut by hand and individually carned out of the steep rain forest near Ranomafana, from an area inaccessible to vehicles. | C.Harcourt The principal agent of destruction of the eastern moist forests is ‘tavy’ or slash and burn agriculture. Madagascar’s population is still mostly rural and the people depend on agriculture for their survival. To obtain more land, forest areas are cleared, the vege- tation is allowed to dry and is burned some months later. Dryland rice is the most common crop, but maize, manioc and others are also cultivated. These are grown fora year or two and then the land is left fallow and the process repeated elsewhere. Degraded vege- tation types regrow on the deserted plots which used to be recleared after an interval of ten years or more. Tavy has been practised for centuries, but the increase in the population has put greater pres- sure on the land and the fallow periods often now last only three or four years. As a result of progressive deterioration of the soil structure and nutrient content, the land degrades to unproductive grassland or becomes weed infested. Tavy cultivation is often prac- tised on steep slopes where there is great risk of erosion and, con- sequently, the land becomes unusable even more rapidly. Deforestation has been swiftest in areas with low relief and high population density (Green and Sussman, 1990). Some timber is removed by logging companies but this is not currently a major threat in Madagascar as much of the remaining forest is in steep, isolated areas inaccessible to heavy machinery. Of the 7,856,000 cu. m of roundwood estimated to be cut in Madagascar each year, only 807,000 cu. m are for industrial use, while the majority is for fuel and charcoal (FAO, 1991). These fig- ures are for wood cut from all over the country, not just that taken from the moist forests. FAO/UNEP (1981) suggests that there has been little deforesta- tion of the montane regions above 2000 m. However, although rela- tively safe from use by local people, these areas are highly suscepti- ble to fire damage (Jenkins, 1987). The montane forests are now very limited in extent and require special conservation measures. Biodiversity Madagascar has been separated from continental Africa for many millions of years and, therefore, until the arrival of man 1500-2000 years ago, its flora and fauna had an independent evolutionary his- 224 tory. As a result, they are diverse and unique, being characterised by high levels of endemism at species and higher taxonomic levels. For the size of the country, Madagascar’s flora is one of the rich- est in the world with at least 8500 plant species (White, 1983) of which around 80 per cent are endemic (Humbert, 1959). Some faunal groups are comparatively impoverished, but the degree of endemism is again very high. There is high species diversity of both plants and animals in the rain forests of eastern Madagascar. Conspicuous examples of endangered Malagasy plants are the tree ferns (Cyatheaceae), which are used as containers for potted plants. The Malagasy ebonies Diospyros perrent and D. microrhom- bus and palissandre (Dalbergia spp.) have been heavily exploited for their wood so that there are few large trees of these species remaining (Dorr et al., 1989). Madagascar’s mammalian fauna is relatively impoverished. Indeed, it has 108 mammal species, fewer than any other African country of comparable size. The native living land mammals belong to only five orders: Primates, Carnivora, Rodentia, Insectivora and Chiroptera. Bushpig Potamochoerus porcus occurs but was probably introduced and dugong Dugong dugon is found in coastal waters. All 30 species of primates are lemurs, none of which is found outside Madagascar and the Comoros (the two species on the Comoros were almost certainly introduced by man from Madagascar). There were at least 14 other lemur species on the island, all of which have become extinct since humans arrived there. Most of those surviving today are considered to be in dan- ger (Harcourt and Thornback, 1990). Habitat destruction is the main threat to the lemurs but hunting also occurs. There are eight species of carnivore, all unique to the island and all belonging to the Viverridae; only one of these is not considered to be threatened (Schreiber er al., 1989). There are between 10 and 16 species of rodents, depending upon the taxonomy employed, and all are endemic. In the most recent classification of Madagascar’s insec- tivores, there are considered to be 24 species of endemic tenrecs (18 of which are rare or threatened species) and two species of A family group, male, female and infant, of the nocturnal lemur Avahi laniger laniger, 7 Madagascar’s eastern rain forest. cy C. Harcourt shrews (Nicoll and Rathbun, 1990). There are 28 bat species in the country, of which nine are endemic. There used to be two or three species of hippopotamus and a large termite-eating tenrec, resembling an aardvark, but these became extinct sometime after man’s arrival on the island. Similarly, the number of bird species found on Madagascar is low. There are 250 species of which 198 are non-introduced resi- dent species and 53 per cent of these are endemic (Langrand, 1990). The huge, flightless elephant bird Aepyorms maxunus, used to occur on the island but this too, along with other flightless species, has vanished within the last few hundred years. In contrast to the mammals and birds, the repule and amphib- ian fauna is rich and over 90 per cent of these groups are endemic (Jenkins, 1987). There are about 260 reptile species which include one crocodile, 13 tortoises and turtles, 60 snakes and approxi- mately 180 lizards. Madagascar contains two-thirds of the world’s chameleon species, including the smallest (thumbnail size) and the largest (60 cm in length). Around 150 amphibian species (all anuri- ans) are to be found in the country. As in many other countries, the invertebrate fauna has not been studied in detail but there are known to be at least 260 species of but- terfly in the country and 182 of these are endemic (Jenkins, 1987). Species richness and endemicity tend to be higher in the montane and forested areas than in the lowland and and regions (Jenkins, 1987). Conservation Areas Madagascar has one of the oldest protected area networks in the African region, with ten strict nature reserves (Reserves Naturelles Intégrales) dating back to 1927. There are now 11 nature reserves, six national parks (one of these is a marine park and not mapped or shown on Table 26.1) and 23 special reserves (Reserves Spéciales) in the country. This system of protected areas (Table 26.1) is quite comprehensive, covering around 11,200 sq. km (approximately 1.9 per cent of Madagascar’s land area) and con- taining a good, although incomplete, cross-secuon of key ecosys- tems. Unfortunately, much of this network exists only on paper. A shortage of trained personnel and finances has meant that it is impossible to ensure that the reserves and parks are adequately safeguarded. In addition, many areas are too small to be viable and are surrounded by degraded or agricultural land. Six different categories of protected areas are legally recognised but only the three mentioned above have been used to protect nat- ural ecosystems or threatened species. Most strictly protected, on paper, are the 11 nature reserves (a twelfth strict nature reserve, on Masoala Peninsula, was degazetted in 1964). Access to these is forbidden other than for scientific purposes. Entry to the national parks is controlled, but in Isalo National Park rights are accorded to neighbouring villagers for the collection of Boroceras sp. cocoons and Uapaca bojeri fruits. The 23 special reserves have generally been set up to protect particular plant or animal species. Although access is unlimited, hunting, fishing, pasturing of livestock, col- lection of natural products and introduction of any plants or ani- mals is forbidden. In the forest reserves (Foréts Classées), of which there are 158, all forest exploitation is forbidden but local people can collect some products such as honey and raffia. These forests may be exploited in the future: they are protected for economic rather than conser- vation purposes. The Reafforestation and Restoration Zones (Périmétres de Reboisement et de Restauration) are intended pri- marily to protect watersheds and prevent erosion. There are 77 such zones at present. Land-use is regulated within these areas so that management of pasture, tree planting and anti-erosion mea- sures are carried out. There are also four hunting reserves MADAGASCAR Table 26.1 Conservation areas of Madagascar Conservation areas are listed below. Forest reserves and marine parks are not included or mapped. For data on Biosphere reserves and World Heritage sites see chapter 9. Area (sq. km) National Parks Isalo 815 Mananara* 230 Mantadia* 100 Montagne d’Ambre* 182 Ranomafana* 400 Strict Nature Reserves Andohahela* 760 Andringitra* 312 Ankarafantsika 605 Betampona* 22, Lokobe 7 Marojejy* 602 Tsaratanana* 486 Tsimanampetsotsa 432 Tsingy de Bemaraha 1,520 Tsingy de Namoroka 217 Zahamena* V2 Special Reserves Ambatovaky* 601 Ambohijanahary 248 Ambohitantely 56 Analamazaotra (Périnet) 8 Analameran 347 Andranomena 64 Anjanaharibe-Sud* 321 Ankarana 182 Bemarivo 116 Beza-Mahafaly 6 Bora 48 Cap Sainte Marie 18 Foret d’Ambre* 48 Kalambatritra 283 Kasijy 188 Mangerivola* 119 Maningozo 79 Manombo* 50 Manongarivo* 3553) Marotandrano* 422 Nosy Mangabe* 5 Pic d’Ivohibe* 35 Tampoketsa d’Analamaitso 172 Total 11,191 (Sources: Nicoll and Langrand, 1989; WCMC, im /it1.) * Area containing moist forest within its boundaries as shown on Map 26.1 + Not mapped — data not available to this project (Réserves de Chasse) where hunting is seasonally closed but the public has free access. The reserves are essential for conservation of the country’s rich biological diversity, as was recognised by the Malagasy government during its 1985 Conference on the Conservation of Madagascar’s Natural Resources for Development (Rakotovao er al., 1988). Administration of the protected areas is now the responsibility of the National Association for Management of Protected Areas. This has been established with support from the World Bank-sponsored Environmental Action Plan. bo bo 7) WS i} S ejonaiuew “=> y n ‘Aeyeuelyoquy eurseureo | _ Araquenyoquy = 4 euod eyog? | : ms oAWeWag ozoGuuew, ? } a _ S So9L ~~ S & ® ‘NY s Sobl aiquiy,.p foubeinaal re SOYOWOI quiy,p 19104 as Po erie © MADAGASCAR aguiy,p de bo a MADAGASCAR S9|lW OS} 001 0s 0 Ww 002 001 0 000'000'r:| (E861) SUM Woy Uaye! , 1Sa104 UON Bulsixa sease uoneAsasuog anoibuew ~ JUPJUOW pue|mo} jsau04 ley Ieosesepeyy [97 depy Jo8b ae Q Sot Qe, as che : ous 19h ae aquies deg esjosjadweueuis) =: Ajeyeyep-ezag oh 4005 “eayequejey Sob? NVIIO NVI! PARPUOIO euawouespuy" 2 S062 Ase} aye] g $002 ~ N MADAGASCAR Initiatives for Conservation The government of Madagascar developed a National Strategy for Conservation for Development in 1984 and now, with the help of several international agencies, including the World Bank, it has prepared an Environmental Action Plan which is presently being implemented. This aims to develop human resources in the coun- try, to conserve and manage the biological diversity, to improve rural and urban living conditions and to promote sustainable devel- opment by better management of natural resources (World Bank, 1988). Over US$100 million has been provided for this plan by outside donors. In 1986, a project to survey the protected areas was set up through WWEFE’s programme in Madagascar in collaboration with a number of government ministries. The aims of this project were to: e Evaluate the existing protected areas e Develop and implement management plans for priority pro- tected areas e Recommend the establishment of new protected areas in key regions, and e ‘Train Malagasy counterparts in protected area management and conservation biology. The review of the protected areas and the recommendations to improve the existing reserves and to set up new ones are outlined in a WWE publication by Nicoll and Langrand (1989). Four new national parks have been gazetted since this book was published, which is an indication of the Malagasy government’s commitment to conserve its country. WWE also funds a number of other projects including environ- mental education, a programme of conservation in southern Madagascar (involving Beza-Mahafaly and Andohahela reserves) and in the north (Mt d’Ambre National Park), a recovery pro- gramme for the ploughshare tortoise Geochelone ymiphora, a study of the ecology and conservation of the diademed sifaka Propithecus diadema and the captive breeding of lemurs at Ivolina, near Toamasina. Other non-Malagasy organisations involved in one or more of these projects are Yale University, Washington University, Duke University Primate Center, the Smithsonian Institution, USAID, Unesco and Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust (WWF, 1990). A Biodiversity Planning Centre is to be set up in the country (Smith er al., 1990). USAID has agreed to fund the Geographic Information System (GIS) to be used in the Centre. Conservation International has recently set up an office in Antananarivo and intends to become involved with numerous conservation projects in the country (Conservation International, 1990). These will include biological inventories, vegetation mapping, land-use planning, research on particular species and data management, as well as support for local NGOs, training of Malagasy scientists and education programmes for local people. Duke University and the Duke Primate Center have been very involved with the gazetting of Ranomafana as a national park and in setting up a long-term study site there. Missouri Botanical Garden is particularly concerned with ensuring that a protected area is gazetted on the Masoala Peninsula (see case study). Other projects that seek to integrate protection of natural resources and biodiversity with rural development, are located at Ranomafana National Park, Montagne d’Ambre National Park, the Mananara North Biosphere Reserve and at Beza-Mahafaly and Andohahela Nature Reserves. The World Bank is funding a project for the management and protection of forests (Gestion et Protection des Foréts — GPF). This project is supporting improved management of several pro- tected areas and the training of reserve staff. Unesco and UNDP are collaborating with the GPF, especially in the development of tourism and rural development in buffer zones. The Ankarafantsika Nature Reserve is one of the more important sites coming under this project. The forests between Andranomena and the Tsiribihina River on the west coast of Madagascar near Morondava are being managed by a project supported by Swiss development aid. The forests are being managed for sustained yield timber production. Agricultural and agroforestry activities in the buffer zones aim to reduce pres- sure on the forests from people in surrounding areas.” Madagascar is one of the few countries that has a successful debt-for-nature swap programme, initiated in 1989 by the Malagasy Central Bank in collaboration with WWF, USAID, and the Ministry of Agricultural Production, Water and Forests (MPAEF). The Masoala Peninsula in the north-east of Madagascar contains some of the country’s largest remaining tracts of undisturbed east- ern rain forest, including perhaps the only stands extending down to sea level. The region appears to have an exceptionally high level of biodiversity, with many plant and animal species occurring only there. For instance, on a recent expedition to the peninsula two genera and seven species of previously unknown palms were dis- | covered in just three weeks. In addition it is here, and only here, that the red-ruffed lemur Varecia vaniegata rubra, is found. At pre- sent none of the peninsula is protected, but there are plans to gazette a national park in the area which would include at least 2000 sq. km of forest. Missouri Botanical Garden and the | Agricultural Development Department of the Malagasy Lutheran | Church (SA.FA.FI.) in conjunction with MPAEF, have put for- ward a number of proposals for the conservation of the peninsula’s | forests (Missouri Botanical Garden and SA.FA.FI., n.d.). | They plan to implementa rural development programme that is adapted to local needs and conditions but is also linked to | MASOALA PENINSULA natural resource conservation. Local people will be trained in agriculture, land-use and conservation management so that they can carry out the proposed projects. The preparation of a comprehensive inventory of the region’s biological resources is under way. They hope that the work on the Masoala Peninsula will provide an example of the successful integration of devel- opment and conservation, following the model that is being widely used in other protected areas. The primary benefits expected from the project are: e Increased producuvity and efficiency in local agricultural production, which will help provide food self-sufficiency. e Improved fisheries exploitation in coastal areas. Availability of basic health care and health education. e Reduction in the rate of degradation of the area’s forests. e Increased public awareness of the immediate and long-term relationship between local economic conditions and land-use practices. e Increased employmentand stimulation of the local economy. i) i) 12.2) References Andrews, J. R. (1990) A Preliminary Survey of Black Lemurs, Lemur macaco, im North West Madagascar. Unpublished final report of the Black Lemur Survey 1988. Chauvet, B. (1972) The forests of Madagascar. In: Biogeography and Ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae Biologicae 21, pp. 191-9. Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (eds). Junk, The Hague, The Netherlands. Conservation International (1990) A Program of Conservation for Madagascar. Unpublished proposal. Conservation Int- ernational, Washington, DC, USA. 25 pp. Donque, G. (1972) The Climatology of Madagascar. In: Biogeography and Ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae Biologicae 21, pp. 87-144. Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (eds). Junk, The Hague, The Netherlands. Dorney eee barmett, 5 Gy /sand Rakotozaty,, A° (1989) Madagascar. In: Floristic Inventory of Tropical Countries. Campbell, D. G. and Hammond, D. (eds). New York Botanical Garden, New York, USA. FAO (1988) An Interim Report on the State of Forest Resources in the Developing Countries. FAO, Rome, Italy. 18 pp. FAO (1991) FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1978-1989. FAO Forestry Series No. 24 and FAO Statistics Series No. 97. FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO/UNEP (1981) Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project. Forest Resources of Tropical Africa. Part II: Country Briefs. FAO, Rome, Italy. Green, G. M. and Sussman, R. W. (1990) Deforestation history of the eastern rain forests of Madagascar from satellite images. Science 248: 212-15. Guichon, A. (1960) La superficie des formations forestiéres a Madagascar. Revue Forestiére Frangaise 6: 408-11. Harcourt, C. and Thornback, J. (1990) Lemurs of Madagascar and the Comoros. The IUCN Red Data Book. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Humbert, H. (1927) Destruction d’une flore insulaire par le feu. Principaux aspects de la vegetation a Madagascar. Mémoires de L’Académie Malagache V: 1-80. Humbert, H. (1959) Origines présumées et affinities de la flore de Madagascar. Mémoire d’Institut Science Madagascar Séries b (Biologique et Végétation) 9: 149-87. Jenkins, M. D. (1987) Madagascar; an Environmental Profile. IUCN/UNEP/WWF. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 374 pp. Keiner, A. (1972) Ecologie, biologie et possibilités de mise en valeur des mangroves malagaches. Bulletin Madagascar 308: 49-84. Koechlin, J. (1972) Flora and vegetation of Madagascar. In: Biogeography and Ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae Biologicae 21, pp. 227-59. Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (eds). Junk, The Hague, The Netherlands. Langrand, O. (1990) Guide to the Birds of Madagascar. Yale University Press, New Haven, USA. MacPhee, R. D. E., Burney, D. and Wells, N. A. (1985) Early Holocene chronology and environment of Ampasambazimba, a Madagascar subfossil lemur site. International Fournal of Primatology 6(5): 463-89. Missouri Botanical Garden and SA.FA.FI. (n.d.) An Integrated Project for Rural Development, Conservation and Biological Inventory of the Masoala Peninsula, Northeastern Madagascar. Unpublished report. MADAGASCAR Nicoll, M. E. and Langrand, O. (1989) Madagascar: Revue de la Conservation et des Aires Protégées. WWF, Gland, Switzerland. Nicoll, M. E. and Rathbun, G. B. (1990) African Insectivores and Elephant-Shrews: An Action Plan for their IUCN/SSC Insectivore, Tree-Shrew and Elephant-Shrew Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Perrier de la Bathie, H. (1921) La végétation malagache. Annales du Musée Colonial de Marseille (3 séries) 9: 1-268. Perrier de la Bathie, H. (1936) Buogéographie des Plantes de Madagascar. Paris, France. Rabinowitz, P. D., Coffin, M. F. and Falvey, D. (1983) Separation of Madagascar and Africa. Science 220: 67-9. Rakotovao, L., Barre, V. and Sayer, J. (1988) L’Equilibre des Ecosystémes forestiers a Madagascar: Actes d’un Séminaire Inter- national. (UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 344 pp. Schreiber, A., Wirth, R., Riffel, M. and Van Rompaey, H. (1989) Action Plan for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids. IUCN/SSC Mustelid and Viverrid Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. SECA/CML (1987) Mangroves of Africa and Madagascar: the Mangroves of Madagascar. Sociéteé d’Eco-aménagement, Marseilles, France and Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Leiden, The Netherlands. Unpublished report to the European Commission, Brussels. Smith, A. P., Horning, N., Oliverieri, S. and Andrianifahnana, L. (1990) Feasibihty Study for Establishment of a Biodiversity Planning Service in Madagascar. University of New England, Armidale, Australia. Tattersall, I. (1982) The Primates of Madagascar. Columbia University Press, New York, USA. White, F. (1983) The Vegetation of Africa: a descriptive memoir to accompany the Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. Unesco, Paris, France. 356 pp. World Bank (1988) Madagascar Environmental Action Plan. Volume 1: General Synthesis and Proposed Actions. Preliminary report. WWE (1990) WWF List of Approved Projects. Volume V Africa and Madagascar. WWF, Gland, Switzerland. Conservation. The Weasels, Civets, Mongooses and their Relatives: An Authorship Caroline Harcourt in Cambridge with contributions from Martin Jenkins, Cambridge; Olivier Langrand, WWF-Madagascar; David Stone, Gland, Switzerland and Peter Lowry, Missouri Botanical Garden, USA. Map 26.1 Forest cover in Madagascar Vegetation data are taken from two sources. Mangroves are extracted from Carte des Formations Végétales de Madagascar, a 1:1 million unpublished map prepared by Faramalala Miadana Harisoa—I.C.I.V. (n.d.). Vegetation category no. 12 ‘Zone a mangrove’ has been included on Map 26.1. The eastern rain forests are from a map compiled from 19835 satellite imagery which accompanies Green and Sussman (1990). A photocopy of the map in this report was supplied by G. Green and this was used to show the extent of the eastern rain forest on Map 26.1. It indicates a total forest cover about 28.5 per cent greater than that reported by Green and Sussman from the same data. The discrepancy apparently results from the poor quality of the photocopy and the generalisation of the map that occurred when it was digitised. Vegetation types have been harmonised with White’s (1983) vegetation map. Conservation areas are taken from a map series Carte de Madagascar in 12 sheets at a scale of 1:500,000 (1963), published by the Institut Géographique National, and from spatial data held within files at WCMC. | Land area 910,770 sq. km | Population (mid-1990) 118.8 milion | Population growth rate in 1990 2.9 per cent Population projected to 2020 273.2 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS290 | Rain forest (see map) 38,620 sq. km | Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)" 59,500 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)* 3000 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 7,868,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst 16,000 cu. m Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 100,430,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 2,945,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst 1000 cu.m FAO (1988) t 1989 dato from FAO (1991) 27 Nigeria The moist forests of Nigeria are now largely restricted to forest reserves. The forest area has been reduced considerably, with over half having disappeared within living memory. Although natural forests were carefully managed in the early part of the century, they have since been severely over-exploited and it is estimated that at the present rate of deforestation, the country’s timber resources will be exhausted by 1995. The main problem is the pressure put on the land by Nigeria’s growing population; the country is already as densely pop- ulated as Western Europe and the numbers continue to increase. Nigeria contains a quarter of Africa’s total population and accounts for half of the continent’s economic production. Subsistence farming and cash cropping have destroyed the forest outside the reserves and there is now considerable encroachment into these areas which are mostly unprotected. In addition, the reserves are now the main source of fuelwood in the country and, with domestic consumption exceeding sustainable yield from these areas by at least four times, there is little hope for their conservation without massive planting programmes. Today, there is a growing awareness of the urgent need to manage the remaining forests. Management plans are being implemented for several of the protected areas and more are being drafted. Ultimately, though, only changes in the efficiency of agriculture, in systems of land tenure and in people’s attitudes to the use of natural resources can rescue the situation. INTRODUCTION With a country area of 923,770 sq. km Nigeria is by far the largest country in tropical West Africa. It extends between 4°16'N and 13°52'N and between 2°49'E and 14°37'E and is bounded by Cameroon and Chad to the east, Niger to the north and Benin to the west. The southern coastline is dominated by the delta of the River Niger. The general relief of the country is that of a plateau dissected into three parts (south-west, north and south-east) by the Y-shaped Niger/Benue rivers system. The central Jos Plateau has an altitude of about 1200 m with higher peaks such as Wadi Hill at 1698 m and Shere Hill at 1781 m; whereas the general height of the Biu Plateau, in the east, is 600 m with one of its peaks reach- ing 795 m. The south-eastern border with Cameroon is moun- tainous, and Chappal Wade at 2419 m is the highest point in Nigeria. Volcanic formations are also found in these regions. Rainfall decreases, both in amount and duration, from south to north, and it tends to be wetter in the east than in the west. At Calabar in the south-east, the mean annual precipitation is 3070 mm whereas at Ikeja in the south-west it averages 1700 mm; and at Maiduguri in the north-east the average is only 600 mm. The annual variability in rainfall has generally increased in recent years, especially in the north. The dry season is brief in the delta region, lasting one or two months during January and February, whereas in the far north the duration is of eight or nine months from October to May. In the north, the mean maximum temper- ature is about 35°C, and in the south it averages around 31°C; the mean minimum temperature is about 18°C in the north and 22°C in the south. Thus, the daily range of temperature is much greater 230 in the north, where temperatures are also lower in the dry season when the dust-laden Harmattan wind blows from the desert, caus- ing a haze which obscures the sun. Although only the twelfth largest country in Africa, Nigeria con- tains a quarter of the continent’s people and a greater population than any other African country. People have congregated on more fertile soils, for example in the southern parts of the Sudan savanna and along the northern fringes of the high forest. In some areas, par- ticularly in the south-eastern states of Akwa Ibom and Imo, rural populations may exceed 1000 persons per sq. km, while in Kano State in the north they reach around 500 persons per sq. km. The Nigerian population has expanded from perhaps 10 million in 1900 to almost 120 million in 1990, although these figures are approximate due to the lack of an accurate census. Cities have existed in Nigeria for many centuries, even in the forest zone, and today some 30 per cent of the total population live in towns, mostly in the south-west. Food production depends mainly on subsistence farmers, crops being grown on holdings of usually no more than 2 ha. Cash crops, such as groundnuts and cotton grown in the savanna zones and cacao and rubber in the forest zone, were grown mainly for export. However, as a result of the need to feed larger urban populations, and because of rising food prices, it has now become remunerative for farmers to grow food crops for cash. The population growth in the forest zone and the spread of cash cropping, have resulted in almost total destruction of natural high forest outside the reserves. Nigeria was formerly an important producer of tropical timber, and in 1960 exported a roundwood equivalent of 773,000 cu. m; domestic consumption was thought to be of a similar level. During the oil-boom decade of the 1970s, vastly increased government and commercial activity, combined with rising standards of living, caused a tremendous growth in demand for timber to make furni- ture and provide building materials. In consequence, the domes- tic market for timber began to predominate over the export mar- ket, and in 1976 the federal government was obliged to forbid all export of logs or semi-processed timber. It should be noted, how- ever, that FAO (1988) still reports appreciable exports of indus- trial roundwood from the country. A result of the burgeoning demand has been increased pressure on, and progressive over- exploitation of, the remaining forests. The Forests Three major vegetation types may be recognised in Nigeria: the swamp forests (including mangroves) of the Niger Delta and coastal belt, the lowland forests of the humid south, which reach about 250 km inland, and the savannas of the subhumid central area and the drier north (Charter, 1978). Forest outliers may be found, particu- larly in the savanna zone along watercourses and also in areas of higher rainfall such as on the south-western slopes of the Jos Plateau. The main closed forest blocks in the country are in the states of Ondo (south-west), Bendel (south-centre) and Cross River (south- east) and in the Niger Delta (River State). The forest in Cross River State has affinities with those of Cameroon and Gabon and has apparently been continuously linked with them (Hall, 1977). Indeed, it is estimated that during the Pleistocene, the Oban Forest in Cross River State remained the only major forest refuge in Nigeria. In contrast, in more westerly forests, because of intermittent dry phases, savanna has periodically reached the coast (Hall, 1977). White (1983) classifies Nigerian lowland forest as Guineo- Congolian, only distinguishing a drier subtype in the south-west and south-centre from a wetter subtype in the south-east. There have been several studies of the vegetation types (e.g. Rosevear, 1954a, b; Keay, 1965; Redhead, 1971; Charter, 1978; Hall, 1977, 1981). Drier forest occurs towards the northern margins of the forest zone, in which dominant trees generally belong to the Sterculiaceae (Cola spp., Mansoma altissima, Nesogordomia papaverifera, Pterygota spp., Sterculia spp., Triplochiton scleroxylon), to the Moraceae (Antians africana, Ficus spp., Milicia excelsa) and to the Ulmaceae (Celtis spp., Holoptelea grandis). The moister forests are characterised by mem- bers of the Leguminosae (Brachystegia spp., Cylicodiscus gabunensis, Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum, Piptadeniastrum africanum) and of the Meliaceae (Entandrophragma spp., Guarea spp., Khaya wworensis, Lovoa trichilioides); and the forests in the high rainfall areas by the species Klainedoxa gabonensis, Lophira alata, Nauclea diderrichu and Pycnanthus angolensis, and by the presence of climbing palms. However, the boundaries between these forest types are not distinct, and soil differences determined by geological parent material also influence the species composition. In the lowland forest there is no single canopy layer, but crowns exist at all levels giving an irregular structure to the forest, with large emergents projecting above the level of other crowns. In mature forest, the undergrowth is fairly open, except where climber tangles fill gaps left by fallen emergents. Nigeria’s montane forest, occurring above about 1500 m, is lim- ited in extent and confined mainly to the Mambila and Obudu plateaux which border Cameroon. These forests mostly occupy ravines and steep-sided valleys, between extensive rolling grasslands. The forest has a characteristic appearance, with festoons of mosses, orchids and begonias hanging from tree branches and boles; tree ferns (Cyathea spp.) are also present. Typical tree species are Carapa procera, Bridelia speciosa, Cephaelis mannu, Enocoelum macrocarpum, NIGERIA Sapium ellipticum, Symphonia globulifera, Syzygium staudm and Tabernaemontana ventricosa (Hall and Medler, 1975). Freshwater swamp forest is an important component of the vege- tation in the Delta, and also fringes the numerous rivers and estuaries that flow into the creeks and lagoons. There are fewer species than in dryland forests, although large emergents such as Alstomia boonet, Mitragyna ledermannu, Symphoma globulifera and (where better drained) Lophira alata are present. Mutragyna is a useful umber tree and may be exploited wherever it is accessible. The main canopy is formed of smaller species, such as Oxystigma mannu, Anthostema aubryanum and Nauclea pobeguinn. A member of the Meliaceae, Carapa procera, is common though this species does not grow to a large size in Nigeria. The palm Raphia hooker is usually abundant, and there may be dense colonies of Pandanus candelabrum especially along margins of water courses. Tree species more associated with dryland forests may also occur on hummocks or other raised areas. The swamps are flooded in the rainy season, but more or less dry out in the dry season. Mangroves The Nigerian mangroves are extensive; they were reported to cover over 9700 sq. km in 1980 (FAO/UNEP, 1981). The mangroves are associated with the lagoon systems in the west and particularly with the Niger Delta and the Cross estuary in the east. Along the Niger Delta alone, they are reported to cover an area of 5400 sq. km (SECA/CML, 1987). The distribution of mangroves and swamp forest in this area is shown in Figure 27.1. Map 27.1 shows a total Figure 27.1 The main ecological zones of the Niger Delta (Sources: SECA/CLM, 1987; from Ibiele et al., 1983; Allen, 1965; Burke, 1972; NEDECO, 1961) Limit of Niger flooded orea Key Fresh water swomp Brackish water swomp/mangroves Coastal barrier Calabar J islands NIGERIA of 10,515 sq. km of mangrove within the country. The most com- mon species is Rhizophora racemosa, but R. harrisonu, R. mangle, Avicennia afncana and Laguncularia racemosa also occur (Rosevear, 1947; Keay, 1989). The trees form a dense tangle about 10 m high, although some trees can reach more than 40 m in height. In many places where mangroves are cleared, the secondary vegetation becomes dominated by the sedge Cyperus articulatus, the grass Paspalum vaginatum or the fern Acrostichum aurewn. Waterbirds are abundant in the mangrove swamps (Rosevear, 1947); the grey parrot Psittacus enithacus and palm nut vulture Gypohierax angolensis are also common. Among the animals present in the swamps are the sitatunga 7ragelaphus spekei, the marsh mon- goose Anlax paludinosus and the spotted-necked otter Lutra maculi- colhs. The mona monkey Cercopithecus mona is the only common monkey. Two species of crocodile are present: the Nile Crocodylus niloticus and the slender-snouted Crocodylus cataphractus. These forests have long provided fuelwood and building materials to coastal towns, and are being destroyed where they are accessible to urban centres, such as around Lagos, Port Harcourt and Warri. In the Niger Delta the wetlands are being criss-crossed by oil and gas pipelines and considerable areas are disturbed as a result of oil exploration and pollution. In addition, the exotic palm Nypa fruticans imported from Southeast Asia is invading the man- grove edges and may have a detrimental effect on them. None of the mangrove areas is presently protected. Forest Resources and Management In 1897, Nigeria was thought to contain about 600,000 sq. km of natural vegetation (Stebbing, 1935). By 1951, it was estimated that only 360,000 sq. km remained (IUCN/WWF, 1987), and FAO reported that there were only 140,750 sq. km of forest, of which less than half (59,500 sq. km) was closed forest (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Map 27.1 and Table 27.1 show that now only 38,620 sq. km of forest remains in the country, of which almost a third is man- grove. It was not possible to distinguish between swamp and low- land forest from the UNEP/GRID dataset, but Figure 27.1 indi- cates the extent of the swamp forest along the Niger Delta where it is reported to cover about 11,700 sq. km (SECA/CML, 1987). Exploitation of the forests for timber began in the 1880s, by extracting valuable trees such as the African mahoganies (Entandrophragma and Khaya spp.) that were accessible from river banks and could be transported by boat for export. The Bendel forests in the south-centre were the most easily reached, as they were penetrated by rivers and the terrain was relatively flat and free from surface streams. Tramways were constructed in the forest to facilitate removal of logs that were more distant from rivers. Initially timber for local use was cut by pitsawyers, but in 1901 two small sawmills were established in Lagos. The improvement of roads after the Second World War facilitated expansion into large Table 27.1 Estimates of forest extent in Nigeria Area (sq. km) % of land area Rain forests Lowland (and swamp) 28,040 Shall Montane 65 <0.01 Mangrove 10,515 2 Totals 38,620 4.2 (Based on analysis of Map 27.1. See Map Legend on p. 239 for details of sources blocks of forest in Ogun and Ondo states in the south-west. The Cross River State forests in the south-east have been less exploited, owing both to the rugged terrain and to the fact that until 1973 there were no bridges over the Cross River to allow the easy move- ment of timber to other parts of Nigeria. Forest management began early in Nigeria. In 1901 the First Forestry Ordinance was promulgated to regulate the size of im- ber concessions, to impose forestry fees, and to oblige concession- aires to plant 20 economic tree seedlings at each stump site. Duties were also exacted on exported logs. In 1919, the first Governor General of Nigeria, Sir Frederick Lugard, spelled out Nigerian government policy on forestry, which remained valid until the economy was transformed by the oil-boom decade in the 1970s. He stated that, for a well-populated country, it was desirable to reserve for forestry one-third of the total land area; and for Nigeria he proposed an absolute minimum target of 25 per cent. The constitution of forest reserves required elaborate consultation procedures between government departments as well as with local communities. In creating the reserves, preference was given to blocks of vacant land, especially those containing valuable forest, but also including protection reserves for watersheds and unstable terrain. As communal land tenure was usual, ownership of the reserves became vested in local authorities. Reserve boundaries were marked on the ground, and as survey and demarcation proceeded, existing rights practised in the reserve were investigated by village meetings. Rights were admitted which did not seem likely to conflict with the proposed management objectives of the reserve, and included traditional acuvities such as hunting, fishing and gathering for food, medicines and sometimes materials for house construction and domestic use. In the high forest areas, forest reservation was substantially com- pleted during the 1920s and 1930s, although there has been some reservation in the Rivers State during the 1960s and 1970s. In the savanna areas of the north, much of the reservation took place dur- ing the 1940s—1960s. Forest reserves now cover about 93,000 sq. km, or 10 per cent of land area (Federal Department of Forestry, 1984), but at least three-quarters of this is in savanna areas (Allen and Shinde, 1981). In 1960, in order to control exploitation and regeneration of the forests, nearly 10,000 sq. km of the high forest reserves were being managed under working plans prepared by the Forestry Department. The forests were worked on a 100-year felling cycle and a quarter of the area was given out as concessions. Royalties were paid to the local authorities by calculating payments at so much per unit volume of timber removed. Only trees larger than prescribed girths, 60-90 cm dbh depending on species, could be felled. Total log removals normally averaged between 20 and 50 cu. m per ha, whereas the total standing bole volume of the forest is between 150 and 450 cu. m per ha. The timber company was expected to remove all sound trees of listed species above the prescribed girth limits and, if it failed to do so, royalties could be charged on the unfelled trees. However, these plans have now fallen into disuse and new plans have never been written. In addition, the state governments now control forest reserves and the Federal Department of Forestry (FDF) has no executive authority for their management. After 1960, the tendency was to favour indigenous entrepreneurs, and to use forest reserves as a source of government patronage. Concessions were given to political clients who might not have facilities to exploit them, and who sub-leased to estab- lished companies. Concessions were for shorter periods; working plans were allowed to fall into abeyance, or were ignored, and new plans were not prepared. The method of paying royalties was changed to a fee based on coupe area, which removed control of revenue collection from local staff. In 1962, in order to make larger NIGERIA areas available for exploitation, the felling cycle for natural forest was reduced to 50 years. In 1970 the original concessions began to expire and, as subsequent blocks had already been given to fresh concessionaires, it became necessary for some agencies to re- exploit compartments that had already been logged 25 years pre- viously. By the 1980s forest exploitation had become virtually unregulated and timber was being removed from the reserves on a massive scale, both legally and illegally. In 1974-8 the FAO collaborated with the Federal Department of Forestry to carry out land-use surveys and mapping of the whole of Nigeria by means of side-look radar. At the same time, an inven- tory was conducted through Nigeria’s high forests of all trees over 20 cm dbh (Sutter, 1979). This led FAO (1979) to predict that by 1995 forest reserves in the south-west and south-centre of the country would be exhausted of timber. Therefore it was recom- mended that a plantation programme should be initiated that would establish 10,000 sq. km of forestry plantations in the high forest zone, and another 8000 sq. km in the savanna zones during a 20-year period — ideally before the year 2000. The forest reserves are capable of yielding perhaps 2 million cu. m of timber annually on a sustained yield basis. However, increas- ing population, particularly in the towns, and rising standards of liv- ing have caused domestic consumption of timber (in 1990) to exceed this sustainable yield fourfold. It is esumated that by the year 2000, the demand for umber in Nigeria will be about 10 million cu. m (roundwood equivalent), not including poles and fuelwood. To save the natural forests would require either importing timber on a con- siderable scale or a massive planting programme, particularly within the forest zone outside forest reserves. This would need to be of the order of 500 sq. km annually to satisfy present consumption and to meet subsequent growth in demand. The most the government forestry services have attained per year is about 200 sq. km within high forest reserves (in 1975); but for more than a decade they have not exceeded 50 sq. km annually. When the far greater demand for fuelwood is taken into account, itis apparent that the extent of planting needed is beyond the reach of the government alone and will require participation by private companies and individuals. Indeed, several commercial enter- Forest land cleared for agriculture on the southern escarpment of the Fos Plateau. Only small relict forests remain in this area. R. Wilkinson prises, including a pulpmill at Jebba, an integrated mill at Sapele, and a match factory at Ibadan, are already beginning to establish their own tree plantations in the hope of securing future wood sup- plies for their factories. However, they have to plant within forest reserves to get security of tenure over sufficiently large blocks of land, and they tend to plant fast-growing species on short rotations, mainly exotics such as Gmelina or Eucalyptus. Establishing tree plantations, whether by natural or artificial regeneration, requires the certainty that in due course the owner will be able to reap the benefit from his investment. Planting trees outside forest reserves, by private individuals or organisations, 1s discouraged by the land tenure situation and by state or local governments charging royal- ties for exploiting trees on lands outside forest reserves. Placing a moratorium on felling certain species (such as Milicia excelsa and Triplochiton scleroxylon in Oyo State) may also prove counterpro- ductive. The situation can be resolved only by ensuring secure and transferable long-term titles to land and by providing inducements for planting umber species with longer rotations. If the productive capacity of the natural high forests is not to be destroyed, then it is essential that all forest reserves are brought under management, and exploitation is strictly regulated on a sustained yield basis. As the remaining natural forests cannot produce enough umber to satisfy Nigeria’s needs, planting timber trees must be undertaken within the forest zone. If this is to include significant areas of land outside forest reserves, then land tenure reform may be inescapable. However, as an interim measure, planting timber crops in forest reserves will need to be included in current working plans, in order to help reduce the pressure on remaining natural forests. In addition, if the existing genetic variety of the natural forests is to be maintained, then silvicultural treatments that destroy currently uneconomic species may have to be abandoned. Timber is not the only valuable resource found in the forest. Bushmeat is an important source of protein, particularly for rural people for whom it constitutes about 20 per cent of their diets (Charter, 1973). It is also regarded as a delicacy and the more or less unregulated hunting provides a significant source of income for rural communities. Many hunters in the south-east of the coun- try use breech-loading shotguns which are being manufactured bo es) SS) NIGERIA NOOYAWNVS (uojsiaig ueq JOA SSOI9 409 | ey/aq JabIN 7 TY p—| . i | 4 Vel : a ‘healeld MPNGO 5 HY a } eiqnqg * s 5 s e /PHTETeV % toe oh g Pesfduysey " : ger | d ee ths wepueg” ( NPAIEld SOP coat sali OOL 0 0 Wy OSh 001 0 0 000°000'€: | (B861) alum Woy Uayel , pnoja Aq painasqg | }sa104 UON pasodoid Bunjsixa Seaie UONeAIaSUOD anosGuew Pa ea - aue|UOW pas ee] pueiwo} jsa04 wiley PLASIN [Zz dep 234 locally, although the ammunition is imported. In the south-west, tra- ditional hunters still rely mainly on muzzle-loading guns. Favourite quarry are antelopes, large rodents, bushpigs, pangolins, tortoises, hawks and other large birds. Monkeys are also shot. Crocodiles, pythons and monitor lizards are killed both for their meat and their decorative skins, which are used to manufacture handbags, shoes, and the like. The giant snail Achatina marginata suturalis is also regarded as a delicacy, and is gathered in the forest; black snails are preferred, and near villages and towns this causes powerful selection for albinism in the species (Reid, 1989). Another delicacy is the larva of the rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes sp., which lives in rotting palm trunks. Wild animals are also used in magical and medicinal concoctions. A further problem besides unregulated hunting is the gathering of secondary forest products by rural people, mainly for sale in the towns. These include wrapping leaves, chew sticks, peppers, spices, medicines, and so on. They provide a valuable source of income for the people and one that is available virtually through- out the year; but this trade must also be controlled if the resources are not to be destroyed and the forests and their bounty are to remain for future generations. Deforestation In Nigeria, deforestation has been caused mainly by two factors: first, the increase in area of subsistence farming to feed a growing popu- lation; and second, the spread of cash cropping by peasant farmers. Formerly, cash cropping replaced forest cover with tree crops, such as cacao, cola, oil palm and rubber, the produce of which was mainly exported. However, today, as a result of rising prices for foodstuffs, these tree crops are often themselves displaced by arable crops. When tree crops replace natural vegetation, they do not cause marked site degradation, but this is not true for arable crops. The successive conversion to tree crops and arable farming has mostly eliminated timber on lands outside forest reserves. Vast tracts are now devoid of forest and in areas where, before 1970, forest came to the road edges (for example, from Benin City to Asaba, Obubra to Agoi and Arochukwu to Abakaliki), it has now disappeared from sight. Forest reserves are important in maintaining timber supplies and in assisting in the moderation of climate, yet they are not pro- tected adequately. The boundaries are not being maintained and patrolled as before and they are being encroached for farming. Local and state governments often have more pressing calls on their limited finances. Because of the tradition of communal land tenure, local people may consider that the land has been stolen from them, and connive with illegal fellers. Iaiye Forest Reserve has notably suffered in this way. In contrast, in other major reserves in the south-west, such as Omo, Oluwa and Idanre, timber crop plantations established along the roads have protected the natural forests behind. However, in Bendel State in the south-centre, from 1975 to 1987 the forestry service was organising clearing of about 5 sq. km per year of forest reserves (and previously much more than this), ostensibly for taungya farming, but without establish- ing a tree crop; meanwhile older taungya plantations were devas- tated by illegal fellers. The pressure of deforestation could be reduced if the produc- tivity of arable areas were enhanced, so that less land would be needed for raising food crops. This will require either eliminating the fallow period, or putting it to intensive use, such as the grow- ing of fodder for livestock. However, a feature of peasant agricul- ture is that every community grows most of the food for its own subsistence. In contrast, the chief consideration for commercial agriculture is to raise the most profitable crop for each locality, which in much of the forest zone could probably be tree crops, while arable farming might be mainly consigned to savanna areas. NIGERIA A problem is that profitable systems of commercial farming are poorly developed in Nigeria and the absence of a free market in land means that land is not used in the most efficient way. Furthermore, there is little alternative to subsistence farming for large numbers of people; this can only be resolved if industry absorbs people off the land, an option made difficult by high pop- ulation growth. Moreover, even industrialised countries require some 30 per cent of the land area under forest if they are to be self- sufficient in wood (Lowe, 1986). Biodiversity Nigeria has a considerable diversity of habitats, from arid thorn savanna in the extreme north to freshwater swamp forest in the south. Associated with this is a wide range of plant and animal species. Lebrun (1967) lists 4614 plant species in the country. There are 205 endemic species (Davies et al., 1986), with the high- est degree of endemism occurring in the lowlands of south-east Nigeria, particularly round Oban (Brenan, 1978). Happold (1987) gives a checklist and distribution data for mam- mals in the various vegetation zones of Nigeria. He lists a total of 248 species, of which 125 are found in the forests (Table 27.2). Stuart et al. (1990) report that there are 274 mammal species in the country. There is a high diversity of primates, of which at least half are of conservation concern (Lee et al., 1988). Two of them, the white- throated guenon Cercopithecus erythrogaster and Sclater’s guenon Cercopithecus sclateri, are probably endemic although the former may also occur in Benin (Oates, 1986). The drill Mandrillus leu- cophaeus and the gorilla Gorilla gonila sull exist, but are endangered. Harcourt et al. (1989) estimate that at least 50 per cent more goril- las are killed in Nigeria than are born each year. The chimpanzee Pan troglodytes survives only in relict populations. Almost all the surviving species of antelope are considered to be threatened, mainly due to over-hunting (Anadu and Green, 1990). Leopards Panthera pardus, once common, are now rare, particularly because they are killed for their skins. There are less than 2000 elephants remaining in Nigeria, the populations are fragmented and declin- ing due to poaching and their range is being restricted by defor- estation and the spread of agriculture. Hippos Hippopotamus amphibius are threatened by hunting and poaching, and their destructive habits do not endear them to local farmers. Manatees Trichechus senegalensis are also threatened by overhunting. Table 27.2) Number of mammals and their distribution All spp. Forest Savanna Guinea Sudan Insectivora 26 11 10 8 Chiroptera 71 38 40 34 Primates 21 11 11 4 Pholidota 2 2 1 Lagomorpha 2 1 1 Rodentia 54 35 29 20 Carnivora 33 11 23 21 Sirenia 1 — Tubulidentata 1 1 1 Proboscidea 1 1 1 Hyracoidea 2 1 1 Perissodactyla 2 1 Artiodactyla 32 13 20 18 Totals 248 125 139 105 (Source: Happold, 1987) NIGERIA There are 839 bird species recorded in Nigeria (Elgood, 1965, 1982; Ash and Sharland, 1986), six of which, including three from montane rain forest, are thought to be threatened (Collar and Stuart, 1985). There are two endemics: the Ibadan malimbe Malimbus ibadanensis, which is found on forest fringes, and the Anambra waxbill Estrilda polopareia, a grassland species. Despite being protected by wildlife legislation for several decades, grey parrots and canaries Serinus mozambicus are caught as pets, an activity which, in the case of parrots, threatens their sur- vival in the wild. For waterbirds, the draining of wetlands for cul- tivation or for irrigation schemes are the main hazards. Loss of habitat also puts the montane species at risk. Little is known about the status and distribution of reptiles in the country. Butler and Reid (1990) list 105 species of snakes, including 56 forest snakes of which one (Mehelya egbensis) is endemic. The Nile, African dwarf (Osteolaemus tetraspis) and slen- der-snouted crocodiles all survive in Nigeria, although their num- bers are much reduced. There are 18 rare amphibian species found only in Nigeria and Cameroon, and a toad Bufo perreti that is con- Table 27.3 Conservation areas of Nigeria fined to Nigeria (Stuart er a/l., 1990). Reid er al. (1990) give the frog fauna of Cross River State alone as numbering about 75 species. There is a rich invertebrate fauna, as may be expected in a country with such a wide range of ecosystems, but little is known about species numbers or degree of threat. Conservation Areas Currently some 3.5 per cent of Nigeria is under some sort of man- agement for nature conservation (Table 27.3), but very little of this is forested land. Three categories of protected areas exist: strict nature reserves, game reserves and national parks, all of which were formerly reserved forest. The strict nature reserves are mostly relatively small and are intended to conserve various exam- ples of primary vegetation; they are within forest reserves and under the aegis of the Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN), but are not protected by specific legislation. Game reserves, which are controlled by the states, incorporate areas where hunting is supposed to be strictly regulated, habitat pro- tected and wildlife conserved and managed (Oates and Anadu, Existing and proposed conservation areas for Nigeria are listed below; however, only parks in the southern two-thirds of the country are mapped. For data on Biosphere reserves see chapter 9. Forest reserves and safari parks (zoo parks) are not listed or mapped. Existing area Proposed area (sq. km) (sq. km) National Parks Cross River (Okwangwo Division)* 950 Cross River (Oban Division)* 2,800 Kainji Lake 5,341 Old Oyo role, Strict Nature Reserves Akure$ Mangabey® L' Hoest's monkey” ieee PRA Ui) il) ry 1? P28 a A eS RG INDEX OF ABUNDANCE (number of primate groups/km2) (Number of individuals/km? in the case of chimpanzees) Figure 31 .2. The relative abundance of: seven primates in adjacent areas of mechanically logged and undisturbed forest at Kibale (Sources; Data from Skorupa, 1987; figure from Howard, 1991) 3 Cercopithecus 67 ” Cercocebus 1 27 Procolobus [badius] rufomitratus tephrosceles Cercopithecus ascanius 4 mats stuhlmanni Pan troglodytes " Cercopithecus lhoesti ip. Colobus angolensis ruwenzorit albigena johnstoni 2604 The demand for fuelwood in Uganda is enormous, much greater than that for sawn-wood. Various estimates indicate that 90—95 per cent of the wood consumed in the country is for fuel. At present, most of this is taken from public land outside the forest reserves from fuelwood plantations, small remnant patches of natural for- est and woodland — but demand from an increasing population and a growing industrial sector is already outstripping the supply available in these areas (Howard, 1991). The burgeoning brick- making industry consumes large quantities of fuel during firing while the recent trend of rural people to migrate to the larger towns and cities also greatly the demand for charcoal (Struhsaker, 1987). The demand for building poles is also sub- stantial, estimated by the World Bank (1986) to be between four and five million poles or 300,000 to 400,000 cu. m of wood. These come mostly from small private plantations, natural forest rem- nants on public land and trees on agricultural land, but poles are also taken from all the forest reserves. Furthermore, the exploita- tion of bamboos, palm nuts and rattan canes has a locally signifi- cant impact on the forests (Howard, 1991). In 1987, Uganda issued a revised forest policy which emphasised the importance of protective forestry. In theory, enough forest land increases is to be maintained and safeguarded to ensure sufficient supplies of umber, fuel and other forest products for the long-term needs of the country and, where feasible, for export. Water supplies and soils are to be protected, plants and animals will be conserved in natural ecosystems, but the forests will also be available for amenity and recre- ation. The forests will be managed to optimise economic and envi- ronmental benefits by ensuring that conversion of the forest resources to timber, charcoal and the like is carried out efficiently; that the forest estate is protected against encroachment, illegal tree cutting, fires, diseases and pests; and that sustainable methods are used for harvesting. Biodiversity will be preserved and research undertaken to improve forest growth and yield. In addition, the new policy will encourage agroforestry, by providing services to help farmers grow and protect their own trees and by promoting scientific research. Hunting is common within the Ugandan forests and it is having a major impact on populations of many of the larger mammals. Ungulates are favourite targets, particularly the larger ones such as buffalo Syncerus caffer, giant forest hog Hylochoerus memertzhagent, bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus and bushpig Potamochoerus porcus, but also various species of duiker Cephalophus spp. and other antelopes (Howard, 1991). Primates are hunted only by particu- lar ethnic groups, the Batwa, Baamba, Bakonjo and Bagisu and only in Semliki, Rwenzori and Mt Elgon forests which are in the traditional areas of these groups. Ground-dwelling birds are also sometimes caught. Hunting methods include snares, deadfall and pitfall traps, poison-tipped arrows and the use of dogs to drive ani- mals into nets. Guns are rarely used (Howard, 1991). Deforestation Ever since the introduction of agriculture some 2500 years ago, Uganda’s forests have been cleared to make way for crops and pas- ture. This process continues, although most of the forest loss is now from the little remaining on public lands (A. Johns, i /itt.). It was estimated by FAO (1988) that 100 sq. km of forest were lost annually between 1981 and 1985, while Hamilton (1984) esti- mated that 110 sq. km (2 per cent) of Uganda’s tropical high for- est were lost each year, which meant that the remaining patches of forest were shrinking fast. Recently, though, the losses from the forest reserves have mostly been curtailed (A. Johns, 7 /it.) and it is likely that the annual deforestation rate is now quite low. Most of the accelerating destruction that occurred between 1971 and 1986, was due both to agricultural encroachment and to UGANDA C. Harcourt Buhoma Forest, near Bwindi in the west of Uganda. increased demands for fuel, especially charcoal (Struhsaker, 1987). Howard (1991) estimated that 12 per cent of the forested land within the country’s principal reserves had been affected by agni- cultural encroachment. Four reserves were badly affected (Kibale, Semliki, Mabira and Mt Elgon) while eight had suffered little encroachment (Figure 31.1). The encroachment of Kibale and Semliki was generally for subsistence farming while that of Mabira and Mt Elgon involved cash-crop production. The increased demand for agricultural land and forest products can be attributed primarily to the high population growth rate of more than 3 per cent. The population has doubled since 1960 (Hamilton, 1984). Immigrants from overcrowded districts, such as Kabale and Rukungiri in the south-west, move to less populated regions, often forested areas on public land (Struhsaker, 1987). Immigrants used to move into forest reserves as well, but, since 1987, protection of the reserves has improved and in some cases encroachers have left (D. Pomeroy, im /it.). Indeed, around 350 sq. km of reserved forest have been cleared of settlers since 1987 and only 10 sq. km or so are still affected by their presence. Biodiversity Uganda is exceptionally rich in species of both plants and animals. Its location in east-central Africa means that communities charac- teristic of East Africa’s savannas overlap there with those of West Africa’s rain forests (Howard, 1991). Indeed, White (1983) shows in his vegetation map of Africa that Uganda contains seven of main- land Africa’s 18 phytochoria (biogeographic divisions based on plant distribution), more than any other single nation (Howard, 1991). The lowland and montane forests of western Uganda are of partic- ular importance for the diversity of species they contain (Stuart er al., 1990). The forest with the greatest biological diversity is Bwindi Forest, not only because it was one of the forest refugia but because 265 UGANDA it is the only forest in East Africa with contiguous lowland and montane communities (see case study). There are approximately 5000 flowering plant species in the country but the vegetation regions are shared with other countries and only about 30 species are endemic (Davis et al/., 1986), com- pared with 265 in Kenya and 1100 in Tanzania. Uganda is one of the top three or four countries in Africa for number of mammal species with an estimated 311 (Stuart et al., 1990). Of these, nine are listed by IUCN (1990) as threatened: mountain gorilla Gorilla gorilla berengei, chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, L’Hoest’s monkey Cercopithecus lhoesti, Uganda red colobus Procolobus [badius] rufomitratus tephrosceles, elephant Loxodonta africana, leopard Panthera pardus, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis and Jackson’s mongoose Bdeogale jack- soni, but none of these is endemic to the country. The black rhino may now be extinct in Uganda, while the white rhino Ceratotherium simum certainly is. Uganda has more species of bird for its size than any other coun- try in Africa (Pomeroy and Lewis, 1987). There are 989 bird species listed for the country (Stuart et a/., 1990), but new studies suggest that there are at least 1000 species present (D. Pomeroy, in litt.). Ten are considered to be threatened (Collar and Stuart, 1985) and six of these are forest species. Five are listed as rare: Nahan’s francolin Francolinus nahani which is found in Kibale, Semliki, Budongo, Bugoma and Mabira forests; the forest ground thrush Turdus oberlaender: found in Semliki; the African green broadbill Pseudocalyptomena grauer: from Bwindi; Chapin’s fly- catcher Muscicapa lendu, which also occurs in Bwindi, and Turner’s eremomela Eremomela turner found in Nyondo Forest in the extreme south-west. The threatened Kibale ground thrush Turdus kibalensis is endemic to Kibale, but its status is ‘indetermi- nate’ as it is known only from two individuals collected in 1966 (Collar and Stuart, 1985). Total numbers of reptiles and amphibians are unknown. In the former group, only the dwarf, Nile and slender-snouted crocodiles (Osteolaemus tetraspis, Crocodylus niloticus and C. cataphractus) are listed as threatened by IUCN (1990) and itis possible that the slen- der-snouted species is extinct in Uganda. None of the ten amphib- ians considered to be of conservation concern is endemic to Uganda (Stuart er al., 1990). Numbers of fish and invertebrates are not known. However, there are important populations of endemic fish, particularly cich- lids, in Lake Victoria and other Ugandan lakes. Those in Lake Victoria are threatened by the introduction of Nile perch and some are listed as endangered (IUCN, 1990). Two threatened swallow- tail butterflies, the African giant Papilio antimachus and the cream- banded Papilio leucotaenia are found in Uganda’s forests (Collins and Morris, 1985). Conservation Areas There are six categories of protected areas in Uganda. National parks have the highest conservation status. They can be created or abol- ished only by an act of parliament and their purpose is to preserve wild animal life and natural vegetation. There are six national parks (Table 31.2) with a total area of 8336 sq. km, and three of these contain forest. Two, Mt Rwenzon and Gorilla, are very recent additions to the network. Queen Elizabeth, Uganda’s only Biosphere reserve, contains the northern part of Maramagambo Forest. | THE IMPENETRABLE FOREST CONSERVATION PROJECT | The Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project, funded by WWE and USAID, was set up in 1986 to assist in preventing | further degradation of the once extensive rain forests of south- west Uganda. The welfare and protection of three of the remain- ing natural forest remnants, namely the Bwindi (Impenetrable), Echuya and Mgahinga Forests are the project’s main concern. These areas, managed as forest reserves by the Forest Department, are among the most important and most biologi- cally diverse in Africa. The terrain over all three forests is rugged and the dense vegetation protects vital water catchments and provides important sources of bamboo, timber, fuelwood, honey, medicines and other natural products. They are among | Uganda’s most precious natural resources, yet prior to the ini- | tiation of the Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project, the forests were poorly managed and protected. Bwindi Forest Reserve (321 sq. km) in the Kigezi Highlands is one of the largest forests in East Africa and one of the few containing montane and lowland forest in a continuum. As a result of its size and altitudinal range (1160 m—2600 m asl), and its likely role as a Pleistocene refugium, it is probably the rich- est forest in East Africa in terms of plant, mammal, bird and butterfly species. It has possibly the highest number of montane bird and butterfly species in Africa, many endemic to the for- est. Three species of bird found there are listed as threatened (Collar and Stuart, 1985), namely the African green broadbill, | Grauer’s swamp warbler Bradypterus grauert and Chapin’s fly- catcher. One of the most notable endangered mammals is the mountain gorilla. Approximately 300 individuals, half the world’s population, live in Bwindi forest. Mgahinga Forest Reserve, situated on the Uganda, Rwanda and Zaire borders, forms part of the Virunga Volcanoes ecosys- tem with Zaire’s Virungas National Park and Rwanda’s Volcanoes National Park. It comprises the northern slopes of three of the Virunga volcanoes — Sabinio, Mgahinga and Muhavura — and coy- ers an area of 24 sq. km (probably soon to increase to 33 sq. km). The forest, with an altitudinal range of 2400 m-4300 m and largely consisting of bamboo and alpine vegetation, is one of the few sanc- tuaries for the golden monkey Cercopithecus mitis kandt. Echuya Forest, one of the least studied forests in Uganda, is located between Bwindi and Mgahinga forests, and covers an area of 34 sq. km primarily consisting of bamboo. Muchuya swamp, in the centre of the forest, is one of the highest and largest upland swamps remaining in East Africa. Beyond the borders of these three forests there is virtually no nat- ural forest remaining in south-west Uganda, the land being inten- sively cultivated in what is one of the most densely populated parts of Africa. Massive deforestation has led to wood and water shortages, soil and watershed damage, flooding and siltation. In short, the envi- ronment of south-western Uganda has been badly degraded. At the end of the first four years (1986-90) the project has managed to achieve a number of its objectives, the most notable being the training of guards. In Impenetrable and Mgahinga this has resulted in the virtual elimination of poaching, grazing, tim- ber theft and gold mining. The project is working on the estab- lishment of a national park in the area. CARE and USAID are collaborating in rural development activities around the forest in an attempt to reconcile conflicts with local people. Source: Tom Butynski 266 UGANDA q Conservation areas =) (Caza Map 31.1 Uganda Rain Forest Non Forest SUDAN eS | lowland montane * * Taken from White (1983) inland swamp 1:3,500,000 existing proposed 4°N idepo Valley ‘ Forest ? Sy Q Murchison Falls ZAIRE 2°N oT aS ae fap Bi an Semliki Fores Lf we KENYA g C% F {kite Forest ap South aod \Cortidor Mt wenn 3 cc orest K ars wee ay een Elizabeth AAS Rukungiri e 81 Mgahinga Forest RWANDA TANZANIA 34°E UGANDA Table 31.2 Conservation areas of Uganda Forest reserves, game sanctuaries and controlled hunting areas are not listed or mapped. For information on Biosphere reserves and Ramsar sites see chapter 9. Existing area Proposed area National Parks (sq. km) (sq. km) Bwindi * 310 Gorilla (Mgahinga) 24 Kidepo Valley 1,344 Lake Mburo 536 Mt Rwenzori* Murchison Falls (Kabalega) 3,840 Queen Elizabeth (Rwenzori)* 1,978 Game Reserves Ajai 158 Bokora Corridor 2,056 Bugungu 520 Karuma* 820 Katonga 208 Kibale Forest Corridor* 560 Kigezi* 330 Kyambura* 157 Matheniko 1,600 Pian-Upe 2,314 Toro 555 Nature Reserves Igwe Luvunyat 10 Kasagalat 21 Kisanjut 12 Maruzi Hillst 68 Ngogot 72 North Mabirat 34 Ntendwe Hillt 3 Nyakafunjot 7 Waibirat 32 Wambabyat 34 Zokat 61 Totals 17,968 310 (Source: WCMC, im litt.) * Area with moist forest within its boundaries as shown on Map 31.1.. + Not mapped - location data unavailable to this project. In game reserves, animals were allowed to be captured or killed only with the permission of the Chief Game Warden but hunting in Uganda has now been forbidden for more than a decade. None of the vegetation within a game reserve is protected to any greater extent than in a forest reserve, but grazing of livestock, cultivation or settlement of an area within the reserve requires permission from the Chief Game Warden (Howard, 1991). The Bwindi Forest, Mgahinga and part of Kibale Forest Reserve carry dual status as game and forest reserves. There are now 11 game reserves in the country, but one of these (the Gorilla Game Reserve) has recently been promoted to the status of national park; the remainder cover an area of 9278 sq. km (Table 31.2). There are 14 controlled hunting areas and seven game sanctu- aries; these are the responsibility of the Game Department and can be gazetted or degazetted by the minister responsible for wildlife (IUCN, 1987). Human settlement, livestock and cultivation are permitted in these reserves and, therefore, neither category has been shown on Map 31.1 or in Table 31.2. Some of the forest reserves contain nature reserves within their boundaries and these areas are protected from all forms of extractive use. Most of 268 Uganda’s major forest types are covered by the existing forest reserves, but not all are represented within nature reserves (Pomeroy, 1990). The Forest Department has recently proposed the establish- ment of a new category of multiple-use conservation areas known provisionally as forest parks. These would fall under the control of a Forest Parks Commission and be managed by the Forest Department under the following conditions: e At least 50 per cent of the area would be protected against extractive use. @ No mechanised exploitation would be permitted. @ Manual harvesting of forest products would be licensed and strictly regulated within designated areas. e Park guards would be empowered to enforce regulations pro- tecting both plant and animal life (Kigenyi, 1988). Initiatives for Conservation The Ugandan Government is concerned that the demand for for- est products is rapidly outstripping the supply. As a result, several important programmes of external aid have been initiated. The largest of these is a World Bank Forestry Rehabilitation Project with a budget of US$38.3 million to be spread over six years from March 1988. The project aims to improve the management of Uganda’s forests to meet domestic needs for wood on a sustain- able basis. It will extend and rehabilitate plantations and, at the same time, improve the management of natural forests (Howard, 1991). The EEC is managing the conservation component of the pro- ject and the cost of this is approximately a quarter of the total finance (IUCN, 1990; Tabor et a/., 1990). This includes bound- ary marking around the forest estate and already, between 1988 and 1990, 2600 km of boundary has been made with a cut line or a line of planted marker trees. There is also a reforestation pro- gramme, under which so far 43 sq. km of degraded forest land has been planted with tree seedlings. In addition, the value of each for- est reserve for nature conservation is being documented. Further plans exist to establish more nature reserves with buffer zones around them (Kigenyi, 1990), so that the two categories eventu- ally will cover 20 per cent and 30 per cent respectively of the total forested area. The EEC will supervise the surveying, delimitation and management in these areas (IUCN, 1990). A number of smaller forest projects are being undertaken. For instance, since 1984 CARE-International has been helping to estab- lish village tree nurseries and to train Forest Department staff. CARE- International and WWF also have a programme to assist with the integration of rural developments and the conservation of forests in south-western Uganda. IUCN and the Ministry of Environment Protection, with funding from the Norwegian International Development Agency, have started a conservation project for the degraded forest of Mt Elgon. Development of the rural areas around this region is being integrated with protection of the forests. FAO has a Wildlife and National Parks Project in Uganda to review the current system of national parks and game reserves, to examine the institutional arrangements and legislation for man- agement of these areas and to increase the effectiveness of their protection (IUCN, 1990). Bwindi Forest has had a conservation project since 1986 (see case study on p. 266) and there is also a conservation management programme in Kibale Forest. Makerere University has a biological field station in Kibale supported by WCI/NYZS, USAID and the EEC, to research and monitor the forest and train Ugandan students. In addition, these organisations are involved with several projects outside the forest involving the local people, such as education and tree planting. There have been numerous recommendations that large areas of forest be set aside as protected areas. This is most urgent for the important water catchment areas of Mt Elgon, Mt Kadam and the Bwindi Forest (see Howard, 1991). Semliki, Kibale, Kaniyo-Pabidi, Marangole and South Busoga forests have also all been proposed as worthy of national park status (see Howard, 1991). In recognition of this, the Forest Department is considering upgrading some of References Aluma, J. R. (1987) Uganda Forestry Resources and Action Plan. Draft report to UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Collar, N. J. and Stuart, S. N. (1985) Threatened Birds of Africa and Related Islands. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book Part 1. ICBP/IUCN, Cambridge, UK. 761 pp. Collins, N. M. and Morris, M. G. (1985) Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. The IUCN Red Data Book. \UCN, Gland and Cambridge, UK. vii + 401 pp. Davis, S. D., Droop, S. J. M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C. J., Villa-Lobos, J. L., Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986) Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Department of Lands and Surveys (1967) Government Printer, Entebbe, Uganda. FAO (1988) An Interim Report on the State of Forest Resources in the Developing Countries. FAO, Rome, Italy. 18 pp. FAO (1990) FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1977-1988. FAO Forestry Series No. 23 and FAO Statistics Series No. 90. FAO, Rome, Italy. Forest Department (1951) A History of the Uganda Forest Department 1898-1929. Government Printer, Entebbe, Uganda. Forest Department (1955) 2 . ia > | oo § Aa, ie : "ese & I dud TA. t oe? ; Sh... ed é Mi E eet) ed 5 = o . CFL 0) Mo per Sey 4422°E a = OP : ZAIRE oe 4 ae SUDAN 4°N LakeAlbert UGANDA TANZANIA c: fe bo ~I — Land area = 2,267,290 sq. km Population (mid-1990) 36.6 million Population growth rate in 1990 3.3 per cent Population projected to 2020 90 million Gross national product per capita (1988) USS|70 Rain forest (see mops) 1,190,737 Closed broadleaved forest (end 1980)° 1,056,500 sq. km Annual deforestation rate (1981-5)* 1800 sq. km Industrial roundwood productiont 2,791,000 cu. m Industrial roundwood exportst 117,000 cw. m Fuelwood and charcoal productiont 32,557,000 cu. m Processed wood productiont 174,000 cu. m Processed wood exportst 27,000 cu. m FAO (1988) t 1989 data from FAO (1991) 3247 alre Zaire is Africa’s third largest country, after Algeria and Sudan, and it contains over half of the continent’s tropical moist forests. The Salonga National Park is the largest rain forest park in the world (36,000 sq. km) and the Virunga National Park certainly supports a greater biological diversity than any other single protected area in Africa. The extent of the forest is such that it is still possible to fly in a jet for two hours over virtually undisturbed forest, from Bandundu in the west to Bukavu in the east. Zaire is renowned for its biological richness, with more species of birds and mammals than any other African country. This diversity is due in part to the country’s vastness, but more especially to the range of geomorphological and climatic conditions that it encompasses. The forests are of great importance to local people — for firewood, bushmeat and crops — as well as for the production of export commodities such as timber and palm oil. Despite having serious conservation problems Zaire also has a considerable record of conservation achievement. There is already a comprehensive system of protected areas within the country, and a commitment has been made by the gov- ernment to increase this to cover 12—15 per cent of national territory. Conservation programmes have received consider- able support from the country’s charismatic leader, President Mobutu Sésé Séko. In his 25 years of absolute power, President Mobutu amassed a considerable personal fortune and acquired a degree of international notoriety. Yet this con- troversial figure spent his free time fishing and observing wildlife in the country’s national parks. He drew on his personal wealth to equip and pay the guards of the parks and, in his opening address to the IUCN General Assembly in Kinshasa in 1975, he referred to Zaire’s parks as the ‘cathedrals of my country’. INTRODUCTION With a total country area of 2,344,510 sq. km, Zaire dominates central Africa; it extends from the savanna woodlands of the south- ern fringes of the Sahara in the north, to the woodlands and grass- lands of Zambia and Angola bordering the Kalahari, in the south. From west to east it encompasses mangrove forests on the Atlantic coast and glaciers in the Rwenzon, the summit of which, Margherita peak, is Africa’s third highest mountain (5119 m). The vast expanse of the equatorial forest lies in the central basin — the Cuvette Centrale — at an altitude of just 300 m above sea level. Zaire has a population of almost 37 million people, of which approx- imately 40 per cent live in cities. These are located around the periphery of the Cuvette, along two main axes: north-south, along the eastern border, and west-east, from Bas-Zaire to Kasai. The economy of the country is based on a mixture of mining and agricultural activities, with copper, cobalt, diamonds and crude oil being the main mineral exports, and coffee the main agricultural export. There is some indus- trial development including brewing, cement manufacture and oil refining. The generation of hydro-electricity is also important. The central forested areas have always been sparsely populated. In recent years, the poor international market for the few agricul- tural commodities that the region produces has further weakened the economy of this zone and, as a result, there is a gradual out- ward movement of the population towards the more prosperous areas to the south, east and west. 272 The sheer size and ethnic diversity of Zaire have been significant factors in determining the present state of its forests. Formerly known as the Belgian Congo, Zaire gained its independence in 1960, since which time it has been riven with conflicts inspired by the hunger for regional autonomy. These conflicts, together with an inadequate com- munication system, have seriously weakened the country’s infrastruc- ture, so that large areas are cut off from government control and many parts of the country suffer major depopulation. It is now more diffi- cult to travel by river or road in Zaire than it was 30 years ago and, in some remote parts of the east and north of the country, the only mail, health and educational services available are those provided by foreign missionary groups. The isolated mission stations are kept supplied by light aircraft operating out of the adjoining East African countries. The history of Zaire would undoubtedly have been very different but for an accident of geography. The Zaire River is navigable for most of its length and could have provided a major highway for human penetration of the centre of the continent. But this highway is broken by two sets of impassable rapids, the first below Kinshasa and the second above Kisangani. Railways now bypass both rapids but the time and cost involved in transhipment of goods have always prevented exploitation and development of the interior. This factor has been of special significance for forest preservation. The cost of transporting timber from the forests of the Cuvette to European mar- kets has always been so high that only the most valuable species could be exploited profitably. This has meant that the central forest zone has only experienced a low volume of very selective logging which has had little impact on the conservation status of the forests. The Forests Few of the forests of Zaire are true evergreen rain forests. Even in the central basin, they are mostly semi-evergreen, becoming more decid- uous towards the north and south of the forest zone. Most regions experience pronounced dry seasons and, in much of the central Cuvette, the total rainfall is less than 2000 mm and is therefore at the lower limit of the amount required to support moist evergreen forest. Around the Cuvette, this low rainfall and the poor soils make the for- ests extremely sensitive to disturbance, particularly to fire. Thus, even the relatively small scale disturbance caused by shifting cultivation in the forest zone has a severe impact: it allows fire to enter the forest, thus creating large patches of secondary vegetation and grassland in areas which were forested until recently. This poses a particularly seri- ous threat to the forest area around the periphery of the Cuvette. The original vegetation of the areas to the north and south of the closed forest block were Sudanese and Zambezi dry forests, respec- tively. The former have now been degraded by fire, forming open Jso- berlinia woodlands, with species such as Lophira lanceolata, Damellia oliver, and Parkia biglobosa. The Zambezi dry forest exists only as relict stands of dense forest dominated by Entandrophragma delevoyi, Parman excelsa and Cryptosepalum pseudotaxus. Most of the Zambezi forests have suffered the effects of fire, and vast areas are now covered by secondary Miombo woodland dominated by Brachystegia spp. and filbernardia globiflora. The closed evergreen forests of Zaire are generally grouped into three major categories (Lebrun and Gilbert, 1954; Ipalaka, 1988; UICN, 1990). These are: swamp and riverine forests; the Guineo- Congolian lowland rain forests of the central Cuvette and Bas- Zaire; and the various Afromontane forest communities of the highlands on the eastern borders of the country. These forest types can be further subdivided into numerous more localised communities, the characteristic species of which are given in UICN (1990). Within the semi-evergreen forests, there is a major distinction between the forests of the Bas-Zaire region, and those of the Cuvette and its environs. In the Bas-Zaire, the only remaining fragments are found on the hills of the Mayombe, between Kinshasa and the Atlantic coast. These contain several tree species not found elsewhere in Zaire, such as safukala Dacryodes pubescens, mutényé Guibourtia arnoldiana and Danielhia kiainet. These forests are also rich in species such as tola Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum, and limba Terminala superba. One particularly interesting feature of the forests of the Cuvette is the tendency for very large areas to be dominated by a single Table 32.1 Official estimates of the total forest cover in Zaire by region Area of Forest Forest Region Area of Region % Forest (sq. km) (sq. km) cover Equateur 403,292 402,000 99 .7 Haut-Zaire 503,239 370,000 13.5 Kivu 256,662 180,000 70.1 Bandundu 295,658 120,000 40.6 Kasai-onental 168,216 100,000 59 .4 Kasai-occidental 156,967 40,000 25.5 Bas-Zaire 53,855 10,000 18 .6 Shaba 496,965 10,000 2.0 Ville de Kinshasa 9,965 - - Totals 2,344,819 1,232,000 48.7 Source: Ipalaka (1990) ZAIRE species of the family Caesalpiniaceae. For example, in the Ituri Forest, lower slope forests are often composed of almost pure stands of limbali Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, whereas communities on the higher plateaux are dominated by bomanga Brachystegia laurentii. In other areas, mufimbi Cynometra alexandri dominates. The montane forests of the so-called Albertine rift mountains, which form the watershed between the Nile and the Zaire rivers, do not have a high diversity of tree species but are, nonetheless, important as they exhibit an interesting pattern of altitudinal zonation. Species of Podocarpus, Prunus and Ocotea occur at intermediate elevations, giving way, with increasing altitude, to elfin forests and communities domi- nated by bamboos, tree ferns, giant groundsels and lobelias. At the high- est altitudes, Afroalpine moorlands occur, with a variety of ericaceous shrubs and grasses. Much of the mid-elevation forest has suffered from human disturbance and is now covered with open Hagenia abyssinica woodland and other secondary plant communities. Mangroves A small area, 226 sq. km according to Map 32.1, of mangrove for- est exists in the estuary of the Zaire River (see UICN, 1990). The principal species represented are Rhizophora racemosa and Avicennia nitida, while other, less widely distributed species are Conocarpus erec- tus and Laguncularia racemosa. This site is of particular interest as it provides refuge for a small and highly endangered population of the West African manatee 7richechus senegalensis. The mangroves have suffered from pollution from the oil termi- nals in the adjacent Cabinda enclave of Angola. In recent years, some logging has taken place at this site. Unesco has contributed towards a proposal to establish a mangrove national park, but sufficient finan- cial resources have not yet been found to implement the project. However, a warden and guards have now been installed. Forest Resources and Management FAO (1988) estimated that in 1980 closed broadleaved forests in Zaire covered approximately 1,056,500 sq km, and that a further 718,400 sq km of open forests also existed. Other studies have been published (USAID, 1981; Ipalaka, 1990; MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986) which give a variety of figures for either origi- nal or present forest cover or both. Ipalaka (1990) gives estimates of forest cover produced by Zaire’s forest department, the Service Permanent d’Inventaire et d’Amenagement Forestier (SPIAF). Having undertaken Landsat studies of forest cover throughout the country, SPIAF has produced unpublished maps at scales ranging from 1:100,000 to 1:400,000. Their estimates of forest cover for each region are given in Table 32.1. SPIAF also presents estimates of original coverage of different forest formations (Table 32.2). Table 32.2 Original area of main forest types Forest Formation Area of coverage (sq. km) Dense evergreen forest 900,000 Dense forest on hydromorphic soils (swamp forest) 100,000 Montane forest 53,148 Total closed broadleaved forest 1,053,148 Mosaic of open forest and savanna 1,291,852 Total 2,345,000 Source: Ipalaka (1990) i) ~ i) Ae 06 18°E Map 32.2 South Zaire Rain Forest lowland degraded lowland montane * inland swamp Conservation areas existing proposed Non Forest No Data * Taken from White (1983) 1:4,000,000 AXANAAANAANSY Li) te VG ee es aE 200 km 150 miles 274 ANGOLA 20°E ZAIRE N UNDI 4°S a o ie en TANZANIA Q ts] AS 6°S ae es sce ; Oo 3 P \ Shaba Elephant fe i. » Hs. j Po \ : * 8°S Lake Mweru Sie ° BR a 10°S ZAMBIA 28°E ZAMBIA ct 2 De 30°E 275 ZAIRE Table 32.3 Estimates of forest extent Area % of land (sq. km) area Rain forests Lowland (closed) 919,736 40.6 Lowland (degraded) 86,547 3.8 Montane 59,487 2.6 Swamp 124,741 a5) Mangrove 226 <0.01 Totals 1,190,737 SOE (Based on analysis of Map 32.1. See Map Legend on p. 282 for details of sources.) As the original area of closed broadleaved forest in Table 32.2 is less than that given as the present extent of ‘forest’ in Table 32.1, it would appear that both open and closed formations are included in the earlier table. The forest cover shown on Map 32.1 on p. 282 has been derived from satellite imagery interpreted and produced by NASA in collaboration with FAO (see Map Legend for details). White’s (1983) map has been used to classify the forest into the types used throughout this Atlas, but his mosaic of swamp and lowland forest (category 9) has been shown here as lowland forest as it is impossi- ble to distinguish between the two classes of forest using NASA’s data. Figure 32.1 depicts the position of this mosaic. NASA’s cate- gory of ‘Degraded Forest including shifting agriculture and palm’ has been shown as degraded forest on Map 32.1. The extent of the dif- ferent forest types as shown on Map 32.1 is given in Table 32.3. According to MacKinnon and MacKinnon (1986) there were originally 1,784,000 sq km of closed forest in Zaire (see Chapter Figure 32.1 Map of Zaire showing the mosaic of swamp and lowland forest (category 9 in White, 1983), which has been depicted as lowland forest in Map 32.1 A) Lowland Forest Ss Swamp Forest WY Mosaic of Swamp and Lowland Forest bo ~ [o> Table 32.4 Timber production and exports from Zaire in 1985 Veneer and sawlog production by region 1985 Timber exports 1985 Bas-Zaire 94,300 cu. m Bandunda 82,300 cu. m Logs 110,000 cu. m Equateur 165,050 cu. m Sawnwood 26,000 cu. m Haut-Zaire 56,070 cu. m Plywood/veneer 28,000 cu. m Other regions 22,400 cu.m Total 420,120 cu. m Total 164,000 cu. m (Source: UICN, 1990) The figures for veneer and sawlog production in Table 32.4 differ from those cited for industrial roundwood at the head of this chapter as the latter includes unprocessed tim- ber used by the local communities. The figures in the table are for roundwood delivered to mills or ports for processing or export. 10 and Table 10.1). Our figure of 1,190,737 sq. km of moist for- est present in Zaire is, therefore, 67 per cent of what is estimated to have been the original forest cover. However, it must be noted that 86,547 sq. km of this is degraded. According to the figures in Table 32.3, the intact forest present today covers 62 per cent of its original area and extends over 49 per cent of the land area of Zaire. Differences between the estimates given here and those produced by SPIAF (Ipalaka, 1990) and other authorites are undoubtedly due to different criteria for defining and measuring forests. Few attempts have been made to apply silvicultural techniques to the forests of Zaire. In the past, the timber industry focused largely on the forests in the Mayombe region in Bas-Zaire. These forests were readily accessible from the sea and have produced more than half of all the timber ever exported from Zaire. Virtually all of the commercially valuable umber in the Mayombe region has now been exhausted and much of the forest has been encroached by farmers. The focus of forest exploitation is now moving inland from Bas-Zaire to Bandundu and the Cuvette. At present the exploitation of timber in Zaire is inhibited by transport problems and low market prices. Total exploitation is estimated at roughly 500,000 cu. m per year and, of this, only 164,000 cu. m are thought to have been exported in 1985 (Table 32.4). Thus Zaire has over 50 per cent of Africa’s forests, yet pro- duced only 3.4 per cent of Africa’s entire timber exports. Recent studies by SPIAF have estmated that the million sq. km forest in the Cuvette has a standing volume of 200 cu. m of tim- ber per hectare. On the basis ofa postulated 100-year cutting cycle, and assuming that 40 per cent of the forest is accessible and that half of this area should be totally protected in parks and reserves, SPIAF concludes that the forests could sustain a yield of 40 mil- lion cu. m per year. Even if only 10 per cent of this volume was of trees of species and dimensions suitable for industrial use it would give an annual yield of 4 million cu. m, or eight times the present esumated crop. The Tropical Forestry Action Plan for Zaire estab- lished this as a target for the Zairean timber industry. This pro- posed eight-fold increase in logging provoked criticism from many conservation groups. However, it is worth noting that this yield would still constitute a much lower offtake per area of forest than that of other African and Asian timber producers. Few forests in Zaire are managed but management plans have now been prepared for several pilot areas. These propose a degree of post- logging silvicultural treatment to produce a more uniform stand of commercially valuable tmber. However, these plans are not being implemented and logging practices are almost entirely determined by market forces. Large trees, of approximately ten species, account for most of the crop and yields rarely exceed 5—6 cu. m per hectare. On the periphery of the forest areas, and especially in the Bas- Zaire region, agricultural encroachment often destroyed the resid- ual forest once logging was completed. In the areas of the Cuvette that are now being logged, there are few inhabitants; biologists have observed that, without population pressures, the forests quickly recover from logging and wildlife remains abundant. Logging for domestic needs poses a particular, localised threat to the forests. In the Shaba and Kivu provinces, small-scale enter- prises are now taking timber from the southern and eastern fringes of the forest. Some of this timber is exported to Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya and possibly Burundi. The increasing demand for charcoal and fuelwood in urban areas is also posing a major threat to the forests. Areas surrounding, or within easy reach of, main cities are now totally deforested and traders travel further and further into the forest in search of fuelwood. Until 1980 the total area of plantations in Zaire was only 235 sq. km. The rate of establishment of plantations has since increased but most comprise fast growing fuelwood species in peri-urban areas. Attempts to plant high value timber species are restricted to pilot projects in the Bas-Zaire where trials are being conducted with Terminalia superba. There is a very large EEC-funded project to plant Acacia auriculiformis for fuelwood on the deforested Bateke plateau near Kinshasa. For most Zaireans the non-timber products of the forest are of far greater significance than wood. People collect honey and fibres as well as plants for food and medicinal purposes. Widespread hunting takes place and large quantities of bushmeat are consumed both in rural areas and in the cities. With the significant exception of ivory, the non-timber products are not traded internationally on ZAIRE any great scale. Despite the combined efforts of Zairean and inter- national conservationists to control the illegal trade of ivory, Zaire continues to be the origin ofa large proportion of the ivory exported from Africa and, as a result, elephant populations in the country are declining rapidly. Deforestation There are no accurate studies of the rate of deforestation in Zaire. FAO/UNEP (1981) estimated that 1650 sq. km of forest were destroyed every year from 1967 to 1980, of which 1350 sq. km (81.8 per cent) were apparently cleared for shifting agriculture, much of it in logged-over areas. FAO’s (1988) estimate of defor- estation for the period 1981—5 was 1800 sq. km per year. Another 2000 sq. km of gallery and open forest are thought to be lost through fire. Apart from agriculture, it appears that exploitation of the forests for fuelwood, over-grazing and fire continue to be the main causes of forest loss. Deforestation is most severe in Kivu, Shaba, Kasai and Bas- Zaire and is particularly acute around Kinshasa, where virtually all of the forest has been cleared within a radius of 60-100 km of the city (USAID, 1981). Biodiversity Zaire has an extraordinary diversity of both animal and plant species. This diversity is due in part to the huge size of the country and, in part, to the range of climates, topography and geology that it con- tains. The extent and generally good condition of its forests also con- tribute towards maintaining such levels of bio-diversity. During past periods of drier climates the forests of Zaire became fragmented and 277 ZAIRE Fi 4 Map 32.3 West Zaire ; Rain Forest jowland a || degraded lowland KNNNAAANAANY inland swamp ioe Ai ? mangrove Conservation areas existing Non Forest oe NO DATA 1:4,000,000 0 100 200 km 0 50 100 150 miles 4 7 Bombo-Lumene H ANGOLA ATLANTIC OCEAN 14°E Equator Paes Forest refuge in eastern Zaire | (locality and area is approximate) | ——— Barrier between species | == Barrier between subspecies Figure 32.2 The forest refuge in eastern Zaire and the rivers which have acted as barriers to faunal speciation (Source: after Colyn, 1987, from UICN, 1990) the subsequent competition between forms of the same species that had diverged during their isolation in forest refuges has resulted in the evolution of numerous endemic species. Many of the country’s rivers constitute faunal barriers (Figure 32.2) and there is evidence, particularly for primates, that this has influenced the richness of the mammalian fauna (Colyn, 1987). Similar findings have been reported for many plant communities (Ndjele, 1988). Over 10,000 species of plants are known from Zaire, a total exceeded in Africa only by South Africa and, possibly, Madagascar. Of the 3921 species described in the first ten volumes of the Flore du Congo Belge et Ruanda-Urundi (now published as the Flore d’Afrique Centrale), 1280 (32.6 per cent) were considered to be endemic (Brenan, 1978). Many of these species will undoubtedly be found eventually in other countries, and there is now evidence that Gabon and Cameroon have higher floral diversity and endemism. Nonetheless, Zaire remains among the most floristically rich countries in Africa. Zaire has 409 species of mammals, 1086 species of birds, 80 species of amphibians (of which 51 are endemic) and 400 species of fish. There are local endemics in all groups and many species are consid- ered to be in danger of extinction (IUCN, 1990; UICN, 1990). Thirty species of primate — of which 19 species or subspecies are endemic — are known from Zaire, the highest specific diversity in continental Africa. A notable example is the pygmy chimpanzee Pan paniscus, one of man’s closest relatives, occurring in forests in the Lomako and Salonga region of the central Cuvette. Other rarities include the mountain gorilla Gorilla gorilla berenge: and the eastern lowland gorilla G. g. grauen. The grey-cheeked mangabey Cercocebus albigena, the Salongo guenon Cercopithecus salongo (a local endemic), the owl-faced guenon C. hamlyni, and L’Hoest’s guenon C. /hoesti all occur in the forests of Zaire. There are around 30 species of antelopes including seven or eight species of duiker as well as the spectacular endemic okapi Okapia johnstoni, a ‘forest giraffe’ (see Ituri Forest case study). Some 18 species of fruit bats are found in Zaire (Stuart et al., 1990), four of which are of conservation ZAIRE concern: short-palate fruit bat Casiycters argynms (only known from the lowland forests of Zaire and Cameroon); Hayman’s epauletted fruit bat Micropteropus intermedius; Anchieta’s fruit bat Plerotes anchi- etae and Rwenzoni long-haired rousette Rousettus lanosus. An estimated 25 bird species are thought to be endangered, 11 of which are endemic (Collar and Stuart, 1985). The threatened species include the shoebill Balaeniceps rex, the wattled crane Bugeranus carunculatus, the remarkable endemic Congo peacock Afropavo congensis, and the endemic Itombwe Phodilus prigonginei. The mountain forests on the eastern borders of the coun- try are particularly rich in birds. The forests on Itombwe Mountain are home to at least 564 species of birds, and this site is thought to be the single richest area for birds in Africa (see Itombwe case study). owl Conservation Areas Zaire has some of the world’s most extensive and spectacular national parks (see Table 32.5). Four of the seven parks are included on the Unesco World Henttage list as being of outstanding natural value. These are: Garamba, which is open grassland; Kahuzi-Biega, largely comprising forest; Salonga (enurely forest), and Virunga (extensive forests). Collectively, the parks encompass 84,880 sq. km and four include extensive areas of moist forest. Apart from these national parks, several new protected areas have recently been proposed. Of these, the most significant area for forest conservation is in the Ituri Forest (see case study), where an extensive park is planned to conserve the okapi and other species characteristic of this otherwise unprotected forest. A second area in the north-western Table 32.5 Conservation areas of Zaire Conservation areas are listed below. Forest reserves, hunting reserves and marine parks are not listed or mapped. For data on World Heritage sites and Biosphere reserves see chapter 9. Existing area Proposed area National Parks (sq. km) (sq. km) Garamba 4,920 Kahuzi-Biega* 6,000 Kundelungu 7,600 Lomako* nd Maiko* 10,830 Marungu Mountains* nd Okapi* nd Salonga* 36,000 Upemba 11,730 Uvirat nd Virunga* 7,800 Nature Reserves Bomut nd Eaux Delcommunet nd Lac Fwat nd Game Reserves Bombo-Luméné 2,400 Flora Reserves Yangambi* 2,500 Reserves Shaba Elephant nd Totals 89,780 nd (Source: WCMC, in litt.) * Area with moist forest within its boundaries according to Maps 32.1—3 + Unmapped — no location data available nd no data bo ~~] No} ZAIRE ITOMBWE The Itombwe massif is on the site of the largest of the Central African forest refugia, one of those believed to have persisted through the driest periods of the Pleistocene. It is of exceptional importance for the conservation of biological diversity. Indeed, the avifauna is the most species-rich for any single forest in Africa and it is considered to be the most important forest for bird con- servation on the continent (Collar and Stuart, 1988). The mas- sif, lying above the north-western shore of Lake Tanganyika, is a relict of the ancient relief which predates the formation of the western rift system. It rises over a distance of some 100 km, from around 700 m in the west to the scarp summit of 3475 m and then falls away abruptly to the level of the lake at 770 m. The main feature of Itombwe is a 5000 sq. km forest block rang- ing from below 1200 m to above 2700 m. With 1600 sq. km of montane forest, this block constitutes the largest single tract of such forest in the Central Afncan highland region. It may be conuguous with extensive lowland forest to the west. A belt of forest/grassland mosaic separates the main forest block from a further 1840 sq. km expanse of montane and bamboo forest, rough grassland, heath and marsh which run the 180 km length of the scarp top. This forest harbours 50 per cent of all the African montane bird species, 94 per cent of those bird species characteristic of the Central African highlands and 89 per cent of the birds endemic to this region. The status of other faunal groups is less well known, but there are probably many endemics. Indeed, both shrew species discovered in the area are found only there and there is a high level of endemicity among the amphibians. A number of mammals of conservation concern occur in Itombwe, including eastern lowland gorilla, elephant Loxodonta africana and leopard Panthera pardus. There is little permanent human settlement in the main for- est block, but mineral prospecting and traditional hunting are widespread. The forest edge is being cut back by farmers along the entire length of the northern and eastern escarpments. In addition, the lowland forest area to the west is marked by a zone of slash and burn agriculture, although this does not yet appear to be encroaching seriously on the main forest. On the high- lands to the south of the forest, cattle-raising is the main activ- ity and here a characteristic mosaic of forest patches and grass- land is found. The high altitude area of the scarp summit is also used extensively for grazing. However, although the effects of human activity are locally marked and even intense in places, they do not yet threaten the main forest area. Low human population density and the forest’s isolation have proved, so far, to be Itombwe’s best defences, but this state of affairs cannot continue for ever. Despite recognition of its great value, no area of the massif is protected. A joint IZCN/AWWE/FEPS prelim- inary survey of the region was undertaken in 1989 and it is hoped that a conservation programme will now be developed for this important forest. Source: Roger Wilson secuon of Itun — the Rubi-Telé hunting area — which also contains okapi, is now being investigated. This area is deemed to be important as itincludes some drier forest types than those found in the Itun. Other proposals have existed for several years for the development of pro- tected areas in the Lomako region of the Cuvette, home of the pygmy chimpanzee, and for the mangrove forests in the Zaire River estuary. There are three Biosphere reserves in Zaire: Lufira (147 sq. km), Luki (330 sq. km) and Yangambi (2500 sq. km). The last two regions are forested. Though these areas are the sites of research initiatives supported by the Unesco Man and _ Biosphere Programme, they are not effectively protected. Fifty-six areas have been accorded the status of Hunting Reserves, although only 21 of these receive any sort of protection. Together these sites total 104,831 sq. km. The only activity that is subject to restrictions in these areas is big-game hunting. In general, their value for ecosystem conservation is relatively limited, and for this reason they are not listed in Table 32.5 or shown on Map 32.1. The Insutut Zairois pour la Conservation de la Nature (IZCN) is responsible for managing national parks and hunting areas. It is part of the Ministry of Environment and Nature Conservation, but enjoys a degree of autonomy that is unusual for African conservation organ- isations. The IZCN has a long and distinguished conservation record and has survived periods when civil disturbances and lack of resources made its operations very difficult. It is now receiving support from many international sources including the World Bank, the European Community, German bilateral aid (GTZ) and WWE. A study by Doumenge (UICN, 1990) identified a number of other forest sites of critical importance for the conservation of bio- logical diversity (Figure 32.3) and recommended additional pro- tection measures for four of the existing national parks and six hunting areas and Biosphere reserves which contain important for- est ecosystems. This report also identified numerous other forest areas of local importance for conservation. 280 500 km []ll]) Sites proposed for protection Sites with no protection Figure 32.3 Critical sites for conservation in Zaire’s dense forest (Source: UICN, 1990) 1 Mangroves. 2 Lake Ngaenke. 3 Mai Mpili-Lidji. 4 Lac Tumba. 5 Ngiri. 6 Abumonbazi- Mobaye. 7 Lomako-Yekokora. 8 Luo. 9 Lomami-Lualaba. 10 Okapi. 11 Semliki. 12 Tonga. 13 Quest lac Kivu. 14 Iles Shushu. 15 Maniema. 16 Itombwe. 17 Kabobo. 18 Kyamasumba-Kolwezi. (Those in bold type are the sites presently proposed for protec- tion according to UICN, 1990.) ZAIRE THE ITURI FOREST The 60,000 sq. km watershed of the upper Ituri river in Zaire contains one of the biologically and culturally most important forests of Africa. From an elevation of about 600 m in the west, where the rolling plateaux of the Ituri drop on to the central Zaire river basin, the forest rises to more than 1000 m in the east, giving way abruptly to the savanna hills of the Albert Rift. Various forest types, including monospecific forests, mixed forests of varying composition and unique xerophyllic commu- nities on the bare granite tops of its central massif, make up the Ituri Forest’s great botanical wealth. Nearly 15 per cent of the Ituri Forest’s mammals are endemic to the region. It has more anthropoid primate species than any other African forest. A number of its birds occur nowhere else. Among the exceptional animals found here is the okapi, a short-necked rainforest giraffe, the size of a small horse, that was first discovered at the turn of the century in the eastern Ituri. The entire range of the okapi is within Zaire’s borders, and the largest population of this species occurs in the Ituri Forest. Hunter-gatherers (see case study in chapter 5) and shifting cultivators have occupied the Ituri Forest for centuries, prob- ably for millennia. The ancestries of today’s forest peoples can be traced back to both Sudanic and Bantu migrations as well as to more ancient pygmoid stocks. Occupying small, transi- tory villages and camps, these communities never threatened the integrity of the forest. Rather the patches of secondary forest of varying age that they left behind in their migrations enriched the overall composition of the forest by providing suitable habitats for an array of successional plant and animal species. Ituri’s richness attracted attention even during colonial times. In the early 1950s, a government station was estab- lished at Epulu in the central Ituri Forest to capture okap1. The station adapted indigenous capture techniques and employed local forest peoples, notably the Mbuti and Efe pygmies, to capture, habituate and feed the okapi. A unique system of locally controlled forest reserves was established along the road for 70 km on either side of Epulu to serve as okapi capture zones. Each reserve was associated with a specific village whose residents undertook okapi captures. The economic benefits and the status these villagers realised by providing okapi to the station served as an impetus for the protection of the capture zones. The reserves were exploited for a variety of purposes in addition to capturing okapi; they were used as hunting areas and for the gathering of forest products such as house building poles and wild foods. Their central purpose as capture zones was never forgotten, however. Village tradition protected them from agricultural incursions and excessive hunting likely to kill okapi. As a result, significant stands of mature forest remain intact along the road crossing the central Ituri. Village settlements and agricultural clearings are corres- pondingly dispersed and the destructive impact of local exploitation is reduced. This traditional system of reserve management has assured forest conservation in the Ituri Forest up to the present. But the traditional conditions are now changing. Thanks in part to the opportunities provided by available land, timber and gold, the forest has become an economic and demographic frontier, with growing numbers of immigrant peasants, prospectors and entrepreneurs descending on the region. This swelling tide has led to fundamental social and economic changes for the less numerous and politically less organised indigenous forest peoples. Some of the traditional forest reserves have now been opened to settlement, clearing and degradation. In recognition of its biological significance, and in response to the increasing threats to its integrity, there has been a grow- ing demand to create a national park and forest reserve in the central Ituri. The first park proposals were put forward by the Zairean national parks service (IZCN) in the early 1970s, but funds to effect this were lacking. IZCN initiated a park project in 1986 in collaboration with WWF, and funded by Tabazaire, a private Zairean firm. The traditional system of okapi capture reserves is seen as a key component for effective forest conser- vation. The current proposal calls for a reserve of about 13,500 sq. km, with multiple-use buffer zones centred on the capture areas along the road and with the remote interior being assured the more complete protection of a national park. The success of the Ituri conservation proposal depends upon adequate information to define the limits of forest degra- dation and faunal decimation in the buffer zones. A research project to provide these guidelines has been based at Epulu since the early 1980s, and has been supported since 1986 by Wildlife Conservation International (WCI). This initiative has included long-term studies of natural and selectively logged forest, research into the socio-economic impact of human migration and the development of a Landsat map. The project has been unique in the degree to which it has incorporated local field assistants, in particular the expertise of the pygmies into its programmes. Where possible the emphasis is on the training of Zairean students in forest ecology and conserva- tion biology. It is doubtful whether these developments would have been possible had it not been for the clear link of this forest with the okapi. The WCI radio telemetry study of the okapi, the first study of the species in the wild, has provided estimates of 0.33 to 0.5 okapi per sq. km for the proposed reserve, indicating a total population of 4500 to 6500, the most important protected okapi population in existence. Despite its striking coat pattern, the okapi’s solitary and secretive life has made viewing of the species in its natural habitat very difficult. Nevertheless, a sig- nificant tourist attraction has developed around the viewing of captive okapi in semi-natural enclosures at the capture station. More than half the visitors are Zairean nationals and the cap- tive animals, along with troops of free ranging primates and abundant bird life, provide an exceptional opportunity for con- servation education. The okapi has become a national symbol of the forest and forest conservation. Although few Zaireans may recognise the significance of their country’s unique fauna, many know that the spectacular and widely esteemed okapi occurs only in Zaire and is dependent on its forests. Government authorities may fail to grasp the importance of a forest for its abstract biodiversity value, but the okapi presents them with a concrete conservation target. By preserving the forest for the free-ranging okapi, the project will help conserve the entire variety of plants and ani- mals that occur with it. Source: John A. Hart and Terese B. Hart 281 ZAIRE Initiatives for Conservation The IZCN has for many years struggled to extend the protected area system of the country and to maintain its integrity. The award of the order of the Golden Ark by Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands and the IUCN Packard Valour award to its current president, Mankoto ma Mbaelele, are the latest of many inter- national tributes that have been paid to the competence and commitment of its workforce. In recent years 21 IZCN staff have been killed while trying to protect the country’s parks against poachers. WWE is now supporting projects in the Ituri Forest, the Virunga National Park and the Garamba National Park. Frankfurt Zoological Society is contributing to a project in Garamba National Park, while Wildlife Conservation International is sup- porting research on the okapi in the Ituri Forest (see case study). The British-based Fauna and Flora Preservation Society (FFPS) has a small but significant project in the Itlombwe Mountains. References Brenan, J. P. M. (1978) Some aspects of the phytogeography of tropical Africa. Annals Missourt Botanical Garden 65: 437-78. Collar, N. J. and Stuart, S. N. (1985) Threatened Birds of Africa and Related Islands. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book Part 1. ICBP/IUCN, Cambridge, UK. Collar, N. J. and Stuart, S. N. (1988) Key Forests for Threatened Birds in Africa. ICBP Monograph No. 3. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. Colyn, M. (1987) Les primates de la forét ombrophile de la Cuvette du Zaire: interpretations zoogéographiques des mod- eles de distribution. Revue Zoologie Afrique 101: 183-96. FAO (1988) An Interim Report on the State of Forest Resources in the Developing Countries. FAO, Rome, Italy. 18 pp. FAO (1991) FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1978-1989. FAO Forestry Series No. 24 and FAO Statistics Series No. 97. FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO/UNEP (1981) Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project. Forest Resources of Tropical Africa. Part II: Country Briefs. FAO, Rome, Italy. Ipalaka Yobwa (1988) Proposition de zonage du territoire forestier. In: Département des Affaires fonciéres, Environnement et Conservation de la Nature et IED. Séminaire sur la politique forestiere au Zaire, Kinshasa, 11-13 mai 1988. 18 pp. Ipalaka Yobwa (1990) L’Aménagement et la Gestion des Foréts du Zaire. Paper presented at the Conference sur la Conservation et Uulisation Rationelle de la Forét Dense d’Afrique Centrale et de /Ouest. African Development Bank/World Bank/IUCN, Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire. November 3-9 1990. IUCN (1990) 1990IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. 1\UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 228 pp. Lebrun, J. and Gilbert, G. (1954) Une classification écologique des foréts du Congo. Publ. Inst. Natl. Etude Agron. Congo Belge Sér. Sct. 63: 1-89. MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986) Review of the Protected Areas System in the Afrotropical Realm. YUCN/UNEP, Gland, Switzerland. 259 pp. Ndjele, M. (1988) Principales distributions obtenues par I’anal- yse factorielle des éléments phytogéographiques présumés endemiques dans la flore du Zaire. Monograph Syst. Bot. Missouri Botanical Garden 25: 631-8. Stuart, S. N., Adams, R. J. and Jenkins, M. (1990) Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands. Conservation, Management 282 Official development assistance agencies are now recognising the immense value of Zaire’s parks system. German aid has a project in Kahuzi-Biega, the EEC is making major contributions to the Virunga National Park and Unesco to the Garamba National Park project. A planned World Bank loan will support IZCN’s field staff in the Salonga National Park, Maiko National Park, and in proposed conservation areas in the Itombwe Mountains, the Itun Forest and Rubi-Teéle. The EEC has a major project which is intended to improve man- agement of the Salonga National Park and its buffer zones. This activity will be part of a major regional programme including seven central African countries (UICN, 1989). The Tropical Forestry Action Plan for Zaire, when complete, will give high priority to supporting conservation programmes in several existing and proposed protected areas. It supports the gov- ernment’s declared policy of eventually giving total protection to 12-15 per cent of the national territory and of maintaining natu- ral forest cover or plantations on 35 per cent of the land surface. and Sustainable Use. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UR. UICN (1989) La Conservation des Ecosystémes forestiers d’A frique Centrale. UICN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 124 pp. UICN (1990) La Conservation des Ecosystémes forestier du Zaire. Base sur le travail de Charles Dommenge. UICN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 242 pp. USAID (1981) Le Zaire. Profil écologique du pays. Engineering Company/USAID, Kinshasa. Harza Authorship Jeffrey Sayer with contributions from Ipalaka Yobwa, Mankoto ma Mbaelele and Hadelin Mertens in Kinshasa, Jean-Pierre d’Huart in Brussels, Charles Doumenge, IUCN, Gland, Roger Wilson, FFPS and John and Terese Hart, Wildlife Conservation International, Project Okapi, Epulu, Zaire. Map 32.1-3 Forest cover for Zaire The spatial data for Zaire’s forest cover were provided solely for the use of this project by NASA/GSFC and the University of Maryland, USA. The vegetation map, derived from Ikm resolution NOAA/AVHRR 1988 data, was produced at NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center. The vegetation classification encompasses those forests which fall north of 8.01°S and west of 30.23°E. This is a prelimi- nary version of the map which will later be published by NASA with a detailed accompanying map legend, and is at present being evaluated by FAO and the Service Permanent d’Inventaire et d’Amenagement Forestier (SPIAF) in Zaire. The original data have been categorised by NASA into six land use/vegeta- tion types. These are: Non-Zaire and/or continuous cloud regions; Water; Primary Forest including swamp forest; Degraded Forest including shifting agriculture and palm; Mixed savanna, degraded forest, and mature secondary forest occurring in the forest/savanna transition zone; and Savanna. For the forest cover shown on Map 32.1 two of these data types have been mapped, namely, Primary Forest includ- ing swamp forest and Degraded Forest including shifting agriculture and palm. These have been harmonised into the rain forest types discussed in this atlas by over- laying White’s map (1983). The distribution of swamp forest on Map 32.1 has been demarcated by White’s type no. 8 ‘Swamp forest’. Type no. 9 ‘Mosaic of 8 and la’ (swamp and Guineo-Congolian lowland rain forest) has been amalga- mated into the lowland rain forest category, as there is no distinction between swamp and lowland rain forest in the original NASA dataset (but see Figure 32.1). The NASA Degraded Forest class is mapped here as degraded lowland rain forest. Conservation areas spatial data have been taken from a published Russian map, Zaire (1987), at a scale of 1:2,500,000, compiled by the Main Administration of Geodesy Under the Council of Ministers of the USSR and from data within WCMC files. ACRONYMS AECCG African Elephant Conservation Coordination Group AETFAT Association pour |’Etude de la Flore d’Afnque Tropicale AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome APN Amélioration des Peuplements Naturels ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometry AWF African Wildlife Foundation BP Bntish Petroleun CAMPFIRE Communal Area Management Plan for Indigenous Resources CAR Central African Republic CARE Care and Relief Everywhere CCFI Collaborative Community Forestry Initiative CDC Commonwealth Development Corporation CECI Centre Canadien d’Etude et de Cooperation CENAREST Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique CENPAF Centre National pour la Protection et |’Aménagement de la Faune CERGEC Centre de Recherche Géographique et de production Cartographique CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CIEO Centre International pour VExploitation des Oceans CILSS Comité Inter-états de Lutte contre la Sécheresse au Sahel CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CML Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Leiden CNPPA Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (IUCN) CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique CRNP Cross River National Park CTFT Centre Technique Forestier Tropical (Paris) DANIDA Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of International Development DGFC Direction Générale des Foréts et Chasse DNFC Direction Nationale des Foréts et Chasse GLOSSARY Afromontane Montane areas of tropical Africa. Afrotropical Afnica and its islands between the Tropics of Capnicom and Cancer. Afroalpine vegetation Vegetation which is confined to the highest mountains of tropical Africa. Agroforestry Interplanting of farm crops and trees. Anthropic see ANTHROPOGENIC. Anthropogenic Created by man. Avifauna Birdlife of a region or pend of ume. Bimodal Frequency distribution with two peaks. Biodiversity Richness of plant and animal species and in ecosystem complexity. Biogeographic Area defined by fauna and flora it contains. Biomass Amount of living matter in a defined area. Biome A large naturally occurnng community of flora and fauna adapted to the particular conditions in which they are found. Biosphere Reserve Concept introduced by Unesco’s Man and Biosphere DPIAF Direction du Projet Inventaire et Aménagement de la Faune EAP Environmental Action Plan EC European Community EDWIN Environment and Development Wetland Information Network EMP Environmental Management Plan EPC Environmental Protection Council EROS Earth Resources Orbital Satellite ERP Economic Recovery Programme FAO Food and Agnculture Organisation of the United Nations FDA Forest Development Authority FFPS Flora and Fauna Preservation Society FINNIDA Finnish International Development Agency FoE Friends of the Earth FPF Forest Products Fee FRIN Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria GACON Ghana Association for the Conservation of Nature GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GEMS Global Environment Monitoring System GFM German Forestry Mission GHAFOSIM Ghana Forest Simulation Model GIS Geographic Information System GPF Gestion et Protection des Forets GREEN Ghana Rainforest Expedition Eighty-Nine GRID Global Resources Information Database (UNEP/GEMS) GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Technische Zusammenarbeit HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus ICBP International Council for Bird Preservation IDA International Development Association IFAN Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire IGADD Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Development in Eastern Africa IED International Institute for Environment and Development IIF Industrialisation Incentive Fee IMF International Monetary Fund INEP Institut National d’Etudes et des Recherches IRNR Institute of Renewable Natural Resources Programme. A reserve including zones with different degrees of land use. Biota The flora and fauna of an area. Biotic Relating to living things. Blanket bog A bog that forms in areas of high rainfall and low evaporation. broadleaved (tree) Any tree belonging to the subclass Dicotyledonae of the class Angiospermae (flowering plants). Buffer zone An area peripheral to a national park or reserve which has restrictions placed on its use to give an added layer of protection to the nature reserve itself. Bush fallow Agricultural fallow with trees and shrubs growing on the land. Bushmeat Meat from wild animals intended for human consumption. Cay A low insular bank or reef of coral, sand, etc. Clear felling Complete clearance of a forest, as opposed to selective fellings. See also monocyclic/polycyclic systems. Congeneric Of the same genus. Coupe An area of forest concession to be cut in a year. Creaming Light exploitation of a forest (removal of the most valuable trees). Cuticle The waxy or corky layer on the ITTO International Tropical Timber Organisation IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources — The World Conservation Union IWGIA International Working Group on Indigenous Affairs IZCN Institut Zairois pour la Conservation de la Nature JWPT Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust KfW Kredit anstalt fiir Wiederaufban (German Development Bank) KREMU Kenya Rangelands Ecological Monitoring Unit LAC Local Area Coverage MAB Man and the Biosphere Programme (Unesco) MAENR Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources MANREF Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Forestry MGP Mountain Gorilla Project MPAEF Ministere de la Production Animal et Eaux et Foréts MPEA Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs MSS Multispectral Scanner MVP Minimum Viable Population NASA National Aeronautic and Space Administration NCS National Conservation Strategy NCF Nigerian Conservation Foundation NGO Non-governmental Organisation NMK National Museums of Kenya NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NYZS New York Zoological Society ODA Overseas Development Administration (UK) ONAREF Office National de Régéneration des Foréts ONADEF Office National de Developpement des Foréts ONC Operational Navigation Charts ONF Office National des Foréts ORSTOM Institut Frangais de Recherche Scientifique pour le Developpement en Cooperation ORTPN Office Rwandais de Tourism et Parcs Nationaux PCEN Projet de Conservation de la Forét de Nyungwe PNUD Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement PRB Population Reference Bureau epidermis in plants. Deciduous (of a tree) One which sheds its leaves annually. Desertification Expansion of deserts by climatic change or by overgrazing and clearing of vegetation in adjacent areas. Dipterocarp Member of the Dipterocarpacae, a family of old-world tropical trees valuable for timber and resin. Ecosystem A natural unit consisting of organisms and their environment. Ecotourism Tourism for people interested in the ecology of an area. Edaphic Produced or influenced by the soil. Emergents Trees whose crowns are conspicuously taller than the surrounding canopy. Endemic Native or confined to a particular area. Endemism Noun from endemic. Eolian (also aeolian) Wind-bome. Entrophication Over-ennchment of a water body with nutrients, resulting in excessive growth of organisms and depletion of oxygen. Epiphyte A plant which uses another for support, not for nutnents. ACRONYMS PSG Pmmate Specialist Group PVA Population Vulnerability Analysis RSPB Royal Society for the Protection of Birds SADCC Southern African Development Coordinating Conference SA.FA.FI Sampan’Asa Fambolena Fiompiana SCN Société pour la Conservation de la Nature SECA Societe d’Eco-Aménagement SIDA Swedish International Development Authority SNBG Societe Nationale des Bois du Gabon SODEFOR Société du Developpement Forestier SPIAF Service Permanent d’Inventaire et Aménagement Forestier SPOT Systeme Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre SSC Species Survival Commission SZDP Support Zone Development Programme TFAP Tropical Forestry Action Plan TM Thematic mapper TMF Tropical Moist Forest TSS Tropical Shelterwood System UAIC Unite d’Afforestation Industrielle du Congo UEA University of East Anglia UFA Unité Forestiere d’Aménagement UICN Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNEP United Nations Environment Programme Unesco United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNSO United Nations Sundano- Sahelian Office US-AID US Agency for International Development WCI Wildlife Conservation International WCED World Commission on Environment and Development WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Centre WHO World Health Organisation WIWO Werkgroep Internationaal Wed- En Watervogelonderzoek WRI World Resources Institute WSM Wildlife Society of Malawi WWE World Wide Fund for Nature Ericaceous Belonging to the genus Enca or its family Ericaceae, a shrub or heath having small leathery leaves and bell-like flowers. Ericoid With heather-like leaves. Escarpment Long cliff or slope separating two more or less level slopes, resulting from erosion or faults. Ethnotourism Tourism for those interested in the culture and lifestyle of the local people in the region. Eutrophication Destruction of animal life in water bodies that are nch in nutnents and thereby support a dense plant life that uses up all the available oxygen. Floristics The plant species composition of an ecosystem. Forest outliers Small patches of forest away from the main forested areas. frugivorous Fruit-eating. Gallery forests Forests along nvers. Gazetted Legally established. Geomorphological Pertaining to geomorphology Geomorphology The study of the physical features of the surface of the earth and their relation to its geological structures. 283 GLOSSARY Guenon African monkey of the genus Cercopithecus. Herbaceous Of or like herbs. Herpetofauna Repule fauna. Hydromorphic Having an affinity for water. Hypergyny Having the outer parts of a flower (petals, stamens and sepals) attached below the pistil (stigma, style and ovary). Inselberg An isolated hill or mountain rising abruptly from its surroundings. Intercropping Raising a crop among plants of a different kind, usually in the space between rows. Interglacial Between glacial periods. Isoenzyme One of two or more enzymes with identical function but different structure. Isohyet A line on a map connecting places having the same amount of rainfall in a given penod. Isotope One of two or more forms of an element differing from each other in relative atomic mass and in nuclear but not chemical properties. Jurassic The geological period that began about 190 million years ago and ended around 136 million years ago. Lianes Climbing and twining plants in tropical forests. Limnology The study of the physical phenomena of lakes and other fresh waters. Littoral Situated near a (sea) shore. Macrofossil A fossil visible to the naked eye. Mangrove A salt-adapted evergreen tree of the intertidal zone of the tropical and subtropical latitudes. Manioc Any plant of the genus Manzhot, especially the cultivated vaneties, having starchy tuberous roots or the starch or flour made from these roots. Also called cassava or tapioca. Massif Large mountain mass. Mesic Pertaining to or adapted to life with a moderate supply of moisture. Microclimate The climate of a small local area. Microflora Extremely small plants, usually those invisible to the naked eye. Miocene The geological epoch that began about 26 million years ago and ended around 5 million years ago. Miombo A distinctive dry woodland dominated by the genera Brachystegia and Fulbernardia. Monoculture Cultivation of a single crop. Monotypic Having a single representative (used of a boilogical group). Monsoon forest Closed canopy forests in seasonal tropical climates (see CHAPTER 1). Montane Growing or living in mountainous areas. Mulching Spreading a mixture of wet straw, leaves etc. around or over a plant to ennich or insulate the soil. Neogene Includes the geological epochs of the Miocene and Pliocene, i.e. began about 26 million years ago and ended 1.8 million years ago. Oligocene The geological epoch that began some 37 million years ago and ended around 26 million years ago. Onchocerciasis A disease of man also known as river blindness, common in tropical regions of Africa (and America), caused by infestation of a filanal worm Onchocerca volvulus which is transmitted by various species of black fly. Palaearctic Of the Arctic and temperate parts of the Old World. Palaeobotany The study of fossil plants. Palaeoclimatology The study of the climate in geologically past times. Palaeoecology The study of the ecology of fossil plants and animals. Palaeogeography The study of the geographical features at periods in the geological past. Palaeolimnology The study of lakes of past ages. Palynology The study of pollen, spores etc. for the interpretation of past environments. Pandemic Prevalent over a whole country or the world. Parastatal Parnally controlled by the state. Passerine Any bird of the order Passeriformes; they are perching birds, sparrow-like in form. Phytochorion Floristic region; pl. phytochona. Phytogeography The geography of plant distnbution. Pitsawing In situ cutting up of felled trees using a large manually-operated saw, generally with one person standing below the tree (in a pit) and one above it. Pleistocene A geological epoch that commenced about 2 million years ago and ended about 10,000 years ago. poison girdling Poisoning of unwanted trees and climbers to enable nearby trees to develop. Pooid grass A member of the subfamily Pooideae. Postglacial The period after the end of the last Ice Age. Precambrian The earliest geological era that commenced with the consolidation of the earth’s crust about 4600 million years ago and ended about 600 million years ago. Primary forest See PRISTINE FOREST. Pristine forest Forest in a primary, virgin or undisturbed state. Prosimian A pnmate of the suborder Prosimii (e.g. lemurs, lorises, galagos and tarsiers), related more closely to the ancestral primate than are the simians (monkeys and apes). INDEX OF SPECIES: FAUNA Achanna; achatina, 141, 141; marginata suturalis, 235 189, 198, 217, 248 Albertine owlet, 107 Apus sladeniae, 253 Aquatc genet, 30 Quaternary The present geological penod that began around 2 million years ago. Rain forest Closed canopy forests in aseasonal climates; may be found in tropical and temperate latitudes. Refugium, plur. refugia Region where biological communities have remained relatively undisturbed over long penods. Relic stand A group of trees left after the loss of the major proportion of a forest. riparian Land bordering water. Riverine Living or growing on a nver bank. Roundwood Wood in its natural state as felled or otherwise harvested. Sapropel Slimy sediment laid down in water, largely organic in ongin. Savanna A tall grass plain in tropical or subtropical regions with widely spaced trees. Scarp A steep slope at the edge of an upland area. Sclerophyll Plant with tough evergreen leaves. Secondary forest Forest which is regenerating after a greater or lesser degree of disturbance, often by selective logging or agriculture. It is charactensed by a lack of large trees and a significant proportion of coloniser species. Selective logging The logging or felling of only particular species, size or type (e.g. those with straight, solid trunks) of tree within an area (as opposed to clearfelling where all trees are cut). Selective logging is the more common method of felling though the number of trees taken from an area varies considerably. Shifting cultivation System of agriculture that depends on cleanng and burning an area of forest for farming over a temporary period. See SWIDDEN AGRICULTURE. Skidder path Bulldozer or tractor track through a forest along which logs are pulled to the main road during selective logging. Silviculture Treatment often involving removal in a natural forest of unwanted climbers, damaged trees or uncommercial species. Replanting is rare. Slash and burn See SHIFTING CULTIVATION. Softwood Wood from a conifer, technically recognised by the absence of vessels. Softwoods have abundant fibres and make good paper. Speciation Formation of a new biological species. Stand dynamics The age structure and growth rate of communiues of trees. Stratification (in geology) The arrangement of horizontal layers of sediment that compnise sedimentary rock. Stratigraphy The geological study of strata and their succession. Subsistence farming The production of Black-and-white colobus, 122, 264 107, 266 Bradypterus: grandis, 173; grauen, food and other resources to satisfy the needs of the household, rather than for cash. Sub-hygrophilous A plant growing in a damp environment. Superspecies A group of closely related species; this taxonomic term is usually used by ornithologist or primatologists. Swidden agriculture Shifting agriculture carmed out in the traditional, sustainable way, i.e. with periods of fallow to restore soil fertility. Symbiosis An interaction between two different organisms living in close physical association, usually to the advantage of both. Sympatric Two or more species that occupy the same geographic area. Taungya system The planting of trees in mixture with agricultural crops with the farmer agreeing to tend the trees at the same ume as his own crops. When the crops are harvested, further tending of the trees is usually carned out by the Forestry Service. Tavy A Malagasy term for shifting cultivation. Taxon Any of the taxonomic groups into which an Order is divided and which contains one or more related genera. Tectonic Relating to the deformation and movement of rock in the earth’s crust. Tertiary The geological penod that followed the Cretaceous period around 65 million years ago and that ended 2 million years ago. Tillage The process by which soil is prepared to form a seedbed favourable to crop growth. Transhumant pastoralism The seasonal or periodic movement of pastoral farmers and their livestock in search of grazing, usually between areas that have distinctly different climatic and ecological conditions. Transpiration The act of transpiring, i.e. (in plants) giving off water vapour. Trophic chain Food chain. Tropical shelterwood system A form of forest management most commonly used in West Afnca, especially Nigeria. The objective was to enhance the natural regeneration of valuable tree species by gradually opening up the canopy by such methods as poisoning undesirable trees and cutting climbers. Trypanosomiasis A disease caused by a trypanosome (a flagellate protozoon), especially sleeping sickness. Ungulate A hoofed mammal. Vascular Used to descnbe channels carrying fluids in plants (and animals). Watershed The line separating two river basins. Xerophyllic A plant tolerant of a very and habitat. Campephaga lobata, 27, 198, 248 Canary, 236 Acinonyx jubatus, 266 Acraea turlini, 107 Acroptychia, 31 Ader’s duiker, 30 Aepyornis maximus, 225 Aethiothemys watuliki, 129 Aethomys silindensis, 260 Afncan buffalo, 122 Afncan civet, 189, 243 Afncan dwarf crocodile, 179, 181, 181, 198, 204, 215, 236, 266 Afnican giant snail, 141, 141, 235 Afncan giant swallowtail butterfly, 29, 129, 173, 248, 266 Afncan green broadbill, 266 Afnican python, 122, 189 African wild dog, 128 Afnxalus sylvaticus, 30, 153 Afrocaecilia tettana, 153 Afropavo congensts, 30, 279 Agelastes meleagrides, 27, 137, 284 Alethe choloensts, 256, 257 Allenopithecus nigrovindis, 37 Allen’s bushbaby, 29 Allocebus trichons, 31 Allorhizucha campiom, 248 Amblyodipsas tettana, 153 Ampelita, 31 Amphibians, 28, 29 Anambra waxbill, 236 Anchieta’s fruit bat, 279 Angola black-and-white colobus, 77 Angwantibo, 29 Anomalurops: beecroftt, 179; pelt, 27 Anomalures, 116 Anomalurus peli, 27 Anthreptes: neglectus, 30; reichenowt, 30 Aonyx capensis, 204 Apalis: argentea, 107; chanessa, 256; chirindensis, 257, 260; Iynesi, 257; ruddt, 258 Arctocebus calabarensis, 29, 37 Argiagnon leoninum, 248 Astylosternus, 29 Atelornis: crossleyi, 31; pittordes, 31 Atherurus africanus, 76 Anlax paludinosus, 232 Avahi laniger laniger, 224 Aye-aye, 31 Balaeniceps rex, 122, 279 Baliochila wood:, 256 Banded wattle-eye, 116 Bannerman’s turaco, 113, 116 Bar-tailed godwit, 204 Bateleur eagle, 179 Bathmocercus cerviniventns, 198 Bay duiker, 76, 76 Badeogale jacksoni, 266 Beamys major, 256 Bebearia dowsetti, 107 Beecroft’s flying squirrel, 179 Bins: gabonica, 122; nasicornis, 122 Black nafous elephant-shrew, 30 Black-casqued hombill, 75 Black-chinned weaver, 129, 253 Black colobus, 29, 113, 165, 172 Black-headed stream warbler, 198 Black mangabey, 30, 252 Black-nosed money, 252 Black rhinoceros, 122, 252, 266 Blue duiker, 76, 121 Blue money, 77, 264 Boaedon fuliginosus, 204 Bongo, 75, 100, 122, 124, 124, 128, 172, 189, 203, 217 Bonobo, 31, 71 Boophis, 31 Bosc’s monitor, 189 Bosman’s potto, 189 Bostrychia bocagei, 242 Bouvier’s red colobus, 128 Brachypteraciidae, 31 Brachypteracias: leptosomus, 31; squamiger, 31 Brachythemis liberensis, 204 Brookesia, 31 Brown nighyar, 122 Brush-tailed porcupine, 76 Bubo vosselen, 30 Buffalo, 26, 77, 107, 165, 166, 172, 181, 189, 265 Bufo: crisuglans, 248; damielae, 137; perreti, 236 Bufo damielae, 137 Bufonidae, 28 Bugeranus carunculatus, 279 Bushbuck, 75, 172, 179, 189, 203, 265 Bushpig, 75, 122, 140, 217, 224, 235, 265 Bush-shnke, 28 Bushbaby, 29 Butterfly, 26, 28 Caecilian, 165, 243 Calidns: canutus, 204; ferruginea, 204 Campbell’s monkey, 177, 179, 181, 203 Cane rat, 140, 186 Cape clawless otter, 204 Caprimulgus binotatus, 122 Cardioglossa spp, 29; aureoli, 248 Carduelts johannis, 149 Caretta caretta, 129, 204 Casinyctens argynnis, 279 Cephalophus spp, 65, 100, 113, 121, 124, 140, 179, 203, 265; adersi, 30; dorsalis, 76, 76; yenunki, 27, 137, 217, 248; maxwelli, 189; monticola, 76, 107, 121; miger, 27; mignfons, 107; ogilby1, 76, 189; ogilbyi crusalbum, 172; sylvicultor, 107, 172; weynst, 107; zebra, 27, 137, 137, 217, 248 Ceratogymna atrata, 75 Ceratothenum simum, 266 Cercocebus: albigena, 30, 37, 77, 122, 279; albigena johnstoni, 264; aternmus, 30, 37; aterromus opdenboschi, 252, atys, 189; galenitus, 122; galentus galertus, 37, 39, 155; galentus sanyet, 39, 1575; torquatus, 29, 37, 76, 137, 165; torquatus atys, 27, 37 Cercopithecus spp, 122; aethiops, 180; albogulans, 37, 256; ascanius, 37, 264; ascamius atrinasus, 252; campbell, 37, 177, 203; cephus, 29, 37; diana, 27, 37, 137, 198, 217, 248; diana roloway, 39; erythrogaster, 28, 37, 38, 40, 100, 235; erythrous, 29, 37, 38, 76, 113; erythrons erythrous, 165; hamlym, 29, 30, 37, 40, 107, 279; lhoesti, 29, 37, 107, 153, 264, 266, 279; mits kandn, 107, 266; matis stuhimanni, 264; mona, 37, 70, 76, 185, 232, 243; neglectus, 37; nictitans, 37, 76; petaunsta, 27, 37, 70, 189; pogonias, 37, 76; preussi, 29, 38, 40, 113; preusst insulans, 165; salongo, 37, 279; sclaten, 37, 38, 39, 40, 235; solatus, 29, 37, 40, 172 Chalcides armitaget, 179 Chamaeleo, 29, 31 Chameleon, 29, 30, 31, 225, 260 Chapin’s flycatcher, 153, 266 Charaxes: margaretae, 256; turlini, 107 Cheetah, 266 Chelomia mydas, 129, 165, 204 Chequered elephant shrew, 256 Chevrotain, 122 Chimpanzee, 30, 39, 64, 77, 98, 107, 113, 121, 124, 137, 141, 165, 166, 172, 173, 179, 180, 198, 203, 217, 235, 248, 252, 264, 266 Chirinda apalis, 257, 260 Chloropeta graethrostns, 107 Chlorotalpa: arendst, 260; tropicalis, 31 Choeropsis liberensis, 137, 189, 198, 217, 248 Cichlids, 266 Circaetus fasciolatus, 258 Clarke’s weaver, 30, 153 Coastal skink, 179 Coleura seychellensis, 212 Collocahia elaphra, 212 Colobus: angolensts, 37, 77; angolensis ruwenzoni, 107, 264; guereza, 37, 122; polykomos, 37, 179, 185, 189, 203, 217; polykomos vellerosus, 27, 37, 98; satanas, 29, 37, 113, 165, 172 Columba: delegorguet, 256; thomensts, 242 Common eland, 179 Common hinged tortoise, 189 Common tree snake, 204 Congo peacock, 30, 279 Conraua: goliath, 29; robusta, 29 Coracina newtom, 210 Cream-banded swallowtail butterfly, 29, 107, 266 Crested mangabey, 122 Cricetomys gambianus, 164 Cniniger olrvaceus, 27, 198, 248 Croctdura: tanzaniana, 30; telfordi, 31; thomensis, 242 Crocodile, 129, 173, 204, 225, 235 Crocodylus: cataphractus, 173, 179, 204, 215, 232, 266; niloticus, 173, 176, 189, 204, 215, 232, 266 Crossarchus obscurus, 179 Curlew sandpiper, 204 Cymothoe melanjae, 256 Damara tem, 173 Dappled mountain robin, 257 Dark mongoose, 179 Daubentonia madagascanensis, 31 Daubentoniidae, 31 Delegorgue’s pigeon, 256 Demidoff’s galago, 181 Dendroaspis viridis, 204 Dendrocygna, 179 Dendromus kahuziensis, 29 Dermochelys coriacea, 173, 204 Diademed sifaka, 228 Diana monkey, 27, 39, 137, 198, 217, 248 Diceros: bicornis, 252, 266; bicorms longipes, 122 Dicrurus fuscipennis, 208 Didynamipus sjostedn, 28 Dja nver warbler, 173 Djiboun francolin, 149 Dodo, 209 Dolphins, 204 Dragonfly, 129, 204, 248 Dnil, 29, 40, 76, 113, 165, 235 Dryocichloides montanus, 30 Dugong, 224 Dugong dugon, 224 Duiker, 165, 217, 279 Dwarf forest buffalo, 122, 124 Dwarf galago, 36, 121 Dwarf olive ibis, 242 East coast akalat, 30, 258 Eastern lowland gomilla, 37, 279, 280 Echo parakeet, 210 Elaeidobius kamerunicus, 113 Elapsoidea semiannulata, 204 Elephant, 26, 33-36, 75, 76, 100, 107, 113, 122, 123, 124, 137, 140, 165, 166, 172, 173, 174, 179, 184, 189, 198, 204, 217, 235, 248, 252, 266, 280 Elephant bird, 225 Eliurus myoxinus, 32 Epixerus eb, 27, 248 Eremomela turnert, 153, 266 Eretmochelys imbncata, 165, 204 Erythrocebus patas, 179, 203 Estnida polopareia, 236 Eupleres goudoti, 31 Eutrorchis astur, 31 Falco: araea, 212; punctatus, 210 Felis: aurata, 172, 189, 198, 203; aurata celidogaster, 217; serval, 179, 203 Femando Po speirops, 165 Fernando Po swift, 253 Feylinia polyepis, 243 Fishing owl, 27 Flycatcher, 27 Flying squirrel, 75 Forest buffalo, 75 Forest cobra, 181 Forest genet, 179 Forest ground thrush, 266 Fossa fossana, 31 Francolin, 77, 113 Francolinus spp, 77; camerunensis, 113; nahani, 266; ochropectus, 1493 sevterstrat, 253 Funiscturus carrutherst, 29 Gabela akalat, 29, 253 Gabela helmet-shnke, 29, 253 Gaboon viper, 122 Galago: allen, 37; demidovu, 36, 37; elegantulus, 30, 37; garnettt, 145; iustus, 37; senegalensis, 189; thomast, 37 Galagordes: alleni, 29, demidoff, 36, 121, 181; thomasi, 29, 30; zanzibanicus, 37, 256 Galidictis striata, 31 Gamett’s bushbaby, 145 Geckos, 31 Genet, 188 Genetta spp, 188; johnstom, 27, 137, 198; pardina, 179; uictonae, 30 Geochelone yniphora, 228 Geoffroy’s black-and-white colobus, 27, 98 Giant eland, 203 Giant forest hog, 75, 77, 122, 172, 217, 265 Giant forest rat, 164 Giant genet, 30 Giant pangolin, 128, 179, 181 Giant sable antelope, 252 Giant squirrel, 27 Giraffa camelopardals, 179 Giraffe, 179 Glaucidium albertnum, 107 Gola malimbe, 27, 217, 248 Golen cat, 172, 189, 198, 203, 204, 217 Golden mole, 260 Golden monkey, 107, 266 Golden-rumped elephant-shrew, 30, 153 Gordon’s red colobus, 157 Gonilla, 30, 36, 41, 113, 121, 124, 128, 165, 166, 173, 235, 238, 252 Gonlla: gorilla, 30, 36, 37, 113, 121, 128, 165, 235, 252; gorilla berenget, 20, 39, 77, 77, 105, 107, 266, 279; gonila gonila, 172; gonilla grauen, 39, 279 Grande Comoro drongo, 208 Grande Comoro flycatcher, 208 Grande Comoro scops owl, 208 Graphium: aunvilliust, 29, 129: levasson, 208 Grauer’s swamp warbler, 107, 266 Greater flamingo, 179 Greater hamster rat, 256 Green-headed onole, 256 Green tree mamba, 204 Green turtle, 129, 165, 204 Grey-cheeked mangabey, 30, 77, 122; 279 Grey-necked rockfowl, 173 Grey parrot, 75, 189, 232 Grey plover, 204 Ground-roller, 31 Grypohterax angolensis, 232 Guenon, 27, 28, 29 Guinea baboon, 180 Guineafowl, 27 Gulella, 30 Gypohierax angolensis, 232 Haemoschus aquaticus, 76 Hairy-eared dwarf lemur, 31 Half-banded garter snake, 204 Hahiaeetus vociferoides, 223 Hawksbill turtle, 165, 204 Hayman’s epauletted fruit bat, 279 Heliosciurus ruwenzorn, 29 Helix, 185 Hemidactylus: greeft, 243; newton, 165 Hinged tortoise, 75 Hippopotamus, 117, 172, 176, 179, 203, 225, 235 Hippopotamus amphibius, 172, 176, 179, 203, 235 Hippotragus: equinus, 179; niger vanant, 252 Hunblona flavirostns, 208 Huntng dog, 179 Hyemoschus aquancus, 76, 122, 172 Hylochoerus metertzhagent, 75, 122, 172, 217, 265 Hypargos margantatus, 258 Hyperoliidae, 27-8 Hyperolius spp, 28, 29; mollen, 243; occidentahs, 248, rubrovermiculatus, 30; thomensts, 243 Hypsipyla, 63 HAystnx cristata, 140, 181 Tbadan malimbe, 28, 236 Indn indn, 31 Itombwe owl, 279 Jackson’s mongoose, 266 Jentink’s duiker, 27, 137, 141, 217, 248 Johnston’s genet, 27, 137, 198 Kassina lamottet, 137 Kenvoula muscilla, 29 Kibale ground thrush, 266 Kinixys, 75, 121, 189 Kark’s red colobus, 40 Knot, 204 Kungwe apalis, 107 Leather-backed turtle, 173, 204 Legless skink, 243 Leighton’s linsang, 137 Lemon-breasted canary, 258 Lemur, 31, 224, 224, 228 Lemur. fulvus fulvus, 208; fulvus mayottonsis, 208; mongoz, 208 Leopard, 26, 77, 149, 166, 172, 179, 181, 186, 189, 198, 203, 217, 235, 266 Lepidochelys olivacea, 129, 204 Leptopelis palmatus, 243 Lesser otter shrew, 27, 198 L’Hoest’s monkey, 29, 107, 153, 264, 266, 279 Libenan mongoose, 27, 198, 217 Liberncus kuhnu, 27, 198, 217 Libyan stnped weasel, 179 Limosa lapponica, 204 Lion, 128, 172, 179 Lioptlus gilbert, 28 Lizards, 208 Loango weaver, 173 Loggerhead turtle, 129, 204 Loveridge’s sunbird, 31 Lowland gonila, 124, 172 Loxodonta: afncana, 26, 100, 107, 113, 137, 165, 172, 179, 184, 198, 204, 217, 252, 266, 280; afncana afncana, 33, 122; afncana cyclons, 33, 36, 75, 122, 189, 248; afncana pumilio, 33 Lutra maculicollis, 232 Lycaon pictus, 128, 179 Lygodactylus spp, 31; thomensis, 165, 243 Macrosphenus pulttzen, 29, 253 Madagascar fish eagle, 223 Madagascar serpent eagle, 31 Malaconotus: alius, 31; kupeensts, 28, 113; monte, 29, 253 Malimbe, 27, 28 Malimbus: ballmanni, 27, 217, 248; tbadanensis, 28, 236 Manatee, 128, 137, 140, 172, 181, 198, 204, 215, 235, 245, 273 Mandnill, 29, 113, 165, 166, 172 Mandnilus: leucophaeus, 29, 37, 38, 40, 76, 113, 235; leucophaeus poensis, 105; sphinx, 29, 37, 113, 165, 172 Mangabey, 27, 31 Mangroves, 31 Manis spp, 188; gigantea, 128, 179 Mantellinae, 31 Manndactylus, 31 Manne turtles, 177, 204 Maroon pigeon, 242 Marsh mongoose, 232 Marual eagle, 179 Mascarene black petrel, 210 Maunus kestrel, 210 Maxwell’s duiker, 189 Mehelya egbensis, 236 Melaenornis annamarulae, 27, 198, 248 Melignomon etsentraun, 248 Mucrogale, 31 Micropotamogale: lamottet, 27, 198; ruwenzoni, 27, 29 Maicropteropus intermedius, 279 Millipedes, 19 Muopithecus, 37 Modulatnx orostruthus, 257 Molluscan fauna, 31 Mona Monkey, 70, 185, 232, 243 Mongoose, 27, 189 Monitor lizard, 181, 235 Monteiro’s bush-shnike, 29, 253 Mountain babbler, 28 Mountain gonilla, 20, 32, 77, 77, 105, 105, 107, 266, 279 Mount Karthala white-eye, 208 Mount Kupe bush-shnke, 28, 113, 116 Moustached guenon, 29 Mrs Waldron’s red colobus, 39, 40 Muscicapa lendu, 153, 266 Mustela nivalis, 243 Myonyectens brachycephala, 242 Myoscturus pumilto, 29 Myzopoda aunta, 31 Nahan’s francolin, 266 Nata melanoleuca, 181 Namuli apalis, 257 Nectarimia: loverdget, 31; neergaardt, 258 Nectophrynoides occidentalis, 198 Neergaard’s sunbird, 258 Neotragus: batest, 30; pygmaeus, 27 Nesoenas mayen, 210 Nile crocodile, 173, 176, 181, 189, 204, 215, 232, 236, 266 Nile monitor lizard, 75 Nimba flycatcher, 27, 198, 248 North Afncan crested porcupine, 181 Numenius phaeopus, 204 Ogilby’s duiker, 189 Okapi, 30, 46, 65, 279, 281, 282 Okapi johnstom, 30, 46, 65, 279 Olive colobus, 28, 137, 198, 248 Olive grass snake, 204 Olive ndley turtle, 129, 204 Onolus chlorocephalus, 256 Oryetes, 235 Osbornicts piscivora, 30 Osteolaemus tetraspis, 173, 179, 181, 181, 198, 204, 215, 236, 266 Otter, 204 Otter shrew, 27, 29 Otus: hartlaubt, 242; msulans, 212; treneae, 30, 153; pauliant, 208 Owl-faced guenon, 29, 40, 107, 279 Palm nut vulture, 232 Pan: paniscus, 30, 71, 279; troglodytes, 30, 37, 39, 64, 77, 98, 107, 113, 121, 137, 165, 172, 179, 189, 198, 203, 217, 235, 248, 252, 264, 266; troglodytes verus, 39 Panaspis spp, 29; africana, 243 Pandinus imperator, Pangolin, 188 Panthera: leo, 128, 172, 179; pardus, 26, 77, 149, 165, 172, 179, 189, 198, 203, 217, 235, 266 Papilio: antimachus, 29, 129, 173, 248, 266; anstophontes, 208; leucotaenia, 29, 107, 266; manlius, 210, phorbanta, 210 Papio papwo, 180 Papyrus yellow warbler, 107 Paraxerus: coopen, 29, 113; vexillarius, 30 Passenine birds, 22, 26, 27 Pel’s anomalure, 27 Pennant’s red colobus, 40, 165 Perodicticus potto, 37, 189 Phelsuma spp, 31; borbonica, 210; ornata inexpectata, 210 Phodilus prigoginei, 279 Phoentcopterus ruber, 179 Phrynobatrachus spp, 28, 29; alticola, 248; dispar, 243; feae, 243 Phyllastrephus leucolepis, 27 Phyllodactylus, 31 Picathartes: gymnocephalus, 27, 100, 198, 217, 248; oreas, 173 Pink pigeon, 210 Pink-throated twinspot, 258 Plain-backed sunbird, 30 Platystetra laticincta, 116 Plerotes anchietae, 279 Ploceus: aureonucha, 30; bannermani, 28; flavipes, 30; golandt, 30, 153; mignmentum, 129, 253; subpersonatus, 173 Ploughshare tortoise, 228 Pluvialus squatarola, 204 Poecilictus libyca, 179 Poiana nchardsoni libenensis, 137 Polemaetus bellicosus, 179 Porcupine, 140 Potamochoerus porcus, 75, 76, 122, 140, 217, 224, 265 Potamogale velox, 172 Praomys hartungi, 29 Preuss’s guenon, 29, 40, 113, 165 Preuss’s red colobus, 76 Pnmates, 36-41, 137, 165, 189, 203, 217, 248, 264, 279 Pnnce Ruspoli’s turaco, 149 Prima roberts, 260 Pnonops gabela, 29, 253 Probreviceps rhodesianus, 260 Procolobus: (badius] badius, 37, 198, 217, 248; [badius] badius badtus, 27, 137; [badius] badius temmincku, 179, 203; [badius] badius waldrom, 39; [badius] gordonorum, 37, 38, 157; [badtus] kirkti, 37, 38, 39; [badius] pennant, 37, 38, 39, 40, 76; [badius] pennanti bouvien, 39, 128; [badtus] pennanti pennant, 165; [badius) pennant: preusst, 76; [badius] rufomitratus, 37, 122; [badtus) rufomitratus rufomitratus, 39, 155; [badius] rufomitratus tephrosceles, 107, 264, 266; verus, 28, 37, 137, 198, 248 Propithecus diadema, 228 Protoxerus aubinn, 27, 198 Psammophis sibilans, 204 Pselaphidae, 31 Pseudhymenochirus merlini, 204, 248 Pseudocalyptomena grauen, 266 Psutacula eques. 210 Psutacus ertthacus, 75, 189, 232 Pterodroma aterrma, 210 Preropus: livingstonu, 208; rufus, 223; seychellensts seychellensis, 212 Prychadena: newtont, 243; retropunctata, 248 Pulitzer’s longbill, 29, 253 Pygmy antelope, 27 Pygmy chimpanzee, 30, 71, 279 Pygmy elephant, 33 Pygmy hippopotamus, 137, 141, 189, 198, 217, 248 Pygmy squirrel, 29 Python: regius, 204; sebae, 122, 189, 204 Rampholoon marshali, 260 Raphus cucullatus, 209 Red-capped mangabey, 29, 137, 165 Red colobus, 122, 181, 198, 217, 248, 264 Red-eared guenon, 29, 113, 165 Red patas monkey, 179, 180, 181, 203 Red-roffed lemur, 228 Red shank, 204 Red-tail monkey, 264 Réunion cuckoo-shnke, 210 Rhampholeon marshalii, 260 Rhinoceros beetle, 235 Rhinoceros viper, 122 Rhinotyphlops: feae, 243; newtoni, 243 Rhynchocyon: chrysopygus, 30, 153; cirnet hendersomt, 256; peterst, 30 Roan antelope, 179 Roberts’ pninia, 260 Rock python, 204 Rodents, 27 Rousettus: lanosus, 279; oblrviosus, 208 Royal antelope, 30 Royal python, 204 INDEX Royal tern, 179 Rudd’s apalis, 258 Ruffed lemur, 31 Rufous fishing owl, 27, 248 Rwenzon black-and-white colobus, 107 Rwenzon long-haired rousette, 279 Rwenzon otter-shrew, 29 Salanoia concolor, 31 Salongo guenon, 279 Sanje mangabey, 157 Sao Tome little collared fruit bat, 242 Sao Tome scops owl, 242 Sao Tomé white-eye, 242 Sao Tomé white-toothed shrew, 242 Scaly-tailed squirrel, 113 Scelotes poensis, 165 Schistometopum spp, 243; garzonheydt, 165 Schoutedenella, 29 Sclater’s guenon, 39, 40, 235 Scotopelia usshen, 27, 248 Selinda rat, 260 Serinus: citrinipectus, 258; mozambicus, 236 Serval, 179, 203 Seychelles kestrel, 212 Seychelles scops owl, 212 Seychelles swiftlet, 212 Seychelles white-eye, 212 Sheath-tailed bat, 212 Sheppardta: gabela, 29, 253; gunningi, 30, 258 Shoebill, 122, 279 Short-palate fruit bat, 279 Shrike, 27 Sitatunga, 98, 122, 181, 204, 232 Skinks, 29 Slender-snouted crocodile, 179, 204, 215, 232, 236, 266 Slender-tailed giant squirrel, 27, 198 Snakes, 208 Sokoke scops owl, 30, 153 Sooty mangabey, 27 Southem banded snake eagle, 258 Speirops brunneus, 165 Spheciadae, 30 Sphenodon punctatus, 39 Spot-nosed guenon, 27, 70, 189 Spotted ground thrush, 147, 256 Spotted-necked otter, 232 Spot-winged greenbul, 27 Squirrel: flying, 27, 75 Stactolaema olivacea belchen, 257 Sterna: balaenarum, 173; bergi, 223; maxima, 179 Streptaxidae, 30 Sucker-footed bat, 31 Sun-tailed guenon, 29, 172, 174 Swallowtail, 29 Swierstra’s francolin, 253 Swift tem, 223 Swordtail butterfly, 29 Swynnertonia swynnertoni, 257, 260 Swynnerton’s forest robin, 257, 260 Swynnerton’s squirrel, 30 Sykes’ monkey, 256 Syncerus: caffer, 26, 107, 181, 189, 265; caffer nanus, 75, 122, 165, 172 Taita thrush, 153 Tana River mangabey, 39, 40, 155 Tana River red colobus, 39, 40, 155 Taphozous mauntianus, 210 Tanida acetabulosa, 210 Tauraco: bannermani, 113; ruspolu, 149 Temminck’s red colobus, 179, 181, 203 Temminck’s squirrel, 248 Tenrec ecaudatus, 208 Terathopius ecaudatus, 179 ‘Thomas’s bushbaby, 29 Thryonomys swindenanus, 140, 186 Thyolo alethe, 256, 257 Thyolo green barbet, 257 Tragelaphus: derbianus, 203; euryceros, 75, 100, 122, 124, 128, 172, 189, 203, 217; oryx, 179; scriptus, 75, 172, 179, 189, 203, 205; speket, 98, 122, 204, 232 Tree-frogs:, 19, 27; derbianus, 203; oryx, 179 Tnichechus senegaleusis, 98, 128, 137, 172, 181, 198, 204, 215, 235, 245, 273 285 INDEX Tringa totanus, 204 Tuatara, 39 Turdus: fischeri, 256; fischeri maxis, 147; hellen, 153; kibalensis, 266; oberlaenden, 266 Tumer’s eremomela, 153, 266 Typhlops elegans, 243 Uganda red colobus, 107, 266 Uluguru bush-shnike, 31 Uluguru golden mole, 31 Uluguru violet-backed sunbird, 30 Uroplatus, 31 Usambara eagle owl, 30 Usambara ground robin, 30 Varanus: exanthemathicus, 189; miloticus, 75 Varecia: vanegata, 31; vanegata rubra, 228 Vervet, 180, 181 Viverra crvetta, 189, 243 INDEX OF SPECIES: FLORA Abina, 163 Abura, 57, 60 Acacia: auniculiformis, 277; heterophylla, 209 Acajou, 135, 136 Acalypha, 21 Acrostichum aureum, 232 Adansonia digitata, 251 Adenanthera paronina, 212 Adjouaba, 60 Afara, 57, 60 Aflexia, 196 africana, 98, 120, 176, 193, 201; bipindensis, 111, 119 Aframomum giganteum, 113 African blackwood, 56, 60 Afncan ebony, 60 Afmcan mahogany, 60, 82, 134, 184, 201, 232 African pear wood, 188 Affican violet, 30, 31, 152 African walnut, 57, 60 Afrocramia volkensu, 258 Afrormosia, 57, 60, 186, 188 Afrosersalisia emarginatum, 254 Afzelia spp, 57, 60, 120, 196; afncana, 98, 120, 176, 193, 201, 203; bipindensts, 111, 119 Agba, 57, 60 Agelaea spp., 163 Ahensaw, 188 Alberta minor, 222 Albizia spp, 120, 145, 212, 251, 259; adianthifolia, 176; conana, 120; falcata, 212; ferruginea, 176; glabrescens, 251; gummufera, 103; zygia, 176 Alchemilla, 104 Alchornea, 20, 23 Alep, 170 Alsodewpsis chippi, 189 Alstonia: boonet, 120, 231; congensis, 126, 201 Amorphophallus, 120 Amphimas pterocarpoides, 119 Anacardiaceae, 222 Anacardium occidentale, 177 Andira inermis, 111 Andounga, 170 Angylocalyx, 30 Aningena spp, 196; adolfi- Sredencn, 148; alrissima, 120 Anisophyllea: cabole, 240; lamina, 201 Annonaceae, 157 Annonaceae seeds, 18 Anogeissus leiocarpa, 184 Anthocleista: grandiflora, 103; procera, 176 Anthonotha spp, 134; fragrans, 244; pynaert, 103 Anthospermum, 21; comp., 20, 21 Anthostema aubryanum, 231 Anthrocleista procera, 176 Annans spp, 57, 60, 196; africana, 98, 120, 186, 201, 231; excelsa, 196; toxicania, 176 Anurhea, 208 Antrocaryon, 18 Aphloia spp, 208; theiformis, 257, 258 Apodytes dimidiata, 207 Aporrhiza nitida, 259 Araliaceae, 222 Arecaceae, 222 Artemisia, 20, 21 Arundinana alpina, 20, 103, 111, 263 Asoma, 188 Asteranthe, 30 Aubrevillea kerstingii, 120, 185 Aucoumea klameana, 56, 60, 126, 163, 164, 169 Autranella congolensis, 120 Avicennia spp, 134, 148, 185, 223; africana, 31, 176, 196, 201, 232; genminans, 31; manina, 31, 145, 207; mrida, 31, 112, 176, 185, 273 Ayous, 112, 120, 126 Azobé, 57, 60, 112 Badi, 135 Batkiaea plunjuga, 252 286 Baillonella toxisperma, 65, 127 Baissea multiflora, 181 Baku, 186 Balanites wilsoniana, 34 Balthasana manmi, 240 Bamboo, 20, 103, 104, 152, 177, 180, 193, 203, 263, 266 Baphia paulot, 157 Beilschmiedia, 29 Beli, 170 Berchemia zeyheri, 257 Berlima spp, 252; confusa, 246; grandiflora, 120; grandifolia, 126 Bertiera rufa, 208 Beté, 57, 60, 120 Bignoniaceae, 27 Bilinga, 126 Birvinia jalberti, 259 Blighta unyjugata, 120, 251, 259 Bois de fer, 211 Bomanga, 273 Bombax spp, 251; buonopozense, 111; reflecum, 251; schumannianum, 257 Borassus aethiopum, 134, 177 Bossé, 135 Brachystegia spp, 140, 231, 273; bakeerana, 252; laurent, 273; leonensts, 244, 245; spiciformis, 252, 257 Breonta, 207 Bnielia: grandis, 244; speciosa, 231 Bruguiera spp, 145, 223; gymnorrhiza, 31, 207, 257 Burseraceae, 169 Burttdavya nyasica, 254 Bucxus hildebrandm, 149 Cabbage tree, 176, 179 Cacao, 43, 183, 186 Caesalpiniacae, 111, 134, 157 Calamus spp, 119; decratus, 176, 188 Caloncoba lophocarpa, 111 Calophyllum eputamen, 208 Calpocalyx aubrevillet, 215 Calvana, 208 Cananum, 196, 208 Carapa spp, 196, 223; grandiflora, 103; procera, 231 Caseana manni, 241 Cashew, 177, 203 Cassipourea: annobonensis, 163; congoensts, 255; malosana, 259; ndando, 103; Casuarina spp, 212; equisetifolia, 257 Cedrela, 100, 136 Cedrela odorata, 136, 186 Ceiba, 60 Ceiba pentandra, 56, 98, 120, 188, 201, 246, 251 Celus spp, 98, 120, 134, 145, 170, 231, 251; adolfi-fndenci, 120; afncana, 257; mildbraedit, 120, 251; phiippensis, 120; zenken, 120 Cephaelis mannit, 231 Cephalosphaera usambarensis, 30 Cenops spp, 31, 223; botviniana, 31; tagal, 31, 257 Chaetachme anstata, 120 Chlorophora regia, 60, 176, 196 Chrysobalanaceae, 134 Chrysobalanus, 126 Chrysophyllum spp, 103; albidum, 145; borvinianum, 207; gorungosanum, 103, 254, 255, 257, 259 Cinnamomum verum, 212 Cleistopholis patens, 111 Cliffortia, 20 Coco-de-mer, 211 Coffea spp, 198; arabica, 149 Cola spp, 111, 183, 231; cordifolia, 176; grandifolia, 98; greenwayi, 255; lepidota, 113; nitida, 188; pachycarpa, 113; umbraniis, 189 Colophospermum mopane, 252 Combretaceae, 134 Combretum, 203 Conocarpus erectus, 176, 201, 273 Viverndae, 137, 224 Waders, 204 Warsangli linnet, 149 Water chevrotain, 172 Wattled crane, 279 Weaver, 28, 30 Wemena, 28 Westem black-and-white colobus, 179, 185, 189, 203, 204, 217 Westem needle-clawed galago, 30 Cordia platythyrsa, 111 Cordyla afncana, 257 Craibia brevicaudata, 259 Crassocephalum mannuy, 111 Cratenspernum montanum, 163 Crinum maunitianum, 209 Croton spp, 145, 148; macrostachyus, 103; stelhuliferus, 241 Crotonogynopsts manniana, 111 Cryptomena, 209 Crytosepalum: pseudotaxus, 273; tetraphyllum, 244 Cupressus spp, 255; lusitanica, 144, 148, 257 Curnsta dentata, 257 Cussonia spicata, 257 Cyathea comp., 20, 23; similis, 207 Cyatheaceae, 224, 231 Cylicodiscus gabunensis, 231 Cynometra: alexandn, 273; ananta, 134, 140; vogelt, 245 Cyperus articulatus, 232 Dacryodes spp, 60, 126; buettnen, 169, 170; pubescens, 273 Dahoma, 163, 184 Dalbergia spp, 222, 224; melanoxylon, 56; saxatilis, 181; setifera, 189 Damiellia: klainen, 273; ogea, 176, 188; oliver, 273; thunfera, 244 Dasylepis racemosa, 111 Deckemia, 212 Deinbollia: angusnfolia, 111; saligna, 111 Demmere, 188 Desbordesia glaucescens, 169 Detanum senegalense, 176, 201 Dialium spp, 215; guineense, 176, 201 Dibétou, 120 Dichapetalum fructuosum, 153 Dicoryphe viticoides, 222 Dictyophora phalloidea, 29 Didelona: idea, 244, 246; umtfoliolata, 140 Didiereaceae, 222 Dinklageodoxa, 27 Dioncophyllaceae, 27 Dionychastrum schliebenii, 31 Dioscorea, 113 Diospyros spp, 56, 60,111, 119, 209; abyssinica, 255, 259; gracilescens, 111; kamerunensis, 111; mespiliformis, 98, 184, 257; microrhombus, 224; pement, 224; piscatona, 1115; tesselaria, 208; whyteana, 258 Dipterocarps, 18 Discoclaoxylom occidentale, 163 Dodonaea, 24 Dombeya: ficulnea, 208; goetzenti, 104; punctata, 208; reclinata, 208 Dorstenia, 111 Doussie, 120 Dracaena steudnest, 103 Drypetes: caustica, 209; gerrardit, 255; glabra, 240; parvifolia, 185 Ebe, 163 Ebony, 56, 209, 224 Ekebergia capensis, 258 Ekki, 60, 215 Elaeidobicus kamerunicus, 113 Elaets spp, 201; guineensis, 113, 176, 177, 201 Elaeodendron onentale, 208 Emen, 60 Enanna chlorantha, 111 Englerodendron usambarense, 30 Entandrophragma spp, 56, 82, 135, 193, 198, 215, 231, 246; angolense, 57, 60, 65, 119, 120, 126, 127, 134, 147, 186; candoller, 60, 120, 126; cylindncwm, 56, 60, 111, 120, 126, 186; delevoy, 273; excelsum, 103, 255; palustre, 126; utile, 56, 60, 111, 120, 126, 135, 184, 186 Epiphytes, 163, 207, 222 Westem red colobus, 27, 137 Westem wattled cuckoo-shnke, 27, 198, 248 Whimbrel, 204 White-breasted guinea fowl, 27, 137, 189, 198, 217, 248 White-collared mangabey, 189 White-legged duiker, 172, 174 White-necked picathartes, 27 White-necked rockfowl, 100, 198, 217, 248, 249 Enbroma oblonga, 120 Encaceae, 13, 20, 21 Enocoelum macrocarpum, 231 Ensmadelphus exsul, 111 Enythrococca: columnans, 241; hispida, 111; médlleni, 240 Erythrophleum spp, 126, 147, 196; guineense, 176, 193, 201; tworense, 134, 163, 244; suaveolens, 176, 257, 259 Erythrospermum, 208 Eucalytus, 128, 172, 177, 186, 208, 223, 233, 252, 255, 257 Eugemia, 208 Eupatona chlorantha, 113 Euphorbiaceae, 169, 222 Eyong, 120 Fabaceae, 222 Faurea racemosa, 259 Ficalhoa launfolia, 255 Ficus spp, 176, 201, 254; chinindensis, 259; clarencensis, 163 Filicuum decipiens, 207 Flacourtiaceae, 222 Foetdia maunnana, 208 Forgesia borbonica, 208 Frake, 126, 135, 136 Framire, 57, 60, 135, 136 Fromager, 57, 60 Funtuma: africana, 245, 259; elasuca, 120 Gambeya spp, 127; perpulchnun, 120, 127 Garcima, 111, 126, 188 Gastonia, 212 Gedu nohor, 57, 60, 186 Geopanax, 212 Gilbertiodendron spp, 134; dewevret, 111, 126, 273; preussu, 215 Gillettodendron, 251 Gmelina, 177, 180, 233; arborea, 186 Gola, 57, 60 Gossweilerodendron spp, 251; balsamiferum, 60, 65, 231, 273 Gniffonia simplicifolia, 188 Guarea spp, 57, 60, 126, 231; cedrata, 60, 119, 135; thompsonn, 60 Guibourtia: ammoldiana, 273; coleosperma, 252; demeuset, 111, 126 Gum copal, 188 Hagemia spp, 20, 22, 23, 104, 145, 148; abyssinica, 103, 273 Heistenia parvifolia, 119, 163 Heritiera: densiflora, 60; littoralis, 31; unhs, 57, 60, 64, 135, 184, 186, 193, 215, 244, 246 Hildegardia barten, 185 Hinella zanguebarica, 257 Holarrhena floribunda, 245 Holoptelea spp, 98; grandis, 120, 147, 231 Hymenostegia: afzelii, 184; baker, 111; gracilipes, 189 Hypericum, 104, 145; lanceolatum, 111 Idigbo, 60 Tlex spp, 20, 23, 252; mitis, 258 Tlomba, 57, 60, 163, 170 Imperata cylindrica, 179 Troko, 56, 57, 60, 98, 120, 127, 135, 176, 203 Irvingiaceae, 126, 134 Irvingia: gabonensis, 65; grandifolia, 111 Isoberlinia; dalzielli, 193; doka, 193 Julbernardia spp, 251; globiflora, 257, 273 Kaku, 184 Kalungi, 60 Kambala, 60 Khaya spp, 56, 82, 134, 145, 147, 198, 203, 215; anthotheca, 60, 126, 186, 251; comorensis, 207; grandifoliola, 60, 98, 120, 185, 196; tvorensis, 36, 60, 120, 135, White rhinoceros, 266 White-throated guenon, 28, 40, 100, 235 White-throated mountain babbler, 28 White-toothed shrew, 30 White-winged apalis, 256 Wolterstorffina, 28 Yellow-backed duiker, 172 Yellow-footed honeyguide, 248 Yellow-throated olive greenbull, 184, 186, 231; nyasica, 254, 259; senegalensis, 60, 176, 196, 201, 203 Kickxia dibolophylla, 147 Kigelia africana, 257, 258 Kiggelana africana, 255 Klainedoxa gabonensis, 34, 134, 231, 244 Kosipo, 57, 60, 120 Kyenkyen, 196 Kyerere, 186 Lagunculana racemosa, 31, 176, 185, 196, 201, 232, 273 Landolphia heudelotit, 66 Lannea welwitschit, 111, 251 Lauraceae, 222 Leguminosae, 126, 231 Leptaspis cochleata, 120 Leptonychia, 28 Lettowianthus, 30 Lianas, 27, 176, 201, 208 Librevillea, 251 Limba, 57, 60, 120, 126, 135, 170, 273 Limbali, 170, 273 Livistona carinensts, 149 Lobelia, 104 Lodoicea spp, 212; maldiica, 211 Longhi, 127 Lophira: alata, 57, 60, 111, 119, 184, 193, 215, 231, 244; lanceolata, 273 Lovoa: swynnertont, 259; tnchiliordes, 119, 120, 126, 184, 231 Lummizera racemosa, 31 Macaranga spp, 111; capensis, 20, 23; kilimandschanca, 103 Maesa spp, 145; lanceolata, 257 Maesopis eminii, 103, 147 Mahogany, 56, 57, 134, 136, 176, 212 Makoré, 56, 57, 60, 135, 136 Malvaceae, 134 Manilkara spp, 126; discolor, 257; mabokeensis, 119; obovata, 188 Mansonia altissima, 60, 120, 134, 186, 231 Marantaceae, 126 Maranthes goetzeniana, 259 Margantana discoidea, 254 Marquesta macroura, 252 M’banegue, 170 Medusagyne oppositifolia, 212 Medusandra nchardsiana, 111 Meliaceae, 60, 120, 136, 215, 231 Messassa, 257 Milicia spp, 145, 147; excelsa, 56, 60, 65, 98, 120, 127, 134, 135, 186, 198, 201, 203, 231, 233, 254, 257 Millettia: laurenta, 126, 129; stuhlmannit, 257; thonningii, 185 Mimosaceae, 134 Monusops: heckelti, 246; maxima, 208; petiolans, 208 Muragyna: ciliata, 60; ledermannn, 231; stipulosa, 245 Mhkilua, 30 Moabi, 65, 127 Momordica angustifolia, 188 Monimia rotundifolia, 208 Monodora mynstica, 119 Monopetalanthus, 169 Moraceae, 134, 231 Morus spp, 251; mesozygia, 176, 257 Mufimbi, 272 Mukulungu, 120 Musanga cecropwides, 64 Mutényé, 273 Mynanthus arboreus, 245 Mynica arborea, 111 Napoleonaea vogelit, 245 Nauclea:didernchit, 56, 60, 126, 127, 135, 231; pobeguimi, 231 Neoboutoma spp, 104; macrocalyx, 103 Nephrosperma, 212 Nesogordonia: kabingensis, 120; papavenfera, 65, 134, 231 27, 198, 248 Zanzibar bushbaby, 256 Zanzibar red colobus, 40 Zebra duiker, 137, 137, 141, 217, 248 Zenkerella insignis, 29, 113, 116 Zosterops: ficedulinus, 242; mauroniensis, 208; modestus, 212 Newtonia: buchanann, 103, 254, 257, 259; ellior, 245 Niangon, 57, 60, 135, 136, 184, 215 Niove, 126 Nuxia spp, 208; congesta, 111; pseudodentata, 207 Nypa fruticans, 232 Obeche, 56, 57, 60, 112, 170 Ochnaceae, 222 Ocotea spp, 103, 144, 145, 152, 273; comorensis, 207; usambarensts, 255 Odouma, 60 Odum, 186, 188 Oil palm, 85, 113, 140, 176, 177, 179, 180, 183, 197, 201, 244 Okoume, 56, 57, 60, 63, 126, 136, 163, 169, 170, 174 Olacaceae, 169 Oldfieldia africana, 244, 246 Olea spp, 145, 148, 152, 207, 252; europaea capensis, 20, 258; hochstetter, 111 Okinia usambarensis, 255 Olyra lanifolia, 120 Onyina, 188 Opepe, 56, 60 Ophrypetalum, 30 Oprono, 186 Oreobambos buchwaldii, 259 Oroko, 60 Oubanguia alata, 111 Ouratea: dusenit, 111; nutans, 241 Oxystigma spp, 251; mannii, 2315 oxyphyllum, 60, 126 Oxytenanthera abyssinica, 177, 193 Ozigo, 57, 60, 170 Ozouga, 170 Pachystela brevipes, 257 Palissandre, 224 Panda oleosa, 34 Panga-panga, 257 Panicum maximum, 179 Paraberlinia bifoliolata, 169 Parasol tree, 64 Parinan excelsa, 103, 134, 176, 196, 201, 215, 244, 254, 255, 273 Parkia: bicolor, 134, 188, 193, 244; biglobosa, 176, 193, 196, 273; filicoudea, 120 Paspalum vaginatum, 232 Paundiantha insularis, 240 Pavetta: monticola, 163, 240; wmtalensis, 258 Peddiea africana, 258 Pennisetum purpureum, 179 Pentaclethra spp, 251; eerveldeana, 126; macrophylla, 119, 126, 163 Pencopsis elata, 60, 65, 119, 186 Petersianthus macrocarpus, 119, 126, 163 Phikppia manni, 111 Phoenicophonium, 212 Phoenix reclinata, 111, 126 Piliosigma bilboa, 176 Pineapple family Bromeliaceae, 27 Pinus spp, 128, 186, 255, 257; patula, 144 Piper guineense, 119 Piptademastrum africanum, 63, 119, 126, 134, 163, 184, 193, 231, 244, 246, 251 Pitcairnia feliciana, 27 Pittosporum, 252 Plantago, 24 Platypterocarpus tanganyikensis, 30 Podocarpus spp, 18, 23, 103, 111, 145, 148, 152, 222, 252, 273; lanfolitus, 111, 257;, 2585; mannu, 240; milannianus, 255 Polyalthia verdcourti, 157 Polyscias fulva, 103 Poplar, 155 Populus iheifolia, 155 Prosopis africana, 203 Protarum, 212 Prunus spp, 145, 273; afncana, 66, 104, 111, 145, 207, 258 Psammetes, 28 Psathura, 208 Pseudonesohedyors bremekampu, 30 Psychotna: guerkeana, 240; nubicola, 240 Preleopsts myrnfolia, 251, 257 Prendium comp., 24 Prerocarpus spp, 251; angolensis, 257; ennaceus, 193; globuliflora, 257; santalinoides, 245; soyauxtt, 126 Prerocelastrus echinatus, 259 Pterygota spp, 231; macrocarpa, 120, 134, 186 Pycnanthus angolensis, 60, 103, 119, 126, 163, 231, 244, 245 Pygeum afncanum, 255 Pyrethrum, 105 Rapanea melanophloeos, 111, 255, 258, 259 Raphia spp, 126, 176, 193, 201, 215, 244, 245, 252; hooken, 231, 252; monbuttonum, 111; palma-pinus, 252; sudamica, 181 Rauvolfia vomitona, 66 Red mangrove, 176 Redwoods, 134 GENERAL INDEX AETFAT; Vegetation Map Committee, 53. 54 AIDS, 53, 54 Abuko Nature Reserve, 181 Afroalpine vegetation, 9, 11(T) Agniculture, 49-55; history, 17; shifting, 49, 51 Ahakagyezi Swamp, 19(F), 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 Aka, 43, 46 Akonolingga Forest Reserve, 67 Albertine Rift Highlands, 28, 29, 30 Algiers Convention on Nature Conservation, 1968, 84 Amélioration des Peuplements Naturels (APN), 63 Angola, 26, 28; agriculture, 49; biodiversity, 252-253; conservation areas and initiatives, 253; escarpment forests, 29; forest resources and management, 252; forests, 251-252; geographic boundanes of forests, 15; statistics, 251; vegetation zones, 252(F) Anjouan, 207(F) Annual deforestation rates, 9 Anthropic landscapes, 11(T) Aquatic vegetation, 11(T) Asia, 26; rain forests, 9 Assin-Attandanso Forest Reserve, 75 Asua, 43 Atlantic Ocean, 29; changes before, 40,000 BP, 17 Avifaunal divisions, 23(F) Bamanda River, 27 Bamboo, 9, 11(T) Bantu speaking group, 43, 44, 46 Baoule-V, 27, 28 Belgian Congo see Zaire Benin, 26, 56; biodiversity, 100; conservation areas, 100-101; deforestation, 100; forest extent, 98(1); forest resources and management, 98, 100; forests, 98; generally, 97; inivatives for conservation, 101; mangroves, 98; map, 99(M), 101; statistics, 97 Bioko, 28, 29, 38, 40 Biological diversity; Angola, 252- 253; Benin, 100; Burundi, 107; Cameroon, 113, 116; Central African rain forests, 28; Central African Republic, 121-122; Comoros, 208; Congo, 128-129; Cote d'Ivoire, 137; Djiboun, 149; East African upland forests, 30-31; East Coast lowland forests, 30; Equatonal Guinea, 165; Ethiopia, 149; Gabon, 172-173; Gambia, 179; generally, 26; Ghana, 189; Guinea, 198; Guinea- Bissau, 203-204; Highland Congolean forests, 28-29; Kenya, 153, 155; Liberia, 217; lowland Congolean forests, 29-30; madagascar, 31, 224-225; malawi, 256; Mascarenes, 209-210; Mozambique, 257-258; Riupidantha chorantha, 31 Rhizophora spp, 31, 128, 134, 145, 176, 185, 223, 246; harnsonn, 31, 112, 176, 196, 201, 232, 245, 252; mangle, 31, 176, 196, 201, 232, 245; mucronata, 31, 207, 257; racemosa, 31, 112, 126, 169, 176, 185, 196, 201, 232, 245, 252; 273 Rhus taratana, 222 Ricinodendron heudelot, 119, 120 Rinorea: chevalier, 240; msulans, 241 Roschena, 212 Rubiaceae, 157, 222 Rubus pinnatus, 163 Rumex, 24 Sacoglottis gobonensts, 111, 169, 215 Safukala, 273 Samtpaulia spp., 30; rupicola, 152; rewensis, 153 Samba, 112, 135, 136 Sapele, 56, 57, 60, 112, 120, 126, 127, 186, 188 Sapindaceae, 222 Nigeria, 235-236; Rwanda, 107; Sao Tomé and Principe, 242-243; Senegal, 179; Seychelles, 212; Sierra Leone, 248; Somalia, 149; Sudan, 147; Tanzania, 156, 157; Togo, 100; Uganda, 265-266; West Afmcan rain forests, 26- 28; Zaire, 277, 279; Zimbabwe, 260 Boabeng-Fiema monkey sanctuary, 185 Bobin Forest Reserve, 63 Boma, 56 Bongaarts, J., 54 Boserup, E., 54 Bosumwwi, Lake, 23 Botswana; agriculture, 49 Brenan, J.P.M., 29, 30 Burundi, 28, 29; agnculture, 51; biodiversity, 107; conservation areas, 107, 108; deforestation, 104, 107; forest resources and management, 104; forests, 103; generally, 102; iniuatuves for conservaton, 108; map, 106(M), 109; protected areas, 40(T); pygmies, 43; staustics, 102 Bwindi, 20 CAMPFIRE, 78 CILSS, 88 CITES, 39 CNPPA, 70, 72 CTFT, 57, 62, 64 Cameroon , 21, 22, 29, 35, 37, 39; biodiversity, 113, 116; conservation areas, 116-117; deforestation, 113; endemic birds, 116(F); forest management, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67; forest resources and management, 112-113; forests, 111; generally, 110-111; ICBP conservation projects, 116; inivatives for conservation, 117; mangroves, 112; map, 114-115(M), 118; protected areas, 40(T); pygmies, 43; staustcs, 110; umber trade, 57, 58, 59, 60(F) Cameroon , Mt, 28 Cameroon Highlands, 28-29 Cape floristic region, 26 Carcasson, R.H., 28 Canbbean, 56 Central Afnca; agriculture, 51; annual deforestation, 9; biological diversity, 28; elephants, 34(T), 35, 36(1); fernlity, 47; forest management, 62; forest people, 43, 44; forest refugia, 22(F); poaching, 33; rain forests, 12(F); umber trade, 56, 58, 59; tounsm, 47 Central African Republic; biodiversity, 121-122; conservation areas, 122; deforestation, 121; forest management, 65; forest resources and management, 120-121; forests, 119-120; generally, 119; initiatives for conservation, 122-123; map, 122(M), 123(M), 1245 Sapium ellipncum, 231 Sarcolaenaceae, 222 Schefflera spp, 148, 163; abyssinica, 111; mannn, 163; umbellifera, 258 Schrebera arborea, 176 Scyphocephalium ochocoa, 169 Senecio, 104 Sideroxylon inerme, 257 Silk-cotton-tree, 60 Sipo, 60, 120, 126, 127, 135, 136 Sonneratia spp, 223; alba, 31, 207, 257 Sonndeta grandifolia, 240 Sorro, 170 Soyauxia talbom, 111 Spathodea campanulata, 251 Stadmanmia sideroxylon, 208 Staudtia gabonensis, 126 Sterculia spp, 231; rhinopetala, 134; subviolacea, 111, 126; tragacantha, 176 Sterculiaceae, 28, 126, 134, 231 Stoebe, 20, 21 Streptogyna cninita, 120 Strombosia spp, 163; schefflen, protected areas, 40(T); pygmies, 43; staustcs, 119 Chaillu, 67 Charcoal, 16(T); Tanzania, 16(T), 17 Charles II, 56 China; woodland burning, 17 Classification of forests, 9-15 Climate; changes before, 40,000 BP, 17-19; changes dunng past, 40,000 years, 19-24; fluctations, 17; global, 34 Closed canopy forests, 9, 86(T) Commercial hunung and employment, 44-45 Communal Area Management Plan for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), 78 Comoros, 15, 31; biodiversity, 208; conservaton areas and initiatives, 208; deforestation, 208; forest resources and management, 207-208; forests, 206-207; generally, 206; stanstics, 206 Congo , 35; biodiversity, 128- 129; conservation areas, 129; deforestation, 128; forest management, 64, 65, 66, 67; forest resources and management, 126-128; forests, 126; generally, 125; initiatives for conservation, 129; mangroves, 126; map, 130-131(M), 132; protected areas, 40(T); pygmies, 43; regions, 126(F); statistics, 125; umber trade, 57, 58, 59 Congo Basin, 39 Congolean forests; highland, 28- 29; lowland, 29-30 Conservation; Angola, 253; Benin, 100-101; biodiversity and, 31; Burundi, 107, 108; Cameroon, 116-117; Central Afncan Republic, 122; Comoros, 208; Congo, 129; Cote d'Ivoire, 137, 140; Djiboun, 149, 151(T); elephants, 36; Equatonal Guinea, 165-166; Ethiopia, 148(T); forest harvesting, 64- 65; Gabon, 173-174; Gambia, 179-180; Ghana, 189-190; Guinea, 198; Guinea-Bissau, 204; Kenya, 155; large mammals, 33-42; Libena, 219; Madagascar, 225; Malawi, 255(T), 256; Mascarenes, 210; Mauntus, 210; Mozambique, 258; Nigena, 236-237; Reunion, 211(1); Rwanda, 107-108; Sado Tome and Pnncipe, 243; Senegal, 180-181; Seychelles, 212; Sierra Leone, 248(T), 249; Somalia, 149, 151(T); Sudan, 147; Tanzania, 156(T), 157, 159; Togo, 100- 101; Uganda, 266, 268; Zaire, 279-280; Zimbabwe, 260-261; See also Ininatives for conservation Conventions; protected areas, relating to, 72(T), 73(T) Core areas, 22(F) 103, 254 Strophanthus, 66 Strychnos mitis, 259 Swamp palm, 179 Swartzia fistuloides, 111 Swietenia, 36, 134 Symphoma spp, 103, 222; globulifera, 103, 126, 231 Syzygium spp, 145; guineense, 103, 259; masukuense, 258; staudm, 111, 231 Tabernaemontana spp, 208; stapfiana, 103, 257; stenosiphon, 240; ventricosa, 231 Takamaka comorensis, 207 Talbonella genti, 185, 189 Tali, 163 Tamannd, 209 Tambounssa, 208, 222 Tanacetum cinerarufolium, 105 Taxa, 26, 111 Tchitola, 57, 60 Teak, 100, 136, 177, 186 Teclea spp, 1453 grandifolia, 120 Tectona grandis, 100, 136, 186 Terminalia spp, 134, 163; Cote d'Ivoire, 27, 34, 39; biodiversity, 137; conservation areas, 137, 140; deforestation, 136-137; forest management, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67; forest resources and management, 134-136; forests, 134; generally, 133; industnal plantatons by SODEFOR, 136(T); initiatives for conservation, 137, 140; land tenure systems, 52; mangroves, 134; map, 138-139(M), 142; protected areas, 40(T); relict blocks of forest, 9; statistics, 133; umber trade, 56, 57, 58 Critical forest sites, 90(F), 91- 92(T) Croll-Milankovitch vanatons, 17 Cross River , 28, 38, 39 Cross River National Park Project, 237 Cuvette Centrale, 13, 28, 29, 30 DNA analysis, 17 Dahomey Gap, 26, 27, 28 Data; availability of, 16 Deforestation; Benin, 100; Burundi, 104, 107; Cameroon, 113; Central African Republic, 121; Comoros, 208; Congo, 128; Cote d'Ivoire, 136-137; Equatonal Guinea, 165; Ethiopia, 148(T); Gabon, 170, 172; Gambia, 179; Ghana, 188-189; Guinea, 197-198; Guinea-Bissau, 203; Libena, 217; Madagascar, 223-224; Malawi, 255-256; Mascarenes, 209; Nigeria, 235; Rwanda, 104, 107; Sao Tomé and Pnncipe, 241; Senegal, 179; Seychelles, 212; Sierra Leone, 248; Togo, 100; Uganda, 265; Zaire, 277 Desert, 11(T) Development and environment, 82-84 Distnbuton of elephants, 34-35 Djiboun, 149; biodiversity, 149; conservation areas, 149, 151(T); protected areas, 146(T); statistics, 143 Domesuc processing of wood, 59 Dry evergreen forests, 11 Dwarf crocodile project, 181 Dzanga-Sangha Region, 124 East Afnca, 21, 31, 36; agniculture, 49; coastal rain forests, 30-31; forest clearance dating back to, 2000 BP, 17; forest resources and management, 144-145; forests, 143-144; generally, 143; lowland forests, 30; macrofossil evidence, 18; moist forest types, 144(T); pollen evidence, 18; protected areas, 146(T); statistics, 143; upland forests, 30-31 East Usambara Mountains; soil survey, 17 Eastern Arc Mountains, 19 Economics; forest policies and, 58-59 rvorensis, 60, 63, 135, 186, 196, 244, 246; sambestaca, 254; superba, 57, 60, 64, 120, 126, 135, 196, 244, 273, 277 Tetraberlima spp, 251; polyphylla, 169; rubmaniana, 57, 60, 215, 220 Tetrataxis salicifolia, 209 Thaumatococcus damiellit, 188 Tiama, 57, 60, 120, 127, 135 Tieghemella spp, 56; africana, 60; heckelut, 34, 60, 135, 186 Tigerwood, 60 Tiliaceae, 222 Timber species, 60, 120 Tina tsoneura, 222 Tola, 273 Trecula africana, 244 Tnichechus senegalensis, 273 Tnchilia: grandiflora, 240; heudelom, 119, 126 Tnplochiton spp, 196; scleroxylon, 56, 60, 63, 64, 98, 111, 120, 126, 134, 135, 184, 186, 188, 196, 231, 233 Turvaea ghanensis, 189 Uapaca: bojen, 225; guineensis, Edward, Lake, 29 Efe, 43, 46 Elephants; conservation, 36; density, 34(F); distribution of, 34-35; forest ecosystem, role in, 33-34; fragmentation, 35(F); generally, 33; ivory poaching, 34, 35; management, 36; numbers of, 34-35; pnonty populations, 36(T); threats to, 35 Elgon, Mt, 21 Emin Pasha Relief Expedition, 46 Employment, 44-45 Endangered subspecies, 39(T) Environment, 49-55, 82-84 Environmental Acton Plans (EAPs), 88, 89(T) Equatorial Guinea, 35; biodiversity, 165; conservation areas, 165-166; deforestation, 165; forest resources and management, 163-164; forests, 163; generally, 161, 163; initiatives for conservation, 166; mangroves, 163; map, 162(M), 167; protected areas, 40(T); pygmies, 43; statsucs, 161; See also Guinea Ethiopia, 23, 148; agriculture, 51; biodiversity, 149; conservation areas, 148(T); deforestation, 148(T); fossil wood, 18; geographic boundanes of forests, 15; map, 150(M), 160; pollen types, 18; protected areas, 146(T); statistics, 143 Europe, 21, 34; forest depletion, influence on, 81-82 European Community, 59 Exports of wood, 60(F) Fernando Poo, 28 Fertility, 47 Fire damage, 188 Food and Agnculture Organisation, 85; annual deforestation rates, 9; country studies, 15; umber Committee, 57 Food consumpton, 50-51(T) Forest cover, 15 Forest management, 62-68 Forest people, 43-48 Forest products; definition, 16(T); Forest Products Fee (FPF), 59 Forest refugia, 22(F) Forét des Abeilles, 40 France, 57 French Technical Centre for Tropical Forestry (CTFT), 57, 62, 64 French West Africa, 56 Fuelwood, 16(T), 52, 55, 188 Gabon, 21, 22, 29, 35; biodiversity, 172-173; conservation areas, 173-174; deforestation, 170, 172; distribution of okoume, 169(F); floristic regions, 170(F); forest management, 62, 63, 65, 67; forest resources and management, INDEX 119, 244, 246, 259; heudeloni, 126, 245; somon, 193 Ulmaceae, 126, 134, 231 Umbila, 257 Unle, 56, 57, 60, 184 Vatena sechellarwn, 211 Vernoma, 24, 222 Verschaffelna, 212 Violaceae, 222 Vitex, 98 Walnut, 184 Wawa, 184 Wemmannia, 207, 222 Wenge, 129 West African mahogany, 56, 98 West Indian mahogany, 56 White mahogany, 186 White mangrove, 176 Widdringtomia cupressoides, 257, 258, 259 Xylocarpus: granatum, 31, 257; moluccensis, 31 Xylopia: aethwpica, 259; africana, 111; staudmi, 111 Zanha golungensts, 251 Zanthoxylum thomense, 240 Zingiberaceae, 113, 126 169-170; forests, 169; generally, 168; initiatives for conservation, 173-174; mangroves, 169; map, 171(M), 174; protected areas, 40(T); pygmies, 43; statistics, 168; umber trade, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60(F), 61 Gambia; biodiversity, 179; conservation areas, 179-180; deforestation, 179; forest resources and management, 177; forests, 176; generally, 175-176; iniuatives for conservation, 182; mangroves, 176; map, 178(M), 182; statistics, 175; umber trade, 56 Geographic Information System (GIS), 85; maps, 16 Ghana, 22, 23, 27, 39; agnulture, 51; biodiversity, 189; Boabeng-Fiema monkey sanctuary, 185; conservation areas, 189-190; deforestation, 188-189; distribution of forest types, 184(F); dry forest, 11; fire damage, 188; forest management, 62, 63, 64, 67; forest resources and management, 185-186; forests, 184-185; fuelwood demand, 188-189; generally, 183-184; initiatives for conservation, 190-191; mangroves, 185; map, 187(M), 192; minor forest products, 188; oil palm pollen in sediments, 17; over- logging, 188; protected areas, 40(T), 75; shifang culuvaton, 188; staustics, 183; temperature depression, 20; umber trade, 56, 57, 58-59, 61; vegetation zones, 13 Global Environment Facility (GEF), 88 Gola , 9 Gola Rain Forest Conservation Programme, 249 Grande Comore, 207(F) Grassland, 11(T) Great Rift Valley, 37 Guenons; history, 17 Guinea, 27; biodiversity, 198; conservation areas, 198; deforestation, 197-198; forest resources and management, 196-197; forests, 193, 196; generally, 193; initianves for conservation, 199; mangroves, 196; map, 194- 195(M), 199; statistics, 193; See also Equatonal Guinea Guinea-Bissau; biodiversity, 203- 204; conservation areas, 204; deforestation, 203; forest resources and management, 203; forests, 200-201; generally, 200; iniuatives for conservation, 204; mangroves, 201, 203; map, 202(M), 205; statistics, 200 Guineo-Congolean region, 18, 19, 26 Gulf of St Lawrence, 23 HIV, 54 287 INDEX Halophytic vegetation, 11(T) Harmattian winds, 62 Haut Katanga, 30 Herbaceous fresh-water swamp, ich History; forest management, 62; forests and climate, 17-24; protected areas, 70, 71 Human occupation; former, signs of, 17 Hunung, 44-45, 64, 76 ICBP conservation project, 116 IGADD, 88 IIED, 58 IUCN, 67; Commission on Nawonal Parks and Protected Areas, 70, 72; General Assembly, 84; Pnmate Specialist Group Action Plan, 37-41; Red Data Book, 37, 38, 39; Review of Protected Areas System in Afrotropical Realm, 40 Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project, 266 Improvement of stand dynamics, 63 Indian Ocean, 31; changes before, 40,000 BP, 17; geographic boundaries of forests, 15; islands, 206-213; See also Comoros; Mascarenes; Seychelles Industnal roundwood, 16(T), 59(F) Industnalisation Incentive Fee (IIF), 59 Initiatives for conservation; Angola, 253; Benin, 101; Burundi, 108; Cameroon, 117; Central Afncan Republic, 122-123; Comoros, 208; Congo, 129; Cote d'Ivoire, 137, 140; Equatonal Guinea, 166; Gabon, 173- 174; Gambia, 182; Ghana, 190-191; Guinea, 199; Guinea-Bissau, 204; Libena, 219; Madagascar, 228; Malawi, 256; Mozambique, 258; Nigena, 237-238; Rwanda, 108; Sao Tome and Pnncipe, 243; Senegal, 182; Seychelles, 212; Sierra Leone, 249-250; Togo, 101; Uganda, 268-269; Zaire, 282 Institut Zairois pour la Conservation de la Nature (IZCN), 46 Inter-Governmental Authonty on Drought and Development in Eastem Afnca, 88 Inter-Governmental Committee for Drought Relief in Sahel, 88 Intemational Biosphere Reserves Convenuon, 71, 72(T), 73(1) Intemational Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO), 63, 67 Isoenzyme analysis, 17 Itombwe, 280 Itun Forest, 40, 46, 281 Ivory Coast see Cote d'Ivoire Ivory poaching, 34, 35 Jebel Hantara, 9 Jonsson, T., 67 Jozani Forest, 40 Kakum Forest Reserve, 75 Kaya forests, 152 Keay, R.W J.; vegetation map of Afnca, 9 Kenya, 19, 26, 30, 31, 152, 153; agniculture, 49, 51; biodiversity, 153, 155; conservation areas, 155; fossil wood, 18; kaya forests, 152; land tenure systems, 52; map, 154(M), 160; population, 49; protected areas, 40(T), 146(T); rare trees, 153(T); statistics, 143 Kenya, Mt, 22, 23 Kigezy, 21, 22 Kinshasa, 56 Kivu , Lake, 23, 29 Kivu Plateau, 49 Kivu Region, 46, 64 Korup National Park, 66, 76, 88, 118 Kulal, Mt, 31 Kupe, Mt, 28 Land tenure systems, 51-52 Large mammals, 33-42 Latin Amenica, 26, 65; rain forests, 9 Lesotho; agriculture, 49 288 Libena, 27; agnculture, 49: biodiversity, 217; conservanon areas, 219; deforestation, 217; forest extent, 215(T); forest management, 62, 63, 65, 215-217; forests, 215; generally, 214-215; ininatives for conservation, 219; mangroves, 215; map, 218(M), 220; protected areas, 40(T); relict blocks of forest, 9; statistics, 214; timber trade, 57, 59; vegetation, 215(T) Lindgren, P., 67 Logging, 58(T), 64-65, 67; Ghana, 188 Lopé Reserve, 40, 67 Low stature forests; classificanon of, 13 Macrofossil evidence, 18, 21(F) Madagascar, 36; biodiversity, 224-225; biological diversity, 31; conservation areas, 225; deforestation, 223-224; distnbuuon of rain forest, 223(F); dry deciduous forest, 13; forest resources and management, 223; forests, 222; generally, 221; geographic boundanes of forests, 15; initiatives for conservation, 228; mangroves, 31, 222-223; map, 226-227(M), 229; statistics, 221; vegetation types, 10(F), 222(F) Makokou Reserve, 84 Malawi, 31; biodiversity, 256; conservation areas and ininanves, 255(T), 256; deforestation, 255-256; forest resources and management, 255; forests, 254-255; stausuics, 251 Malaysia, 56, 64 Mali; dry forest, 11 Mammals, 33-42 Management; elephants, 36; forest, 62-68; See also Natural resource management Mangroves, 9, 11(T); Benin, 98; Cameroon, 112; Congo, 126; Cote d'Ivoire, 134; Equatonal Guinea, 163; Gabon, 169; Gambia, 176; Ghana, 185; Guinea, 196; Guinea-Bissau, 201, 203; Libena, 215; Madagascar, 222-223; Nigena, 231-232; Senegal, 176-177; Sierra Leone, 245; Togo, 98; Zaire, 273 Maps; Benin, 99(M), 101; Burundi, 106(M), 109; Cameroon, 114-115(M), 118; Central African Republic, 122(M), 123(M), 124; Congo, 130-131(M), 132; Cote d'Ivoire, 138- 139(M), 142; Equatonal Guinea, 162(M), 167; Ethiopia, 150(T), 160; Gabon, 171(M), 174; Gambia, 178(M), 182; Geographic Information System technology, 16; Ghana, 187(M), 192; Guinea, 194-195(M), 199; Guinea-Bissau, 202(M), 205; Kenya, 154(M), 160; Libena, 218(M), 220; Madagascar, 226-227(M), 229; Nigena, 234(M), 239; Rwanda, 106(M), 109; scale, 16; Senegal, 178(M), 182; Sierra Leone, 247(M), 250; ‘Tanzania, 158(M), 160; Togo, 99(M), 101; Uganda, 267(M), 269; Zaire, 270- 271(M), 274-275(M), 278(M), 282 Mascarenes; biodiversity, 209- 210; conservation areas and initiatives, 210-211; deforestation, 209; forest resources and management, 209; forests, 208-209; generally, 208; statistics, 206 Masoala Peninsular, 228 Matadi, 56 Maunus; conservation areas, 210(T); geographic boundanes of forests, 15; protected areas, 210(F); See also Mascarenes Mayombe region, 66 Mbut, 43, 46 Meliaceae plantations, 63 Miller Bros, 56 Minerals; analysis, 17 Miocene; drying trend, 18; macrofossil assemblage, 18 Miombo woodland, 11 Mobuty, President, 84 Moheli, 207(F) Mountain Gonlla Project, 41, 105 Mozambique, 19; agnculture, 49; biodiversity, 257-258; conservation areas and initiatives, 258; forest resources and management, 257; forests, 257; geographic boundanes of forests, 15; protected areas, 258(F); statistics, 251 Muchoya Swamp, !9(F), 20, 21, Mulanje, Mt, 31 National Conservation Strategies (NGS), 88, 89(T) Natural resource management, 55, 63; Angola, 252; Benin, 98, 100; Burundi, 104; Cameroon, 112-113; Central African Republic, 120-121; Congo, 126-128; Cote d'Ivoire, 134-136; Eastem Africa, 144-145; Equatonal Guinea, 163-164; Gabon, 169-170; Gambia, 177; Ghana, 185-186; Guinea, 196-197; Guinea-Bissau, 203; Libena, 215-217; Madagascar, 223; Malawi, 255; Mascarenes, 209; Mozambique, 257; Nigena, 232-233, 235; Rwanda, 104; Sao Tomé and Pnncipe, 241; Senegal, 177; Seychelles, 21 1- 212; Sierra Leone, 245-246; Togo, 98, 100; Uganda, 263- 265; Zaire, 273, 276-277; Zimbabwe, 259 Niger , River, 21, 39 Niger Delta, 231(F) Nigena, 28, 38, 39, 41; agniculture, 51; biodiversity, 235-236; conservation areas, 236-237; deforestation, 235; forest management, 62, 63, 232-233, 235; forests, 231; generally, 230-231; iniuatives for conservation, 237-238; mammals, 235(T); mangroves, 231-232; map, 234(M), 239; oil palm pollen in sediments, 17; population, 49; protected areas, 40(T); stausucs, 230; umber trade, 56 Nimba, Mt, 27 Non-governmental organisations, 53, 54 North Amenca, 21, 34; ice retreat, 23 Nyerere, President, 84 Nyungwe Forest, 38, 77 Okapi Project, 46 Okapi Research Station, 46 Okomu, 40 Organisms; rapid evoluuon of, 17 PSG Acton Plan, 37-41 Pastoralism, 49, 51 People’s Republic of Congo see Congo Peters, C.M., 68 Phytochona, 27(F) Plantations, 63 Pleistocene forest refugia, 26, 27 Poaching; control, 36; ivory, 34, 35 Polhill, R.M., 30 Pollen; Ahakagyezi Swamp, 19(F); changes before, 40,000 BP, 17; East Afmica, 18; Muchoya Swamp, 19(F) Population , 49-55; growth, 9 52, 53, 83(F) Population Reference Bureau; country studies, 15 Primates, 36-41; endangered subspecies, 39(T); regional communites, 39(F); threats to species survival, 37-39; vulnerability factors, 38(T) Principe see Sao Tomé and Principe Processed wood, 16(T) Profits from log harvesting, 58(T) Protected areas, 40-41, 69-80; categones, 70(T); concept, 69, 70; conventons, 72(T), 73(T); coverage, 71, 72, 74(T); cntena for extending network, 73; direct benefits, 69(T); exisung, 40(T); function, 69, 70; future for, 88, 90; history, 70, 71; indirect benefits, 70(T); management objectives, 70(T); Mauntus, 210(F); planned, 40(T); reconciling development and conservation, 75, 78; Reunion, 211(F); total areas protected, 71(F); Zimbabwe, 260(F) Protection of forests, 47 Pygmies, 43-44 Quatemary Penod; andity, effects of, 17, 26; fossil record, 18; macrofossil evidence, 18, 21(F) Queen Elizabeth Nauonal Park, 84 Rain forests; Central Afmca, 12(F); extent of, 9; Madagascar, 223(F); West Africa, 12(F); Zaire, 9 13; Zimbabwe, 259(F) Rainfall; changes before, 40,000 BP, 17 Ramsar Convention, 71, 72(T), 73(T) Red Data Book, 37, 38, 39 Regional African Convention, 71, 72(1), 73(1) Regional communites of pmmates, 39(F) Repetto, R., 58 Réunion; conservation areas, 211(1); geographic boundanes of forests, 15; protected areas, 211(F); statistics, 206; vegetation map, 209(F); See also Mascarenes Ripanan forests, 13 Riverine forests, 13 Royal Afncan Company, 56 Rukiga Highlands, Kigezi, 19, 20 Rusinga Island, Lake Victona; miocene macrofossil assemblage, 18 Rwanda, 21, 28, 29, 38; agnculture, 49, 51; biodiversity, 107; conservation areas, 107-108; deforestation, 104, 107; forest resource and management, 104; forests, 103-104; generally, 103; iniuatives for conservation, 108; map, 106(M), 109; population, 49; protected areas, 40(T); pygmies, 43; staustics, 102; tourism, 47, 77 Rwenzon, 21, 22, 23, 27 SADCC, 88 SSC; primate Specialist Group Action Plan, 37-41 Sahara, 23 Sahel, 49, 62 Sao Tomé and Pnncipe; biodiversity, 242-243; conservanon areas, 243; deforestation, 241; forest resources and management, 241; forests, 240-241; generally, 240; iniuatives for conservation, 243; statistics, 240 Sapo National Park, 9, 75, 220 Sassandra River, 27 Satellite images, 9 Sawnwood imports, 57(T) Schimper, A.F.W.; forest classification, 11 Scrubland, 9, 11(T) Sediments; oil palm pollen in, 17 Senegal, 22, 23, 26; biodiversity, 179; closed canopy forests, 9; conservation areas, 180-181; deforestation, 179; forest resources and management, 177; forests, 176; generally, 175-176; geographic boundanes of forests, 15; initiatives for conservation, 182; mangroves, 176-177; map, 178(F), 182; statistics, 175 Senegal, River, 21 Serengeti National Park, 84 Seychelles; biodiversity, 212; conservation areas and initiatives, 212; deforestation, 212; forest resources and management, 211-212; forests, 211; generally, 211; geographic boundanes of forests, 15; statistics, 206 Shifting cultivation, 188 Shimba Hills, 30 Shrubland, 9, 11(T) Sierra Leone; biodiversity, 248; conservation areas, 248(T), 249; deforestation, 248; forest resources and management, 245-246; forests, 244-245; generally, 244; iniuatives for conservation, 249-250; mangroves, 245; map, 247(M), 250; protected areas, 40(T); relict blocks of forest, 9; statistics, 244 Silvicultural systems, 63 Societé Ivoinenne de Développement des Plantations Forestieres (SODEFOR), 62, 64 Soil survey; East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania, 17 Sokoke Forest, 30 Somalia, 19, 149; biodiversity, 149; closed canopy forests, 9; conservation areas, 149, 151(T); protected areas, 146(T); staustics, 143 South Afnca; geographic boundanes of forests, 15 South Amenca, 26, 28, 29,31 Southeast Asia, 65, 66; quatemary andity, effects of, 17 Southem Afnca; agnculture, 51; See also Angola; Malawi: Mozambique: Zimbabwe Stanley, H.M., 46 Statisucs; Angola, 251; Benin, 97; Burundi, 102; Cameroon, 110; Central Afncan Republic, 119; Comoros, 206; Congo, 125; Cote d'Ivoire, 133; Dyiboun, 143; East Afmca, 143; Equatonal Guinea, 161; Ethiopia, 143; Gabon, 168; Gambia, 175; Ghana, 183; Guinea, 193; Guinea-Bissau, 200; Indian Ocean Islands, 206; Kenya, 143; Libena, 214; Madagascar, 221; Malawi, 251; Mauntus, 206; Mozambique, 251; Nigena, 230; Reunion, 206; Rwanda, 102; Sao Tome and Pnncipe, 240; Senegal, 175; Seychelles, 206; Sierra Leone, 244; Somalia, 143; Southem Afnca, 251; Sudan, 143; Tanzania, 143; Togo, 97; Uganda, 262; Zaire, 272; Zimbabwe, 251 Stubbs Creek, 40 Sub-Saharan Africa, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54,55 Sudan, 145, 147; approximate ecological zones, 145(F); biodiversity, 147; conservation areas, 147; protected areas, 146(T); stausucs, 143 Sudanic speaking group, 43, 44 Swamp; herbaceous fresh-water, 11(T) Tai Forest, 9, 27, 34 Tai National Park, 84, 141 Taita Hills, 31 Tana Reserve, 40 Tana River, 39, 40 Tanzania, 17, 19, 30, 67, 156; biodiversity, 156, 157; conservation areas, 156(T), 157, 159; map, 158(M), 160; protected areas, 40(T), 146(T); statistics, 143 Temperature depression, 17, 21 Threats to species survival, 37-39 Timber trade, 56-61 Togo, 26; agnculture, 51; biodiversity, 100; conservation areas, 100-101; deforestation, 100; forest extent, 98(T); forest management, 62; forest resources and management, 98, 100; forests, 98; generally, 97; initiatives for conservation, 101; mangroves, 98; map, 99(M), 101; statistics, 97 Tounsm, 47, 69, 77 Trade; umber, 56-61 Transition woodland, 11(F) Trochain; Yangambi classification of tropical Affica, 9 Tropical Forestry Action Plan, 75, 87-88 Tropical Shelterwood Systems (TSS), 63 Tswa, 46 Turkana, Lak UNECE/FAO Timber Committee, 57 5 UNEP/GRID dataset, 85 US List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, 39 Uganda, 22, 28, 29; biodiversity, 265-266; conservation areas, 266, 268; deforestation, 265; forest management, 62, 263- 265; forests, 262-263; generally, 262; hIV and AIDS, 54; initiauves for conservation, 268-269; map, 267(M), 269; protected areas, 40(T); pygmies, 43; south- west, 19(F); statistics, 262 Uluguru mountains, 30, 31 United Nations Educational, Sciennfic and Cultural Organisation; forest classification, 9 et seq.; low stature forests, classification of, 13 Upper Guinea, 39; species-nch forests, 9 Upton Grey Agency, 61 Unticaceae pollen, 22 Usambara mountains, 30, 67, 157 Vegetation types; distinct physiognomy but restricted distnbution, formation of, 11(T); edaphic formations, 11(1); Libena, 215(T); local extent, transitional formations of, 11(1); Madagascar, 11(1), 222(F); regional extent, formations of, 11(1T); unnatural vegetation, 11(T); woody, 9-11 Vegetation zones; Ghana, 13; Reunion, 209(F) Victona, Lake, 21, 23; Rusinga Island, 18 Virunga Volcanoes, 41 Waldron, Mrs, 39 Wamba, 46 Watts, D.P., 41 Way, P., 54 West Afnca, 21, 31; agnculture, 51; biological diversity, 26-28; deforestation, 9; dry forest, 11; elephants, 34(T), 36(T); forest management, 62; poaching, 33; rain forests, 12(F); timber trade, 56, 59 Western Equatonal Afnca, 39 Western equatonal forests, 29 White, F.; forest classification, 9 et seq., 36 Wolfheim. J.H., 38 Woody vegetation types, 9-11 World Conservation Monitonng Centre; data, availability of, 16 World Conservation Strategy, 75 World Wide Fund for Nature, 46; impenetrable Forest Conservation Project, 266 Yangambi classification of tropical Afnica, 9 Zaire , 21, 22, 23, 28, 29, 35, 39, 46; biodiversity, 277, 279; conservation areas, 279-280; deforestation, 277; forest management, 64, 65, 66, 273, 276-277; forests, 273; generally, 272-273; Gonila Conservation Project, 41; iniuatives for conservation, 282; lowland rain forests, 30; mangroves, 273; map, 270- 271(M), 274-275(M), 278(M), 282; population, 49; protected areas, 40(T); pygmies, 43; rain forests, 9 13; statistics, 272; timber trade, 56, 57, 58, 59, 276(T) Zaire Basin, 30, 34, 44 Zaire River, 28, 29, 30, 56 Zambezian region; dry evergreen forests, 11 Zanzibar, 38, 40 Zimbabwe; biodiversity, 260; conservation areas, 260-261; forest resources and management, 259; forests, 258-259; geographic boundanes of forests, 15; land tenure systems, 52; protected areas, 260(F); rain forests, 259(F); statistics, 251; The Editors Jeffrey A. Sayer is Head of the Forest Conservation programme at IUCN in Gland, Switzerland. Caroline S. Harcourt is a consultant specialising in the ecology and behaviour of African primates. N. Mark Collins heads a programme of habitat and ecosystem conservation projects at the World Conservation Monitoring Centre in Cambridge. IUCN — The World Conservation Union Since 1948, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) has been at the forefront of the campaign to conserve tropical forests. Its members include governments, non- governmental organisations, research organisations and conservation agencies in 120 countries. Several thousand scientists and experts form a worldwide network that supports the work of IUCN’s six Commissions: threatened species, protected areas, ecology, sustainable development, environmental law, and education. IUCN also has thematic programmes which include: forests, wetlands, marine ecosystems, the Sahel, Antartica, and population and natural resources. These help to develop sound policies and programmes for the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable development of natural resources. The World Conservation Monitoring Centre The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is a joint venture between IUCN, the World Wide Fund for Nature, and The United Nations Environment Programme. These are the organisations that prepared World Conservation Strategy and its 1991 sequel Caring for the Earth. W’CMC collects and analyses global conservation data thereby ensuring that decisions affecting biological resources are based on the best and most up to date information. WCMC has now developed a global database on the world’s biological diversity including: threatened species, endangered habitats, protected areas and the utilisation and trade in wildlife species and products. It provides an information service to governments, the United Nations agencies, scientific and conservation bodies, businesses and the media. Jacket design by Robert Updegraff The front cover photograph is a Meteosat satellite image of the earth showing Africa supplied by the European Space Agency’s Operations Centre, Darmstadt, Germany. ESA/PLI/Science Phot? “rary The research for this book was made possible by a generous grant from The British Petroleum Company plc. This is the second atlas in a series planned to cover tropical rain forests throughout the world. It is a contribution to the worldwide debate on the future of these forests. Reviews of the first atlas The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests — Asia and the Pacific included: “This volume represents an admirable effort ... to present objective and carefully researched information to foster a constructive debate on conservation and management of forest resources.... The book should provide a valuable and timely perspective to those engaged in finding a solution to the problems of deforestation and preservation of biodiversity. Conservation biologists should look forward to the publication of other volumes in this series.’ Nature July 1991 “The bulk of the volume consists of country-by-country treatments of the region ... For each region or country, clear maps are given, showing vegetation types, conservation areas and the degree of destruction of natural habitats. These maps are particularly useful and will make this a frequently consulted book.’ New Scientist Fuly 1991 “This exceptionally valuable and timely atlas is the first attempt to map the remaining extent of tropical rain and monsoon forests.... These maps essentially supplement the excellent text and valuable statistical tables. A necessary purchase for larger college and research libraries who should also watch out for the next two volumes.’ Choice Fuly 1991 ISBN 0-333-57757-4 | 90101> 9 "780333"577578 | |