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ANADIAN NATIONAL PARKS BRANCH
THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
OTTAWA, CANADA.

THE CONSERVATION OF
THE WILD LIFE OF CANADA

WAPTRE

From a painting by Carl Rungius. Reproduced by
Zoological Society

courtesy of the New York

THE CONSERVATION OF
THE WILD LIFE OF CANADA |

>Hz

BY

C. GORDON HEWITT, D.Sc.

DOMINION ENTOMOLOGIST AND CONSULTING ZOOLOGIST

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS

NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
1921

P een Ao.

Copynricut, 1921, By
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS

PREFACE

Wuen Gordon Hewitt came to Ottawa in the fall of 1909
to enter upon his duties as Dominion Entomologist, he fully
expected to return to Manchester University in a year or
so, there to continue his researches in entomology and his
lectures in zodlogy; but the call of Canada was not to be
ignored: he found work for a giant to do and he bent him-
self to his task.

Ten years of life in office were allowed him, and, during
that time, he had the satisfaction of developing the Do-
minion Entomological Service from a small division, at-
tached to the Experimental Farm, to a separate branch of
the Department of Agriculture, with four divisions at Ot-
tawa, and twelve laboratories throughout Canada, organ-
ized for the purpose of watching, combating and forestall-
ing insect injury to forests and crops. Quarantine stations
were also established to prevent the importation of foreign
pests. For this work, trained, scientific men were required,
and here his enviable talent for selecting the right man for

the place, and in using his powers to the full stood him in
- good stead. Indeed, the relation that existed between my
husband and his associates was like that which animates
a group of friends, where each one gives the best that is in
him and looks for the best in others—a bright record in
Civil Service history of loyalty and disinterestedness. Com-
menting on his remarkable faculty of choosing his associ-
ates and attaching them to himself and his schemes, Doctor
W. M. Wheeler wrote: “‘The truly remarkable record of de-
velopment and public service exhibited by Doctor Hewitt’s
department during the decade of his administration was
clearly due to the unusual abilities of the man. Combin-

v

vi PREFACE

ing a thorough training in zodlogy with rare gifts as an in-
vestigator, executive talent of a high order, and sympa-
thetic insight into the achievements of other workers, not
only in entomology, but in biology generally, he could not
fail to secure the affection, as well as the confidence and
admiration of all the men, and particularly the young men,
whom he had chosen as aids in building up his department.”’ *

In 1916 he was offered and accepted the position of Con-
sulting Zodlogist. His duties were thus enlarged, and his
sphere of useful activity appreciably increased. For the
new work he was especially fitted, as Doctor Wm. T.
Hornaday says: ‘‘ His broad mind reached out, and grasped
the whole invertebrate fauna of the vast region embraced
in the Canadian Dominion.” t His sphere of influence
extended beyond the Dominion, again quoting Doctor
Wheeler: “Realizing that very many of the native and in-
troduced animals, and the economic problems to which
they give rise, are identical in Canada and the northern
United States, he took an actively constructive part in all
deliberations, wherever men were assembled in either of the
sister commonwealths, to discuss practical matters relat-
ing to our insects, birds, and mammals,” and by accepting
the position of Canadian representative on the International
Commission for the Protection of Nature his work became
world-wide.

Inspired by Doctor Hornaday, and encouraged by Mr.
James White, he commenced to write this book, which oc-
cupied much of his spare time during the last four years of
his life. As he wrote the book at home in the evenings, I
became familiar with it, chapter by chapter, for he liked to
read aloud what he had written; also, before writing, he
was eager to discuss present needs and future developments.
Evening after evening in his library, easy chairs on either

* Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. XIII, no. 2.
| The statement of the Permanent Wild Life Protection Fund, vol. III.

PREFACE Vil

side of the fire, a low table beside him, holding paper, ref-
erence books, and the indispensable tin of “John Cotton,”
while snowstorms might rage without, in imagination he
was able to roam with the bison or musk-ox on the sunny
plains, to climb the peaks with the mountain goat, or to
hear the songs of birds in sanctuaries made safe by his ef-
fort. The facts and conclusions herein contained were
gathered and matured throughout days of action, research,
and travel, when he followed the pressing needs of the
country, and attacked problems as they presented them-
selves, never resting until they were solved, and then, un-
satisfied, merely using success as a stimulant to greater
effort.

Pages could be written of his work in preparing and in
drafting what is now known as the Northwest Game Act,
and, after the bill was introduced in Parliament, of his
watchful support of the measure until all opposition was
overcome and it became law. The Migratory Birds Treaty
also tested his powers; international and interprovincial
arrangements and compromises had to be made, and the
successful completion of this important treaty bears wit-
ness to his courage and diplomacy. During these and
other less important negotiations, he would travel many
miles for a single interview; he was thankful when the cause,
supported and enforced by his persuasive powers, won the
day, and he was willing to try again when they failed.
How rarely they failed! The appeal of his winning person-
ality and his earnest desire to help usually carried convic-
tion.

As an example of his sincerity, and of his willingness to
carry out whatever he asked others to do, before publicly
advocating individual and community effort in wild life
conservation, he hung nesting-boxes in the trees, and sup-
plied an original water bath in his own garden. Little
homes for bumble-bees were carefully tucked under the

vill PREFACE

lilac hedges and berry-bearing shrubs were planted. The
following spring he had the reward of being able to count
fifteen nests and the visits of thirty-four species of birds.

His love of nature was not merely sentimental or theo-
retical. He was an enthusiastic, practical gardener—he
liked to dig in the soil and to spread manure. He planted
with the precision and skill of an artist; he sowed seeds with
equal zest; and, after a rain, he loved to fork around, and
thus to make each bulb, perennial, or vegetable ‘‘comfort-
able.” Nor were the poetical accompaniments of the craft
ever absent. Morning and evening—before his office hours
and after—he walked around the garden, bathing himself
in greenness, and in the odour of lilacs, roses, and new-
mown grass. Then it was he spoke to every flower and
bird, no matter how small or how shy, and held converse
with the chipmunks and squirrels, who held a safe tenure
within the garden precincts.

After his immediate community was convinced of the
need of bird conservation, and Rockliffe Park and the Ex-
perimental Farm became sanctuaries, he went farther
afield: in every province in the Dominion he addressed
meetings on the subject of the conservation of our wild
life.

This is but a short record of the ideals which led to the
making of this book, and of the character of him who
wrote it. A great deal might be said by me in faithful
and thankful acknowledgment of that character, but which
would, in the end, seem to me cold and inadequate. I can,
therefore, only take refuge in the words of another, one who
valued him level with his deserts, who truly recognized his
wonderful gifts, and who appreciated the way in which
they were ever employed for the brightening of this world.
I quote from the memoir by his friend, Duncan Campbell
Scott, in the proceedings of the Royal Society of Canada:

‘‘His death was tragic in its suddenness. He had at-

PREFACE 1x

tended the meetings of the Commission of Conservation,
at Montreal, on February 19 and 20, at which he pre-
sented an important paper on ‘Fur-bearing Animals, Their
Economic Significance and Future.’

“Soon after his return to Ottawa, on the 20th, he was
taken seriously ill with influenza; this soon developed into
pleural pneumonia, and he died about 11 Pp. m., on Febru-
ary 29, 1920.

‘“He seemed to be on the threshold of a long career, in
which added years would bring even greater success, and
would fulfil all that he was destined to accomplish. His
gifts were varied, and his sympathies deep and general.
He touched life at so many points that one cannot think
that his interest ever flagged. His knowledge and apprecia-
tion of the arts and belles lettres were finely balanced by a
warm love of nature, and this led him into enthusiasms for
our wild life. His ideal habitation was always surrounded
by a garden, and every foot of soil was made to yield
either use or beauty. There was in all his work a rare
combination of earnestness, with lightness of touch. Highly
characteristic, too, was a fine sense of humour, which kept
all things in their proper relation. His personality was of
that even bearing that finds the best in all men, and gives
duly the best in itself. Even his casual acquaintances had
‘sorrow when he died. To those who knew him well there
will remain a deep regret; to those who received fully the
intimate charm of his personality in familiar intercourse
there cannot be any mitigation of his loss, for he was a
peerless friend.”

EvizABETH HeEwiIrTr.
RockuiFFE Park, OTTawa.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the preparation of this book I have been encouraged
by the assistance, so willingly given, of many of my col-
leagues and friends who have furnished data or have other-
wise helped me in my endeavour to make the volume both
accurate and informative. It would be impossible to men-
tion every one to whom I am indebted for assistance, but
I should like to express here my grateful appreciation of
the assistance of the following: Many of my colleagues
in the government service, particularly Mr. James White,
Assistant to Chairman, Commission of Conservation; Mr.
J. B. Harkin, Commissioner of Dominion Parks, and Doc-
tor R. M. Anderson and other members of the staff of the
Geological Survey; the officers in charge of the game-pro-
tective service of the various provinces, and Mr. F. Ker-
mode, Director of the Provincial Museum, Victoria, B. C.;
Doctor Henry Fairfield Osborn, President of the American
Museum of Natural History; Mr. E. W. Nelson, Chief of
the United States Biological Survey; Doctor W. T. Horna-
day, Director of the New York Zoological Gardens, the
staunch defender of the wild life of this continent, who
has been a constant source of help and encouragement;
Mr. Charles Sheldon; and many others. The courtesy of
Rudyard Kipling, in giving permission to use the quotation
from his poem, “The Feet of the Young Men,” is hereby
acknowledged.

GE Cael

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
iPr CNTRODUCDIONSMLM he hee ke seh oe OR aR il
II. Tue VALUE oF WILD LIFE To THE NATION . . 7

UTILIZATION OF NON-AGRICULTURAL LANDS. DEER AS A MEAT
SUPPLY. DEVELOPMENT OF NORTHWESTERN TERRITORIES.
BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU AS SOURCE OF MEAT AND CLOTH-
ING. RELATION OF NATIVES TO WILD LIFE. RECREATIVE
VALUE OF WILD LIFE.

III. Tue EXTERMINATION OF WiLtD Lire ... . Lt

MAIN CAUSES OF EXTERMINATION. DANGER IN NUMBERS.
THE VARIOUS ADVERSE FACTORS.

IV. Tue Game ANIMALS OF CANADA a eae ee te de Di

THE WAPITI, OR ELK. DEER. THE WHITE-TAILED DEER. THE
MULE DEER. COLUMBIAN BLACK-TAILED DEER. MOOSE. THE
BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU. THE WOODLAND CARIBOU AND
RELATED SPECIES. ANTELOPE. THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP.
THE BLACK MOUNTAIN SHEEP. DALL’S MOUNTAIN SHEEP.
THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT. THE MUSK-OX. BEARS. THE
POLAR BEAR. GRIZZLY BEAR. THE BARREN-GROUND GRIZZLY
BEAR. BLACK BEAR. KERMODE’S WHITE BEAR. PROTECTION
OF BEARS.

V. Tuer Burrato or Bison (Its PRESENT, PAST, AND
Err REY AD va gn i ser) Re ROD, eee eet fe eee ae

EARLY DISTRIBUTION IN CANADA. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE
BUFFALO. THE WILD OR WOOD BISON. THE PRESENT STATE
OF THE BUFFALO IN CANADA. THE FUTURE OF THE BUFFALO
IN CANADA. DOMESTICATION. CROSS-BREEDING WITH DO-
MESTIC CATTLE.

VI. Tue Game Birps anp LarGER Non-GAME Birps
ELECT UEP YS RMR CANE i Th ani ak Rae (C4

SWANS. GEESE. DUCKS. CRANES. SHORE-BIRDS, OR WAD-
ERS. BOB-WHITE, OR QUAIL. GROUSE.

Xili

XIV
CHAPTER

VII.

VIII.

CONTENTS

Brrps IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE . .. .

ECONOMIC VALUE. FEEDING HABITS OF CHIEF GROUPS.
LOCAL ABUNDANCE OF BIRDS. METHODS OF PROTECTION
AND ENCOURAGEMENT. PROVISION OF NESTING FACILITIES.
NESTING-BOXES OR BIRD-HOUSES. THE DESTRUCTION OF
ENEMIES. PROVISION OF FRUIT-BEARING TREES AND
SHRUBS. LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS BEARING FRUITS
ATTRACTIVE TO BIRDS. THE PROVISION OF OTHER FORMS
OF FOOD AND OF WATER. BIRD SANCTUARIES.

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE AND THE CONTROL OF

PREDATORY ANINEADS. Cr ee a a

WOLVES. COYOTE. COUGAR. THE WOLF AND COYOTE
PROBLEM AS AFFECTING LIVE-STOCK INTERESTS. THE NE-
CESSITY OF ORGANIZED CONTROL BY HUNTING AND TRAP-
PING. CONTROL OF PREDATORY ANIMALS IN THE UNITED
STATES. LESSER PREDATORY MAMMALS. PREDATORY BIRDS.

IX. Tue Periopic FLucTUATIONS OF OUR FuR-BEARING

ANIMAS hE ee ee eek rohan To ae aes

VARYING HARE OR RABBIT. LYNX. FOXES. WOLVES.
MARTEN. FISHER. MINK. SKUNK. MUSKRAT. CONCLU-
SIONS.

X. RESERVES FOR GAME AND WILD LIFE IN CANADA

THE NATIONAL PARKS. JASPER PARK. THE ROCKY MOUN-
TAINS PARK. WATERTON LAKES PARK. ELK ISLAND PARK.
BUFFALO PARK. ANTELOPE PARK. YOHO PARK. GLACIER
PARK. REVELSTOKE PARK. POINT PELEE NATIONAL PARK.
PROVINCIAL RESERVES FOR GAME AND WILD LIFE. NEW
BRUNSWICK GAME RESERVE. GASPESIAN FOREST, FISH,
AND GAME PRESERVE. TREMBLING MOUNTAIN PARK.
LAURENTIDES NATIONAL PARK. ALGONQUIN PARK. QUETICO
FOREST RESERVE. RONDEAU PROVINCIAL PARK. PROVIN-
CIAL GAME RESERVES IN MANITOBA. PROVINCIAL GAME
RESERVES IN SASKATCHEWAN. GAME RESERVES IN AL-
BERTA. ELK RIVER RESERVE. YALAKOM GAME RESERVE.
STRATHCONA PARK. MOUNT ROBSON PARK. THE CLEAR-
WATER AND SMOKY RIVERS RESERVE. SPECIAL RESERVE
FOR MOUNTAIN SHEEP. SUMMARY OF GAME RESERVES IN
CANADA. PROPOSED GAME RESERVE FOR NOVA SCOTIA.

193

213

235

CONTENTS XV

CHAPTER PAGE
XI. Tue Protection oF GAME AND WILD LIFE BY THE

Dommuvton ‘GOVERNMENT °° . >... 258

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES. A PROPOSAL FOR THE NATIONAL
OWNERSHIP OF THE FUR RESOURCES OF THE NORTHWEST
TERRITORIES. THE YUKON TERRITORY. THE MIGRATORY
BIRDS CONVENTION. DOMINION PARKS ACT.

XII. A Review or PRovinciAL GAME LEGISLATION . 277

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. NOVA SCOTIA. NEW BRUNSWICK.
QUEBEC. ONTARIO. MANITOBA. SASKATCHEWAN. AL-
BERTA. BRITISH COLUMBIA.

XIII. InpivipvaAL AND CoMMUNITY EFFORT IN THE CON-
SERVATION OF WitD Lire... . <' . 286

EDUCATION. PRIVATE WILD-LIFE SANCTUARIES AND GAME
RESERVES. FARMERS AND GAME PROTECTION. CLUBS.
CIVIC GAME RESERVES. GAME PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATIONS.
THE ATTITUDE OF THE SPORTSMAN. THE SPORTSMAN’S CODE
OF ETHICS.

\

XIV. GovERNMENT RESERVES FOR THE PROTECTION OF
[BSED cain aes VOR Sg dee A nn a ss 1)

SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA. BIRD RESERVATIONS IN
THE GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE. RESERVE FOR GEESE IN NOVA
SCOTIA.

XV. Tue UTILIZATION BY DOMESTICATION OF OUR LARGER
NativE RumMInaTING Mammats. ... .. 810

PROPOSED DOMESTICATION OF THE MUSK-OX. REINDEER
IN ALASKA. THE USE OF REINDEER IN CANADA. FIRST AT-
TEMPT TO INTRODUCE REINDEER INTO THE NORTHWEST
TERRITORIES.

Beever elm On GAME... 3. So ek Soot 8k ul) ddl

are ee ek rn ote len uth 2 ok hat nes COL eo OO

Pihs eed
re r

5a

ILLUSTRATIONS

. Frontispiece

PLATES

FACING PAGE

Canadian birds which have been exterminated within
recent years and are now extinct .

Moose :
Woodland Caan.

Barren-Ground Caribou
Musk-Ox

Osborn’s Mountain Caribou in the Rocky Mountains,
about fifteen miles northwest of Mount Sir Alexander

Herd of captive Musk-Oxen in New York Zoological Park

A herd of Barren-Ground Caribou on shore of cant api
Dubawnt River, Mackenzie District, N. W. T.

Musk-Oxen on Ellesmere Island .

Rocky Mountain Sheep (Ovis canadensis)
White Mountain Sheep (Ovis dalli) .

Illustrating distribution of Mountain Sheep in areas in-
dicated on the map .

Polar Bear . ay
Black Bear, showing lane chee ;
Rocky Mountain Goat

Buffalo bones photographed by Mr. ae Lumsden,
C. E., August 9, 1890 : ;

Cree Indians impounding Bison .
Still-hunting Bison
xvii

20

46
46

58
58

62

62

66

70

76
76

82

102
102
102

114

118
118

Xvill

PLATE

XII.
XE:

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XXI.

ILLUSTRATIONS

FACING PAGE

Wood Bison

Buffalo in barnyard, ‘Elk Island Park, Alberta, during
winter, showing possibilities of domestication

Antelopes: two males, two young (male and female), been
in captivity, and adult female, in the private reserve
of R. Lloyd, Davidson, Saskatchewan

Fence around the Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alberta
Buffalo in the Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alberta

Diagrammatic representation of the economic status of
some of our commoner birds

Arctic Fox .

Coyotes attacking Sheep i in Kamloops district of Batak
Columbia tan Ma

Rocky Mountain feaaee karnale witht young

Nest of Pacific Eider Duck (Sumateria v. cee Dolphin
and Union Strait, Arctic Ocean

Ptarmigan in the Yukon Territory .

Wild Ducks on United States Government Reserve

Portion of exhibition of bird-houses made by the boys in
one of the Ottawa public schools in a competition or-
ganized by the Ottawa Humane Society in 1917

Lac La Peche, Quebec, showing the headquarters and
southern portion of the hunting-grounds of the Lau-
rentian Club .

Laurentides Park, Quebec. One of the entrances to the
park at the junction of the Jacques Cartier and Cache
Rivers

Western bird reserves

Dead Gannets on beach near Percé, Gaspe, Quebec .

Gannets nesting on the cliffs of Bonaventure Island, Gaspe

Sea-bird group in American Museum of Natural History,
representing a section of Bird Rock in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence PEIN Rayo Keil TMU) ag PUT HNL

Bird reserves in the Gulf of St. Lawrence

126

136

136

140
140

168

172

172
172

172
172

190

190

246

246
266

288
288

288
302

ILLUSTRATIONS X1x

PLATE TACING PAGE
XXII. White Pelican rookery, Mountain Portage, Slave River,
Northern Alberta . . . . 3808

Notice-board on Saskatchewan Progiieat Cotte Baraee’ 308
Canada Geese on artificial pond in the Miner Me

Essex County, Ontario. . . 308
Aluminum tag used by Mr. Miner i Nees ld geese ond
ducks for purposes of determining migration . . . 308
mooi, “Reindeer herds:in Alaska. 6 op ee ee ee) 820

TEXT FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
ws) ELL Pigs hl Pa a eo A a ea Oe me R714
LE, Antlers of White-tailed and Mule Deer. . . 9... . 88

Ill. Tails of White-tailed, Mule, and Columbia Black-tailed Deer 48

IV. Constructional details of a bird-house . . . . . . . 179

MAPS
PAGE
Distribution of the larger mammals of North America . . . . 3
Present and past range of the Wapiti or Elk in Canada Eb ees Ng Sa ee
Present range of the Barren-Ground Caribou in Canada . . . 57

Distribution of the Black Mountain Sheep, White Mountain ee

and intermediate colour grades in Canada . . 82
Distribution of the Musk-Oxin Canada . . ... .. .. 9!
Illustrating the disappearance of the Bison . . . . . . . 116
Era OL YENISOTE (ls) cia at aN a ALPE Rio tiraioival irae Goat hciact 1 Mes

Game and bird reserves in Eastern Canada. between pages 244 and 245

Game and bird reserves in Manitoba and Saskatchewan
between pages 250 and 251

Game and bird reserves in Alberta and British Columbia
between pages 252 and 253

ILLUSTRATIONS

CHARTS

BASED ON THE FUR RETURNS OF THE HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY RECEIVED

CHART

i.

Le

THROUGH THE COURTESY OF THE FUR COMMISSION
PAGE

Periodic fluctuations of Rabbit, Lynx, and Wolverene in
Carne 5) (A ed RNC To! es Ae eae

Periodic fluctuations of Red, ae Black and White Fox in
Canadajor arte hei wed ay sal ig BA BST

Periodic fluctuations of Wolf, Marten, and Fisher in Canada 224
Periodic fluctuations of Mink, Otter, and Skunk in Canada . 231

Periodic fluctuations of Black Bear, Raccoon, and Beaver in
Canada ie furl I ee Na UNA Re een i 2) vist nD ce Re Me

THE CONSERVATION OF
THE WILD LIFE OF CANADA

THE CONSERVATION OF THE
WILD LIFE OF CANADA

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

CaNADA is the home and refuge of the most important
and desirable wild animals of this continent. The southern
portion of that wonderfully rich and interesting North
American fauna that everywhere greeted the early explor-
ers and settlers in the United States has melted away be-
fore the advancing tide of settlement like snow, and only
in the inaccessible places and in a few protected spots has
the harried remnant found greater security and an irre-
trievable loss been prevented. The northern part of the
continent was less tempting to the earlier settlers and more
hospitable to its native wild life. The impenetrable for-
ests, trackless wilderness, and mountains of Canada afforded
a sanctuary to the greater part of the wild life of the conti-
nent, and retarded settlement has proved its salvation.
The people of the United States now mourn the loss of
their wild life and are endeavouring to rescue the remnant
from complete extermination, realizing how great an asset
it is to the country and the significance of its depletion.
A young country enjoys the advantage of being able to
profit by the mistakes of older countries. It lies within
our power to preserve for ourselves, but more particularly
for posterity for whom we hold it in trust, the wild life of
this country. It rests with us to prove that the advance

of civilization into the more remote sections of Canada does
1

2 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

not imply the total destruction of the wild life, but that
civilization in its true sense signifies the elimination of the
spirit of barbarism and the introduction of an enlightened
attitude.

The problems, therefore, confronting us involve a knowl-
edge of the following questions: Of what does our wild life
consist; what is its value; what are the factors that are
responsible for its reduction and ultimate extermination;
what steps are we taking to conserve it, and how can we
improve on present methods with a view to conserving a
valuable natural resource, the constituent parts of which
cannot be replaced once they are lost? In the succeeding
chapters these questions will be considered. It is felt that
a presentation and discussion of the status of the wild life
of Canada will afford the best means of securing that wide
sympathy of the people throughout the Dominion that is
essential to the success of any measures that have already
been taken or may be adopted in the future with the ob-
ject of conserving this resource. While in this matter of
wild-life conservation we have much to regret in the past,
we have reason to be proud of the efforts that we are now
making to remedy past mistakes, and a more general reali-
zation of our opportunities to improve our national life and
welfare through these means will undoubtedly lead to
further efforts. It is desirable that, before proceeding
further, the classes of animals to be considered in the in-
quiry should be specified. The term ‘‘wild life” naturally
includes all the members of our native Canadian fauna, but
it is obvious that the term must be restricted for our present
purposes for the sake of adequate treatment and to avoid
digressions into well-recognized groups of ourfauna. Strictly
speaking, it would include the game, non-game, and fur-
bearing mammals, the game and non-game birds, the fishes
and other members of our fauna. The conservation of our
fishes will not be considered here; it has been the subject of

gina
e and small;

the ori
larg

er cent of
disappeared

2
is}
oO
uv
”
is]
is)
3S
ie
&
me)
o
x=
~
S
i~)
X

ck of game,

P

Qas

aes 7 /
98
sto

MAP SHOWING THE EXTENT TO WHICH
CANADA IS NOW THE STRONGHOLD OF THE
MAJOR PORTION OF THE LARGER MAMMALS
OF NORTH AMERICA (After Hornaday)

4 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

discussion by the Commission of Conservation in other re-
ports. In its report on ‘‘Fur Farming in Canada” the
Commission has presented a fairly complete statement re-
garding the fur-bearing mammals of the country, and there
is no necessity to duplicate the facts so presented. For
that reason the fur-bearing mammals will not be considered
at length, but only in so far as their conservation in the
wild state necessarily constitutes an important aspect of
the general problem of wild-life conservation. In this ac-
count it is proposed to deal in particular with the larger
wild mammals, many of which are commonly included un-
der the head of ‘‘big game,” and the birds of Canada, inas-
much as these animals constitute that portion of our native
fauna that is in the greatest need of adequate protection
with a view to preventing the extermination that will in-
evitably follow failure on our part to provide it.

Nature has laid on the shoulders of the Canadian people
an obligation, and at the same time an opportunity, of a
peculiar character in so far as the preservation of the wild
life, not of this hemisphere alone but of the whole world,
is concerned. In the gradual evolution of the great land
masses of the earth’s surface it has come about that by its
geographical situation and physical characteristics the
greater part of Canadian territory constitutes a distinct
faunal region, differing from other regions of the world by
reason of the fact that it contains certain species of animals
not found elsewhere. In some cases these animals are re-
lated to forms in other regions of the world; in other cases
they are distinct and unrelated. In the Canadian region,
to mention a few of the larger forms of wild life, we find
the moose (Alces machlis), which is related to the elk* of

* It is unfortunate that the word elk has come to be used in North America
as an alternate name for the wapiti. As popular names must naturally be
used for these animals, it seems very desirable to confine the name elk to

the European Alces or moose, and use the Shawnee name, wapiti, for Cervus
canadensis.

INTRODUCTION 9)

northern Europe and Asia; the wapiti (Cervus canadensis),
which is closely allied to the red deer of the old world, and
the caribou (Rangifer species), which very closely resembles
the reindeer of northern Europe. The bison or buffalo is
related to the European bison, which has suffered a serious
reduction in numbers and is now confined to the primeval
forests of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and the Cau-
casus, where it is artificially preserved.* The mountain-
sheep (Ovis species), so characteristic of our Western moun-
tains, are well represented in the old world, the centre of
their habitat being the immense mountain ranges of Cen-
tral Asia. The musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) is an animal
allied to the sheep family, that is particularly distinctive of
our region of the world, ranging as it does over the barren
grounds and arctic regions of the north and eastward to
Greenland. The Rocky Mountain goat (Oreamnos mon-
tanus and its sub-species) is found only in the Rocky Moun-
tains. Finally, the most interesting of all our mammals is
the prong-buck or antelope (Anfilocapra americana), which
forms by itself a distinctive family of the ungulate or
hoofed animals. It is entirely confined to a region com-
prising a portion of the Prairie Provinces and the Western
States. While it is allied in certain respects to the ante-
lopes of the old world, it is unique among all hollow-horned
ruminants by reason of the fact that, like the members of
the deer family, it sheds its horns every year.

* According to Dr. Theodor G. Ahrens, “‘The Present Status of the Euro-
pean Bison or Wisent,”’ Journal of Mammalogy, vol. 2, no. 2, May, 1921,
pp. 58-62, the Lithuanian herd numbered 170 or 180 in 1918, but after the
German revolution it seems that all or nearly all the remaining bison were
shot by the inhabitants and the retiring German soldiers, among whom disci-
pline had been undermined by the revolution. Later the war between Po-
land and Russia passed over the region. Since the Russian revolution the
Kuban Cossacks have demanded the return of their old hunting grounds in
the Caucasus, so that extermination of the bison in that region is also to be
feared. Besides the few introduced specimens still extant in Pless and possi-
bly in Ascania Nova there remain a few specimens in zoological gardens.
Summing up, he concludes that the extinction of the species is imminent,

—R. M. A.

6 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Certain of the foregoing animals extend their range south-
ward into the United States, but Canada is their natural
habitat and in Canada they attain their maximum devel-
opment, apart from the fact that in the United States
they have been seriously reduced in many instances.

Our responsibilities in the matter of the conservation of
these animals are therefore unmistakably clear. It is our
bounden duty to prevent the extermination of all but the
noxious species on the higher grounds of our obligations to
the people of other countries, as guardians of our portion
of the wild life of the world, and to future Canadians, the
heirs of a region so richly endowed.

CHAPTER II

THE VALUE OF WILD LIFE TO THE NATION

In order to secure the interest and active support of the
people of Canada in the conservation of our wild life, it is
necessary at the outset to indicate as clearly as possible
the economic significance of such measures as are now being
taken and of those that should be adopted with a view to
the preservation of our native animals. A consideration of
this aspect is not rendered necessary by any lack of appre-
ciation on the part of Canadians generally as to their moral
obligations in this matter or because reasons of sentiment
carry no weight. It is rendered necessary largely on ac-
count of the rapid opening up and development of the coun-
try, and because such development comes into direct con-
flict with the ability of many important forms of our wild
life to survive.

Utilization of Non-Agricultural Lands.—The basic indus-
try of Canada is agriculture, and the extension of this in-
dustry involves the. bringing under cultivation of new areas
of land which were formerly the home of our wild life.
Therefore, in order to justify on economic grounds the con-
servation of our wild life its economic value as compared
with agriculture in the first place must be set forth.

Not all lands are suitable for agriculture. Even in the
best agricultural sections of the country areas unsuited to
agriculture occur. In some cases, as will be shown later,
such areas have been set apart as forest reserves; in other
cases a struggling population endeavours to eke out a
meagre existence on the sparse products of the unfertile
soil. The problem of the best method of dealing with such

7

8 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

non-agricultural lands has already received some considera-
tion by our governments. In the future it will demand
more attention than we have hitherto thought necessary.
And it is here primarily that the practical application of
the principles of wild-life conservation should receive seri-
ous attention, for it will afford one of the most important
methods by which the unproductive or scarcely productive
areas can be rendered productive. However, it is of the
gravest importance to remember this, that while the ques-
tion as to the utilization of such lands is under considera-
tion we do not permit the means whereby their productive-
ness can be secured, namely through the taking advantage
of the presence of our wild life, that is, by the utilization of
our natural resources, to disappear through our neglect to
-appreciate at the present time their potential value to the
community at large.

Deer as a Meat Supply——One of the most serious prob-
lems of the present day is the gradually increasing cost of
food, particularly meat. Every effort is being made to
increase mixed farming and to encourage the live-stock in-
dustry. And yet a potential source of meat is left to the
mercy of sportsmen or gunners and their dogs. I refer to
our native deer, and particularly to the white-tailed deer
which frequents the Canadian woods and forests east of the
Rocky Mountains. Here is an excellent meat animal which
is hardy, and with proper protection, by which is meant
the prohibition of unwarranted slaughter, will increase
rapidly in numbers. There are hundreds of square miles
of land unsuited to agriculture, and forest land that might
be producing not only timber but meat also, and in every
way such production would be profitable.

That such an idea is not theoretical but eminently prac-
tical is demonstrated by the experience of the State of
Vermont. In common with the adjoining States the peo-
ple in Vermont some years ago had reduced the numbers of

VALUE OF WILD LIFE TO THE NATION 9

white-tailed deer, formerly so abundant, to the verge of
practical extermination. So far as could be ascertained the
species was practically extinct in Vermont by 1870. In 1875
thirteen white-tailed deer, comprising six bucks and seven
does, were procured by a number of sportsmen of Rutland,
Vt., and liberated in the forests adjoining that city. For
twenty-three years none were killed, except a few that were
illegally shot. They increased in numbers and were suffi-
ciently abundant by 1897 to permit the establishment of a
short open season, when 150 were shot. Their increase
during subsequent years is indicated by the figures given
by Hornaday.* ‘‘In 1901, 211 were killed; in 1902, 561;
in 1905, 791; in 1907, 1,600; in 1908, 2,208, and in 1909
the grand total was 5,261. For the year last mentioned,
1909, the average weight of the deer killed was 155 pounds
each, which for some reason was far below all preceding
years, and suggests an error.{| The total weight of venison
taken was 716,358 pounds. Computed at the lowest rea-
sonable valuation, twelve cents per pound, the total value
for 1909 would be $85,962.”

As the deer gradually spread over the State they did
some damage to agricultural crops, and it was wisely de-
cided to compensate the farmers for such damages. Such
a practice is followed in England in the case of damage in-
flicted by foxes which are preserved for hunting purposes.
During the two years, 1908 and 1909, the total amount
paid in damages was $4,865.98, and the value of the total
number of deer legally killed during those two years was
$107,790, which indicates the soundness of the policy of
indemnification.

The example of Vermont is a valuable object-lesson.
There is no reason why a similar policy should not be

* “Wild Life Conservation,” p. 106.
{In the years 1905 to 1908 the average weights ranged from 196 to 207
pounds.

10 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

adopted throughout eastern Canada, where we have large
areas that are unproductive so far as the food supply is con-
cerned and where deer will thrive abundantly, as it con-
stitutes their native home. On economic grounds the pos-
sibilities of the wild meat supply should receive the serious
consideration of the provincial governments and of the
people. We cannot afford to neglect so valuable an oppor-
tunity. It involves nothing more than a sane and judicious
protective policy, adequately extended and applied. It
would mean that our non-agricultural areas would be made
productive and our forest areas more productive.

Development of Northwestern Territories—How often has
our pride in the possession of so enormous an area as Can-
ada comprises been touched to the quick by the reminder
that our vast undeveloped Northwest Territories and barren
lands are practically unproductive, if we leave out of con-
sideration the fur trade, which has seriously diminished.
But there is no reason for depression. On the contrary
there is every ground for confidence in the potentialities of
our northern territories and their profitable development,
provided we will adopt the correct attitude towards the
conservation of the wild life of those territories. The eco-
nomic development of northern Canada is dependent upon
the proper conservation of the wild life of that section of
the Dominion. If adequate measures are adopted to con-
serve upon proper lines the game and fur-bearing animals of
those portions of the Northwest Territories unsuited to agri-
culture, and such portions constitute by far the greater
part, there is no reason why the whole of that area should
not be productive and contribute to the wealth of the coun-
try. The possession of such territories would become a
matter of pride rather than of reproach.

How is it possible to regard the countless numbers of
caribou that inhabit those regions, and to which fuller refer-
ence will be made later, except as an inestimable food sup-

VALUE OF WILD LIFE TO THE NATION 11

ply? In view of the fact that the fur-bearing animals of
the north furnish not only luxuries but also necessities, what
greater opportunity could we have of establishing the fur-
bearing industry on a sound, practical basis? It was not
without reason that furs constituted the first lure that at-
tracted the outside world to Canada. This country con-
tained the greatest variety of valuable fur-bearing animals,
for the possession of which men risked everything, includ-
ing their own lives. Now our agricultural lands constitute
that lure, but the remnant of those fur-bearing animals is
still with us. Conservation of our natural resources is
taking the place of exploitation. We should apply the doc-
trine to the fur-bearing animals and thus secure their full
value to the community. And it cannot be stated too often
that conservation means the protection of natural resources
from injudicious exploitation and their provident utiliza-
tion. Our northern territories, under proper administra-
tion, could become not only a valuable source of food supply,
but also one of the chief fur-producing areas of the world.

The mineral wealth in our northern territories constitutes
a valuable natural resource awaiting development, and it
should be remembered that such development will be ren-
dered more possible by the presence of an adequate food
supply such as I have mentioned, which fact indicates an-
other economic aspect of this problem.

Barren-ground Caribou as Source of Meat and Clothing.—
The development of a ‘‘wild”’ food supply, by which I mean
the caribou in our northern territories from the Labrador
coast to the Yukon, would fulfil three objects: First, it
would supplement the meat supply from domesticated
animals and add to the area of productive land in the coun-
try. Caribou furnishes one of the finest of meats, and under
proper protection and adequate supervision there is no
reason why we should not in the future develop a caribou
meat industry, and export frozen caribou from the north.

12 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Secondly, it would furnish an important means of subsis-
tence to those whose work carried them into those regions
where transportation and food supplies constitute a serious
problem. If reindeer could be employed for hauling pur-
poses they would prove superior to dogs, owing to their abil-
ity to find food available, such as the northern mosses and
lichens, whereas the food question in the case of dog trans-
port is always a serious one. Thirdly, the presence of such
a food supply would enable us to keep those regions pop-
ulated to a greater degree than would be otherwise possible,
thus facilitating the task of developing those areas to the
extent that their valuable natural resources, particularly
minerals, render desirable. ‘The musk-ox is also an animal
of undoubted potential value in the development of our
northern and arctic territories, and its utilization is dis-
cussed in later chapters.

Relation of Natives to Wild Life-——The necessity of a na-
tive food supply in northern Canada demands serious con-
sideration. Among the important aids at the present time
in the utilization and development of the northern terri-
tories are their natural inhabitants, the Indians, and, to a
lesser degree, the Eskimos. Further, our moral obligations
to the Indians render it necessary that means shall be taken
to ensure them an adequate food supply and a potential
source of revenue. This opens up the large question of
the relation of the Indians to wild-life conservation to which
further reference will be made later. But it cannot be too
often remarked that the Indian, when unspoiled by white
men, is traditionally a conserver of wild life, that is, he
uses it but does not exterminate it. The Indians and the
Eskimos knew what the results would be if they conducted
a policy of extermination, and they took common-sense
precautions accordingly. The Indians had their traditional
hunting-grounds, and under the guidance of the recognized
trading companies, particularly the Hudson’s Bay Company,

VALUE OF WILD LIFE TO THE NATION 13

they were careful not to exterminate in any area the fur-
bearing or game animals. This policy continued until the
advent of the independent fur trader—the ‘‘free trader”
and hunter—who observed no law and whose whole aim
was to secure the greatest quantity of furs by the quickest
method regardless of the future. The effect of men of this
type on the attitude of the Indian towards wild life was
what one might expect, but we cannot hold the latter en-
tirely responsible for his abandonment of his former habits.
The Indian will conserve wild life if he believes that it is
to his advantage to do so. He is not so “‘red in tooth and
claw” as many of those who are frequently accustomed to
speak ill of him. His primitive weapons were playthings
compared with the modern sporting rifles. The wild life
constituted his natural means of subsistence and, with the
advent of the trading companies, of revenue. In his primi-
tive state he was merely a unit in that balance of nature
that is so marvellously adjusted that while the abundance
of species of animals rises and falls extermination does not
follow the preying of one species of animal upon another.
For such changes as have been brought about in the Indian’s
attitude he is not to blame, and the foregoing facts are set
forth with a view to removing prejudice in the minds of
those who have not seriously considered the rights of the
Indians in this matter. Our obligations to them in those
areas where tribes still exist who have always lived on the
wild life that still constitutes a means of subsistence, cannot
be overlooked or neglected in developing those regions.
Recreative Value of Wild Life-—When we come to con-
sider the recreative value of our wild life we touch an aspect
of wild-life conservation that is as universal in its appeal
to the sentiments of Canadians as it is inestimable in its
value to the nation. Few men there are who never feel
or respond to the call of the open air, the lure of the wild;
and to all those who cast aside the daily task and seek re-

14 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

freshment on mountain or prairie, in the bush or by lake
or stream our wild life most commonly serves as the ob-
ject they have in view.

Kipling has expressed the call of the wild in his ‘‘The
Feet of the Young Men,” and all Canadian sportsmen re-
main young:

So for one the wet sail arching through the rainbow round the bow,

And for one the creak of snow-shoes on the crust;

And for one the lakeside lilies where the bull-moose waits the cow,

And for one the mule train coughing in the dust.

Who hath smelt wood smoke at twilight? Who hath heard the birch-
log burning?

Who is quick to read the noises of the night?

Let him follow with the others, for the Young Men’s feet are turning

To the camps of proved desire and known delight!

Do you know the blackened timber—do you know that racing stream
With the raw, right-angled log-jam at the end;

And the bar of sun warmed shingle where a man may bask and dream
To the click of shod canoe poles round the bend?

It is there that we are going with our rods and reels and traces,

To a silent, smoky Indian that we know—

To a couch of new-pulled hemlock with the starlight on our faces,
For the Red Gods call us out and we must go!

Do you know the world’s white roof-tree—do you know that windy rift
Where the baffling mountain-eddies chop and change?

Do you know the long day’s patience, belly-down on frozen drift,
While the head of heads is feeding out of range?

It is there that I am going, where the boulders and the snow lie,
With a trusty, nimble tracker that I know.

I have sworn an oath, to keep it on the Horns of Ovis poli,

And the Red Gods call me out and I must go!

Canadian sportsmen are fortunate on account of the
comparative ease with which they can satisfy their long-
ings, owing to the proximity of good hunting-grounds to
all our large centres of population. In few countries do
the same conditions exist.

VALUE OF WILD LIFE TO THE NATION 15

If we ask ourselves wherein lies the chief value of our
wild life from the recreative standpoint, the reply would
undoubtedly be in its relation to human efficiency. What
man is there who, after months of unremitting toil, takes
down his gun, rod, or camera, and, seeking the silence of the
open air for a week or two, does not come back physically
and mentally refreshed and remade? What can ever equal
the reinvigorating effect on body and mind of days spent
out in the open,

When you steal upon a land that man has not sullied with his intrusion,
When the aboriginal shy dwellers in the broad solitudes
Are asleep in their innumerable dens and night haunts
Amid the dry ferns, in the tender nests
Pressed into shape by the breasts of the Mother birds;
How shall we simulate the thrill of announcement
When lake after lake lingering in the starlight
Turn their faces towards you,
And are caressed in the salutation of colour?
—D. C. Scott.

Nothing can ever equal our wild life as a means of in-
creasing human efficiency where the tendency of modern
life is to work under the high pressure of city conditions.
As our population increases the need will become greater,
and unless every possible step is taken to conserve the wild
life for the refreshment of the men of the future we shall
gradually lose this unequalled source of national vigour.

So much has been written on this almost inexhaustible
theme that little that is new can be said, even if a more
lengthy treatment of this aspect of the value of our wild
life were desirable; but its value as a means of increasing
and maintaining our self-reliance and resourcefulness should
not be lost sight of. Nothing calls for resourcefulness so
much as the quest of wild life, when the beaten tracks of
a more civilized life, where everything is provided for one,
are left and one has to return to the primal competitive

16 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

habits. Resourcefulness is a characteristic of all those
called upon to conquer new lands. And on no occasion has
resourcefulness of such men stood them in so good stead as
when the Canadians barred the way to Calais in the second
battle of Ypres, or when the Australians and New Zealanders

held impossible positions in Gallipoli.

’ CHAPTER. III
THE EXTERMINATION OF WILD LIFE

One of the saddest features of the history of the wild
life during recent times has been the disappearance, that
is, the extermination of a number of animals that were
formerly abundant. And this has taken place during a
period in our history when our attitude towards such mat-
ters has been gradually changing for the better.

The pity of it all lies in the fact that once an animal be-
comes exterminated it cannot be replaced; it has gone for-
ever. Many of our resources may be lost for a time, but
they can be regained. Forests may be cut down or burnt,
but reafforestation is possible; towns may be destroyed by
fire, but better ones can rise from the ashes. It is not so
with our mammals and birds. Creatures that have existed
long before the advent of man disappear as a result of his
recklessness, and we are the poorer for their loss.

Nowhere is our fauna so rich where man has established
himself to any great extent that we can afford to permit the
complete disappearance of animals. Even the total destruc-
tion of our worst predatory animals would be an unfortunate
loss. In order, therefore, to understand thoroughly the
principles that are involved in the conservation of our wild
life, we must appreciate the causes responsible for its dis-
appearance, and realize the extent to which species have
become extinct and are becoming exterminated.

Main Causes of Extermination.—Broadly speaking, the
causes of extermination may be divided into two classes:
unavoidable and avoidable. To a very large extent the
extermination, at least the reduction to a point bordering

17

18 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

on extermination, of the buffalo was unavoidable, although,
as will be evident when the matter is more fully discussed
later, that reduction proceeded at a pace altogether out of
proportion to its necessity. The buffalo formerly ranged
over what have proved to be the most valuable grain-grow-
ing areas of the North American continent. With the set-
tlement and bringing under cultivation of those areas it
was inevitable that the range of the buffalo must become so
seriously restricted as to be a menace to the continued ex-
istence of this animal. Transcontinental railroads divided
the herds and hindered their normal migratory movements.
Settlement followed the railroads. From an economic
standpoint the case was against the existence of the buffalo
in anything approaching large numbers.

To a lesser extent the reduction in the number of the
antelope was unavoidable, at least so far as its history in
the Northwestern States and Prairie Provinces of Canada is
concerned. By the extension of the wheat-lands and the
gradual reduction in the areas of range country the area
available for antelope was seriously reduced and circum-
scribed. That fact, of course, was unavoidable, and led
to the further reduction by shooting, which was avoidable.

In a few cases animals have become extinct from natural
causes which were, of course, unavoidable. The case of
the Labrador duck (Plate I) affords an illustration of the
extinction of an animal from unknown causes.

On the other hand the extermination of other creatures,
particularly birds, was avoidable. The extermination of
the passenger pigeon and the great auk was brought about
mainly by wanton destruction, as unnecessary as one could
imagine. One of the chief objects of wild-life conservation
is to prevent the extermination of animals where this is
avoidable and to maintain the remnant of those animals
whose reduction to the verge of extermination has been
brought about by causes which are largely unavoidable as

THE EXTERMINATION OF WILD LIFE 19

they are consequent upon the economic development of the
country.

The main axiom of wild-life protection is this: A species
of animal must not be destroyed at a greater rate than it
can increase. Further, the preservation of any part of our
native fauna depends upon the maintenance of sufficient of
its normal range to permit unmolested feeding and breed-
ing. In other words, killing for recreation or food must be
wisely regulated, and the provision of refuges is indis-
pensable.

Much of the destruction that has taken place, and is
taking place, is thoughtless. The remedy for that is edu-
cation, supplemented necessarily by legislation. The peo-
ple of the United States and Canada are energetic in what-
ever they undertake, whether business or pleasure. But
that energy when applied to sport may be disastrous, and it
must be wisely restricted by law. Hornaday has aptly de-
scribed the struggle between the forces tending to destruc-
tion on the one hand and protection on the other. He
says: ‘In every township throughout the whole United
States the destroyers of wild life either are active in slaugh-
ter or are ready to become active the moment they are
left free to do so. Every beast, bird, fish, and creeping
thing has its human enemy. Americans are notoriously
enterprising, restless, and prone to venture. It is that rest-
less activity and indomitable nervous energy that is man-
fully attempting ‘dry-farming’ in the west, desert-farming
in the southwest, and the drainage of the Florida Everglades.
Often the joy of the conquest of nature outruns the love of
cash returns. Apply that spirit to forests, and it quickly
becomes devastation. Apply it to wild life and it quickly
becomes extermination. Our conquering and pulverizing
natural spirit is a curse to all our wild life.”’

Danger in Numbers.—The very abundance of our wild
life has frequently been the cause of its extermination.

20 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Who would have thought of suggesting, less than one hun-
dred years ago, when flocks of millions of passenger pigeons ~
ranged over the whole United States and parts of Canada,
their multitudes at times darkening the air, that in the year
1916 not a single living specimen would exist? Yet the
only specimens we have are the stuffed ones and the skins
in our museums and private collections. This bird was
wiped out of existence for the market and for the pot. Mr.
W. B. Mershon has recorded the shipment, in 1869, from
the town of Hartford, Mich., for the market, of three car-
loads of pigeons daily for forty days, making a total of
11,880,000 birds. Another town in Michigan marketed
15,840,000 pigeons in two years. These are samples of the
destruction that was taking place everywhere. No creature
could withstand the effects of such slaughter.

The great auk, one of our most interesting sea-birds, re-
lated to the murres, was formerly abundant on the islands
and shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Easy of capture
and about the size of a goose, it was killed in thousands by
the crews of vessels engaged in its destruction for the sake
of the oil it contained. To-day it is extinct. Few skins
remain in our museums and its eggs are so scarce that they
are worth about $1,200 each.

Along our Atlantic coast the Eskimo curlew (Numenius
borealis Forst.) used to wing its way in countless myriads
during its fall migration from the breeding-places in the
Barren Grounds to South America. In the spring it trav-
elled north again across the interior and swarmed over the
prairies. They landed in enormous numbers on the Atlantic
coast, from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia to New Eng-
land. In Newfoundland their millions darkened the sky
and the fishermen salted them down in barrels. Every year
they were killed in thousands for the market; they suffered
by reason of their excessive abundance, At the close of the

PLATE I

CANADIAN BIRDS WHICH HAVE BEEN EXTERMINATED WITHIN
RECENT YEARS AND ARE NOW EXTINCT

1. Passenger Pigeon
2. Great Auk
3. Labrador Duck

‘THE EXTERMINATION OF WILD LIFE 21

last century ornithologists realized that this most useful and
highly esteemed of our American game birds was disappear-

.g, until in 1908 Preble stated: “It has become practically
exterminated, although formerly enormously abundant and
fairly common up to 1890.” The market demand and the
tastes of the epicures have sealed its fate. Its abundance
proved to be its destruction.

As with the birds so with our mammals, and in later chap-
ters the reduction of the buffalo and the antelope from mil-
lions to a few thousands will be described. To-day the
caribou is undoubtedly in danger of a similar fate. And in
fact the same is true of any animal, be it bird or mammal:
so long as mere numbers are regarded as a reason for exces-
sive killing, just so surely will the extermination of an
imal follow. It should also be pointed out that when a
formerly abundant animal becomes reduced in numbers the
remnant may tend to herd together and thus give an im-
pression locally of great abundance. This danger exists in
the case of such a gregarious animal as the caribou. Local
abundance, therefore, should never be taken as an indica-
‘ion of general abundance and as a reason for permitting
killing in large numbers.

_It is therefore of the greatest importance to realize that
numerical abundance is no guarantee that an animal will
not be exterminated, unless its destruction is carefully regu-
lated and permitted to a very limited degree. The examples
given are surely sufficient proof of this fact, and should be
a serious warning to us in the conservation of the more
abundant species of mammals and birds.

The Various Adverse Factors——The greatest exterminator
of all wild life has always been the market hunter, caring
only for the largest and most immediate pecuniary returns
and utterly regardless of the future and of the rights of pos-
terity to enjoy the wild creatures, both furred and feathered,

22 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

that our hospitable land so abundantly provided, and still
provides if we will only conserve them in accordance with
their needs.

Compared with the rapacity of man, the destruction of
our wild life by natural factors is slight, although it must
demand our serious consideration. When animals become
reduced in numbers through man’s improvidence, then their
natural enemies which have not suffered a like diminution
take an unnatural and abnormal toll. The usual balance
of nature is completely upset, and the remnant is exposed
to excessive numbers of their enemies. The latter increase
in numbers and become emboldened in their attacks. Pred-
atory animals, such as wolves, harry the struggling bands
whose former abundance enabled them to withstand the
natural onslaughts of their enemies. Therefore, when an
animal is reduced in numbers, the necessity of lessening the
effects of natural reduction by predatory enemies becomes
an important part of any policy of protection.

In Canada forest fires constitute one of the most serious
dangers to animal life. Not only do such conflagrations de-
stroy large numbers of mammals and birds, particularly
young ones, but they destroy the haunts of such animals,
and in consequence any replenishing or restocking of the
devastated area is impeded for some time, and in any case
the conditions are never as suitable or as attractive.

It has already been pointed out that a species of animal
must not be destroyed at a greater rate than it can increase.
This axiom involves a number of fundamental requirements.
The first of these is the necessity of safeguarding the future
of the species by adequate protection of the females. When
the females of game animals are killed a reduction in num-
bers will invariably ensue, and the decrease in the abun-
dance of game animals, owing to the killing of the females,
is now generally recognized by those responsible for the
protection of game. Where the females are not protected

THE EXTERMINATION OF WILD LIFE 23

the chances of serious reduction and ultimate extermina-
tion are enormously increased. The second requisite in the
conservation of a species of game animal is a realization of
the effect that inevitably follows the killing of the most
virile males. The sportsman’s aim is usually to secure the
finest specimen, which usually implies the largest male; in
the case of deer this means the best head. If this quest is
carried out to excess it may involve the destruction of the
most virile animals to an extent that would affect the gen-
eral virility of the local stock of game with the obvious re-
sults. The stock would undergo degeneration, and the de-
structive effects of natural factors would be correspondingly
enhanced. The remedy for this state of affairs is regula-
tion as regards the number of males that may be killed, and
the maintenance of a virile nucleus by means of protected
refuges. The latter remedy will be considered more fully
in a later chapter.

Apart from inadequate protection, which is an avoidable
factor in ultimate extermination, great reduction in numbers
has been brought about in the case of our wild fowl, such as
ducks and geese, by the extension of agriculture in various
parts of the country, but particularly in the Prairie Prov-
inces. The drainage of swamps and natural breeding-places
has been an important factor in the reduction of our supply
of wild fowl. And these birds have been gradually pushed
further afield from their former breeding-places. The rem-
edy for this state of affairs, so far as a remedy can be ap-
plied, is the reservation of areas unsuitable for profitable
agriculture as refuges and breeding-places to secure as
abundant a local supply of birds as possible.

Inadequate protection of wild fowl during the spring has
been one of the chief causes of an avoidable character of the
great reduction in the numbers of ducks, geese, and shore-
birds. Spring shooting, had it been permitted to continue
—by international action, of which I shall speak later, it

24 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

has been wholly prohibited—would not only have reduced —
the numbers of wild fowl as a whole to seriously small pro-
portions, but would undoubtedly have led to the extermina-
tion of certain species. Fall shooting is perfectly legitimate
so long as the number that may be killed is limited by law,
as it involves only the destruction of a portion of the annual
increase; that is, it is using the interest on the capital stock
of birds. But spring shooting implies the destruction of
the breeding stock, that is, of the capital. The supporters
of spring shooting either refused or failed to realize that,
even though the birds, during migration, are not actually
- breeding, they are generally mated. Many species of ducks
mate as early as February, and the killing of such birds in-
volved the reduction of the number of birds required to
maintain an increase sufficient to provide legitimate shoot-
ing in the fall without effecting a reduction in the total
number.

But of all factors responsible for the enormous reduction
in the numbers of our wild fowl the market gunner was one
of the most serious. Absolutely devoid of any desire to
conserve birds, and inbred with the sole desire to kill as
many birds as possible, and in the shortest time, the market
gunner was only limited by the physical impossibility of
killing more than a certain number of birds per day. The
great slaughtering-grounds on which our Canadian-bred
birds were killed in their thousands for the markets of New
York, Boston, Philadelphia, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chi-
cago, San Francisco, and other large cities in the United
States, were: Cape Cod; Great South Bay, New York; Cur-
rituck Sound, North Carolina; Marsh Island, Louisiana;
the Sunk Lands of Arkansas; the Lake regions of Minnesota;
the prairie regions of the Middle West; the Great Salt Lake;
the Klamath Lake region in Oregon; and in southern Cali-
fornia. To-day the number of wild fowl to be found in
these places is but a small proportion of the former thou-

THE EXTERMINATION OF WILD LIFE 25

sands, and certain of these haunts, such as Marsh Island
and Klamath Lakes, have been set aside as bird refuges.

In conclusion, let it be remembered that the extermination
of any animal cannot be prevented unless such an animal is
sufficiently protected to obviate the danger of its destruc-
tion at a greater rate than its natural increase.

CHAPTER IV
THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA

Ir has already been pointed out that Canada and Alaska
constitute the last strongholds of the chief “‘big game”
animals ot the North American continent. Although their
numbers have decreased, the larger mammals of our native
fauna may still be found in fair numbers in our forests and
on our mountains.

In this chapter I propose to deal with the larger members
of our wild life, and to describe as briefly as possible their
distribution, habits, and abundance. A knowledge of these
facts is essential to an understanding of the need for their
conservation, and of the steps by which this may be ac-
complished. This is especially important in the case of
the musk-ox and the antelope, which are the two most in-
teresting and scientifically unique of our large native mam-
mals, and which will be exterminated within a few years
unless absolute protection is given to them and rigorously
enforced. Further, the great possibility of utilizing such
larger members of our wild life as the barren-ground caribou
and deer as a source of meat has been urged, and the facts
that will be set forth in this chapter will serve to empha-
size and lead to a greater appreciation of this potential food
supply.

THE WAPITI, OR ELK

The wapiti or elk (Cervus canadensis) is the handsomest
of all our native deer, and next to the moose it is the largest.
It is the North American representative of the European
red deer, and formerly was the most widely distributed

26

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 27

member of the deer family in North America. But the
histories of all the largest and most interesting members of
our wild life are depressingly similar, and all have suffered
the inevitable result of territorial development and man’s
improvident greed for slaughter. Thousands of these splen-

Fie. I—ELK-HORN PYRAMID

Such pyramids used to be found in the great plains, indicating the former
- abundance of the Wapiti

(After Baird)

did animals have been slain merely for the sake of their
teeth. No condemnation of this iniquitous practice can
be too strong, and every possible means should be taken to
put an end to the practice of dealing in and wearing elk
“‘tusks,”’ in view of the barbarous significance of such use-
less emblems. The result is that to-day the abundance of
the wapiti is but one-twentieth of what it was formerly,
according to Hornaday. The latest estimate of their num-
bers over the whole of their present restricted range in

28 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

the United States is 70,000,* of which nearly half are to be
- found in Wyoming, mainly in and about Yellowstone Na-
tional Park.

Distribution and Abundance in Canada.—Its original
range is shown in the accompanying map prepared by
Ernest Thompson Seton; this also shows the present range.
Formerly the wapiti occupied the greater portion of the cen-
tral region of the continent. They ranged from Quebec,
Massachusetts, and North Carolina in the east, to the
Pacific coast of California on the west, and from the Peace
River region and northern Manitoba in the north, to Mexico
in the south. Now they are restricted to certain regions in
the Prairie Provinces of Canada, as will be described later,
to British Columbia, and to Montana, Wyoming, Colorado,
and the Pacific Coast States.

When Jacques Cartier ascended the St. Lawrence to
Hochelaga in 1535, ‘‘stags’”’ were found in large numbers.
The region of Kingston, Ont., is marked on Champlain’s
map of 1632 as a region where these animals occurred in
abundance. Father Lemoine, sailing on the St. Lawrence
in 1653-4, found large numbers of what were undoubtedly
wapiti in that region. To-day there are no ‘‘wild” wapiti
east of Manitoba.

In Manitoba they must have been very abundant in the
early days, judging from the large numbers of antlers that
are to be found, particularly in the southern portion of the
province; but wapiti were exterminated from that region
of the province many years ago. To-day they are to be
found fairly abundantly in the Riding Mountains, and in
the territory lying between Lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba.
The increased protection afforded by the Riding Mountains
Game Reserve is undoubtedly helping them to increase in
numbers, and, in spite of much illegal killing that has taken

* “Our National Elk Herds,” by H. S. Graves and E. W. Nelson. U.S.
Dept. Agriculture, Circular No. 51, 1919.

Sakic G3AINN

seole

popegs oy} Aq uUMOYS ST OMNI

“SIP }uosoid oy, 1 ‘epeuep ur Ide

643 JO UOINII4SIp JoMIIOJ 949 seqeo

-Ipul ‘deul s,uojeg-uosdmoy,y, wo
Uoye} SI YOM ‘ouly HoVlq Hom oyL

VAVNVO NI MT HO ILIdVM

qHL dO WONVY LSVd GNV LNG
-SHUd AHL ONILVULSOTTII dv

30 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

place, Mr. Charles Barber, the chief game warden for Mani-
toba, informs me that they are increasing in numbers and
that the females appear to predominate. He believes that
there are approximately six or seven hundred animals at
the present time. These are to be found in the following
districts: four or five hundred are in the vicinity of the
Riding Mountains, and about one or two hundred are sup-
posed to be roaming in the territory between Lakes Winni-
peg and Manitoba.

The Province of Manitoba is to be congratulated on the
action it took in 1917 in amending its game laws to provide
for an absolute close season on wapiti. Such a wise and
public-spirited step will undoubtedly assist this most de-
sirable game and meat animal to regain somewhat its former
numbers in those portions of the province so admirably
suited to its needs, and unsuitable for agricultural develop-
ment.

In Saskatchewan Mr. F. Bradshaw, chief game guar-
dian, stated in his annual report for the year ending April
30, 1916, that the Game Act has been amended to limit
the bag of this animal to one male only. ‘‘This step is in
the right direction,’’ he states, ‘‘but the elk is so desperately
near the danger zone that a close season for a number of
years would be in the best interests of this animal. The
number of elk killed this year is 200, which is a slight in-
crease over last year’s figures.”’ In his annual report for
the year ending April 30, 1917, Mr. Bradshaw reported on
the wapiti as follows:

In our last report we made reference to the fact that the elk are in
danger of being exterminated, and suggested that it would be in the
interests of these animals, and of all persons concerned for the future
welfare of the elk, to close the season for a period of years. This is the
opinion held by all game conservationists who are familiar with condi-
tions as they prevail in Saskatchewan. Naturally if there were any ob-
jections against prohibiting the hunting of elk for a number of years

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 3l

they would come from the sportsmen who hunt these animals. In order
that we might have the valuable opinions of these men, the department
communicated with each person reported having killed elk last season.

The replies received indicate quite plainly that elk-hunting is re-
stricted to certain localities. . . . Over 90 per cent of the 175 elk killed
last year were secured in townships 51, 52, 53, and 54, ranges 18 to 27
both inclusive, all west of the 2nd meridian. This appears to be the
only elk-hunting ground of any account in our province, and it will take
but a few years to deplete the few remaining herds, if action is not taken
to save them... . . The majority of our correspondents are of the opin-
ion that the elk are decreasing in numbers, and unlawful hunting by
Indians is given by many as a cause for this decrease.

Mr. Bradshaw informed me verbally, in 1915, that he
thought the wapiti were decreasing. The number killed
would indicate that Thompson Seton’s estimate of 500 in
1907 was too low for the number of wapiti in this province.
Mr. Bradshaw has kindly furnished me with a map showing
the present distribution of the wapiti in Saskatchewan, and
they appear to be confined to the following regions: South-
east of Prince Albert, in the neighbourhood of Basin and
Lenore Lakes; northeast of Prince Albert, in the lake coun-
try north of the Saskatchewan River; and north of Battle-
ford in the region between Turtle and Pelican Lakes and the
Big River. In view of the comparative scarcity of this
animal in Saskatchewan and the necessity of providing an
absolute close season, the Commission of Conservation made
strong representations to the Saskatchewan Government on
the subject in 1918, and supported the local efforts to
secure such permanent protection. We are pleased to re-
cord that the Saskatchewan Game Act was amended in
1919 to provide for an absolute close season in elk in that
province. This will enable the wapiti to increase in a
region so well adapted to its requirements.

The numbers of wapiti in Alberta have decreased, accord-
ing to a report furnished me by Mr. B. Lawton, the chief
game guardian, and only an absolute close season such as

32 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

the provincial government has now declared can prevent
their reduction to the point of extermination.

In British Columbia the wisdom of adequate protection
has been demonstrated by the increase of the wapiti, both
on the mainland and on Vancouver Island. The largest
numbers of wapiti on the mainland are to be found in the
East Kootenay and Rocky Mountains regions. The fol-
lowing reports by two officers of the Geological Survey of
Canada have been furnished to me. Mr. R. C. McDonald,
writing on December 12, 1916, states: ‘‘Near the summit of
the White River and southwest of Mount Fox in British
Columbia, I saw several herds of elk. This section is not
within the park [Rocky Mountains Park, Alta.] boundaries,
and, as it is the only place where I saw elk during the
season, I consider that they should be well protected in
order that they may multiply and finally find their way
into the park.” Mr. D. A. Nichols, writing on December
11, 1916, states: ‘‘In the section covered during 1915 and
1916 in British Columbia and Alberta, the big game, es-
pecially the elk, goat, sheep, deer and bear, were very plen-
tiful. At the headwaters of the Palliser, Spray, Elk, and
Kananaskis Rivers, the elk, which at one time were nearly
extinct, are increasing rather rapidly, so that bands from
ten to twenty-five were seen quite frequently. It has been
rumoured that the season for elk was to be thrown open.
It seems to me that they should be protected for some time
to come in order that they might increase sufficiently so
that they could spread out to the foot-hills where at one
time they were so prevalent. In early times they roamed
over the plains and foot-hills, and have only taken refuge
in the mountainous sections on account of excessive hunt-
ing. Efficient protection will still have to be granted to
them, for the band that I saw were so tame that we could
ride up to within 150 yards of them with the saddle-horses
and pack-train. If they are hunted in these valleys they

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 39

can easily be slaughtered, as the valleys are very narrow,
and the elk, unlike sheep or goat, do not find sanctuary in
the higher altitudes of rugged peaks. A sanctuary of several
square miles at the head of the White, Palliser, Spray, Kana-
naskis, and Elk Rivers would assist in preserving these bands
of elk.”

I have also received other reports of a similar encouraging
nature from men who have recently visited this region.

In his annual report for 1914, Mr. Bryan Williams, the
provincial game warden for British Columbia, reports on
the wapiti as follows:

Reports from Vancouver Island are much more encouraging than they
were. Several quite big bands and a number of small ones are known of
in certain places, and these bands are larger, at any rate, than they were
when the last report was written. Also calves have been reported for
the first time for several years; so that there is good reason to believe
that there is an increase. Now that wolves are getting quite scarce and
- cougars hunted more and more, the calves will have a much better chance,
and the prospects for the future are much better.

Wapiti in southern East Kootenay are still doing well. In the north-
ern part of the district wapiti have been reported in the western side of
the Columbia. This is the first time such a report has been received.
If it is true, and they have established themselves there, it will be a
splendid thing. Years ago wapiti used to winter right along the benches
of the valley, and though the lower benches of the valley are much too
settled for this to happen again, there is and will be plenty of range for
them for years to come along the foot-hills.

In his annual report for 1915, Mr. Williams is able to
record a continued encouraging increase. He states:

In East Kootenay wapiti are still increasing, although no further re-
ports of the small band that crossed the Selkirks have been received.
On Vancouver Island there is an undoubted increase, particularly in the
southern part. It will, however, be most advisable to keep a close season
on these animals for a good many years yet; at any rate, on Vancouver
Island, though in the Kootenay District in a year or two it may be possi-
ble to have a short open season,

34 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

In the annual report of the provincial game warden of
British Columbia for 1918, a small herd of wapiti is re-
ported pasturing around the south end of the Elk Valley
Game Reserve (see p. 239) and a larger herd is known to
be in the vicinity of the headwaters of the White River.
Efforts to secure a short open season have proved unsuc-
cessful, as the Game Conservation Board considers that the
absence of any reports of an increase in the number of wapiti
does not warrant such action.* The wapiti liberated at
Bridge River, near Lillooet, are reported as doing well,
and two claims for damages done by these animals to the
crops of Indians in that district have been paid.

In the Dominion Parks of western Canada successful
efforts are being made to increase the herds of wapiti that
are protected in those areas. The following figures of their
numbers in the year 1919 have been furnished me by the
Commissioner of Dominion Parks, Mr. J. B. Harkin:

Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alta. ><: c/e4\c 5s oua.n ase eee 106
Roeky Mountains’ Park, Alta... 544 03 Jonas Vee eee 27
te Yelena Pants Alte i Veta ile ra ey tas eed (estimated) 106

The superintendent of the Waterton Lakes Park reported
that in 1915 a herd of wapiti was to be seen almost any time
near Turret Mountain. ‘‘This herd has increased greatly,”
he states, ‘‘and is now estimated at about 200 head.”

In 1916 a herd of about fifty-eight animals was secured
from Jackson Hole, Wyoming, by the Commissioner of
Dominion Parks, with the intention of placing them in the
large wapiti enclosure in Waterton Lakes Park. The wapiti
previously enclosed in that park will be liberated, and by
this means a beginning will be made in stocking the enor-
mous area of the park over which this animal formerly
ranged, and into the western region of which the increase

*It is to be greatly regretted that in 1919 the Game Conservation Board
permitted the restricted hunting of wapiti. We feel that these animals are
by no means sufficiently abundant as yet to permit hunting.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 39

from British Columbia herds is already beginning to wander,
as shown by the reports that I have already quoted.

The foregoing review of the present status of the wapiti
in Canada affords ground for optimism with regard to the
future of this, the most magnificent of our native deer. If
the encouragement and almost complete protection that
they are now receiving is continued and with the increase
of public sentiment in favour of such protection—we have
every reason to believe that it will be maintained—the
wapiti will continue to increase in those parts of Canada
most adapted to its needs and mode of life, and where it
formerly existed in abundance.

Habits of the Wapitt.—The feeding habits of the wapiti
vary somewhat according to the season of the year. For-
merly, when it enjoyed an extensive range, it usually re-
treated to the wooded slopes of the mountains and other
wooded regions during the summer season, and there it
browsed on buds, leaves, and twigs, and grazed on such
woodland grasses as it might find. It is an animal with
both browsing and grazing habits. In the winter it
wandered on the open prairies and grazed where the snow
was not too deep. Deep snow usually compels them to
seek the wooded regions. The best country for the wapiti
is one which combines such summer and winter range as
I have described.

During the summer the bulls lead a solitary life and by
September their splendid antlers have attained their full
size. They are very polygamous animals, and, at this season
of the year, fully prepared for struggles with other bulls for
the control of as large a band of cows as they can secure,
they challenge their rivals to combat. In regions inhabited
by the wapiti the wild call of the bull is an inspiring sound.
Followed by his band of cows he climbs the crest of any
near-by hill, and utters the well-known bugle-notes. The
first guttural notes are roared out in an ascending scale

36 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

until the shrill call reaches a screaming whistle, which grad-
ually fades away again to a few guttural grunts as the chal-
lenge is echoed down the valley. The real bugle-notes are
only uttered by the mature bulls.

During the winter the animals frequently congregate in
herds, and in Wyoming these number many thousands.
In the spring the cows remain banded in small herds until
the time for the birth of the calves approaches. They then
separate, and in solitude bring forth, about May or June, a
single calf, which remains with the mother until it is a
year old. The bulls drop their antlers in March or April,
and the growth of the new pair is rapid, usually attaining
full size in about three months. They are ‘‘in velvet” un-
til about August, when the animals hasten the shedding of
the velvet by rubbing their antlers against trees or bushes.

The flesh is in the poorest condition at the end of the rut-
ting season, that is, in October; and, as bull wapiti are usu-
ally killed soon after this, the venison is often inferior in
quality. When killed at the proper season and allowed to
hang for a few days, the meat is much superior to most
forms of venison.

Economic Value of Wapiti.—Apart from its value from
the point of view of the sportsman, to whom it appeals
more than any other species of deer, the value of the wapiti
as a source of wild-deer meat cannot be overestimated. As
already stated, it affords venison of a superior kind. By
its habits it is adapted to living in wooded country not well
suited to cattle grazing. In Canada we have large areas
of such country in the former and present range of the
wapiti. With the preservation of those timbered areas
should be associated the preservation of the wapiti. Their
polygamous habits tend to render less difficult their preser-
vation and use.

There are many wooded areas admirably adapted to
wapiti that might be stocked to advantage with these

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 37

animals. The successful efforts of the Forest, Fish, and
Game Commission of the State of New York serve as an
excellent example of what may be accomplished in this
direction. From 1901 to 1903 several small herds of wapiti
were presented by the owners of private herds, and these
were liberated in small bands, chiefly on State lands. Their
increase was so satisfactory that by the end of 1907 it was
estimated that the total number at large in the Adirondacks
was about 350.

The wapiti can be readily bred in private parks, and in
his useful bulletin on the raising of deer David E. Lantz*
has given many successful examples of such private enter-
prise. This bulletin gives full information on the manage-
ment of these animals, and will be found of great assistance
to any persons who may desire to undertake this commend-
able line of game preservation.

DEER

In Canada we have three species of deer, excluding the
wapiti or elk: the white-tailed or ‘‘red”’ deer, also called the
Virginia deer (Odocotleus virginianus); the mule deer, or
Rocky Mountain ‘‘black-tail’’ (Odocoileus hemionus) of the
west, and the Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus colum-
bianus) of the Pacific coast. The three species are very
distinct and easily separated; they exhibit differences in
size, form, antlers, and certain other structural details, and
in their habits; all of which characteristics will be described
in the following accounts of the three species.

THe WHITE-TAILED DrxErR (Odocoileus virginianus)

Strange as it may seem, the territory occupied by. this
timid denizen of our woods and forests has actually increased,
* David E. Lantz, ‘‘Raising Deer and Other Large Game Animals in the

United States.” U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Biological Survey Bull. No. 36,
62 pp., 8 plates, 1910.

38 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

owing to the settlement of the country, and it is only in
regions where there has been insufficient or no protection
that its numbers have decreased. In this respect it differs
from many of the larger forms of our native wild life, and
its tendency to extend its range with the settlement of the
country, and to increase in numbers when given adequate
protection, are facts of very great economic importance in
the development of a ‘“‘wild”’ meat supply, to which subject
reference has already been made (pp. 8-10).

The chief distinguishing characteristics of this species are
the form of the antlers and tail, and the length of the gland
on the outer side of the hind shank. The length of this
gland is about one inch long in the white-tail, two inches
long in the Columbian black-tail, and three inches long in
the mule deer.

2

ay
Fra. Il—ANTLERS OF THE WHITE-TAILED DEER (1) AND MULE
DEER (2)

The antlers of the white-tailed deer, after rising for a
short distance from the forehead, bend suddenly forward
so that the beam is almost horizontal and the tines rise
perpendicularly. The characteristic tail, from which this
species derives its name, is long and bushy. The under side
is white, and the edges are fringed with the same colour.
When it is startled it runs away, carrying its white tail aloft,
and this conspicuous appendage sways stiffly from side to
side with every leaping movement of its owner.

See

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 39

It derives its name, the ‘‘red”’ deer, by which it is fre-
quently known in eastern Canada, from the rusty red or
yellowish-brown colour of its summer coat; but this name
is very undesirable, as it leads to confusion with the red
deer of Europe. The red coat is replaced in the fall by a
winter coat of brownish gray.

Distribution.—The white-tailed deer is distributed from
Nova Scotia to Alberta. Its favourite haunt is brushy
river bottoms and deep woods that are interspersed with
open spaces. In the plains regions of the west it haunts
the tree-lined water-courses. Where its favourite woods
have been cut down, as in the long-settled parts of Ontario,
it has disappeared. But, on the other hand, it has followed
the settlements into the wooded regions where the clearing
of the forest has provided it with the environment that it
prefers, and it has thus extended its range northward. On
the edges of settlements it secures greater protection from
the wolves that harass it in the deeper recesses of the for-
ests, and when its natural food is scarce it is able to satisfy
its hunger on the settlers’ crops.

Habits —During the winter deer of both sexes herd to-
gether, often in fairly large bands; and they feed on ever-
greens, twigs, moss, and such dried grass as they are able
to obtain. With the advent of spring and the melting of
the snow the older bucks wander off, leaving the does with
the young deer of the previous year. In May the does seek
solitude in the thicker cover of the woods, and there bring
forth their young. In the first year they usually have one
fawn; in the second and subsequent years two fawns are
generally born. Sometimes three fawns are produced, but
such records are not common. The young fawns lie hidden
during the day and are visited periodically by the doe,
which never wanders far away from them. The coats of
the young fawns are of a rich brown colour, speckled with
white spots, thus forming a colouration that is very pro-

40 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

tective in character, resembling as it does spots of light
falling on a dark object. This form of protective coloura-
tion is characteristic of the young of many species of deer
during their comparatively helpless state. When they are
several weeks old the fawns begin to follow their mothers.
During the greater part of the day they rest, and they
emerge from their wooded retreats at sunset and in the early
hours of the morning to feed and drink. These foraging
expeditions are never conducted in black darkness, but
on moonlight nights they take advantage of the light.
Towards October the fawns are weaned, and they quickly
lose their speckled coats and assume the grayish winter
coats.

While the does devote themselves during the spring and
summer months to their maternal duties, the bucks wander
off, frequently in pairs, and lead a bachelor life. They
usually lose their antlers in January, and very vigorous
animals may lose them a little earlier. The new antlers
begin to appear a few weeks after the old ones are dropped,
and they complete their growth about August. The velvet
with which the new antlers are clothed soon begins to fall
off, and its loss is hastened by persistent scraping. By the
end of September the buck is in possession of a clean pair of
antlers, and is prepared for the masculine contests that are
to take place during the next few months. The advent of
the fall brings a richer food supply in the shape of nuts,
acorns, etc., on which the deer feed and grow fat. In Octo-
ber the bucks, whose necks have begun to swell, commence
to seek the does, to whose presence they have been indiffer-
ent earlier in the season. By November the rutting season
is at its height. The bucks not only fight among them-
selves but will sometimes attack man at this time, and they
have not infrequently proved to be dangerous adversaries.
All keepers of park deer should be particularly cautious
during the rutting season. The rutting season may last

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 41

as long as two months, but by the middle of December the
mating fury subsides, and bucks, does, and their fawns of
that year wander the woods together until the deepening
snows circumscribe their movements and confine them to
‘“‘yards” of well-trodden snow, from which paths radiate
to their chosen feeding-grounds. Deep snow is a calamity
to the deer, and their wanderings are limited until the ad-
vent of warm days in the spring releases them and permits
the resumption of the separate life of the sexes. When
the bucks are in their prime they may weigh as much as
300 pounds.

Abundance.—The white-tailed deer is the most abundant
larger-game animal throughout its range in Canada, par-
ticularly in the east. In the early days it was the chief
source of meat, and, in many cases, of clothing, and many a
settler has been saved from starvation by the presence of
this animal.

Formerly it did not occur in a large part of the region
in eastern Canada that it now occupies. From its original
home in the south it has followed the settlers into our north-
ern woods.

It has been generally believed that the white-tailed deer
did not formerly exist in Nova Scotia. Recently, however,
bones of this deer have been found in two widely separated
prehistoric Indian shell-heaps by archeologists of the
Canadian Geological Survey.* Toe bones were found in a
shell-heap near Mahone Bay, by Mr. W. J. Wintemberg,
in 1913, and a toe bone was also found in a shell-heap on
Merigomish harbour, on the north coast, by Mr. Harlan
I. Smith, in 1914. Other bones, supposedly of the same
species, have also been found in these heaps. These dis-
coveries indicate the existence of the white-tailed deer in
Nova Scotia in prehistoric times. The absence of deer
made it necessary to introduce them into Nova Scotia.

*Science, N. 8., Vol. 49, No. 1275, p. 540, June 6, 1919.

42 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Mr. Carmen Odell of Annapolis Royal, N. S., who under-
took the work of introduction, has kindly furnished me
with the following data: The first introduction took place in
March, 1896, when nine deer which had been captured in
Charlotte County, N. B., were liberated in Yarmouth and
Digby Counties, N. S. Five more were liberated about
1910. So far as is known there has been no immigration of
deer into Nova Scotia from New Brunswick by way of
Cumberland County, N. 8. Following their introduction
a permanent close season was maintained on deer in Nova
Scotia until 1916. By that time they had so increased in
numbers, and in some instances were not only becoming
somewhat tame, but were also destroying crops in certain
sections that a short open season of ten days was declared,
and about 150 deer were reported as having been legally
killed that year. All the game wardens report an increase
in numbers and none report decrease.

In New Brunswick and Quebec the deer are generally
plentiful and increasing in certain sections. While in parts
of Ontario the deer have decreased in numbers in recent
years owing to the ravages of wolves,—which have been
very destructive where they have been reported,—in most
districts the deer are plentiful, and in many places they
are reported to be rapidly increasing in numbers. In all
parts of their range wherever extensive forest fires have oc-
curred the numbers of deer have been reduced.

Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of
maintaining such protection as is necessary to imsure a
plentiful supply of this excellent food animal, which is
specially adapted to life in regions bordering settlement.
Further, the value of this animal as a means of rendering
productive vast areas that are unsuited for agriculture,
such as we find throughout eastern Canada, cannot be too
often insisted upon. The white-tailed deer affords an im-
mensely important potential supply of ‘“‘wild meat”’ that is

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 43

easily accessible to the people; and the need for such a sup-
ply was never so pressing as at the present time. The main-
tenance of adequate protection, especially the protection of
does, will result in an increase in the number of deer, and
thus afford a greater number of people the opportunity of

Fig. III.—TAILS OF THE WHITE-TAILED (1), MULE-DEER (2), AND
COLUMBIA BLACK-TAILED DEER (3)

supplementing their food supplies. Any relaxation of pro-
tection would result in a decrease in the deer population
which it would take years of protection to restore.

THE Moun Deer (Odocoileus hemionus)

The mule deer, or ‘‘ jumping deer,’ as it is called in Mani-
toba on account of its peculiar gait, is larger than the white-
tailed deer and heavier in build. Its distinguishing char-
acteristics are the large, broad ears, from which it receives
its popular name; the rounded, whitish tail with its black
tip, and the form of its antlers. The antlers of this species
and of the Columbian black-tail differ markedly from those
of the white-tailed deer in their size and form. They are
larger, and are doubly branching. The main beams, instead

dt CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

of being single as in the case of the white-tailed deer, are
bifurcated, and each branch is double-pronged.

Distribution.—Their range extends from southern Mani-
toba on the east to northern Alberta in the north, and south-
ern British Columbia in the west. Embracing as they do
within their range such varied conditions, their habitat
varies somewhat according to the region they occupy. In
the eastern part of its range they frequent the low hills,
especially where they are wooded and provide cover, and in
the wooded valleys of rivers and streams. In the west they
occur in the foot-hills and among the open growth of pine
in the mountains. On the whole, their favourite haunts are
different from those chosen by the white-tail, being more
open and exposed.

Habits.—Their habits are, in general, not very different
from those of the white-tailed deer. During the winter the
mixed bands of all ages and sexes wander around together,
sometimes in large bands, several hundred having been re-
corded occurring in single bands when they have been plen-
tiful. When they run fast going down-hill their gait is a
peculiar bounding motion on all four feet; hence the name
‘Jumping deer.”

Abundance.—In Manitoba, Seton states that in 1882 to
1885 they were very scarce. Owing to the better protec-
tion that they have received since that time they have
greatly increased in numbers. Mr. Charles Barber, chief
game guardian for Manitoba, states that they are now to
be found in more or less abundance in every part of the
province, and are increasing in numbers. They are found
chiefly in the Pembina Hills and that part of the province
lying between Portage la Prairie and Brandon, through
which district the Assiniboine River flows. They also oc-
cur in fair numbers east of the Red River in that section of
the province through which flow the Brokenhead and White-
mouth Rivers. In Saskatchewan they are reported by Mr.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 45

F. Bradshaw, the chief game warden, to be increasing in
the closed territory south of township 34. Very few sports-
men are said to hunt deer in Saskatchewan while moose and
wapiti are available. Four hundred and seventy-eight deer
were killed in 1916.

In Alberta the following figures indicate the extent to
which deer have been killed under license since 1907:

1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918
59 125 299 540 619 768 908 1388 692 560 705 828

But these figures do not represent the actual numbers
killed, as no returns are available north of the fifty-fifth
parallel.

The mule deer is found in the valley of the Peace River.
Preble states:

In the summer of 1895, J. Alden Loring reported seeing a doe of this
species at Jasper House; and he observed many tracks in the vicinity
of Henry House. In July, 1896, he saw fresh tracks along the stream in
the valley 15 miles south of Henry House. He reported the species rare
between Jasper House and Smoky River, but saw tracks on the Grand
Cache River and the north bank of the Smoky River in the early autumn;
and saw tracks of two bands in the mountains west of Henry House
about the middle of October. J. T. Edmonton assured me that during
the fall of 1897 a few black-tailed deer frequented the vicinity of Stony
Rapid, on the Athabaska, about 200 miles (by the river) below Athabaska
Landing.

In the Rocky Mountains Park, mule deer are increasing
in numbers, and may be seen almost any day in the vicinity
of most of the public roads and trails. They are also in-
creasing in abundance in the Waterton Lakes Park.

The provincial game warden for British Columbia, in his
report for 1916, states that: ‘‘Last winter severe weather
caused a great mortality amongst deer of all species, es-
pecially in some of the coast inlets; and in parts of the in-
terior the mule deer were also terribly harassed by coyotes.

46 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

The regulation prohibiting the sale of venison was a great
help, and was almost universally approved of.... In
the Lillooet district mule deer have greatly decreased,
partly due to the bad winter, coyotes, etc., but more to the
fact that the Chilcotin Indians are killing far too many,
and it is impossible to stop them until the district is declared
organized.”

CoLUMBIAN BLACK-TAILED DEER (Odocoileus
columbranus)

This species bears a marked resemblance to the mule
deer, but it is very much smaller. It has only moderately
large ears and antlers with double-forked beams; but it is
distinguished from the mule deer by its black tail. It un-
dergoes the usual seasonal changes of coat colour common
to the other species, and its characteristic home is in the
moist forests of cedar, douglas fir, and spruce of the Pacific
coast, where it is found as far north as Alaska.

Many of these deer succumb to the deep snows of winter,
which render them easy prey both to predatory animals
and to the Indians.

MOOSE
(PLATE It)

Throughout the wide breadth of Canada this magnificent
game animal roams in our northern forests that constitute
its natural home. From the forest-clad mountains of the
Yukon and northern British Columbia to the ocean-girt
woods of Nova Scotia this strange-looking animal, that
first astonished the early French pioneers and evoked the
significant name of ‘‘l’orignal,’”’ may be found wherever the
solitude of trees or tree-lined lake or swamp provides the
needed retreat. It is too well known to require descrip-
tion, and its enormous size, usually surpassing that of a

PLATE II

MOOSE

WOODLAND CARIBOU

From paintings by Carl Rungius. Reproduced by courtesy of the New York
Zoological Society

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 47

horse, the immense spread of broad antlers and the pecu-
liarly elongated head are familiar to all Canadians. Moose
have been killed in New Brunswick measuring seven feet
in height at the shoulders and bearing antlers sixty-eight
and one-quarter inches broad. The antlers of the Alaskan
race of moose sometimes measure over six feet across.

It is the North American representative of the largest
member of the deer family. In northern Europe and Si-
beria it is known as the elk, Alces being the generic name
of this animal, of which three species are found in the
northern forests of the old and new worlds. It is unfor-
tunate that the name “‘elk”’ has been given in North America
to the wapiti.

Our North American moose is the most abundant and
widely distributed species of its genus. We have no large
game animal in the possession of which we have greater
reason to be proud. Affording as it does such an excellent
trophy, it is eagerly sought by the big-game hunter and
sportsman. To the Indians of our northern woods it fur-
nishes at the same time food and clothing. It is an animal
which deserves on all grounds the best protection that can
be given.

The provincial governments in most cases are wisely de-
voting their earnest endeavours to its protection; and, in the
case of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, with apparent suc-
cess. It is essential, however, that greater attention should
be paid by all the provincial governments to the habitual
disregard of their regulations, particularly in districts where
lumbering operations are conducted. We are constantly
in receipt of authentic reports that moose are killed in large
numbers to supply meat to lumber camps. Such destruc-
tion is as inexcusable as it is unnecessary. It could be
stopped, and one would think it needless to point out that
unless such a reprehensible practice is checked serious de-
crease in the abundance of this animal will result. Any

48 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

government that is determined to conserve its supply of
moose has the power and means to effect such conservation.
The responsibility in this matter lies with the governments
concerned.

Distribution and Abundance.—In Nova Scotia the moose
are increasing in number, owing to the prohibition of the
killing of cow moose which has been in effect since 1909.
The following figures of the number of moose killed each
season since that date illustrate the wisdom of the enforce-
ment of such a provision as a means of conserving this or
any other member of the deer family:

NUMBER OF MALE MOOSE KILLED

190054 RACE ON a 405 2) AOE Ae ee nee 1,091
AOUONS § es CONAN 609), 1915 2102) = eee 1,218
LOT Wei e Cn orem G17) A9LG eh eee eer tone 1,331
1G (Le aes 67S M017 a ee ae ee 1,363
AGTSE CR acct 704) | TOTS Ne nie ae 1,243

New Brunswick has a well-deserved reputation as a moose
country. The greater portion of the province contains the
most favoured resorts of this animal, which flourishes under
the protection that is given to it by the provincial govern-
ment, although there is still too much illegal slaughter
taking place. The fact that the largest heads of Canadian
moose are taken in this province attracts many sportsmen
each year from the United States, where in the neighbour-
ing State of Maine improvident setae has had the in-
evitable results.

In Quebec the best moose territories are in the counties
of Pontiac and Timiskaming in the west; the St. Maurice
and St. John region in the north-central portion; and in the
counties of Bonaventure and Gaspe in the east. The super-
intendent of game and fisheries informs me that the moose
in these regions are increasing; fine heads are secured each
year.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 49

Throughout the northern region of Ontario moose are
plentiful, and appear to be maintaining their numbers. In
certain good moose districts, such as the Port Arthur, Rainy
River, and Thunder Bay regions, particularly in the Nipigon
Forest Reserve, moose are not only very plentiful but are
inereasing in numbers, and fine heads are annually secured.
The opening up of new regions by the National Transconti-
nental and Timiskaming and Northern Ontario Railways
has resulted in a diminution of moose in certain districts,
and increased vigilance in their protection is desirable in
the regions now more easily accessible. In certain districts
adjoining the Transcontinental Railway, where moose are
fairly plentiful, many are killed during the winter and are
made a source of meat for the settlements all winter. The
meat is sold at prices usually varying from five to ten cents
per pound, which is cheaper than other forms of meat.

In Manitoba the chief game guardian reports that moose
are plentiful in the north and northwestern portion of the
province, and also in the east and southeast. Cows are
said to be more numerous than bulls. During the last few
springs a considerable number of moose have been found
dead, their emaciated condition indicating food shortage.
In addition, many of these animals were very severely in-
fested with ticks. Specimens of these have been submitted
to me and proved to be Dermacentor albipictus Packard.
This species of tick was first discovered on moose, and there
is little doubt that severe infestation of such ticks was re-
sponsible for the death of numerous moose whose vitality
had been reduced by shortage of food or other causes.

The northern woods of Saskatchewan, west and north of
Prince Albert, and stretching westward north of Battle-
ford, are well supplied with moose, which is the chief game
animal of the province. The latest reports appear to indi-
cate that they are not so plentiful as formerly. For this
reason the recent amendment of the provincial game laws,

50 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

which permits the killing of one cow moose each year, is
not a wise policy from the standpoint of the protection of
this animal, and it is hoped that the increase that has been
secured in the Maritime Provinces as a result of the pro-
tection of the cow moose will serve to indicate the desira-
bility of prohibiting the slaughter of females. If this is not
done, a continued decrease in numbers will undoubtedly
follow. In certain districts in Saskatchewan the moose
have suffered severely from the same species of ticks found
attacking moose in Manitoba. An account of the occur-
rence of this pest is given in the annual report of the chief
game guardian of Saskatchewan for 1916 (pp. 22-25).

In Alberta moose appear to be decreasing in numbers,
the decrease being probably due to the extension north-
ward of the agricultural areas and to excessive killing. The
following are the returns of moose killed under license since
1907 :*

ROOT cieiete an cia apse Beats 14) MOTS hae Nada 865
DOOR Sire HHO ea ate te Rete is OES, (RON RS Ao leas tele ee 1,335
1 ie a vata-c- arene ayes acer aa us fo eam io EIS pees me SAG Nc! 1,116
OUD RS Soe eM seh erat rai BSE TONG. (oe | tataencte oe eee 849
NOM eee teins sea erties SU (MONG oe htt vectra tele ener 1,026
SS Gee NERS Rae Oe S25 \VAOUB cre aaats ot eer eee 900

These figures by no means represent the total number of
animals killed, as practically no figures are available from
districts north of the fifty-fifth parallel.

The number of moose in the Northwest Territories is
decreasing annually. Writing in 1905 (loc. cit.) MacFarlane
states:

This valuable food animal used to be very common in the Peace River,
and, indeed, throughout the forest region of the northern portion of the
“Great Mackenzie Basin”; but for the last twenty years it has been

* The apparent increase in numbers indicated by these figures is probably
accounted for by the fact that more accurate returns of the number killed
have been secured each year.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA ol

much less abundant, and, indeed, remarkably scarce in many parts, es-
pecially along the Athabaska, Peace, Liard, and other rivers, and the large
lakes of the North. As moose have since been found more or less plenti-
ful in the eastern, western, and southern sections of the territory where
for many years previously they were rather rare or conspicuous by their
absence, it is now supposed by some observing natives and others that
considerable numbers of them must have migrated southward, partic-
ularly during the remarkably mild winter of 1877-78. Be that as it
may, it has been noticed that at intervals, and for several years at a
time, this animal has been rather scarce in various sections where it had
formerly been fairly abundant.

One of the chief factors that have been responsible for
the disappearance or reduction in numbers of moose in many
parts of the Northwest Territories has been the destruc-
tion of their former haunts by extensive forest fires, which,
as I have repeatedly pointed out, constitute one of the
chief means of destroying the haunts of big game and fur-
bearing animals.

A very complete account of the history and distribution
of the moose in the Northwest Territories is given by
Preble in his unusually valuable memoir on the mammals
of the Athabaska-Mackenzie region.* The following ex-
tracts are taken from the account he gives of his own ob-
servations and those of other travellers and explorers:

“The moose occurs throughout the Athabaska and Mac-
kenzie region north to the limit of trees.”’ In 1901 it was
recorded near Boiler Rapid, Athabaska River. Tracks of
. moose were seen on Slave River, ten miles below the mouth
of the Peace, and on the islands between there and Smith
Landing. Tracks were also seen while descending the
Athabaska and Slave Rivers to Great Slave Lake. ‘‘In the
lake country between Fort Rae and Great Bear Lake...
the moose was found to be rather common and became more

* “A Biological Investigation of the Athabaska-Mackenzie Region,” North
American Fauna, No. 27, Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
1908.

52 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

abundant as we approached Great Bear Lake, owing to the
country being better suited to its needs. ... Along the
southern shore of Great Bear Lake we found it a common
and in some places an abundant species.” ‘There are im-
mense areas abounding with proper food for this animal in
the latter region, and where the native population is sparse
and poor moose hunters, the moose flourish. In the winter
of 1903-4 they were abundant near Fort Simpson, and
while descending the Mackenzie in June their tracks were
frequently seen and some animals were observed. ‘Tracks
were common along the lower Nahanni, and two animals
were seen in this vicinity early in June. On the lower
Mackenzie moose were seen a few miles below the site of
old Fort Good Hope. They are fairly common in the
vicinity of Fort McPherson. ‘In the mountains west of
the Mackenzie, where the snow becomes very deep during
some seasons, moose are said to form yards, but they do
not seem to have this habit in other parts of the region.”

“While exploring in the country between Athabaska
Lake and Churchill River in the summer of 1892, J. B.
Tyrrell found that moose occurred throughout the more
thickly wooded parts of this country as far north as Stone
River, near the eastern end of Athabaska Lake.” A. J.
Stone gives evidence of the large size and abundance of the
moose at the headwaters of the Nahanni River. Between
Smoky River and Jasper House moose were abundant in
1896. J. W. Tyrrell found evidences of moose on the upper
Thelon River in 1900. Hanbury found tracks of moose in
August, 1902, while descending Dease River, northwest of
Great Bear Lake.

Mr. H. T. Bury, of the Department of Indian Affairs,
reported to me in 1915 as follows:

The moose is found, generally speaking, over the whole of the southern

section of this country (Northwest Territories and northern Alberta)
south of the Great Slave Lake, and also inhabits that section enclosed by

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 53

the valleys of the larger tributaries of the Mackenzie River. There does
not seem to have been any great diminution in their numbers during past
years, although they represent to the Indians during the summer months
a very convenient means of food, and, in consequence, are killed in an
indiscriminate manner.

They are accustomed to roam the swamps and inaccessible parts of the
country, either singly or in pairs, and it required a considerable amount
of skill, energy, and perseverance to encompass the death of one of these
members of the deer family. They are accustomed to roam the spruce
forests during the winter, occasionally seeking the sheltered side of a
coulée to feed upon the shoots of alder and willow. ... During the
summer months they are more nomadic in character, rarely remaining
in one locality for a very long time, except for the purpose of haunting
the vicinity of a small lake or stream. ... It is only by the exercise of
a good deal of stealth and ingenuity that the local Indians can arrive
sufficiently close to them in summer months to achieve their destruction.
Probably the district which is the natural habitat of these animals is that
comprised within the limits of the Athabaska River. There does not
appear to be as yet any considerable reason for fearing a serious diminu-
tion in the numbers of the moose, although it would seem advisable in
the course of time to have more specific regulations regarding the killing
of these animals during the close season.

In the discussion following my address on ‘‘The Conser-
vation of Northern Mammals,” at the seventh annual
meeting of the Commission of Conservation in 1916, Doctor
C. W. Wilson, Assistant Surgeon R. N. W. M. Police, stated:
“Where moose were quite plentiful, in the region included
within the delta of the Mackenzie, the greater destruction
has been due to the trading companies, for instance the
Hudson’s Bay Company. Two Indians told me that they
supplied ‘the Company’s post with two hundred carcasses
a year, of moose alone. ‘The result is that very seldom is
a moose seen in that whole district at the present time.”’

The condition of moose in British Columbia is encour-
aging from the reports of Mr. Bryan Williams, the former
provincial game warden. In his annual report for 1914 he
states: ‘‘In the north the moose seem to be on the increase,
and spreading down farther to the south. This year a

54 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

few of these animals made their appearance close down to
the Chilcotin River, which is the farthest south in this
direction they have ever been reported. In East Kootenay
some of the finest moose ever known in that district have
been killed this season, three of them with antlers measur-
ing 5314, 58, and 60 inches, respectively. Until this year it
has been the general opinion that the Hast Kootenay moose
never had horns of large dimensions, and a 45-inch head
was considered a good one for that district. There is no
doubt that in former years the bulls never got a chance to
grow big horns, as they were all shot too soon; but with the
better protection they have had during the past few years
there is an improvement, and the value of the game in East
Kootenay has been greatly increased.”

In 1915 Mr. Williams reports on the moose as follows:
“These magnificent animals continue to work their way
south, and are increasing rapidly almost everywhere. There
is one exception to this, and that is on the Nelson River,
where they are reported to be very scarce, and the Indians
are suffering in consequence. Reports from Cassiar varied
somewhat, but the men who are in the best positions to
know say they were extra numerous, but that there is an
extraordinary percentage of young bulls. That there are
plenty of moose in that country can be easily believed
from the fact that one tourist counted 280 odd during the
short time he was there. A bull moose was lately seen as
far south as the 108-mile House, on the Cariboo Road.
Signs of others were seen a little farther south.”

From the foregoing account of the distribution and
abundance of moose in different regions of Canada it will
be seen that, with the exception of the Prairie Provinces,
this noble animal not only appears to be holding its own
but owing to adequate protection it is possible to record
an increase in certain of those regions of Canada that com-
prise its finest natural haunts and hunting-grounds.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 55

Habits.—The moose is essentially a forest-dwelling animal,
frequenting the densest of our coniferous forests, and the
woods of birch and poplar. In the summer it resorts more
especially to the neighbourhood of swamps and secluded
lakes and pools, and here it wades deep into the water to
feed on the juicy leaves and stems of aquatic plants. It is
distinctly a browsing animal, as the structure of its head
and lips shows; and properly speaking it does not graze like
other members of the deer family. Its normal food con-
sists of the leaves, twigs, and bark of various trees, such as
spruce, hemlock, birch, alder, willow, maple, etc., and also
lichens. When deep snow covers the ground its movements
are more restricted, and the well-trodden paths and areas
that it forms in the snow constitute the well-known moose
“‘vards.”

In the fall the “‘rutting” season begins when the bulls,
which during the summer have roamed about in solitary
state, set forth to seek their mates. The deep guttural call
or bellow that he utters as a call may be answered by the
higher-toned reply of the cow, or a challenging grunt of a
rival. In the latter case a fierce combat may not infre-
quently follow, or the bull may be lured into an open spot
and to his death by the closely simulated call produced by
the birch horn of the hunter. At this time the bulls are
‘bold; they lose their shyness of the summer and, bold in
behaviour, they will sometimes fiercely attack an intruder,
as many a hunter has reason to know. The bull mates
with but a single cow, and is strictly monogamous. About
the end of May the young are born. The cow produces
one calf the first time, and usually two in subsequent years; .
and, rarely, three are born. The young accompany the
mother during the first year, and during the winter the
moose family live together, the parents leaving the young
during the early spring.

The young bull moose grows his first pair of spike-like

56 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

horns during the second summer, and these are shed in the
following spring, when a longer pair take their place. The
palmation of the horns commences with the third pair,
which are shed in the spring of the following year. As the
horns become larger and more widely palmated with each
succeeding year, they are dropped earlier, in January or
February. The horns are fully developed about the seventh
year; and old vigorous bulls may drop their horns as early
as December.

Value.—As a game animal the value of the moose is, per-
haps, unexcelled by any of our larger mammals, and its
wide distribution in regions that are comparatively acces-
sible to the residents of most of our larger cities and towns,
particularly in eastern Canada, enhances its recreative value.

Its value as a source of meat needs no emphasis. With-
out the moose the Indians in many parts of Canada would
face a serious shortage of food, for in many places it is the
chief wild-meat supply. In civilized communities, too, it
forms not an unimportant part of the meat supply dur-
ing the open season, and the wise system of protection that
is being followed in many provinces will undoubtedly re-
sult in an increase of this important adjunct to our meat
supply. At the same time this fine animal will afford thou-
sands of Canadians a great incentive to seek recreation in
the forest solitudes that form its haunts.

THE BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU
(PLATES III, IV, AND V)

Now that the buffalo has disappeared from our prairies
the barren-ground caribou constitutes, I believe, the most
abundant of the larger land mammals in the world. In its
extraordinary habit of migrating hundreds of miles twice a
year it affords a unique phenomenon. As the buffalo
formerly ranged the western prairies in millions, so in like

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58 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

abundance the barren-ground caribou now ranges the vast,
uninhabited northlands of Canada, which we have wrongly
called the Barren Grounds.

Like the buffalo they furnish the native inhabitants of
the territories that they occupy with meat and clothing,
and, finally, like the buffalo soon after the middle of the
last century, their numbers are decreasing with the advent
of the white man and his rifle, and their range is becoming
restricted by excessive slaughter. Again, the fallacy of be-
lieving that excessive numbers of an animal is a reason
against its extermination is being demonstrated. But in
the case of the barren-ground caribou we can yet save it
from extermination by a wise course of conservation, and
increase its value as one of the most important natural re-
sources of the north.

The caribou and the fur-bearing animals are the only
superterranean natural resources of the north that can be
utilized at the present time. As will be shown later, the
natives of that enormous area, both Indians and Eskimos,
depend upon the caribou for food and clothing. Any ex-
ploration of the country is dependent upon this source of
meat. Without the caribou, travel in that region would be
almost impossible, and the natives would either starve or
become a public charge on the government.

In the case of an animal extending over such an enormous
area it is natural that distinct races should have developed,
and, although we are not concerned here with the different
forms, and shall include them all under the one name, it
may be pointed out in passing that at least four distinct
forms have been recognized and given specific rank. These
are the true barren-ground caribou (Rangifer arcticus),
which is the caribou of our Canadian Barren Grounds;
Grant’s caribou (Rangifer granti), found in the Alaskan
peninsula; and the more northerly forms, Peary’s caribou
(Rangifer pearyt), inhabiting Ellesmere Island, and the

PLATE III

BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU

MUSK-OX

From photographs of groups in the American Museum of Natural History. Repro-
duced by courtesy of the Museum

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 59

Greenland caribou (Rangifer groenlandicus). The North
American caribou are closely related to the reindeer of
northern Asia and Europe, from the common ancestral
stock of which they are probably derived.

Distribution.—The barren-ground caribou was formerly
far more abundant and its distribution was more extensive
than at the present time, as the records of the earlier ex-
plorers and navigators prove. It extended from the Arctic
shores of Alaska on the west to the Hudson Bay and Lab-
rador on the east, and from the islands of the Arctic in the
north it ranged as far south as the northern fringe of the
timbered areas of northern Alberta and Saskatchewan. In
this vast area enormous herds of hundreds of thousands
moved back and forth like the tides of an enormous sea of
animal life, at the bidding of some strange wandering im-
pulse; and this ceaseless semi-annual movement continues
year after year.

From the Arctic coasts of Alaska the caribou have virtu-
ally disappeared. When the American traders and whalers,
visiting those regions, armed the Eskimos for the purpose of
hunting meat for the whaling-fleets, the fate of the caribou
was sealed. The coastal herds of caribou were exterminated
about twelve years ago, and now the caribou herds are very
scarce west of the Mackenzie River, and as far east as
Langton Bay. With the disappearance of the caribou in
that area the native inhabitants have been compelled to
leave, and many migrated eastward to the Mackenzie
delta. And now, I am informed by Doctor R. M. Ander-
son, who has spent seven years in that region (1908-12
and 1913-16), that, owing to the scarcity of caribou east
and west of the Mackenzie delta, the Eskimos of that
region have for some time been unable to supply themselves
with more than a small portion of the skins needed for their
clothing, the deficit being made up by the purchase of domestic
reindeer skins umported from western Alaska and northeastern

60 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Siberia by trading-vessels. The significance of these facts is
surely too plain to require comment.

Doctor Anderson reports that from Franklin Bay to Dol-
phin and Union Strait there is an uninhabited stretch with
little game. In the Victoria Island and Coronation Gulf
region caribou are found to be fairly common in the summer,
supplying food and winter clothing for a considerable na-
tive population. The caribou largely migrate to the main-
land in November, returning to the north again in April
and May, although Mr. Stefansson informs me that cari-
bou may be found in the western part of Victoria Island
during the winter, and along the shores of Prince Albert
Sound. The centre of the crossing place of the caribou from
western Victoria Island is in the region of Bernard Harbour,
and here the Hudson’s Bay Company established a trading-
post in 1916.*

In their migrations south the caribou reach Fond-du-lac,
at the east end of Athabaska Lake. They travel as far
south as Reindeer Lake in northern Saskatchewan. Nearly
every year they come down to Fort Smith, which would
appear to be the southwestern limit to their migration.

In the Yukon Territory fairly large herds of caribou are
still to be found. Mr. George Black, commissioner of the
Yukon, has informed me that a large herd of several thou-
sand annually visits the region adjoining Dawson, Yukon.
Osgood} states that these Alaska-Yukon caribou ‘‘scatter
widely in the summer and in the fall collect in herds, often

* Later advices from the Coronation Gulf region give the information that,
from 1917 to 1919, trading-posts were established at the mouth of the Copper-
mine River, Tree River, and on Kent Peninsula, and that practically all the
natives have been supplied with rifles. A considerable portion of the Copper
Eskimos have also been induced by the traders to give up winter sealing and
to live on the land in winter, trapping foxes and shooting caribou. This un-
precedented change of habits was particularly noted around Dease Strait and
the Kent Peninsula, which is the main crossing-place for the caribou from the
eastern portion of Victoria Island.—R. M. A.

+ ‘The Game Resources of Alaska,” by W. H. Osgood. Yearbook, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, 1907, pp. 469-482.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 61

very large, but at all times they roam widely. The great
herds in the fall of the year perform a more or less regular
movement in the nature of migrations, and within certain
limits their course of travel and times of arrival at given
points are well known.” This coincides with the informa-
tion that I have received from Mr. Black, Doctor Alfred
Thompson, M.P., and other local observers. It is probable
that the greater certainty with which the migratory move-
ments of these herds in the Yukon can be predicted, as
compared with the caribou of the Barren Grounds of the
Northwest Territories, is due to the difference in the topog-
raphy of the country, and the greater restriction in possible
routes of travel in the Yukon. In connection with these
smaller herds in the Alaska-Yukon region it is important
to remember that too much confidence should not be placed
in the presence of such herds as indications of a wide spread,
as there is a tendency among such gregarious animals to
band together more readily when their numbers become
more decreased, and thus a false impression of abundance
may be given.

Migratory and Other Habits —The most remarkable habit
displayed by the barren-ground caribou is its periodical
migrations southward in autumn and northward in the
spring. During the summer time they keep to the open
barren ground and the sea-coast. Here they find abundance
of food, such as tender grasses, the shoots and buds of
dwarf birch and willow, and they are able to escape to some
extent their insect tormentors. In the autumn they turn
southward towards the woods, and the winter is spent in
these regions that provide shelter and food, such as moss,
lichens, and tree-buds. The males are in very poor condi-
tion towards the end of October, after the rutting season,
their horns being at their best towards the end of Sep-
tember. About a month later the males and females sepa-
rate, and, according to Warburton Pike, who made valu-

62 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

able observations on the habits of these animals, the latter
begin to travel northward as early as the end of February.
They reach the edge of the woods in April. Tyrrell, who
also added much to our knowledge of the barren-ground
caribou, states that the young, to the number of one to
three, are born before the winter quarters are vacated.
Pike informs us that the young are born in June, after the
northward migration has taken place. The males remain
in the woods till May, but meet the females on their way
inland from the coast at the end of July, from which time
they stay together till the rutting season is over, and the
southern journey is again begun.

Unlike other deer, both sexes bear antlers, but the antlers
of the female are rather smaller and more slender than those
of the male, which may bear, according to Tyrrell’s obser-
vations, as many as twenty-two prongs on one beam.

One of the best descriptions of the migration of the cari-
bou is given by Warburton Pike, who witnessed the south-
ward migration at Camsell Lake, near the east end of Great
Slave Lake, in 1889. After describing the excitement
caused by the approach of ‘‘la foule,” as the mass of mi-
grating animals are commonly called in the north, he
says :*

From the ridge we had a splendid view of the migration. All the
south side of Mackay Lake was alive with moving beasts, while the ice
seemed to be dotted all over with black islands, and still away on the
north shore, with the aid of glasses, we could see them coming like regi-
ments on the march. In every direction we could hear the grunting
noise that the caribou always makes when travelling.

The snow was broken into broad roads and I found it useless to try to
estimate the number that passed within a few miles of the encampment.
We were just on the western edge of their passage and afterwards we
heard that a band of Dog-Ribs hunting some forty miles to the west
were at this time in the last straits of starvation, only saving their lives
by a hasty retreat to the woods.

* “The Barren Ground of Northern Canada,’”’ by Warburton Pike, p. 89.

PLATE IV

From a photograph by F. Kk. Vreeland

OSBORN’S MOUNTAIN CARIBOU IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS, ABOUT
FIFTEEN MILES NORTHWEST OF MOUNT SIR ALEXANDER

From a photograph by E. R. Sanborn. Courtesy of New York Zoological Park
HERD OF CAPTIVE MUSK-OXEN IN NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 63
Pike concludes his account by expressing the belief that the
herds of buffalo could not have surpassed in size “‘la foule”’
of the caribou.

J. B. Tyrrell has described an enormous herd of caribou,
consisting of several thousand animals—males, females, and
fawns—which he saw on July 30, 1893, at Carey Lake, where
he obtained what are undoubtedly the best photographs
hitherto taken of this caribou, two of which are reproduced
herewith. He describes ‘“‘many great bands literally cover-
ing the country over wide areas. The valleys and hill-
sides for miles appeared to be moving masses of caribou.
To estimate their numbers would be impossible. They
could only be reckoned in acres or square miles.” He
found, as Pike also found, that when they occur in such
enormous numbers they are quite tame.

The magnitude of the migration, both as regards numbers
involved and extent of area, has led many to assume that
all the caribou migrate. But apparently this is not so, as
the observations of Hanbury* and others conclusively prove.
Large numbers remain in the north throughout the year.
Hanbury shot caribou along the west coast of Hudson Bay
and the coasts of Chesterfield Inlet during the winter, and
caribou were found on the Arctic coast during the winter
months. These non-migrating animals merely wander
about.

Another point of interest is that, while their migratory
movements are very regular in point of time, the routes
they take are not always the same, and they travel gener-
ally in a northerly or southerly direction. Their course
cannot be predicted with any degree of certainty. They
seldom follow the same course in two consecutive years.
The Indians, such as the Yellow-knives and Dog-ribs, who
are dependent upon the caribou to so great an extent for

* See ‘Sport and Travel in the Northland of Canada,” by David T. Han-
bury, pp. 120 et seg.

64 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

food, with all their experience of the caribou are sometimes
unable to find them where they might be expected, with
the result that distress and starvation follow.

Economic Value of Caribou.—In an earlier chapter the
value of the caribou as a source of meat was discussed.
Perhaps no native wild animal is economically so important
and generally useful as the barren-ground caribou. With-
out it enormous areas of our northern territory would be-
come practically uninhabitable. It supplies the Indians
and Eskimos with almost all the necessaries of life: food,
clothing, shelter, and means to trade at the trading-post.
An excellent description of the utilization of the caribou by
the Indians is given by Warburton Pike. Describing the
Indians’ departure to the hunting-ground, he says:*

He leaves the trading-post, after one of his yearly visits, with a supply
of ammunition, tea, and tobacco, a blanket or two, and, if he has made
a good season’s hunt, is perhaps lucky enough to have taken one of the
Company’s duffel capotes (about the best form of greatcoat I have ever
seen). He has a wife and family waiting for him somewhere on the shore
of the big lake where fish are plentiful, expecting a gaudy dress, a shawl,
or a string of beads from the fort, but relying entirely on the caribou for
maintenance during the awful cold of the coming winter. The journey
up till they fall in with the caribou is usually full of hardships, but once
they have reached the hunting-ground and found game a great improve-
ment in affairs takes place; the hunter is busy killing, while the women
dry meat and make grease, dress the skins for moccasins, mittens, and
gun-covers, and cut babiche, which takes the place of string for lacing
snow-shoes and many other purposes. For the hair coats, which every-

* Loc. cit., pp. 49-50.

+ The following extract indicates one of the methods of hunting and kill-
ing without rifles:

Sergeant A. H. Joy, writing on 18 Feb., 1918, states:

“T had a conversation with a Caribou-eater Indian during the former part
of this winter and he told me that the band with whom he lived very seldom
used guns to kill the caribou between the end of July and the middle of Sep-
tember, as the caribou came through the country so thick that they could
crowd them into the lakes and rivers and on the lake shores and kill them

with sticks and axes, and on these occasions the animals are slaughtered in
hundreds.”

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 65

body—men, women, and children—wears during the cold season, the best
skins are those of the young animals killed in July or August, as the

_ hair is short and does not fall off so readily as in coats made from the skin

of a full-grown caribou; while the strong sinews lying along the back-
bone of an old bull make the very best thread for sewing. Anything that
is left over after supplying the whole family finds a ready sale at the
fort, where there is always a demand for dried meat, tongues, grease,
dressed skins, and babiche, so that the Dog-ribs and Yellow-knives,
whose country produces little fur, with the exception of musk-ox robes,
are thus enabled to afford some few of the white man’s luxuries, tea and
tobacco being especially dear to the Indian’s heart.

The skins of the caribou are in the best condition in Sep-
tember, and the meat is best in September and October,
when, in the words of J. W. Tyrrell, ‘‘the males are rolling
fat, and as food their flesh is equal to the finest beef.” In
the spring the flesh is poor, as it also is in the summer. In
the spring the skins are of little value, on account of the
shedding of the hair, and the frequent abundance of warbled
hides, to which reference will be made later.

The increase in the number of rifles supplied to the Es-
kimos on the Arctic coast has resulted in a great increase in
the number of caribou killed. At the same time, the ability
to obtain this form of food so easily has led to a change in
the habits of the Eskimos. Formerly they usually hunted

seal during the winter, and continued until late in May.
Now, Doctor R. M. Anderson informs me, they are coming
ashore one or two months earlier than was their former
custom, and living on the caribou which are migrating
steadily northward in April and May. While they are
migrating they are most easily killed. But the worst feature
of this spring killing, which of course is illegal, is that most
of the caribou killed are females which are crossing to Vic-
toria Island to give birth to fawns in June. It is of the
greatest importance to the conservation of the caribou that
this practice should be stopped, and recommendations to

66 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

that effect have already been made in my memoranda and
addresses to the Commission of Conservation.*

The wholesale trading in caribou skins must be checked.
The extermination of the caribou in northern and north-
western Alaska was brought about by the trade in summer
skins, and the sale of meat to whalers. In this region some
of the Eskimo hunters used to kill as many as 500 caribou
in a single summer for their skins; and the carcasses were
usually left to rot. This practice is becoming common in
Canadian territory, where skins are taken for the purpose
of barter, and the result is that many more skins are taken
than are required by the Eskimos for their personal use.
Unless this wasteful practice is discontinued—and we hope
it will be—any other effort to conserve the caribou will have
little effect. It is interesting to note that some of the
Eskimo tribes entertain the belief that the caribou are sent
to them by the spirit world to kill, and that unless they kill
every caribou they meet, whether they require it or not for
food or clothing, the spirit world will not send them any
more. Such a belief naturally leads to wasteful slaughter
on the part of the Eskimos, and it is to be hoped that mis-
sionaries and others will endeavour to dispel such a per-
nicious idea.

To recapitulate, the economic reasons for the conserva-
tion of the barren-ground caribou are as follows: first, the
necessity of preserving so essential a source of food and
clothing for the Indians, Eskimos, and other present and
future inhabitants of the north; and second, the desirability
of developing so important a natural resource for the benefit
of the Dominion as a whole, inasmuch as it would provide
a source of meat of incalculable value, and skins that could
be utilized in the manufacture of many articles of clothing
and commerce.

* “Conservation of Fish, Birds, and Game.”’ Comm. Conservation, 1916, pp.
146-147; and Seventh Annual Report, Comm. Conservation, pp. 32-38, 1916.

PLATE V

From photographs by J. B. Tyrrell. Courtesy of the Geological Survey

A HERD OF BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU ON SHORE OF CAREY LAKE,
DUBAWNT RIVER, MACKENZIE DISTRICT, N. W. T.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 67

Caribou Warble-Fly.—Before leaving this animal, refer-
ence should be made to the occurrence of warbles in the
hides of the caribou. During the spring and summer a
species of warble-fly (Zdamagena iarandi L.) deposits its
eggs on the coat of the caribou, and the small maggots bore
into the skin and ultimately find a resting-place beneath
the skin, particularly on the back of the animal. By Oc-
tober the presence of these maggots can be noticed on ac-
count of the lumps or ‘‘warbles”’ on the hide. The maggots
continue to grow, and pierce the hide for the purpose of
breathing. Early in the spring they emerge through the
holes that they have made in the hide and fall to the
ground, where they change into brownish-black pups, from
which the flies emerge. Owing to the numerous holes made
in the skin of the caribou by these maggots the skins are
rendered useless for dressing, and the total destruction of
hides is very great. As is well known, our domestic cattle
are attacked by a closely related species of warble-fly.
The Eskimos are very fond of the large, juicy maggots, and
whenever a caribou affected with maggots is killed and
skinned they pick the living grubs off the under sides of the
skins and eat them raw with great relish. To a taste accus-
tomed to consuming all kinds of raw meat they are no doubt
delicacies of a high order.

The caribou are tormented by myriads of black flies and
mosquitoes, and it is no doubt largely on account of these
pests that they travel northward in the spring, although they
are by no means able to escape the hordes of these blood-
sucking insects that occur in the north in the spring and
early summer.

THE WOODLAND CARIBOU AND RELATED SPECIES

While zoologists are still undecided as to the number of
species of caribou that occur in Canada, it is possible to
separate four distinct species, namely: (1) the barren-ground

68 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE ~-
Sf aang «Rc ecmeenidigreage

caribou (Rangifer arcticus), with its allied races to which I
have already referred, which is the smallest species; (2) the
woodland caribou (R. caribou) (Plate II), which is larger in
size, and comes next in extent of distribution and abundan¢e;
(3) the large mountain caribou (R. montanus and R. osborni),
which is dark in colour and exceeds all others in size (Plate
IV); and the light-coloured or white Newfoundland caribou
(R. terrenove).

Throughout its range the woodland caribou is but thinly
scattered, and it is nowhere numerous at the present time.
It may be found in the thickly wooded coniferous forest
regions from Nova Scotia in the east to British Columbia
in the west. In Nova Scotia it has become very scarce,
but may still be found in small numbers in the western part
of the province, particularly in Victoria and Inverness Coun-
ties, Cape Breton Island. A few remain in New Brunswick,
but unfortunately they appear to be decreasing in numbers
annually.* Perhaps the greatest number now occur in the
province of Quebec, especially in the remote forest regions
which extend from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Hudson
Bay, although their numbers are decreasing every year. In
1911 I found that they were still fairly common in the Lake
St. John region, but they are in need of greater protection
in that province.

Throughout the coniferous forests in the northern por-
tions of the provinces of Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
and Alberta, and the adjacent similarly forested regions of

*Henry Braithwaite, the veteran guide and trapper, of Fredericton, is
quoted as saying, in The Weekly Mail, Fredericton, N. B., February 9, 1921:
“‘T may be wrong, but it is my honest opinion that the New Brunswick caribou
have been exterminated. . . . Some of our guides and sportsmen appear to
be under the impression that caribou will some day return to the province.
It is my belief that they will not come back. They left New Brunswick just
as they left Maine some thirty years ago, and Maine is without caribou to-
day. ... They have gone out in precisely the same way as the wild pigeons.
I can remember in my boyhood days seeing flocks of wild pigeons which
almost darkened the sky. They vanished almost in a night, and the predic-
tion was freely made that they would return, but they have not done so.”

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 69

the Northwest Territories, the woodland caribou is widely’
distributed, but it is nowhere abundant. MacFarlane states
that, this caribou is known to the Cree Indians as the mus-
keg-atik or ‘“‘swamp deer,” on account of the character of
its usual habitat, and that it is not found in the region
of poplar ‘growth or in the open plains. From the state-
ments of MacFarlane and reports that have been furnished
me by Mr. Charles Barber, chief game guardian of Mani-
toba, Mr. F. Bradshaw, chief game guardian of Saskatche-
wan, and Mr. H. T. Bury of the Department of Indian
Affairs, the range of the woodland caribou is, throughout
this western territory, generally speaking about as follows:
From Lake Winnipeg westward to Lake Athabaska; in
northern Saskatchewan they occur chiefly northeast of
Prince Albert and northwest of Battleford; over the whole
section of the country within the basins of the Slave and
Athabaska Rivers; and between Athabaska Lake and Great
Slave Lake they occur chiefly on the west side of the Slave
River, and through the country lying between Peace River
and Great Slave Lake. Farther west small herds have been
encountered along the lower Liard River, and in northern
Alberta they have been met as far south as the North Sas-
katchewan River near Edmonton.

Seldom are large numbers found together. They usually
- occur in small bands made up of five to thirty or forty indi-
viduals. Sometimes larger bands may be found congre-
gating in the autumn. When they are dressed the skins of
the woodland caribou are superior to those of the barren-
ground caribou.

Mountain Caribou.u—The mountain caribou are to be
found in British Columbia. In the southeastern part of
the province the species described by Seton, in 1899, as the
black-faced or mountain caribou (R. montanus) occurs in
the forested valleys of the Selkirk and Monashee (Gold)
Mountains. Mr. Robert Chapman informed me that he

70 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

saw a few caribou, no doubt this species, in the great bend
of the Columbia River, north of Revelstoke, in 1915. In
September the new coat of this species is almost black, and
the antlers bear a large number of long tines. Further
north the large mountain caribou, first described in 1902
by Allen as Osborn’s caribou (R. osborni), is found in the
Stikine Mountains. This is a larger species than the south-
ern mountain caribou, and its splendid head is prized by
all big-game hunters. Its coat is browner than the R.
montanus.

In referring to the caribou in his annual report for 1915,
Mr. Bryan Williams, then provincial game warden for Brit-
ish Columbia, states that the ‘‘reports of caribou in the north
are much better than for several years, one hunting party
in Cassiar having seen some 1,200 head in a few days’
hunting. Information has also been received of magnificent
caribou ranges in a part of the north country hitherto al-
most uninhabited, even by Indians. The report states that
one day, while travelling some twelve miles, small bands of
caribou were constantly in view, and that one large band
of close on to five hundred head was seen.” In his annual
report for 1915 Mr. Williams states: ‘‘When the last report
was written the mountain caribou in the Selkirks were sup-
posed to be very scarce, but subsequent reports were quite
the contrary. In fact, there were more caribou about than
for some years, though, owing to the bad crust on the snow,
they were hard to get. The Chilcotin caribou have almost
disappeared. Even the Indians are now agitating for an
absolutely close season in certain areas, and I promise to
see that if such regulations are made they will be observed.
There are many more caribou on the ranges towards the
head of the Fraser River than there were thought to be.
This country was hunted a good deal during the past season,
and one party reported having seen 128 head, which is a
very large number for this district.” -

PLATE VI

Photographs by W. E. Ekblaw of the Crocker Land Expedition of the American Museum
of Natural History. Reproduced by permission

MUSK-OXEN ON ELLESMERE ISLAND

Eskimos rounding up by means of dogs and shooting down a herd of Musk-oxen
Herd of Musk-oxen in characteristic defensive formation
. Herd of Musk-oxen rounded up by Eskimo dogs

Whe

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA fa

In 1911 what has been described as a new species of
mountain caribou, the Rocky Mountain caribou (R. for-
tidens), was described by Hollister.*

This is a very large species, exceeding in size the other
species of mountain caribou. The teeth are conspicuously
large; the colour is very dark, ranging from dark brown to
black, and the antlers are stout and heavily palmated, more
like R. montanus but very different from R. osborni. The
species was found at the head of the Moose Pass branch of
the Smoky River, northeast of Mount Robson.

As all these species of caribou, which are the reindeer of
the New World, occur almost entirely in Canadian territory,
with the exception of a few woodland caribou in Maine,
northern Minnesota, and northern Idaho and the caribou
in Alaska, a special responsibility lies upon us to take every
possible step to prevent their reduction to the extent that
their existence would be menaced. It is important, there-
fore, that all the provinces concerned in their protection
should take especial care that their game laws provide for
such protection as the local abundance of these caribou de-
mands; for otherwise we may lose in some regions a very
unique member of our big-game fauna.

ANTELOPE

The history of the antelope, or ‘‘pronghorn,” in North
America, its only home, constitutes another of those trag-
edies in the story of our wild life. The most graceful and
the fleetest of our four-footed animals, it has suffered a fate
not unlike that of its companion of the wide prairies, the
buffalo, with the herds of which it formerly shared a wide
range, extending from the provinces of Alberta, Saskatche-
wan, and Manitoba in the north to Mexico in the south.

* “New Mammals from Canada, Alaska and Kamchatka,”’ by N. Hollister.

Smithsonian Misc. Collections, vol. 56, no. 35, pp. 1-8, 1912. See also
Canadian Alpine Journal, special no., pp. 37-39, 1912,

72 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Over many portions of this range they roamed in uncount-
able herds. To-day over the same territory a few thousand
are able to exist, solely on account of the absolute protection
that they are given in our western provinces and all of the
States. It is the same story of extermination following the
advent of man armed with rifles and the extension of agri-
culture. The settlement of the country and the construc-
tion of railroads have also introduced a new factor, namely
the wire-fence, that has had a very marked effect in con-
fining the remaining herds to restricted areas and thus pre-
venting their normal migration.

One visitor to the West in the early ‘‘seventies” has de-
scribed to me how the prairie seemed to vibrate with the
galloping of these swift little creatures, and how they were
slaughtered to such an extent that their outstretched car-
casses were piled in heaps like cord-wood.

Not only is it the most graceful of the hoofed animals of
America, but it is so unique in its characters that it con-
stitutes the sole member of a special family found nowhere
else in the world. On that account alone its extinction
would be a calamity. Its chief title to scientific distinction
consists in the fact that like the cattle tribe it has hollow
horns, but unlike them it sheds the outside sheath each year,
just as the members of the deer tribe shed their antlers. In
the latter case it is the whole horn or antler that is shed; but
in the case of the antelope only the outer sheath of the horn
is shed. The inner core remains and gives rise to the new
horn, which is pronged; and hence the name, ‘‘pronghorn,”
by which the species is more correctly known, as the animal
is not a true antelope.

Scarcely more than three feet at the shoulder in height,
these little animals are well adapted to the life of the great
plains. One of their striking peculiarities is the possession
of a white chrysanthemum-like patch of hair on the rump.
This hair is erectile at will and serves as an excellent sig-

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 73

nalling apparatus to other members of the herd, and all
observers have testified as to the value of this natural
heliograph.

Habits.—In the days of antelope abundance they formed
herds varying in numbers from a few individuals to several
hundred during the fall, and these herds consisted of adults
of both sexes and young. In September or October the
bucks vigorously contest for the possession of the does, and
soon the most vigorous bucks have rounded up their small
bands of chosen does. With the advent of winter the herds
migrate, sometimes for a hundred miles or more, to seek the
more sheltered regions of their range in the low hills and
foot-hills, and here among the coulees they pass the winter.
To-day these herds do not often number more than about
fifty animals.

With the return of spring the herds split up. The does
seek such solitude as they may be able to find, and in
May or June they give birth, usually to two fawns, which
remain with their mother all summer. In the fall the
males drift in again, and the seasonal life history is re-
peated.

It is a singular fact that it is practically impossible to
keep the antelope in captivity. Hornaday, who has had
great experience in this respect, states: ‘‘Owing to the ex-
treme difficulty in maintaining this species in captivity, its
total extinction at an early date seems absolutely certain,
unless it is fully and permanently protected in a wild state,
on its native range, for a long period.”

Distribution and Abundance in Canada.—In Canada it
formerly ranged, probably in an abundance almost equal
to that of the buffalo, from southern Manitoba westward
to the Rocky Mountains and northward as far as Edmon-
ton. Seton* gives what would appear to be the last record
of the occurrence of the antelope in Manitoba, where it is

* “Tife Histories of Northern Animals,” vol. I, pp. 215-216. |

74 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

now extinct. He says: “J. T. Brondgeest, of Whitewater,
Man., tells me that he first came to Whitewater in 1879,
and settled down in the fall of 1880, and that in those days
there were plenty of antelope about, but the last he saw was
killed by his father in 1881.”

To-day the antelope in Canada are confined to those ~
areas in the southern portion of Saskatchewan and Alberta
that have not been devoted to wheat-growing. From the
inquiries that I have made, I do not think that there are more
than about 3,000 animals now remaining in those provinces,
and of this number the greater portion exists in Saskatche-
wan. In the latter province Mr. F. Bradshaw, the chief
game guardian, informs me that the existing antelope are
to be found mainly in the following districts: the Great
Sand Hills north of Maple Creek and Crane Lake; the Ver-
milion Hills between Ernfold, on the main line of the
Canadian Pacific Railway, and the South Saskatchewan
River; on the east of Lake Chaplin, south of Secretan on
the main line of the C. P. R.; southeast of Cypress Hills and
adjoining the Whitemud River; and northwest and south
of Wood Mountain. The last three localities are in a region
that is chiefly devoted to cattle-ranching, and it is encour-
aging to know that, according to Mr. Bradshaw, the own-
ers of the cattle ranges in which the antelope are to be
found, particularly in the Pinto Creek section of southern
Saskatchewan, are doing what they can to protect the an-
telope found on their ranges, where they mingle with the
cattle. It is of interest to record that Mr. Reuben Lloyd, »
of Davidson, Sask., has in a small fifteen-acre private game
reserve, three male and one female antelope, and in 1916
the latter gave birth to the two fawns which are shown on
Plate XIII.

In southern Alberta a few small herds may be found in
the rolling hills, and the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains
that are remote from settled areas. In both provinces the

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 75

antelope is absolutely protected by law for a period of years,
and, although a certain amount of illegal killing undoubtedly
takes place, nevertheless the watchfulness of the provin-
cial game wardens and of the members of the Canadian
Mounted Police appears to be checking any further de-
crease in numbers due to hunting.

The Dominion Parks Branch of the Department of In-
terior has been active in its earnest endeavour to save the
antelope from extermination. Several attempts have been
made to breed the antelope in the national parks in the
west, particularly in the Buffalo Park at Wainwright, Alta.,
but without success. With the assistance of Mr. Thompson
Seton, three areas have been set aside as reserves for an-
telope, one in Alberta and two in Saskatchewan. In the
spring of 1914 the Branch was advised of the presence of a
small herd of antelope near Foremost, Alta. Mr. Maxwell
Graham, in charge of the Animal Division of the Branch,
immediately proceeded to the locality and was successful in
enclosing, with a suitable fence about twelve miles in length,
an area of about 5,160 acres, a herd discovered near the
junction of two deep coulées. The land is mostly unsettled,
and as yet is unfitted for agriculture. Broken by numerous
ravines, it contains excellent summer and winter range,
and such vegetation as sage-brush, cactus, and antelope
grass, as well as water. At the time of capture the herd
consisted of forty-two animals, and this number has now
increased to about one hundred.

All animal-lovers are unanimous in their hope that the
earnest efforts that are now being made by the Dominion
and the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, not merely
to prevent the extermination but to secure an increase in
numbers of this mcomparably beautiful and unique member
of our wild life, will be attended with success. The creation
in the minds of the farmers and ranchers living within the
antelope range of a sympathetic attitude towards the pres-

76 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

ervation of so valuable a possession will accomplish more
than anything else towards the attainment of the desired
object.

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP

Of all our big-game animals none is more characteristic
of our western mountains, and none offers such a magnifi-
cent trophy to the sportsmen whose endurance its winning
demands, as the mountain sheep, or ‘‘big-horn.”’ It. is the
best-known type of the New World representatives of the
numerous forms of wild sheep, all characterized by their
circular horns, that are to be found in the Old World, where
the finest of all the wild sheep, Ovis poli, occurs in the lofty
Pamir ranges of Central Asia.

Our several species of American mountain sheep are
found from northern Mexico on the south to the mountains
fringing the northern coast of Alaska and western side of
the Mackenzie delta. They reach their greatest abundance
in the central parts of their range.

In the United States they have suffered the fate of the
rest of the big game, and have been exterminated in very
many of their former haunts through the greed of hunters
and others whose rapacity has been permitted to run riot
owing to the lack of adequate protection; and also by dis-
ease contracted from domestic sheep. The history of this
animal in the southern portion of its range serves as a
solemn warning to us, and should be an incentive to the
enforcement of every possible means that will secure the
preservation of an animal which in its native haunts evokes
thrills of admiration in every mountaineer.

In Canada we have three distinct species of mountain
sheep: the Rocky Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) and its
varieties; Stone’s or the black mountain sheep (Ovis stone),
described by J. A. Allen in 1897; and the pure-white Dall’s
mountain sheep (Ovis dallz), of the far north and Alaska,

PLATE VII

ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP (Ovis canadensis)

WHITE MOUNTAIN SHEEP (Ovis dalli)

From paintings by Carl Rungius. Reproduced by courtesy of the New York
Zoological Society

Sanaa -

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA he

described by E. W. Nelson in 1884. A fourth species,
known as Fannin’s mountain sheep, or the ‘‘saddle-backed”’
or ‘‘piebald”’ sheep (Ovis fannini), was described by W. T.
Hornaday in 1901.* This species is now considered by
some to be due to interbreeding between Ovis stoner and
Ovis dalli. Its type specimen is in the Provincial Museum
at Victoria, B. C., and the latter view appears to me to be
correct in view of the observations of Charles Sheldon{ and
others.

An examination of many skins and the reports of hunters
indicate a strong tendency among the northern mountain
sheep to vary in colour and thus render specific designations
somewhat difficult. In northern British Columbia and the
adjoining part of the Yukon Territory where Fannin’s sad-
dle-backed sheep occurs, in the mountains between the home
of the typical Stone’s black mountain sheep (O. stoner) and
Dall’s white mountain sheep (0. dalli), sheep are found hav-
ing white heads and necks and with bodies of varying shades
of grey, produced by mixtures of dark and white hairs.
One may find white sheep mingling with the dark-grey or
grey and white sheep. There can be little doubt that in-
terbreeding occurs. But, while such intergrading of char-
acters may be found in regions adjoining or common to
different species, especially as mountain sheep will occasion-
ally extend their range, in the mountain ranges where in-
termingling does not occur the animals keep true to type,
the topographical and climatic conditions being sufficient
to prevent extensive intermingling. The distribution of
the colour variations intermediate between the black O.
stonet and the white O. dalli, including the ‘‘saddle-back”’
sheep, O. fannini, is shown in the accompanying map pre-

*Hornaday, W. T., “ Notes on Mountain Sheep in North America, with
a Description of a New Species,” Fifth Ann. Report New York Zool. Society,
pp. 77-122, 1901.

+ “The Wilderness of the Upper Yukon.” By Charles Sheldon. Second
edition, New York, 1909.

78 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

pared by Charles Sheldon on the basis of the available in-
formation regarding the distribution of these sheep* (p. 82).

The mountain sheep are partners with the eagles of the
tops of the high mountain ranges. Here on the treeless
mountain divides and plateaus, and in the verdant alpine
meadows, the sheep find all their needs supplied, and thrive
in the altitudes above the limit of tree growth. In these
rugged pastures usually one and sometimes two young are
born in the spring, and even in the winter, when deep snow
drives many of them to the lower altitudes, where protected
pastures may be found, or to the foot-hills; others will re-
main to eke out an existence by pawing through the snows
of the mountain meadows. Always alert and difficult to
approach, it offers a great contrast to its phlegmatic and at
times unsuspicious mountain neighbour, the mountain goat.

Tue Rocky Mountain SHEEP (Ovis canadensis)
(PLATE VII)

Distribution.—The justly famous ‘‘Big Horn” has as its
principal habitat the main range of the Rocky Mountains.
From the international boundary on the south it ranges
through British Columbia and Alberta to a northern limit,
which is found in the region of the Smoky River, on the
eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. It occurs in the
mountains of British Columbia, except in the Coast Moun-
tains, from the Kootenays to latitude 55° 30’. Dawson
gives its westward range ‘‘to the line drawn a certain dis-
tance back from the seacoast, approximately along the mid-
dle of the Coast Mountains. . .. Within the above area
are many ranges and groups in which sheep do not occur.”
It is found in the Similkameen, Okanagan, Cariboo, and

* We should be pleased if hunters, surveyors, and others visiting the re-
gions inhabited by sheep would send us information regarding the varieties
occurring in those regions, in order that our knowledge of their distribution
may be increased.—C. G. H.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA ao

Chilcotin regions. In spite of long persecution—the slaugh-
ter by sportsmen for a trophy that is prized above all others,
and by white men and particularly Indians for meat, for its
flesh is of the most savoury kind—it has managed to hold
its own.

Habits—The Rocky Mountain sheep prefers the high
mountain meadows at timber-line, where small bands will
graze on the rich vegetation usually found there. Partic-
ularly do they prefer a grassy meadow or slope, one side of
which falls away in precipitous crags, with talus below, by
which route their marvellous agility in climbing rocks will
enable them to make their escape should danger arise. The
rams and ewes form separate flocks in the spring, and feed
in separate pastures until late in the fall, when they inter-
mingle again. The young are born between May 15
and June 15, sometimes on the high snow-fields, or in
sheltered places among the rocks near the timber-line.
The chief enemies of the lambs in the spring are the golden
and bald eagles. When stress of weather drives the small
flocks to lower altitudes they are subject to the attacks of
such predatory animals as wolves, coyotes, and cougars
or mountain lions.

The horns of the Rocky Mountain sheep are massive and
thick, and not so widely spread as in other species. The
largest horns ever taken of which I can find a record are
claimed to have measured eighteen and one-half inches in
circumference at the base and fifty-two and one-half inches
in length round the curve. This ram was taken in the Sel-
kirk Mountains. Fine horns are often spoiled by being
“‘stubbed”’ at the end by fighting, and by wearing away
owing to striking the horns against rocks and rubbing them.
There is a large amount of variation to be found in the
weight and thickness of the horns of races of this species
from different localities; for example, the horns of sheep
found in the Lillooet region of British Columbia are usually

80 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

more slender and less massive than those carried by sheep
in the Rocky Mountain region of the same province. The
female sheep have short, goat-like horns, which are erect
and flattened, and they measure from five to eight inches.
In Alberta the Rocky Mountain sheep are found through-
out the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, from the
international boundary to the region of the Smoky River,
and at the head of the Grand Cache River. In the southerly
part of their range they have suffered severely through the
excessive hunting of the Stoney Indians, but a number of
circumstances are now tending not only to prevent their
further reduction, but to insure an increase in abundance.
The Indians are now compelled to observe the provincial
game laws, which require a bag limit of two sheep and fix
the open season from September 1 to October 15. The
most important factor, however, in protecting the sheep
and insuring an increase is the protection they secure in the
Dominion Parks. In the Waterton Lakes Park, in the
south, they are reported to be more plentiful. Their in-
crease in number in the Rocky Mountains Park is very
noticeable. In fact, the presence of a flock of ewes and
lambs in the neighbourhood of the Vermilion Lakes auto-
mobile road is one of the attractions of Banff during the
summer. Jasper Park contains a large area of sheep coun-
try, in which the present stock of sheep will undoubtedly
increase through the absolute protection accorded to them
by the game-protection policy of the Dominion Parks.
These three extensive areas, that are described in greater
detail elsewhere, will insure the preservation of this species,
and will act as a source of natural supply for the adjacent
mountains outside the confines of the parks.
The Rocky Mountain sheep in British Columbia may be
killed between September 1 and November 15, in all
districts except the electoral districts of Yale, Similkameen,
and North and South Okanagan, in which they are given

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 81

an absolute close season at the present time with a view to
increasing their numbers. The reports received from other
districts are very satisfactory and indicate the wisdom of
limiting the killing to males only. In the Lillooet region
they have unfortunately so decreased in numbers as to
necessitate a close season for several years. This decrease
is said to be due to the excessive hunting by the Chilcotin
Indians and to the abundance of cougars.

THe Buack MovuntAIN SHEEP (Ovis stone?)

This species was first described by J. A. Allen from
specimens killed by A. J. Stone in the Cheonee Mountains
of northern British Columbia, at the headwaters of the
Stikine and Nass Rivers, in 1896. The black mountain
sheep and the next species, the white sheep (Ovis dallz),
with the intermediate colour grades shown in the accom-
panying plate (VII), all of which are generally referred
to as the dalli-stonei group, have more slender and less
massive horns than the Rocky Mountain sheep (Ovis cana-
densis). There is, however, among the sheep of the dalli-
stonet group, considerable variation in the character of the
horns. Charles Sheldon* describes the following types:
“The narrow type, sometimes with very close spiral; the
_ diverging type, often with a very wide angle from the per-
pendicular—both these types occur with massive or slender
horns; a type with horns very much curled, the tips extend-
ing up well beyond the eyes; a type with very small, com-
pact, curled horns, often well wrinkled in age, but very
slight in weight; a type large at the base, and abruptly
tapering outward to thinness; a type with horns curving
without elevation from the skull, having the appearance of
low horns; another, the reverse, in which the horns rise
curling almost directly upwards from the skull, having the

*Loc. cit., Appendix F,

oo
es

a. ie

isional only, but | 6g

prov:

Scale of Miles

d with present knowledge.

a
2

3 indicated on the map are

oO
Bf ss ES
kD =

mediate colour grades in Canada (after Sheldon).

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BSE °
a

t

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3 :

’ LD mas i as
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o

ILLUSTRATING DISTRIBUTION OF MOUNTAIN SHEEP IN AREAS
INDICATED ON THE MAP

PLATE VIII

Naha rn
. Ors-stonet, Type.

Distribution Areas

A.—Occupied by Fig. 1
(Ovis dalli) exclusively

B.—Ogilvie Mountains
occupied by Figs. 2, 3, 4,
exceptionally Fig. 5, in
eastern section. Figs. 2
and 3 greatly in the ma-
jority. Between Yukon
and Tanana Rivers oc-
cupied mostly by Fig. 2
with much less black on
tail, occasionally Fig. 1.
West of Lewes River oc-
cupied by Figs. 1 and 2
in the majority: Figs.
2, 3, 5 exceptionally

C.—Occupied by Figs.
ey as Gh Os eh UES BE
4, 5, 6 most common.
Intermediate colours be-
tween 2 and 3 equally
common

D.—Occupied by Figs.
4,0, 6, @ 8. Bigs: 5,6.-¢
in the majority. Ten-
dency toward lighter col-
ours in the north. Fig. 4
exceptional in the north,
still more so toward the
south. Fig. 9 occasion-
ally in the south

E.—Occupied by Fig.
9 (Ovis stonei). Rarely
Figs. 6 and 7 are found
in this area

Figs. 1, 5, and 9 were
drawn from the Types.
The other figures are
from specimens illustrat-
ing the average colours,
but actually every intermediate gradation of colour occurs between each form illus-
trated

(After Sheldon)

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 83

appearance of high horns; more exceptional types where the
tips thrust at length almost horizontally outward, and where
the tips do not turn outward at all. Every possible inter-
mediate form of horns occurs between all these types. The
horns of ewes, although generally more uniform, vary be-
tween the narrow and diverging types.’’ According to
Sheldon the common type of horns of the dalli-stonei group
everywhere is the narrow type. ‘‘In regions where sheep
are more abundant naturally there are more rams with large
horns, and also, in most places, with a larger proportion of
diverging horns.”

The known distribution of Ovis stonet is shown approxi-
mately in the accompanying map (p. 82). Southward they
have been found near the head of the South Fork of Stikine
to the Iskoot River, not far from the Nass River. The ex-
treme southern and eastern range is not known. Sheldon
suggests that it is probably between latitudes 56 and 57
degrees, and west of longitude 122 degrees.

In various parts of their range the black mountain sheep
are to be found in abundance. They are reported to be
very numerous in the mountains of the Cassiar district,
which perhaps constitute their chief centre, and in 1915
Mr. Williams, provincial game warden for British Columbia,
reported that good bands were seen on several ranges that
had almost been deserted for several years previously.
East of Dease Lake they are also abundant. The flocks are
often larger than those of the Rocky Mountain sheep.
Large flocks may sometimes be found consisting of ewes and
young rams. Except in the fall and winter the older rams
separate from the ewes, as in the previous species, and they
live apart in small flocks. The blackest specimens have
been found north and south of Telegraph Creek, B. C.

The inaccessible character of the greater portion of the
range of this species prevents great reduction in its numbers
either by hunters or Indians. The Cassiar region in which

84 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

it ranges is unsurpassed as a big-game country, and will
continue to attract sportsmen from all parts of the world,
in consequence of which every precaution should be taken
to prevent a reduction in numbers of this splendid animal.

Da.u’s Mountain SHEEP (Ovis dalli)
(PLATE VII)

It must have been one of the great occasions of his life
when my friend, Doctor E. W. Nelson, now chief of the Bi-
ological Survey of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, first saw this most northerly and certainly the
most beautiful species of mountain sheep, which he after-
wards described, in the mountains of Alaska in 1881. From
the fall to the spring its thick coat of rather long pelage is
pure white, and its amber-coloured horns have the graceful
sweeping spiral typical of the northern species, O. stoner
and O. dalli. From early June to September the copious
winter coat is shed, and the hair is short like that of the
Rocky Mountain sheep. Through contact with the red
soil and rocks it becomes discoloured and often bears a
reddish tint. Intrepid climber of the most rugged peaks
of the high northern mountains of Alaska and Canada, it
affords a trophy of the finest kind.

The distribution of Ovis dalli will be most readily ascer-
tained by reference to the map. Sheldon states that pure-
white sheep, that is, Ovis dalli, are distributed as follows:
Throughout the Mackenzie Mountains, within the Macken-
zie watershed south farther than latitude 62 degrees. In the
Yukon Territory, north of latitude 66 degrees, south of lati-
tude 62 degrees, and west of 136 degrees. West of the
Lewes and Yukon Rivers they greatly preponderate over
the intermediate colour grades. In the Ogilvie Mountains
the tendency towards the white O, dalli prevails increasingly
towards the west and north.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 85

The presence of all gradations between the pure white
O. dalli and the dark-grey or black O. stonei in the moun-
tains between the range of these two species has already
been mentioned. In the Selwyn Mountains and in the
region between the Sheslay River district and the Lewes
River the colour of the sheep is extremely variable. From
the Sheslay River region north of the Stikine River, north
along the uninterrupted area of travel through the Stikine
Mountains and the Pelly River region, there is more gen-
eral uniformity of colour, lighter sheep occurring along the
Pelly River.

It would appear that ‘‘within the areas of colour varia-
tion,”’ to quote Sheldon, ‘‘sheep inhabiting the continuous
unbroken ranges have a tendency towards uniform colours,
while those inhabiting regions where the mountain ranges
are broken, having the character of complex groups separated
by wide valleys, tend to vary.”

R. G. McConnell reported this species from the moun-
tains west of Peel River, in 1901. Jos. Keele, in the report
of his reconnaissance of the Mackenzie Mountains, in 1907
and 1908, states that they are plentiful in portions of the
Gravel River region, particularly on the low mountains be-
tween the Sayunei and Tigonankweine ranges. E. A. Preble
(1908) reported their occurrence in the mountains west of
the Mackenzie River from the vicinity of Fort Liard to
near the Arctic coast. They are killed in the mountains
opposite to Forts Norman and Good Hope, and while at
Fort Macpherson he saw heads and skins which had been
obtained on Black Mountain, the extremity of the range
west of the Mackenzie delta.

During the summer the rams and ewes are hardly ever
found together. Charles Sheldon informs us that the
lambs are born from early May to early June, and some-
times, though this is exceptional, as late as early August.
After the lambs are born the ewes and lambs remain in the

86 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

most inaccessible parts of the mountains and afterwards
seek the best food areas. The rams seek the best food
areas, but do not move about so much as the ewes.

The splendid trophy that the head of the white sheep
makes causes it to be hunted whenever and wherever pos-
sible. R. M. Anderson has reported the use of the skins
for clothing by western Eskimos, but this is not common
as the range of the sheep is largely outside of Eskimo ter-
ritory. The great palatability of its flesh has been one of
the main causes of its reduction and extermination in many
parts of its range, especially in Alaska, where miners, pros-
pectors, and others have not only killed it extensively for
their own use but also to serve as dog food in the winter.

No animal can stand the reduction in numbers that such
killing involves, and it is to be hoped that such wasteful
destruction of this beautiful animal will be checked by
more stringent regulations for its protection. The recent
establishment of a national park by the United States Gov-
ernment, in the Mount McKinley region, will do much to
preserve this species in that territory, and the establish-
ment of protected areas in the Canadian range of this, the
most beautiful of our mountain sheep, cannot be too strongly
urged, especially as it would not affect the vital interests
of either white or native inhabitants.

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT
(PLATES IX AND XVI)

The Rocky Mountain or white goat (Oreamnos montanus)
is another of the unique members of our native mammals.
It is the only representative on this continent of the numer-
ous wild species of goats that are found throughout Asia,
southern Europe,—where its nearest relative is the chamois,
—and northern Africa. Its home is to be found on the
slopes and inaccessible summits of the western mountains.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 87

The mountain ranges of British Columbia, from the Rockies
on the east to the Coast Mountains on the west, constitute
the chief stronghold of this remarkable animal.

Habits ——The characteristic haunts of the Rocky Moun-
tain goat are the precipitous rocky slopes and ledges, and
the grassy alpine ridges above the timber-line, of the high
mountains, where they feed on the grasses, lichens, and
other stunted vegetation found among the rocks. In choice
of habitat they differ from the mountain sheep. The differ-
ence in choice of locality between these two inhabitants of
our western mountain ranges is generally known, and the
fact is frequently acknowledged by the statement that moun-
tain sheep and goats are not often found together on the
same mountain. Usually the difference of geological forma-
tion between neighbouring mountains provides separate
and suitable habitats for both species.

They combine remarkable steadiness of nerve with agility
and sure-footedness on the most precipitous and inaccessible
rock faces, and in rock-climbing are the most expert of all
American hoofed animals, with more apparent than real
stupidity, and great deliberation on occasions when it is
least expected. The oddness of their temperament is
hardly surpassed by that of their appearance, which is ex-
aggerated greatly when they are seen away from their na-
tive crags. In spite of the fact that they do not offer the
sportsmen either so splendid a trophy or so palatable a
carcass as the mountain sheep, they are, nevertheless, an
inducement to the most intrepid of climbers and cragsmen,
who will seek them in their rock-bound pastures, over which
their small, sure feet carry them with the greatest ease and
safety. The difference in the shapes of the feet of the
mountain goat and sheep leads to a difference in the appear-
ance of their tracks. In the case of the goat, the open end
of the V is in the direction the animal travels, whereas it
is reversed in the case of the sheep.

88 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Distribution—While the greatest numbers, not only in
Canada but in North America, are to be found in British
Columbia, they are also found in Canadian territory on the
eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta and in
the Yukon.

In Alberta they appear to be holding their own. The
following are the numbers of mountain goats obtained by
hunters, under license, in this province within the past few
years.

1909 1910 1911 1912 19138 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918
38 46 56 58 42 61 40 26 37 43

In the Dominion Parks in Alberta there will always be a
plentiful supply of mountain goats, as the parks that in-
clude portions of the Rocky Mountains afford exceptionally
good localities for these animals. In Jasper Park they are
increasing in numbers and may frequently be seen there
in their characteristic haunts by visitors. They are also
increasing in numbers in the Rocky Mountains Park, where
they may be found in nearly all parts of the park, partic-
ularly on the Sulphur Range and on the high, rocky ridge
at the summit of the White River and the West Fork of the
Elk River. In the Waterton Lakes Park they are very
plentiful.

In British Columbia they are very abundant, and may
be found on the mountain ranges from the summit of the
Rockies to the sea-coast. In his annual report for 1915 Mr.
Bryan Williams, provincial game warden, states: “‘More
people hunt goat than formerly, but the number killed is
so small as to have no effect on the enormous numbers of
these animals. Except in one or two places very easy of
access, they are as numerous as they ever were.”’ And in
the report for 1916 Mr. Williams states: ‘‘Goats have been
but little hunted this year; they seem to have increased in
several of the places where they were getting a bit scarce.”

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 89

On account of its habits and its comparative lack of
meat value, there is little fear that this animal, with the
adequate protection that it now receives, will become very
greatly reduced in numbers, and probably it will continue
to afford an inducement to the boldest of hunters, and a
pleasing feature of the higher altitudes of our magnificent
western mountains.

THE MUSK-OX

The musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) (Plate IIT) is, in many
respects, one of the most interesting of the larger members
of our wild life. It is also one of our native animals that is
fast disappearing, as will be shown, from causes which are
avoidable; and it is in need of absolute protection.

From a scientific standpoint it is of the greatest interest,
as it occupies a unique position in the animal world. While
it is not, strictly speaking, a link between the two families
of sheep, on the one hand, and cattle on the other—a rela-
tion indicated by its scientific name—it nevertheless com-
bines anatomical and other characters belonging to these
two large groups. In size it equals one of the small breeds
of Welsh or Scotch cattle, and in appearance it resembles
a small buffalo. This resemblance to the buffalo is not
only external, but, as J. A. Allen,* in his valuable mono-
graphic study of the musk-ox, has shown, the musk-ox has
many anatomical features which would indicate that its
nearest living relative is the American bison. In certain
other features, such as the linear horizontal pupil of the
eye, its short tail, and especially in its behaviour, it dis-
plays its affinities to the sheep. Allen also shows that the
musk-oxen which at the present time inhabit northern Can-

*“Ontogenetic and Other Variations in Musk-oxen, with a Systematic
Review of the Musk-ox Group, Recent and Extinct,” by J. A. Allen. Mem-
oirs Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., N.S., vol. I, pt. 4, pp. 103-225, 45 figs., 8 pls.,
1913.

90 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

ada and Greenland can be separated into three well-defined
types, and that in the absence of further evidence the musk-
oxen of the continental Barren Grounds are referable to the
one species, Ovibos moschatus moschatus. Like the buffalo,
its head, throat, and shoulders are covered with long hair
arising through a thick coat of under fur, but in the musk-ox
this long hair covers the greater part of the body, and
serves to protect the animal from snow, while the thick
covering of under fur is essential to an animal which lives
in some of the coldest and most inhospitable regions of the
world. The valuable character of its fur has been one of
the main causes of its great decrease in numbers, as musk-
ox robes have always been in great demand by fur traders.

Formerly it was widely distributed in the arctic regions
of northern Europe and Asia as well as North America,
and remains of musk-ox have been found in fairly recent
geological deposits (Pleistocene) in Siberia, Russia, Ger-
many, Austria, France, and England, with the remains of
the mammoth, reindeer, and woolly rhinoceros. It is now
entirely confined to northern Canada, some of the islands
of the Arctic, and Greenland. It is, as its appearance so
strongly suggests, a descendant of those prehistoric animals
that ranged the regions of ice, snow, and rock that in former
times spread over the land areas of the northern hemi-
sphere. Within historic times the musk-ox ranged over
the whole of the Barren Grounds from Alaska and the mouth
of the Mackenzie River on the west to the Churchill River
on the east, but to-day the region it occupies is very restricted
compared with its former distribution, as will be shown later.

Habits——In these regions the musk-ox, which does not
migrate in the manner shown by the barren-ground caribou,
by reason of its abundant coat of thick hair withstands the
blizzards and the deep snows, and, with the aid of the furi-
ous gales which sweep across those wastes, it is able to
eke out an existence on the dried grasses and creeping wil-

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92 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

lows that the winds lay bare. According to MacFarlane,
during the severest cold it will, sometimes, enter the northern
fringe of the forest region to a depth of forty or fifty miles.
With the advent of spring the thick winter coat is shed and
the animals wander farther north. Mr. Stefansson believes
they migrate about five miles per month. He states that
they seem to be unwilling to cross narrow strips of water,
and therefore do not migrate from one Arctic island to
another, as in the case of the caribou. They are gregarious
in habit and usually live in bands of six to twenty indi-
viduals, but herds containing as many as one hundred
animals have been recorded. In these bands there are
usually but few males; Mr. Stefansson counted 114 ani-
mals in a single herd on Melville Island. In spite of their
heavy and ungainly appearance and the shortness of their
legs, they run with considerable speed. When alarmed
they show their sheep-like habits. The herd collects to-
gether, forming a circle around the calves, the larger animals
facing with their formidable-looking horns the source of
danger. In this manner they are usually able to withstand
the attacks of wolves, but the Eskimos take advantage of
this habit and surround the herd, from which, as a rule,
not a member escapes, the whole herd being killed (Plate
VI). This reckless slaughter, sometimes imitated by white
men, has been the cause of the reduction of the musk-ox
to the alarmingly small numbers in which they exist to-day.
When they are able to escape they take to the hills, where
they are able to ascend precipitous slopes and to traverse
rocks and crags with astonishing agility, led usually by
an old bull. The female produces one, rarely two, young
at the end of May or the beginning of June. Ekblaw (see
p. 97) records the birth of a musk-ox calf on or about
April 28, near Cafion Fjord, Ellesmere Island. The flesh
of a fat musk-ox is said to be excellent, resembling caribou
somewhat, but coarser in grain. The bulls may attain a

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 93

considerable size, Seton having killed a very large old bull
in August, 1907, on the north shore of Aylmer Lake, where
it had undoubtedly wandered from the more northern terri-
tory inhabited by this animal. The bull was estimated to
weigh 900 pounds. Its total length was 96 inches, and its
height at shoulder 59 inches.

Economic Value as Furbearer—The possession of a large
and valuable pelt by the musk-ox led to the destruction by
the Eskimos, Indians, and white traders of every musk-ox
that could be reached, and the gregarious habits of the
animal brought about a speedy reduction in its numbers.
Roderick MacFarlane, a former chief factor of the Hud-
son’s Bay Company, who has contributed so much to our
knowledge of the animals of the north, gives an account of
the trade in musk-ox skins. He states:

The Company’s posts at which musk-ox skins are usually traded are
Fort MacPherson (from the Eastern Coast Eskimos); Forts Good Hope
and Norman (from the Anderson Eskimos and from post Indians who
hunt them); Rae and Resolution on Great Slave Lake (from Indian hunt-
ers); Lac du Brochet, Reindeer Lake (from inland Eskimos); and Fort
Churchill (from the Hudson Bay Eskimos). It is only in recent years,
however, that the Company has strongly encouraged the hunting of
musk-oxen, and although there is no record of the sale of any in the
London Statement, 1853-1877, yet we know that a number of pelts were
occasionally, if not annually, traded at Forts Churchill and Anderson,
at least subsequent to 1860, and that they must have been sold there or
in Montreal (the British Company’s market for buffalo robes) as the
statement of the northern department fur returns for outfit 1865, .. .
shows that the districts of Mackenzie River and York, Hudson Bay,
collected 26 and 66 musk-ox skins, respectively, in that year. During
the last thirty years, the Indians and Eskimos have devoted more
attention than before to the hunting of this valuable animal. In 1902,
271 skins and in 1903, 246 skins were exposed for sale, and the average
for the past twenty years probably ranged between 200 and 250 pelts.
The greater portion of those secured by the Company are purchased in
London and re-shipped to and used in Canada and the United States,
chiefly as sleigh and cutter winter robes.

94 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

In his report of his exploration trip from Great Slave
Lake to Chesterfield Inlet via Thelon River, in 1900, J. W.
Tyrrell states that they first found musk-oxen among the
lakes in the vicinity of the height of land between the basin
of the Great Slave Lake and that of the Thelon, and, after
emphasizing the fact that the musk-oxen are among the
most valuable resources of the north country, he recom-
mends that the territory between Thelon and Backs Rivers
be set aside as a game sanctuary, on account of the rapid
diminution of their numbers. In his volume, “Through
the Sub-arctics of Canada,” he refers to the musk-ox (pp.
241-242), and states that he has seen ‘‘musk-ox robes
stacked by the Eskimos like hay-cocks, along the shore of
Chesterfield Inlet, awaiting opportunity to market them.”
In 1912 the Hudson’s Bay Company established a post at
Chesterfield Inlet, and I am informed by a recent explorer
from that region that the natives were being encouraged to
bring in all the musk-ox robes that it was possible to obtain.
As the remaining herds of musk-ox are now restricted on
the mainland to the region between Chesterfield Inlet and
Backs River, the significance of such hunting is only too
obvious.

It had been hoped by many of those of us who are en-
deavouring to prevent the extermination of this scientifi-
cally unique and economically valuable animal of our
Arctic plains that in the interior of the Barren Grounds there
was an area, more or less inaccessible on account of the diffi-
culties of travel to the Dog-rib and Yellow-knife Indians
on the west, and the Eskimos on the east, in which there
would be less danger of the musk-ox being killed out. Un-
fortunately, the latest reports indicate that this is a vain
hope. It is true, as I am reliably informed by one of the
Hudson’s Bay Company’s officers, that the western and
southern range of the musk-ox has been so reduced that it
was practically impossible to obtain musk-ox skins at the

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 95

western trading-posts, owing to the great expense entailed
in fitting out the Indians to hunt them at so great a dis-
tance away in the interior, but from the Arctic coast on
the north and the Chesterfield Inlet region on the east, the
Eskimos, better equipped, and able to travel through almost
any country, were reported to be attacking the remaining
herds.

Distribution.—The most recent account of the present
distribution of the musk-ox, and the extent to which its
extermination is proceeding, is given in the following re-
port, which has been kindly prepared at my request by
Doctor R. M. Anderson, who has had unequalled oppor-
tunities for collecting information on the subject as chief of
the southern party of the Canadian Arctic Expedition
(1913-1916), and on his previous sojourn in the Arctic in
1908-1912. Doctor Anderson states:

The musk-ox has been greatly reduced in numbers during the last
few years. The last musk-ox was killed in the region around Franklin
Bay about eighteen years ago, and the last records near the coast, west
of the Coppermine River, were not later than sixteen years ago, in the
Darnley Bay region. No musk-oxen are left on Banks Island, accord-
ing to Mr. George H. Wilkins, who has recently returned after spend-
ing considerable time in 1914, 1915 and 1916, in traversing the greater
part of Banks Island with the Northern Party of the Canadian Arctic
Expedition. There were formerly numbers of musk-oxen on Banks
“Island, as is evidenced by skulls and skeletal parts seen frequently
on the land. According to Mr. Wilkins, Melville Island, which is not
normally inhabited, has a good many musk-oxen left, and the Western
Eskimo hunters who were taken north to Winter Harbour to establish a
base for 1916-1917, were killing a good many musk-oxen in the spring
of 1916.

The Indians have within the past few years practically exterminated
the species around the east of Great Bear Lake. Three to my knowl-
edge were seen and killed by the Indians there in the winter of 1910-1911,
and they were said to have finished off a herd of eighty almost com-
pletely a few years before that. Inspector C. D. LaNauze, R.N.W.M.P.,
reports that the Indians saw a few musk-ox tracks on the north side of
Great Bear Lake in the summer of 1915. No musk-oxen have been seen

96 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

for many years near the lower Coppermine. The western limit of musk-ox
near the Arctic coast is now about in the region of the Annielik River
(improperly named Unialik), flowing into Grays Bay, about one hundred
miles east of the mouth of the Coppermine. A few musk-oxen were seen
near the coast here in May, 1916, but the Eskimos say they are not found
farther west. Musk-oxen are said to be more common in the very rugged
country south of Arctic Sound, and a considerable number of skins were
taken there by Eskimos in the summer of 1915. The Eskimos in that
region (Bathurst Inlet) are better supplied with rifles than the Eskimos
farther west in Coronation Gulf and Dolphin and Union Strait, a num-
ber of them having been recently supplied from a new post to the south-
eastward, on or near Hudson Bay, so that the last stronghold of the
continental musk-ox is being pretty rapidly cut into on two sides, and
the probable decrease in numbers in the past five years, and the next
five years, will probably be proportionally greater than in any preceding
twenty-five years. The limits of the inroads of the Dog-rib and Yellow-
knife Indians had probably been nearly reached long ago, as the In-
dians are not accustomed to hunt more than a certain distance from
the edge of the timbered lands. These newly equipped Eskimo hunters
are accustomed to travel anywhere on the barren grounds with very little
fuel, burning oil or heather, and there is no region which they cannot
visit with little trouble.

When a herd of musk-oxen is seen, it is usually slaughtered, being,
from the nature of its habits easier to slaughter than most other large
animals.

Since the musk-ox, so far as it is found on the mainland of North
America, is on as decided and as rapid a decline as was the buffalo a few
years ago, it should be put on the protected list. That would at least
forestall any possible future market demand for skins, which would accel-
erate the slaughter, and also reduce temptation for traders to stimulate a
demand. Although the savages kill a certain number on their own initia-
tive, they should not be encouraged and abetted in the slaughter by
traders who have only a temporary interest in the country and who will
leave the natives to their own devices again as soon as the bulk of the
game and fur-bearing animals have been destroyed.

On his return in 1918 from his explorations in the Arctic
regions of Canada with the Canadian Arctic Expedition,
Mr. Stefansson informed me that on the islands he visited
musk-oxen were most abundant on Melville Island, where he
and his party of seventeen lived on the animals for two sum-

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 97

mers and one winter, 1915-1916. On this island, he esti-
mates that there are from 3,000 to 4,000 musk-oxen. Ac-
cording to the latest reports that he received they appear to
be extinct on Banks Island, or, if present, are very scarce.
A few herds were reported from the northeast of Victoria
Island, but none was reported from Prince Patrick Island.
He found no musk-oxen on the islands discovered by him,
nor on the Ringnes Islands.

At the present time, the chief habitat of the musk-ox in
Canadian territory appears to be Ellesmere Island. Their
abundance in that region is shown by Doctor Donald B.
MacMillan in his account of the Crocker Land Expedition
of the American Museum of Natural History.*

In a quotation given by Doctor MacMillan from the
writings of Sir Clements Markham, it is stated that Elles-
mere Island ‘‘is called Oo-ming-man (the land of the musk-
oxen) by the Eskimo.” Mr. W. Elmer Ekblaw, a member
of the Crocker Land Expedition, made traverses of Elles-
-mere Island, and in the account of his explorations which
‘is given in Doctor MacMillan’s interesting narrative, he
states:

The west coast of Ellesmere Island in the vicinity of Bay Fjord, is not
generally so precipitous and bleak as the east coast. It is more maturely
_ dissected, the valleys are wide, the slopes are less steep and the moun-
tains do not everywhere rise so abruptly. Large tracts support a rela-
tively luxuriant growth of willow, sedge and grass, the chief foods of the
musk-oxen.

In this place a herd of sixty-seven animais was seen, of
which fourteen were killed for food. Ekblaw states that the
excellent condition in which they were found was due, no
doubt, to the excellent pasturage they found on the grassy
meadows among the mountains and along the fjord.

*“¥Four Years in the White North,” by Donald B. MacMillan. Harper
& Brothers, New York, 1918.

98 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Travelling up Eureka Sound to the northernmost end of
Fosheim peninsula, at the mouth of Greely Fjord, Ekblaw
states:

All along the way we had seen musk-oxen on the hills on both sides
of the sound, and we killed all we needed for food. Even on the ice, we
found their tracks for miles.

The latter observation would indicate that, contrary to the
belief of Stefansson, musk-oxen may migrate from one
island to another when the intervening water is frozen
over.

Increased Protection of Musk-oxr.—The reduction in the
numbers of musk-oxen has not only been due to recklessness
of the natives and the demand for musk-ox robes, but
thousands have been slain for the support of the various
Arctic expeditions that have visited or penetrated their
range. Large numbers have been slaughtered by sports-
men, and, while no fault is found with those who have killed
a few individuals for the sake of their heads, or to provide
specimens for the larger museums, we have evidence that
a number of men, calling themselves sportsmen, have dis-
played a passion for slaughtering these animals which rivals
that of the Eskimo and the game-hog.

The extermination of the musk-ox is only a matter of a few
years, unless prompt and adequate steps are taken to put an
end to the killing of the animal for the sake of its skin. The
extreme scarcity of the musk-ox is now admitted by the
fur traders. At the present time I am informed that the
price in Canada varies from $50 to $350 a robe, according
to the size and quality. In some cases it takes two or three
skins to make a robe. In a comparatively recent adver-
tisement in The Gazette (Montreal), of musk-ox robes offered
for sale by one of the leading dealers in these supplies, the
following statement is made as an inducement to purchase;

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 99

This animal whose fur is much finer than that of the buffalo is be-
coming very rare and the skins will soon be absolutely unobtainable.

One of the leading fur merchants in New York, who deals
exclusively in raw furs, and through whose hands more
musk-ox skins pass, perhaps, than through those of any
other firm, in response to my inquiries courteously supplied
me with the following information, in November, 1916, re-
garding the trade in musk-ox robes:

Most of these goods are brought down by whalers, some of which go
into San Francisco or Seattle, and others into New Bedford [Mass.].
Also the Hudson’s Bay Co. collects a fair quantity every year.

I personally have had a vessel up on the Hudson Bay for quite a few
years, and we collect a few from the height-of-land which is situated
about 100 miles northwest of Wager River. These animals are becoming
more and more extinct, as, ten years ago, if you wanted to get a quan-
tity you would only have to go up to that country and you could get them,
but the parcel we sold Messrs. —— [a Montreal firm], about 160 skins,
- represented three or four years’ collection; so there is no doubt but what
they will get scarcer.

The Hudson’s Bay Company has very kindly furnished
me with a statement showing their annual returns of musk-
ox skins from 1864, which may be taken as a good criterion
of the extent to which the musk-oxen were hunted for their
_ skins. From 1864 to 1878 the number of skins received by
the company did not exceed 200 annually. From that year
the number increased until 1881, when over 600 were re-
ceived. In the following eight years the numbers decreased,
and then rose again in 1890 to over 1,400 skins. The high-
est level was reached in 1892, when nearly 2,000 skins were
received. Since that year there has been an almost steady
decline in the number, the lowest level being in 1907, when
less than 100 skins were received, and only once, that is
1912, has the number slightly exceeded 200. We have no
record of the large number of musk-ox skins taken out an-

100 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

nually by way of the Arctic coast by whalers and traders
to San Francisco and Seattle.

The best fur traders now admit that the musk-ox can
only be saved from extermination by the absolute prohibi-
tion of its slaughter for commercial purposes.

In 1914, and again in 1916, I laid before the Commission
of Conservation specific recommendations regarding the
amendment of the Northwest Game Act to secure much-
needed protection of our northern mammals, including the
musk-ox :*

(a) The prohibition of the killing of the musk-ox except
under license, which should not permit the taking by bona
fide hunters or other duly authorized persons, of more
than two skins and two heads under each license. Na-
tives or bona fide explorers to be allowed to kill musk-oxen
for food for their own use, but not in order to secure the
skins.

(b) The prohibition of the killing of musk-oxen on Vic-
toria, Banks, and Melville Islands, thereby constituting these
islands permanent reserves for musk-oxen and as centres
for their natural distribution to other parts.

These recommendations have since been put into effect
in the Northwest Game Act, 1917, and the regulations
thereunder, which provide for the permanent protection
of the musk-ox, except in such zones and during such
period as may be prescribed under the act, and at the pres-
ent time the killing of musk-oxen is everywhere forbidden
in Canadian territory. Section 38 of the regulations sets
forth the sole conditions under which musk-oxen may now
be killed; the section reads as follows:

38. Musk-ox may be hunted and killed by Indians, Eskimos or half-
breeds who are bona fide inhabitants of the Northwest Territories, but
only when they are actually in need of the meat of such musk-ox to pre-

* Seventh Annual Report, Commission of Conservation, 1916, p. 33.

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 101

vent starvation. No person shall at any time trade or traffic in musk-ox
or any part thereof, and the possession of the skins of such musk-ox by
any other person than the said Indians, Eskimos or half-breeds shall
constitute an offence.

In another chapter (p. 313), the utilization of the musk-ox
as an economic factor in the development of Arctic Canada
is discussed.

We hope that the absolute close season for a number of
years will prevent its complete disappearance within « very ©
few years from our northern Barren Grounds, where it has
maintained itself in those Arctic solitudes for thousands of
years before the advent of the white man and his deadly
rifle.

BEARS

Canada possesses, in numerical abundance of the chief
species of bears, by far the greatest portion of the bear
population of North America. The enormous extent of the
coast and islands of Arctic Canada constitutes the chief
habitat of the polar bear. The Rocky Mountains and the
mountain ranges flanking them in British Columbia now form
the chief region in which the grizzly bear, which has been
largely wiped out in its more southerly range, is to be
found; its near relative, the Barren-ground grizzly, is only
to be met with in the treeless northern region; while the
black bear occurs everywhere in the wooded regions from
the Atlantic to the Pacific, and nowhere throughout this
extensive range can it be said to be very uncommon; in
certain regions it is very common. From all standpoints,
therefore, we are particularly fortunate in our bear popula-
tion, and a special responsibility accordingly rests upon us
to take such measures as may be necessary to conserve so
interesting and, at the same time, so economically valu-
able a section of the native mammalian fauna of this
continent.

102 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Tue Powar Bear (Thalarctos maritimus)
(PLATE Ix)

From the Alaskan-Canadian boundary on the northwest,
along the Arctic shores of the Northwest Territories, the
Hudson Bay and Labrador, and throughout the islands of
the Canadian Arctic, this magnificent denizen of the polar
seas, whose very name conjures up a vision of deep-blue Arc-
tic seas and fringing ice-floes, withstands the rigours of the
north and the persecution of the hunters of his splendid
skin. In the solitude of the Arctic this animal, so splen-
didly endowed by nature for such an environment of ice
and frigid waters, hunts its food along the edge of the ice-
pack and drifting floes, where he may secure, by patient
hunting, the cautious seal. Whatever animal remains are
cast ashore are acceptable, and only during the short
Arctic summer is it able to resort to vegetable food such as
constitutes a large portion of the food of his more southerly
relatives.

As arule only the more hardy males face the long Arctic
winter out-of-doors. The female usually hibernates in
some convenient cavity, and there, buried under the deep
snow, she brings forth her cubs, which rely on their mother
for their sole supply of food during the winter months they
spend in the little ice cavern, that is formed by the com-
bined heat of their bodies. With the advent of spring they
are released from their snow prison, and the fish and wild
fowl form their food until the melting of the snow uncovers
the sparse supply of vegetable food, such as herbage, roots,
and Arctic berries.

Many years of excessive hunting have materially reduced
the numbers of the polar bear, especially in the western
Arctic, and they are in serious need of protection. The
Hudson’s Bay Company’s returns show that in the decade,

PLATE IX

From photographs of groups in the American Museum of Natural
ITistory. Reproduced by courtesy of the Museum

1. Polar Bear
2. Black Bear, showing colour phases
3. Rocky Mountain Goat

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 103

1902-11, the number of white bear skins offered for sale at
their auctions in London, England, ranged from a maxi-
mum of 170 in 1902, to a minimum of 82 in 1911, and the
average number offered was only 97. These figures tell
their own story, and indicate most strongly the urgent
necessity of increased protection which this animal must un-
questionably receive and, we hope, will receive in the future.
It constitutes an economic resource of no mean value, apart
from the obvious duty of preventing so unique a species
of mammal from reaching the point of extinction in the
territories under our control and supervision.

GrizzLy Brear (Ursus horribilis)

Disiribution.—The fame of the North American grizzly
is world-wide. In the days when the buffalo was abundant,
and up to the early part of the last century, it ranged the
western plains, foot-hills, and mountains with its supremacy
unchallenged. The buffalo bull fell beneath its powerful
blows, but now in its mountain retreats it more usually
contents itself with such infinitely smaller prey as mice and
ants.

From the journals of Alexander Henry we learn that in
1800 it occurred in southwestern Manitoba, and the capture
of grizzlies at Portage la Prairie will appear somewhat as-
tonishing to the residents of to-day in that region. This
was its most easterly range; and westward and southward
it ranged the plains and foot-hills of the Rockies. The dis-
appearance of the buffalo and the systematic hunting of
the grizzly, which in the early days was both dangerous and
destructive to the cattle and horses on the range, led to its
extermination over practically the whole of the non-moun-
_ tainous portion of its range. Even in the mountains it
is nowhere common at the present time. The greatest
number are to be found in the Rocky Mountains and their

104 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

adjacent ranges in British Columbia. The eastern slopes
of the Rocky Mountains form the easterly limit of the range
of the grizzly in Canada. Northward it may be found as
far as the mountains west of the Mackenzie delta. In Al-
berta they appear to be most abundant in the mountains
immediately north of Jasper Park. Throughout the Rocky
and Selkirk Mountains in British Columbia grizzlies may be
found in varying abundance. In some sections they are by
no means uncommon; in the Kootenay region, for example,
they are not difficult to find by strenuous hunting. In 1915,
I reached the remote and beautifully situated remnant of a
former prosperous gold-mining settlement bearing the name
of Trout Lake City (to distinguish it from Trout Lake) a
few days after three grizzlies, a female and two grown cubs,
had been killed in front of the small schoolhouse. In the
Stikine Mountains grizzly bears can be found in fair abun-
dance.

Habits.—The grizzly bear has the unenviable reputation
of being the most dangerous of our big-game animals; and
this reputation is well deserved, for no animal is more power-
ful and more tenacious of life when wounded. But this
reputation was largely gained in the early days of the
West, when the arrows of the Indians and the primitive
firearms. of white men served more to annoy than to de-

stroy him, and when the human aggressor often forfeited.

his life. His ability to bring to earth, and often drag for
some distance, a buffalo, steer, or horse naturally inspired
an appreciation of his immense strength.

But the grizzly of to-day is a different animal from the
former monarch of the foot-hills and mountains. In his re-
treat to the mountains he has accepted not merely the su-
periority of man himself but of man armed with the modern
high-powered repeating rifles, the instrument that has put
fear into the hearts of all members of our wild life that have
escaped its destructive effect. As Thompson Seton has so

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 105

well said, in referring to this change in the creed of the
grizzly:

No longer the arrogant despot of all trails and ranges, he has retreated
to secluded fastnesses, to wild inaccessible regions of thicket and swamp.
He is changed in temper as in life, and the faintest whiff of man-scent is
now enough to drive him miles away.

This acquired and now inborn dislike of man, which is
perhaps more correct than fear in the case of the grizzly,
is a fortunate factor so far as the continued existence of the
grizzly is concerned. It means, first, that such a tendency
to seclusion will be an important aid to the preservation of
the species, if only the required amount of additional legal
protection is also given. Secondly, it means that, being no
longer the menace it formerly constituted to horses, cattle,
or sheep on the ranges, or to man himself, it cannot be classed
as a highly noxious animal. The dislike for man renders
possible the protection of the grizzly in our national parks,
where there is little chance, so far as the bear is concerned,
of familiarity breeding contempt. The remoteness of its
range from well-travelled haunts and its preference for se-
clusion may aid in its preservation.

Nevertheless, it would be a mistake to assume that the
grizzly has lost its dangerous attributes. This is by no
-means the case. While its attitude is one of defense rather
than aggression, no more dangerous assailant can be met
than a grizzly that is cornered, or that imagines that he
is cornered. Females accompanied by cubs are usually
to be avoided by an unarmed person, as in the majority
of cases they will be likely to attack on suspicion. Unless
one is well prepared to defend one’s right of way, it is
advisable not to attempt to dispute a grizzly’s right to
the same trail. He is likely to resent the interference with
what he is perhaps justified in regarding as his rights. No
animal is more dangerous than a wounded grizzly, and its

106 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

great strength and tenacity of life in spite of repeated shots
into non-vital parts is very great. Only a direct hit in the
brain or spinal column will make approach to a wounded
animal really safe.

In some localities the grizzly bear seems to prefer the
open country to the woods, and his chosen habitat is the
open and generally rocky mountain uplands of the divides,
where sparse timber, dense growth of thickets, and occa-
sional swamps furnish him with suitable environment.

He frequents the open ground only through necessity—
the search for food. It is only for a month or two in the
summer that the male seeks the company of the female
bear. As long as they can secure food in the fall and win-
ter they do not go into hibernation. Grizzly bears are
largely carnivorous, provided they can secure animal food,
and they will eat anything from steers to mice. Nothing
is too small to escape the long claws of these animals, by
means of which they can pick the mountain berries, and
unearth succulent roots, and insects as small as ants. Be-
fore winter covers the mountains with snow they retire to
their winter quarters in some convenient cavity or natural
den in the rocks, or a den excavated in the mountainside,
and there in midwinter the female brings forth her small
cubs; usually two cubs are born, sometimes three, rarely
four. The small size of the newly born cubs of bears is one
of the striking features of these animals. The newly born
young of the grizzly bear usually measures only about eight
or nine inches in length, a remarkable size for the young of
an animal of which the adult male may weigh from 500 to
600 pounds. The cubs usually remain with the mother the
first year, but lead a separate existence thereafter.

The most distinctive characters of the grizzly bear are
the high shoulder region, formed by a distinct hump, the
great length of the front claws, which are twice the length
of those of the hind feet, and the somewhat hollow facial

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 107

region. In colour great variation is found. The normal
colour is deep brown to brownish black, with the outer por-
tions of the longer hairs tipped with light gray, which gives
the name ‘‘silver-tip.” In some cases the fur is com-
pletely or partly gray; in others it varies from dark brown
to cinnamon, and R. H. Chapman, of Washington, D. C.,
recently showed me the skins of a female and two cubs,
obtained near Revelstoke, B. C., which were of a distinctly
reddish shade.

Not only is there great variation in the colour of the skins
of grizzly bears, but marked differences in the skulls are
also to be found, and, as a result of these, striking anatom-
ical differences in the cranial and dental characters. Doc-
tor C. Hart Merriam, who has kindly demonstrated to me
these differences in the very extensive series of skulls that
he has collected, has described a large number of species and
sub-species within the grizzly-bear group.

THE BARREN-GROUND GrizzLy Brar (Ursus
richardsont)

Throughout the Barren Grounds this species may be
found, but it does not appear to be anywhere abundant.
Its occurrence along the Arctic coast was reported by the
_ early explorers, Samuel Hearne, Franklin, and Richardson.
It was found in the neighbourhood of the Coppermine River
and Bathurst Inlet. In J. B. Tyrrell’s explorations in 1900
evidence of its occurrence on the Thelon was found, and
J. M. Bell saw, during the same season, these large greyish-
brown bears quite often along the north and west shores
of Great Bear Lake.

In his account of northern mammals MacFarlane states:
“This bear is not uncommon in the Barren Grounds of the
Anderson region, nor on the polar shores of Franklin Bay.”
He recounts a number of instances illustrating the danger-

108 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

ous character of this formidable animal. It is omnivorous
in its habits, and in the stomachs of specimens that have
been killed the remains of venison, seal, marmot, berries,
edible roots, and grass have been found, showing the varied
nature of the diet upon which it subsists.

Buack Bear (Ursus americanus)
(PLATE IX)

Everywhere throughout the wooded regions of Canada,
from Nova Scotia to British Columbia, this, our most com-
mon and familiar bear, is to be found in greater or less
abundance. Its range is practically co-extensive with our
northern forests, for, unlike the aforementioned species of
bear, the black bear is essentially a forest species, and its
northward distribution is limited by the limit of forest
growth. The fur returns of the Hudson’s Bay Company
would indicate that this species, in common with the other
species of bears, shows a tendency exhibited by the other
fur-bearing animals to periodic increase and decrease in
abundance. The greatest number of skins was obtained by
the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1889 and 1892, when about
11,500 were received annually, but, since 1900, the num-
bers have gradually declined, and in 1915 only 4,500 skins
were obtained. Nevertheless, no trip can be made into the
woods in any section of Canada without evidences or speci-
mens of this bear being encountered. It is a shy animal,
and for that reason it is less commonly seen than might
otherwise be expected. But its retiring habits are to its
advantage, and so long as the main evidence of its existence
in a region lies in the presence of its well-worn trails, claw-
marked trees, and overturned stones or rotting logs, it can-
not be considered an objectionable neighbour. Frequently
it would not be seen by travellers in the woods were it not

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 109

for its spirit of curiosity in the doings of human intruders
into its haunts.

Black bears usually mate about June or July, and they
part a little later. The young are born in January, while
the mother is still in her winter den, which may be a natural
cavity in the rocks, under a fallen tree or its upturned roots,
or even in a hole dug by the bear herself. Usually two cubs
are born, but three are not uncommon. The newly born
cub is remarkably small. It measures about eight inches
long and weighs from nine to twelve ounces. When the
spring sun melts the snow and ice in the woods the mother
leaves her winter quarters and sallies forth with her young
family, than which no more interesting or amusing young-
sters can be found in the whole realm of wild life. The
brown or cinnamon-coloured bear is merely a colour-variety
of the black bear. In the same litter of cubs one may find
both black and brown varieties.

For some time in the spring the black bear subsists largely
on roots of various plants, supplemented by an occasional
mouse or insect, for it is omnivorous to a degree. Insects
constitute a large part of their diet. In the spring and
early summer bears frequenting lakes and streams feed
extensively on May-flies and shad-flies. Hearne states that
they may catch these insects by swimming with their mouths
- open, and he found their stomachs filled with these insects.

As summer wears on they hunt out the nests of bees and
rob the accumulated stores of honey or brood. In the hunt
for such delicacies their ability to climb trees stands them
in good stead. Nor do they hesitate to attack any wasps’
or hornets’ nests. The nests of ants are sought in rotting
logs or under stones, etc., and the ants and larve are greedily
devoured.

Where fish can be obtained they are very acceptable,
and the black bears in British Columbia are especially fa-
voured by the large quantities of salmon that they are able

110 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

to obtain without much trouble. Scavenging is a favourite
occupation, and near human habitations their predilection
for garbage is well known. In the autumn they take full
advantage of nature’s lavish provision of wild fruits. Wild
strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, blueberries, and other
small fruits are greedily devoured, together with the more
satisfying acorns and beechnuts, which enable them to lay
up the necessary store of fat for absorption during the win-
ter’s rest and enforced fast. In British Columbia I have
seen orchards bordering the woods assiduously robbed by
bears, which may become a nuisance on this account.

In spite of its shyness and normal desire to escape when
man approaches, the black bear can be a dangerous animal
when her cubs are in danger or when the adult animal is
wounded or cornered. On such occasions it can prove a
formidable foe to an unarmed man. But under ordinary
circumstances the black bear is no more to be feared than
most of the timid creatures of the woods.

KERMODE’S WHITE BrEar (Ursus kermodet)

On the islands of the northern coast of British Columbia,
and on the adjacent coast of the mainland, is to be found a
white bear. The type specimen was killed on Gribbell
Island in May, 1904, by Mr. F. Kermode, the director of
the Provincial Museum, Victoria, B. C., after whom the
species was named. Mr. Kermode informs me that this
interesting species, which is illustrated herewith, is found
from South Bentinck Arm to Burke Channel, north along
the coast region, including Swindle, Princess Royal, Gribbell,
and all the larger islands except the Queen Charlotte group;
to Nass River, and up the Skeena River as far as Kitsum-
gallum.

The records of specimens killed, which are given in the
Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, show

THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 111

that most of the bears have been killed on the islands,
particularly on Princess Royal and Gribbell Islands. As
Mr. Kermode has pointed out to me, this does not mean
that they are any more common on the islands than on
the adjacent coast of the mainland; but it shows that they
are more easily seen and hunted on mountain slides on
these islands. There are no white goats; whereas, on the
mainland, when observed from a distance, these bears are
likely to be mistaken for goats, owing to their size and
cream-white colour, both these animals being found on the
open grassy slide country, which is a favourite feeding-
ground for bear in the spring.

PROTECTION OF BEARS

Attention already has been called to the great need of
giving protection to the polar bear, which is rapidly de-
creasing in numbers in the more accessible regions of the
Canadian Arctic coast, although their numbers are, no doubt,
being maintained to a greater degree on the more remote
islands of the Arctic.

Only in the provinces of Quebec and British Columbia
are there close seasons or bag limits on black bears. In
Quebec a close season on the black bear is maintained from
July 1 to August 20, which covers the mating season.
In British Columbia a close season on the black bear was
instituted in 1918; this season is from July 1 to September
30. In view of the great decrease of grizzly bears in the
United States, owing to the absence of any restrictions on
the killing of this animal, it would seem very desirable to
give it more protection in Canada, as continuous and assidu-
ous hunting will undoubtedly seriously jeopardize its future,
and a bag limit should be fixed, if only as a precautionary
measure. I received a report of big-game hunting in 1916
in the Cassiar region of British Columbia, in which one

112 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

hunter from the United States had five grizzly bears to his
credit. Comment on such butchery disguised under the
name of ‘‘sport” is hardly necessary, but it indicates the
abuse on the part of unscrupulous persons that is liable to
accompany the absence of any restriction. Bears will prob-
ably hold their own in our mountains and forests for many
years to come, even without protection, owing to their dis-
like for man and the sparse population in or near their
haunts. But there are a number of adverse natural factors
that tend to reduce their range, of which, perhaps, the chief
is forest fires; and it is with a view to counterbalancing the
effect of such factors and the gradual diminution of their
range by the increase of settlement and population that
some form of protection should be granted this interesting
and economically valuable group of our wild life while such
protection will have the desired effect.

CHAPTER V
THE BUFFALO OR BISON

Its PRESENT, Past, AND FUTURE

Tue history of the buffalo in North America constitutes
one of the greatest tragedies in animal life in historical
times. The extent of its destruction appals one by its im-
mensity when we consider the character of the animal. It
would seem inconceivable that this, the largest of the wild
fauna of our continent, should within the limits of the last
century, be reduced from countless millions to the point of
extermination. Formerly ranging over about one-third of
the entire continent, it has been practically wiped out of
existence except for small bands of so-called ‘‘wood bison,”
now to be found in the region north of Peace River. That
its disappearance was an inevitable result of the develop-
ment of the country does not diminish the character of the
tragedy. It is the greatest of all our wild animals, and un-
doubtedly the most noble of its family in any part of the
world. Now, it has practically disappeared from the face
of the continent, and only by the foresight of the Canadian
and United States Governments has it been prevented from
becoming completely exterminated. The history of its dis-
appearance and the most complete account we have of this
noble member of our native fauna have been given by Horna-
day in his memoir, ‘“‘The Extermination of the American
Bison,” and it is from this work that I have taken most of
the facts that I am about to give regarding its history.

Its former range in North America, according to Horna-
day, was as follows: ‘‘Starting almost at tide-water on the
Atlantic coast, it extended westward through a vast tract

113

114 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

of dense forest, across the Alleghany Mountain system to the
prairies along the Mississippi, and southward to the delta
of that great stream. Although the great plains country
of the west was the natural home of the species, where it
flourished most abundantly, it also wandered south across
Texas to the burning plains of northeastern Mexico, west-
ward across the Rocky Mountains into New Mexico, Utah,
Idaho, and northward across a vast treeless waste to the
bleak and inhospitable shores of the Great Slave Lake it-
self.”

Early Distribution in Canada.—The favourite range of the
buffalo in Canada was the northern extension of the great
plains region, lying between the Missouri River and the
Great Slave Lake. The most northerly record of its occur-
rence was made by Franklin in 1820, when he found it at
Slave Point, on the north side of Great Slave Lake. In
1829 Richardson defined the easterly distribution of the
buffalo in Canada as follows: ‘‘They do not frequent any
of the districts formed of primitive rocks, and the limits of
their range to the eastward, within the Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany’s territories, may be correctly marked on the map by
a line commencing in longitude 97 degrees on the Red River,
which flows into the south end of Lake Winnipeg, crossing
the Saskatchewan to the northward of Basquian Hill* and
running thence to the Athapescowt; thence to the east end of
Great Slave Lake. Their migrations westward were formerly
limited to the Rocky Mountain range and they are still
unknown in New Caledonia and on the shores of the Pacific
to the north of the Columbia River; but of late years they
have found out a passage across the mountains near the
sources of the Saskatchewan oa their numbers to the
westward are annually increasing.”’

As late as 1871 the buffalo inhabited the shore of Great
- Slave Lake, as is shown by a letter from E. W. Nelson to
* Pasquia Hills, } Lake Athabaska.

PLATE X

BUFFALO BONES PHOTOGRAPHED BY MR. HUGH LUMSDEN, C.E.,
AUGUST 9, 1890

This is probably the largest accumulation of buffalo bones ever made in Canada.
They were piled along the siding just then constructed at Saskatoon. The piles
were about eight feet wide and eight feet high, the skulls being built up on the out-
side and all broken skulls and other bones thrown into the centre

The bones were gathered by Indians and half-breeds from a radius of, say, 12 or 15
miles around that point. They were sold at from $5.00 to $7.00 per ton to buyers
from Minneapolis, U. S., and were used for the manufacture of bone charcoal. Mr.
Lumsden estimated that these bones represented the remains of over 25,000 Buffalo

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 115

J. A. Allen, dated July 11, 1877, and quoted by Hornaday.
Nelson states: ‘‘I have met here [he was writing from St.
Michael, Alaska] two gentlemen who crossed the moun-
tains from British Columbia and came to Fort Yukon
through British America, from whom I have derived some
information about the buffalo (Bison americanus) which will
be of interest to you. These gentlemen descended the Peace
River and on about the one hundred and eighteenth degree
of longitude made a portage to Hay River, directly north.
On this portage they saw thousands of buffalo skulls and
old trails, in some instances two or three feet deep, leading
east and west. They wintered on Hay River near its en-
trance into Great Slave Lake and here found the buffalo still
common, occupying a restricted territory along the southern
border of the lake. This was in 1871. They made inquiry
concerning the large number of skulls seen on the portage
and learned that about fifty years before, snow fell to the
estimated depth of 14 feet, and so enveloped the animals
that they perished by thousands. It is asserted that these
buffaloes are larger than those of the plains.’’ It should be
pointed out in passing that the only herd of wild buffalo
(as opposed to those enclosed in government reserves) is
to be found in the region referred to above. Further de-
tails regarding this herd will be given later.

- The buffalo was migratory in its habits, and in this re-
spect it differed from most of the other terrestrial quad-
rupeds of America. In the spring, on the return of mild
weather, it migrated about 300 or 400 miles northward to
feed on the better pasturage it found there, and in the fall,
when winter approached, it left its range, extending from
the Peace River southward, and the great herds moved
south. This migratory habit was no doubt responsible for
the failure of the buffalo to break up into local races, ex-
cept possibly in the case of the buffalo occupying the afore-
mentioned region southwest of Great Slave Lake. The

ALASKA

ATLANTIC

GULF OF
MEXICO

MAP ILLUSTRATING THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE BISON
The outer dark line indicates the area formerly inhabited by Bison

(Mainly after J. A. Allen)

The inner shaded areas indicate the range of the great northern and southern herds
in 1870, after the building of the Union Pacific Railway

(After Hornaday)

The present distribution of the chief Bison herds is indicated by the following numbers:

DIN OSE ONS

Range of Wood Bison
Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alta.

. Montana National Bison Range, Dixon, Mont.

Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming

Salt Lake City, Utah

Pierre, South Dakota

La Vela Pass, Colorado

Wichita National Game Reserve, Cache, Okla.

THE BUFFALO OR BISON a7

migratory movements of the buffalo are described by Alex-
ander Henry in “The Manuscript Journals of Alexander
Henry and of David Thompson, 1799-1814,” from which
Seton has taken the extracts given in his ‘‘ Life Histories of
Northern Mammals,” which are given below:

18 September, 1800. The plain was covered.... They were mov-
ing southward slowly, and the meadow seemed as if in motion.
7 November. Great herd of cows going at full speed southward.
1 January, 1801. Buffalo in great abundance .. . the plains were en-
tirely covered; all were moving in a body from north to south.
14 January. The ground was covered [with buffalo] at every point
of the compass, as far as the eye could reach, and every animal
was in motion.

During January, 1803, Henry found the country from Park
River, N. Dak., to the Riding Mountains crowded with buf-
falo. These definite records of Henry’s not only give exact
information regarding the migration of the buffalo, but they
also serve to convey an idea of their immense numbers.

Hind, who led the expedition which explored the Cana-
dian prairies in 1859, found that the Saskatchewan herd
wintered in central Saskatchewan in a region of which Sas-
katoon now occupies approximately the central point. This
observation on the wintering habit of this herd is of inter-
est as indicating the suitability of that region as a wintering
place for the buffalo.

The Destruction of the Buffalo—But to gain an adequate
idea of the immense nature of the herds of buffalo that in-
habited the plains and prairies the reader must consult
Hornaday’s account. The vast herds seemed to clothe the
prairies in a coat of brown. They were as thick as the leaves
in the forest. These countless herds greeted the advance
guards of civilization and that process spelled their doom.

The history of the buffalo was only an illustration on
the largest possible scale of the history of every species of
wild animal when man invades its natural haunts with an

118 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

unrestrained desire to kill. No part of our wild life can
withstand the destructive influence of men armed with
modern guns; man and gun spell their doom, and the only
salvation for any species is the restriction by law of the
number that may be killed. These considerations, however,
had no import in the early days of the buffalo. It was
faced with men armed with powerful firearms, who killed
without any regard for the future, and there was a complete
absence of any restrictions on the part of all the governments
concerned. The Indians, who had always regarded the
buffalo as the source of their meat supply, had their point
of view entirely changed in so far as the number of animals
to be killed was concerned. Their passion for killing was
inflamed by the example of the white hunters, with serious
economic results when their source of meat was wiped out.

Various methods of slaughter were followed. The ex-
traordinary stupidity of the animals made them an easy
prey for the still-hunters. Still-hunting (Plate XI) was
conducted on business lines, and was highly profitable when
over a hundred animals could be killed from one stand, and
the robes were worth two dollars and four dollars each. The
practice of hunting on horseback provided an exciting sport,
and when the hunters—white, half-breed, and Indians—went
out in armies the results were disastrous to the herds, par-
ticularly as the cows were especially chosen, owing to the
superior value of their skins. A favourite method employed
by the Indians was that of impounding or killing the animals
in pens, into which they were driven. This method was
commonly practised by the Plains Crees in the South Sas-
katchewan country. The terrible scenes that attended these
wholesale slaughters of the herds are beyond description.
Other methods of slaughter on a large scale were surround-
ing, decoying, and driving the animals, and all tended
towards the same end—complete extermination of the herds.
As the animals became more scarce the half-breeds and In-

PLATE XI

CREE INDIANS IMPOUNDING BISON

STILL-HUNTING BISON
From the painting by J. H. Moser in the National Museum, Washington, D. C.

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 119

dians vied with the white hunters in destroying them.
Far more buffalo were destroyed than could possibly be
utilized, but this could not long continue. No longer did
the prairies thunder with the sound of thousands of gallop-
ing hoofs. The great herds were driven farther and farther
afield. Indians who formerly merely cut out the tongues
of their victims, if they took any part of the carcass at all,
now almost starved for want of food. In 1857 the Plains
Crees, inhabiting the country around the headwaters of the
Qu’Appelle River, decided that, on account of the rapid de-
struction of the buffalo by white men and _half-breeds,
they would not permit them to travel in their country, or
travel through it except for the purpose of trading for their
dried meat, pemmican, or robes. In the following year the
Crees reported that between the North and the South Sas-
katchewan Rivers buffalo were very scarce. Hind’s expedi-
tion in 1859 saw only one buffalo between Winnipeg and
Sandhill Lake, at the head of the Qu’Appelle near the South
Saskatchewan, where they encountered the first herd.

Catlin has given some idea of the enormous numbers that
were killed during the first half of the nineteenth century.
In 1832 he stated that 150,000 to 200,000 robes were mar-
keted annually, which meant a slaughter of 2,000,000, or
perhaps 3,000,000 buffalo. So great was the destruction
that he prophesied its extermination within eight or ten
years! Frémont about the same time also bore witness to
the appalling destruction.

The death-knell was struck when the construction of the
Union Pacific Railway was begun at Omaha, in 1865.
Previous to the advent of the first transcontinental railway
the difficulties of marketing the results of the slaughter
served as a slight check on the rate of extermination, for,
although they were being killed out at a rate greatly in ex-
cess of their natural increase, they would have existed for
some years longer than the coming of the railroads and ad-

120 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

ditional swarms of white hunters rendered possible. This
railroad divided the original great body of buffalo into
southern and northern herds. That was the beginning of
the end. Although the range of the northern herd was
about twice as extensive as that of the southern, the latter
contained probably twice as many buffaloes. Hornaday
estimates that in 1871 the southern herd contained about
3,000,000 animals, although most estimates give a higher
total than this.

The slaughter of the southern herd began in 1871, and
reached its height two years later. From 1871 to 1873 the
wastefulness was prodigious. The number of skins that
were marketed bore no indication of the enormous slaughter.
In four short years the great southern herd was wiped out
of existence, and by 1875 it had ceased to exist.

By the time the destruction of the northern herd com-
menced in earnest, buffaloes in Canada had already become
very scarce. The remnants of our former herds were assidu-
ously hunted by the Indians as they constituted their main
supply of food. As Hornaday states: ‘‘The herds of British
America had been almost totally exterminated by the time
the final slaughter of our northern herd was inaugurated
by the opening of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1880.
The Canadian Pacific Railway played no part whatever in
the extermination of the buffalo in the British possessions,
for it had already taken place. The half-breeds of Mani-
toba, the Plains Crees of Qu’Appelle and the Blackfeet of
the South Saskatchewan country swept bare a great belt of
country stretching east and west between the Rocky Moun-
tains and Manitoba. The Canadian Pacific Railway found
only bleaching bones in the country through which it passed.
The buffalo had disappeared from that entire region before
1879 and left the Blackfeet Indians on the verge of star-
vation. A few thousand buffaloes still remained in the
country between the headwaters of the Battle River, be-

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 121

tween the North and South Saskatchewan, but they were
surrounded and attacked from all sides, and their numbers
diminished rapidly until all were killed.”’

“The latest information I have been able to obtain in
regard to the disappearance of this northern band,” Horna-
day continues, ‘“‘has been kindly furnished by Prof. C. A.
Kenaston, who in 1881, and also in 1883, made a thorough
exploration of the country between Winnipeg and Fort Ed-
monton for the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. His
four routes between the two points named covered a vast
scope of country, several hundred miles in width. In 1881
at Moose Jaw . . . he saw a party of Cree Indians who had
just arrived from the north-west with several carts laden
with fresh buffalo meat. At Fort Saskatchewan, on the
North Saskatchewan River, just below Edmonton, he saw
a party of English sportsmen who had recently been hunt-
ing on the Battle and Red Deer rivers, between Edmonton
and Fort Calgary, where they had found buffaloes, and
killed as many as they cared to slaughter. In one after-
noon they killed fourteen, and could have killed more had
they been more bloodthirsty. In 1883 Prof. Kenaston
found the fresh trail of a band of twenty-five or thirty buf-
faloes at the ‘elbow’ of the South Saskatchewan. Excepting
in the above instances he saw no further traces of buffalo,
‘nor did he hear of any in all the country he explored.* In
1881 he saw many Cree Indians at Fort Qu’Appelle in a
starving condition, and there was no pemmican nor buffalo
meat at the fort. In 1883, however, a little pemmican
found its way to Winnipeg where it sold at 15 cents per
pound, an exceedingly high price. It had been made that

*In October, 1884, a Canadian Pacific tri-weekly train from Calgary to
Winnipeg was boarded at way stations by passengers laden with rifles, sad-
dles, and other equipment till it was crowded to capacity. Inquiry elicited
the information that seven buffalo had been reported in the Cypress Hills.
This was undoubtedly the last remnant of the vast herds which once roved
the prairies of Western Canada, and, inspired by a desire to slaughter, at least

122 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

year, evidently in the month of April, as he purchased it
in May for his journey.”

The main part of the northern herd was to be found in
the United States. Here the Indians of the Northwestern
territories were waging a relentless war on the animals.
Hornaday computes that the number of buffalo slaughtered
annually by those tribes must have been about 375,000.
The destruction of the northern herd began in earnest in
1876 and became universal over the entire range four years
later. By this time the annual export of robes from the
buffalo country had diminished three-fourths. The con-
struction of the Northern Pacific Railway hastened the ex-
termination of the herd. White and Indian hunters killed
as long as there were buffaloes to kill. The hunting season
which began in 1882 and ended in February, 1883, com-
pleted the annihilation of the great northern herd, and only
a few thousand head were left broken in straggling bands.
The last shipment of robes was made from the Dakota
Territory in 1884. In 1889 Hornaday, on the basis of all
available data, estimated that the number of buffalo run-
ning wild and unprotected, was 635 animals! Was the de-
struction of an animal ever so completely brought about?
It furnishes what is undoubtedly the most striking and ap-
palling example of the fate of an animal existing in appar-
ently inexhaustible numbers when left exposed to unre-
stricted slaughter, and should be a serious lesson to the
people of the country for all time. That the buffalo had to
go in the face of advancing civilization was inevitable. It
occupied lands that were to furnish homes and occupation
fifty, and probably one hundred, hunters immediately started for the town of
Maple Creek, as being the nearest railway station on the Canadian Pacific—
then the only railway in what is now the province of Saskatchewan.

It is gratifying to note that, so far as known, these sportsmen were unsuc-
cessful, and this small herd survived for several years. It is believed that it
increased to twenty or twenty-five, but eventually it was exterminated by

Indians. The fact that it increased at all indicates that, had it received
adequate protection, its descendants might be living to-day.—J. W.

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 123

for millions of immigrants and that now produce so large
a part of the world’s staple crops.

Time, however, will not efface the traces of the buffalo’s
occupation of the continent. They blazed the trails that
later became important highways. As A. B. Hulbert, in his
‘Historic Highways of America,’ has pointed out, the buf-
falo selected the route through the Alleghanies by which
the white man entered and took possession of the Mississippi
Valley. They found the best routes across the continent,
and ‘“‘human intercourse will move constantly on paths
first marked by the buffalo. It is interesting that he found
the strategic passageways through the mountains; it is also
interesting that the buffalo marked out the most practical
paths between the heads of our rivers, paths that are
closely followed today by the Pennsylvania, Baltimore and
Ohio, Chesapeake and Ohio, Wabash and other great
railroads.”

To-day the only wild buffalo exist in Canadian territory,
and it will be of interest now to discuss this herd.

THe WILD or Woop Bison

In the area comprising a portion of northern Alberta
and the Northwest Territories that is bounded on the north
_ by Great Slave Lake, on the west by the Hay River, on the
southeast by the Peace River, and on the east by the
Slave River, there roams to-day the only wild remnant
of the former millions of buffalo that inhabited this con-
tinent. By their segregation they have formed a dis-
tinct race or sub-species known as Bison bison atha-
basce Rhoads. This race is larger in size and darker in
colour than the typical buffalo of the plains; also, its hair is
said to be more dense and silky, and the horns are larger and
more incurved (Plate XII).

Samuel Hearne was the first traveller to record the occur-

124 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

rence of these buffalo, and found them ‘‘very plentiful” in
the country east of Slave River. Mackenzie (1801) also
records them in the region adjoining the river named after
him to the west of the Great Slave Lake, and on the plains
near Vermilion Falls. In 1808 Harmon found them abun-
dant on either side of the Peace River near the Rocky
Mountains. Richardson’s observations in 1829 have already
been quoted (p. 114). Other travellers referred to their
abundance in this region in subsequent years, and E. W.
Nelson’s letter referring to their occurrence has been
quoted (p. 115). John Macoun, in his ‘‘ Manitoba and the
Great Northwest,’’ refers to this herd as follows: ‘‘The wood
buffalo, when I was in the Peace River in 1875, were confined
to the country lying between the Athabaska and Peace
Rivers north of latitude 57° 37’, or chiefly in the Birch Hills.
They were also said to be in some abundance on Hay River
and on Salt River, a tributary of Slave River north of Peace
River. The herds thirteen years ago were supposed to num-
ber about one thousand all told. I believe many still exist
as the Indians of that region eat fish, which are much easier
procured than either buffalo or moose, and the country is
much too difficult for white men.”’

In an article in the Field (London) of November 10, 1888,
Mr. Miller Christy (quoted by Hornaday) states: ‘‘The
Hon. Dr. Schultz, in a recent debate on the Mackenzie River
basin in the Canadian Senate, quoted Senator Hardisty of
Edmonton, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, to the effect
that the buffalo still existed in the region in question. ‘It
was’ he said, ‘difficult to estimate how many; but probably
five or six hundred still remain in scattered bands.’ There
had been no appreciable difference in their numbers, he
thought, during the last fifteen years, as they could not
be hunted on horseback, on account of the wooded character
of the country, and were therefore very little molested.
They are larger than the buffalo of the great plains, weighing

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 125

at least 150 pounds more. They are also coarser haired
and straighter horned.”’ Doctor Schultz also quoted Hon.
Frank Oliver of Edmonton, who recorded the wood buffalo
as still existing in small numbers between the Lower Peace
and Slave Rivers, extending westward from the latter to the
Buffalo River in latitude 60°, and also between the Peace
and Athabaska Rivers. Some buffalo meat was brought
every winter to the Hudson’s Bay Company’s posts nearest
the buffalo ranges.

In 1888 W. Ogilvie obtained further information regard-
ing these buffalo, and this is given in the Annual Report of
the Department of the Interior for 1889. He estimated the
number of animals to be about 180, and from information
secured in 1891 the same observer thought that their numbers
did not exceed 300 (Annual Report, Department Interior,
for 1892).

Doctor Otto Klotz published in the Ottawa Naturalist
for 1901 data furnished him by J. A. Macrae, Inspector of
Agencies in the Athabaska region in 1900. At this time it
was computed that the buffalo numbered from 500 to 575
head. Mr. Macrae stated that ‘“‘some eight or nine were
killed last winter, but as I tried and punished those who
killed them it is thought that no more depredations will
occur. I understand that there has been an increase since
_ the animals were protected, of perhaps a couple of hundred,
and it would appear to be only necessary to continue vigor-
ous protective measures in order to perpetuate the herd.”

Fortunately, the Northwest Game Act was passed by
the Dominion Parliament in 1906, and under this act a
permanent close season for buffalo was provided for a
number of years.

In 1907 Inspector A. M. Jarvis of the R.N. W.M.
Police was sent specially from Regina to the Athabaska
region to ascertain the existing numbers and condition of
the wood buffalo and to recommend means for their pro-

126 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

tection. Accompanied by Ernest Thompson Seton and E.
A. Preble, he visited the region west and southwest in June
and July, 1907. In the region of Upper Salt River one herd
of thirteen bison was seen, and a second herd of four bulls,
one yearling, four little calves, three two-year-olds, and
eight cows was observed a few miles further on. Mr.
Seton photographed the first herd and one of his photographs
is reproduced in his ‘‘The Arctic Prairies.” In summing
up the results of his investigation Inspector Jarvis, after re-
marking that it would take from two to three months to
make a complete investigation, gives the following conclu-
sions: ‘“‘That the buffalo are in danger of extermination not
by wolves but by poachers. These poachers are all known
and live at the village of Smith Landing in the summer time.
They could easily be controlled by a local police patrol;
without some protection the buffalo will not last five years
longer. Therefore, I strongly recommend, as I did some
time ago, that if it is the wish of the government to pro-
tect the buffalo, resident guardians be placed on the
grounds.” *

Inspector Jarvis further states: “‘In conclusion I would
point out that the range of the buffalo herds is very limited;
that it has certain natural boundaries; that the buffalo do
not attempt to leave this area; that it is removed from any
village or permanent habitation and that finally, zt would
be an efficient and easy measure of protection if the whole area
in question were at once turned into a National Park. Animal
life was not abundant. We saw no big game whatever and
few signs of moose or bear.”

As a result of Major Jarvis’s report the buffalo were pro-
tected more stringently. A system of occasional patrols
by selected non-commissioned officers and men of the Royal

*For a detailed account of Inspector Jarvis’s investigation the reader
should consult the Annual Report Royal North West Mounted Police for 1907,
pp. 122-129, 1909.

PLATE XII

From photographs by Charles Camsell. Courlesy of the Geological Survey

Wallows of Wood Bison in Salt River region, Northern Alberta

WOOD BISON

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 127

Northwest Mounted Police into the buffalo country was in-
augurated, and some resident hunters were engaged as
special constables.

In 1909 Cerporal Mellor of the R. N. W. M. Police, en-
gaged on a patrol into the buffalo country southwest of
Smith Landing, “‘found buffalo tracks very numerous at
Beaver Lake and also on Big Salt Prairie, at Hay Lake and
about Peace Point.’’ In the district named, Corporal Mel-
lor was able to get within five yards of a band of about
seventy-five buffalo and obtained a good look at them.
He says in his report: ‘‘Owing to the fact that many of
them were hidden from view in the bush, I was unable to
count them correctly. Those nearest to view were nine
large bulls, all splendid animals and rolling [in| fat. I saw
only four calves in the band although there may have been
more in the bush, but the guide, after examining the tracks,
told me that there were no more. .. .”

In the summer of 1910 Sergeant Mellor, accompanied by
Constable Johnson, ascended Big Buffalo River from Sul-
phur Point on Great Slave Lake to Buffalo Lake. The main
object was to determine as far as possible the northern
boundary of the wood-bison habitat. As a result of this
exploration Sergeant Mellor concludes that the wood bison
never range as far as Buffalo Lake, nor across the Caribou
- Hills, neither do they reach Great Slave Lake at any point;
on the other hand, they come close to Slave River from a
point about fifty miles below Fort Smith, right up to Peace
River, and also reach Peace River, at any rate as far as
Jackfish River. Their habitat would therefore appear, he
says, to be bounded on the west by the Caribou Mountains,
on the south by Peace River, on the east by Slave River,
and on the north by an imaginary line drawn from Caribou
Mountains on the west to Slave River on the east, touching
the latter at about Point Ennuyeuse, and the former about
fifty miles south by Buffalo Lake. The buffalo have, so far

128 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

as he could make out from careful inquiry, never been seen
many miles north of these low points.

The attitude of the Indians towards the buffalo is indi-
cated by the evidence of Inspector H. A. Conroy of the De-
partment of Indian Affairs before the Senate committee
in 1907. He says: ‘‘You do not require to enforce the law
to protect the buffalo. The Indians will not kill them.
They want to preserve them as much as any one else. The
Indians think if the buffalo are gone they will have nothing
left. The Wood Crees are benefiting by the errors of the
Indians south of the Saskatchewan. They know that the
buffalo are all gone south of them and they want to protect
the wood buffalo.” Sergeant R. W. MacLeod of the
R.N. W. M. Police, reporting on his long patrol from
Fort Vermilion to the mouth of the Hay River on Great
Slave Lake, in December, 1910, corroborated Mr. Conroy’s
statement. He states: ‘‘The Indians I met were familiar
with the regulations for the protection of the buffalo and
protested strongly against a white man being permitted to
kill any. The Indians told me the western range of the buf-
falo is thirty-five to forty miles east of Buffalo Lake and
there is certainly no feed for them in any part of the coun-
try I passed over.”

In 1911 the Department of the Interior appointed Mr.
G. A. Mulloy to investigate the condition and protection
of the buffalo herds, and to obtain information in regard to
them under the supervision of Mr. A. J. Bell, government
agent at Fort Smith.

Mr. Mulloy, who resigned in 1913, submitted several re-
ports, the most comprehensive of which is contained in the
report of the director of forestry for the year 1914 (Appen-
dix No. 8, pp. 129-133). This report gives a good account
of the regions occupied by the buffalo and their habits. In
a letter of December 2, 1916, Mr. R. H. Campbell, director
of forestry, under whose jurisdiction the supervision of these

_ THE BUFFALO OR BISON 129

matters is placed, informed me that ‘‘there is nothing to
indicate that the herd is at present suffering from lack of
feed or from the depredations of either wolves or Indians.
The possibility of a decrease in the buffalo range is, how-
ever, a danger which has been pointed out by the govern-
ment agent, and is receiving attention by the strengthening
of the fire patrol in that vicinity.”

With a view to securing the latest information in regard
to the wood bison and their present range, I suggested to
Mr. Chas. Camsell, now Deputy Minister, Dept. of Mines,
who was visiting that region of the northwest during the
summer of 1916, for the purpose of supervising the work of
several field parties working under his direction there, that
it would be most desirable if he could visit the territory oc-
cupied by the buffalo west and southwest of Fort Smith;
the Commissioner of Dominion Parks was also anxious to
have such information. Mr. Camsell was very fortunately
able to make such a visit in September, 1916, and on his re-
turn he communicated the following facts to me: Three
journeys were made into the buffalo territory. The first
was made from Fort Smith westward past the salt springs in
Salt River, into the northern part of the buffalo range. A
second journey was made from Fitzgerald or Smith Landing
southwestward for a distance of about thirty-five miles into
the central part of the range. Earlier in the summer the
range was entered from Peace Point on Peace River, for a
distance of about ten miles.

The wood bison are now divided into two separate bands,
occupying two distinct ranges in northern Alberta and the
adjacent portion of the Northwest Territories. There does
not appear to be at present nor to have been within recent
years any migration of the buffalo from one range to the
other. The limits of the northern range are not as clearly
outlined as those of the southern, but in general it extends
north of the 60th parallel between Buffalo and Little Buffalo

130 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Rivers, almost to the shores of Great Slave Lake, and cov-
ers as large an area as the southern range if not larger.
The southern range extends from Peace River northward
to latitude 60° N., between longitudes 112° and 113°, and
covers an area of about 2,000 square miles. The two
ranges are separated by a belt of muskeg country 30 to 40
miles wide, with a slightly settled area, adjoining the Salt
River mission on the west. This tract of country prevents
migration from one range to the other, except by way of the
Salt Plain. In each range there are said to be about 1,000
head of buffalo, though these numbers must be taken as
being approximate, particularly with reference to the north-
ern range, as, so far as known, no white man has trav-
ersed it. |

Little is known of the northern range, which is much
more inaccessible than the southern, although some idea ot
its general character was obtained by the journey inland
from the south shore of Great Slave Lake into the northern
border of the range. The timber, soil, and topography
were found to be very similar to those of the southern range.

The southern range is a flat or gently undulating plain,
lying at an elevation of about 800 feet above sea-level. On
the south its surface is only about 60 feet above the level
of Peace River, and on the north it drops sharply away to
an escarpment 150 to 200 feet high, down to the broad,
level plain of the Slave River; ridges of sand, or boulders of
limestone, which are rarely as much as 100 feet high, con-
stitute the only irregularities of its surface, which is, how-
ever, frequently pitted by immense sink-holes, due to the
solution of the beds of gypsum which underlie the surface
of the greater part of the range. There are very few lakes,
and several of them contain water too alkaline to drink.
Muskegs, which are not very numerous or of great extent,
occur on the range. There are very few streams, the
greater part of the drainage being apparently underground.

The whole range is more or less timbered, interspersed

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 131

with irregular open patches of prairie, a few hundred yards
in length and breadth. On the northern range and in the
valley of the Salt River there are areas of several square
miles of prairie or meadow-land. All are grass-covered,
except near the salt springs, where clay flats occur, and
cover about thirty square miles of the salt plain. The
timber is mainly white poplar, which often reaches two
feet in diameter. On the sandy ridges jack-pines are found,
and in the lower, wetter portions there are belts of good
spruce, with trees up to two feet in diameter. Grass grows
everywhere, both in the prairie openings and throughout
the woods, affording excellent pasturage. A collection of
grasses was made and identified by Mr. J. M. Macoun;
among them were found the following: feather, slough, reed-
canary, meadow, manna, bromus (introduced), blue-joint
and squirrel-tail grasses, wheat and wild rye. Wild vetch,
wild pea, and larkspur (Delphiniwm glaucum), which is
poisonous to domestic cattle, were also found.

From various sources Mr. Camsell gathered the follow-
ing information regarding the habits of the buffalo: In the
southern range they spend the early part of the summer in
the northern part of the range, near the Little Buffalo
River. During the greater part of the year they occur in
small bands of ten or twelve individuals, but in July and
- August, when the animals are mating, herds of twenty,
thirty, or forty animals have been seen. An Indian in-
“ormed Mr. Camsell that he had seen a single herd of about
one hundred head. In August the buffalo of the southern
herd begin to migrate southward, and they spend the win-
ter not far north of Peace River, between Peace Point and
Point Providence. In their migration from one part of the
range to another they appear to follow the same route
every year. This route is marked out by numerous deep
trails through the woods, similar to the well-known trails
in the prairies made by the plains buffalo. The route is
also marked by many wallows on the sides of hills and in

132 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

7 (Nice 3 R).
(2d
Hf

i RI

RANGE OF WOOD BISON
Limmstts OF TANGE..cciatnacm came

the open patches of prairie. One place was found which
the buffalo were accustomed to visit in order to lick the
salty earth; the ground for five or six acres was completely
cut up and covered with tracks, the whole area resembling
the ground of a cattle-pen. A single bull was seen here
(Plate XII), and Mr. Camsell approached within fifty feet
of it. It showed little fear, and made no attempt to move

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 133

off for several minutes, while photographs were taken of it.
This incident would appear to indicate that the animals
are not being molested by Indians or other hunters. On
the same salt lick there were seen tracks of animals of all
ages, and many of these were the tracks of yearlings and
calves, indicating that there is an increase taking place in
the numbers of the herd. Some of the tracks were those of
very large animals.

The general opinion appears to be that the Indians are
now observing the law prohibiting the killing of the buffalo,
and except perhaps in cases of necessity, where an Indian
family is out of food, no buffalo have been killed, at least in
recent years.

Timber wolves would appear to be the only natural
enemy of the buffalo, and in the various traverses made
into the southern range ten or twelve old and new tracks
of these animals were seen at various points.

The other wild life found on the buffalo range consists
of moose, woodland caribou, black bear, lynx, fox, beaver,
marten, mink, otter, fisher, wolverene, coyote, and musk-
rat. In the spring and fall ducks and geese are found.
Spruce partridge, willow grouse, and sharp-tailed grouse
occur all the year round and ptarmigan in the winter.

From all the evidence he collected and from his observa-
- tions when in the buffalo territory, Mr. Camsell has no
hesitation in saying that the buffalo are not only holding
their own, but are increasing. If, therefore, a portion of
their range could be made a national park, there is no
reason why the wood bison should not only be saved from
extermination, but there is every reason to believe that the
surplus would migrate into the adjacent territory, which is
unsuited to agriculture and therefore could be justifiably
devoted to the preservation of the only examples of our
largest and noblest native mammal now living in its original
wild state.

134 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Tue PRESENT STATE OF THE BUFFALO IN CANADA

From the latest reports, we are justified in concluding
that the number of wild or wood bison in Canada is not
less than 1,500 or 2,000 head, and is probably increasing.
This has been brought about by the protection of this sole
remaining wild herd by the government. If now we con-
sider the present state of the plains buffalo in Canada, we
shall find a condition of affairs of which every Canadian
may justly feel proud, a condition that has resulted from an
endeavour on the part of the government to prevent the
extermination of this former monarch of the prairies.

The present state of the buffalo will be all the more strik-
ing if we first take into account the low ebb to which the
numbers of the animals in North America had fallen. They
reached their lowest level in 1889, when there were only
1,091 buffalo then living, according to Hornaday’s estimate.
Of this total, 256 buffalo were in captivity, 200 were pro-
tected by the United States Government in the Yellowstone
Park, and 635 were running wild, of which number 550
were estimated to be in the Athabaska region of our North-
west Territories. Twenty years later, the same authority
estimated the number of living buffalo in North America
to be 2,047, and in 1912 there were computed to be 2,907
by Mr. W. P. Wharton.

In 1907 and 1909 the government purchased the well-
known herd of buffalo, the largest on the continent, belong-
ing to Michel Don Pablo, of Montana, consisting of 709
head. For these animals a special buffalo park was created
at Wainwright, in Alberta, on the main line of the Grand
Trunk Pacific Railway, between Saskatoon and Edmon-
ton. This park covers an area of about 160 square miles,
the whole of which is enclosed in a special wire fence about
76 miles in length and consists of land unsuited to agricul-
ture on account of its sandy nature, but admirably suitable

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 135

for buffalo, as it evidently formed a favourite place for
buffalo in years gone by, as shown by the abundance of old
wallows and buffalo trails. Several lakes, the largest of
which is Jamieson Lake, about seven miles long, provide an
ample water supply. The land is rolling, and includes scat-
tered clumps of poplar and buffalo willow groves every-
where. Under these eminently natural conditions the buf-
falo have increased annually. In the spring of 1913 the
numbers had increased to 1,188 head; a year later there
were 1,453 buffalo. When I visited the buffalo park in
1915 there were over 2,000 buffalo. In June, 1919, the
herd had increased to 3,830 animals.* In other words,
there are at the present time in the Buffalo Park at Wain-
wright, Alta., under the care and protection of the Cana-
dian Government, more buffalo than existed on the whole
North American continent eight years ago, and by far
the largest herd of buffalo in existence. In addition the
government maintains small herds of buffalo at Banff (8)
and Elk Island Park (195). Altogether, there were 4,033
buffalo under the protection of the Canadian Government
in June, 1919.

The successful protection of the buffalo at the Buffalo
Park is due not only to the choice of a suitable natural
range but to the care that has been exercised in looking
- after the herd. The park, in addition to being enclosed by
a high, strong wire fence, is surrounded by wide fire-guards,
which are ploughed around the entire park, both inside and
outside the fence, to guard against prairie fires (Plate XIV).
Many hundred tons of hay are cut each year and fed to the
buffaloes in the winter, during which season they occupy a
more restricted range. Great care is taken to prevent the
introduction of contagious cattle diseases; for example,
when the epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease broke out in

*In December, 1920, there were about 5,000 buffalo in Wainwright Buffalo
Park. It is proposed to slaughter 1,000 of them in 1921.—J. W.

136 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

the Chicago stock-yards about two years ago the park
was closed to visitors and the greatest precautions were
taken.

The question naturally arises: how are we to dispose of
the surplus stock of buffaloes? With the present rate of
increase the time will shortly come when the numbers will
reach the capacity of the Buffalo Park. This opens an
interesting field, which I will now consider.

Tuer FuTurE OF THE BUFFALO IN CANADA

An obvious step to be taken with a view to disposing of
the surplus buffaloes from the Buffalo Park is to establish
small parks in other parts of the Prairie Provinces, where
small herds could be maintained, which would be more
readily accessible to the people who are interested in seeing
and protecting these remnants of the former inhabitants of
the prairies. Every large city should have its zoological
park, the educational advantages of which have been so
conclusively demonstrated in the older countries of Europe.
It should be possible for cities starting or maintaining such
parks to obtain buffaloes from the government.

Domestication.—The greatest value of the buffalo, how-
ever, lies in the possibility of its domestication. This may
appear to be a novel idea, but I am convinced that its
acceptance and adoption would result in inestimable benefit
to the Prairie Provinces and the country as a whole. The
greatest need in the Prairie Provinces is an increase in its
beef-producing capacity. The buffalo is an animal which
offers great possibilities, being pre-eminently suited to
prairie conditions, and at the same time it produces a robe
of no small commercial value.

The needs of the West in the matter of suitable stock
have been well stated by the late Mr. C. J. Jones, of Garden
City, Kansas, whose experience with the buffalo earned for

PLATE XIII

1 and 3. Buffalo in barnyard, Elk Island Park, Alberta, during winter, showing possi-
bilities of domestication

2. Antelopes: two males. two young (male and female) born in captivity, and adult
female, in the private reserve of R. Lloyd, Davidson, Saskatchewan

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 137

him the name of “Buffalo Jones.” In the Farmers Review
of August 22, 1888, Mr. Jones stated the problem as fol-
lows:

(1) We want an animal that is hardy.

(2) We want an animal with nerve and endurance.

(3) We want an animal that faces the blizzards and endures th. storms.

(4) We want an animal that will rustle on the prairies and not yield
to discouragement.

(5) We want an animal that will fill the above bill and make good
beef and plenty of it.

‘“All the above points could easily be found in the buf-
falo,”’ continues Mr. Jones, ‘‘excepting the fifth, and even
that is more filled as to the quality, but not in the quan-
tity. Where is the ‘old timer’ who has not had a cut
from the hump or the sirloin of a fat buffalo cow in the
fall of the year, and where is the one who will not make
an affidavit that it was the best meat he ever ate? Yes,
the fat was very rich, equal to the marrow from the bone
of domestic cattle.”

The buffalo is the best suited of all animals to withstand
those conditions which stockmen have found most inimical
to domestic cattle. It can weather our western storms and
blizzards and can withstand the hunger and cold that
would kill our domestic steers. As Hornaday says: ‘‘When
nature placed the buffalo on the treeless and blizzard-swept
plains, she left him well equipped to survive whatever nat-
ural conditions he would have to encounter.” Unlike do-
mestic cattle, which usually drift before a storm and thus
suffer an inevitable fate, the buffalo knows how to face
the storm and endure it. And as regards its ability to
withstand such conditions we have seen how the buffalo
formerly wintered in the middle prairie region.

It is on these facts, therefore, that the claim for a consid-
eration of the possibility of domesticating the buffalo in

1388 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

the Canadian West is based, and we cannot afford to dis-
miss the claim lightly. I have already submitted this pro-
posal to the Parks Branch of the Department of the Interior
for consideration, in the firm belief that it affords a solution
to the question of the disposal of the surplus stock of buffalo
in the Buffalo Park. There are undoubtedly stockmen in
the West who would be willing to enclose sufficient range
unsuited to the production of wheat to permit the main-
tenance of small herds of buffalo by way of preliminary
experiment. And I am convinced that the results of such
experiments would demonstrate that the domestication of
the buffalo is practicable. Any one who has ridden over
the Buffalo Park and mingled with the herds there must
realize that the buffalo are as manageable as the beef steers
of the range if not more so. They are docile, and untracta-
ble bulls can be readily dealt with (Plate XIII).

Cross-BREEDING WITH Domestic CATTLE

With a view to combining the excellent natural qualities
of the buffalo, that make it so suited to Western conditions,
with the beef-producing qualities of the best domestic
breeds of cattle, efforts have been made from time to time
to cross the buffalo with domestic cattle. The first records
we have of such domestication by cross-breeding are those
of Huguenot settlers in Virginia in 1701, and later in the
eighteenth century buffaloes were domesticated and bred in
captivity in that State. It is interesting to note that one
of the most important of these earlier attempts to utilize
the buffalo, which are recorded by Hornaday in his mono-
graph, was undertaken by Mr. S. L. Bedson, of Stony
Mountain, Manitoba. In 1877 Mr. Bedson purchased
1 buffalo bull, 4 heifers, and 5 calves. By 1888 his herd,
which was allowed to range the prairie at will, had increased
to 83 head, consisting of 23 full-blooded bulls, 35 cows, 3

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 139

half-breed cows, 5 half-breed bulls, and 17 calves, mixed
and pure. In that year this herd was purchased for $50,000
by Mr. C. J. Jones, of Kansas, who had already been
courageously endeavouring to produce a cross-bred race.
Hornaday quotes an interesting letter from Mr. Bedson,
written in 1888, in which the latter gives his experience.
The crossing was generally between the buffalo bull and
an ordinary cow, with encouraging results and no greater
losses than would be experienced in ranching with ordinary
cattle. Buffalo cows and crosses dropped calves at as low
a temperature as 20° below zero, and the calves were sturdy
and healthy. Mr. Bedson states: ‘‘The half-breed resulting
from two crosses as above mentioned has been again crossed
with the thoroughbred buffalo bull, producing a three-
quarter breed animal closely resembling the buffalo, the
head and robe being quite equal, if not superior. The half-
breeds are very prolific. The cows drop a calf annually.
They are also very hardy indeed, as they take the instinct
of the buffalo during blizzards and storms, and do not
drift like native cattle. They remain in our open prairies
while the thermometer ranges from 30 to 40 degrees below
zero, with little or no food except what they rustle on the
prairie and no shelter at all.” After pointing out the ad-
vantages of an animal that does not need care and shelter
during the winter, he continues: ‘‘They are always in good
order, and I consider the meat of the half-breed much pref-
erable to domestic animals, while the robe is very fine
indeed, the fur being evened up on the hind parts, the same
as on the shoulders.” When it was necessary through
accident to slaughter certain of the half-breed animals, the
dressed hides realized from $50 to $75 each, and a half-
breed buffalo ox four years old weighed 1,280 pounds
dressed beef. The three-quarter breed was an enormous
animal, possessing an extra good robe; Mr. Bedson con-
sidered them the coming cattle for range cattle in our

140 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

northern climate. He believed that ‘‘a cross with Gallo-
ways would produce the handsomest robe ever handled,
and make the best range cattle in the world.”

The experiments of Messrs. Bedson, Jones, Goodnight,
and other workers conclusively demonstrated the following
facts: That the buffalo bull crosses readily with the domes-
tic cow, which produces a half-breed calf successfully, but
the buffalo cow has not been known to produce a half-
breed calf; that the progeny of the two species is fertile to
any extent, yielding half-breeds, quarter, three-quarter
breeds and so on; that the hybrids display all the desirable
qualities of the buffalo as regards ability to withstand ex-
posure, etc., and, finally, that the buffalo will breed suc-
cessfully and regularly in captivity.

In order to determine to what extent practical use can
be made of the crosses between the buffaloes and domestic
cattle, the Dominion Department of Agriculture in 1915
purchased a herd of “‘cattalos,” as the hybrids are called,
from the herd which was developed by the late Mossom
Boyd on his Big Island stock farm at Bobcaygeon, On-
tario. An account of the purchase of this herd and the
character of the experimental work that is now being under-
taken by the Division of Animal Husbandry of the Do-
minion Experimental Farms, under the direction of Mr.
Archibald, the director, was published in The Agricultural
Gazette of Canada for March, 1916, from which the follow-
ing statement is taken:

The experiment carried on by the late Mossom Boyd was commenced
in 1894 and continued until the time of his death, some two years ago.
At the outset cows of various breeds and crosses were used. Some of
these failed to produce and, after several years of experiment, all but
grades of the Aberdeen-Angus and Hereford were discontinued. The
resulting herd, therefore, possess the thick form of these beef breeds and
a modification of the hump and depth of rib peculiar to the buffalo.

In the early stages of the experiment, sterility was a dominating ob-
stacle to progress, more particularly with the initial cross. With the

PLATE XIV

FENCE AROUND THE BUFFALO PARK, WAINWRIGHT, ALBERTA

This buffalo-proof fence is about nine feet high and seventy-two miles long; with
the interior dividing fences there is a total of one hundred and seventy miles of
fencing. Round the entire part fire guards twenty feet wide are ploughed inside
and outside the fence, as shown in the photograph

BUFFALO IN THE BUFFALO PARK, WAINWRIGHT, ALBERTA

The Buffalo in the park separate into groups of varying sizes. The photograph shows
a small group containing both young and old animals

THE BUFFALO OR BISON 141

securing of the true cattalo—the offspring of parents both of which pos-
sess mixed blood—and the elimination of shy breeders, Mr. Boyd devel-
oped a herd of prolific animals. Abortions were frequent in the early
crosses, but this tendency, also, has been overcome in the cattalo, which
compares favourably with ordinary cattle in carrying the young to
maturity.

The success of Mr. Boyd’s work was, no doubt, assisted by a knowledge
of what others had accomplished. Knowing from the experience of others
that initial difficulties incident to these crosses could with persistence be
overcome, Mr. Boyd pursued his work with confidence and ultimately
reached a place that began to show the value of the new breed. After
his death, however, it was found that the estate could not further pursue
the experiment. From time to time during recent years, requests have
been made to the Department of Agriculture to undertake experiments
with these crosses, and when it was learned that the herd of the late
Mr. Boyd was likely to be distributed and the value of his work lost,
strong representations were made to the Minister of Agriculture to secure
the herd of cattalos and to continue the experiment along truly scientific
lines.

The Honourable Mr. Burrell, therefore, had the herd thoroughly in-
vestigated by officials of the Experimental Farms, the Live Stock and the
Health of Animals branches, and on the results of their findings a selec-
tion from the herd was made. The selection consisted of twenty head
of the most promising individuals, made up of sixteen females and four
males. The females range in age from one to nine years, possess from
twenty-five to seventy-five per cent of buffalo blood, and weigh from five
hundred to seventeen hundred pounds. The males range from four to
nine years of age, carry from thirty-one to seventy-five per cent of buffalo
blood, and weigh from one thousand to two thousand pounds. They are
all regular breeders so far as they have been tried, and possess every in-
dication of vigour.

It has long been recognized that the buffalo possesses qualities which
would be of value if transmitted to beef-producing animals, more par-
ticularly for ranging purposes for cold-ridden districts. From the ex-
periments of Mr. Boyd and others it appears that the excellent rustling
qualities of the buffalo are retained in the cattalo. During the blizzard
conditions the cattalo like the buffalo faces the storm rather than drifts
before it as is the tendency of domestic cattle.

Furthermore, the cattalo shows excellent grazing qualities, maintain-
ing a plump body even on scant pastures. They carry a further resem-
blance to the buffalo in rising on their fore feet, which enables them to
rise when in a weakened condition.

142 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

The anatomy of the buffalo is favourable to the carrying of heavy
carcasses of beef. They possess an additional pair of ribs as well as
much longer spines of the vertebra. Although these extra ribs are not
always perpetuated in the cattalo, the length of back persists. Along
these spines very heavy muscles are carried, enabling the animal to carry
an exceedingly high percentage of beef on the back. which is the most
valuable part of the carcass.

The value of the pelt of the cattalo is also a matter of importance. It
possesses many of the qualities of that of the buffalo, but has a better
colour, and more lustre, and the hair, which possesses considerable curl,
is nearly as long and not matted.

The cattalo wintered (1915-16) on a quarter-section of
land at the Dominion Experimental Station at Scott, Sask.
They were enclosed within an ordinary wire fence. Al-
though they grazed to some extent, they were given a
ration of straw, hay, green-cut oat sheaves, and a few
roots. Subsequently the cattalo were moved from Scott to
Wainwright, Alta., where they were placed in a special
enclosure in the Buffalo Park. Up to the present time,
however (1919), there have been practically no cattalo
calves born.

It is also proposed to carry on cross-breeding experiments
with the yak, which is closely related to the bison and the
true oxen. This work will include crosses between the
yak and domestic cattle, and we would also suggest crosses
between the bison and yak.

It is greatly to be hoped that success will attend this
experimental work, and that the results may be of such a
character as to demonstrate the wisdom of the step taken
by the Dominion Department of Agriculture in its effort
to add to the stock-raising possibilities of our more northerly
territories.

CHAPTER VI

THE GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS
OF CANADA

In another chapter the protection of the insectivorous
and other small members of our bird fauna is considered.
These birds have not received the attention of sportsmen,
non-sportsmen (including the market hunter), and the
framers of game legislation that has been given to the large
class of birds included within the category of game birds,
in which category, however, are included a number of birds,
such as swans and cranes, that are no longer regarded as
game birds.

Within this important class of birds are included such
migratory groups as the swans, geese, ducks, cranes, and
shore birds, and the non-migratory species, such as grouse
and quail.

From the earliest historical times perhaps no country
was inhabited during the spring, summer, and early fall by
so large 4 number of swans, geese, and ducks as Canada,
_ whose vast areas of water, in the form of marshes, sloughs,
ponds, and lakes, furnished nesting-places and food for
myriads of these water-fowl. The opening up and agri-
cultural development of the country, the construction of
railroads, and the birth and growth of towns and cities
gradually brought about a rapid decrease in their number
and drove many of them back into the undeveloped lands
of the north, where at the present time by far the vast
majority continue to breed. The causes which have mainly
contributed to this decrease in the numbers of these migra-

tory game birds are discussed elsewhere (page 172), and
143

144 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

it is the purpose of this chapter to describe as briefly as
possible the present state and distribution of the chief rep-
resentatives of this group.

SWANS

The Whistling Swan.—Formerly this species was abun-
dant. It occurred throughout Canada, from the Atlantic
to the Pacific coasts, and northward to the coasts and islands
of the Arctic. But its large size, conspicuous character, and
the market value of its skin have been responsible for its
serious reduction. It breeds only in the far north, and
winters in Louisiana, South Carolina, and Texas. During
its migrations in the spring and fall it still occurs in large
flocks in Ontario. Mr. P. A. Taverner informs me that he
has seen flocks on Lake St. Clair, looking like rafts of ice
in the distance, and composed of 200 to 500 birds. Small
flocks pass over the Western Provinces, and are occasion-
ally seen in British Columbia.

Some idea of the former abundance and subsequent re-
duction in numbers of this magnificent bird may be gained
from the returns of the Hudson’s Bay Company, as given
by MacFarlane. He states that between 1853 and 1877 a
total of 17,671 skins were sold. The number sold annually
ranged from 1,312 in 1854 to 122 in 1877. ‘‘From 1858 to
1884, inclusive, Athabaska district turned out 2,705 swan
skins, nearly all of them from Fort Chipewyan. Mac-
kenzie River district, according to a statement in my pos-
session, supplied 2,500 skins from 1863 to 1883. From
1862 to 1877, Fort Resolution, Great Slave Lake, contrib-
uted 798 thereof. For 1889, Athabaska traded 33 skins as
against 251 skins in 1853. In 1880 and 1890, Isle-a-la-
Crosse, headquarters of English River district, sent out
two skins for each outfit.” Naturally, so conspicuous a
bird, accustomed to alight in its migratory flights on ponds
and lakes, offered a tempting and comparatively easy mark

GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 145

to the man with a gun. This was especially the case when
they were overtaken by adverse weather. J. H. Fleming
has described * a great destruction of swans that took place
in March, 1908, at Niagara Falls. One hundred and twenty-
eight birds were taken out of a flock that were swept over
the falls. On March 14 a flock of three or four hundred
swans was seen floating down the river with the current,
till danger of being swept into the Canadian rapids caused
it to rise and fly to its starting-point. Below Horseshoe
Falls the water was breasted by a struggling mass of swans.
The majority of them were carried to the ice bridge and
either cast up or ground against it by masses of floating
ice. The destruction on this occasion was practically total.

The Trumpeter Swan.—The breeding range of this species
extends farther south than that of the whistling swan, and it
is found in migration from Manitoba to British Columbia.t
Like its near relative, it formerly wintered farther north
than is the case to-day. The trumpeter has suffered more
than the whistling swan on account of the greater prox-
imity of its breeding-range to the regions in which settle-
ment has taken place.

The Migratory Birds Convention provides for a close
season for ten years for swans in Canada and the United
States, and it is to be hoped that the protection that is thus
given to these fine birds in their northern breeding-grounds,
in their wintering places in the South, and during their mi-
gration will be a means of increasing their numbers.

GEESE

The Canada Goose—What sound is a more welcome
herald of spring than the honking of the geese, what sight
is more pleasing than the A-shaped flocks of these geese

* The Auk, pp. 306-308, 1908.

tIn 1920, trumpeter swans were discovered to be wintering in British
Columbia and were “‘filmed.’”’ See Bulletin American Game Protective Associu-
tion, April, 1921, p. 13.

146 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

winging their way northward through the evening sky,
when the stern winter is loosening its grip on land and
water?

It breeds throughout the more northerly parts of Canada
from northern Quebec to the Pacific, chiefly within the
limits of tree growth, although it may be found nesting in
Labrador and on the treeless shores of the Hudson Bay.
Its breeding-range extends northward along the wooded
basin of the Mackenzie River. Mr. P. A. Taverner informs
me that the Canada goose still nests as far south as Red
Deer, Alta., and until recently it nested at Shoal Lake, Man.

The remarkable manner in which the Canada goose re-
sponds to encouragement and protection has been strik-
ingly demonstrated by Mr. Jack Miner of Kingsville, Essex
County, Ontario, whose wild geese have made him famous
throughout the United States and Canada. It has been
my good fortune to visit Mr. Miner when his wild geese
were enjoying his hospitality for a few weeks on their way
north, and to hear from him the story of his successful ex-
periment of securing the confidence of so shy a game-bird.
After having made the reputation of being one of the great-
est Nimrods in Ontario, Mr. Miner became converted to the
idea of making friends of the creatures that formerly re-
garded him as one of their most dangerous enemies. Ad-
joining his brick-and-tile factory was a small pond, and in
1904 he purchased seven wild geese, clipped their wings,
and turned them out on the pond, which he enclosed, and
which, it should be noted, is next to a much-travelled public
highway. No wild visitor came until 1908, then on April 2
eleven geese stopped with him for a month on their way
to their northern breeding-grounds. In 1909 thirty-two
wild geese arrived on March 18; and on March 4, 1910,
wild geese began to arrive from the South until, in two weeks,
350 had arrived. Each year the geese were fed with corn
on the cob. In the following year (1911) the geese began

GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 147

to arrive ‘“‘in clouds” on February 20. Every year since
they have visited Mr. Miner, not in hundreds but in thou-
sands. On Good Friday, 1913, it was a very windy day
and Lake Erie was extremely rough; the geese came to his
farm in such numbers that they filled a five-acre field.

For several weeks each year they enjoy his hospitality
and consume annually several hundred dollars’ worth of
corn. For years Mr. Miner has borne the cost of feeding
his wild visitors, and it is impossible to praise too highly
the spirit that has prompted so great a financial sacrifice on
the part of a lover of wild life, who can ill afford the ex-
penditure involved in this unique experiment. To accom-
modate the increasing number of his visitors Mr. Miner
made new and enlarged ponds and added to his farm, the
whole of which was devoted to and specially laid out for
the protection of the geese, wild ducks,—which also visit
him in large numbers,—quail, and insectivorous birds. So
successful was the work that the Ontario government has
created the Miner farm and adjacent farms a game sanc-
tuary, which, each year, is visited by thousands of peo-
ple, particularly in the spring, when the geese are staying
there.

One of the most wonderful and inspiring sights I have
ever seen is the return of the flocks of geese during the early
- hours of sunrise on an April morning. While the heavens
are still glowing with the rosy light of the rising sun, the
geese begin to leave the water of Lake Erie, where they
have spent the night, and in their characteristic A-shaped
flocks, they head straight for the sanctuary, where they
alight and spend the day, fed by the generous hand of their
protector. Such pleasures cannot be purchased; they are
the natural sequence to a genuine love of wild life and a
patient winning of its confidence.

Mr. Miner was not satisfied with demonstrating the re-
sponse of the wild geese and ducks to his encouragement

148 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

and protection, but desired to learn something of their
movements when they left him, for considerable numbers
also visited him in the fall on their southward journey.
Accordingly he has made a practice of capturing a number
of his feathered visitors and marking their legs with alu-
minium tags, one of which is reproduced (Plate XXII, 3, 4).
A number of these leg-tags have been returned to him,
some from the breeding-places of the geese in the north
and others from their wintering places in the south. As a
result of this work valuable information has been secured.
From ten wild geese marked in 1915-1916, six tags were
returned from the following places: In the north, where
they were breeding: Moose Factory, Paint Hill, Watts
Island, and Fort George, all on James Bay. In the south,
where they winter: Nag Head and Currituck Sound, North
Carolina.

The work of Mr. Miner serves as an admirable object
lesson in wild-life protection. There is no reason why his
example should not be followed by others in all parts of
Canada. The educational value of such protection cannot
be overestimated, and the results that would accrue from a
wider adoption of such a scheme are incalculable as a means
of increasing the numbers of our migratory game and other
birds. We fervently hope that his example will be followed
throughout the Dominion.

Hutchins’s Goose.—This is a smaller Western variety of
the Canada goose, with which it frequently associates. It is
a common visitor in the spring and fall in the western prov-
inces, from Manitoba to British Columbia. In Manitoba
it has become fairly plentiful in recent years, and to some
extent has taken the place of the Canada goose; they may
be found on the stubble about the end of September. In
British Columbia it is a common migrant in the spring and
fall, and a number winter on the coast of British Columbia.
It breeds abundantly on the delta of the Yukon River, on

GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 149

the Arctic coast and islands, and on the northwestern coast
of Hudson Bay.

Snow or White Goose-—This species, known as the ‘‘white
wavey,” breeds in the Arctic from the mouth of the Mac-
kenzie River eastward to Franklin Bay. It is an uncom-
mon migrant in the east, but in the west it winters on
the coast of southern British Columbia, sometimes collect-
ing in considerable flocks at the mouth of the Fraser River.
The greater snow goose migrates along the Atlantic coast.

Blue Goose.—The breeding-grounds of this more easterly
species are unknown, but it is believed to nest on the eastern
shores of Hudson Bay or in northern Quebec (Ungavg).

Brant.—Formerly the brant was one of the most abundant
of the wild fowl that frequented our coasts, but its numbers
have decreased very greatly. It is still an abundant mi-
grant along the entire Atlantic coast, where it visits the
coastal flats and estuaries. It breeds in the far north on
the coast and islands of the Arctic Sea.

The black brant is a Pacific coast species, and it winters
along the coast of Vancouver Island and British Columbia.
Its breeding-grounds are on the Arctic coast and islands
from Point Barrow to Melville Island.

DUCKS

It is not possible within the limits of the description of
our native wild fowl, nor is it desirable in an account of
this nature, to discuss in detail the range and habits of all
the numerous species of ducks that are native to Canada.
Such details as the reader may wish to obtain may be found
in the excellent ‘‘Catalogue of Canadian Birds,” by John
and James M. Macoun, in Forbush’s “Game Birds, Wild
Fowl and Shore Birds,’’ and in the excellent work, “Game
Birds of California,” by Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer. Ref-
erence may be made, however, to a number of the more
common species of ducks.

150 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Merganser.—The ‘‘saw-billed”’ ducks are well known and
are generally regarded by fishermen as destroyers of fish.
The red-breasted merganser nests on rivers and lakes
throughout the wooded regions of Canada, from the Gulf
and River St. Lawrence and northern Quebec to British Co-
lumbia. The hooded merganser breeds from Ontario to
British Columbia; the centre of its abundance appears to
be in northern Manitoba. It is common in British Colum-
bia and has been found wintering on Okanagan Lake.

Mallard.—Forbush has truly called the mallard ‘the
wild duck of the world.’ It is a cosmopolitan species,
progenitor of our domestic breeds of ducks, a joy to the
naturalist and sportsman, and in every way our best wild
duck. Its chief breeding-grounds are the western provinces,
the Northwest Territories, and British Columbia. It is
not common east of the St. Lawrence, but it breeds in some
of the marshes in western Ontario. West of the Great
Lakes it may be found everywhere. Almost every little
slough has its pair of mallards. But nowhere does it exist
in the countless numbers that were formerly found when
individual gunners killed them by the hundred per day,
until they tired of the slaughter. They respond readily
to protection and encouragement and are easily propagated.

Black Duck.—In the Maritime Provinces, in Quebec, and
in Ontario, this species takes the place of its near relative,
the mallard. West of the Great Lakes it is not common.

Gadwall.—In eastern Canada this species is not common;
migrants are rarely seen on the Atlantic coast, but it breeds
more commonly on the prairies, although it appears to be
the rarest of our ducks, having a wide distribution.

Baldpate or American Widgeon.—Like the gadwall, this
fresh-water species is a valuable food duck, and consequently
has suffered from excessive hunting. In eastern Canada it
occurs as a migrant, becoming less common from Ontario
eastward. It breeds abundantly in Manitoba and north-

GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 151

ward through the Northwest Territories; it is also com-
mon in the Fraser Valley and the interior of British Colum-
bia.

Teal.—The green-winged teal is common from Manitoba
to British Columbia, and breeds throughout that region
and northward to the Arctic. The blue-winged teal breeds
sparingly in eastern Canada; its chief breeding-range is
from Manitoba to the Rocky Mountains and northward.
It is a summer resident in the lower Fraser Valley, though
uncommon in the rest of British Columbia. The teal are
the smallest of our ducks, and, being swift fliers, are good
sporting ducks.

Shoveller or Spoonbill—This handsome bird is distin-
guished by its peculiar spoonlike bill, which enables it to
sift the mud of the ponds which it frequents. As a migrant
it is fairly common in Ontario and Quebec, but rarer in the
Maritime Provinces. It is one of the commonest ducks of
the prairies as far as the Rocky Mountains, where it finds the
most suitable feeding-grounds. It is a common summer
resident in British Columbia.

Pintail.—Few of our native ducks excel this species in
beauty of colouration, and certainly not in grace of out-
line. While it breeds in some of the Ontario marshes and
eastward to Nova Scotia in small numbers, the chief breed-
_ing-places of the pintail are in the Northwest Territories
northward to the Arctic coast.

Wood Duck.—Of all our wild ducks this species is by far’
the most gorgeous in its colouring; in fact, it is not excelled
in beauty of colouration by any other wild duck in the
world. Formerly it was abundant throughout the wooded
regions of Canada, but so reduced have its numbers become
that it has now been considered necessary to protect it by a
permanent close season. It is still found in small numbers
from Nova Scotia to British Columbia, but it is rare in the
region west of Manitoba to the Coast Mountains of British

152. CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Columbia. Its peculiar habit of nesting in hollow trees and
stumps above ground is well known.

Redhead.—This species resembles somewhat its near rela-
tive, the canvas-back duck. It is a large duck and favoured
by sportsmen. In the Maritime Provinces it is a rare
migrant, but more abundant in Ontario, where it breeds in
certain of the marshes. It breeds commonly throughout the
Prairie Provinces, where it frequents the abundant sloughs.

Canvas-back Duck.—In the opinion of the epicures this
is the king of the game-ducks. It is rare in the Maritime
Provinces, but it is a more common migrant in Quebec and
in Ontario. Its chief breeding-grounds are in the Prairie
Provinces and the Northwest Territories. It also breeds in
central British Columbia and winters on Okanagan Lake
and around the mouth of the Fraser River and Victoria.

Scaup or Bluebill.—This swift-flying duck offers excellent
shooting to the sportsmen, and migrates southward later
than many of the other ducks. It breeds throughout
northwestern Canada and east of the Coast Mountains in
British Columbia. It may be found in the winter in south-
ern British Columbia and on the Pacific coast.

Golden-eye or Whistler.—The latter name of this species is
due to the whistling sound made by its wings in flight.
Like the wood-duck, it nests in trees and stumps. It is a
migrant in Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces.
Its chief breeding-places are the wooded regions of Mani-
toba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, particularly along the
lower portions of the Saskatchewan, Nelson, and Churchill
Rivers. It also breeds abundantly along the Athabaska
and Slave Rivers.

Eider-Duck.—The sea is the natural home of these large
ducks, that do not come within the category of game-birds.
There are a number of species which make their home in
the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of Canada. On the Atlan-
tic coast, the northern and American eider are the chief

GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 153

species. The king eider breeds on the Arctic and Labrador
coasts. The Pacific eider breeds on the northern Pacific
and Arctic coasts, being abundant around the mouth of the
Mackenzie River (Plate XVI, 4).

The great economic importance of the eider as the source
of the valuable product, eider-down, a product of particular
value in our northern latitudes, should need no emphasis.
In the northern European countries of Norway and Iceland
the birds are most zealously cared for by the inhabitants,
who collect their down from the nests of the birds for com-
mercial purposes. They realize fully the importance of
conserving the birds, and encourage them by making nest-
ing-places, so that they become semi-domesticated, and do
not fear the intrusion of their protectors. During the early
part of the nesting-season the down is taken, and also a
proportion of the eggs, but sufficient eggs are left to enable
the birds to rear the young required to keep up the num-
bers of the birds. How widely different has been the
treatment of the American eider on the coasts of Labrador,
Newfoundland, and eastern Canada! Owing to the enor-
mous destruction of the eggs, not to mention the adult
birds, the eider is rapidly nearing the point of extermination
on the Atlantic coast. Doctor Grenfell has described to
me the ruthless destruction that takes place on the New-
- foundland and Labrador coasts. For years this relentless
destruction has been carried on. It is the modern version
of the story of the killing of the goose that laid the golden
eggs. In the eider the inhabitants of our coastal lands, all
too destitute of commercial resources, have a resource of
inestimable value if the birds were protected to the same
extent that the eider is protected in northern Europe. A
valuable eider-down industry could be developed which
would alleviate materially the conditions of life that are
endured by the inhabitants of those inhospitable northern
shores.

154 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

A most admirable account of the serious reduction in
the abundance of the eider, its protection and use in Nor-
way and Iceland, and an appeal for its conservation on our
Atlantic coast, is contained in Doctor Charles W. Town-
send’s paper, ‘‘A Plea for the Conservation of the Eider,”’
published in The Auk, vol. XXI, pp. 14-21, 1914, and in
the Seventh Annual Report of the Commission of Conserva-
tion, p. 250, 1916, to which the reader interested in this
subject is referred. Under the Migratory Birds Conven-
tion the eider is protected for a period of ten years. It
is fervently hoped that Newfoundland will co-operate in
protecting this bird, and that an eider-down industry may
be developed on the coasts of Canada, Newfoundland, and
Labrador.

Scoters.—There are three species of scoters, which are
black sea-ducks, native to Canada. As they are fish-eaters,
their flesh is not generally esteemed, but they are eaten by
the natives, and on the coast of British Columbia the In-
dians kill for food the white-winged and surf scoters, which
are locally known as ‘“‘siwash ducks.” During the migra-
tion the American scoter occurs commonly on the Atlan-
tic coast.

CRANES

In Canada we have three species of these birds, which
have become so reduced in numbers as to necessitate the
special protection they now receive under the Migratory
Birds Convention. The whooping-crane is perhaps the
most stately of all our large native birds, but at the present
time it is threatened with extermination. Formerly it bred
in all the large marshes on the prairies from Manitoba to
the Rocky Mountains and northward. Thompson, in his
“Birds of Manitoba” (1890), describes it as a tolerably
common migrant and rare summer resident, and states
that ‘‘this beautiful bird is common in the Touchwood

GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 155

Hills.” But the advent of man and railroads spelled the
destruction of so fine and conspicuous a bird, and its nest
has not been found for a number of years. A few birds are
occasionally seen in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and only
in the region between the Quill Lakes and Last Mountain
Lake in Saskatchewan do they appear to exist or breed in
any numbers. The little brown crane is often confused
with the sandhill crane, which is the well-known resident
brown crane of the prairies; the little brown crane, on the
other hand, is only a migrant within civilization and nests
in the far north. The sandhill crane is a rare migrant in
Ontario, and it is not common in British Columbia. But
in the Prairie Provinces and to the north the sandhill cranes
are fairly common, and one’s eyes may still be gladdened
by the long lines of these birds sailing through the sky. It
has been the custom to shoot these birds for food and to
regard them in certain localities as injurious to grain crops.

SHORE-BIRDS, OR WADERS

The shore-birds, or waders, have a special interest to
Canadians, as these birds, which migrate unusually long
distances, in most cases breed entirely and, in other cases,
principally within our territories, where suitable breeding-
grounds exist on a large scale. Large numbers breed in or
near Arctic Canada, and migrate to Central and South
America. The knot, one of the sandpipers found on our
Atlantic coast during the migration, breeds on the most
northern islands of the Arctic, such as Victoria and Ellesmere
Islands, and, after migration along the Atlantic coast, win-
ters in Patagonia, a distance of over 9,000 miles separating
its summer and winter abodes.

Formerly shore-birds of all kinds occurred on our coasts
and inland in countless numbers, but now some have prac-
tically disappeared, and even the species that have man-
aged to hold their own are far from abundant. No class of

156 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

birds has suffered so serious a reduction in abundance, and
no class stands in so great need of vigorous protective mea-
sures. Their serious reduction in numbers has been brought
about largely by the same causes that have affected our
own game-birds, namely, the destruction of their former
haunts by agricultural development and the extension of
settlement both in their summer haunts in Canada and
their winter habitat in such parts of South America as the
Argentine, the increase in the number of gunners and the
better facilities that now exist for hunting.

The only manner in which the influence of these adverse
factors can be offset to an extent that will prevent reduc-
tion in the numbers of shore-birds to the point of extermina-
tion, is by stringent protection—short open seasons and
small bag limits; and such protection must necessarily be of
ap international character.

Under the Migratory Birds Convention, a close season
for a period of five years is provided for all shore-birds, with
the exception of the woodcock, the Wilson or jack snipe,
the black-breasted and golden plover, and the greater and
lesser yellowlegs. The curlews, sandpipers, other species
of plover, and the rest of the shore-birds are now protected
absolutely north of Mexico, and it is to be hoped that our
South American bird-lovers will secure some measures of
protection for all these birds in their winter homes in the
South.

Woodcock.—But a remnant of the former numbers of
this bird now remains in eastern Canada, where it breeds in
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and the more south-
ern portions of Ontario. As it breeds on land unsuitable for
agriculture, there is no reason why it should not increase in
numbers with adequate protection and provide sport for
those real sportsmen who prefer the difficult shot to the
easy mark.

Snipe.—The Wilson or jack snipe is considered by many

GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 157

to be the finest of game-birds; certainly no bird affords bet-
ter sport. But so long as it was butchered in the Southern
States during its winter sojourn, little advantage was gained
from the protection it received in Canada, where its chief
breeding-grounds occur. The serious decrease in numbers
has been chiefly due to excessive slaughter in the Gulf and
Southern Atlantic States. We are informed that a single
hunter in Louisiana killed 69,087 birds from 1867 to 1887,
or an average of 3,500 snipe a winter. Cooke, in his valu-
able article on ‘‘Our Shorebirds and Their Future’’* states:
“Fortunately, the breeding grounds of most of the Wilson
snipe are in Canada, where the birds are protected by law
and custom throughout the nesting seasons. Moreover,
their nesting sites are on land that will not for many years,
possibly not for several generations, be used for agricultural
purposes. Hence, there is provided in Canada an enor-
mous favourable breeding area for these game birds, a
region which formerly supported a snipe population many
times more numerous than at present, and which will
return to us in the United States each fall a liberal increase
on whatever numbers we may allow to cross our northern
border in spring.”’ The Federal migratory bird regulations
in the United States and the keener sense of responsibility
in this phase of bird protection now displayed in the ad-
ministration of game-laws in the States concerned, would
indicate a more hopeful future for this excellent game-
bird.

In Canada the snipe breeds in all the provinces, and
northward to the Mackenzie delta, and in Yukon and
Alberta.

The Plovers.—With the exception of the black-bellied and
golden plovers, all the plovers, such as the killdeer, semi-
palmated, and piping plovers, are protected for a period of

* Year Book of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1914, pp.
275-294.

158 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

five years under the Migratory Birds Convention. All the
plovers are valuable to the agriculturalist, as they feed on
grasshoppers, cutworms, white grubs, and other pests of
our field and garden crops. The black-bellied plover is a
fall migrant in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; in Quebec
and Ontario it appears both in spring and fall, but in the
Prairie Provinces it is a spring migrant. It breeds on the
Arctic coast, and winters from California southward to
Brazil and Peru.

The golden plover breeds along the Arctic coast from
Alaska to the northwest coast of Hudson Bay, including the
Barren Grounds. In the fall it travels southward to spend
the winter chiefly in Brazil and Argentina. It is a common
migrant in the fall in the eastern provinces, and in the
Prairie Provinces it appears as a migrant in both spring
and fall. Formerly the golden plover was perhaps the
most abundant of all the shore-birds, vast flocks sweeping
northward and southward across the continent in their
long migratory journeys. But excessive hunting has reduced
them to but a small fraction of their former numbers.
Audubon estimated that in the annual slaughter that he
witnessed in 1821, near New Orleans, about 48,000 plovers
were killed in one day.

Sandpipers.—This group includes about half of the shore-
birds. They are chiefly small birds frequenting the edges
of stream, river, lake, and sea. In spite of their small size
they have been killed in thousands to satisfy the palates of
the epicures. Now all species, with the exception of the
greater and lesser yellowlegs, are protected for five years.
Among the commoner species may be mentioned the fol-
lowing:

The Semipalmated Sandpiper.—This is a common niigrant
in the fall along the Atlantic coast and the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. In the western provinces they appear in the
spring on their journey to their northern breeding-grounds,

GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 159

although they occur as both spring and fall migrants in
British Columbia.

The Least Sandpiper is a common migrant from the
Atlantic to the Pacific.

The Solitary Sandpiper is a summer resident in New
Brunswick, northern Quebec, the Prairie Provinces, and
British Columbia.

The Upland Plover or Bartramian Sandpiper is a bird of
the open prairie, and is a common summer resident in the
Prairie Provinces, where its chief breeding-centre is in
western Manitoba and eastern Saskatchewan. Without the
complete protection it is now afforded, it was doomed to
complete extermination at no distant date, owing to the
excessive destruction it has suffered at the hands of the
market gunner. With adequate protection the melodious
call of this bird, as it migrates northward in the spring,
will continue to please the ears of bird-lovers.

The Greater and Lesser Yellowlegs may be hunted during
their fall migration. On the Atlantic coast it is a common
migrant in spring and fall, and frequents the shores of
tidal marshes. It is also a common migrant in Quebec,
Ontario, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. In British Co-
lumbia, it is an abundant resident in the winter along the
coasts. The lesser yellowlegs is reported to be more abun-
- dant than the former species. It is found throughout the
same range and breeds in large numbers in the Barren
Grounds.

The Curlews.—The history of the Eskimo curlew resem-
bles somewhat that of the passenger pigeon. Formerly one
of our most abundant shore-birds, and although fairly com-
mon up to 1890, it is now almost extinct. Its disappearance
has been chiefly due to unrestricted market hunting in the
United States, particularly during its northward migration
in the spring. It bred in the northern Barren Grounds,
and in the fall travelled southward along the Labrador and

160 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Atlantic coasts to Argentina and Patagonia, a distance of
6,000 to 9,000 miles. In the spring it took a westerly course
northward, and covered the prairie regions of the United
States and Canada. It was in the Middle States, on the
prairies of Texas and Kansas, that the “dough birds,” as
they were called, met their fate. They congregated in such
closely massed, large flocks that their wholesale slaughter
by the market gunners was rendered easy. Forbush has
given an excellent account of the history and the disappear-
ance of this bird. He records the occurrence of immense
flights of these birds on their southward journey; their
dense flocks of millions would darken the sky, and the
fishermen of Labrador and Newfoundland salted them
down in barrels. All down the east coast the slaughter in
the fall was terrific. In the spring they were killed in
thousands in the Mississippi Valley, and were shipped into
the Eastern market by the ton, in barrels. No bird could
stand such slaughter, and in less then thirty years they
were practically exterminated. It is a sad story of the
exterminating effect of unrestricted destruction, and affords
one of the most powerful object-lessons.

The Long-billed Curlew is not common east of the prairies,
but it is still fairly abundant in the southern portions of
Saskatchewan and Alberta, where it breeds on the open
prairie, and in British Columbia. But like other members
of the family it is suffering from the inevitable extension of
agriculture and the consequent reduction in its breeding-
grounds. At the present time this species, the Hudsonian,
and other curlews enjoy a permanent close season until
1923, and, with adequate protection, it should be possible
to prevent their extermination.

BOB-WHITE, OR QUAIL

In Canada the bob-white is confined to the extreme
southern portion of southwestern Ontario, although its

GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 161

range formerly extended farther eastward.* As this re-
gion forms the extreme northern limit of its range, it is
with the greatest difficulty that this useful little bird is
holding its own; in the spring of 1917 it was feared by many
that the previous severe winter had destroyed the remnant
of what was formerly a fairly abundant bird on the farms
of southwestern Ontario. It is unfortunate that a bird so
useful as the bob-white from the agricultural standpoint
should be considered a game-bird. As a destroyer of insect
pests it is one of the best friends the farmer has, and how
much poorer the countryside is when it lacks the bob-
white’s cheery call. The bob-white should no longer be
listed as a game-bird, attractive as it is to sportsmen, but
it should be given absolute protection on account of its
value to agriculture. Under present conditions its continued
existence will not be possible if it is hunted as game, and the
sportsman who would be a party to its destruction is un-
worthy of the name.

GROUSE

The different groups of grouse and ptarmigan are well
represented in Canada. The following may be taken as
representing the chief groups:

Richardson’s Grouse-—With the exception of the sage-hen
_ this species and its related races are the largest of the grouse
family. They may be found from the eastern foot-hills of
the Rocky Mountains through the mountains to the Coast
Mountains, and northward to the Yukon and the Mackenzie
regions.

Spruce Grouse.—The spruce forests from the Atlantic
coast to the Yukon are the home of this species, which, in
many parts of its range, has suffered on account of its com-
parative tameness.

* Quail have been successfully introduced into British Columbia, and are
thriving in the southern part of Vancouver Island,

162 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Ruffed Grouse-—This species, commonly known as the
‘‘nartridge,” offers excellent sport to the hunter. It ranges
through the wooded regions of all the provinces from Prince
Edward Island and Nova Scotia to British Columbia, and
the ‘‘drumming”’ of the male birds is a well-known sound
of springtime, when the winter snows are melting. During
the last few years there has been an alarming decrease in
the numbers of this and other species of grouse, the causes
of which will be discussed presently. With adequate pro-
tection, however, when the numbers of grouse become seri-
ously reduced, there is no reason to fear their disappearance,
provided the protective regulations are adequately enforced,
as the breeding range is so wide that the species have suf-
ficient means for recuperation.

Ptarmigan.—These hardy birds breed in our most north-
erly latitudes, and are chiefly distinguished by the fact that
they assume a plumage of pure white during the winter
months. The willow ptarmigan breeds throughout northern
Canada from the Labrador coast and northern Quebec to the
Yukon. In the autumn they unite to form flocks of con-
siderable size, and constitute an important article of food
for the Indians and Eskimos and the few white inhabitants
of the north during the winter. Above the timber-line in
the Rocky Mountains and other high mountains in British
Columbia is to be found the white-tailed ptarmigan.

The Pinnated Grouse or Prairie Chicken.—This well-known
game-bird of the prairie regions has followed the extension
of the area devoted to grain-growing. It migrated into
Canada from the south; the first specimens appear to have
been killed in Manitoba about 1881, according to Thompson.
By 1884 it had become tolerably common, and in 1886 it
was abundant near Winnipeg, and is now spread over the
entire prairie region of Canada. During recent years, how-
ever, its numbers have been reduced to such an extent
through natural causes and overshooting that the provin-

GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 163

cial governments of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta
were compelled to establish an absolute close season. Com-
plaints have been made that the use of poisoned grain in the
Prairie Provinces in the destruction of gophers, or ground-
squirrels, has been responsible for the deaths of prairie
chicken. The investigations of Pierce and Clegg in Cali-
fornia on quail, and of Bradshaw in Saskatchewan, have
shown that under natural feeding conditions poisoned grain
will not kill these birds.

The Prairie Sharp-tailed Grouse.—Unlike its near relative,
the pinnated grouse, this bird, which is commonly known
as the ‘“‘prairie chicken” on our prairies, retreats before
settlement. It is more usually found in deep woods and on
uncultivated land overgrown with poplar, willow, or other
low-growing trees, and it may be found throughout such
wooded sections in the Prairie Provinces. The pinnated
grouse keeps in the open country and frequents the willow
scrub in the winter for protection.

The Scarcity of Grouse.-—During the last few years there
has been a remarkable and almost alarming decrease in the
number of grouse throughout Canada, from the Atlantic to
the Pacific. The chief species, such as ruffed grouse or
partridge, pinnated grouse or prairie chicken, and sharp-
tailed grouse, were all affected, and in some sections of the
country they disappeared almost completely. Many fac-
tors contributed to their scarcity. Of the artificial factors
there is no doubt that overshooting, particularly for the
market, was responsible for the scarcity of birds; this is
especially the case in the Prairie Provinces, where the in-
creasing use of the automobile in hunting ‘‘chickens’”’ has
increased the slaughter of birds to a serious degree. Natural
factors have played an important réle. In the case of all
species, cold, wet springs have killed off the young birds.
Many reports indicate that large numbers of ruffed grouse
have been killed in the spring. They have been imprisoned

164 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

under the snow, under which they are accustomed to shel-
ter, but which proves to be a death-trap when alternate
thawing and freezing causes the formation of an ice-crust.

The most important and at the same time the most in-
teresting cause of the scarcity of grouse during recent
years has been the migration southward of certain large
species of northern predatory birds such as the goshawk
and great horned owl. This southern migration of these
predatory birds was evidently due to the scarcity through-
out the northern regions of the rabbit or varying hare,
which experiences, as is well known, periodic cycles of abun-
dance and scarcity, as I have described in another chapter
(see p. 216). This relation between the scarcity of rabbits
and the decrease in the numbers of grouse was indepen-
dently studied by Mr. P. A. Taverner and myself in Canada,
and Mr. John B. Burnham, president of the American Game
Protective Association, who has published an interesting
report on the subject.* Owing to the scarcity of rabbits,
which normally constitute the chief food of such predatory
birds as the goshawk and great horned owls, these birds mi-
grated southward in large numbers and sought other prey.
This migration brought these enemies of our game-birds
in abnormal numbers into the natural haunts of the various
grouse, and these birds suffered from the consequent ex-
cessive slaughter. In cases of this kind the natural balance:
usually becomes restored in a few seasons, and, if close sea-
sons are wisely fixed to counteract the baneful influences of
natural factors over which we have no control, it is possible
to prevent excessive reduction in numbers provided steps
are taken at the same time to prevent overshooting. These
species of grouse afford such excellent sport and recreative
exercise that the greatest care should be taken in the fixing
of open seasons, bag limits, and in regulating the methods

* Bulletin of the American Game Protective Association, vol. VII, no. 1,
pp. 4-8, January, 1918,

GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 165

of hunting so that the conditions will be favourable to the
birds. Too often the claims of the hunter receive consid-
eration at the expense of the quarry. True game protection
consists in the consideration of the claims of the game,
rather than those of the improvident pot-hunter, for no
sportsman worthy of the name will consent to kill game at
the risk of its continued existence.

Sage Grouse or Sage Hen.—The range of the sage grouse,
which is the largest of all our grouse, is very restricted in
Canada. They may be found in small numbers in certain
sections of southern Saskatchewan, and probably in southern
British Columbia, near the international boundary, where
the sage-brush (Artemisia) grows. The sage-brush country
is their natural habitat, and, provided the permanent close
season that they now enjoy is maintained, we may hope to
continue to count this fine bird among our species of grouse.

The foregoing review of our game-bird resources indicates
the remarkable wealth of species that are included in our
Canadian fauna. As I have pointed out, the abundance of
many species must inevitably be adversely affected by the
opening up and settlement of the country, which results in
the destruction of their normal feeding and breeding-grounds.
But, provided we legislate wisely, fixing open seasons and
bag limits that will prevent excessive killing, prohibit the
sale of game-birds, and make every effort to counteract the
adverse natural factors that are beyond human control,
there is no reason why our game-birds should not continue
to provide the future generations of Canadians with health-
giving sport and recreation.

CHAPTER VII
BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE

Economic Value.—As agriculture is the basic industry of
Canada, a thorough appreciation of the important relation
that the protection of our insectivorous and other birds
bears to agricultural production is essential to progress in
this branch of national activity. While every farmer, fruit-
grower, and forester knows to his cost the results of insect
depredations, the non-agricultural section of our population,
which depends on the products of the farm and forest, is by
no means so fully aware of the immense losses that are caused
by insect depredations. As a result of careful investigation
we are able to determine the average loss on crops due to
insect attacks. On the basis of this knowledge and taking
the known yield of our different field crops, I have esti-
mated that the loss due to insect depredations on the agri-
cultural crops is not less than $125,000,000 annually. Birds
constitute one of the chief natural factors tending to keep
insects in check. If injurious insects were to increase with-
out any natural control, there would be no vegetation left
on this continent in a very short time. Therefore, the pro-
tection of birds is essential from the point of national
economy.

Again, as the investigations of the Commission of Con-
servation have demonstrated, one of the most serious ad-
verse factors affecting Canadian agriculture at the present
time is the increasing prevalence of weeds. In the Prairie
Provinces especially the weed problem is one of the most
serious with which the farmers have to contend. And yet
the value of certain species of birds as weed-destroyers is

hardly realized by most agriculturists.
166

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 167

Few people realize the extent to which birds feed upon
and destroy insects. Certain species feed upon them wholly,
others during part of the spring and summer seasons.
Those birds that are partially insectivorous generally de-
stroy large quantities of insects during the period of the
year when they are raising their young broods, and this
period coincides with the period of the year when insects are
most prevalent. Certain families of birds diligently search
the surface of the ground for insects, others search the vege-
tation, and others the air, and in this manner the insects
on the earth, under the earth, on the plants, and in the air
are ceaselessly hunted (Plate XV). Investigations con-
ducted on this continent and in Europe have shown the
extent to which insects go to make up the diets of birds.
For example, it has been found that insects constitute 65
per cent of the total yearly food of woodpeckers, 96 per
cent of that of flycatchers, 95 per cent of that of wrens,
and 89 per cent of that of phcebes. Birds require an enor-
mous amount of food when they are growing and, owing to
their active habits, in the adult state. A young crow will
daily consume twice its weight in food. Nash found that a
young robin weighing three ounces would eat five and one-
half ounces of cutworms in a day. It has been calculated
that a pair of tits and the young they rear will consume about
_ 170 pounds of insect food in a year. A blue tit will destroy
six and one-half millions of insects in a year, and in bring-
ing up a family of about twelve to sixteen young ones about
24,000,000 insects would ultimately be accounted for. Grab,
in Switzerland, states that three blue tits and three cole-tits
consumed 8,000 to 9,000 insect eggs daily; three marsh-tits,
one cole-tit, one long-tailed tit, and a golden-crested wren
consumed 600 caterpillars in 100 minutes. Similar facts
based on accurate observation and investigation might be
quoted at great length to indicate the enormous destruction
of insect life that is accomplished by birds.

168 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Feeding Habits of Chief Groups.—It will be of interest to
review briefly the feeding habits of the chief groups of birds.

Hawks and owls, which, as a group, are wrongly regarded
as noxious birds, prey not only upon injurious small mam-
mals, such as field-mice, gophers, and various rodents, but
also consume injurious insects. The little sparrow-hawk
lives largely upon grasshoppers and crickets, and such
larger hawks as Swainson’s hawk live almost exclusively
upon such insects in the summer-time. The noxious hawks
and owls (see p. 210), such as Cooper’s hawk, the sharp-
shinned hawk, and the great horned owl, form a very small
proportion of the family.

The thrush family, including such well-known birds as
the robin and bluebird, are not only well known but useful
birds. While robins are sometimes destructive to fruit, a
large portion of the vegetable matter they consume consists
of wild fruits; 330 stomachs contained 58 per cent vegetable
matter, of which 47 per cent consisted of wild fruits, and 4
per cent of cultivated fruits.* About two-thirds of the
food of the bluebird consists of insects, such as caterpillars,
grasshoppers, and beetles.

The nuthatches, tits, and tree-creepers are among the most
diligent of hunters after insects in all their stages, partic-
ularly in the egg stage, and figures have already been given
to indicate the enormous destruction of insect life they
effect. The warblers constitute a family of almost purely
insectivorous birds that is well represented in Canada.
Wherever insects may be found some species of warbler
will also occur. Shyly they pursue their work of search-
ing every leaf and twig of shrub or tree for eggs, larve, or
adults of destructive insects. We have found them to be
not unimportant factors in the control of certain pests of

* Except where it is otherwise stated, these analyses of stomach contents
are taken from the publications of the Biological Survey of the U. 8. De-
partment of Agziculture.

PLATE XV

DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE ECONOMIC STATUS OF
SOME OF OUR COMMONER BIRDS

Protection of trees and foliage: 1. Phoebe. 2. Vireo. 3. Warbler. 4. Chickadee.
5. Nuthatch. 6. Downy woodpecker. 7. Flicker

Aerial insect-destroyers: 8. Whippoorwill. 9. Swallows. 10. Kingbird. 11. Crows
and Gulls

Destroyers of noxious rodents: 12. Owl. 13. Hawk

Destroyer of soil-infesting insects: 14. Robin

Destroyers of weed seeds; 15, Chipping Sparrow and Juncos. 16. Goldfinch

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 169

our forest and shade-trees. The vireos also are unrivalled
as destroyers of insects which feed on the foliage of trees.

The swallows and martins scour the air in the search of
adult insects of all forms, which make up their entire diet.

Our native sparrows, in which group we do not include
the undesirable alien house-sparrow, are among the greatest
weed-destroying agencies, owing to their appetite for weed
seeds. The song-sparrow is one of our most welcome spring
arrivals. About three-fourths of its food consists of weed
seeds and one-fourth of insects. Beetles, especially weevils,
form the greater portion of the insect food. The chipping
sparrow, whose confiding ways give it a warm place in our
affection, is the most insectivorous of our sparrows. About
42 per cent of its foed consists of insects and spiders, and
caterpillars make up the major portion of the insect food,
especially when the young are being reared, when as many
as seventeen feedings per hour, on an average, for a brood
of four nestlings, have been recorded. The retiring and
sombre junco or snowbird destroys insects and feeds on
weed seeds. An examination of 500 stomachs gave 23 per
cent animal food (caterpillars, bugs, and beetles), and 77
per cent vegetable food, of which over 61 per cent consisted
of weed seeds. In September the proportion of weed seeds
may rise as high as 95 per cent of the food.

- Among the commoner weed seeds consumed by the spar-
rows we find the seeds of bindweed, lamb’s-quarters, rag-
weed, amaranth, pigeon-grass, etc. Judd records the re-
sult of the examination of over 4,000 stomachs of twenty
species of sparrows. It was found that for the entire year
weed seeds form more than half their food, and during the
colder months of the year these seeds constitute about four-
fifths of the food of many species. A single bird will often
be found to have eaten 300 seeds of pigeon-grass, or 500
seeds of lamb’s-quarters or pigweed. Beal estimated that
the tree-sparrow may consume one-quarter ounce of weed

170 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

seed per day, and on that basis, in a state the size of Iowa,
the species would consume about 800 tons of seeds annually.

In passing, it should be pointed out, however, that the
weed-destroying power of graminivorous birds may be ex-
aggerated if the question is not investigated with great
thoroughness, for while the powerful gizzards of some birds
may grind up the hardest-coated seeds, in other cases seeds
may be capable of germination after passing through the
digestive tract, as Collinge has shown in a number of cases
in English birds. In such cases the birds would act as dis-
seminators of weed seeds. Then again, in the case of in-
sectivorous birds, besides destroying noxious insects, they
will destroy various kinds of insects which are useful by
reason of their parasitic habits upon noxious insects. These
facts indicate that the question of the economic status of a
bird is not always an easy matter to determine, and de-
mands thorough investigation in each case.

Furthermore, in certain instances useful birds eat grain
or fruit. The horned larks occasionally eat grain, vegetable
food constituting about 80 per cent of their total food. Six-
sevenths of this total amount of vegetable food consists of
the seeds of such weeds as foxtail, amaranth, ragweed, and
bindweed. It surely is not too much to ask that, in view
of the good they effect, a little injury shall be overlooked,
especially as they make no charges for the good work they
accomplish. It has sometimes seemed to me that in the
case of those useful birds which sometimes take to fruit-
eating, it is far cheaper to protect the fruit from the birds
than from the insects. As insecticides birds are the cheapest
and most generally efficient that can be found.

The much-maligned crows are to no small extent friends
of the farmer. In my investigations in England I found
that at certain periods of the year they consumed large
quantities of cutworms and root-feeding insect larve. In
the United States Beal has found that the crow deserves
protection and not wholesale destruction. The crow is an

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE |

experienced cutworm-hunter, and these birds have been
observed in large flocks destroying cutworms in badly in-
fected fields, which they carefully work over. When fields
are ploughed they follow the plough and consume immense
quantities of the destructive white grubs, one of our worst
agricultural pests. Where, through their numbers, crows
become destructive, it is necessary to take stepos to reduce
them.

The woodpeckers are specially fitted by nature to destroy
the wood-boring insects that so speedily kill our forest,
shade, and orchard trees. The flicker feeds largely on ants;
a single stomach has been found to contain over 5,000 ants.
In another instance 28 white grubs were found in the
stomach of one of these birds, which feed largely on the
ground. The downy woodpecker feeds largely on the borers
of trees, and is one of our most useful insectivorous birds.
An examination of 723 stomachs showed that 76 per cent
of the diet was animal food, consisting chiefly of insects.
The yellow-bellied sapsucker is practically the only member
of the woodpecker family that is injurious. Its fondness for
the inner bark of trees leads it to girdle the trees with holes,
the effect of which is either to kill the trees outright or
seriously disfigure the timber.

Gulls are constantly associated in the minds of most peo-
ple with the sea or our large inland lakes, and their agri-
cultural value is therefore largely obscured. Nevertheless
there exist very extensive breeding-places of certain species
inland, and such a species as Franklin’s gull is a true inland
species. Sometimes hundreds of ring-billed, herring, and
Franklin’s gulls may be seen following the plough on the
prairie and feeding on the white grubs, wireworms, and
other insects and their larve that are turned up. It has
been found that about four-fifths of the food of the Frank-
lin’s gull consists of grasshoppers.

From the foregoing review it is obvious that all the chief
groups of birds contain representatives, or entirely consist

172 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

of birds that are an actual necessity in the maintenance of
as great a control as possible over the infinite variety of
insect pests that attack the roots, stems, branches, and
leaves of our cultivated plants and trees. And whatever
may be the habitat of the insect it is usually found by some
species of bird owing to the diversity of their feeding-habits.

In view of the great economic value of our insectivorous
birds from an agricultural standpoint, but not forgetting
the zsthetic motives which surely need not be supported
by argument, it is evident that the protection of these birds
must form an important part in the maintenance or in-
crease of our agricultural production.

Experience has shown that not only directly by killing, but
indirectly by the destruction of their natural haunts and
breeding-places, man has intentionally and unintentionally
been more anxious to destroy bird life than to protect it.
Leaving aside the wilful destruction which birds have suf-
fered by their misfortune in offering an easy and living tar-
get, we find that the former haunts of our birds are obliter-
ated by the advance of agriculture and settlement. Wood-
lands and forest are cut down and give way to open fields;
bird-haunted snake fences yield to wire. Near our cities
subdivisions and lots wipe out the waste places and wooded
haunts of birds. With their breeding and feeding places
more and more reduced, and their lives frequently endan-
gered, it is not surprising that birds are not more abundant,
- and that protection and encouragement are essential.

Local Abundance of Birds.—Few people realize the variety
of birds that breed within a certain area, as so many species
are shy in their habits. During the last few years the Bi-
ological Survey of the United States Department of Agri-
culture has been conducting a bird census of the United
States. As illustrating the valuable and interesting data
that such a census provides, the following are the results of
an annual census taken since 1914 by Mr. Norman Criddle,

PLATE XVI

From a photograph by R. M. Anderson (1)

Jo FM 2 Y, ay "7 -- © Ps . ine “ te: ae
From a painting by C.War- From a photograph by From a photograph by R. M. An-
burton Young (2) Bruce Rose (3) derson. Courtesy of the Geolog-

ical Survey (4)

From a photograph. Courtesy of G. Black (5)

Arctic Fox

Coyotes attacking sheep in Kamloops district of British Columbia

Rocky Mountain Goat, female with young

Nest of Pacific Eider Duck (Sumateria v.-nigra); Dolphin and Union Strait, Arctic
Ocean

Ptarmigan in the Yukon Territory

oo pte

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 173

of the Entomological Branch, Department of Agriculture,
Ottawa, in two areas near Aweme, in southern Manitoba:
Area No. 1 consists of seventy-six acres, comprising chiefly
unbroken prairie surrounded by low woods, chiefly aspen
poplar, and scrub lands. It also includes farm-buildings and
gardens containing ornamental shrubs and trees. The follow-
ing is the result of the census of birds breeding in this area:

NAME oF Birp 1914 | 1915 | 1916

Pairs | Pairs | Pairs
Upland plover 1 1
Canadian ruffed grouse : ay
Prairie sharp-tailed grouse
Black-billed cuckoo
Downy woodpecker
American crow
Whippoorwill
Nighthawk
Least flycatcher

—

mH bo eee.

American goldfinch
Prairie horned lark

—_

OTM eee NNER ONOCHENNE EWE:

Western vesper sparrow
Chipping sparrow
Clay-coloured sparrow
Rose-breasted grosbeak
Barn swallow
Cedar-bird

Red-eyed vireo
Warbling vireo
Orange-crowned warbler
Yellow warbler
Sprague’s pipit

Brown thrasher

0
2
1
9
2
6

Long-tailed chickadee
American robin
Bluebird

Total number of breeding pairs
Total number species of birds

174 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Area No. 2 consists of twenty-six acres, comprising chiefly
woodland. The trees are aspen and balsam, poplar, and,
in parts, a dense growth of willow. The land is low-lying,
but the only water available is in shallow wells and a horse-
trough.

Name oF Birp 1914 | 1915 | 1916
Pairs | Pairs | Pairs

American rifled grouse). 554.47 se ok ol hits Oe Cas 11 13 7
Wionibeting Owe is sity. ccecocsss orsie a'o cis ept ars ae we ee 2 1 1
Black-billed cuckoo....... nite ae ea Aer aaah See 2 4 2
Downy. woodpeckers). ise. bene shee aie chan ¢ 1 uy 1
Vellow-pelliedisapsucker:.2. «cai cesesas eno oee ae 1 3
INonthernfickens. ns esis oe reha ils Oh se eee ae 4 3 2
WHT DOOR WALE cc 8 0 a Wareks aie bcs siege aia oy oe eemlele 1 2 2
east tye teherst eis. isd seve batt eo sig ee eee 3 6 11
Western: wood DEWes 5 «2a shes bv cans ce ts Maree aes 1 a
WWOGUUTIECWEOTSG + 9) c/s Gate ae cle iaes avery arom Gerenaeee wie 1 1
Heme riers, bea eda sects spreietelane a heh Choma 1 a
PHT Pye diate Pied: Bt Ae tens. 2a arent) whi ava aigin nee ner eepenad ave 2 1 1
IATMETICATINCL OW? te eee seve. sisi eae esate ise fatna lebetarsiodelete os 1 ae 1
Arnenicam poldhnen. ticki: cae =< anan ee ares epee ee 1 1 1
PAG ISITE STS Pore ean Mess pana Ap hal eh e, Wet eee 2 1
Baltimore Orioles A aiicacsmacr ee eisntiq iter .g eeteernnese ae 2 iL
Western Vesper-sparnOwys).5 45 << 2 oie © lela go ai 1 ie 1
GRippimpispabnow ss 266 oto kins ons 5 atic OR ae chats wt 2 ia
Clay-coloured Spamtaw< + £5... 4,- 5 cfasias.erstcsis owe 3 4 3
Rose-breasted erosbéak (000/002. J a's vee eiens oe 1 1 1
Cenarsbirdes 5 sty einen tur o). os Ee oe ancien ae ee fe 1 2
Red-evedivaree 2). icles hnaie/e- acs meeeegeheuererepe sare gis 2 3 2
OV VMsre ha Patra ge iGO Fw ec kd Neo ono sora inal sp) senile cero a ene Rete Oe 1 1
Black-and-white warbler: . 202 3. io0.o.c08 ee eon 1 1 2
Orange-crowtied warbler : 6 <0.) 4 si.<5 4s tinepce pe seeteyaieleys 1 ar
Mennessee :warwlens. cl ccye onc Naiae, uthewe wucecs alepetst spots hal 1 1
Vellowswarblerci: 26) Sucnucx aie scisjeceraersserebeeiecte eure 1 ae 1
ENING fio of ga) Sesto cc eerie ek ica eA oe eo 4 3 2
Moureing waraler 2 asc .at ck scoutemtveme ee ein cent il ne
Catbindl Ba. 6 Se de que concensus ahs ee Ee ee 1 2 1
Brown. thrashen. 8 hvtn2 ey. etopen core ae toleaeu teen eae ee 2 1 1
Western ihouse=wremist scene suse e ote eae) eee 9 9 8
Long-tailed chickadees). Sahl) vse Os omseesche pero eee 2 2 1
Wialllow:thhruslie!s 2.209 ou sraters pecs ceuse tee wope eceuehe Peete detistees 3) 1 2
Olive-backéd ‘thrush’. .2.0 52 enact cesceoals cceuode ey seta eae: 2 1 1
ATNETICAM TODIM..4S.aisiescrs oc ila tie ree 1 1 1

Total number of breeding pairs................. 65 72 66

Total number species of birds.................. 28 29 31

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 175

The bird census conducted by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture for the years 1914 and 1915 showed
that on the farms of the northeastern States there was about
one pair of birds to the acre, which is much less than it would
be if the birds were given proper protection and encourage-
ment. For example, it was found in 1915 that where the
birds were protected on a farm of 40 acres near Middletown,
Conn., containing 10 acres of ploughed land, 3 acres of wood-
land, 5 acres of pasture, 12 acres of orchard, and 20 acres
of meadow, this farm had a bird population of 165 pairs of
native birds, 8 pairs of house-sparrows, and 15 pairs of star-
lings, making a total of 188 pairs of breeding birds, or more
than four times the average.

Mr. W. E. Saunders has given an excellent example of
the result of protecting and encouraging birds. The owner
of about three-quarters of an acre of land surrounding a
summer cottage in the Rideau Lakes, Ontario, decided to
encourage the birds. When the experiment was com-
menced there were five pairs of breeding birds in this area.
In five years, by the provision of nesting-boxes and the
elimination of cats, the bird population had increased to
thirty-three pairs of breeding birds. In seventeen bird-
boxes he had fifteen pairs of tree swallows, as well as two
pairs of each of five other species, and one pair of each of
_ five others near by.

The conclusion reached from the United States bird census
was that the birds are too few on the farms, and that they
may be largely increased by protection and a little care in
furnishing natural food and shelter. Such bird populations
as 70 pairs of native birds of 31 species in 8 acres, at Olney,
Ill.; 135 pairs of 24 species on 5 acres, at Wild Acre, Md.;
193 pairs of 62 species on 44 acres, at Indianapolis, Ind.;
and 189 pairs of 40 species, on 23 acres at Chevy Chase,
Md., a half acre of which showed 20 pairs of 14 different
species, all indicate how readily birds will respond to food,
shelter, and protection.

176 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

METHODS OF PROTECTION AND ENCOURAGEMENT

In view of the economic value of insectivorous birds to
the farmer, the fruit-grower, and to the owner of forest and
shade-trees, or to the possessor of the smallest city and sub-
urban garden, and as we now know how readily, and indeed
rapidly, birds respond to encouragement and protection,
the methods of encouraging and protecting these birds will
now be considered.

The chief means by which insectivorous birds may be
encouraged and protected are the following:

1. Provision of nesting facilities.

2. Destruction of enemies, particularly the control of cats.

3. Provision of fruit-bearing trees and shrubs.

4. Provision of other forms of food, and especially of water.

5. Bird sanctuaries.

1. Provision oF NeEsTING FACILITIES

Owing to the destruction of natural nesting-places, which,
as I have already shown, is unfortunately an accompani-
ment of agricultural and municipal development, birds are
driven far afield and are compelled to leave their former
haunts. The total destruction of such natural breeding-
places is not always necessary. In clearing land farmers
would be well advised to leave, where it is possible, patches
of low-growing trees or scrub, such as alders, willows, etc.,
particularly around small swampy water-holes and ponds,
places that are much beloved by birds. Also in civic de-
velopment and improvement an endeavour should be made
to leave in the open spaces, which are essential to civic im-
provement, remnants of the former shrub and tree growth,
until they can be replaced by what may be considered to
be more ornamental substitutes. I shall discuss later the
establishment of bird sanctuaries in and near cities.

For birds which nest on or near the ground, such as cer-

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE Lay

tain of the native sparrows, piles of brushwood or logs
should be left in sheltered places where they need not prove
an eyesore, and they could be covered with vines. Piled
logs not only serve as nesting-places but as shelters in the
inclement weather that often occurs in the spring after the
return of the earlier spring migrants.

Nesting-boxes or Bird-houses.—One of the most important
methods of providing nesting-places is by the distribution
of nesting-boxes or bird-houses. In certain European coun-
tries the provision of nesting-boxes for birds constitutes a
recognized adjunct of forest protection, and such artificial
nesting-sites are distributed by the thousand in forests
owned by the state and private individuals. The cutting
out of hollow and rotten trees which follows proper forestry
management renders such a procedure necessary as a means
of replacing the natural nesting-places so destroyed.

The greatest exponent of the practice of bird-protection
was, undoubtedly, the late Baron von Berlepsch, and to
him we are indebted for the splendid example he has given
at Seebach, in Germany. His ideas have been adopted by
various states in Germany and in countries where the pro-
tection of birds and the provision of nesting-boxes constitute
an important and necessary adjunct of forestry methods.
An instance, given by Baron von Berlepsch, of the practical
value of bird-encouragement, may be quoted. The Hainich
wood, south of Eisenach, which covers several square miles,
was stripped entirely bare in the spring of 1905 by the cater-
pillars of the oak leaf-roller (Tortrix viridiana). The wood
of Baron von Berlepsch, in which there had long been nest-
ing-boxes, of which there are now more than 2,000, was un-
touched. It actually stood out among the remaining woods
like a green oasis. At a distance of a little more than a
quarter of a mile farther, the first traces of the plague were
apparent, and at the same distance farther on still it was in
full force. It was plain proof of the distance the tits and

178 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

their companions had gone during the winter and after
their breeding-time. Similar observations were made dur-
ing a plague of the same insect (Tortrix viridiana) in the
grand duchy of Hesse, where the protection of birds has
been carried on in a sensible and energetic fashion for over
ten years. Of 9,300 boxes hung up by the government in
the state and communal woods of the grand duchy of
Hesse, 70 to 80 per cent were occupied in the first year, and
in 1907 all were inhabited. On and near Baron von Ber-
lepsch’s Seebach estate, 90 per cent of 2,000 nest-boxes in
one wood were occupied, and nearly all of 500 and 2,100 in
other localities. In Hungary similar measures are taken,
largely owing to the admirable work of Otto Hermann, one
of the foremost European advocates of bird-protection.
Some years ago, when investigating the depredations of
the larch sawfly (Nematus erichsonii) in the English Lake
District, I was impressed with the value of birds as natural
means of control, and, as birds in the worst-infested district,
namely, Thirlmere, were not so abundant as they should
have been, it was recommended that they should be pro-
tected and encouraged by means of nesting-boxes. The
corporation of the city of Manchester owns Thirlmere, this
lake being their water supply, and they distributed nesting-
boxes of the pattern which I devised and which is illustrated
herewith (Fig. IV). The advantage of this box was that it
could be made out of the slabs or rejected outer portions of
the lumber bearing the bark. Three equal lengths of the
slab are nailed together to form three sides of a long box,
the outside of which, bearing the bark, was round and the
inside square. The fourth side is made of a flat piece of
wood forming the back of the box; this piece is longer than
the other sides, and projects above and below the box,
thus providing means of attaching the box to the tree.
The top and bottom of the box may be made of slab
wood. Several holes should be bored in the bottom, which

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 179

is nailed on, to keep the nest dry. The top is hinged to the
back-board, and when in use is fastened down by means
of a screw, which permits the lid to be opened for the pur-

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_ Fie. IV.—CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF A BIRD-HOUSE DESIGNED
BY THE AUTHOR TO BE MADE FROM SLAB WOOD, USUALLY A
WASTE PRODUCT FROM SAWMILLS

The size given is suitable for a bluebird, but the dimensions may be changed in
accordance with the table on page 180

1. Cover 3. Back view
2. Front of box 4. Section of box
5, Complete house

pose of cleaning out the old nests. By so utilizing waste
lumber these boxes were made very cheaply at the sawmill.
A boy could readily make similar boxes. Fig. IV (5) shows
the box complete. In the first year (1908) 60 boxes were
distributed, and 31 per cent were occupied. The number

180 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

of boxes was increased yearly until, in 1911, there were 347
boxes, of which 66 per cent were occupied.* I am informed
that in 1913, 75 per cent of the boxes were occupied.

The nesting-box that I have described above can be
made in different sizes to suit the various classes of birds
that it is desired to encourage. The following dimensions
are modified from Farmers’ Bulletin No. 609 of the United
States Department of Agriculture:

Inside
Dimen-
sions of

Entrance | Diameter
Above of
Floor | Entrance

Inches Inches Inches

Wrens and chickadees..| 4x4 1%

Bluebird and tree swal-
5x5 14%
BG, 2
Downy woodpecker....| 4x4 . 1%
Screech owl and spar-
row hawk 12 to 15

Nesting-boxes for certain birds that do not nest in cavities
may be made with open tops, and placed in sheltered places,
such as under the eaves of buildings or verandas. The
sizes for such boxes are as follows:

PROMI Ph oieiaea |. 05 ee he Sides 6 inches by 8 inches; depth 4 inches
Phoebe and barn swallow “ 6 “ “6 “ Ma en)

In the aforementioned Farmers’ Bulletin designs of differ-
ent kinds of nesting-boxes are given.

In many parts of the country, houses for purple martins
may be seen erected on poles. Such houses are also used
by tree swallows. They are generally built on the colony
plan, as these birds are gregarious in their habits, and their

* For further particulars and illustrations see my memoir on “The Large

Larch Sawfly,” Bull. 10, Second Series, Experimental Farms, Dept. Agricul-
ture, Canada, 1912,

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 181

construction and size is a matter upon which taste can be
exercised if the following directions are followed:

If possible they should contain not less than ten to twelve
rooms. ‘The individual chambers should measure six inches
square and high, and they should be completely separated
from the adjoining chambers. The entrance holes should
measure two and one-half inches in diameter, and the
centre of the hole should be slightly above the centre of the
outer side of the chamber.

2. THE DESTRUCTION OF ENEMIES

The greatest enemy to bird life in more thickly populated
districts is the domestic cat. After many years’ experience
I have arrived at the conclusion which all lovers of bird life
reach, namely, that no matter how carefully a cat is cared
for by its owners, its bird hunting and destroying instinct
is not greatly diminished. Naturally, stray cats will destroy
a large number of birds, and such garden-loving species as
robins and yellow warblers fall an easy prey. The destruc-
tive character of the cat has been well described by E. H.
Forbush in his book, “‘ Useful Birds and Their Protection,”’
and in other publications. The following evidence is given
in his book:

Mr. William Brewster tells of an acquaintance in Maine who said that
his cat killed about fifty birds a year. Mr. A. C. Dike wrote of a cat
owned by a family and well cared for. They watched it through one
season and found that it killed fifty-eight birds, including the young in
five nests.

Nearly a hundred correspondents scattered through all the counties of
the state (Massachusetts) report that the cat is one of the greatest enemies
of birds. The reports that have come in of the torturing and killing of
birds by cats are absolutely sickening. The number of birds killed by
them in this state is appalling.

Some cat lovers believe that each cat kills on the average not more
than ten birds a year; but I have learned of two instances where more
than that number were killed in a single day, and another where seven

182 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

were killed. If we assume, however, that the average cat on the farm
kills but ten birds per year and that there is one cat to every farm in
Massachusetts, we have in round numbers, seventy thousand cats killing
seven hundred thousand birds annually.

The average taken by Forbush, of ten birds to each cat,
is a low one, as every observer will agree, and his figures for
a single State, however striking they may appear, are only
too near the truth. If we are to preserve our birds we must
take steps to destroy all stray cats, and to reduce the num-
ber of cats to a minimum. Birds form a natural part of
our wild life, cats do not; they form a destructive factor
that has been introduced into the natural order of things
by man, and in a state of nature an abundance of cats and
birds is an impossibility.

In city parks and other places in which it is desired to
encourage and protect birds, it is necessary that care should
be exercised to prevent the undue multiplication of red
squirrels, which frequently prove to be serious destroyers of
bird life. Further, they often appropriate nesting-boxes
and turn them into storage places for their food supplies.

In the neighbourhood of dwellings the house-sparrow is
generally an enemy to our native birds. In many places
these sparrows have driven away the useful insectivorous
birds, particularly those of the swallow tribe. While they
feed, to some extent, upon insects during the season when
they are raising their broods of young, and on the seeds of
weeds when other food is not available, they are, on the
whole, very undesirable, and every effort should be made
to destroy them. They are seriously destructive to young
plants, especially garden vegetables such as peas; in coun-
try districts they destroy and spoil large quantities of grain,
and their habits are such as to earn for them the title of
‘avian rats.’”’ The best methods of destruction are shoot-
ing, the taking of their nests and eggs, and the use of poisoned
grain.

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 183

Although, as I have already pointed out, the majority of
hawks are useful birds, several species are destructive to
bird life and should be dealt with accordingly. Among the
destructive species are the following: Cooper’s hawk, the
sharp-shinned hawk, the pigeon hawk, and the duck hawk.
Fortunately these species are not very abundant.

3. PROVISION OF FRUIT-BEARING TREES AND SHRUBS

The vegetable food of many of our insectivorous birds
under natural conditions consists largely of wild fruits and
berries. Such birds as robins and bluebirds eat a greater
proportion of animal food during the spring and summer,
but as insects become less abundant and wild fruits ripen
in the fall, vegetable food appears to predominate. When
man changes the natural environment by planting culti-
vated fruits, such as cherries, currants, raspberries, and
strawberries, birds such as robins are apt to prefer the larger
and more succulent cultivated varieties to the wild ones.
When this happens the owner of the fruit is apt to forget
the benefits that the birds have conferred upon him earlier
in the year by destroying the insect enemies of his crops, and
is apt to deal with them accordingly. There are, however,
alternative methods of preventing such damage. I have
already pointed out that it is cheaper to protect cultivated
fruit trees against the attacks of useful birds such as robins,
than to permit insects to increase uncontrolled by birds.
Another method of reducing the damage done by birds to
cultivated fruits is to provide them with wild fruits as a
small return for their services in destroying injurious insects.

The planting of fruit-bearing trees and shrubs in gardens
and parks and bird sanctuaries is a very effectual method
of attracting birds to a place. Lovers of birds and gardens,
when planting gardens and parks, should, therefore, give
preference to those species of trees and shrubs that bear

184 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

fruits or seeds that birds prefer. It is not a difficult matter,
and the results will astonish the owner, for he will have
birds in his garden at a time when animal food is scarce,
and when his less provident neighbour will be complaining
of the scarcity of bird life. It is especially desirable that
those persons, such as commissioners of parks, who are en-
trusted with the planting of city parks, should endeavour
to plant as many shrubs and trees that bear attractive fruits
as possible.

Lists of fruit-bearing shrubs and trees which are known
to be attractive to birds have been compiled and published*
by W. L. McAtee, of the Biological Survey of the United
States Department of Agriculture.

With the assistance of Mr. W. T. Macoun, Dominion
horticulturist, the accompanying list of attractive trees,
shrubs, and some herbaceous plants suited to Canadian
conditions, has been prepared. In presenting this list
Mr. Macoun states: ‘‘Various considerations have influ-
enced choice, as ornamental value, earliness, lateness or
length of fruiting season, and especial availability of plants
through ordinary channels of trade.”

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS BEARING FRUITS
ATTRACTIVE TO BIRDS

Species SUITABLE TO EASTERN CANADA

ATTA) 022) eR Ol BA RE CAREC BPA Pay Cour es er Juniperus communis.
PROG SCRORT 6 5c DRM. es eee ae oe Juniperus virginiana.
IBA DEERV Cio. out ca ears n steel eran ken Myrica carolinensis.
Higekberryi'.. otiacan mae woe se tilts area Celtis occidentalis.
Whitevmulberry 3.000 se oso ne wer eta Morus alba.
Pokeweed s3 2 oa ts eee Phytolacca decandra.
Bar Derry sis e wince ates eke Ags ole ome ec eee Berberis vulgaris.

* “How to Attract Birds in Northeastern United States,” by W. L. McAtee,
Farmers’ Bulletin No. 621, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1915.

“How to Attract Birds in Northwestern United States,’ by W. L. McAtee,
Farmers’ Bulletin No. 760, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1916.

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 185

SSIES POUISED on ctor eis tae eal aisto afta oyu ae Benzoin estivale.

Willd pouseDeIryy ovaen es vate e seca hs Ribes Cynosbatt.

rena eure stints 5 tues e sia seme RCS heh aoe Loe Ribes vulgare.

PASaeaDIC CUITATEU Lr alacsamecannias arent se oarw 1s Ribes fasciculatum.
Flowering crab-apple.................. Pyrus floribunda.
Sehoke: Cherny tose aan eras ecole kes Pyrus melanocarpa.
LOUNITAIU Cislass larseate cy. ees etl Cars ables elas Pyrus americana.
SPUPEDELE Ye si Sega ie asst heh a) «ds Amelanchier canadensis.
Asiatic service-tree. ok ee ce Amelanchier asiatica.
Goekspursthiorniee onde Shot Meoriuln cies s Crategus Crus-galli.
NVAUICUBETAWDEETY fod ohidccc Guy oeliee ew ee Fragaria americana.
Witiciblackmerryy. a/c ose ey sok Rubus allegheniensis.
PATI AS DEITY igi 2) si sas aia Rubus triflorus.

Wild DIBCE Derry i adie ees sins eens Rubus canadensis.
IRS TOMB mc he oh tee ans Be aed Rosa humilis.

Wale: black CHEEry 65245 2 sisediosse oie eleven Prunus serotina.

LEE CLG LITT A i eRe aur AR Prunus maritima.

MTIIME DEITY a5 Rani dc ok at auals seiner eas Prunus pumila.
SETEPICERY Fa iis ads die see ee ds Re Hee Empetrum nigrum.
PIPAMPAMP SINAC. oo. 20 sv cca we cele oe «om Rhus canadensis.

Ma IAGAIMCHGNY S.05 pales 6 ose eae eas de ss Nemophanthus mucronata.
LOCUSTS Gre) Ai gS a AC a BA eh aT Celastrus scandens.
LETTERS 1110S a Cah Ra pee OE Rhamnus cathartica.
SSRIS CEOETION S ig 504.4 «dia s-ciar any ase 4 ake 4 Psedera quinquefolia.
SLTERES TERT 31 0 Vitis estivalis.

NERO EER TIES sri tte a duc ter ate «ey ace05h 5 oka bena' oot Vitis vulpina.
MPHIMBPWOOG 05 @ahe cic aa bees arin be Dirca palustris.

Wile pemper sits. 5 oo vache wee dele Daphne Mezereum.
GleasteEen Age ci Tats’ sae ae hae a we Eleagnus angustifolia.
PAO GINY AW arta aise ge aa acids ae see Shepherdia canadensis.
Wri Saree.) ey Sef erae bis ek we Aralia nudicaulis.
AGIALIC SATSADATU LA, Oo ooo ad's ai ves is .a.e.s 0 0 Acanthopanax sessiliflorum.
LPO CE 2 2 A A PS AN eRe Ae Cornus canadensis.
lowering: dogwood... 6. ices ns ene Cornus florida.
URINE Wine 8 Wik 35 cock 2 ore dlarecesrna teks Cornus stolonifera.
Alternate-leaved dogwood.............. Cornus alternifolia.

\ LEED SE 275 a A IRE Gaultheria procumbens.
EOREEY ire) hls, selaesci oad vi cnhete marae Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi.
Creeping snowberry................-: Chiogenes hispidula.
Black nuekleperry... ) 3... She je eee Gaylussacia baccata.

Early sweet blueberry................. Vaccinium pennsylvanicum.

186 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Swamp blueberry ois ae Rae cies Vaccinium corymbosum.
Cranberry gr ee Oe eee eer torte Vaccinium macrocarpum.
Partridgebertys.ssni ners cee ekicen Mitchella repens.

Fly fhonevawelde eas hale shetoutiatotete Lonicera cerulea.
Tartarian' honeysuckle... 22 22.06.85 Lonicera tatarica.
SHOWER. . Selec etter soma te reece eae Symphoricarpos racemosus.
Corgisernyatt fio kes Lee eeeetas Symphoricar pos vulgaris.
High-bushtranberry 2... oe eed Viburnum Opulus.

A BTOIWAVOOG Me. Mie Sia ayn Lene ees Viburnum acerifolium.
pheepberry ceria auetes eee mente en Viburnum Lentago.
Womimron elders 1s seid). teddies Sambucus canadensis.
Hed-berried elder. 04.2... vee cee Sambucus racemosa.

SPEcIES ONLY SUITABLE TO SOUTHWESTERN ONTARIO

In addition to the species suitable to eastern Canada, the following
species may be grown in southwestern Ontario:

GIES BRIABS 2 ocd ba ante cee eu trainees Smilax rotundifolia.
REG. WANDENTY 3 oy see iced tater Morus rubra.

ASSH ARH es heey ae ecre eh worse Cats mee Sassafras variifelium.
Washington Gorn: 9)... ee eie cate ae Crategus phenopyrum.
BUMS NOTIN 5 ICR a tet chakeras Soave acelptetaets Crategus Oxyacantha.
SMOG SOMES wc eid sa casero ates: Rhus glabra.

1G (G0) assis Rade ANE PR EEN ea te oe Ilex opaca.

Inkberry ‘or black alders:.). s6.c00-00 66 Tlex verticillata.

WR PHMEHEVCRECDET (52205 )sia: ces ara ere 'eiajalale’s Ampelopsis tricuspidata.
SOUT UMN eee TE hoe alone Vetotnencbatavsts Nyssa sylvatica.
Persitiiien sen) hed Solcack oeehns aganacins Diospyros virginiana.
PTs RUIN Ge Mot Pinch ct apt edcaat Ligustrum vulgare.
WUE PIS WELTY fis ic Sale are wstel are aunatehato eas Callicarpa purpurea.

SPECIES SUITABLE TO THE PRAIRIE PROVINCES

Juneberry or saskatoon berry.......... Amelanchier spicata.
WPS SG ATMS OL EN Ce BSN ce eee ys eaten al Amorpha fruticosa.
Japanese barberry caus. ss2 ses ese wee Berberis Thunbergit.
SIDERIAN PEAHENEE Fh na hdc esis aiahs Mee eee Caragana arboresceus.
Peek DeREy ce her. titer ude ie ioiceame ean meee Celtis occidentalis.
Westerm clematis. .i1uoiees sence ce mene Clematis ligusticifolia.
Mrect, clematis: 21 Gi. acai aeeetee Clematis recta.
Cotoneasters (several species).......... Cotoneaster spp.

Hawthorn (several species)............. Crategus spp.

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 187

Wolf willow or silver berry............. Eleagnus argentea.
Honeysuckle bush (several species)... .. . Lonicera.
MSTA PIMP, 3 1s) Vy elanavelh seetitve ila lalate swale Physocarpus opulifolius.
LSU so gage VENTED, tele ea a a a nn Prunus pennsylvanica.
BeNeUReIy SOOM UNG Nala Wise ul uate e. Prunus pumila.
WW caterr wild Cherry 2m occ eh se bc ise ties Prunus demissa.
PT OOMMEM ERAT NCC ih eel ies Wieraecepevee Pyrus baccata.
Prouvitama eran Bae eo oe cease oa Sask Pyrus americana.
LarClaelate = MS TSE 5 0M OR ee Rhamnus cathartica.
WVU UnAAapARN URC eS ecole cc co csseiee = Ribes alpinum.
WV Til enh CUTIES 660) 6 cab aciee sees Ribes floridum.
PVPSSCUY CUTRARMIGS \iiuiasals s. <(ciese.sete ie ose sees Ribes aureum.
WL bets Tate ier ape ana a ce Rosa blanda.
Wild raspberry (several species)........ Rubus spp.
Elders (several species)................ Sambucus spp.
Pap M URGE 20/0 5,6. 4 Vim is. asoeus cnet oe eres Shepherdia argentea.
co se a ar i APSARA Se Symphoricarpos racemosus.
PSMIMOMEE AVE G0 a wire in Aus so Sduse Soo Hs Viburnum Lentago.
High-bush cranberry................-. Viburnum Opulus.
VWI MMMM a AIG P5085 4, nc a cae aio) evacare 01858 Vitis vulpina.

Species SUITABLE TO SOUTHERN BritisH CoLUMBIA
PRISE EW wate tases kek Gplete atetercrsie ews Taxus hibernica.
Py COLCE IA TUL IOS 2 5). io scresaystpighesw sre ies eins Juniperus occidentalis.
Rocky Mountain jumiper.............. Juniperus scopulorum.
PE TTUNIORP YE oh each ci eels clees Morus alba var. tatarica.
PARRA SE Sais ReNP SE NW So Shaka ove Supa gear Nandina domestica.
PST ey ey ae ee kt wuahel grainy «i soteiinhs Berberis vulgaris.
WD remONeY A Or ce Ale is!G Si ons dh hpicreeyls! «end Se Berberis nervosa.
ME ere Se Rea a hak bau onion adie Ribes divaricatum.
EERO PO. ee MeL oa altrel Na owe eae Ribes trriguum.
DCs 17d Rg SNe Ribes sanguineum.
PEANUT eee IY oS eS AS rots BAS Ribes aureum.
SOIC a i oak re Rubus spectabilis.
Pirie PASNOEITY.. bok ods ho cower ende abe Rubus leucodermis.
Evergreen blackberry................. Rubus laciniatus.
PREMERA TLE. aan, niree a ioe Rosa rubiginosa.
Lu lin Eley teh GSTS O52 ae eg Rosa gymnocarpa.
Ut inj cele Sh cl eee ae Rosa nutkana.

* West of Cascade Mountains only.
ft East of Cascade Mountains only.

188 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

TROBE A ice Weis ae mute ua cies ibaa Rosa pisocarpa.

tra wbernye sinc hee Us oben ote ean Fragaria chiloensis.
poi hed Geo) 0 9 Pa Ue RE NS PHN et he EAN Fragaria platypetala.
DOnvace berry! thie iin. ance nk RIT Amelanchier florida.
Mhormmapplase reel. eects he eae Crategus Douglasii.
BiretGhorn Gui hole a eee Mae nae Pyracantha coccinea.
PeGROTR Mee). I De oes Line ea ae Cotoneaster Simonsit.
Grabappless. cio eh ke oa what mmteele aa eae Pyrus diversifolia.

IN CYDE NATO APC] 0 Ete Papen ORE he Po GREW URE. ie Pyrus sitchensis.
Waldcherryn ssc n el oe Milas bo a a Prunus emarginata.
@Ghokercherrgn. (yer cone eae Prunus demissa.
rolU Oct: Uh agi A Rae MR ea eM RL en Rhus glabra.

15 (01h Re La Regd RD ea IEE Bega Ilex Aquifolium.
Burmie- bush ss. 5a St eee ie eee Evonymus occidentalis.
OCTET Aik DAR RR te ai CaN gee abe OAK St Rhamnus Purshiana.
Viren Creeperso Vii ea clase cia nteae Psedera quinquefolia.
SADANESEVI a. hor. Bouin ne ete en bie Ampelopsis tricuspidata.
Buialoiberny. osc eas acorn es Noes Shepherdia canadensis.
Deval s=clube is Ac Sener ee eck de aie Fatsia horrida.
RediGsierci7 6) tae 8 al Woe te eae Cornus stolonifera.
Dawood? ve leir AAG el) Mctotie Leegaeaele Cornus occidentalis.
POOR W GOR REA FURR RCP Cornus Nuttallit.
IBUNCHMETEM Ase toutes cd eee eee Ree Cornus canadensis.

POT UUG ES eee Miers Ieee eo hee eee Arbutus Menziesti.

DU ICN S225 01 RI eget cea AER Arctostaphylos tomentosa.
Miemvneumnibare ey, oie cio «Se tolin sae tei Arctostaphylos Manzanita.
Korner cles ss) tes ics cae eke ook Arctostaphylos Uva-urst.
roloilecl bgreg Cesk aed Tn a a ge ere Ba Gaultheria Shallon.
BRED eriy aera ey eave fhGits ee eae eae Vaccinium ovatum.

IIE DERRY eh aiey Misti aie incl aan Vaccinium cespitosum.
Red-huckleberry.). gan ve le... ee ee Vaccinium parvifolium.
Rraibernye tater eer chelated ad Oxycoccus intermedius.
HOWE Yixass hat er ene Rises Coe eats Symphoricar pos racemosus.
Honeysueklesin( o0 asain bartee gates ee Lonicera involucrata.
Eloneysucklelat (ee oG. lee ke ede ee Lonicera utahensis.
Biderberty cede sas apace ets ee Sambucus glauca.
Riderberry sh i cececcin eek een Sambucus callicarpa.
PMT 6 a be ee ek teen ae Viburnum pauciflorum.
Black haw") 3.20... Syne cae ene Viburnum ellipticum.

* West of Cascade Mountains only.
t East of Cascade Mountains only.

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 189

4. Tue PROVISION oF OTHER ForMs OF FoopD AND
oF WATER

In some parts of Canada, such as Nova Scotia, the south-
ern portions of Ontario and British Columbia, certain species
of birds remain throughout the entire winter. In such re-
gions it is especially desirable that steps should be taken and
provision made for feeding the birds during the winter
months, particularly during inclement weather, when they
would experience difficulties in obtaining their natural food.
Winter feeding is an important part of bird protection and
encouragement in such regions, and there are many ways of
providing such food.

The winter food usually comprises animal food, such as
suet and other forms of fat, meaty bones and cooked meat,
and meal worms. Fat- or oil-containing seeds such as sun-
flower-seeds and nuts, and various grains and seeds such
as buckwheat, pumpkin and squash seeds, bird-seed, hemp-
seed, wheat, millet, cracked corn or oats may be used.
Cracked dog-biscuits, crackers, crumbs and bread and
chopped apple are all useful.

These winter foods are usually placed in some form of
feeding-device. The feeding-shelter may be small or large,
but it should be so constructed as to enable birds to reach
_ the food easily and to feed comfortably during stormy
weather; at the same time they should be protected against
such enemies as cats. Food-trays partially enclosed by
glass sides may be attached to windows, or stand near a
window. One of the most useful types of feeding-shelters is
the Hessian food-shelter, which contains two trays—a lower
unprotected tray and a tray placed under the roof and
sheltered by glass sides. Such feeding-devices are easily
made, or they can be purchased from dealers in such sup-
plies. A simple feeding-device can be made by suspending
a cocoanut which has a hole cut in one end; this is very
attractive to such birds as tits.

190 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

The provision of water is very important. During the
hot days of summer, birds require water for drinking and
bathing purposes, and a bird fountain or bath in a garden
will always insure the presence of numerous birds. No gar-
den should be considered complete without a supply of
water for the birds. This may take the form of a small
fountain, a natural or artificial water-hole, or a pebble-lined
tin or concrete bath. Very artistic concrete or artificial-
stone bird-baths on pedestals are now made and sold by
dealers, and such baths can be made by any one with a
little ingenuity. )

5. Brrp SANCTUARIES

A bird sanctuary is an area of land, or of land and water,
in which birds are rigorously protected and permitted to live
undisturbed. Such a sanctuary may be a tract of wood-
land or prairie, a marsh, the banks of a river, a sea-girt
island or cliffs. A bird sanctuary may be created in or near
a town or city with as great advantage to bird protection
as a sanctuary in a more remote region. Moreover, there
can be no greater expression of the bird-loving tendencies
of a community than such an area in which birds are pro-
tected.

I would strongly recommend local organizations and pub-
lic bodies to adopt and carry out the following scheme as a
first step: The absolute protection of birds in public parks
and cemeteries in cities, towns, and villages should be se-
cured by the co-operation of the local civic authorities, and
such areas should be publicly declared to be bird sanctuaries.
At the same time, bird-house competitions should be organ-
ized, and a proportion of the bird-houses so made by the
school-children should be distributed in the civic bird sanc-
tuaries, and thus the children would have that personal in-
terest in the work which tends to secure success. Further,
the assistance of the local horticultural societies should be

PLATE XVII

eee
BS,
pre

PORTION OF EXHIBITION OF BIRD-HOUSES MADE BY THE BOYS IN
ONE OF THE OTTAWA PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN A COMPETITION ORGAN-
IZED BY THE OTTAWA HUMANE SOCIETY IN 1917

BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 191

enlisted, and they should be asked to help the civic or other
authorities in the work of planting suitable fruit-bearing
and other shrubs and trees attractive to birds in the local
sanctuaries; cr these associations could make themselveg
entirely responsible for such work. Prominent citizens
should then be encouraged to present bird fountains and
baths, to be placed in the bird sanctuaries. Each year,
preferably in the spring, a local ‘‘bird day” might be in-
stituted. On that day the schools would devote special
attention to the subject of birds and bird protection, and
means could be taken to enlist the interest of the general
public. By these and other means that might be devised,
every section of the community could be called upon to
take a personal interest in the protection and encourage-
ment of the birds in the district, and the work would ex-
press the community spirit. I cannot conceive of any prac-
tical measure that would have a greater effect in stimulating
public interest in this subject, and the value of such work
throughout Canada as a whole would be inestimable. Where
interest is kindled in the minds of young and old on the
subject of birds it increases with time, and few subjects have
a wider appeal, or elicit to a greater extent that sympathy
with and admiration for our wild life.

In the city of Ottawa bird sanctuaries have been estab-
lished through the efforts of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’
Club and the Ottawa Humane Society. The Ottawa Im-
provement Commission consented to make the beautiful
natural tract of land, Rockcliffe Park, a bird sanctuary, and
made and distributed nesting-boxes throughout the park.
The Dominion Department of Agriculture distributed nest-
ing-boxes throughout the grounds of the Central Experi-
mental Farm and the Botanical Garden, all of which con-
stitute a most admirable refuge for many species of birds
which are not usually seen within the limits of a city.
Through the personal interest of H.R. H. the Duke of

192 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Connaught nesting-boxes have been distributed through
the grounds of Government House, and the owners of large
gardens have taken similar steps. Other Canadian cities
should follow the example of Ottawa in this respect. On
the author’s recommendation the Board of Park Commis-
sioners of Vancouver, B. C., have decided to establish a
bird sanctuary in Stanley Park, which is admirably suited
to such a purpose. Few cities in Canada are without areas
that would serve as excellent bird sanctuaries.

Passing from what might be termed civic bird sanctuaries
to larger areas of rural territory, we find that both the
Dominion and provincial governments have taken steps to
set aside suitable areas as bird sanctuaries for the protection
of wild fowl and other forms of bird life, and these sanc-
tuaries or refuges are considered in another chapter.

Bird sanctuaries constitute the surest means of protect-
ing our insectivorous and other birds by preventing their
destruction and ultimate extermination.

CHAPTER VIII

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE AND THE CONTROL
OF PREDATORY ANIMALS

Any rational system of wild-life protection must take
into account the control of the predatory species of mam-
mals and birds. And while the complete extermination of
such predatory species is not possible, desirable, or neces-
sary, a degree of control must be exercised to prevent such
an increase in numbers as would affect the abundance of
the non-predatory species. In the treatment of predatory
animals it is necessary to determine whether the species
concerned are responsible for more harm than good in a
particular region.

The creation on any extensive scale of wild life reserves
will inevitably result in an increase within, and the attrac-
tion to such reserves of predatory mammals such as wolves
and coyotes, and of birds such as eagles, great horned owls,
and such noxious hawks as the goshawk, Cooper’s, and sharp-
shinned hawks, owing to the fact that these reserves will
~ not only contain a larger number of the animals and their
young which predatory animals destroy, but as the reserves
afford sanctuary to such animals they will tend to contain
a much greater abundance of wild life than neighbouring
territory. Following the general rule in nature that pred-
atory species collect where the species on which they sub-
sist occur in unusual abundance, an increase in game and
other animals will bring about an increase in their enemies,
especially when the latter are harassed elsewhere.

Wolves.—The large gray or timber wolves, varying in
colour from white to black, which range from Quebec to

193

194 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

British Columbia and northward to the Yukon and the
Arctic coast, are the most serious natural enemies of all
members of the deer tribe, not to mention their destruction
of domestic stock. In the more northerly forested regions
of Quebec and Ontario they have been reported as being
very destructive to deer, and their attacks on moose and
caribou have had a marked effect on the abundance of these
animals in certain regions. In northern British Columbia
and the Yukon they have also been reported to be so abun-
dant as to destroy mountain sheep in considerable numbers.

Coyote.-—The coyote or prairie wolf is to be found through-
out the western provinces, from Manitoba to British Co-
lumbia, and northward to the Northwest Territories and
the Yukon. Unlike the gray or timber wolf, which has re-
treated to a great extent from the open prairies, although it
ranges the Barren Grounds of the north and now is to be
found chiefly in the wooded sections of the country, the
coyote prefers the open plains, but it may be found also in
wooded regions throughout its range. Coyotes are more
gregarious in habit than wolves, and co-operate in hunting.
There is no doubt that they destroy not only young deer,
mountain sheep, and antelope, but also large numbers of
game-birds, such as geese, ducks, etc. The agricultural de-
velopment of the country does not tend to a diminution in
their numbers, as in the case of wolves, but appears rather
to encourage an increase, with the result that they become a
serious menace to farmers through their attacks on sheep
and poultry; the aspect of their economic importance will
be considered presently. In spite of their destruction of
game animals and birds, and of live stock, they also prey
on rodents that are injurious to agricultural interests, such
as rabbits, gophers, and mice. Where coyotes decrease in
number by natural causes or hunting, the numbers of go-
phers usually increase. This fact is important, and means
that an active campaign against gophers must accompany

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 195

any campaign against coyotes. Such injurious insects as
grasshoppers, crickets, June-bugs (white grubs), etc., are
also eaten by coyotes. Nevertheless it would appear that
the damage they inflict far outweighs the benefits they ac-
complish. Peculiarly enough they are also fond of fruit
and consume wild fruits and berries.

Cougar.—The cougar or puma, also known as the moun-
tain lion or panther, is the largest of the cat tribe in North
America. In Canada it is to be found in the Rocky Moun-
tains and westward to Vancouver Island, on which it ap-
pears to be most common. Large specimens may measure
7 to 8 feet in length, and weigh over 200 pounds. They
prey upon every kind of game, but are specially destructive
to mountain sheep, goat, and deer, and a large male cougar
will kill a horse, cow, moose, or wapiti. Deer form their
chief prey. When cougars occur in numbers the deer and
mountain sheep invariably decrease in numbers; for exam-
ple, I am informed that .the decrease in deer and sheep
in the Lillooet region of British Columbia, which formerly
abounded in such game, has been largely due to the depre-
dations of cougars, which are increasing in that region, al-
though a steady decrease in cougars in British Columbia as
a whole is reported.

THE Wor AND Coyote ProBLemM As AFFECTING
LivE-Stock INTERESTS

From an economic point of view the destruction of live
stock, especially sheep, by wolves, and particularly by
coyotes, constitutes a more serious problem than the de-
struction of wild life, and it is fitting that in such a presen-
tation as J am making of the economic aspect of our native
predatory animals we should consider the relation of these
animals to our agricultural interests.

British Columbia.—As a result of an extensive investiga-
tion that I have made into the losses inflicted by these

196 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

animals in the live-stock interests, it would appear that the
problem is most serious in British Columbia, which contains
very extensive areas admirably suited to sheep-raising,
particularly in the central Dry Belt region. For much of
the information I am about to give concerning conditions
in British Columbia, I am indebted to Mr. C. E. Lawrence,
Secretary-Treasurer of the Interior of British Columbia
Wool Growers Association, who writes:

The matter is an increasingly serious one, and all our efforts to increase
production of wool and mutton seem to be frustrated by this abominable
pest. For ranchers to lose one-third of their lambs is not uncommon—
quite a number in this district (Kamloops) have sold their breeding ewes
to the butcher to save them from the coyotes.

Mr. Thomas P. Mackenzie, provincial grazing commis-
sioner for British Columbia, states that records show the
presence in British Columbia of not more than 50,000 sheep,
and that with properly organized range and a scientific ro-
tation system of grazing he sees no reason why British Co-
lumbia should not graze at least 2,000,000 sheep.

The following reports indicate the serious nature of the
losses due to coyotes in the Dry Belt region of British Co-
lumbia:

F. F. Wilkinson, Monte Creek: ‘‘My losses were so severe that I have
sold my sheep to save what were left from going the way of the others.”

Lawrence Bros., Heffley Creek: ‘“‘After doing our best to combat the
total loss of our choice breeding flock of Oxford Downs, we have come to
the conclusion that we can only save what we have left by sending them
to the butcher. After exercising every precaution this is the third year
that we have lost 33% of the lambs, and the audacity of the coyotes
this year promises to rob us of all the ewes as well as the lambs. We
have put into practice all the information and instructions we could ob-
tain as to poisoning the brutes—but no fear, they will not pick up bait
nor return to a half consumed carcass while they can get a nice fresh,
live lamb. The anxiety, loss of time and vexation is too much and we
have, most reluctantly, decided to go out of sheep.”

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE tor

F. Cornwall, Cherry Creek: ‘I shall not know the extent of our loss until
we make count in the fall, but we have a large number of ewes with full
udders and no lambs. At the Sugar Loaf, our sheep range, it is impos-
sible to keep the sheep there this year. Every day they are scattered
to the lower ground by coyotes, beyond the power of the herder to pre-
vent it, good man as he is. One of my neighbours raised a lot of poultry
—including many turkeys—the coyotes have made sad havoc with them
in spite of every effort to circumvent them, and the result will be a very
- heavy financial loss.”

D. W. Strachan, Superintendent Alexandria Ranch (King Edward
Sanatorium), Tranquille : ‘I cannot tell you our exact losses, but they are
heavy, in spite of having an extra boy to look after the bunch. The sheep
are pure bred Cotswolds and the loss of over 30% of lambs each year
is a serious one for the ranch and also for the community in face of the
shortage in both mutton and wool. Let me say, speaking as President
of the Wool Growers Association, that this subject is ever before us at
our meetings, for we are all sufferers, and the inevitable conclusion is
that, until some drastic steps are taken to attack the pests in their breed-
ing places, and this must be vigorously followed up, there will be no further
development of sheep husbandry, and consequently no addition to the
mutton supply, or the production of wool.”

Mrs. Hoffman, Shuswap: “We dare not let our sheep outside the fence,
and during the early part of last year my son shot 15 coyotes which came
inside the pasture after the lambs.”

W. W. Shaw, Heffley Creek: “Purchased 125 sheep last year. Up to
midsummer of this year, had lost by coyotes 30 ewes and 60 lambs.”

Mr. H. F. Mytton, B. C. Fruitlands Co.: ‘“‘A thorough sportsman who
spends all his spare time in hunting coyotes and encouraging others to
do so, had only last week a chicken chased to and killed on his door step
—this was defiance with a vengeance.”

CoyoTEs ARE NO RESPECTERS OF PERSONS

The Superintendent of the Provincial Government Experimental Farm,
Gariboo Road, says: ‘Coyotes are very bad and we have lost at least
25% of the lambs, and it looks like selling off the bunch or letting the
coyotes finish them.”

C. G. Cowan, a neighbouring cattle rancher, with a flock of sheep, says:
“The coyotes having punished the Provincial Government flock have
turned their attention to ours. Although we did not keep sheep as a
commercial proposition they were profitable and afforded us fresh meat

198 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

when it would not be desirable to kill a steer for the ranch hands. But
the coyotes have got the whip hand of us and our bunch will all be sold
in a few days.”

An Expert OPINION

Mr. A. Bryan Williams, for many years Provincial Game Warden, in a
letter to the Wool Growers Association last March (1918), states: “It ap-
pears to me that the coyote question is one in which your Association
and my Department are equally interested, and if I had been retaining
my present position I should have been extremely pleased to have worked
in conjunction with you. There is one thing, however, to which I might
call your attention, which I believe is of particular interest to your Asso-
ciation, and that is that the sheep-killing coyote is very seldom killed.
The great majority of coyotes killed are not sheep-killers, the latter is
very wary, and it takes a really first class professional to catch him, and I
believe it would pay to have such a man employed by the Department of
Agriculture, to go from place to place, wherever his services were re-
quired, and trap these coyotes. I believe that more good has been done
in the United States by these professionals than any other way. I im-
agine, however, there would be extreme difficulty in getting such a man,
at any rate at the present time, but the idea is well worth considering.”

In British Columbia a vigorous campaign against these
animals has been carried on for a number of years. During
recent years bounties have been paid on the following num-
bers:

Cougars
Coyotes

The greatest number of cougars was killed in Vancouver
Island. In spite of this destruction the number of these
predatory animals has undoubtedly increased, and the
coyote nuisance, in particular, has become more serious in
the sheep-raising sections. In his annual report for 1916
the provincial game warden of British Columbia states:
‘The coyote nuisance has become a very serious one, as

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 199

not only have they practically cleaned up all the stock of
grouse, killed fawns and the deer themselves by the hun-
dreds, but they have made the keeping of sheep in some
parts of the interior almost an impossibility at the present
time, and the number of domestic fowl they have killed
would total a good many thousand dollars. The whole of
the Dry Belt simply swarms with these pests... .”’ Over
$50,000 was paid by the provincial government in bounties
on these pests, and in spite of this expenditure the evil was
not abated.

This demonstrates most conclusively that as a means of
destroying predatory animals the bounty system is a failure.

Alberta.—In response to my inquiries, Mr. B. Lawton,
chief game guardian and wolf bounty inspector for the Prov-
ince of Alberta, has furnished the following information with
regard to the payment of bounties by the provincial govern-
ment for the destruction of wolves and coyotes, and the
extent of the damage caused by these predatory animals:

1. Since the formation of the Province in 1905, bounty has been con-
tinually paid for the destruction of grey or timber wolves. In the years
1907, 1908, 1909 and 1917 bounty was paid on prairie wolves, or coyotes.

2. The amount of bounty paid each year is as follows:

OU eae ar wln: «hte ars rave ce ia $1,860.00 TEES Meare atink Gon gtatstecraterand $2,141.30
MRROE 2 Gisteye ale oes ie ales .. 2,940.00 BOGS Ae 51.) y richntiisele 2,984.75
Mea wean soe se eos es 26,701.32 DOE ie craved ik deen eee ohanee 4,208.30
Me ga he) nic 2 ok le «ele 25,231.28 ROLE ae Aa Uh lene are 4,188.70
BEM Reed WA wy ya ea ook 3,005.30 OPO She, he ble Sane 409.48
BPEL Toye rh st as a 1S0 ok 5h 2,763.90 TOU ee oats Ph Rasa: 1,160.15

3. Grey or timber wolves are very destructive to game in the mountains
and in the northern part of the province. In the ranching districts in
the southern part of the province a limited amount of damage is caused
by timber wolves. Quantities of poultry and some calves, colts, sheep
and lambs are destroyed by the prairie wolves; they are also very destruc-
tive to game and other birds. They appear to be much more plentiful
at times; this is more noticeable when there is a scarcity of rabbits. At
such times they are compelled to come into the settlements to obtain a

200 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

livelihood, the result being that some animals and poultry suffer to a
greater extent than at other times. I do not think that timber wolves
are as destructive as they were some years ago, owing to being fewer in
number, neither do I think that there are as many coyotes as formerly.
The statistics as to losses are not available.

4. Stockmen’s associations have been offering a bounty independent
of the bounty offered by the Government; this applies more particularly
to a bounty on timber wolves.

The following letters which I have received indicate the
loss and expense caused by the depredations of coyotes in
Alberta:

Mr. W. E. Ross, Clive, Alta., writes: “I lost 8 calves out of 55 and had
to build a fence around two acres to take in the houses with a chicken-
proof fence to raise chickens.”

Mr. Alex. Lewis, Bon Accord, Alta., writes: “I have lived in Edmonton
for over 20 years. The past three years I was troubled with coyotes.
I had to keep one of the children with them [the sheep] when they were
on the range. I did not lose more than one or two by coyotes. The
last two years (1916-17) the coyotes have again started to devour them.
Last summer (1917) I lost at least $150.00 worth of lambs by coyotes.
And every year since I lived on my homestead we have lost poultry,
sometimes an old turkey and her whole flock of young; we have lost as
many as 50 hens and chickens in a season. I have just completed my
sheep pasture by fencing with a 14-line wire. I had to act as shepherd
last summer and stay with the sheep whenever they were in the pasture.
I have lived 17 years on my homestead and I am certain that my loss
in that time would exceed $500.00, besides the expense of fencing and
watching.”

Saskatchewan.—On account of the menace to the live-
stock interests of the province, the provincial government
has endeavoured by means of the bounty system to encour-
age the destruction of wolves and coyotes. In response to
my inquiries Mr. F. H. Auld, deputy minister of agriculture
for Saskatchewan, has furnished me with the following in-
formation on the control of coyotes and wolves in Sas-
katchewan:

Your letter of the 20th ultimo, having reference to the control of wolves
and coyotes, is hereby acknowledged.

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 201

In reply I have to say that during the six years prior to the establish-
ment of this province in 1905 the sum of $14,000 was expended in bounty
on timber wolves in the southern portion of what was then the Northwest
Territories. During this period 616 adults and 1,633 pups were killed.

In 1906 the appropriation set aside for the destruction of wolves was
not made use of by the Provincial Range Stock Growers Association for
whose benefit it was appropriated, and therefore it was decided to insti-
tute a competition and substantial prizes were offered for the greatest
number of wolves killed by individuals, and also for the greatest number
of skins shipped, so that a local market for wolf pelts might be established.
Eleven prizes ranging from $20 to $150 were awarded, and the results
obtained were considered to be very satisfactory.

The Wolf Bounty Act was passed in 1907. Under its provisions it
was optional with municipalities as to whether or not they established
Wolf Bounty districts. The bounty was fixed at $10 for timber wolves
and $1 for coyotes, half of which was refunded by the Government upon
surrender of the wolf bounty certificate. This policy was changed in
1913 when The Wolf Bounty Act was amended making it compulsory
for all municipalities to pay bounty. Provision was also made that
municipalities may increase the amount of bounty if they so desire, but
the refund paid by the Government remained the same—fifty per cent of
the stipulated bounty of $10 for timber wolves and $1 for coyotes and
pups. The results of this policy are tabulated below:

Statement of grey wolves and coyotes killed in Saskatchewan from
1907 to 1917.

Total Bounty Amount Re-
Paid by funded by
Municipalities Government

$2,704.00
15,951.00
13,380.00
11,176.00
12,930.00
9,686.00
11,776.00
17,202.00
34,973.00
57,263.00
45,000.00 20,750.00

204,424 $232,041.00 $108,184.50

202 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

We have no statistics regarding the actual losses due to the depreda-
tions of wolves and coyotes, but it is generally stated that they are very
destructive to sheep and poultry, and sportsmen claim them to be one
of the worst enemies of big game and ground-nesting game birds and eggs.
On the other hand, they destroy gophers and field mice which are very
injurious pests of the farm, and the value of wolf pelts is quite a considera-
tion at this writing, an average price of $10 being paid for No. 1 skins, and
extra good pelts have sold as high as $18.

Present methods of control can certainly be improved upon provided
the co-operation of the citizens can be enlisted. I doubt very much
whether the bounty system is instrumental in the killing of more than
twenty per cent of the wolves for which bounty is paid. In my opinion
most of the wolves are killed incidentally by farmers in the course of
their daily duties, others make a practice of hunting wolves in the winter
for sport, or for the value of the fur. I believe that the money appro-
priated annually for the payment of wolf bounties would be productive of
better results were it expended in paying experienced hunters and trap-
pers to systematically attack this problem. Under their guidance at-
tempts might be made to comb out the wolves methodically in certain
districts, the areas being extended in successive units year by year.
Although this plan would not exterminate the wolves I think better re-
sults would accrue than have been secured in the past. The pelts thus
taken would be the property of the Government and sold to help defray
expenses.

It is often argued that if the Government would increase the bounty
it would be an added incentive to kill the wolves. In my opinion the
present high prices paid for wolf pelts is a sufficient inducement to hunt
wolves when the fur is prime. It might be advantageous to discontinue
the payment of bounties under the present plan, and try paying a bounty
of say $10 on all females killed during the first four months of each year.

The principle of co-operation adopted to any plan of campaign is un-
doubtedly beneficial to the project in hand, and far better results may be
expected than would be secured in the case of individual haphazard
methods of control. On this ground alone your proposal seems worthy
of the united support of all concerned, and in my opinion some such action
as you suggest would go a long way toward the solution of this difficult
problem.

The foregoing statement shows that in spite of the ex-
penditures made in an earnest effort to control these pred-
atory animals the bounty system has not succeeded, as the
live-stock men admit.

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 203

The views of the stockmen of Saskatchewan on the danger
from coyotes in that province are set forth in the following
statement of the Live Stock Commission :*

Protection Against Sheep Pests: “‘So far as sheep are concerned, the
timber wolf, the coyote and the dog are more dangerous than any bacillus;
the sheep of Saskatchewan are free from the intestinal parasites which
plague flocks in so many parts of the United States. The coyote is par-
ticularly harmful in many rough or partly wooded sections which would
otherwise be well adapted to sheep, and worrying dogs may appear in
any section.

“Tt has been the practice of the Government of Saskatchewan for some
years to pay a bounty of $1.00 per head on coyotes killed in the province.
As this sum is only a small portion of the value of the pelts, it is open to
question whether the offer of the bounty has led to the killing of many
more wolves than would have been killed without it. It would be well,
therefore, to consider whether part or all of the amount usually expended
in this fashion could not be used to better purpose in some alternative
method of combatting the wolf pest, and particularly in encouraging the
breeding and use of wolf hounds.”

The following is typical of the experience of stockmen:

Mr. J. C. Hall, Lumsden, Sask., writes: ‘They [the coyotes] are a
perfect pest here; also the cause of very material damage and expense. I
bought this farm with the intention of raising stock of various kinds, but
1 find that to start sheep raising would be very poor business under the
circumstances.”

_ Manitoba.—The ‘coyote problem in Manitoba is admira-
bly set forth in the following letter, which I have received
from Mr. W. W. Fraser, provincial live-stock commissioner:

“We regard this pest as being an exceedingly serious one, more par-
ticularly in the newer districts and where there is more or less shelter
by way of trees and scrub. He is a menace chiefly to the sheep industry.
I desire to point out clearly that it is not only what he destroys in the
form of sheep, poultry and game to an alarming degree in the aggregate,
but where I consider the real damage is done is that hundreds of our farm-

* Final Report of the Live Stock Commission of the Province of Saskatchewan,
1918, p. 21. Published by the Department of Agriculture of Saskatchewan,
Regina.

204 CON SERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

ers in this western country refuse to go into the sheep industry because of
the above facts. As I go through the country discussing the sheep and
poultry situation, every district has numerous men who state they would
go into the sheep industry were it not for the destruction done by the
coyote, and they can point out concrete cases where their neighbors have
been subjected to this pest for years. They declare it remains equally as
bad at the present time as in the past; therefore, they cannot go into the
sheep industry, although they would like to.

“Whole flocks of poultry, such as turkeys and geese, have been wiped
out after the owner carefully fostered them all summer, and, if not, the
whole flock has frequently been reduced to 50 or 60 per cent.

“This pest does not seem to have been seriously taken into considera-
tion by many of our representative men, such as local and Dominion
representatives in our Legislatures, as well as men who represent us in
other capacities.”

The following extracts from letters that I have received
are typical of the experiences of many farmers in the
province:

Mr. A. A. Titus, Napinka, Man., writes: “All sheep men lose heavily.
Not one in ten shepherds escapes loss. I lost 25 sheep and lambs last
year (1917); more than half were pure-bred Shropshires. I lost $200 in
time watching as well. ‘Total loss close to $1,000. Coyotes eat half the
turkeys of the country and from 10 to 50 per cent of other poultry, accord-
ing to district. A few new-born calves are eaten.”

Mr. James MacField, Two Creeks, Man., writes : ‘We have been bothered
with them for years around this part of the country. There are no sheep
farmers to speak of as they think the coyotes would be a great menace,
but every farmer tries to raise poultry and I may say every farmer loses
in cold cash anywhere from $50 to $100 every year. The people are doing
what they can to exterminate the wolf but we cannot afford the time to
hunt wolves for two dollars per head. This winter (1917-18) there have
been a great many try their hand trapping but with little success. I
figure I can trap as well as the average man and I worked my spare time
all winter and only got three for my trouble.”

THe NECESSITY OF ORGANIZED CONTROL BY HUNTING
AND TRAPPING

The most successful method of destroying coyotes, wolves,
and other predatory animals is by the organization of sys-

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 205

tematic hunting by paid hunters, receiving no bounties and
working under government control. This policy is giving
excellent results in the United States, as will be shown
presently.

The problem is by no means a local one, nor even a pro-
vincial one; it is both interprovincial and international in
character, and it is only by organization along these lines
that ultimate success will be obtained. What we need is
co-operation among all concerned: individuals, live-stock
organizations, and governments; all of them should con-
tribute to the funds that are needed to carry out the work
after a broad policy has been formulated.

The present time is most appropriate for the initiation of
a comprehensive scheme for the destruction of the predatory
animals affecting our live-stock interests and wild-life re-
sources. ‘There is an urgent need for the increasing of our
live stock in Canada, and Dominion and provincial govern-
ments are conducting vigorous campaigns with this end in
view; but, as the preceding facts have clearly shown, these
efforts cannot be wholly successful, especially in the matter
of sheep-raising and wool production, unless the failure of
the bounty systems as a means of destroying predatory
animals is recognized by our governments and steps are
taken to put into effect a similar scheme to that now in suc-
cessful operation in the United States.

Steps must be taken to remove the obstacles in the way
of successful sheep-raising. At the present time farmers
are either prevented from taking up or they are compelled
to discontinue sheep-raising on account of the losses caused
by these predatory animals. In addition, when an effort is
made to raise sheep the farmers experience loss of stock,
loss of time shepherding their stock, and loss of money in
building the necessary fences.

With the return of large numbers of soldiers from mili-
tary service in Europe there should be no difficulty in ob-

206 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

taining a sufficient number of hunters and trappers; in fact,
such work would be the means of finding employment for
many men who are skilled in hunting and trapping, and
who prefer such occupation, and might advisedly form part
of the resettlement scheme.

CoNTROL OF PREDATORY ANIMALS IN THE UNITED
STATES

Owing to the enormous losses experienced by the live-
stock interests in the United States, particularly in the
stock-raising areas of the West, the Federal and State gov-
ernments have been compelled to take very active measures
to eradicate the predatory animals which are responsible
for their losses.

It is estimated by Dr. E. W. Nelson, chief of the Biologi-
cal Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture,
that predatory animals destroy annually from twenty to
thirty million dollars’ worth of live stock on the western
cattle ranges. The United States Forest Service estimates
that each wolf destroys annually an average of $1,000
worth of live stock, each coyote $50, each cougar or moun-
tain lion $500, each bobcat $50, and each stock-killing
grizzly bear $500.

In the annual report of the United States Biological Sur-
vey for 1917-1918 it is stated that the chairman of the State
Live Stock Board of Utah estimates an annual loss in that
region amounting to 500,000 sheep and 4,000,000 pounds
of wool. The President of the New Mexico College of
Agriculture, as a result of a survey of conditions in that
State, estimates an annual loss there of 3 per cent of the
cattle, or 34,000 head, and 165,000 sheep. A single wolf
killed by one of the Bureau hunters in southern New Mexico
was reported by stock-owners of that vicinity to have killed
during the preceding six months 150 head of cattle, valued

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 207

at not less than $5,000. In July, 1917, 2 male wolves were
killed in Wyoming which in May had destroyed 150 sheep
and 7 colts. Another pair of wolves killed near Opal, Wyo.,
were reported to have killed about $4,000 worth of stock a
year. Another Wyoming wolf, trapped in June, 1918, had
killed 30 cattle during the spring. These figures indicate
the destructive powers of predatory animals.

During the year ending June 30, 1919, the following num-
bers of predatory animals were taken by hunters under the
direction of the United States Biological Survey:

NCH Se raises arrotel sk ace A wid ars fo 584 BQ D-GATS Worle histecn iia shesicl& 4,123
OW OER. es Ce os ae ned 27,100 Tigmedis aa Mess iat y wt eine 43
MOURAIS Sa eh oaks sees 149 CHES SI o av hee iae enter sibel 81

In the case of especially destructive animals, exceptionally
skilled hunters and trappers are detailed to capture such
animals as rapidly as they are reported, and it is stated that
the success in capturing them has resulted in a great addi-
tion to the meat output of the ranges.

In response to my inquiries respecting the organization
of the Biological Survey of the United States Department
of Agriculture for the control of predatory animals, Dr. E.
W. Nelson, chief of the Bureau, has very kindly furnished
me with a memorandum giving full details of the manner in
which this important work is carried on, from which state-
~ment, which is dated March, 1917, the following account has
been prepared:

The infested area is divided into ten districts with an
inspector in charge of the work in each district, and an in-
spector at large is continually in the field co-ordinating and
supervising the entire work. The districts are as follows:

Oregon-Washington, Montana,
California-Nevada, Wyoming,
Idaho, Colorado,
Utah, New Mexico,

Arizona, Texas.

208 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

The actual destruction of the animals is accomplished
through hunters and trappers, at salaries of $75 per month,
with additional allowances in meritorious cases of $10 per
month for camp equipment, and $15 per month for each of
two horses, the hunter to pay his own expenses, including
subsistence for himself and horses. Almost all hunters
furnish one or more horses. The pay of hunters is rated on
their skill and the results secured, only the best receiving
the full $115 per month. They are not allowed to receive
bounties, and deductions are made for time lost. A careful
record is kept of the number and kind of animals taken by
each hunter as shown by reports, skins, scalps, and skulls
submitted.

Trapping with steel traps has been very successful, and
has the advantage of giving known results and preserving
for sale the skins of the animals taken. Beginning with the
methods known to the professional trapper, the policy of
the Bureau has been to adopt the best devices, develop new
methods, and discard in favour of new methods such prac-
tices as do not give satisfactory results. Annually the in-
spectors are called to some central point for conference with
the Bureau officials in charge of this work.

Poisoning individual animals is occasionally done to ad-
vantage where stock are killed and carcasses fed upon by
depredating animals. General poisoning campaigns have
proved very successful, but have the disadvantage that the
number of animals destroyed cannot be definitely deter-
mined, and the furs are not recovered. Strychnine capsules
are being used in these operations, and experiments are
being made with cyanide and other poisons. Hunting with
dogs has been carried on in an experimental way, but with-
out signal success.

The skins of all fur-bearing animals taken by the hunters
are cured and saved, being shipped to Washington from
time to time. They are sold by auction. It is estimated

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 209

that the receipts from these sales will aggregate 8 to 10 per
cent of the cost of operations, and the net proceeds are
turned into the United States Treasury.

In the annual report of the Biological Survey for the year
ending June 30, 1919, it is stated that a force of from 400
to 500 hunters is employed in the destruction of predatory
animals, under the direction of district inspectors in the
nine districts mentioned above. About one-fifth of these
are paid from co-operative funds provided by the States
or contributed by local organizations or individuals. The
net proceeds already received for the skins taken during
the year amount to $76,128.56.

The work of the United States Department of Agriculture
demonstrates very conclusively the success of the policy of
properly organized and systematic hunting by paid hunters,
working under the close direction of district inspectors, as
a means of destroying predatory animals over a large area,
and it affords an excellent object-lesson of what might be
done in Canada by the adoption of a similar policy.

LrEsseR PREDATORY MAMMALS

Lynzx.—The Canada lynx is found throughout the Do-
minion from Nova Scotia to British Columbia, and north-
_ ward as far as the limits of our northern forests. Richardson
states that it is found on the Mackenzie River as far north
as latitude 66°. It is too well known to need description,
but, as it is sometimes confused with the bobcat or bay
lynx of eastern North America by the uninitiated, it may
be pointed out that the Canada lynx is distinguished from
the latter animal by its lighter gray colour, the tuft of long
black hairs on the tips of its ears, and the large, hairy paws.

Its chief food is the varying hare or rabbit, and the close
relation between the periodic fluctuations of the rabbit and
those of the lynx is discussed in another chapter. It also

210 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

preys largely on the several species of grouse. The lynx
will kill foxes, and it is claimed that deer and caribou are
sometimes attacked.

Bobcat or Bay Lynx.—This close relative of the Canada
lynx is slightly smaller than the latter, and its fur is of a
dark-brown colour; it lacks the long black ear-tufts, and
only the upper side of the tip of the tail is coloured black.
It is confined to the east, and in Nova Scotia a distinct
variety, commonly called the wildcat, occurs. In many
places in Nova Scotia the wildcat is destructive to sheep,
for which reason it is destroyed whenever possible. Like
its near relative it is an enemy of ground-game such as
grouse.

Foxes.—All the species of foxes, particularly the red fox,
are destructive to our native game-birds.

PREDATORY BIRDS

The Great Horned Owl.—While most of the owls are bene-
ficial as the destroyers of noxious rodents, such as mice and
moles, the great horned owl is one of the most destructive
of the large predatory birds. The various subspecies of
great horned owl are found from Nova Scotia, where it is
known as the ‘‘cat-owl,”’ owing to the ear-like tufts of
feathers on its head, to British Columbia, and throughout
the northern forests to the limit of tree growth. Its home
is the heavily forested and unsettled regions. But when
its food supplies become reduced it migrates southward, and
during recent years there have been large numbers of these
birds killed in the most southern portions of its range. It
is a great enemy of grouse and other game-birds, and is
detested by the farmer on account of its destructive raids
on poultry.

Goshawk.—This hawk is undoubtedly the greatest de-
stroyer of game-birds of all the species of hawks, most of

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 211

which are either entirely or partially beneficial. In Nova
Scotia it is the commonest species of hawk, and it ranges
across Canada to British Columbia, where it is represented
by a Western subspecies. It normally resides in the forests
and woodland, from which it makes excursions to the open
country, and is especially fond of raiding the farmer’s poul-
try-yard with destructive effect. In its normal haunts it
preys upon the rabbit and grouse. When rabbits are abun-
dant these hawks increase in numbers, but with the peri-
odie disappearance of the rabbit they attack the grouse in
greater numbers. When the latter birds are reduced in
numbers through the depredations of these fierce birds, the
shortage of food drives the hawks farther south, and, as was
explained in discussing the scarcity of the different species
of grouse in the prairies, they prove to be one of the worst
enemies of our game-birds.

This species and the two species mentioned below are the
chief predatory enemies of our game-birds, and, inasmuch
as they destroy large numbers of game and insectivorous
birds, not to mention the great destruction of poultry that
they accomplish, their protection cannot be urged, and they
should be treated as noxious predatory animals. It is im-
portant, however, that they should be distinguished from
the many species of hawks that render considerable service
-to the farmer by destroying noxious rodents, such as gophers,
moles, and mice, and noxious insects, such as grasshoppers.

Cooper’s Hawk.—This predatory species is smaller than
the goshawk, and intermediate in size between it and the
sharp-shinned hawk. It is not common in eastern Canada,
and is more abundant in the West; in British Columbia it .
is generally distributed and tolerably common in the Lower
Fraser valley. It is a strong and rapid flyer, having a
quick, darting flight, and its boldness makes it a serious
enemy of poultry. It can be recognized by its barred tail,
about as long as its body, and somewhat rounded rather

212 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

than square at the end; the wings are bluntly rounded at
the end.

Sharp-shinned Hawk.—Throughout the Dominion this is
one of the commonest hawks wherever there is wooded coun-
try or brush. It is smaller than the Cooper’s hawk, but
resembles it in flight and habits. Its tail is square at the
end. It is a swift flyer and hunts keenly through the brush
and along the fences, preying upon the smaller birds. In-
asmuch as it is a great destroyer of insectivorous birds, its
protection is not only undesirable but its destruction should
be encouraged, provided care is taken to distinguish it from
useful species of hawks.

CHAPTER Ix

THE PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS OF OUR FUR-BEARING
ANIMALS

(CHARTS I TO V)

TuHrovuGHoutT the animal world we find that not only is
the abundance of the higher predatory animals dependent
upon the abundance of the lower forms upon which they
prey, or which may indirectly affect their food supply, but
this dependence may result in remarkable periodic fluctua-
tions in the numbers of the predatory forms. In the insect
world this phenomenon of rise and fall in abundance is well
known; a striking example occurred in 1915, when, owing
to the unusual prevalence of aphids, or plant-lice, through-
out Canada, wasps were extraordinarily abundant every-
where in the same region, the probable explanation being
that the wasps increased abnormally owing to the presence
of an unusual amount of food in the form of ‘‘honey-dew,”’
which is excreted by the plant lice. Similarly, the abun-
dance of certain species of our food fishes is affected by the
amount of food in-the shape of small crustacea, or small
fishes, in the sea, such food being variable in quantity.
For instance, Bullen* showed that, in the years 1903-1907,
there appeared to be a direct correlation between the num-
ber of mackerel taken during May and the abundance of
the small copepod crustacea.

Darwin’s illustration of the relation of cats to the abun-
dance of clover-seed is well known, but may be recalled.
Red clover depends on the visits of bumble-bees for its
fertilization. The abundance of bumble-bees in any dis-
trict depends very largely on the number of field-mice which

* Jour. Marine Biol. Assn., vol. VIII, p. 394, 1909.
213

214 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

feed upon the combs and nests of the bees. The number of
field-mice near villages and small towns is largely dependent
upon the number of cats, with the result that bumble-bees
are said to be more abundant near such places, with a con-
sequent increase in the clover crop.

When we study these phenomena as they occur in our
wild life, the dependence of the larger animals upon the
abundance of the smaller is very marked, and we discover
the significance of the well-known periodical increase and
decrease in the prevalence of many of the well-known mem-
bers of our wild life.

At the bottom of the scale are the numerous species of
mice and voles, which constitute the food of so many of
the large and small predatory animals. The observations
of Cabot* on the rise and fall in the abundance of mice, and
the effect on the larger animals, are of great interest in this
connection, as they were made in the same region, namely,
northern Labrador and the interior of Ungava peninsula,
and during consecutive years. When he first visited the
region in 1903 mice were not noticeably abundant. Cari-
bou had been abundant through the winter, and in early
July passed north in large numbers, close to the coast.
There were some of the large predatory birds, such as falcons.
Few ptarmigan were seen. Foxes, the most important fur-
bearers of the region, were fairly abundant. By 1904 there
had been a noticeable increase in the numbers of mice.
Hawks were more numerous. Ptarmigan were fairly nu-
merous. Many tracks of wolves were seen, chiefly along
the river banks, where mice occur. A wolverene that was
killed was full of mice. Hawks and owls occurred inland.
In 1905 the mice reached their maximum abundance.
Cabot states: ‘‘Sometimes two at a time could be seen in
the daylight. Low twigs and all small growth were riddled
by them. There was a tattered aspect about the moss and

* William B. Cabot, “In Northern Labrador,” Boston, 1912.

FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 215

ground in many places not quite pleasant to see.”” Falcons
were visibly more numerous and owls had increased some-
what. A bear killed on the journey was full of mice.
Foxes were abundant, but caribou were still scarce. On
the next visit to Labrador in the spring of 1906 the mice
had disappeared with the snow. The accompanying change
in the wild life was remarkable. ‘‘The falcon cliffs were
deserted, coast and inland.” Ptarmigan were very scarce.
In the previous years these game-birds had enjoyed some
respite owing to the abundance of mice, and their conse-
quent freedom from the depredations of the predatory
birds, but, with the disappearance of the mice, they were
harried to death. For the first time the hunting-cry of
wolves was heard at nights, as they sought the caribou in
the absence of the more abundant smaller animals. As
Cabot says: ‘‘The bearing of the mouse situation on the
human interests of the region is easy to see. It affected all
the game, food game and fur. The abundance of mice
tended to build up the ptarmigan, which are of vital impor-
tance in the winter living of the Indians through the whole
forested area to the Gulf. Likewise it built up the caribou
herd by providing easier game than they for the wolves.”

The periodic increase and decrease in the abundance of
our wild life has a very important economic aspect. It not
only affects the life of the Indians and other inhabitants of
the north, but also affects the output of furs, the chief
natural resource of the greater part of the country. The
extent to which the fur trade fluctuates is strikingly shown
in the fur returns from year to year. Through the kindness
of Mr. W. H. Bacon, late fur commissioner of the Hudson’s
Bay Company, I have been able to obtain the fur returns
of that company covering a long period of years, from 1821
to 1914. As this is the chief company obtaining furs in
Canada, with posts distributed throughout the country,
and particularly in the north, where wild-life conditions are

216 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

practically uninfluenced by the agricultural development of
the country, their returns may be taken, not only as an in-
dex of the total quantity of furs of the different species of
fur-bearing animals taken in Canada in any year, but also
as a fair index of the relative abundance of these species.
From these figures the accompanying charts have been pre-
pared, and they illustrate very graphically the abundance
from year to year of the chief species of fur-bearers and their
periodic increase and decrease.*

Varying Hare or Rabbit.—If we study the data respecting
the increase and decrease in abundance of the common rab-
bit or varying hare (Lepus americanus), which is widely dis-
tributed throughout the country, especially in the north,
we find ample confirmation of the well-known facts respect-
ing the abundance from year to year of this common food
and fur-bearing animal. Their capacity for increase in
numbers is very great.

The females usually begin to breed when a year old.
They bear two or three, and sometimes four to six young
at a time, and are said to breed two or three times in a
season, the period of gestation being about thirty days.
MacFarlane states: ‘‘The litter usually consists of three or
four; but when in the ‘periodic’ increase, females are known
to have as many as six, eight, or even ten at a time, and
then gradually return to three or four.”

If we take the periods of maximum abundance of the rab-
bit, according to the Hudson’s Bay Company’s returns, we
find they occurred in the following years:

1845, 1854, 1857, 1865, 1877, 1888, 1897, and 1905, or in
other words in cycles of 9, 3, 8, 12, 11, 9, and 8,
giving an average periodic cycle of 8.5 years.

* MacFarlane, in his ‘‘Mammals of the Northwest Territories’ (1905), a

memoir to which I make frequent reference, and E. T. Seton, in his book

“The Arctic Prairies,” have called attention to these fur returns and the
indications they afford of the fluctuations in number of the fur-bearing animals.

lA
46.48 4000008
WOLVERENE

LYNX, AND WOLVERENE

A

IN CANAD

PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS OF RABBIT

218 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

This approaches very closely the prevailing popular idea
of a seven-year cycle for this animal. They are not gener-
ally equally abundant throughout the country in the same
year, the abundance is usually regional in character, and
the period of general abundance would cover several years.
The fur returns indicate the year of the average maximum
abundance. The regional character of the abundance of
the rabbit will be shown from the following data of various
observers, which Seton* has collected regarding the periods
of increase in different regions of Manitoba.

Lake of the Woods, 1856, followed by a plague in 1857
(Hind).

Upper Assiniboine, 1857 (Hind).

Savanne Portage (70 miles west of Fort William), 1858-9
(Hind).

Portage La Loche, 1875 (J. Macoun).

Shoal Lake and Stony Mountain, 1883-4, followed by a
plague in 1885 (J. H. Cadham).

Red River and Assiniboine Valley, all the poplar country
in the basins of Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis,
Pembina, Riding, Duck and Turtle Mountains,
1886-7, followed by a plague in 1887.

Shoal Lake, Manitoba, 1893-4 (W. G. Tweddell).

Central Manitoba, 1894.

In other parts of Canada, Seton records the following:

Northern British Columbia, 1872 (J. Macoun).

Mackenzie River Valley, 1903-4. Preble also describes
the enormous abundance of rabbits in this region
during the same period, when, according to Seton,
there were ‘‘millions in 1904, none at all-in 1907.”

The last period of abundance reached its climax in the
Northwest in 1914. When I visited the Rocky Mountains

*“Tife Histories of Northern Mammals,” vol. I, pp. 640-641, 1909.
+E. A. Preble, ‘A Biological Investigation of the Athabaska—Mackenzie
Region,” North American Fauna, No. 27, Washington, 1908.

FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 219

region of northern Alberta, in 1915, signs of the recent
abundance of rabbits were everywhere. For miles along the
trails the young growth of poplar had been barked and
girdled by the hordes of rabbits during the previous winter.
But hardly a rabbit was to be seen; they had almost com-
pletely disappeared.

The cause of the sudden plague which kills off the rab-
bits when they reach their greatest abundance so that the
whole countryside is overrun with them is probably of a
multiple nature. The chief factor is undoubtedly over-
crowding. This results in an epidemic of various parasitic
diseases to which rabbits are susceptible, particularly one
of bacterial origin, which speedily spread throughout the
rabbit population of the affected territory.

Constituting as it does the chief food of many of the
larger fur-bearing animals, such as lynx, fox, and wolf, the
rabbit is one of the most important factors in determining
the abundance of these animals.

Lynx.—The lynx is primarily dependent upon ie rabbit
as a source of food, although it also devours mice, grouse,
ducks, stranded ith young deer, or sheep. Its periods of
abundance, therefore, correspond with those of the rabbit.
Preble states that the winter of 1903-04 was remarkable
for the abundance of lynxes throughout the upper Mackenzie
_ region, this abundance of lynxes being accounted for by the
enormous numbers of rabbits in the same region at that
time. Following the last outbreak of rabbits to which I
have referred, lynxes were very abundant, according to the
reports that I have received, during the winters of 1914 and
1915. When the rabbits had disappeared there was a re-
markable southern migration of lynxes throughout the
northwest, and, during the winters of 1916 and 1917, they
were taken in districts in the Prairie Provinces, whither
they had migrated in search of food in more southerly locali-
ties than they have been recorded as visiting for many

220 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

years. Consequently enormous numbers of them have been
killed during the last few years, and this no doubt accounts
for the greater adoption of the lynx as a fur since 1916.

The regularity of the periodic increase of the lynx is most
strikingly shown in the accompanying chart of the fur re-
turns of the Hudson’s Bay Company. The first year of
abundance, according to these records, occurred in 1831.
After that we find the following years of maximum abun-
dance: 1839, 1848, 1859, 1868, 1878, 1888, 1897, 1906.
Personal records indicate that 1916 was the last year of
maximum abundance. The cycles, therefore, occurred in
periods of 8, 9, 11, 9, 10, 10, 9, 9, and 10 years, giving an
average periodic cycle of 9.5 years. It will be noted, when
these years of maximum abundance are compared with those
of the rabbit, that the lynx becomes most abundant, or
rather the greatest number were caught, during the year of
maximum rabbit abundance to three and four years later.
This is what one would expect. The capture of large num-
bers of lynx during the two or three years after the disap-
pearance of the rabbits is accounted for by the ease with
which these animals, greatly.increased in numbers on ac-
count of the period of rabbit abundance, can be captured
in snares owing to the absence of their chief article of food.
It should be pointed out that a year of greatest abundance,
according to the fur returns, would probably follow a year
of greater abundance than the fur returns actually show,
owing to the fact that when the natural food, rabbits or
mice, is most abundant, the animals are harder to trap than
when these food animals have suddenly disappeared. The
decrease in the number of lynx after a period of abundance
is no doubt due to the disappearance of the rabbit. This
rule applies to all predatory animals; their abundance or
scarcity is governed directly by the available food supply,
whether the animal be a predacious insect or a predacious
- mammal.

oho

RED FOX

0 PREECE GEG oECLLELrre

WHITE FOX

, BLACK, AND WHITE FOX

PERIODIC FLUCTUATION OF RED, CROSS

222 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Foxes.—The red fox and its colour phases, cross fox,
black fox, and silver fox, exhibit marked periodic cycles, al-
though they are not so pronounced as those of the lynx.
This is probably accounted for by the fact that, while the
fox feeds upon the rabbit, especially when the latter animal
is abundant, it also feeds largely on mice or voles, supple-
menting this diet with game-birds of various kinds. If we
had records of the years of mouse abundance we should
probably find, judging from the field observations of Cabot,
that have already been given, Preble, and others, that there
was a correlation between the abundant years of mice and
the abundance of foxes.

The fluctuations in the numbers of foxes is well known to
trappers and traders. The period of comparative abundance
may extend over a greater number of years than is the case
with the lynx; this is indicated in the diagrams by the fact
that the difference in numbers between the years of abun-
dance and the years of scarcity is not so great in the case
of the fox as in the case of the lynx, and the reason is
probably to be found in the fact that the fox is not so de-
pendent upon a rabbit diet.

As the three varieties of foxes—red, cross, and black—
have similar feeding-habits and inhabit the same territo-
ries, so far as the forested regions of Canada are concerned,
it would be natural to assume that their fluctuations in num-
bers would closely correspond. The Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany’s returns show that this is the case, as will be seen
by the diagram. The years of maximum abundance were
as follows:

Red fox: 1859, 1868, 1878, 1888, 1898, 1907.

Cross fox: 1859-1860, 1868-9, 1878, 1888, 1897, 1907.
Black fox: 1859-1860, 1869, 1878, 1888, 1897, 1907.

The cycles, therefore, appeared in the following periods of
years:

FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 223

Red fox: 9, 10, 10, 10, 9, giving an average periodic cycle
of 9.6 years.

Cross fox: 9, 9, 10, 9, 10, giving an average periodic cycle
of 9.4 years.

Black fox: 10, 9, 10, 9, 10, giving an average periodic cycle
of 9.6 years.

By comparing these years with the years of maximum
abundance of lynx and rabbit, it will be found that they
coincide fairly closely.

The white arctic fox and its colour phase the blue fox
inhabit the northern Barren Grounds and the islands of the
Arctic Sea in the summer. In the winter many of them
wander southward in search of food. This species is re-
ported to make caches of food for winter consumption.
MacFarlane states that ‘‘Captain Lockwood found several
fox lairs. In one hidden rock nook he found fifty dead
lemmings, in others (sand and earth covered) there were
from twenty to thirty lemmings, while in a hollow he dis-
covered a cache containing part of a polar hare and the
wings of a young brent goose and the usual lemming. The
lairs appeared to be occupied from year to year.”

The numbers appear to fluctuate very considerably over
shorter periods than is the case with the more southerly
red fox and its colour phases. ‘The Hudson’s Bay Company’s
returns give the following years of maximum abundance:

1856, 1861, 1864, 1869, 1873, 1878, 1884, 1888, 1892, 1896,
1899, 1903, 1907, 1911.

The periodic cycles accordingly covered the following num-~
ber of years:
5, 3, 5, 4, 5, 6,.4, 4, 4, 3, 4, 4, 4.

The average periodical cycle occurred in 4.2 years; 4 years
was the actual length of the periodic cycle in the majority
of the periods.

FISHER

1855

ry 1895

100,000

50,000

AND FISHER

S OF WOLF, MARTEN,
IN CANADA

PERIODIC FLUCTUATION

FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 225

The periods of maximum abundance of the blue phase
of the arctic fox correspond in almost every case with those
of the white phase, so no special reference to these is neces-
sary. /

Wolves.—When the fluctuations in numbers of the larger
predatory animals, such as the wolf, are studied it is found
that they do not show a very regular or marked periodicity.
This is no doubt accounted for by the wide range of their
food, the grey wolf feeding on all forms of herbivorous
animals, from a mouse to a moose, and the prairie wolf or
coyote being a very general feeder, including in its diet not
only larger animals such as antelope or sheep, but even in-
sects such as locusts, and also berries. When mice or rab-
bits are plentiful wolves will take their share of such abun-
dant food, but the fact that they can also satisfy their
hunger with deer, caribou, or moose prevents any marked
decrease in their numbers when the smaller rodents are
killed off. In fact, if we examine the diagrams of rabbit
and wolf returns of the Hudson’s Bay Company (the wolf
returns include both grey wolf and coyote) we shall find
that in a number of instances the greatest number of wolves
were taken in years of rabbit scarcity, and when rabbits
were at their maximum the wolf returns were low. The
greater difficulty of trapping wolves during periods of rab-
- bit abundance may have something to do with this condition
of affairs, but it is in striking contrast to the cases of the
lesser carnivorous fur-bearers, the lynx and red foxes. In
the early days when the buffalo roamed the prairies the
wolves found food in plenty, and the returns from about
1840 onwards until the buffalo began to decrease in num-
bers showed no great increase or decrease. But when the
buffalo was gradually exterminated the numbers of wolves
fell to a low level, and since 1879 we find a slight, though
nevertheless noticeable, periodical increase every ten years,
the years of maximum abundance being 1888, 1898, and 1908.

226 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

While the difference between maximum and minimum
abundance does not appear to be great, it is not unlikely
that there is a distinct natural periodic cycle in the abun-
dance of wolves.

Marten.—After the lynx the marten shows the most pro-
nounced periodic fluctuations of all our native mammals.
MacFarlane states: ‘‘This is probably the most constant of
the ‘periodic’ fur-bearing animals, whose presence in con-
siderable numbers is very largely dependent upon a great
abundance of hares or rabbits, though mice also form an
important item of marten diet... . In years of plenty,
the marten is very numerous throughout the entire northern
forest region; but it is not uniformly so at the same time
in every section of the country all over the immense terri-
tories covered by the Hudson’s Bay Company’s trading
operations. When it is abundant or scarce, say in the
northern and western departments, it will generally be found
that there is an important and corresponding increase or
decrease in the southern and Montreal departments. The
natives maintain that lynxes and martens migrate from the
north and west to the east and south, and that when they
have attained their highest in numbers for several seasons
the great bulk (no section is ever totally devoid of mar-
tens) of those who escape capture resume the return march
until the next period of protracted migration. It must be
admitted that many old fur traders have come to enter-
tain similar views from their own personal experience and
observation. Of course there are post, district and de-
partmental fluctuations in annual results, caused by local
epidemics among the hunters and other relative reasons.”’
That the migration theory is widely held by fur traders is
further shown by the statement of Mr. T. K. MacDonald
of Winnipeg, after thirty-five years’ experience as a chief
trader of the Hudson’s Bay Company, quoted by Seton.*

*“Vife-Histories of Northern Mammals,”’ vol. II, p. 907,

FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 227

He says: ‘‘I think there is sufficient proof that they do mi-
grate. A question annually put to the Indians returned
from the woods in summer or fall was, ‘What signs of marten
have you seen?’ and where few of these animals may have
been seen in the previous winter, I would be told ‘They are
travelling north, south, east or west,’ as the case might be,
and so definite was the knowledge that these Indians would
go that winter to head off the wanderers, and they never
failed to come in contact with them. These movements
of large bodies of the marten go on in summer till the severe
weather sets in, beginning again in March and continuing,
so far as the males are concerned, till such time as the snow
is not fit to travel on; and then on again during the summer.
It is accepted beyond cavil by all northerners—that is,
Hudson’s Bay hunters—that the hare, lynx, and marten do
migrate, and the fluctuation in their numbers is not con-
sidered to be caused by epidemics, save in the case of the
hare. The rabbit is always numerous where lynx and mar-
ten are plentiful, and it is looked upon as a sine qua non by
hunters and traders that it is the following up the rabbit
and hare that causes the migrations—that the migration is,
in fact, quest of food.”

That the migration of the marten and of the lynx is caused
by the quest of food is a fact that cannot be controverted;
_ the need of food is the explanation of the migratory move-
ments of most animals, whether they occur among the in-
sects, fishes, birds, or mammals. After the disappearance
of rabbits in the northern woods the lynx and marten, in-
creased in numbers, seek food elsewhere. Likewise the
predatory birds such as hawks and owls migrate southward.
But it is important that this migratory tendency should not
be confused with the phenomenon of the periodic fluctua-
tion. Migration is one of the earliest and most popular ex-
planations of the disappearance of a species of animals, but
like many popular ideas it is not founded on fact. That

228 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

migration is not a cause of the periodic fluctuation is proved
by a study of the total fur returns for the whole territory
covered by the Hudson’s Bay Company. These figures
show that while local migratory movements may occur, the
periodic fluctuations are general for the entire territory,
and occur with remarkable regularity.

According to the fur returns of the Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany the years in which marten was most abundant were:

1827, 1837, 1846-47, 1856, 1866, 1875, 1886, 1895, 1903.
The periodic fluctuations occurred in cycles of
10, 9, 10, 10, 9, 11, 9 and 8 years,

giving an average periodic cycle of 9.5 years.

If we compare the years of maximum abundance of the
marten with those of the rabbit we find that the years of
maximum marten abundance in 1846, 1856, and 1866 oc-
curred one year after the maximum rabbit abundance, the
years of maximum abundance in 1875, 1886, 1895, and
1903 preceded by two years the years of maximum rabbit
abundance, although they occurred during the period when
rabbits in the aggregate were on the increase, and had
almost attained the maximum.

A study of the chart illustrating the fluctuations of mar-
ten reveals another interesting feature, namely, the absence
from about 1875 onwards of a very marked regularity of the
curves of increase and decrease, such as occurred previous to
that year. This, I believe, is accounted for by the intro-
duction of artificial factors of various kinds which affect
the marten population in different parts of the country,
and I am inclined to believe that the greater destruction of
the forests by fire and other causes, which has undoubtedly
occurred since 1875, has been mainly responsible for this
very noticeable change in the fluctuation of this species of
fur-bearer.

FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 229

The marten not only feeds upon the rabbit but it also
feeds extensively on mice, and the fluctuations in the abun-
dance of the latter animals would no doubt influence the
abundance of the marten. In addition its omnivorous diet
includes other small rodents, birds and their eggs, insects,
frogs, and such vegetable products as nuts and berries.
But its chief diet would appear to consist of rabbits, mice,
and birds.

Fisher.—The largest of our martens, namely, the fisher,
is not abundant in any part of its range, which extends
throughout our northern forests, and during the last fifty
years the number of fisher taken annually is little more
than half the number taken in years previous. Like its
smaller relative the marten, the fisher shows marked peri-
odic fluctuations in numbers, as will be seen from the ac-
companying chart of the returns of the Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany. The absence of a very marked difference in numbers
between the years of maximum and minimum abundance is
probably due to the fact that fisher is not at any time so
abundant as other animals which display such a marked
difference between the years of maximum and minimum
abundance.

The records show that the years of maximum abundance
of the fisher were:

1840, 1850, 1860, 1870, 1879, 1890, 1898, 1908.

The extraordinary regularity of the periodic fluctuations
which occurred in cycles of 10, 10, 10, 9, 11, 8, and 10
years is very striking in this animal, which has an average
periodic cycle of 9.7 years. The slight deviation from the
regular ten-year cycle from 1870 onwards, is probably due
to disturbances in the country of its environment.

It is of interest to note that the periodic cycles of the
fisher, while remarkably regular, are apparently indepen-
dent of the periodic increases of the rabbit, with the increases

230 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

of which the numbers of the marten are, to a large extent,
correlated. This would indicate that a predatory animal
such as the fisher, which feeds on all kinds of mammals,
including the porcupine, birds and their eggs, fish, frogs,
and wild fruits, is subject to periodic fluctuations inde-
pendent of the fluctuations of any one kind of diet.

Mink.—The mink is one of our commonest fur-bearing
animals, and a study of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s fur
returns shows that it is not only subject to fairly regular
periodic fluctuations, but that there has not been any
marked diminution in their numbers. The years of maxi-
mum abundance were:

1846, 1858, 1869, 1878, 1885, 1897, 1903. and probably
1914.

The periodic fluctuations occurred, therefore, in cycles
of 12, 11, 9, 7, 12, 6, and 11 years, giving an average periodic
cycle of 9.7 years. While the chart shows a fairly regular
aggregate increase, the years of maximum abundance lack
the precise regularity that we have seen in many of the
animals already discussed.

The food of the mink consists primarily of fish, muskrat,
and rabbit. We know very little about the fluctuations of
the fish portion of the diet, but a comparison of the periods
of greater abundance shows some correlation with the years
of abundance of rabbit.

Skunk.—The periodic fluctuations of the skunk are shown
in the accompanying chart, and, while the cycles are not
regular throughout, they indicate that this animal is sub-
ject to very distinct periodic fluctuations in numbers.
Feeding mainly on an insect diet composed chiefly of grass-
hoppers during the summer months, supplemented by a
diet of mice, snakes, and other small animals during the
rest of the year, the diet of the skunk is of too general a
character to permit the correlation of its abundance with
any particular class of diet.

10,006

w
a
2

1830

1835

1840

1845

{850

1860

{870

1880

85

1890

(895

1905

1910

AND SKUNK

OTTER,

K

PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS OF MIN

232 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Muskrat.—The muskrat appears to be subject to peri-
odic fluctuations, but the conditions which affect the abun-
dance of this animal would tend to affect the regularity of
such fluctuations. Excessively wet seasons would cause un-
usual flooding of the marshes; or an extremely dry season,
especially if severe frost followed, would cause wide-spread
mortality among the muskrats, thus affecting their subse-
quent abundance.

When we examine the fluctuations of such animals as
the wolverene, the black bear, the raccoon, the otter, and
the beaver, we find that there are no distinct fluctuations
shown by these animals. There are fluctuations, it is true,
but they are irregular in character and not sufficiently pre-
cise to warrant our regarding them as being of a periodic
nature.

Conclusions—From the foregoing discussion it will be
seen that we may divide the animals considered into three
main groups. First, the herbivorous rodents such as mice
and rabbits, which are very prolific and increase in numbers
until they reach an abundance which causes overcrowding,
when an epidemic of disease almost wipes them out and
their numbers rapidly decrease to a minimum. Second,
we have the numerous predatory animals which depend for
their subsistence either directly or indirectly upon the mice
and rabbits. These animals exhibit fairly regular periodic
fluctuations in numbers, their abundance being correlated
with the abundance of the animals upon which they feed,
although, as we pointed out in the case of the fisher, there
may be a distinct periodic fluctuation which does not appear
to be directly related to the fluctuation in the numbers of
any particular food animal. Finally, we have the animals
that feed on a mixed or exclusive diet of insects, vegetable
products, fish, or miscellaneous diet, that do not show any
marked periodic fluctuations.

The economic value of this study in enabling us to pre-

20
25
830
835
840
45
850
1855
1860
1865
870
1875
1880
1985
890
895
1900
1905
i910
514

9 COCO
BLACK BEAR

15,000

10,000

5,000

SP=a4n852— | 0

150,000

100,000

60,000

AND

RACCOON,

PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS OF BLACK BEAR

BEAVER

234 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

dict to a large extent the years of abundance of many of our
important fur-bearing animals is sufficient to warrant a
more careful and intensive study of these phenomena and the
underlying causes. Is the decrease in abundance due to
starvation, owing to the disappearance of the main article
of diet, or does a decrease in the food supply affect the fer-
tility of the predatory species? According to MacFarlane,
the females are said to be more prolific when the numbers
of the animals constituting the main food are on the in-
crease. Does the overfeeding consequent upon the great
abundance of food affect, in an adverse manner, the repro-
ductive powers of the predatory species? All these are
problems which demand further close study in the field.
It is hoped that such studies, extending over a number
of years, may be undertaken by competent investigators
in the future, as such a knowledge of the causes of these
fluctuations is essential to an adequate understanding of a
subject having economic possibilities of a very high order.

CHAPTER X
RESERVES FOR GAME AND WILD LIFE IN CANADA

UnbeER the peculiar conditions that exist on the North
American continent, where the opening up of enormous
areas of land by agricultural development, the penetration
of virgin forest by railroads, lumbermen, and prospectors,
and the reclamation of the wilderness have led to wide-
spread destruction of the haunts of our wild life, with a
consequent disappearance of the greater portion of it, other
measures than the promulgation of game laws, which at
the best are difficult to enforce completely, are necessary
to insure the preservation of what wild life remains. Of
such protective measures by far the most important is the
establishment of wild-life reserves, refuges, or sanctuaries
in which the native mammals and birds are protected.
Such wild-life reserves should include a sufficient area to
provide ample natural summer and winter range for the
wild life that they are intended to protect. They should
be, and as a rule are, unsuitable for agricultural develop-
ment. Nor should they include mining or other commer-
cial properties that are likely to interfere with their purpose.
So far as is possible the boundaries of such reserves should
be well defined, and the necessary steps should be taken to
secure within the reserve areas the required protection to
the wild life they contain, and all protective measures
should be rigidly enforced.

THE NATIONAL PARKS

We have reason to be proud of the withdrawal from settle-
ment and establishment by the Dominion Government of
extensive tracts of land as national parks, for the purpose,

235

236 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

not only of preserving areas of incomparably magnificent
scenery in which recreation may be sought by our people,
but also of protecting the wild life that such areas contain.
In most cases the double function is combined; in other
cases areas have been reserved for the sole purpose of pro-
tecting our wild life.

As the Dominion Government only ‘controls the crown-
lands in the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Al-
berta, and the areas known as the “Railway Belt” and
“‘Peace River Block”’ in British Columbia, the Dominion
parks are restricted to such provinces. In fact, these parks
are mainly in the Rocky Mountain region of Alberta, the
management of the wild-life reserves in the greater portion
of these western provinces having been left to the provin-
cial governments, as will be shown subsequently. The
Dominion parks are administered by the Parks branch of
the Department of the Interior, under the direction of the
Commissioner of Dominion Parks.

All the Dominion Parks are absolute preserves for wild
life, hunting being strictly prohibited within their borders,
and fishing is allowed under special regulations (see p. 275).

Jasper Park.—Jasper Park is the largest of the Dominion
parks. It was established by Order in Council of September
14, 1907, and comprises an area of approximately 4,400
square miles. Within its confines are to be found magnifi-
cent ranges of mountains and incomparable peaks, one of
the most beautiful of which is Mount Edith Cavell (11,033
feet), which was named in honour of that brave English
nurse who died a martyr to German brutality, of which this
mountain will be a lasting reminder. The park affords un-
excelled and extensive natural range for practically all the
big-game animals. Mountain sheep and goats are increasing
in numbers, grizzly and black bears are not uncommon,
and will multiply with the absolute protection they now
enjoy. Moose were abundant before the advent of the

RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 237

two transcontinental railroads which traverse the park,
and, although large numbers were killed during the con-
struction of these railroads, they will undoubtedly increase.
Wapiti or elk were formerly found in the wooded valleys,
and it is hoped that on account of their protection and in-
crease in the region south of the park they will repopulate
their former range to the north. Deer and beaver are in-
creasing in abundance. Caribou may be expected to bene-
fit from the protection now given to the area which includes
and adjoins excellent caribou range, including the chief
haunts of the black mountain caribou (p. 63). Wild fowl
also occur in large numbers, and excellent breeding-places
are afforded by the extensive marshes.

We may confidently look forward to the time when this
great area will be one of the best-stocked wild-life reserves
on the North American continent, and a source of pride
and pleasure to the tired city-dwellers, who visit it for rec-
reation and to study our wild life under natural condi-
tions.

The Rocky Mountains Park.—This is the oldest of the
Dominion Parks. It was established in 1887, two years
after the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. It
embraces an area of 2,751 square miles, and includes some
of the finest mountain, forest, and lake scenery in the Rocky
Mountains. On its mountain ranges mountain sheep and
goats are increasing in numbers. So abundant are the sheep
that it is no uncommon sight for visitors to see, during the
summer months, a flock of over thirty ewes and lambs on
one of the main automobile roads which traverse the park.

In April, 1919, the superintendent reported that on the
motor road west 375 mountain sheep, 10 goats, and 16 deer
were seen within ten miles of Banff. The increase of moun-
tain sheep in this park has been very noticeable, and is in-
dicated by the following extracts from reports made by the
wardens early in 1919:

238 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Counted fifty-two mountain sheep on top of Cuthead Mountain.

Saw seventy-one sheep and twelve deer near Massive.

Found sheep in large numbers in unusually fine condition for the time
of the year.

Saw big bunch of sheep near the Three Sisters.

All wild animals are increasing. Black bears occasionally
become a nuisance on account of their visits to the garbage-
cans of the summer residences, and during the winter the
deer overcome their natural shyness and may be seen con-
stantly in the streets of Banff. Excellent natural paddocks
have been constructed near Banff, in which buffalo, wapiti,
mountain sheep, goat, and deer are confined for the benefit
of those who are unable to track these animals in their
natural range in the park. These paddocks at the present
time* contain 8 buffalo, 10 moose, 27 wapiti, 19 Rocky
Mountain sheep, and 6 Rocky Mountain goats. It is pro-
posed to release a number of the wapiti from their commodi-
ous paddock in order that they may repopulate what for-
merly constituted the natural range of the wapiti. This
area, together with Jasper and Waterton Lakes Parks,
will serve as unrivalled breeding-ground for the big-game
animals of the Rocky Mountains region, and the surplus
wild-life population will afford a constant supply of big-
game and fur-bearing animals for the adjacent unprotected
regions. This is one of the great advantages of such natural
reserves.

Waterton Lakes Park.—This is the third and most south-
erly of the Dominion Parks in the Rocky Mountain region
of Alberta. It now includes an area of 423 square miles in
the southwestern corner of the province, where it is con-
tiguous to the Glacier National Park, which was created by
the United States Government, the whole reserved area
forming a magnificent scenic and wild-life reservation. It
is a region of impressive mountains and lakes, with deeply

* June, 1919.

RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 239

carved valleys. The names of certain of these mountains,
such as Sheep and Black Bear Mountains, testify as to the
fauna within the park. Rocky Mountain sheep, and black
and grizzly bear, are comparatively plentiful, and both
black- and white-tailed deer abound and are increasing.

The following extracts from the diaries of the wardens,
early in 1919, furnish evidence of the increase that is taking
place in this park as a result of protection:

Saw between eighty and one hundred deer near Horseshoe basin.
Two hundred deer were within a mile of Cabin all through bad weather.
Saw seventy-five deer about two miles up Pass Creek.

While going up Pass Creek I saw seventy goats, about sixty sheep,
and between fifty and sixty deer. I also saw ten or twelve deer at the
Superintendent’s office; was within two or three rods of them; they are
quite tame.

The acting superintendent observes in April, 1919:

It is noted that elk are making their appearance in this district, and
Warden Simpson also tells me he has observed moose tracks in here.

Elk Island Park.—About three miles from Lamont, Al-
berta, on the main line of the Canadian Northern Railway,
a small reservation known as Elk Island Park has been
established for the preservation, originally, of the wapiti or
_ elk—but now other members of our wild life are included.
The area is mostly wooded, the woods in the north end of
the park being very thick, and suitable for moose and deer;
in the southern section it is more rolling, less brushy, and
suitable for buffalo. It contains Island Lake, a beautiful
sheet of water about 1,040 acres in extent, and studded
with fourteen wooded islands, on one of which a colony of
cranes nest. The present estimated population (1919) of
the larger animals in this park is as follows:

PWNERIO Ete og Aw ees 195 AGS Sg aia A a rand ae eer Ale 106
Lhe NEES PS oS es ee 57 1 ESET Vee eR ane A a 111

240 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Duck and other wild fowl are abundant during the
summer.

Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alta—In the account that has
been given of the buffalo (p. 134) this park has already been
described. The entire area consists of hilly and rolling
country, with numerous lakes and bluffs, the largest lake
being Jameson Lake. These lakes furnish splendid breed-
ing-places for innumerable wild fowl, and when visiting the
park I have been very strongly impressed with its unusual
suitability as a wild-life reserve. The fact that most of the
land is not adapted for agricultural development makes it
all the more fitted for a reserve.

In June, 1919, the population of the large animals was as
follows:

Buffelon: Petes eee ereietene 3,900. ' Mulle.deer’:).).1,..)s:clits bie neem 420
IVLOOHE A \avitec ak hess kita: tee evant: 22 Antelope... iis a tees calc Aenea 2
VATA Cicee lout cha utente ats 106

Antelope Park, at Foremost, in southern Alberta, has
already been described in the account of the antelope (p.
71), of which there are now (1919) seventy-two* head in
the reserve.

Yoho Park.—Yoho Park comprises an area of about 560
square miles on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains.
It is divided into almost equal parts by the Kicking Horse
River. Including as it does some of the most beautiful
scenery to be found in the Rocky Mountain region, its chief
value lies in its scenic attractions. But nevertheless it
contains admirable natural feeding-grounds for the typical
animals of this region.

Glacier Park.—Situated amid the snow-capped peaks of
the Selkirk Mountains, Glacier Park comprises an area of
about 468 square miles. Lofty mountains, deep valleys
clothed with dense forests of giant cedar, Douglas fir, hem-

* In February, 1921, there were about one hundred antelope in the reserve.

RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 241

lock, spruce, and cottonwood, furnish scenery of great
beauty, and at the same time the wild life enjoys absolute
protection.

Revelstoke Park.—In 1914 an area of ninety-five square
rniles north of the city of Revelstoke was set aside as a
Dominion park. It includes Mount Revelstoke and other
peaks, and is situated in a region noted for grizzly bear.
Since its establishment the grouse have increased in abun-
dance.

Point Pelee National Park.—Through the efforts of the
Commission of Conservation and the Advisory Board on
Wild Life Protection an Order in Council was passed in
1918 creating Point Pelee, Ontario, as a national park for
preservation of wild life and particularly the migratory
birds. In the annual report of the Commission for 1918 this
park, which comprises an area of about twenty-five square
miles, is described by me as follows (p. 129):

‘It is a triangular point of land in Essex county, extend-
ing for about nine miles into Lake Erie and measuring
about six miles across the base of the point. The peculiari-
ties of the flora and fauna and the desirability of such a
reservation are fully discussed in a memorandum submitted
to the Commission by Mr. P. A. Taverner, ornithologist of
the Geological Survey, in 1915 and published in the Sixth
_ Annual Report of the Commission, pp. 304-307. Not only
is it the most southerly point of Canada, geographically,
and in the character of its birds, trees and plants, but it
constitutes one of the concentration points in the northern
and southern journeys of our migratory birds. In the
spring and in the autumn, enormous numbers of birds of
all species in their migratory journey to and from Canada
concentrate at this point, and its reservation, therefore,
would be:an important factor in ensuring the protection of
our migratory birds. The area includes a marsh several
square miles in extent which forms a favourite resort and

242 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

breeding place for wild fowl, but excessive shooting has re-
duced its value as a breeding place. Pine, oaks, red cedar,
black walnut, and hackberry grow in profusion on the nar-
row strip of land running down the west side of the point
and make it a tract of singular beauty to the lover of trees
and shady groves. Its scenic value, the southern nature
of its birds and plant life, its importance as a main route
for migratory birds and the exceptional opportunities it
affords for the protection and encouragement of wild fowl,
insectivorous and other birds, all combine to make it an
ideal area for a national reservation.”

From the foregoing account it will be seen that the Do-
minion National Parks comprise a total area of 8,917 square
miles. In this area the wild life is afforded absolute pro-
tection. It is difficult to express in words what this means
in relation to the perpetuation of our big game and fur-
bearing animals, game-birds, wild fowl, and other species of
our wild life, but the maintenance of such a policy is calcu-
lated to contribute more than anything else to the conserva-
tion of our wild life.

Even in those parks which have been established mainly
or entirely on account of the magnificent scenic attractions
within their confines, the wild life will play no small part in
contributing to the beauty of such scenery, for what forest
glade is not made more beautiful by the presence of a few
deer or wapiti, what mountainside is not rendered more
attractive to the eye by the presence of our magnificent
mountain sheep or agile goat? It is the presence of moun-
tain sheep that gives an added charm to the landscape, and
the decorative value of our wild life makes a special appeal to
the tired dwellers of our cities seeking refreshment in the
wild solitudes of our national and provincial parks.

Speaking in Ottawa in 1913 on the subject of our national
parks, His Royal Highness, the Duke of Connaught, said:
“T do not think that Canada realizes what an asset the na-

RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 243

tion possesses in the parks. These areas have been pre-
served from the vandal hand of the builder for the use and
enjoyment of the public, who may take their holidays there
and keep close to nature under the most comfortable condi-
tions, amassing a store of health which will make them
better able to cope with the strenuous life to which they
return after their vacation.”

PROVINCIAL RESERVES FOR GAME AND WILD LIFE

All the provinces of Canada with the exception of Prince
Edward Island and Nova Scotia have now established game
reserves for the protection of their game and fur-bearing
animals and wild life generally.

New Brunswick Game Reserve-—In New Brunswick such
excellent conditions existed for the creation of a game re-
serve in the central portion of the province, and the need
of such a means of maintaining an area where absolute
protection might be provided for wild life became so great,
that the Commission of Conservation actively promoted
the establishment of such a provincial reserve, and the pro-
posal received the unanimous approval of the sportsmen
and the strong support of the New Brunswick Guides’
Association.

It is gratifying, therefore, to be able to include the prov-
ince of New Brunswick among those provinces possessing
game reserves, for in the spring of 1919 the New Brunswick
government passed a ‘“‘Game Refuge Act,” providing for
the setting aside of a suitable tract of land not exceeding
400 square miles, ‘‘as a refuge for game animals, birds and
fish of the Province.” In this provincial game reserve the
law forbids trespassing, hunting, or trapping, and provision
is made for the protection of the timber and the prohibition
of fishing.

The tract of land selected as the New Brunswick Game

244 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Reserv’ lies in the northwestern part of the county of
Northumberland. It has a general width from east to west
of 16 miles and from north to south it is 27 miles long.
It embraces approximately 400 square miles of territory, in-
habited by moose, deer, caribou, and fur-bearing animals.
We hope that the provision of this reserve will assist in pre-
venting the disappearance of the caribou from New Bruns-
wick, an event which undoubtedly will occur within a
comparatively few years unless much greater protection is
afforded this animal.

Within the reserve are a number of lakes, the largest of
which are Serpentine and Mitchell Lakes, and rivers which
have their origin in the reserve flow into the Tobique,
Nipisiguit, and Miramichi Rivers. The protection of the
headwaters of such important rivers will not be the least of
the many useful functions this reserve will perform if it is
effectively administered.

QUEBEC

Gaspesian Forest, Fish, and Game Preserve.—In the cen-
tral region of the Gaspe Peninsula of Quebec an area of
about 25,000 square miles was set aside by the provincial
government in 1905 as a forest reservation, fish and game
preserve, and public park. It includes a section of heavily
timbered and hilly territory, in which numerous rivers, run-
ning north, east, and south into the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
have their origin. The regulations regarding the hunting
and fishing privileges are similar to those in force in the
Laurentides National Park.

Trembling Mountain Park.—About seventy miles north-
west of Montreal lies Trembling Mountain, the highest point
in the whole Laurentian range in this part of Canada, at-
taining a height of 2,474 feet above sea-level, and 1,713 feet
above the lake which lies at its foot. In 1894 this mountain

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hy

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a

. New Brunswick Game Reserve

. Laurentides National Park

S
3 As tiissini
iy ee

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. Port Joli Reserve for Wild
Geese, Nova Scotia

(Provincial reserve; cancelled
in 1920)

. Gaspesian Forest, Fish, and
Game Reserve, Quebec

(Provincial), Quebec

. Trembling Mountains Park
(Provincial), Quebec

. Algonquin National Park (Pro-
vincial), Ontario

. Quetico Forest and Game Re-
serve (Provincial), Ontario

. Point Pelee National Park (Do-
minion), Ontario

. Rondeau Provincial Park (Pro-
vincial), Ontario

. Bonaventure Island and Perce
Rock Bird Reserves (Domin-
ion and Provincial)

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RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 245

and adjoining land, to the extent of 14,750 acres, or about 23
square miles, was set aside as a special forest reserve. The
mountain is of great interest from a geological standpoint,
being ‘‘sculptured out of a great mass of gneiss, uniform in
character from base to summit’’ (F. D. Adams). The In-
dian name is manitouge sootana, meaning Spirits’ or Devils’
Mountain. Indians state that low rumbling noises fre-
quently proceed from it, and that it has sometimes been felt
to shake by those who have accidentally been upon it.
The Indian belief has established its French and English
names.

Laurentides National Park (Plate XVIII).—In 1895 an
area comprising 2,531 square miles of the wild, forest-clad
mountainous country north of the city of Quebec, and south-
east of Lake St. John, was set aside by the provincial gov-
ernment as ‘‘a forest reservation, fish and game preserve,
public park and pleasure ground.” Subsequently the area
was increased to about 3,700 square miles by the withdrawal
of further land from sale or settlement. The park contains
the headwaters of a number of rivers running north and
south of the mountains—‘‘ the blue Laurentian hills’’-—which
attain a height of about three thousand feet. On the west
it is approached by the Lake St. John Railway, on the south
by the old Jacques Cartier road, and on the east by the St.
Urbain road. |

The wild life in the park is abundant, and, owing to the
protection it receives, it is increasing, in spite of the depre-
dations of the wolves which, from time to time, prove a
serious menace, particularly to the caribou. In November
the caribou congregate in hundreds in the Grand Jardin des
Ours, the largest of the moss-covered barrens in the park,
embracing an area of about 100 square miles. Being timid
animals and harassed by wolves, they apparently migrated
to the northeast, but a few remained, so I am informed by
Mr. W. C. T. Hall, the superintendent of the park, and they

246 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

are slowly increasing in numbers. The wolves appear to
have migrated westward. Before the park was established
moose were almost exterminated, but, owing to the increased
protection given to them, they are now abundant, and it is
no uncommon experience to see three or four during a day’s
travel in the park. The antlers of these Quebec moose are
not as large as those of the New Brunswick animals, any
having a spread of over fifty-five inches being considered a
large head. Mr. Hall informs me that there are a few red
deer, a profusion of beaver, many black bear, and a full
complement of the fur-bearing animals. These facts I was
able to confirm when I visited the northern region of
the park in 1911. The lakes are teeming with splendid
trout.

The policy adopted in administering the hunting priv-
ileges in the park is an excellent one from the point of view
of conserving the wild life. On those borders of the park
that are most open to the inroads of poachers, such as the
eastern side, moderately sized areas are leased for five-year
periods to individuals or clubs. The lessee is required to
appoint a guardian approved by the department, and to have
the leased area adequately and properly protected. The
guardian thus becomes a useful servant of both his em-
ployer and the government. Formerly the game and fish
on the eastern and western borders of the park suffered se-
verely from the inroads of poachers, but, owing to the method
of leasing areas, a series of clubs and private holdings now
very effectively protect those borders. Not only has the
game in the leased areas increased, but it has spread into
the other areas, to the general benefit of the interior of the
park.

Some years ago in certain sections of the park bears had
nearly disappeared, now they are abundant; beaver were
almost exterminated, now they are a nuisance in certain
areas.

PLATE XVIII

LAC LA PECHE, QUEBEC, SHOWING THE HEADQUARTERS AND
SOUTHERN PORTION OF THE HUNTING-GROUNDS
OF THE LAURENTIAN CLUB

LAURENTIDES PARK, QUEBEC. ONE OF THE ENTRANCES
TO THE PARK AT THE JUNCTION OF THE JACQUES
CARTIER AND CACHE RIVERS

RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 247

ONTARIO

Algonquin Park.—This magnificent area of land covers
2,741 square miles, and was set aside as a provincial park in
1893. Within this area numerous rivers have their head-
waters, including the Madawaska and Petawawa, and the
whole region is densely timbered with pine, spruce, and
other conifers, and such hardwoods as poplar, birch, and
maple add the richness of their fall colourings to the scenery.
Innumerable lakes facilitate travel by canoe, and being
well stocked with fish they provide food for the traveller.

The wild life in the park is protected during the whole of
the year, with the result that such animals as moose, red
deer, black bear, wolf, lynx, fox, beaver, otter, fisher, mar-
ten, mink, muskrat, raccoon, skunk, porcupine, ermine,
squirrels, and lesser animals are very abundant. Wolves
are killed by the park rangers whenever possible, and a cer-
tain quantity of fur, principally beaver, mink, otter, etc.,
is taken on government account and sold in Toronto at
public sale. In 1917 the government realized over $2,400
from the sale of furs. With a view to supplementing the
meat supply, 650 deer were killed in 1917, weighing alto-
gether 66,215 pounds.

The regulations respecting the park have as their special
objects the prevention of fire, the maintenance of health,
the protection of timber and vegetation generally, and also
of fish and wild life, and the prevention of the pollution of
all waters in the park. Islands and parcels of land in the
park are leased for summer cottage sites and resort purposes;
not more than two acres are leased to one person, but areas
not exceeding five acres may be leased for summer schools
and other similar purposes. The leases are for twenty-five
years and are renewable. Hunting, trapping, or taking
game or other animals or birds of any kind is absolutely
prohibited. Wolves, bears, wolverenes, wildcats, foxes, or

248 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

hawks may be killed by special authority. Fishing is per-
mitted under license. In so far as hunting is prohibited, the
policy adopted in this park differs from that carried out in
the provincial parks of Quebec, where the lessees may hunt
in the areas leased and protected by them. In the case of
the Ontario parks the protection is absolute, and controlled
solely by the provincial government through its own park
rangers; in the Quebec parks the protection of the game is
carried out, as we have seen, on a co-operative basis.

Quetico Forest Reserve-—About ninety miles due west of
Fort William, in the Rainy River district, an extensive tract
of land adjoining the State of Minnesota was set aside as a
provincial park in 1918. The park, known as the Quetico
Forest Reserve, contains 1,560 square miles. On the south
it is bounded by the international boundary; the western
and northern boundaries include the Quetico River and
Long, Pickerel, and other lakes; the east side by the Thunder
Bay district. The area includes the territory known as
Hunters Island. It is well timbered, and a large portion
of it consists of long, sinuous lakes. Moose are specially
abundant, and this area will serve as an excellent breeding-
ground for moose for the territory adjoining the park. The
protective policy in force in this park is similar to that of
Algonquin Park; hunting is prohibited absolutely, and fish-
ing is only permitted under license.

Rondeau Provincial Park.—On the north shore of Lake
Erie in Kent County the sandy peninsula which runs out
from the mainland and forms one side of Rondeau Harbour
has been reserved as the Rondeau Provincial Park. It con-
tains about 5,000 acres. About one-half of the park is under
forest, and wild life, which includes deer and other animals,
is protected; but muskrats, skunks, and weasels are not
protected. Recommendations have been made that the
muskrats in this park be protected, and, in view of their in-
creasing value as fur-bearers, their inclusion, for a period

RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 249

of years at least, among the animals enjoying protection is
worthy of serious consideration.

PROVINCIAL GAME RESERVES IN MANITOBA

In Manitoba the provincial government has established
game reserves on the Dominion forest reserves; in certain
cases the entire forest reserves are created game reserves,
but where the forest reserves are very extensive, as in the
case of the Riding Mountain and Duck Lake Mountain
Forest Reserves, only the central portion is set aside for the
protection of wild life.

The distribution of the game reserves of Manitoba is
shown in the accompanying map, and their areas are as
follows:

Riding Mountain Game Reserve........... 216 square miles
Spruce Woods "9 Pty paa tise tart TOS .
Turtle Mountain “ Fy iced heme ous tases 9914 “ a
Duck Mountain “ yeaa oate er 432“ i
Peonan Point a Pik Ce aman aly ce :
Red Deer Point % REN coeepatane eats | aa 4
Doghead Point ef Wa a4 Seca, ES 225 “ ye
Grindstone Point “ Ad SOAP he awe Oe %
Lake St. Martin “ FE ea een Oh ete PAD 0° “
Reindeer Island A yeh GOAT 2p Vac lel Gahan: if
Cedar Lake iy SiR Rin Sh ei ene D978 is it he
Birch Island eae SPP aes ceise ce kan Sialiiat .
Lake Winnipegosis ‘ Fal ere eR aico eae ge BS pec ra ff

Altogether these game reserves comprise an area of 5,160
square miles. In all of them, with the exception of the
Cedar Lake Reserve, hunting or trapping and the carrying
of firearms is absolutely prohibited. In the Cedar Lake Re-
serve, however, only the hunting or killing of wild fowl and
other game-birds is absolutely prohibited; as this reserve
comprises some of the most important breeding and feeding
places for many species of ducks and also geese in the whole
of western Canada, its value in maintaining an abundant

290 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

supply of wild fowl in Manitoba cannot be overestimated,
and the influence of the protection given to the birds in
this area will by no means be confined to the province.

If we add to the area of the Cedar Lake Reserve the area
of the adjoining Lake Winnipegosis Reserve, in which both
game-birds and mammals are protected, we have a wild-
fowl reservation of 3,565 square miles in extent, constituting,
perhaps, the most important protected breeding-grounds for
ducks and geese on the North American continent.

The Riding Mountain Game Reserve is one of the most
important of the provincial reserves in Manitoba, as it con-
tains the largest number of wapiti or elk to be found in any
one region in Canada (see p. 28).

PROVINCIAL GAME RESERVES IN SASKATCHEWAN

When the provincial government of Saskatchewan first
undertook the wise establishment of game reserves, legisla-
tion was passed which provided that all Dominion forest
~aserves automatically became game reserves. This sys-
tem worked admirably until the Dominion Government set
aside such extensive areas in the province as forest reserves
that it soon became undesirable to continue such a policy.
The game laws were accordingly amended, and the areas
set aside as game reserves were revised so as to conform more
nearly with the existing requirements. Certain of the for-
mer reserves were reduced in size, some were withdrawn al-
together, and others were added to the number.

The following is a list of the Saskatchewan game re-
serves, with their areas, and their distribution is shown in
the accompanying map:

Moose Mountain Game Reserve........... 150 square miles
Cypress Hills id altars fortes tee Ne CO -
Beaver Hills ae UE Ta gas: SMe 2M 100) yu ce

The Pines ce RRR ah A MATA 1GO ea: es

OP citty yee 2
i Pe «ee , ‘ * ‘
"Wrest Giie aisinpvot quuet 1 ‘
Oy ee oe “hein? | .&
, ae 4 sisnsoR? oi ¥
; id begat An b
“3 2 s209F ARO 8 :
;
i+ Saivet sent! measl OD
pe) Korth vs ten beetle) ¢
Pra, AoW ARIID 2
“ ? F > Ale ha (2 zat ©
: shee i eA IA, 0: <
otal sate (bs
x ~— nitghel ditt] <4
Ae 5 sg erwin aT net fr
ti ties .
4 LAWSHRTAAEAR
— oS . oe
svmeag eat} seelio A Honore Le)
’ 5 iBT wdeiery 4 dh boa 3!
ar ‘> Se OL. Te i
ae Fo a oa nee tet Wk a Priv at : Res
a + mney rs a |
Mae Fen 22h |. etipeat op
a> ; eae “7? ) sae >
qn 4 diitlowter te

efit ee ae ig ote aia ast oS
1 : . qwietdl Qe 42S
Lgl) Giaiels saat eS
nS ar ae ghmidot ete a
yO Rall ele Be
sober ti teal Tk
FEAL gE es
wile es perp tule itt Az
i Se
soli ea D OR
Pee. steed. 3B
PAE wi a Sil eotabined ©
SPAM ee

ae

ae

MANITOBA

Riding Mountain Game Reserve
Spruce Woods ig

Turtle Mountain + *

Duck Mountain
Peonan Point

Red Deer Point af x
. Doghead Point sa a
. Grindstone Point
Lake St. Martin i “
Reindeer Island
. Cedar Lake * “
Birch Island Me “5
. Lake Winnipegosis * s

CONOR ON o

ee ee
el )

SASKATCHEWAN

14. Moose Mountain Game Reserve
15 and 16. Cypress Hills ‘“ *
17. The Pines . m
18. Duck Mountain ie -
19. Porcupine
20. Pasquia
21. Beaver Hills ae a
22. Fort-a-la-Corne + Se
23. Big River aa i |
24. Last Mountain Lake Bird Reserve Sap S
25. Lake Johnston oe 3
26. Quill Lakes “¢ Bs
27. Red Berry Lake a a
28. White Bear Lake oe a
29. Basin and Leonore

Lakes os s
30. Crane Lake oi 5
31. Chaplin Lake ce Be

Dominion Bird Reserves are Nos. 24, 25,
26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31

MAP OF GAME AND

D RESERVES IN MANITOBA AND SASKATCHEWAN

RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 251

Duck Mountain Game Reserve........... 80 square miles
Porcupine Eh si alec ot COD .
Pasquia bi Tr Sutra cea a ab SOY 7.0" m
Fort-a-la-Corne 7m SRY See lacks ae 400 “
Big River st Lh it MEAN se 0) UN

In addition to the above game reserves, which include
altogether a total area of 3,825 square miles, there are a
number of reserves set aside chiefly as wild-fowl reserva-
tions, whose extent cannot be so accurately defined. These
are as follows:

Wascana Game Reserve-—Comprising the waters of Was-
cana Lake and Creek at Regina.

The Isle of Bays Reserve-—Situated in Lake Johnston.

North and South Saskatchewan Rivers Game Reserve.—
This comprises all the land and lands covered by
water lying between the right and left banks of the
North and South Saskatchewan Rivers, respectively,
between the western boundary of the province and
the easterly boundary of township 49, range 22, west
of the second meridian, and all land lying within 200
yards of either bank of these rivers between the afore-
mentioned limits.

Mr. F. Bradshaw, chief game guardian of Saskatchewan,
has correctly defined what the policy should be with regard
to game reserves. He says: “It is not enough, however,
simply to set aside vast areas for the purpose and then think
there is nothing further to be done. If the reserves are to
mean anything more than a mere enactment of the statutes,
they should be staffed by efficient resident game guardians,
whose duties should comprise not only the systematic patrol
of the reserves for the enforcement of the game-laws, but
also the work of destroying the vermin which preys upon
the game.”

252 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

GAME RESERVES IN ALBERTA

In view of the fact that the Dominion Government has
established national parks on a very extensive scale in Al-
berta, the provincial government has not undertaken the
establishment of game reserves on an extensive scale.

In 1918, however, the Alberta government established as
game reserves two of the Dominion Forest Reserves, namely,
the Cooking Lake Forest Reserve and the Cypress Hills
Forest Reserve.

Cooking Lake Forest and Game Reserve.—This reserve is
situated about twenty miles east of Edmonton. It covers
an area of 95.5 square miles. Immediately north of and
adjoining the reserve lies the Dominion Elk Island Park, so
that the combined area of game reserve is about 112 square
miles. The country included in this reserve is similar on
the whole to that of the Elk Island Park. The land is gently
rolling, the portion to the north of Tawayik Lake being a
little more hilly than the region to the south. North of this
lake there is a heavy growth of poplar, which forms excellent
cover for deer and moose. To the south there is a large
amount of open country, with occasional areas of aspen.
Willows grow along the creeks and around the shores of the
lakes, which are also bordered by considerable areas of hay
meadow, forming excellent pasturage. The chief lakes are
Tawayik Lake, Goose Lake, and Flying-shot Lake. All
these lakes constitute good breeding and feeding places for
wild fowl.

Cypress Hills Forest and Game Reserve-—This reserve is
situated about fifteen miles south of Maple Creek, Sask.,
and about twenty-five miles southeast of Medicine Hat. It
is composed of several separate blocks; of the total area of
178.5 square miles, 81 square miles lie in Alberta. It is
situated on a high plateau with deep river valleys and steep
slopes. The soil is sandy, and the reserve is partly covered

Ho. \. —,
PROVINCIAL GAME N 7 y _agaary
RESERVES : ,

pS Te ie
\\ i \3

1. Cooking Lake Game Reserve,
Alta.

2. Cypress Hills Game Reserve,
Alta.

Elk River Reserve, B. C.

Yalakom Game Reserve, B. C.

Strathcona Park, B. C.

. Mount Robson Park, B. C.

Clearwater and Smoky Rivers
Game Reserve, B. C.

Seale

DOMINION PARKS

8. Jasper Park, Alta.

9. Rocky Mountains Park, Alta.
10. Waterhen Lakes Park, Alta.
11. Elk Island Park, Alta.

12. Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alta.

13. Antelope Reserve, Foremost,
Alta.

14. Yoho Park, B. C.

15. Glacier Park, B. C.

16. Revelstoke Park, B. C.

NATIONAL BIRD RESERVES
IN ALBERTA

17. Birch Lake

18. Big Hay Lake

19. Miquelon Lake

20. Oliver Lake

21. Ministik Lake

22. Pakowki Lake

23. Many Island Lake (Gaskill and
Greasewood Lakes)

24. Buffalo Lake.

Dominion Reserves are Nos. 8, 9,
TOMA 2 1S, ation Glove,
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24

MAP OF GAME AND

225°} el

Beare Rix

Site ot
Assiniboine.

D RESERVES IN ALBERTA AND BRITISH COLUMBIA

Mh ad
th
,

ALCO: BRED

. .

RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 253

with white spruce and jack pine. Other portions are cov-
ered with poplar, and there are quite large areas of open
grazing land. This reserve appears to be well adapted to
the preservation of wapiti, which were formerly found there.

BritisH COLUMBIA

Comprising as it does one of the finest big-game terri-
tories on the North American continent, it is a hopeful sign
for the future conservation of our big-game and wild-life
resources that the British Columbia Government, during the
past decade, has taken steps to set aside considerable tracts
of undeveloped land, consisting largely of mountain and
forest, as game reserves. The total area comprised in the
five provincial game reserves—exclusive of the Ashnola re-
serve for mountain sheep—is nearly 2,867 square miles.
These reserves, arranged according to the date of their
reservation, are as follows:

Elk River Reserve-—This reserve, which was established
in 1910, comprises an area of 234 square miles, and is situated
in the southeastern corner of the province, to the west of
the Elk River. It commences about fifteen miles north of
Michel, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, and includes
some of the finest Rocky Mountain goat and sheep coun-
try in that portion of the province. Grizzly bears and
wapiti are also to be found in this area of magnificent
mountain and forest scenery.

Yalakom Game Reserve-—In 1910 an area of 280 square
miles, adjoining the North Fork of the Bridge River, was
set aside as the Yalakom Game Reserve. The south end of
the reserve is about twenty-three miles northwest of Lil-
looet. It comprises excellent country for goat, sheep, and
deer. When the reserve was established these animals were
plentiful, but since 1912 it has been estimated that they
have been reduced in numbers by about 80 per cent.
This reduction is ascribed partly to excessive hunting by

254 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

the Chilcotin Indians, but chiefly to the depredations of
cougars, which have increased throughout that region;
the sheep have been so reduced in numbers as to neces-
sitate a close season of five years in the Lillooet region.
A few years ago an endeavour was made to introduce a
few wapiti into this reserve, but they were liberated on
the Bridge River before the reserve was reached. Both
grizzly and black bears are to be found in fair numbers in
this reserve, and with adequate protection of the game
and the destruction of its predatory enemies the reserve
should constitute one of the finest game areas in the prov-
ince.

Strathcona Park.—No more beautiful park exists in Canada
than the Strathcona Park, which comprises a triangular area
of 829 square miles in the centre of Vancouver Island. It
includes magnificent mountains, some of which exceed 7,000
feet, flecked with glaciers and valleys of towering Douglas
fir. The natural home of wapiti and deer, it was advisedly
established as a game reserve in 1914, the Order in Council
so creating it declaring that ‘‘no person other than park
rangers, deputy game wardens and constables in the execu-
tion of their duty shall carry firearms within the limits of
the said Park, and no person shall carry traps, shoot, trap
or kill any animal or bird within said limits, except such
persons as may be hereafter authorized to do so by the
Provincial Game Warden for the purpose of killing cougar,
wolves and other vermin.”

Mount Robson Park.—Immediately west of and adjoining
the Jasper National Park the British Columbia Government
created in 1915 this park as a game reserve. It comprises
an area of 640 square miles, and includes Mount Robson,
13,100 feet high. A region of high mountains and well-
forested valleys, it affords an unusually good reserve for big
game and other mammals and birds of that region, which
have been described by Hollister and Riley, Anderson, and

RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 255

Taverner in their respective accounts of the fauna published
in the reports of the Alpine Club of Canada.

The Clearwater and Smoky Rivers Reserve-—This is the
largest of the reserves in British Columbia, and includes an
area of almost 885 square miles along the eastern side of the
south fork of the Fraser River. In the Order in Council of
September 2, 1912, creating this reserve, it is described as
follows: ‘‘Commencing at a point at the junction of the
Clearwater and the South Fork of the Fraser River; thence
following the summit of the range on the west side of the
Clearwater River, in a northerly direction to the head-
waters of the Clearwater River; thence in an easterly di-
rection following the summit of the range to the head-
waters of the Little Smoky [Morkill] River; thence still fol-
lowing the summit of the range on the East side of the
Little Smoky River, in a southerly direction to the South
Fork of the Fraser River; thence following the South Fork
of the Fraser River to the point of commencement.”

Special Reserve for Mountain Sheep.—By Order in Coun-
cil of November 11, 1913, certain lands in the Similkameen
district, described as follows, were reserved as grazing
ground for mountain sheep: ‘‘Commencing at a point being
the junction of Juniper Creek and the South Fork of Ash-
nola River, thence north along the east bank of the said
- fork for a distance of one mile; thence in a southerly direc-
tion to the North Fork of Juniper Creek; thence in a westerly
direction following said creek to the point of commence-
ment.”

SuMMARY OF GAME RESERVES IN CANADA

From the foregoing description of the areas set aside in
Canada by the Dominion and provincial governments for
the preservation of wild life, excluding the Dominion bird
sanctuaries in western Canada, which are described in an-
other chapter (see p. 235), it will be seen that altogether

256 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

30,304 square miles have been reserved for this purpose;
that is, a total area exceeding the combined areas of the
provinces of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island.
The following is a tabular statement of these areas:

Provincial Dominion
Province Government Government
Reserves Reserves

400 sq. miles*
‘ “ce

‘

e 25 sq. miles

7,769 “

* Reserve cancelled in autumn of 1920.

PROPOSED GAME RESERVE FOR NOVA SCOTIA

Notwithstanding the existence of a comparatively rich
native mammalian fauna in this province, where moose,
deer, bear, and the lesser fur-bearing animals continue to
exist in spite of the encroachment of settlers and the de-
struction of the forests by the operations of the lumbermen
and by fires, no steps have been taken up to the present to
establish one or more provincial game reserves where ade-
quate protection from killing would insure a constant sur-
plus of game and fur-bearing animals to supply the adjacent
territory and thus prevent species from decreasing to a
point bordering extinction.

In Nova Scotia there are excellent tracts of land that
might be set aside as game reserves, and are unsuitable for
agriculture. The area best adapted for such a reserve, in
my opinion, would be the tract of land in the middle of the
western portion of the province which includes the region
where the counties of Digby, Yarmouth, Shelburne, Queens,

RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 257

and Annapolis adjoin each other, and extending eastward
it would include the adjacent portions of the last two coun-
ties. From my personal knowledge of this region, which
comprises burnt-over rocky barrens and stretches of hard-
wood and coniferous trees, and includes numerous lakes and
the headwaters of many fine rivers, I feel convinced that the
game and fur-bearing animals would respond quickly to the
protection that such a reservation would afford.

CHAPTER XI

THE PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE BY
THE DOMINION GOVERNMENT

Ow1nc to the fact that the protection of game and wild
life in the various provinces has been undertaken by the re-
spective provincial governments, the Dominion Govern-
ment, with certain exceptions that will be mentioned, has
confined its jurisdiction to the protection of the game and
fur-bearing animals and other wild life in the Northwest
Territories and the Yukon Territory. The exceptions are
the protection of migratory birds under the Migratory
Birds Convention, and the protection of the wild life in the
national parks.

The Dominion legislation governing the protection of
game and wild life comprises the Northwest Game Act, the
Yukon Game Ordinance, the Migratory Birds Convention
Act, and the Dominion Parks Act. The legislation is ad-
ministered by the Minister of the Interior, and the Com-
missioner of Dominion Parks is charged with the enforce-
ment of the provisions of these enactments, with the excep-
tion of the Yukon Game Ordinance, which comes under the
jurisdiction of the Commissioner of the Yukon.

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES

The unorganized Northwest Territories are rich in wild
life, as we have already shown, and the fur-bearing animals
of the north constitute at the present time the most valu-
able natural resource that we are able to utilize in these
vast territories. Throughout those subarctic and arctic
regions our fur-bearing animals find an environment emi-
nently suited to them, and to the production of furs of the
highest grade. The fur trade of the north is not only the

258

PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE = 259

chief occupation of that immense area, but it is the only
means of livelihood and existence of the population. Un-
less the fur trade is maintained an enormous section of the
Dominion would be rendered unproductive, and the native
inhabitants would either starve to death or become a charge
on the government. Such is the significance of our northern
fur resources, as I have pointed out in another chapter.
The vital importance also of the barren-ground caribou
and musk-ox as sources of food and clothing for the people
of the north has already been emphasized, but cannot be
reiterated too often.

The protection of the game and fur-bearing animals and
other wild life in the Northwest Territories is governed by
the Northwest Game Act, which underwent a complete re-
vision in 1917. For a number of years the inadequacy of
the provisions of the former statute and the necessity of
more effectual enforcement had become increasingly ap-
parent to those in touch with the conditions of the wild
life of the north, and familiar with the factors tending to
affect adversely its conservation. In 1914 I prepared for the
Commission of Conservation a memorandum regarding the
necessity of amending the Northwest Game Act, 1906,
having particular reference to the greater protection of the
musk-ox and barren-ground caribou. A second memoran-
dum on this subject was prepared in 1916, and, as a result
of further recommendations made, the Commission at its
annual meeting that year* passed a resolution urging the
amendment of the Northwest Game Act, 1906, with a view
to meeting the changed conditions and to securing adequate
protection to the game and fur-bearing animals of the north,
particularly on account of their economic importance. Soon
after the creation of the Advisory Board on Wild Life Pro-
tection the revision of this act was undertaken, and a

* Seventh Annual Report, Commission of Conservation, 1916, pp. 32-38 and
218.

260 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

new act was drafted. This was passed by Parliament
in 1917.

The most important feature of the new act and regula-
tions passed thereunder is the licensing of the fur trade.
Prior to the enactment of this legislation the fur resources
of the Northwest Territories were open to the unrestricted
exploitation of all comers, with the result that excessive
destruction was taking place, especially by certain types of
foreign trappers, who have no interest, such as that pos-
sessed by the well-known fur companies, in the future of
the country. The extensive use of poison and the com-
plete ‘‘cleaning up” of territory were methods that should
be immediately checked. The only means of controlling
the fur industry was by the institution of a license system,
and the regulations under the Northwest Game Act provide
that no person may hunt, trap, trade, or traffic in the North-
west Territories without first securing a license to do so.
Native-born Indians, Eskimos, or half-breeds who are bona
fide residents are not required, however, to obtain licenses.
The new policy will also enable us to obtain reliable statis-
tics of the fur trade in the Northwest Territories; hitherto
it has been impossible to obtain such necessary informa-
tion. The possession and use of poison are prohibited. The
killing of female hoofed animals, such as caribou, moose,
mountain sheep, and mountain goat, or the young at foot,
is prohibited.

A PROPOSAL FOR THE NATIONAL OWNERSHIP OF THE
Fur Resources OF THE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES

In an address before the Commission of Conservation in
1917 on the conservation of the fur resources of northern
Canada,* I emphasized the fact that the fur trade of the
Northwest Territories is not only the chief occupation of
that immense area, but that it is the only means of liveli-
hood and existence of the population, and that, unless the

* Eighth Annual Report, Commission of Conservation, 1917, pp. 119-122.

PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 261

fur trade is maintained, an enormous part of the Dominion
would be rendered unproductive and the native inhabitants
would either starve to death or become a charge on the gov-
ernment. That, in brief, is the significance of the problem.
It was also pointed out that the Danish Government ad-
ministers the fur trade of Greenland as a government
monopoly. State officers trade with the natives at so-called
“buying places.” In this manner and through their regu-
lations regarding trapping, it is possible to exercise an amount
of control that will insure the conservation of the fur re-
sources of Greenland to a far greater extent than is other-
wise possible. An important feature of this policy is also
the fact that such control protects the natives from the evil
effects that result from unrestricted intercourse with out-
side traders.

A careful consideration of the problem of our northern
fur resources and the position of the native population in
relation to the exploitation of such resources serves to im-
press one with the fact that the taking over and adminis-
tration by the Dominion Government of the fur trade of
the Northwest Territories would be most desirable from all
points of view. The following proposal is therefore made.
The Dominion Government should take over the entire
control and exploitation of the fur trade and wild life re-
- sources of the Northwest Territories by enacting the neces-
sary legislation. This would involve the purchase of such
rights as the Hudson’s Bay Company have in the Northwest
Territories. In order to administer the monopoly it would
be necessary to establish certain government posts, such as
those now maintained by the Hudson’s Bay Company. This
would be a great advantage in securing proper and adequate
government administration in the Northwest Territories,
where the need of government agents to take charge of the
affairs of the Indians, the enforcement of the law, the collec-
tion of customs, and oversight of other government activities

262 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

in these territories is becoming increasingly felt, and will
undoubtedly become greater with their development.
These government agents would perform the work now car-
ried on by the officers of the fur companies and the duties
of magistrates, etc. They would be responsible for the
proper conduct of the fur trade, the care of the natives, and
the enforcement of law.

If such a policy were adopted it would accomplish the
following ends. A source of revenue would be created of no
small value, even after the expenses of administration were
paid, and it is proper that the profits accruing from the ex-
ploitation of the fur resources of these territories should go
into the national exchequer. It would be the most effective
method of conserving the fur resources and wild life of the
Northwest Territories, as the enforcement of the law and
the adoption of any necessary restrictive measures could be
directly supervised. It would afford a means of attending
to the requirements of the natives who stand in need of
more immediate supervision, which is difficult to give at the
present time. The natives, both Indian and Eskimo, would
be protected to a greater degree than at present from the
influence and exploitation of unscrupulous traders, which
would be an advantage from the standpoint of morals and
health.

The nationalization of such natural resources as forests
has proved in Europe to be the most successful means of
conserving such resources, and at the same time this policy
has furnished a valuable source of national revenue. There
is no good reason why such a policy should not be adopted
in the case of our northern fur resources. The thoughtful
consideration of this purpose is therefore respectfully urged.

THE YUKON TERRITORY

The game and fur-bearing animals of the Yukon Terri-
tory are protected under the Yukon Game Ordinance, which

PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 263

is administered by the Commissioner of the Yukon. Its
enforcement is largely in the hands of the members of the
Royal Northwest Mounted Police,* who are ex officio game
wardens. The close seasons may be changed by a resolu-
tion of the Territorial Council.

The ordinance prohibits the use of poison. In order to
prevent waste of meat a heavy penalty is provided should
anyone, killing game, fail to use the meat personally for
food, or cause it to be used for food, or to be sold within
the territory for that purpose. Traders who purchase meat
of game animals are required to keep full data regarding
their purchases.

Owing to the great difficulty of taking supplies into cer-
tain sections of the territory, the Commissioner may set
aside any portion of it from the operation of the ordinance
for such period of time as he may deem desirable, in order
to provide sustenance for isolated camps, and when any
locality is so set aside the Commissioner may license one or
more hunters to hunt for such district under certain re-
strictions. One of the chief reasons for the disappearance
of game from many regions has been the fact that mining
and other camps have subsisted wholly, or almost wholly,
on the game in the surrounding district. This policy has
been carried out in regions where the bringing in of other
supplies is possible. The power of suspending the opera-
tion of the game law in exceptional cases is one that should
be exercised with the greatest caution, and its abuse should
be safeguarded by every possible means.

The killing of game by Indians in the Yukon, particularly
moose, for the purposes of sale to traders, is a practice that
should be suppressed immediately. It is unwarranted; it
incites a class of men, all too eager to kill everything in
sight, to kill to the limit; and its continuance will abso-
lutely deplete the supply of moose and other game animals.

* Now the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

264 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Apart from the fact that certain parts of the Yukon Terri-
tory contain some of the finest moose in the Dominion, the
Territory cannot afford to have its game resources unneces-
sarily wiped out in such amanner. The situation demands
immediate and stern action before it is too late to prevent
the inevitable consequences.

THE MIGRATORY BIRDS CONVENTION

For many years the numbers of our migratory birds, such
as ducks, geese, insectivorous birds, and shore-birds, which
class includes the plovers, sandpipers, snipe, woodcock, etc.,
have been decreasing. This decrease is a matter of com-
mon knowledge and observation throughout the Dominion.
Certain of these migratory birds, such as the Eskimo curlew,
which formerly existed in enormous numbers and was killed
for the market, the Labrador duck, the passenger pigeon,
and the great auk have now become extinct. Others, such
as the whooping crane and the wood duck, the most beau-
tiful of our native ducks, have become so reduced in num-
bers as to render their continued existence without further
protection a matter of doubt.

From a national standpoint the prospect of this continued
decrease involved serious economic consideration. Leaving
out of account the value from an esthetic point of view of
this portion of our Canadian wild life, great as that is, and
regarding it as an economic asset to the country, we were
faced with the gradual reduction of our migratory wild
fowl, whose value as food and as means of securing recreation
is inestimable, and of our insectivorous birds, which are of
even greater importance to the welfare of our agricultural
interests. |

Insectivorous birds constitute one of the chief natural
agencies controlling insect pests affecting field crops, or-
chards, and forests. In field crops alone the annual loss

PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE = 265

in Canada due to the depredations of insect pests is, on a
conservative estimate, not less than $125,000,000. And,
with the development of the country, the damage caused
by insect pests is increasing, while the numbers of insec-
tivorous birds have been decreasing.

The chief causes of this decrease in the numbers of our
migratory birds are as follows: Canada constitutes the chief
breeding-place for the greater number of these birds. With
the settlement of the country the breeding-places of many
species have been destroyed. The clearing of the land has
involved the clearing of the nesting-sites of insectivorous
birds; the draining of marshy areas and the settlement of
the prairies have driven wild fowl from their former breed-
ing and feeding places. Such causes are, therefore, unavoid-
able to a large extent. On the other hand, while many of
the provinces have excellent laws governing the protection
of game, non-game, and insectivorous birds, it has not always
been possible to give these birds adequate protection. The
increase in the number of persons who carry guns, and the
improvement of modern sporting-guns have had their effect
on the abundance of wild fowl.

Even with the strictest enforcement of protective laws
Canadians would have been unable to prevent the con-
tinued decrease of migratory birds unless the requisite pro-
tection were given to such birds during thetime that they
are in United States territory. In other words, our migra-
tory birds cannot be adequately protected from continued
decrease without co-operative protection in Canada and the
United States.

It is a well-known fact that while some of the States of the
Union had excellent laws, which they enforced, others failed
to protect their birds. In some States the shooting of wild
fowl in the spring was permitted; this involved the killing
of birds, usually mated at that time of the year, on their
way to their breeding-grounds in the north. This discour-

266 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

aged many Canadians, who naturally asked why they should
protect their wild fowl for the market gunners of the south.
The existence of such market gunners, who annually killed
enormous quantities of Canadian-bred ducks and geese for
the markets of the big cities in the United States, consti-
tuted one of the greatest causes of reduction and one of the
chief obstacles to any rational attempt to prevent such
reduction and to maintain our stock of wild fowl. Not
only were game-birds affected, but insectivorous birds were
likewise killed by thousands during their winter sojourn in
the south; this destruction has been particularly serious in
the case of the robin, one of our important cutworm de-
stroyers.

As a result of the efforts of sportsmen, game-protective
associations and other organizations interested in the con-
servation of the wild fowl and other migratory birds in the
United States, the Federal Migratory Bird Law was enacted
in 1913 for the purpose of securing more adequate protec-
tion for migratory birds which, by reason of their migra-
tory habits, could not be successfully protected by the efforts
of individual States so long as other States were derelict in
the matter. The objects of the Federal regulations were to
reduce the open seasons, which varied greatly in different
States; to secure a more uniform open season, not exceed-
ing three and one-half months, fixed in accordance with
local conditions, so that the sportsmen would have shoot-
ing at the best time of the year; and to prevent the shoot-
ing of migratory birds in the spring. A close season for a
period of years was given to certain birds, particularly
shore-birds, and the shooting of insectivorous birds was en-
tirely forbidden. The majority of the States amended their
laws to conform with the Federal regulations, and, although
certain States, in which the influence of the market hunter
and gunners with no thought of the future appeared to pre-
dominate, objected to Federal interference, the outcome of

PLATE XIX

Photographs by R. M. Anderson
WESTERN BIRD RESERVES

1. Flock of Bonaparte’s Gulls on middle Miquelon Lake, Alberta
2. Whistling Swans rising from water on Lake Johnstone, Saskatchewan
3. Southwest end of Ministik Lake, Alberta

PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 267

this increased protection and elimination of spring shooting
has been a noticeable increase in the numbers of wild fowl.
This increase has also been observed by Canadian sportsmen.

The results of the Federal Migratory Bird Law in the
United States indicated the possibilities and served to em-
phasize strongly the need of international co-operation be-
tween Canada and the United States in the protection of
those species of birds which migrate from one country to the
other.

The importance of international co-operation in this mat-
ter had been realized for a number of years, but no official
action was taken until the United States Senate adopted a
resolution, on July 7, 1913, requesting the President to pro-
pose to the governments of other countries the negotiation
of a convention for the protection of migratory birds. This
resolution was not acted upon until the following year. In
the meantime several organizations and individuals in
Canada and the United States took steps to further the
proposal for international action. On December 10, 1913,
at the instance of the Department of Colonization, Mines,
and Fisheries of the Province of Quebec, Mr. H. R. Charl-
ton, of Montreal, introduced the subject of the proposed
convention at the annual meeting of the North American
Fish and Game Protective Association at Ottawa, and
moved the following resolution, which was adopted:

That the executive committee be requested to place itself in communi-
cation with the various provincial governments of Canada to urge upon
them the importance of soliciting the good offices of the Dominion Gov-
ernment in obtaining the negotiation of a convention or treaty between
Great Britain and the United States, looking to the more efficient pro-
tection of migratory birds, now threatened with extinction, and following
as much as possible the lines laid down in the accompanying suggested
draft.

In January, 1914, the question of international co-operation
was informally discussed by the writer with the Biological

268 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture.
Later in the same month the subject was discussed in
Ottawa at the annual meeting of the Commission of Con-
servation, and the following resolution was passed by the
commission:

Resolved, That the provincial governments of Canada be urged to
solicit the good offices of the Dominion Government in obtaining the
negotiation of a convention for a treaty between Great Britain and the
United States, for the purpose of securing more effective protection for
the birds which pass from one country to another.

The Dominion Parks Branch of the Department of the
Interior also interested itself in furthering this measure.

In the following month (February, 1914) the United States
Government submitted to the Canadian Government for
its consideration the draft of a convention between Great
Britain and the United States for the protection of migra-
tory birds in the United States and Canada. The draft of
the proposed convention was submitted to the several pro-
vincial governments for their views, as the question was
of provincial concern. The provincial governments unani-
mously approved of the principle of the convention. As
objections that were not considered to be insuperable were
raised by only two of the provinces, and, as the Departments
of Agriculture and of the Interior, and the Commission of
Conservation strongly concurred in the opinion that the
protection of these birds, as provided under the proposed
convention, particularly on economic grounds, was most
desirable, an Order in Council was passed on May 31, 1915,
stating that the Canadian Government was favourably dis-
posed to the conclusion of the proposed treaty. With a
view to securing the settlement of our objections to certain
provisions of the treaty further negotiations were under-
taken in Washington early in 1916, as a result of which all
the objections raised were completely met, with the excep-

PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 269

tion of one that would have affected the vital principle of
the proposed treaty, namely, the elimination of spring
shooting. Accordingly, a revised draft convention embody-
ing the changes which had been made to meet the objec-
tions raised by the provincial governments, together with
certain other improvements, was prepared and submitted
to the Canadian Government in March, 1916. After further
consideration of this revised draft by the government an
Order in Council was passed on June 29, 1916, stating that
“Canada is prepared to agree to the conclusion of the con-
vention”’ conditional to the adoption of certain other amend-
ments which had been agreed to as a result of informal
negotiations.

The treaty was signed in Washington on August 16, 1916,
by His Majesty’s Ambassador, Sir Cecil Spring-Rice,
G. C. V. O., and the Secretary of State of the United States,
Mr. Robert Lansing. On the unanimous vote of the Com-
mittee on Foreign Relations it was ratified by the Senate
of the United States on August 29, 1916.

The full text of the convention is set forth in the schedule
of the Migratory Birds Convention Act.

In the fulfilment of the agreement made in Article VIII
of the convention the Migratory Birds Convention Act was
passed at the next session of Parliament following its rati-
fication, and was assented to on August 29, 1917.

It will be seen that the most important provision in the
convention is Article II, providing for: (1) a close season
on migratory game-birds from March 10 to September 1,
with the exception given; (2) an open season of three and
one-half months; and (3) a close season throughout the year
on insectivorous birds. The open season of three and one-
half months may be fixed anywhere between September 1
and March 10, to suit the local conditions. The restriction
of the open season on wild fowl to three and one-half months
will involve in some provinces a shortening of the present

270 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

open season, but in view of the objects of the treaty and the
experience that such restriction in the United States is
increasing the supply of birds, this change will undoubtedly
meet with the support of sportsmen desirous of preventing
the continued decrease in the numbers of wild fowl.

The conclusion of this convention constitutes the most
important and far-reaching measure ever taken in the his-
tory of bird protection. Some years ago efforts were made
to secure the international protection of birds in Europe,
but, while the general movement towards better protection
for insectivorous birds was thereby furthered, the requisite
co-operation on the part of all the countries interested was
hampered by inactivity on the part of some of the govern-
ments and a considerable diversity of interests and opinion.
Fortunately many of these difficulties do not exist in North
America, and in the United States and Canada there is an
ever-growing sentiment in favour of preserving what is left
of our former wealth of wild life which has been so seriously
depleted by improvidence in the past. This international
measure will affect over one thousand species and sub-
species of birds from the Gulf of Mexico to the North Pole,
and we may confidently look forward not merely to a cessa-
tion of the decrease but to an increase of our migratory
birds, which are so valuable a national asset.

The following is the text of the Migratory Birds Con-
vention:

Whereas many species of birds in the course of their annual migrations
traverse certain parts of the Dominion of Canada and the United States;
and

Whereas many of these species are of great value as a source of food
or in destroying insects which are injurious to forests and forage plants
on the public domain, as well as to agricultural crops, in both Canada
and the United States, but are nevertheless in danger of extermination
through lack of adequate protection during the nesting season or while
on their way to and from their breeding grounds;

His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and

PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 271

Ireland and of the British Dominions Beyond the Seas, Emperor of India,
and the United States of America, being desirous of saving from indis-
criminate slaughter and of insuring the preservation of such migratory
birds as are either useful to man or are harmless, have resolved to adopt
some uniform system of protection which shall effectively accomplish
such objects, and to the end of concluding a convention for this purpose
have appointed as their respective plenipotentiaries:

His Britannic Majesty, the Right Honourable Sir Cecil Arthur Spring-
Rice, G.C.V.O., K.C.M.G., etc., His Majesty’s ambassador extraordinary
and plenipotentiary at Washington; and

The President of the United States of America, Robert Lansing, Secre-
tary of State of the United States;

Who, after having communicated to each other their respective full
powers which were found to be in due and proper form, have agreed to
and adopted the following articles:—

ARTICLE I

The High Contracting Powers declare that the migratory birds in-
cluded in the terms of this Convention shall be as follows:—

1. Migratory Game Birds:—

(a) Anatide or waterfowl, including brant, wild ducks, geese, and
swans.

(b) Gruide or cranes, including little brown, sandhill, and whooping
cranes.

(c) Rallide or rails, including coots, gallinules and sora and other rails.

(d) Limicole or shorebirds, including avocets, curlew, dowitchers, god-
wits, knots, oyster catchers, phalaropes, plovers, sandpipers, snipe, stilts,
surf birds, turnstones, willet, woodcock, and yellowlegs.

(e) Columbide or pigeons, including doves and wild pigeons.
' 2. Migratory Insectivorous Birds: Bobolinks, catbirds, chickadees,
cuckoos, flickers, flycatchers, grosbeaks, humming birds, kinglets, mar-
tins, meadowlarks, nighthawks or bull bats, nut-hatches, orioles, robins,
shrikes, swallows, swifts, tanagers, titmice, thrushes, vireos, warblers,
waxwings, whippoorwills, woodpeckers, and wrens, and all other perch-
ing birds which feed entirely or chiefly on insects.

3. Other Migratory Nongame Birds: Auks, auklets, bitterns, fulmars,
gannets, grebes, guillemots, gulls, herons, jaegers, loons, murres, petrels,
puffins, shearwaters, and terns.

ArticLe II

The High Contracting Powers agree that, as an effective means of
preserving migratory birds, there shall be established the following close

272 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

seasons during which no hunting shall be done except for scientific or
propagating purposes under permits issued by proper authorities.

1. The close season on migratory game birds shall be between 10th
March and ist September, except that the close of the season on the
limicole or shorebirds in the Maritime Provinces of Canada and in those
States of the United States bordering on the Atlantic Ocean which are
situated wholly or in part north of Chesapeake Bay shall be between
1st February and 15th August, and that Indians may take at any time
scoters for food but not for sale. The season for hunting shall be further
restricted to such period not exceeding three and one-half months as the
High Contracting Powers may severally deem appropriate and define by
law or regulation.

2. The close season on migratory insectivorous birds shall continue
throughout the year.

3. The close season on other migratory nongame birds shall continue
throughout the year, except that Eskimos and Indians may take at any
season auks, auklets, guillemots, murres and puffins, and their eggs for
food and their skins for clothing, but the birds and eggs so taken shall
not be sold or offered for sale.

ARTICLE III

The High Contracting Powers agree that during the period of ten
years next following the going into effect of this Convention, there shall
be a continuous close season on the following migratory game birds,
to wit:

Band-tailed pigeons, little brown, sandhill and whooping cranes, swans,
curlew and all shorebirds (except the black-breasted and golden plover,
Wilson or jack snipe, woodcock, and the greater and lesser yellowlegs);
provided that during such ten years the close seasons on cranes, swans
and curlew in the province of British Columbia shall be made by the
proper authorities of that province within the general dates and limita-
tions elsewhere prescribed in this Convention for the respective groups
to which these birds belong.

ARTICLE IV

The High Contracting Powers agree that special protection shall be
given the wood-duck and the eider-duck either (1) by a close season
extending over a period of at least five years, or (2) by the establishment
of refuges, or (3) by such other regulations as may be deemed appropriate.

ARTICLE V

The taking of nests or eggs of migratory game or insectivorous or
nongame birds shall be prohibited, except for scientific or propagating

PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 273

purposes under such laws or regulations as the High Contracting Powers
may severally deem appropriate.

ARTICLE VI

The High Contracting Powers agree that the shipment or export of
migratory birds or their eggs from any State or Province, during the
continuance of the close season in such State or Province, shall be pro-
hibited except for scientific or propagating purposes, and the interna-
tional traffic in any birds or eggs at such time captured, killed, taken, or
shipped at any time contrary to the laws of the State or Province in which
the same were captured, killed, taken, or shipped shall be likewise pro-
hibited. Every package containing migratory birds or any parts thereof
or any eggs of migratory birds transported, or offered for transportation
from the Dominion of Canada into the United States or from the United
States into the Dominion of Canada, shall have the name and address
of the shipper and an accurate statement of the contents clearly marked
on the outside of such package.

ARTICLE VII

Permits to kill any of the above-named birds which, under extraor-
dinary conditions, may become seriously injurious to the agricultural or
other interests in any particular community, may be issued by the proper
authorities of the High Contracting Powers under suitable regulations
prescribed therefor by them respectively, but such permits shall lapse or
may be cancelled, at any time when, in the opinion of said authorities,
the particular exigency has passed, and no birds killed under this article
shall be shipped, sold, or offered for sale.

Articte VIII

The High Contracting Powers agree themselves to take, or propose to
their respective appropriate law-making bodies, the necessary measures
for insuring the execution of the present Convention.

ARTICLE IX

The present Convention shall be ratified by His Britannic Majesty
and by the President of the United States of America, by and with the
advice and consent of the Senate thereof. The ratifications shall be ex-
changed at Washington as soon as possible and the Convention shall
take effect on the date of the exchange of the ratifications. It shall re-
main in force for fifteen years, and in the event of neither of the High

274 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Contracting Powers having given notification, twelve months before the
expiration of said period of fifteen years, of its intention of terminating
its operation, the Convention shall continue to remain in force for one
year and so on from year to year.
In faith whereof, the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the
present Convention in duplicate and have hereunto affixed their seals.
Done at Washington this sixteenth day of August, 1916.
(L.8.) CrciL Spring-RIce.
(L.S.) Rosert Lansina.

The regulations under the Migratory Birds Convention
Act were passed by Order in Council on April 23, 1918,
and the following open seasons for migratory game-birds
in Canada were provided under Section 2 of these regula-

tions:

Prince Edward Island.
Nova Scotia

BritishColumbia,north

British Columbia,
southeast

British Columbia,
southwest

Northwest Territories.

Ducks, Geese,
Brant, and Rails

1—Dec. 14
15—Dec. 31
15-—Dec. 14

1—Dec. 14

1—Dec. 14
15—Nov. 30
15—Dec. 31
1—Dec. 14
1—Dec. 14

Sept.
Sept.
Sept.

Sept.

Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept. 15—Dec. 31
Oct. 1-Jan. 14
Sept. 1-Dec. 14
Sept. 1—Dec. 14

Black-breasted
and Golden
Plover, and
Greater and

Lesser Yellow-

legs

Aug. 15—Nov. 30

Aug. 15—Nov. 30
Aug. 15—Nov. 30

Sept. 1—Dec. 14

Sept. 1—Dec. 14
Sept. 15—Nov. 30
Sept. 15—Dec. 31
Sept. 1—Dec. 14
Sept. 1—Dec. 14

Sept. 15—Dec. 31
Oct. 1—Jan. 14

Sept. 1—Dec. 14
Sept. 1—Dec. 14

Woodcock and
Wilson or Jack
Snipe

Sept. 1—Dec. 14
Sept. 15—Nov. 30
(aoe 15—Nov. 30
Sept. 1—Dec. 14
Oct. 15—Nov. 14
Sept. 15—Nov. 30
Sept. 15—Dec. 31
Sept. 1—Dec. 14
Sept. 1—Dec. 14

Sept. 15—Dec. 31
Oct. 1-Jan. 14

Sept. 1—Dec. 14
Sept. 1—Dec. 14

Sept. 15—Nov. 30

Most of the provinces have now amended their game laws
in order that the sections relating to the protection of migra-
tory birds may conform to the provisions of the Convention.
By so doing it will be possible for the provincial govern-
ments to enforce the provisions of the Convention within
their respective territories.

PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 275

DOMINION PARKS ACT

As one of the main objects of the Canadian National
Parks is to conserve the native mammals and birds, strin-
gent regulations are in force to prevent the hunting, cap-
ture, destruction, or molestation in any way of the wild life
in the national parks, which have been described in another
chapter (pp. 235-243).

These regulations make it illegal to:

1. Chase, harass or pursue, hunt, shoot at, trap, take,
wound, kill, capture, or destroy any game—which
term includes all mammals or birds within any
national park.

2. Have in possession, except as specially provided, any
game, or parts thereof, killed or procured within a
national park.

3. Use poison, poisonous substances, or gas for taking,
injuring, or destroying game in a national park.

4, Sell within a national park guns or other weapons used
for the destruction of game without a permit.

5. Carry guns or firearms of any description within a
national park, except by an officer of the park, un-
less such guns shall have been sealed by the super-
intendent of the park or a duly authorized official.
Any unsealed gun or firearm found in a national
park is subject to forfeiture.

6. Allow dogs to run unleashed in a national park.

In addition, the regulations provide for the following:

1. The forfeiture of the outfits of all persons convicted of
illegally hunting or killing any game or having
illegal possession of game within a national park.
(The significance of this penalty was realized by a
party of hunters who were proved a few years ago

276

bo

fh

CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

to have killed game within the borders of one of
the national parks, and their outfits, which in-
cluded a considerable number of pack-horses, were
confiscated.)

. The search by a game warden of outfits, premises, tents,

vehicles, or vessels for poison.

The capture or destruction by game wardens or officers

under the parks administration of predatory or
dangerous animals or noxious birds.

. The capture or killing under proper authority of game

for scientific or propagating purposes.

. The destruction of cats, which are not allowed within

the confines of a national park.

6. The registration by all guides travelling through a

national park of full details regarding any hunting
party travelling through such a park, and registra-
tion by the persons hunting. Such registration in-
cludes the names and addresses, date of departure
and proposed duration of stay in the park, list of
firearms carried and route to be travelled. (This
requirement is enforced, owing to the fact that
many parties of hunters choose as the point of de-
parture such places as Banff and Jasper, where
they outfit for hunting-grounds outside the bound-
aries of such national parks.)

It is satisfactory to be able to record that the foregoing
regulations are very strictly enforced in the national parks,
to the great benefit of the wild life within the parks.

CHAPTER XII
A REVIEW OF PROVINCIAL GAME LEGISLATION

Au the provinces of Canada have undertaken the pro-
tection of game and wild life, and have passed legislation
for that purpose. In most cases the game laws are framed
wisely and enforced effectively; in certain cases the ad-
ministration of the game laws is not in accordance with the
needs of the situation. Too often in the past political or
other considerations have influenced the selection of game
officers, and have prevented the impartial administration
of game laws; there has been too great a desire to protect
local politics rather than local game, with a disastrous effect
on the latter. The protection of game and wild life de-
mands the appointment of qualified officers and the admin-
istration of game laws without fear or favour. The co-
existence of game with large populations in older countries,
such as England, Scotland, and other European countries,
has been due, not only to propagation of game, but to im-
partial administration of game laws and their strict ob-
servance by all.

Our game resources will never benefit to the extent that
is necessary, and is intended by our game laws, until the
administration of all game laws is completely freed from
political influence or interference, and there are sufficient
qualified and conscientious game wardens to meet the re-
quirements of all parts of the Dominion. Fortunately, there
has been marked and encouraging progress in this direction
in recent years, and, as the needs are more widely appre-
ciated, we may expect in Canada game laws and a standard
of administration that will not be surpassed in any other

% 277

278 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

country. With game and wild-life resources unequalled by
any other country in the world, it is surely incumbent upon
us to secure and maintain the highest standard in wise pro-
tective policies and their enforcement. Always it should be
remembered that the primary object of game legislation is
to protect the interests of the game and not those of the
persons who desire to exploit such resources. Of all our
resources, the game, fur-bearing, and other animals are most
easily destroyed, and they cannot be restored under modern
conditions; it is necessary therefore that special care should
be devoted to their wise protection, and that the issuing of
hunting-licenses and the collection of fees should not con-
stitute the main functions of game officers.

In the following review of provincial game legislation and
its administration, an effort is made to indicate in what
directions the game laws of the various provinces and their
administration may be improved, with a view to securing
better conservation of the animals that these laws are de-
signed to protect.

Prince Edward Island.—The Game Act of 1906, with sub-
sequent amendments, provides for the appointment of a
game inspector for the enforcement of the act, the provi-
sions of which are also enforced by the provincial constables,
policemen, and market clerks. The members of the Prince
Edward Island Fish and Game Association are appointed
honorary game wardens. For some time the position of
game inspector has been vacant, and we cannot but feel
that the lack of such an officer will result in a laxity in the
enforcement of the provisions of the provincial game act.
Bag limits should be provided in the case of game-birds.

The sale of game-birds during the open season and the
use of automatic and pump guns are wisely forbidden.

Nova Scotia.—The Game Act of 1912, with subsequent
amendments, is administered by a chief game commissioner
and two associate commissioners, who are empowered to

REVIEW OF PROVINCIAL GAME LEGISLATION 279

appoint game wardens and district game inspectors. Regis-
tered guides and chief forest rangers are ex officio game
wardens.

There appears to be an insufficient number of game
wardens in the province, and a consequent failure to enforce
fully the provisions of the game act. The sale of deer,
caribou, and certain protected game-birds is prohibited, but
such prohibition should also include moose and wild fowl.

We would also urge the indefinite continuation of the
close season on cow moose and caribou, as it is certain that
without such means of increasing its abundance the caribou
will become a thing of the past in Nova Scotia. The desira-
bility of establishing one or more game reserves in Nova
Scotia has already been pointed out (see p. 256).

New Brunswick.—The Game Act of 1909, with later
amendments, is administered by the Minister of Lands and
Mines. As aresult of recent reorganization the protection
of game has been combined with the forestry work, and the
provincial forester is in charge of both services with a chief
game guardian to superintend the enforcement of the
game laws. The duties of game warden and forest ranger
are combined, and there are many obvious advantages to
such an arrangement. The number of ea officio game
wardens has been greatly increased. An applicant for a
game license is now required to take an oath that he will
observe the game laws. This requirement should be more
widely adopted; it will help to eliminate the ‘‘unfit”’ hunter.

Two steps taken by the Province of New Brunswick in
1918 are highly commendable. In the first place, the policy
of appointing game wardens by a qualifying examination
has been adopted in place of the patronage system. Such
a method of securing efficient and qualified officers cannot be
too highly praised, and its adoption by other governments
would do more than anything else to bring about an effec-
tive conservation of our game animals. The second wise

280 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

policy is the prohibition of the sale of protected game, but
we regret the retrograde action of the New Brunswick gov-
ernment in repealing the no-sale of game regulation after it
had been in effect for one season (1918-1919). This ques-
tion is discussed elsewhere (see p. 333).

A bounty of twenty-five cents is paid for hawks and owls.
While the destruction of the great horned owl and certain
hawks, such as the goshawk and sharp-shinned hawk, should
be encouraged, the destruction of all owls and hawks that
such a bounty encourages is very unwise, and an amend-
ment of this provision is recommended.

Owing to the scarcity of caribou in New Brunswick a close
season has been established until 1921, and it will probably
prove desirable to extend this close season for a further
period of years.

Quebec.—The Minister of Colonization, Mines, and Fish-
eries administers the Quebec game laws. The Department
of Game and Fisheries realizes the importance to the prov-
ince of its game resources, which are being protected by a
force of zealous wardens, who are apparently administering
impartially the game laws.

Until recently Quebec was the only province in which a
close season was established for black bear. This has no
doubt been responsible for the fact that there is no scarcity
of this valuable fur-bearer in Quebec. The prohibition of
the sale of all protected game, the reduction in the number
of caribou that may be killed, and the institution of bag
limits on wild fowl are measures that are to be strongly
recommended.

We would also suggest the protection of those species of
owls and hawks that are known to be beneficial as destroy-
ers of noxious rodents, etc.

In the regulation of the fur trade the Province of Quebec
has made a noteworthy advance, and the enforcement of
the measures now in effect will undoubtedly insure the con-

REVIEW OF PROVINCIAL GAME LEGISLATION 281

servation of one of the most valuable natural resources and
economic assets in the province.

Ontario.—A few years ago the Ontario government cre-
ated a special Department of Game and Fisheries, with a
deputy minister in charge to administer the Ontario Game
and Fisheries Act. The Minister of Public Works and High-
ways administers the department. The organization for the
enforcement of the provisions of the act consists of a deputy
minister, a superintendent, inspectors (not exceeding three
in number), wardens who have districts, and overseers who
have the authority of constables under the act.

The greatest need in Ontario is the prohibition of the sale
of all protected game, which is discussed elsewhere (p. 331).
In view of the fact that there are not, so far as our records
show, any wild turkeys in Ontario, this bird might advisedly
be placed in the category of extinct game-birds, and given
at least a permanent close season instead of an open season
of a fortnight as at present! The absolute close season on
quail should be maintained (see p. 160). It would also be
in the interests of the wild fowl, such as ducks and geese, to
establish a daily limit in addition to a seasonal bag limit.

Manitoba—The Game Protection Act of Manitoba is
administered by the Minister of Agriculture, the provisions
of the act being enforced by the chief game guardians, with
the assistance of local game guardians.

The Manitoba government wisely prohibits the sale of all
protected game, and has recently given the wapiti or elk a
permanent close season. In view of the fact that antelope
no longer occur in Manitoba, and are permanently pro-
tected in Saskatchewan and Alberta, where the few that
remain are now to be found, the provision of an open season
of three weeks for antelope in Manitoba should be repealed.
A bag limit of forty ducks per day in October and Novem-
ber, without a seasonal bag limit, appears to us to be too
large at the present time.

282 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Saskatchewan.—The Game Act of Saskatchewan is ad-
ministered by the Minister of Agriculture, and the provisions
of the act are enforced by a provincial game guardian, with
the assistance of local game guardians and honorary guar-
dians.

One of the chief needs of Saskatchewan appears to be the
organization of a staff of paid and qualified district game
guardians, as the present system fails to meet adequately
the requirements of the situation, and throws too much re-
sponsibility on the provincial game guardians for the proper
enforcement of the provisions of the Game Act.

In all the Prairie Provinces the Royal Northwest Mounted
Police, as ex officio game wardens, have greatly assisted in
the enforcement of the provincial game acts, and perhaps
this fact has been partially responsible for the failure on the
part of the governments concerned to organize adequate
field staffs for game protection.

It is gratifying to record that the efforts that have been
made to secure a permanent close season on wapiti or elk
have now proved successful. The Province of Saskatche-
wan is to be congratulated as one of the first provinces in
Canada to prohibit the sale of protected game. As Bulletin
No. 49 of the Saskatchewan Department of Agriculture,
giving a synopsis of the game laws, states: ‘‘A game butcher
or market hunter is an undesirable citizen and should be
treated as such.”

We would recommend that the close season on sage grouse
be made indefinite, in view of the very restricted range of
this bird in Canada and the fact that it is not likely to be-
come abundant.

As a means of preventing accidents, hunters of big game
in Saskatchewan are required, as also in Manitoba, to wear
white outer suit and cap. Such a distinguishing costume
might advisedly be adopted in other provinces.

Alberta.—As in the other Prairie Provinces the Game Act

Sg ee

REVIEW OF PROVINCIAL GAME LEGISLATION 283

is administered by the Minister of Agriculture, and the pro-
visions of the act are enforced by a chief game guardian.

The most necessary amendment that is required in the
Alberta Game Act is the repeal of those provisions which
legalize market hunting, and the prohibition of the sale of
game. The existence in this act of an interpretation clause
which states that: ‘‘The term ‘market hunter’ shall mean
any person who hunts or shoots game for gain or profit,”
and the legalizing of such hunting for monetary gain by the
purchase of a market hunter’s license for five dollars, are
not in keeping with the principles of game protection of
to-day, when all authorities are agreed that the market
hunter is a menace to what remains of our game resources.
We would urge the Alberta Government to remove from an
excellent game act that which tends, more than anything
else, to defeat the objects of such legislation.

The number of mountain sheep and goat in Alberta would
undoubtedly increase if the bag limit were reduced to one
sheep and one goat, and if the laws were enforced in the
case of Indians, who have been chiefly responsible for the
reduction that has taken place in the number of these
animals, which are a great asset to the province.

British Columbia.—In 1918 the game-protection service in
British Columbia was completely reorganized by the estab-
lishment of a Provincial Game Conservation Board, con-
sisting of members appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor
in Council, which board is charged with the administration
of the Game Act. It has been decided to entrust to the
provincial police, who will be ex officio game guardians, the
enforcement of the provisions of the Game Act, and the
chief of the provincial police is chief game warden. A num-
ber of the experienced game wardens are retained.

The game legislation of British Columbia differs from that
of the rest of the provinces by reason of the fact that the
open seasons are fixed by the Lieutenant-Governor in Coun-

284 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

cil, and not by the provincial legislature. A similar policy
is followed in the case of the legislation enacted by the Do-
minion Government for the protection of migratory birds
and of game in the Northwest Territories. The method of
fixing open seasons, etc., by Order in Council, has great ad-
vantages over the method generally in vogue of accomplish-
ing this by amendments to the Game Act. Such amend-
ments can only be made when the legislature is in session,
and not infrequently it is of great importance to make a
change in an open season without the delay necessitated by
a postponement of such action until the legislature meets.
The claim sometimes made that delegation of these powers
to the Lieutenant-Governor in Council is likely to be abused
has not been borne out in practice; on the contrary, it has
been found that the needs of the situations that arise from
time to time in wild-life protection can be more opportunely
met by such a policy, which is to be strongly recommended
on that account.

A number of important restrictions have recently been
placed on the killing of big game. The bag limit on moose
has been reduced from two to one, on caribou from three to
two, and on mountain goat from three to two. These were
necessary and wise reductions and, with the other restric-
tions on big-game hunting that have been made, they un-
doubtedly will be a means of conserving some of our finest
big game, for which the province is justly famous. In fact,
there is no better big-game region on the North American
continent than the Cassiar region of British Columbia.

In 1918, for the first time, a close season was established
on bear, which now may be killed only from October 1 to
June 30. It would be very desirable to proceed further
and amend the Game Act for the purpose of establishing a
bag limit on grizzly bears. Grizzlies are not so abundant
now as to permit their unlimited destruction.

The sale of all protected game is advisedly prohibited

REVIEW OF PROVINCIAL GAME LEGISLATION 285

throughout the province, with the following exceptions,
namely: moose and caribou (bulls over one year of age only)
may be sold in the northern districts—Atlin, Prince George,
Omineca, and Cariboo—from October 1 to December 15,
and bear throughout the province from October 1 to June 30.

CHAPTER XIII

INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT IN THE
CONSERVATION OF WILD LIFE

Tue conservation of our wild life, from the largest of our
big game to the smallest of our insectivorous birds, can only
be achieved when a wider interest in the subject is created
in the minds of the majority of our citizens. Our respon-
sibilities in this matter have been indicated in a previous
chapter. At the present time we depend almost entirely
upon the enforcement of our game laws for the attainment
of our ends. Wise game laws will do much for the protec-
tion of our wild life, particularly in the direction of checking
the destructive tendencies of the market hunter and game- .
hog; but the proper enforcement of such laws can only be
effected if the will of the people at large is behind them,
and in order to secure such popular support there must be
carried out a policy of education among young and old.

EDUCATION

Educational propaganda on this subject should be more
easy of execution than that covering the conservation of any
other resource, for this reason: no subject is more appealing
to young people and to older people, whatever their voca-
tions, than that of wild life. Further, there is an encour-
aging growth in the demand for information on this subject,
and the increasing number of ‘‘nature” books is an indica-
tion of that demand. No subject appeals more to the aver-
age child than natural history, and the ever-growing num-

286

INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 287

ber of our citizens who nowadays find their recreation in
field and forest has naturally led to a desire for information
regarding all the forms of wild life that constitute one of
the great attractions of our countryside. Advantage should
therefore be taken of these favourable circumstances.

In our schools instruction in natural history is advisedly
receiving greater attention. The subject is so fundamental
to a proper conception of the world wherein we live, and is
so valuable as a means of conveying information on biological
problems, particularly in relation to health, that it should
be given a prominent place in every educational curriculum.
If it were given, as it should be given, a place in a child’s
instruction equal in importance to what are now considered
the primary essentials in education, a broader, more humane,
and more sympathetic mental attitude would ensue. What
knowledge can be of greater interest and value than a knowl-
edge of the world around us and of our fellow creatures?

At the end of an heroic journey, awaiting death, that
most gallant and brave of British explorers, Captain R. F.
Scott, in his last letter to his wife, wrote these memorable
words regarding the education of his little son Peter: ‘‘ Make
the boy interested in natural history if you can; it is better
than games; they encourage it at some schools. I know you
will keep him in the open air.””’ What greater testimony
could we have?

If natural history were taught in all our schools, and chil-
dren were thus trained to understand and appreciate the
meaning of our wild life, its conservation would be insured.
A great responsibility, therefore, rests upon the shoulders
of our educational authorities, and we fervently hope that
they will not be negligent in their attention to the needs of
the situation.

One of the most potent organizations that, properly di-
rected, may be utilized in our educational propaganda, is
the Boy Scouts. The far-sighted organizer of this world-

288 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

wide association of boyhood, himself a hunter and lover of
open-air pursuits, realized the moral and educational value
of the open air and a knowledge of woodcraft and wild life
as one of the essentials of this system of training. It is
impossible to conceive a greater opportunity than that af-
forded by this organization for creating a vast army of pro-
tectors of our wild life. We would urge those in charge of
this valuable work to lay special stress upon the significance
of our wild life, its rational use and proper conservation; by
so doing a work of inestimable value will be accomplished.

The press of this country has repeatedly shown its in-
terest in this subject. But it can render far greater assis-
tance than it has afforded up to the present by taking every
opportunity to lead public opinion in regard to the necessity
of conserving our wild life. It is not sufficient to chronicle
events, but in season and out of season the press should
promote the conservation of our wild life and censure such
acts and movements as tend to affect its interests adversely.

One of the most valuable educational agencies of to-day
is the moving picture, and its influence is increasing. A
few years ago I was informed that educational films were
not popular, and that it was necessary to cater to public
opinion. Fortunately, this does not appear to be true
to-day. The makers of films have realized the interest that
the general public takes in films depicting wild-life subjects,
and there are a large number of such films now in circulation.
Their preparation should be encouraged and assisted to the
fullest extent possible. No better means exists for placing
before the people the wealth of our wild life, and the neces-
sity of conserving it for the enjoyment of the people of to-day
and in the future. Scenes depicting the killing of big game
and other animals should be avoided, on account of their
undesirable effect, although hunting scenes may be so illus-
trated and described as to demonstrate the recreative value
of wild life to the people of our cities.

PLATE XX

From photographs by P. A. Taverner. Courtesy of the Geological Survey

Reproduced by courtesy of the Museum

1. Dead Gannets on beach near Percé, Gaspe, Quebec, where they have been
washed up after being shot. Such destruction as this was one of the reasons for
the establishment of this reserve _

2. Gannets nesting on the cliffs of Bonaventure Island, Gaspe

3. Sea-bird group in American Museum of Natural History, representing a section of
Bird Rock in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence

INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 289

PRIVATE WILD-LIFE SANCTUARIES AND GAME
RESERVES

We have, fortunately, in Canada many examples of what
can be accomplished by individual effort to preserve the
wild life in a limited area. The value of such instances can-
not be overestimated, both on account of the examples they
offer of what can be achieved by individuals and their effect
on the abundance of the wild life of the neighbourhood.

Mention has been made in previous chapters of instances
of individual effort, such as the work of Mr. Jack Miner, in
creating a wild-life sanctuary, particularly for wild fowl,
near Kingsville, Ont., and of the fifteen-acre game preserve
of Mr. Reuben Lloyd, a farmer at Davidson, Sask. In
Ontario the Provincial Government has taken the com-
mendable step of encouraging the establishment of wild-life
preserves by individuals, and, in addition to the ‘‘Miner
Sanctuary,” it has recently set aside the ‘‘Peasemarsh
Farm,” on the shore of Georgian Bay in the county of
Grey, as a bird sanctuary, at the request of the owner, Miss
K. L. Marsh. We hope this example will be widely fol-
lowed in other parts of the country, for nothing gives the
owner so much real pleasure as the possession of a tract of
land, however small it may be, in which the wild life is
protected, not only from human enemies but from pred-
atory animals, and particularly cats, the most destructive
of the alien enemies of our native birds.

The owner of a private wild-life sanctuary soon gains the
confidence of the creatures that enjoy his protection. Daily
his enjoyment of such a sanctuary increases, as his knowl-
edge of the wild life that he is protecting grows and as new
members respond to his encouragement. The changing of
the seasons is followed by changes in his wild-life community.
There is a never-ending stream of new pleasures that can
come only to those who are fortunate enough to possess

290 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

an area of suitable land and wise enough to assume the
guardianship of the wild life that it harbours or is capable
of harbouring, if protection is given by such means as may
be necessary.

The abundance of game in many European countries,
frequently in regions devoted to agriculture and well popu-
lated, is due in no small measure to the existence of game
preserves and the careful protection of the game, in addi-
tion to its propagation and the destruction of its enemies.
In Canada the absence of large estates and the ownership
of the land by those who cultivate it place the responsi-
bility in the matter of protecting the wild life on the farms
largely upon the farmer in the agricultural districts.

Farmers and Game Protection—A number of our game
laws protect cultivated, cleared, or enclosed farm lands
from trespass, the permission of the owner being required in
order to hunt or shoot over such land. This is a just and
necessary recognition of the rights of the owner to the wild
life on his own land and to protection against damage to
his crops and property. Much ill feeling has been aroused
between farmers and hunters from the cities, owing to the
failure of the latter to recognize the rights of the former,
even though they be not legal rights, and to avoid inflict-
ing damage to growing crops or other property. The crea-
tion of a hostile attitude of mind on the part of a farmer
towards sportsmen, through the thoughtlessness or wilful
behaviour of the latter, is liable to react on the protection
of the wild life, as a farmer will be less disposed to under-
take protective measures, particularly in regard to game
animals, if his efforts are likely to lead to increased annoy-
ance to himself and greater damage to his property. It is
essential, therefore, that sportsmen and others interested in
the conservation of wild life should respect the rights and
interests of farmers in the wild life and game on their farms,
whether their rights are established by provincial law or not.

INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 291

A sympathetic attitude on the part of farmers throughout
Canada towards the conservation of wild life would be more
effectual than any other factor in promoting this object.
Comparatively few farmers, however, appreciate the ad-
vantages which accrue from the protection and encourage-
ment of wild life on their own properties. The economic
importance of protecting insectivorous birds on our farms
has already been emphasized in a previous chapter. To the
farmer the presence of a supply of game on his farm means
an addition to his meat supply. Further, if he undertakes
to propagate game on his farm, he would, in many cases,
obtain higher prices for such game than for the domestic
poultry; game propagation, however, is a special subject in
itself, and should not be undertaken without some knowl-
edge of the subject, or loss and disappointment will follow
instead of profit and enjoyment. The protection of game
and wild life on the farm requires neither special knowledge
nor great expense. The essentials are: (1) a well-defined
boundary with appropriate notices at intervals for the
public; (2) plenty of cover; (8) the destruction of predatory
mammals and birds; (4) as abundant a supply of water as
can be provided; and (5) a little food during inclement
weather.

Until the pleasures of wild life protection are enjoyed
and its benefits appreciated by farmers, it is impossible for
them to realize how the attraction of the farm and of farm
life can be increased for them and their families. Such an
added interest to the life of the farms in many parts of
Canada would help to retain some portion of the youth
that now finds farm life too uninteresting, and migrates to
the cities, thus reducing our agricultural population and food
production; this is not a hypothetical opinion but is based
on experience.

Clubs.—In an account of his hunting experience in Quebec
a few years ago, the late Colonel Theodore Roosevelt wrote:

292 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

“In addition to the game laws, a large part is played in
Canadian game preservation by the hunting and fishing
clubs. These clubs have policed and now police many
thousands of square miles of wilderness, worthless for agri-
culture, and, in consequence of this policing, the wild crea-
tures of the wilderness have thriven and in some cases have
multiplied to an extraordinary degree on these club lands.”

An account has already been given of the manner in which
the co-operation of sportsmen is secured in the protection
of the wild life in the Laurentides Park, in Quebec, to which
the foregoing observation, no doubt, has particular reference.
In other parts of Quebec also game protection has been
undertaken by individuals and clubs as a result of the pro-
vision that is made in the Quebec Game Laws for such
projects. The Quebec Government is empowered to estab-
lish “‘hunting territories,’”’ which may not exceed 200 square
miles, in public lands remote from settlements. These hunt-
ing territories may be leased either by auction or private
agreement to one or more persons for not more than ten
years for an annual sum of not less than three dollars per
square mile. The lessee is given the exclusive right to hunt
in such leased lands, and to prosecute in his own name.
Thus the area becomes a private game preserve.

In many cases these game preserves are proving to be a
valuable means of protecting the wild life in the districts
in which they are situated, and the fact that most of them
are owned by clubs is an assurance that the policy of leas-
ing such hunting territories will not result in the wide-
spread creation of a large number of private game preserves
controlled by a few persons, thereby defeating one of the
main objects we have in view in conserving our wild life,
namely, that all who wish may be able to enjoy it.

On the majority of these game preserves the owners have
erected cabins or club-houses, and permanent guardians
are employed (Plate XVIII, 1). The owners of such pre-

INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 293

serves should not only appreciate their responsibilities, but
also their opportunities, and, as far as may be possible, a
constructive policy should be carried out in the matter of
game protection. It is not sufficient merely to pay periodi-
cal visits for the purpose of hunting and fishing, but every
effort should be made to increase the wild life and improve
the environmental conditions.

An incessant campaign against predatory animals and
birds should be carried out; attention should be given to
available food supplies and to their improvement, and the
conditions with regard to cover can frequently be improved.
In all such preserves the possibility of ground and other
fires should always be remembered, and every precaution
taken to prevent them within the reserve, or to check them
should they start outside. Fires are the most destructive
of all factors that adversely affect our wild life, inasmuch as
they destroy everything—breeding-stock, food, and shelter
—and a lifeless desolation remains.

Throughout Canada there are many areas reserved by
clubs and individuals for duck-shooting. ‘These reserves
usually include marshes and small ponds and lakes, or the
shores of lakes. Many of the areas to which I allude can-
not be classed as game or wild-life reserves in the true sense
of the word; on the contrary, they appear to be maintained
chiefly for the purpose of attracting and killing the greatest
number of birds with the least expenditure of trouble; the
only encouragement the wild fowl receive consists of the
grain that is distributed in order to secure larger bags, and
the only protection existing is the protection of the rights
of the owners of the reserved area. On the other hand,
there are numerous private reserves which have been estab-
lished chiefly for duck-shooting, in which every effort is
made to attract ducks by planting suitable food-plants, to
propagate them, and to protect them from their enemies.
Such reserves are rendering valuable aid in conserving our

294 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

native wild fowl, and their establishment deserves encour-
agement.

Ciwic Game Reserves.—There is a type of wild-life reserve
that ought to be widely adopted in Canada, but which, so
far as I am aware, exists in one or two instances only and
on a limited scale. This is what I would call a civic reserve.
In a previous chapter the creation of community and civic
bird sanctuaries has been recommended. The effect of such
sanctuaries in the conservation of wild life in general would
naturally be somewhat limited in its scope. <A civic wild-
life reserve, however, would include within its territory such
native mammals and birds as might occur in the region ad-
joining or within easy reach of the city owning it. As an
example, it may be mentioned that the creation of a national
or provincial park in the region adjoining the Gatineau
River, north of Ottawa, has been urged for a number of
years by individuals and local organizations, and this pro-
posal was included in the recommendations of the commis-
sion appointed (in 1913) to advise on the planning of the
city of Ottawa. Unfortunately, however, no steps have yet
been taken to carry out a proposal that would furnish for the
adjoining cities an unsurpassed recreation area, in which all
the pleasures and benefits of life in the woods and hills would
be the means of enlarging the interests and sympathies of
thousands of our citizens who are strangers to so many of
the joys that they might share.

The idea of such a park or reserve in the country rather
than within the city limits is by no means a new one. In
England, within a few miles of London, one of the most
thickly populated regions of the world, one may lose oneself
in Epping Forest, one of the finest forest areas in England,
where still may be found deer—not the semi-domesticated
kind—badgers, foxes, and other species of wild life, un-
molested. The city of Glasgow has a country park at Loch
Argoil, and the city of Birmingham a park at the Lickey

INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 295

Hills. If cities in Great Britain can maintain such park
areas for the recreation of their people, surely in Canada,
with our incomparable opportunities for creating within easy
access of our cities national parks and wild-life reserves, we
should be able to make greater progress in this direction than
has already been accomplished. All our larger cities have
suitable areas in their vicinities; certain cities, such as Que-
bec, Edmonton, Calgary, Vancouver, and Victoria, already
have national or provincial parks within a comparatively
short distance, but, in other cases, the distance to the near-
est park prohibits many, to whom the opportunities which
it affords for recreation are necessary, from taking advan-
tage of them. Few movements would be more effectual as
a means of improving the health of our citizens and of in-
creasing their capacity for wholesome enjoyment than one
for the creation of such civic reserves, and for this reason
their promotion should be undertaken by all civie organiza-
tions that are sincerely interested in the welfare of the com-
munities in which they exist.

Game Protective Associations—Among the numerous
methods by which community effort to conserve our wild
life may be undertaken, the formation of special associations
for this purpose constitutes one of the most influential.
There are already in existence in Canada a number of asso-
ciations of sportsmen, guides, and also of persons interested
in the protection of wild life. Although a number of such
sportsmen’s organizations were primarily formed for the
protection of the interests of the sportsmen rather than for
the protection of the game, the majority of these associations
are fully alive to the importance of adequate protection for
our game animals, as evidenced by the support that many
of them gave to the Migratory Birds Treaty, even though
its provisions somewhat curtailed opportunities for hunting
wild fowl.

Of all classes of the community the sportsmen should be,

296 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

and in my experience usually are, most interested in the
conservation of our wild life. In such associations the sel-
fish element, to whom the idea that the conservation of our
wild life for the enjoyment of posterity is a duty does not
appeal, is fortunately becoming rarer, though its voices
may be heard from time to time. The majority of sports-
men, using the word in its real sense as excluding the game-
hog and pot-hunter, in Canada, are behind any movement
that tends to the conservation of our game and wild-life re-
sources. I have invariably found this to be the case, and
it is an attitude that one might expect.

We need, however, a far greater number of such local
associations of sportsmen, naturalists, and others interested
in the conservation of game and wild life. There should be
one in every large district or county, whose chief object
would be to act as trustee for the wild life in his particular
region. Upon such associations should rest the responsi-
bility of securing and making effective such protective
measures as the wild life of their districts might require.
The influence that such associations, when composed of men
interested in the wise conservation of wild life rather than
its reckless destruction, regardless of the future, would have
on the citizens in their respective districts, is incalculable.
Their co-operation in the protection of the wild life in their
districts would be welcomed by the provincial governments;
through them a real public opinion on the subject could be
created; and a greater observance of the game laws would
be insured. As a means, therefore, of securing the conser-
vation of game and wild life, we would strongly recommend
the formation of local associations of all interested. There
is, in most districts, a sufficient number of sportsmen,
farmers, nature-lovers, and others who seek recreation in
the woods and fields, and who have a genuine interest in
the conservation of the wild creatures which they pursue
with gun, camera, or field-glass, to form such associations;

INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 297

whether they are called game-protection associations or
wild-life-conservation associations is immaterial, so long as
their objects are those that this volume is endeavouring to
promote, namely, the conservation of our wild-life resources
for the benefit of Canadians of to-day and of the future.

THe ATTITUDE OF THE SPORTSMAN

The term ‘‘sportsman”’ has a very definite meaning in the
English language, owing to the fact that the predominant
characteristic of British sport is ‘‘fair play,’ and any person
who takes an unfair advantage of opponent or hunted quarry
is ruled out. It is in such a sense that the word should
always be used. When applied to the hunting of game the
word has a special significance in so far as the conservation
of game is concerned, and for that reason it is appropriate
that it should be discussed here.

One of the most noted associations of hunters in the world
is the Shikar* Club of London, of which His Majesty, King
George, himself a famous sportsman, is honorary president,
and which includes in its membership the most noted hunt-
ers of big game. Its chief object is set forth in the follow-
ing words:

To maintain the standard of sportsmanship. It is not squandered
bullets and big bags which appeal to us. The test is rather in a love of
forest, mountain and desert; in acquired knowledge of the habits of ani-
mals; in the strenuous pursuit of a wary and dangerous quarry; in the
instinct for a well-devised approach to a fair shooting distance; and in
the patient retrieve of a wounded animal.

Such should be the ethics of all who hunt game in Canada;
sportsmen’s organizations should require their members to
subscribe to this definition of the objects of the hunter.

In 1908, Doctor W. T. Hornaday, than whom no man has
done more to promote the conservation of our wild life and

* Shikar is the Hindustani word for “hunting.”

298 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

the real objects of hunting game, realizing the need of an
adequate code of ethics to govern the taking of wild game,
prepared the following code as a “‘sportsman’s platform.”
It has been formally adopted as setting forth their objects
by the Camp Fire Club of America, by the North American
Fish and Game Protective Association, and by numerous
sportsmen’s and game-protective organizations in Canada,
and its adoption may be the means of securing a true
standard of sportsmanship and the conservation of our un-
surpassed game resources, which it should be the object of
every Canadian sportsman to promote to the utmost of his
ability.
THE SPORTSMAN’S CODE OF ETHICS

1. The wild animal life of to-day is not ours, to do with as we please.
The original stock is given to us in trust, for the benefit both of the present
and the future. We must render an accounting of this trust to those
who come after us.

2. Judging from the rate at which the wild creatures of North America
are now being destroyed, fifty years hence there will be no large game left
in the United States nor in Canada, outside of rigidly protected game
preserves. It is therefore the duty of every good citizen to promote the
protection of forests and wild life and the creation of game preserves,
while a supply of game remains. Every man who finds pleasure in hunt-
ing or fishing should be willing to spend both time and money in active
work for the protection of forests, fish and game.

3. The sale of game is incompatible with the perpetual preservation
of a proper stock of game; therefore it should be prohibited by laws and
by public sentiment.

4. In the settled and civilized regions of North America there is no
real necessity for the consumption of wild game for food purposes. ‘The
maintenance of hired labourers on wild game should be prohibited every-
where, under severe penalties.

5. An Indian has no more right to kill wild game, or to subsist upon it
all the year round, than any white man in the same locality. The In-
dian has no inherent or God-given ownership of the game of North
America, any more than of its mineral resources; and he should be gov-
erned by the same game laws as white men.

6. No man can be a good citizen and also be a slaughterer of game or

INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 299

fishes beyond the narrow limits compatible with high-class sportsman-
ship.

7. A game-butcher or a market-hunter is an undesirable citizen, and
should be treated as such.

8. The highest purpose which the killing of wild game and game fishes
can hereafter be made to serve is in furnishing objects to overworked
men for tramping and camping trips in the wilds; and the value of wild
game as human food should no longer be regarded as an important factor
in its pursuit.

9. If rightly conserved, wild game constitutes a valuable asset to any
country which possesses it; and it is good statesmanship to protect it.

10. An ideal hunting trip consists of a good comrade, fine country, and
a very few trophies per hunter.

11. In an ideal hunting trip, the death of the game is only an incident;
and by no means is it really necessary to a successful outing.

12. The best hunter is the man who finds the most game, kills the
least, and leaves behind him no wounded animals.

13. The killing of an animal means the end of its most interesting
period. When the country is fine, pursuit is more interesting than pos-
session.

14. The killing of a female hoofed animal, save for special preservation,
is to be regarded as incompatible with the highest sportsmanship; and
it should everywhere be prohibited by stringent laws.

15. A particularly fine photograph of a large wild animal in its haunts
is entitled to more credit than the dead trophy of a similar animal. An
animal that has been photographed never should be killed, unless pre-
viously wounded in the chase.

CHAPTER XIV

GOVERNMENT RESERVES FOR THE PROTECTION OF
BIRDS

In addition to the national and provincial parks which
have been described in another chapter, there have been
reserved in different parts of Canada by the Dominion Gov-
ernment, alone or in co-operation with the provincial govern-
ments concerned, certain areas as reserves for the protection
of birds, particularly the migratory species of wild fowl and
shore-birds.

Saskatchewan and Alberta.—The greatest number of these
are to be found in the provinces of Saskatchewan and Al-
berta. The reservation of these areas is of very great im-
portance on account of the inevitable destruction of the
former breeding and feeding places that has taken place,
owing to the agricultural development and settlement of the
western plains which formerly constituted the haunts of a
very large proportion of our migratory wild fowl and shore-
birds. Unless such reservations were made, there would
undoubtedly be a continued and marked decrease in the
numbers of these birds, which the international treaty for
the protection of migratory birds is intended to prevent.
Consequently, the policy of establishing and maintaining
such bird reserves or sanctuaries is an integral and important
part of the work involved in carrying out the intentions and
provisions of the treaty.

The steps that have been taken by the Dominion Govern-
ment in the establishment of reserves for the protection of
birds in Western Canada up to the present time are as
follows:

By Order in Council of the 8th of June, 1887, certain

islands and land adjoining the northern portion of Last
300

GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF BIRDS 301

Mountain Lake, in Saskatchewan, were reserved; this area
contained altogether approximately 2,534 acres. By an
order of the Minister of the Interior on February 13, 1911,
all the vacant lands in the vicinity of Ministik Lake, Al-
berta, and other lakes in that locality, were set aside as
bird reserves. On May 18, 1915, the Minister of the Interior
approved of the reservation of all the vacant quarter-sections
immediately adjoining the following lakes in Saskatchewan
and Alberta, with a view to the future establishment of
permanent bird reserves:

Saskatchewan

Quill Lakes. Cabri Lake. Redberry Lake.

Lenore Lake. Bigstick Lake. Johnston Lake.

Basin Lakes. Crane Lake. Chaplin Lake.

Bitter Lake. Goose Lake. White Bear Lake.

Alberta

Moose Head Lake. *Birch Lake. Lac Ste. Anne.

Gaskell Lake. *Miquelon Lake. Buffalo Lake.

Grease Wood Lake. Cooking Lake. *Many Island Lake.
*Pakowki Lake. *Ministik Lake. *Lac la Biche.
*Big Hay Lake. Wabamun Lake.

When these lands were withdrawn from settlement, with
a view to the permanent reservation of those which were
suitable for permanent establishment as bird reserves, it
had not been possible to make a thorough examination of
their suitability for the purpose for which they were intended.
But such an examination was made in 1917 and 1918 by
Doctor R. M. Anderson, zoologist of the Geological Survey
and a member of the Advisory Board on Wild Life Protec-
tion, and, as a result of his careful observations on the species
of birds found frequenting, or likely to frequent, such res-

* By Order in Council, dated 15th June, 1920, certain lands in the vicinity
of the lakes marked with an asterisk were set aside as bird sanctuaries.

An Order in Council, dated 22nd June, 1920, makes regulations for the con-
trol and management of areas reserved as bird sanctuaries.

302 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

ervations, and the existence of adequate food and other
essentials of a successful bird reserve, it is now possible to
determine which of these reserve areas should be established
as permanent bird reserves.

The following are brief accounts, prepared by Doctor
Anderson, of the lakes that were found to be suitable for
permanent bird reserves, and it is expected that they will
be so established in the near future.

Last Mountain Lake (formerly known as Long Lake),
north of Regina, Saskatchewan. Part of north end of lake
reserved, both by federal Order in Council and by provin-
cial authorities as a game refuge. This is a very good breed-
ing-ground, with many large ducks, canvasbacks, redheads,
and mallards; a few Canada geese nest on the islands, also
cormorants and gulls. It is well posted as a provincial
game refuge. It should by all means be retained as a sanc-
tuary.

Lake Johnston, twenty-five miles southwest of Moose Jaw
(formerly known as Old Wives Lake, Plate XIX). It has
one large island, Isle of Bays, in the north part of the lake,
which is also a provincial game refuge. This island is a
very valuable reserve, comprising about 200 acres. Large
numbers of white pelicans, cormorants, and great blue
herons breed on it, also black-headed gulls (Franklin’s?).
In October, 1918, I saw about 500 Canada geese resting on
it in the afternoon, and about 200 whistling swans in the
water near the island. The geese feed on the mainland and
have a resting-place here. The lake is said to be one of the
chief resting-places for swans in migration through this
country. The island should be certainly retained as a
sanctuary. The land around the lake is mostly poor agri-
cultural land and seems suitable for wild-fowl breeding.
Lake Johnston is a good preserve for pelicans and cormo-
rants, as there are no valuable food fish in the lake. Where
there is reserved land in blocks of fair size it should be

PLATE XXI

Irom a photograph by Augustin Frigon

BIRD RESERVES IN THE GULF OF SAINT LAWRENCE

1. Bonaventure Island
2. Bird Rock
3. Percé Rock

GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF BIRDS 303

retained. There is so much land privately owned around
the lake, and the lake is of such size, that it can hardly be
retained as a sanctuary complete. With the island reserved
as a refuge, and some breeding-ground reserved along the
shores, the main shore of the lake might be left open to
shooting in season.

Chaplin Lake, forty-five miles west of Moose Jaw, Sas-
katchewan. A shallow lake; said to be drying up. The
land surrounding it is not very good agricultural land.

Quill Lakes, thirty miles southeast of Humboldt. There
is good breeding-ground along the south side of Big Quill
Lake, from the creek west of Dafoe east to the town of
Kandahar. From Kandahar east and north along the east
side of the lake to the beginning of the Narrows between
Big Quill Lake (the west lake) and Little Quill Lake (the
east lake) the land is not so suitable for wild fowl, and bet-
ter for farming. The region about the Narrows and around
the eastern and northern side of Little Quill Lake, and north
and west of Big Quill Lake, seems to be attractive breeding-
ground.

Lake Lenore and Basin Lake, fifteen and twenty-five miles
respectively north of Humboldt, Sask. Basin Lake has high,
steep, timbered shores, and little lowland near the lake.
Lake Lenore has better conditions surrounding it, but most
of the wild fowl of the region breed in the numerous swamps
and sloughs around Middle Lake (between Basin Lake and
Lake Lenore). Lake Lenore seems to have some pretty
good qualifications as a breeding-ground, and probably as
a resting-place for fowl if the surrounding country is too
much shot over. At present the district is not hunted ex-
cept by local homesteaders, as it is too far from railroads,
and there are plenty of ducks nearer the towns.

Redberry Lake, forty miles northwest of Saskatoon.
This is an attractive lake and should be naturally a good
breeding-ground. The country all around the lake is fairly

304 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

thickly settled by Galicians, and the land cultivated or
mowed pretty close to the edge of the lake. Some geese are
said to breed on the islands in the lake, and they should be
reserved, but it is questionable whether the remaining frag-
ments of land on the edges of the lake are worth reserving.

White Bear Lake, fifty miles north of Swift Current, Sask.
This has the possibility of being a fairly good wild-fowl
refuge, as the land immediately surrounding it is not such
as to make it suitable for farming to any extent. It seems
to have favourable places for ducks to nest along its shores,
and plenty of shelter (thick beds of rushes) and good feed-
ing-ground in the shallow waters.

Crane Lake, fifteen miles northeast of Maple Creek, Sas-
katchewan. This lake seems to have good breeding condi-
tions for ducks, and also to have many gulls and shore-birds
in summer. The land surrounding it is mostly rather poor
and sandy; much of it is of little use except for grazing pur-
poses. At present, the grazing does not seem to be close
enough to interfere with the birds.

Bigstick Lake, twenty miles north of Maple Creek, Sas-
katchewan. The land here is very poor farming land—
stony near the lake, and sticky alkali on the low places.
Numerous ducks were seen on the lake, and numbers of
geese on the land near the lake. The north, northwest, and
southwest sides of the lake seem to be well taken up, and
the small, fractional areas between these farms seem hardly
worth retaining as sanctuaries.

Birch Lake, eighteen miles southeast of Vegreville, Alberta.
This lake has good possibilities as a bird sanctuary. It is a
fair breeding-place for ducks; some Canada geese and gulls
nest on the islands in the lake; and the brushy shores afford
shelter to sharp-tailed grouse, which will need the shelter
more as the country becomes more settled. The land sur-
rounding the lake is, in many places, either too steep or too
low for cultivation.

GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF BIRDS 305

Buffalo Lake, thirty-five miles northeast of Red Deer,
Alberta. This is an attractive lake, with considerable nat-
ural advantages for abundant bird life. The reserved land
is all in one township, and includes only a small part of the
shore-line of this large lake. The southern arm of the lake
seems very favourable to wild fowl.

Many Island Lake, thirty-two miles east of Medicine Hat,
Alberta. This lake is said to be a good shooting-ground in
the fall. The country near the lake is rather hilly, sandy,
and stony. There are some beds of rushes at the east end
of the lake. Fair numbers of ducks were seen on the lake,
mostly blue-bills and other small ducks. The long, narrow
peninsula, extending half-way across the lake and covered
with small bushes, weeds, etc., might afford good nesting
sites for ducks, but I did not find any traces of nests.

Big Hay Lake, twenty-five miles southeast of Edmonton,
Alberta. This is a good wild-fowl reserve. Many ducks
were seen. The large areas of reeds and cattails along the
lake should be a good breeding-ground for canvasbacks and
redheads, and should also afford a good summer refuge for
the numerous ducks which nest around the little ponds back
from the lake, and which will ultimately be surrounded by
cultivated land.

Miquelon Lake, thirty-three miles southeast of Edmon-
ton, Alberta (Plate XIX, 1). This is a very good bird
refuge. Many ducks breed here; also cormorants, great
blue herons, gulls, terns, etc. White pelicans formerly
nested on an island, but were driven off. The lake has
large numbers of islands of all types, from low gravel bars,
frequented by terns and gulls, to wooded islands, where the
herons nest.

Oliver Lake, about thirty miles southeast of Edmonton,
Alberta. Oliver Lake is said to be a good lake for wild
fowl. The country around it is heavily timbered and not
much settled, so that there are few if any good trails,

306 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Ministik Lake, twenty miles southeast of Edmonton, Al-
berta (Plate XIX, 3). The country around this lake is well
timbered and not much settled. The lake is surrounded
by great beds of cattails, bulrushes, reeds, and sedge, and
provides unlimited feeding-ground and shelter for wild fowl.
Large numbers of ducks were seen on the lake at the time
of my visit, and all reports were that it was a good lake for
ducks.

Lac la Biche, one hundred miles northeast of Edmonton,
Alberta. My visit was too late in the season to tell much
about the wild-fowl possibilities. So much of the lake shore
is taken up, most of the south side by the “‘Lac la Biche
Settlement”’ (Indians and half-breeds), and most of the north
side of the lake patented, that little land except some on the
east end of the lake is reserved. As a good deal of settle-
ment is going up on the railroad along the east side of the
lake (the Alberta & Great Waterways Railway), and, fur-
thermore, as the lake is one of the large important commer-
cial fishing-lakes of this district, it may not be worth while
to keep land reserved on the shores of the lake. It will be
a difficult matter to preserve the game locally, with large
numbers of Indians, half-breeds, and fishermen working on
the lake. For that reason the land on the shores may not

be worth reserving as sanctuaries. There are several large »

islands in the lake which might be reserved for future inves-
tigation. It does not have a very good reputation as a
wild-fowl lake.

Pakowki Lake, forty-five miles south-southwest of Medi-
cine Hat, Alberta. This lake was not visited, owing to the
difficulty of access to it in a reasonable time. It is situated
in a rather rough country, and, as it is the only large lake
in that region, it is probably worth retaining as a wild-fowl
sanctuary, for a resting-place during migrations if not as a
breeding-place.

GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF BIRDS 307

BIRD RESERVATIONS IN THE GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE
(PLATES XX AND XXI1)

In the Gulf of St. Lawrence lie some of the most famous
haunts of sea-fowl in the world. Ever since Jacques Car-
tier reached the Bird Rocks, or “‘Isles de Margaulx,” as he
called them, ‘“‘Margaulx”’ being the name the fishermen of
northern France gave to the gannet, on the 21st of May,
1534, up to the present time, the Bird Rocks, Bonaventure
Island, and Percé Rock have been known to naturalists and
bird lovers as great breeding-places for gannets, kittiwakes,
guillemots or murres of several species, razorbills, puffins,
gulls, petrels, and other sea-birds. At the present time the
Bird Rocks and Bonaventure Island constitute the chief
breeding-places in the western hemisphere of the gannet,
one of the most magnificent sea-birds in the world.

During recent years considerable destruction of these
birds and their eggs by fishermen and tourists has taken
place, and many leading naturalists and ornithologists have
urged the protection of the birds on these rocks by the Do-
minion Government and the government of the province
of Quebec. In 1915 the Commission of Conservation took
up the question of establishing these rocks as bird sanctu-
aries, and, as a result of its exertions, in which other organi-
zations and individuals have co-operated, the Bird Rocks,
Bonaventure Island, and Percé Rock were, in the spring of
1919, created as national and provincial bird reservations
by concurrent legislative action on the part of the govern-
ment of the Province of Quebec and of the Dominion
Government.

The Bird Rocks. These rocks, consisting of the Great
Bird Rock, on which a lighthouse has been erected, and the
two Lesser Bird Rocks, form part of the Magdalen Islands
group, the Great Bird Rock being about twenty miles north
of the Magdalen Islands proper. Great Bird Rock is about
seven acres in extent. The top of the rock, which is in-

308 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

habited by the lighthouse-keeper and his assistants, has been
cleared of birds, but the precipitous sides of the rock pro-
vide nesting-places for many thousands of several species of
sea-birds, the chief of which is the gannet. Doctor John
M. Clarke, who has taken a very active part in the creation
of these reservations, estimated* that, in 1910-1911, the
total bird population was probably not less than 15,000,
and that the gannets were not decreasing there.

Bonaventure Island. This island lies about three miles
southwest of the village of Percé, in the county of Gaspe,
Quebec. It is roughly circular in outline, and about three
miles in width. Steep cliffs surround the island, and on the
southeastern face they rise to a height of 300 to 400 feet.
These cliffs on the seaward side of the island, stretching for
about a mile and a quarter, form the chief breeding-places
of the gannets, murres, razor-billed auks, and puffins. The
gannets are by far the most numerous, and the ledges for
about half a mile appear to be covered with the snowy-
white masses of these birds during the nesting season. Mr.
P. A. Tavernert estimated in 1914 that there were about
7,500 birds nesting on Bonaventure Island.

Percé Rock. Well known to all visitors to the Gaspe
Peninsula and the Chaleur Bay, this strikingly shaped
rock, with almost perpendicular sides, rising to a height of
nearly 400 feet, remarkably coloured, provides nesting-places
for innumerable sea-birds, particularly crested cormorants
and herring-gulls, which give the top the appearance of snow
during the nesting season.

RESERVE FOR GEESE IN NOVA SCOTIA

In order to protect the large numbers of wild geese that
collect and spend several months in each year in Port Joli

* “Protection of Sea-Fowl of the Gulf of St. Lawrence,” by John M. Clarke.
Sizth Annual Report of the Commission of Conservation, 1915, pp. 108-116.

+ “Recommendations for the Creation of Three New National Parks in
Canada,”’ by P. A. Taverner. Sixth Annual Report of the Commission of
Conservation, 1915, Appendix III, pp. 303-310.

Xe)

is)

PLATE XXII

PROVINCIAL
GAME REFUGE

White Pelican rookery, Mountain Portage, Slave River, Northern Al-
berta. From a photograph by R. M. Anderson

Notice board on Saskatchewan Provincial Game Refuge. From a
photograph by R. M. Anderson

Canada Geese on artificial pond in the Miner Sanctuary, Essex County,
Ontario

Aluminium tag used by Mr. Miner to mark wild geese and ducks for
purposes of determining migration

GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF BIRDS 309

Harbour, in Queens County, Nova Scotia, the hunting and
killing of geese in this harbour below high-water mark are
prohibited. In 1919 Mr. J. A. Knight, chief game commis-
sioner, reported that the geese wintering at Port Joli were
more plentiful than usual. Such protection from moles-
tation will do much to maintain the abundance of these
birds visiting the south shore of the province.

From the foregoing account it will be seen that a prom-
ising start has been made in the direction of government
reservations for our native bird fauna. Many other areas
have been recommended as suitable for reservation, and
there is every reason to believe that a policy that is sure to
have so important an effect on the conservation of this sec-
tion of our wild life will be continued both by the Dominion
and by the provincial governments.

CHAPTER XV

THE UTILIZATION BY DOMESTICATION OF OUR LARGER
NATIVE RUMINATING MAMMALS

Au the domesticated animals now in the service of man
have been derived originally from wild animals which were
native to the countries in which their domestication was
first undertaken. Horses, cattle, and dogs have been so
long associated with man’s development that their origin
is, in the majority of cases, shrouded by centuries of time,
and is largely a matter of conjecture. The history of the
horse is lost in antiquity; Egyptian monuments show us
that the humped cattle were domesticated at least as early
as the twelfth dynasty, that is, 2100 B.C. In China the
domestication of the pig is believed to date back at least
4,900 years from the present time. And the dog was domes-
ticated in Europe long before the period of any historical
record.

As the cradle of the human race was probably in the sub-
equatorial regions of the Eastern Hemisphere, the wild
animals inhabiting more northerly regions would receive the
attention of man at a later date, and it is not unlikely that
one of the last animals to be domesticated was the caribou
or reindeer. The reindeer of northern Europe and Asia
have long been domesticated, but no attempts appear to
have been made by the northern natives of the American
continent to use this animal, and it was not until 1892 that
domestic reindeer were introduced into North America.
An account of the history of the reindeer on this continent
will be given later in this chapter.

Proposed Domestication of the Musk-ox.—There is still

another native land mammal of large size which has char-
310

DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 3t1

acteristics which suggest its possible value as a domesticated,
or semi-domesticated animal, but which has not yet been
tried in the service of man except as a source of wild meat,
and this is the musk-ox. Doctor W. T. Hornaday has called
my attention to one attempt to colonize this animal on new
territory, which took place in July, 1903, when three musk-ox
calves, two females and one male, were transported from
Greenland and turned loose at Norrland, Sweden, in a lo-
cality closely resembling their native habitat, but they all
died. The first suggestion regarding the possible domesti-
cation of the musk-ox appears to have been made by Pro-
fessor 8S. F. Baird, in 1854, in an article on the native rumi-
nating animals of North America and their susceptibility
to domestication.* He wrote:

It is not probable that the musk-ox could stand the warmth of the
climate of the United States, although the experiment would be well
worth trying. The hair is very long and silky, and has been occasionally
worked into articles of dress. Could it be obtained in sufficient quan-
tity, there is no doubt of its being of exceedingly great value in the arts.
Unfortunately, this species, like the barren-ground reindeer, does not oc-
cur within the limits of the United States, and the experiment of domes-
tication, as well as of economical application in general, must be tried,
if at all, by the Hudson’s Bay Company. To the best of our knowledge,
there is not a single specimen of the musk-ox in any museum of the
United States; probably not even a portion of the skin or bone.

A definite proposal, however, to utilize the musk-ox as a
domestic animal was made by Mr. V. Stefansson, in 1916,
as a result of his observations on the habits and value of the
musk-ox in Melville Island. This proposal was embodied
in a report to the Department of the Naval Service, and
Mr. Stefansson has revised for me his statement since his
return from the Canadian Arctic Expedition in 1918. The
following is Mr. Stefansson’s report:

* “Pictorial Geography of the World,” by E. 8. Goodrich, vol. II, pp. 39-40.

312 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

A Posstnte New Domestic ANIMAL FoR Cotp CountTRIES

The reindeer industry is now well established by the United States
government in Alaska and herds will, in natural course, doubtless increase
till most of the tundra is utilized for pasturage, unless a more profitable
use of the ground is discovered. In Asia and Europe the tending of rein-
deer herds antedates history.

In spite of the ancient character of the industry reindeer are in most,
if not all places where they are now found, wild to the degree that they
must be lassoed as the semi-wild cattle of our large ranches must also be
lassoed. In Alaska a dog not used to reindeer or a wolf will stampede
and scatter an untended herd, and, in some cases, even herds that have
an attendant, and animals are thus frequently lost even when they are
not killed by wolves. In bad weather the herds are sometimes hard to
control and in inclement springs a large percentage of the fawns die in
spite of the best efforts of the herders.

From these points of view, the reindeer is, therefore, not an ideal
domestic animal for the arctic lands. A further disadvantage is that a
reindeer, unlike a sheep, is of no commercial value until after it is killed,
except the few that are used as draught animals. True, reindeer are
milked in some districts, but they are unsatisfactory compared with most
milk animals.

This summer (1916) our parties have been in more intimate contact
with musk-oxen than is common with white men, and they have im-
pressed all of us as a most valuable animal and one easy to domesticate.
In fact, they act more like domestic cattle than does the average Alas-
kan reindeer herd. It is only under special circumstances that they
run away from what they seem to consider danger and they never run
from dog or wolf. It is still more rare that they charge—this is prob-
ably confined to bulls in the breeding season. In the big Canadian
caribou herds bulls at the breeding season will charge men and then are
far more dangerous than musk-oxen, while the bull moose has perhaps as
large a record of man killing as any animal of North America. When in
fear of man or wolf the herds commonly group in a circle, heads facing
out, with the calves and young animals in the centre of the ring pro-
tected by the others.

One of the Eskimos now working for us once took and kept for several
months a pair of musk-ox calves. They were as tame as dogs, followed
the people about and when less than a year old one of them would pull a
sled for which several dogs would have been needed. One of the calves
was eventually killed by some strange dogs and the other was sold to a
ship (whaler).

DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 313

Musk-oxen have the following advantages over reindeer as domesti-
cated animals.

(1) A full grown musk-ox gives twice as much meat probably as a
grown reindeer of the same sex and twice as much fat. (As to the time
it takes to mature. I do not have the facts.)

(2) A musk-ox gives two or three times as much milk as a reindeer.
The milk is considered by the white men of our parties to be better than
cow’s milk in taste. It differs from cow’s milk hardly at all except in
being richer in cream.

(3) Reindeer, unless herded, tend to range far. Musk-oxen do not
move until they have finished the feed in a given locality and then they
move to the next spot of good feed. A herd of musk-oxen in grazing
moves from three to five miles a month, generally.

(4) Musk-oxen are not stampeded by bad weather as reindeer and
cattle are, and they cannot be stampeded by wolves and dogs.

(5) It is probably very rare that wolves kill musk-oxen. A band of
wolves cannot make the least impression on a herd of musk-oxen, and I
am of the opinion that even two grown animals would stand off a band
of wolves. We frequently see them feeding unconcernedly with wolves
walking about near them, evidently seen by the musk-oxen.* It is likely,
however, that single animals are occasionally surprised away from the
herd and killed, though they commonly feed bunched up and form a de-
fensive circle at the first snort of alarm from one of their number. Young
calves are probably also killed occasionally by sudden onslaughts of
wolves. Whether bears kill musk-oxen, we do not know, but it is likely.
We have at least proof that they occasionally try to get caribou; though
it is almost certain they rarely or never succeed.

(6) The greatest advantage of the musk-ox over caribou is that, like
sheep, it furnishes a large amount of wool annually without having to
be killed first. Just what commercial use of wool would best fit, I do not
know, but it is clear to anyone familiar with the methods of working wool
employed by our grandparents that any Eskimo or other owner of a few
musk-oxen could make for himself warm and comfortable clothing at
home from their wool. However, I have not the slightest doubt there is
a market for the wool, or, at least, that a market will develop as soon as
the available quantity becomes considerable. If the animals were clipped
there would be a certain comparatively small amount of hair mixed with
the wool, but, if this were found detrimental to its commercial value and
if machinery could not be devised to separate the hair from the wool, it

* Ekblaw records the killing of a full-grown male musk-ox, one of a band

of four, by a pair of wolves in Ellesmere Island (MacMillan’s ‘‘Four Years
in the White North,” pp. 348-349).

314 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

would be easy enough to get the wool nearly pure at the start by pulling
it at the shedding season instead of clipping. The quantity given Poe one
musk-ox would be equal to that of two to three sheep.

The disadvantages of the musk-ox as compared with the reindeer are:

(1) As draught animals they are far inferior to the reindeer in speed.
For certain uses this would be more than compensated for by their greater
strength. While reindeer in use would correspond to dogs or ponies,
musk-oxen would correspond to our domesticated oxen.

(2) The skins of musk-oxen do not make as good clothes as those of
reindeer. They are as good as domestic sheep, however, and our expedi-
tion and other white men and Eskimos in the Arctic have found sheep
moderately suitable if worn with woollen or cotton underwear. .

The question of whether musk-oxen would breed in captivity, may,
I think, be dismssed, as they would not need to be confined, on account
of their quiet habits, nor attended to, on account of their ability to pro-
tect themselves; a band of them out of sight and hearing from a house
would be practically in their native condition.

From observation I am convinced that the popular idea that musk-
oxen require high, rocky land, is wrong. How this idea originated is
easy to see. On the mainland from Point Barrow east musk-oxen, wher-
ever they have gone, have been exterminated by man. These have in
general been caribou-hunting Eskimo or Indians. As high rocky land is
generally not frequented by caribou and, as such land is generally un-
attractive to the Indian and Eskimo, it happens that the mainland musk-
ox has survived generally in high, comparatively barren land. At least
here in Melville Island we always find them in valleys and along the coast
on the lowest available land.

They are grass-eaters like cattle and not moss-eaters as the reindeer
are. They are therefore adapted by nature to any grassy arctic land—
which means a large part of the “barren ground” of Alaska and Canada
(where, indeed, their bones are everywhere found).

That the musk-ox has been exterminated in many districts is no criti-
cism of him as a domestic animal. The same qualities which prevented
him from fleeing from his human enemies are the very ones that commend
him to us, as we desire him to take, in the northern districts, the place
our sheep and cattle hold in the south.

A question that can be determined only by experiment is whether, in
this arctic climate, the musk-ox could stand being shorn of all its wool.
If it could not, some half-way method can be found. The death rate
among calves, whatever that is, could doubtless be reduced considerably
by suitable care.

If the rate of increase of the musk-ox is similar to that of sheep under

DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 315

domestication, or even similar to that of cattle and if—as seems certain
—there proves to be a commercial market for their wool, many hundred
thousand square miles of the continental and island part of arctic Canada
could eventually be converted into as profitable pasture land as large
sections of Australia, to say the least. Should mines and other industries
develop, that would only increase the value of the musk-ox as a local source
of meat and milk.

The musk-ox could with about equal propriety be called the musk-sheep,
and, as far as that goes, the “musk” might well be left out. The meat of
even the old bulls had no “‘musk” smell noticeable to any of the white
men of our party nor to the Eskimo, whose sense of smell is, in general
(at least out-of-doors), better than ours. All the white men agreed that
the first meal they had of musk-ox meat tasted better than their first meal
of caribou, except three of us whose first meal happened to be the meat
of bulls in the spring. At that season, their flesh does have a strong taste,
and that of the cows a slight taste. But, as the same is true of the domes-
ticated sheep and does not interfere with the eating of mutton, this need
not be considered serious. In countries like Argentina, tallow is an im-
portant article of commerce, and so it is—or was—in Australia. In this
connection it is interesting to note that a large, fat musk-ox produces a
hundred pounds of tallow in rare cases. It is probable that the males un-
der domestic conditions would produce much more than do the wild ones.

A thing that would appeal to those who have experience with sheep
in such countries as the Canadian and American west, is that no blizzard
(unless possibly at the calving season) can cause the owner of a herd of
musk-oxen worry or even extra work. The blizzard does not blow in
arctic Canada that would interfere with the comfort of a herd of musk-
oxen. Except during the calving season possibly, and at shearing time,
they would require no care.

I shall not go into details as to how the initial breeding animals could
be secured, but it is a simple matter, whether on the mainland while yet
they are not exterminated, or in the uninhabited Arctic islands. Simplest
of all would be to set apart, say Melville Island as an experiment station.
If it should not be deemed proper that I urge this matter publicly while
in Government service, I hope to do so when that service is ended. When
the southern part of our country becomes densely populated, and with
our short Hudson Bay and British Columbia routes to Europe and the
Orient, such a pastoral development of arctic Canada, as I have outlined
above, would become of great commercial importance. That the meat
of the musk-ox would not find a ready market need not be feared. As it
is, few persons could distinguish it from beef under most of the forms of
modern meat cooking.

316 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Mr. Stefansson, since his return, has laid his proposals
personally before the Canadian and United States Govern-
ments. In Canada, his proposals are now being considered
by a commission appointed for that purpose. It is evident
that if it can be experimentally demonstrated that the musk-
ox is capable of being domesticated or semi-domesticated, it
would furnish a factor of inestimable economic importance
in the agricultural development of large tracts of our north-
ern regions which are at present producing only furs.

The Zoological Society of New York has demonstrated
that the musk-ox can be kept in captivity even in a climate,
such as that of New York, totally different from the climate
to which these animals are accustomed in their native re-
gions of the north (Plate IV). Doctor Hornaday has kindly
furnished me with particulars of the animals that have been
obtained and kept by the Zoological Society of New York.
The first specimen was received in 1902, but lived only a
few months. A second specimen, which was received in the
same year, died an accidental death a month after its ar-
rival. The third specimen, which was captured as a calf
in the summer of 1909 on Melville Island, by Captain
Joseph E. Bernier, reached New York in November, 1909.
It fed well and kept in perfect health for five and one-half
years, but died in May, 1915. Doctor Hornaday states
that ‘‘she was so vicious that it was impossible to risk any of
the male specimens of the musk-ox herd [the Rainey musk-
ox herd mentioned below] in the corral with her. Her fierce
disposition robbed the Zoological Park of what would other-
wise have been a good opportunity to breed this species in
captivity.”” The food of this animal consisted of red-clover
hay and crushed oats. In the late spring of 1910 Mr. Paul
J. Rainey captured, on Ellesmere Island, six musk-ox calves,
all of which were brought alive to the New York Zoological
Park, where they arrived in September, 1910. One died of
wounds received during capture, and malnutrition, in Oc-

DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 317

tober, 1910. The history of the remaining five members of
the Rainey herd, consisting of four males and one female,
was as follows: one male died three years later (1913) of
pneumonia, a second male died in the same year, cedema of
the lungs and chronic catarrh being the cause of its death;
a third male and the female died in 1916, six years after their
arrival in New York, the deaths in both cases being due to
fatty degeneration of the heart and kidneys, and cedema
of the lungs. The remaining male died in February, 1918,
having lived in captivity for seven years and nine months.
The cause of its death was general malnutrition; there was
no actual organic disease. To this animal “‘all civilized food
finally became so distasteful that its appetite failed com-
pletely.”” Experience showed that, in captivity, neither the
hardy Rocky Mountain goat nor the musk-ox can endure
soaking rains in weather that is either cold or cool. ‘‘The
woolly under-coats of both these species when once satu-
rated with cold water remain so saturated for two or three
days, and inactive captive animals cannot withstand the
cold, wet blanket.”

Describing the habits of the musk-ox in captivity, Doctor
Hornaday states: ‘‘In view of the impatient and dangerous
temper of the adult musk-ox, amounting in some cases to
positive savagery, it was at all times necessary to handle
the animals with the utmost care, and at night each one
required to have its own separate box-stall. The standard
food of our musk-oxen was red clover hay and crushed oats.
In summer they were given constantly a moderate supply
of freshly-cut green grass, but this supply was carefully
limited to avoid intestinal disorders and diarrhoea. They
were allowed all the water that they cared to drink, twice
per day. It was the expectation of the public that our
musk-oxen would suffer during the warm weather of mid-
summer, but all those expectations were happily disap-
pointed. The location chosen for the herd proved to be

318 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

one of the coolest and best-shaded situations in the Zoologi-
cal Park, but, at the same time, it was sheltered from sweep-
ing winds. We have observed no suffering on the part of
any of our musk-oxen during even the warmest weather of
midsummer. In the afternoon of the hottest days the
animals breathed more rapidly than usual, but there was
no evidence of anything approaching real distress. On the
whole, these animals seemed to us to develop as rapidly and
as perfectly as they could have done in a state of nature.
The adult bulls certainly compared very favourably with
wild-killed specimens, and if there was any deterioration
through living in captivity, it was not observable. These
animals moved about freely on the Telford macadam pave-
ment of their corrals sufficiently to keep their hoofs worn
down to a proper length, and no trimming of their hoofs ever
became necessary.”

Should it be decided to attempt experimentally, by the
establishment of musk-ox experiment stations in northern
Canada and Alaska, to domesticate the musk-ox, every
effort will be made to apply our modern knowledge of animal
husbandry and veterinary science to the development of
such new and potentially valuable domestic animals.

REINDEER IN ALASKA
(PLATE XXIII)

Few movements undertaken for the purpose of developing
a new country have proved so successful and so full of in-
terest, as the introduction of reindeer into Alaska, where
they now constitute one of the greatest economic assets in
that potentially rich country. The first reindeer, numbering
171 animals, were introduced into Alaska from Siberia in
1892; in twenty-five years, that is, by 1917, there were 98,582
reindeer in Alaska; to-day there are over 100,000, and they
form the chief agricultural industry of a country formerly

a

DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 319

destitute of domestic live stock. A brief summary of the
history of this successful industry, for it is no longer an ex-
periment, will be of interest.

Professor 8. F. Baird appears to have made the first sug-
gestions in regard to the use of reindeer in North America,
in 1851, in a paper published in the agricultural report of the
United States commissioner of patents. He was strongly
of the opinion that the native races of our North American
caribou, the barren-ground and woodland caribou, were as
capable of domestication as the species in Europe had proved
to be. He suggested that such a step would prove of in-
estimable benefit to the Indians of the north, who might in
time become a pastoral people as a result. In order, how-
ever, to avoid loss of time in domesticating our wild species,
he advised the importation of domesticated reindeer from
Europe. In 1885, eighteen years after the purchase of
Alaska by the United States, the desirability of introducing
domestic reindeer from Siberia into Alaska was suggested
in the report of the U. 8. Revenue Marine steamer Corwin.
Later, in 1887, Charles H. Townsend recommended to the
government the importing of reindeer into Alaska, and the
teaching of the natives how to care for and to use the ani-
mals. These recommendations were not followed, and it
remained for Doctor Sheldon Jackson, general agent of edu-
cation in Alaska, to make a beginning in this work, the ulti-
mate success of which is a lasting monument to his indom-
itable zeal. When he first visited Alaska, in 1890, with a
view to establishing schools in that region for the natives,
he was impressed with the necessity of introducing and
maintaining in Alaska reindeer for domestic purposes and as
a means of saving the inhabitants of that region from star-
vation. Accordingly, on his return to Washington, he rec-
ommended the introduction of Siberian reindeer into Alaska
for the relief of the destitute Eskimos, and his reeommenda-
tion was duly transmitted to the Senate in December, 1890. -

320 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

No action was taken, and, fearing the results of further delay,
Doctor Jackson made a public appeal for funds in 1891.
The prompt and generous response enabled him to com-
mence the purchase of reindeer in Siberia, and their intro-
duction into Alaska at Teller, in 1892, when 171 animals
were transported. In 1893 the United States Congress ap-
propriated $6,000 for the introduction of domestic reindeer
into Alaska. The management of this appropriation was
intrusted by the Secretary of the Interior to the commis-
sioner of education, as the work of introducing domestic
reindeer into Alaska, and the instruction of the natives in
the arts of herding, harnessing, driving, etc., was made part
of the scheme of industrial education maintained by the
government in Alaska.

Between 1892 and 1902, when the importation of rein-
deer from Siberia ceased altogether, the total number of
animals imported was 1,280. The present abundance is due
to the prolificness of the reindeer. The statistics covering
the years 1892 to 1904 showed that the increase of the rein-
deer herds progressed at an average rate of forty-five per
cent per annum, doubling the total once in two and one-
third years.

Doctor Jackson stated that the objects of the reindeer
industry were: ‘‘To convert the nomadic tribes of fishers
and hunters in Northwestern and Central Alaska into raisers
of reindeer; to change their occupation from the precarious
pursuits of hunting wild animals and of taking the fish from
the waters of inland rivers to that of herders and teamsters;
to elevate a people who, in their wild, uncivilized state, are
the prey of unscrupulous, transient immigrants into a self-
supporting race, not enemies but friendly allies and auxil-
iaries of the white man.”

It was realized that, as the reindeer is the only draft
animal in arctic regions that is able to secure its own food
while on a journey, the question of cheapness and speed

PLATE XXIII

- yr : Oho Bk ; Rees, ae
Photographs by courtesy of the Bureau of Education, U.S. Depariment of the Interior
REINDEER HERDS IN ALASKA

1. Reindeer herd crossing a river

2. Reindeer feeding through the snow
3. Reindeer teams

4. Portion of reindeer herd

DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 321

would bring it into universal use. The Eskimo is very well
adapted to the work of herder or teamster, and is thus
becoming an important agent in the development of the
country.

In order to fit the natives to become the helpers of the
white man in the development of Alaska, the United States
Government, through the Bureau of Education, established
a number of reindeer stations for the training of the young
men in the raising, care, and management of reindeer as an
industrial branch of the public-school system of central and
northern Alaska. Bright young men were selected and
placed in these schools as apprentices for a period of five
years, under skilful Finn or Lapp instructors, who drilled
them in the business. Reindeer herds were allotted to the
various mission stations, and a skilled herder was furnished
for the purpose of instruction. It was found that it was
more economical to instruct the young Eskimos through the
mission-station rather than the government herds.

The following is a summary of the rules and regulations
regarding the United States reindeer service in Alaska:

The supervision of the reindeer herds and stations in
Alaska shall be included in the duties of the district super-
intendents of schools for natives in Alaska. These herds
and stations are to be inspected at least once a year, and
quarterly in the case of stations easily accessible. It is the
duty of the district superintendent to see that all regulations
regarding the service, distribution of reindeer to apprentices
and herders, contracts and all other business are carried out,
and monthly reports are to be submitted to the commissioner
of education.

A local superintendent shall have immediate supervision
of each herd of reindeer and oversight of the apprentices,
herders, and reindeer herd. He is required to superintend
the annual marking of the reindeer, and to see that they are
marked correctly according to ownership. The local super-
intendent may butcher each year not to exceed two male

322 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

reindeer, none of which shall be under four years of age, for
every hundred reindeer in the herd, for the support of ap-
prentices, but the sale or barter of such meat is not per-
mitted.

Apprentices are required to bind themselves to obey the
rules and regulations, which also govern all reindeer re-
ceived by them during their apprenticeship. Each ap-
proved apprentice receives the following numbers of rein-
deer at the end of each year of his apprenticeship: end of
first year, six reindeer (four females and two males) ; second
year, eight reindeer (five females and three males); third
year, ten reindeer (six females and four males); fourth year,
ten reindeer (six females and four males). Additional rein-
deer are provided in certain cases. At the end of the fourth
year, if the apprentice has been faithful and successful, and
is at least twenty-one years of age, he can be certified as a
trained herder. When a native herder owns at least fifty
reindeer he may train apprentices and distribute reindeer
to them according to the aforementioned rate per annum,
Additional apprentices may be trained by such a herder, as
his herd increases, according to a fixed scale.

The herders may sell, exchange, give, kill, or in any way
dispose of female reindeer, only to the government, or, by
official sanction, to another native inhabitant of Alaska.
Each native herder must remain with his herd at least ten
months each year, or arrange for a competent substitute.
Intemperance or continued neglect involves forfeiture of the
herd, either to a member of the herder’s family competent
to manage it or to the government.

No female reindeer may be sold or disposed of to any
person other than a resident native of Alaska, and such
sale or disposal must have official sanction. Only com-
petent herders may receive such reindeer.

The following are the latest complete official statistics
regarding the United States reindeer service in Alaska, as
given in the annual report of the work of the Bureau of

|
:

DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 323

Education for the natives of Alaska for the year 1917-1918.
The reports from the reindeer stations for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1917, show that the reindeer had increased
from 82,151 in 1916 to 98,582, and the number of herds
from 85 to 98. Of the 98,582 reindeer, 67,448, or 69 per
cent, were owned by 1,568 natives; 3,046, or 3 per cent, were
owned by the United States Government; 4,645, or 5 per
cent, were owned by the missions; and 23,448, or 23 per cent,
were owned by Lapps and other whites. The whites ob-
tained their reindeer by buying out the Lapp herders who
had obtained deer without restrictions. The total income
of the natives from the reindeer industry during the fiscal
year 1916-1917, was $97,515. The total number of reindeer,
namely 98,582, is a net increase of 20 per cent during the
year, notwithstanding the fact that 13,144 reindeer were
killed for meat and skins, or were lost. There were in
Alaska, June 30, 1918, approximately 100,000 reindeer.

With the establishment of this industry on a firm basis
the government has reduced the appropriation made to this
service. A number of reindeer companies have been formed,
and steps are being taken by scientific management to place
the industry on a business basis. Outside markets are being
secured for the meat and for the tanned skins, and reindeer
meat is now shipped not only to cities on the Pacific coast,
but to the Middle West and as far as New York.

It is claimed by some that while a certain amount of new
blood has been introduced into the herds by association with
the native caribou, new blood is needed, as the last importa-
tions of reindeer from Siberia were made in 1902. Con-
stant inbreeding has led to a noticeable reduction in the
prolificness of the females, and degeneration is to be ob-
served in many herds.*

* The United States Biological Survey is giving attention to the question of
grazing. In Norway, it has been found that the reindeer moss takes from
five to seven years to reproduce itself.

324 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

A serious menace to the industry in Alaska is the preva-
lence of the reindeer warble-fly. This is of particular im-
portance on account of the damage that it causes to the
hides and its consequent effect on the development of a
market for reindeer leather. This insect is also a serious
pest in northern Europe and Siberia, and affects a large
proportion of the native barren-ground caribou in northern
Canada.

THE USE OF REINDEER IN CANADA

Although a vast area of subarctic Canada affords as suit-
able range for reindeer as the areas in northern Europe and
Asia, where they have been utilized by man for centuries,
and reindeer were introduced into Alaska in 1892, their in-
troduction into Canada is of comparatively recent date.
The first and, up to the present, the only attempt to intro-
duce these animals into Canada was made by Doctor Wil-
fred T. Grenfell in connection with his famous mission in
Labrador to deep-sea fishermen, which includes within its
scope the welfare of the natives of the Labrador coast.

During his many years of medical-mission work on the
coast of north Newfoundland and Labrador he discovered
that one out of every three deaths on the coast was due to
tuberculosis, and that one out of every three native babies
died before reaching the age of one year. Diseases due to
malnutrition were rife among these people. ‘There were no
milk-producing animals, and milk was the great need on the
coast. The keeping of sheep, goats, or cattle was out of the
question, and this caused Doctor Grenfell to turn his atten-
tion to the possibility of introducing and using reindeer,
which had been successfully introduced into Alaska. In the
introduction to his account* of this work Doctor Grenfell
gives an excellent account of the economic value of the rein-

*“T abrador, the Country and the People,’ by Wilfred T. Grenfell and others
(“Reindeer for Labrador,” pp. 251-271), 1909.

DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS: 325

deer to the people of northern regions that is well worth
quoting. He says:

. Few other animals on the earth’s surface offer as much to man with
so little outlay. With scarcely any aid, races of men can subsist on what
these beasts alone can provide. For transport they have been shown,
under right circumstances, to be able to compete with the Eskimo dog
in speed and endurance. On the Alaskan tundra, where the snowfall is
much like that of Labrador, they have been an unqualified success. On
journeys they can find their own food by the way—an item most impor-
tant, for the dogs are obliged to carry this additional, and by no means
inconsiderable, burden with them. Reindeer are now used not only for
packing over open land uncovered with snow in summer-time, when dogs
are entirely useless, but they are in regular use for running the United
States mail service in the depth of an Arctic winter. Geldings are said
to be far more readily trained to harness than stags, and are easier to
keep in good physical condition. At a pinch, one’s steeds may be killed
and eaten with relish, while the carcass, where meat supplies are scarce,
is always of incomparable value. The tongues and kidneys form great
delicacies, and the tongues may be smoked for export. A good-sized
stag will weigh three hundred pounds, and has for meat alone fetched
$50 in the Alaskan markets.* The large, thickly haired skin of caribou
or of the Lapland reindeer is invaluable for many purposes,—for boots,
clothing, sleeping-bags, tents, and blankets. These skins need scarcely
any preparatory treatment. Dehaired and dressed, they make most
satisfactory clothing for use in cold climates. The sleek, dark-brown
hair of the early fall affords a very beautiful material for ladies’ jackets
or motor coats, and picked skins for such purposes should well repay ex-
portation; two dollars apiece is the present local price for Labrador deer
skins. Some of our deer have snow-white skins in winter, and the hair
is as thick as a cocoanut fibre mat.

Moccasins manufactured from the thinner deer skins make the warmest
foot-gear known. The heavier stag skins furnish admirable light, soft,
flexible over-clothes. They are perfectly wind-proof, and, when dressed
for use, fetch fifty cents to one dollar per pound weight. Stretched, un-
dressed, they are sold by the pound as parchment; this, cut into strips,

* This figure is too high. In 1919 the average value of reindeer in Alaska,
hide and meat, was only $25 per head.

In 1919 about 1,000 reindeer carcasses, averaging about 150 pounds each,
were shipped from Nome to Seattle, making an aggregate of 75 tons. This
meat sold for 28 cents per pound, f. 0. b. Seattle, making the total value of
the trade about $42,000.—J. W.

326 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

is rolled up, and sold as babiche, out of which all the fillings for snow-
shoes are made. Of this, also, are made the lashings for our sledges and
the harness for our dogs. The tough thongs show remarkable elastic
strength as they ‘‘feel’”’ the jarring and jolting of the rough trails. The
very tendons that are useless as food are amongst our most valuable acqui-
sitions, affording our women all the sewing material they need for making
boots, skin-boats (or kayaks), and clothing. These animal tendons are
taken and dried, and fetch from ten to fifty cents for each animal. They
strip easily into single fibres, and these separate threads form a strong
sewing material, which resists water, and yet, when used in boots in-
tended to be water-tight, swells up as soon as the boots are immersed in
moisture. In this way leakage through the needle holes is prevented.
The tendons do not rot easily, nor do they tear the skin substances, for
they contract and expand with that material. Even the horns and hoofs
are valuable, and furnish many of the household essentials of the natives.
Some of these various manufactured products can be exported to the
European markets. Reindeer may thus largely increase the earning
capacity of any region, by converting its unsaleable material into valu-
able products. The fresh rich milk of the does in the summer has also
supplied us with what is a vital necessity, and one which was obtainable
in Labrador in no other way; while the excellent and easily made cheeses
afford a method of storing the nutriment in a palatable and assimilable
form without any necessary outlay for a preserving plant.

Doctor Grenfell consulted Doctor Sheldon Jackson in
Washington, who had been responsible for the successful
introduction of the reindeer into Alaska. It was found that
suitable food occurred in Labrador and Newfoundland,
where, of course, the native caribou find ample means of
sustenance. Convinced that a natural means of sustenance
existed, Doctor Grenfell set to work in 1907 to carry out his
scheme. He collected a sum of $10,000 by public subscrip-
tion, and in addition obtained a grant of $5,000 towards the
work through the Dominion Department of Agriculture.
It was decided to purchase a herd of 300 reindeer from Nor-
way and Lapland. Of these 250 were does of an age to
bear fawns in the following spring, and 50 were stags. In
addition, a contract for thirty tons of reindeer moss was ar-
ranged for to serve as feed for the animals en route. It was

a

DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 327

decided to ship the reindeer from the north coast of Lap-
land to the mission station of St. Anthony in north New-
foundland. The herd set sail on December 30, 1907, but,
owing to ice conditions, it was necessary to land them on
the Newfoundland coast about eight miles from the har-
bour selected as the wintering-place for the deer. Lapp
herders accompanied the deer, which were safely landed and
took kindly to their new environment.

In the following spring (1908) the herd was reduced to
200 does and 50 stags, 50 of the deer having been sold to the
Anglo-Newfoundland Development Company, 300 miles to
the south of the place where the herd was maintained, for
use in the logging camps. As far as it was possible to as-
certain, 168 fawns were born in the spring. After deduct-
ing certain losses, the number of reindeer had increased to
405 animals by the end of 1908. During the summer the
reindeer chose the high grass-covered hills close to the sea,
and ate mostly the young grass and green leaves. The does
gave about a pint of very rich creamy milk per head.

The herd increased from 250 to 1,250, but, owing to the
lack of government support, either financially or in checking
the poaching, which gradually increased, the subsequent
history of these reindeer was a sad one. As the expenses of
the Lapp herders could not be met, it was impossible to
retain them. Instead of creating a reservation for the rein-
deer from Pistolet Bay to Hare Bay, the killing of reindeer
north of that lme was prohibited, but the prohibition was
not enforced. It was claimed that the reindeer were ‘‘dan-
gerous to life,” and other objections were raised in order to
create a local sentiment antagonistic to the animals. In
the end the poaching became so bold that the fishermen,
coming in the summer in schooners, used to go out and
shoot the deer. Thus a gradual diminution in the herd
took place, until, by the end of 1916, hardly more than 100
animals remained.

328 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

Early in 1917 Doctor Grenfell approached the Canadian
Department of Indian Affairs with a view to having the
herd of reindeer transferred from Newfoundland to the
Canadian coast, where it might be developed for the benefit
of the Indians on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Owing to various difficulties, it proved impossible to move
the herd during 1917. In 1918, the International Grenfell
Association undertook to move the deer in one of their own
ships, and the Department of Indian Affairs decided to place
the herd on a peninsula bounded on the west by Napetibi
Bay and on the east by Lobster Bay. The department
constructed there one herder’s hut and erected posts for a
fence across the neck of the peninsula, a distance of about
three and one-half miles. Lack of wire prevented the com-
pletion of the fence at the time it was begun, but Doctor
Grenfell agreed to complete the work and move the deer in
in the fall of 1918.

The herd was finally moved late in the fall, and herders
were brought from Newfoundland to take care of them. At
the time of moving there were about 125 reindeer. Since
their removal and transfer to the Department of Indian
Affairs there have been no complaints of poaching, and the
territory to which they have been moved appears to be well
suited for the protection and breeding of the deer; 40 fawns
were born in the spring of 1919.* There is every reason to
hope that under the more adequate care that will be given
them by the Canadian Government they will ultimately
fulfil the expectations of those who believe that they may
be developed for the benefit of the Indians of that region,
who stand in great need of the food and clothing that such
valuable animals produce.

*In March, 1921, the herd numbered between 140 and 150.

DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 329

FIRST ATTEMPT TO INTRODUCE REINDEER INTO
THE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES

In 1911 the Forestry Branch of the Department of the
Interior undertook the first attempt to introduce reindeer
into Canada from.St. Anthony, Newfoundland, where, as
already stated, the herd had been established by Doctor
W. T. Grenfell. A small herd of fifty deer, comprising forty
does, six stags, and four oxen, was purchased from him.
They were shipped from St. Anthony on September 7, 1911,
to Quebec, via North Sydney, N. 8. Accompanying them
were three experienced herders, thirty days’ supply of rein-
deer moss, and three deer dogs. From Quebec they were
transported in stock-cars by rail to Edmonton, and thence
sixty miles north, which was as far as the railroad had been
at that time completed. From that point they were taken
in waggons to Athabaska Landing, where they were unloaded
into four scows, the final destination of the herd being Fort
Smith. After many difficulties the herd, now reduced by
deaths to thirty-three animals, was taken to a place about
seventy miles from Fort Smith, where a camp was estab-
lished in November. In May, 1912, the herd, now compris-
ing thirty-one animals, was transported on scows to Fort
Smith, where quarters had been prepared for them. Dur-
ing the latter part of June the flies (‘‘bull-dog”’ flies or Ta-
banide) became very troublesome, and the whole herd of
reindeer stampeded, escaped from the enclosure, and scat-
tered, with the result that the chief herder was only able
to recapture twelve of the thirty-one animals. On account
of the abundance of the flies it was decided to remove what
remained of this herd elsewhere, for the summer months,
and a suitable island in Great Slave Lake was selected, but
as no boat could be obtained at that time the reindeer had
to remain at Fort Smith until the following year, when the
flies again tormented the animals to such an extent that they

330 . CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

broke from their enclosure and escaped into the surround-
ing country. After much difficulty eleven of the animals
were rounded up, but, at the end of the summer of 1913,
only ten remained in the enclosure at Fort Smith. Owing
to deaths from unknown causes, only four deer remained in
the spring of 1914. Finally only two were left, and they
were transported to an island in Great Slave Lake. The
last survivor died in the autumn of 1916.

CHAPTER XVI
THE SALE OF GAME

It is universally recognized now by sportsmen and con-
servationists that the free marketing of wild game is one of
the greatest factors tending rapidly to exterminate our na-
tive game resources, and that, with the existence of so many
other factors that are beyond our control, adversely affect-
ing the abundance of our game mammals and birds, the sale
of protected game must be prohibited if the disappearance
of such game is to be prevented and its continued existence
secured for use and enjoyment by sportsmen and nature-
lovers dwelling in our cities and countryside.

The sale of game for food is only justified in the case of
game from private or government game farms and pre-
serves. The utilization of non-agricultural areas for the
propagation of game is to be strongly commended, with a
view to augmenting the domestic meat supply. But the
sale of such surplus and propagated game is an entirely dif-
ferent matter from the sale of wild game as it now exists in
our woods. Let us propagate game by all means for those
who desire it and are unable to obtain it by other means
than purchase, but do not allow the market hunter to profit
at the expense of the wild life, as he will if the sale of game
is permitted.

The sale of wild game is unnecessary, as those who need
it for food are able, as a general rule, to obtain it legitimately
by taking out a hunting license. Most of the game that is
sold is consumed not by people who need it but by those
who do not need it and demand it only to gratify their

jaded appetites. The fight against laws prohibiting the
331

332 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE

sale of game has been carried on not by the sportsmen but
by the pot-hunters, dealers, and those who profit by such
commerce. But the game resources of the country are for
the use and enjoyment of all and not for the small per-
centage by whom the sale of game is demanded.

There should be no wavering in this matter, nor catering
to the interests of a few objectors who are unable to appre-
ciate the wider significance of this aspect of game protection.
Our wild life is not sufficiently abundant to withstand the
toll of the market hunter. Is it preferable to have our
wild life in its natural haunts for the benefit of the nature-
lover and sportsman, or in the butchers’ and game dealers’
shops to gratify, in the majority of cases, the tastes of those
to whom wild-life protection has no meaning or interest?

In the United States the disastrous results of the policy
of permitting the sale of game have been so obvious that,
with the disappearance of the greater portion of the fur and
feathered game, it has been practically a question of decid-
ing whether the remainder should be killed and sold for
food, or protected for legitimate sport. Consequently, no
less than thirty-four States, including the best of the game
States, prohibit the sale of protected game, and it is safe to
predict that the few States which still permit, in a more or
less modified way, the sale of certain classes of game, will
follow the example of the majority within a few years.

In Canada there is a gradual and strong increase in opinion
against the sale of game. It is realized that, in the more
settled parts of Canada, there is no excuse for the sale of
game. Already the sale of protected game is entirely pro-
hibited in the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan.
In British Columbia the sale of game is prohibited, with the
exception of moose, which may be sold during part of the
open season in the northern districts of Atlin, Prince George,
Omineca, and Cariboo, and bear, which may be sold
throughout the province. In Nova Scotia moose is the

THE SALE OF GAME 333

only game that may be sold when lawfully killed. The sale
of certain game, such as grouse and wild fowl, is prohibited
in most of the provinces. In 1918 the sale of game was
prohibited in New Brunswick, but we deeply regret that it
was resumed after one season’s trial, owing to the natural
opposition which was found to such a necessary measure.
The act was repealed in spite of the fact that the sportsmen
and guides of the province are strongly of the opinion that,
in New Brunswick, the conservation of the game, and par-
ticularly the moose, depends upon the prohibition of its
sale. We would urge not only upon the Province of New
- Brunswick, but also upon all other provinces that have not,
as yet, adopted this essential measure, to amend their game
laws in such a manner as to make it illegal to sell protected
game of all kinds, except in those remote regions where the
difficulty of obtaining other forms of meat may render nec-
essary the sale of game, lawfully killed; in such cases ade-
quate safeguards, such as the appointment of special hunt-
ers to kill such game, and the submittal of sworn statements
as to the amount killed and its disposal, should be adopted
to prevent abuse of the privilege. Such prohibition will
have to come sooner or later, and it is surely more desirable
to put it into effect while the game is still fairly abundant
than to wait until its rarity compels the adoption of this
essential step in game and wild-life protection.

INDEX

Adverse factors to conservation, 21

Agriculture, Canada’s basic industry,
7; effect of extension of, 23; effect
of, on antelope, 72

Agriculture Dept., Canadian, cross-
breeding of buffalo by, 140

Alaska, last stronghold of big game, 26

Alberta, bird reserves in, 300; game
legislation of, 282; game reserves
in, 252

Algonquin Park, deer killed for meat
in, 247; description of, 247; wild
life in, 247

Allen, J. A., quoted on buffalo, 116;
quoted on Osborn’s caribou, 70;
quoted on musk-ox, 89

American Museum of Natural His-
tory, 97

Anderson, Dr. R. M., quoted on cari-
bou, 59, 60, 65; on skins used for
clothing, 59, 86; report on musk-ox
prepared by, 95; reports of, on
bird reserves, 301

Anglo-Newfoundland Development
Co., use reindeer in logging camps,
327

Animals, periodic fluctuations of, 213

Antelope, 5; abundance of, 73; distri-
bution of, in Canada, 73; effect
of extension of agriculture upon,
72; habits of, 73; history of, 71;
slaughter of, 72

Antelope Park, 75, 240

Archibald, E. S., statement on cross-
breeding buffalo by, 140

Area of Dominion Parks, 242

Asia, central, mountain sheep of, 5

Auks, razorbill, breeding, 308

Auld, F. H., on control of wolves and
coyotes in Saskatchewan, 200

Bacon, W. H., supplies fur returns of
Hudson’s Bay Co., 215

Baird, Prof. S. F., on domestication
of ruminants, 311; on reindeer, 319

Balance of nature in wild life, 22

Barber, Charles, quoted, 30, 44, 69

Barren-ground grizzly bear (see bear)

Barren lands, fur trade of, 10

Basin Lake game reserve, description
of, 303

Bear, barren-ground grizzly, 108

Bear, black, fluctuations of, 232;
habits of, 109; skins of, 108; wide
range of, 108

Bear, grizzly, distribution of, 103;
habits of, 104; variation in colour
of, 107

Bear, Kermode’s white, description
of, 110

Bear, polar, habits of, 102; in need of
protection, 102

Bears, in general, 101; protection of,

111; sale of meat in British Co-
lumbia, 33

Beaver, fluctuations in numbers of,
232

Beaver Hills game reserve, area of,
250

Bedson, S. L., buffalo cross-breeding
by, 138

Bell, J. M., quoted on barren-ground
grizzly bear, 107

Berlepsch, Baron Von, bird protec-
tion of, 177

Bernier, Capt. Joseph E., supplies
musk-ox to New York, 316

Big Hay Lake bird reserve, descrip-
tion of, 305

Big-horn sheep (see sheep)

Big River game reserve, area of, 251

Bigstick Lake bird reserve, descrip-
tion of, 304

Biological Investigation of the Atha-
baska-Mackenzie Region, 51

Birch Island game reserve, area of, 249

335

336

Birch Lake bird reserve, description
of, 304

Bird-boxes, 177

Bird census, in Manitoba, 173; in
United States, 175

Bird-houses, at Ottawa, 192; dia-
grams of, 179; dimensions of, 180

Bird protection and encouragement,
176

Bird reserves, government, 300; in
Saskatchewan, 301

Bird Rocks, as a bird reservation, 307

Birds, analysis of stomachs of, 168;
destruction of enemies, 181; de-
struction of haunts of, 172;
economic value of, 166; feeding
habits of, 168; general, 143; local
abundance of, 172; slaughtering
grounds of, 24; vegetable food of,
183; weed seed scattered by, 170

Bison (see buffalo)

Black, George, quoted on caribou, 60

Black bear (see bear)

Blue geese (see geese)

Bobcat, description of, 210

Bonaventure Island, as a bird reser-
vation, 307

Boy Scouts, value of, 287

Boyd, Mossom, herd of cattalos of,
140

Bradshaw, F., quoted, 30, 31, 45, 69,
74, 251

Braithwaite, Henry, quoted on wood-
land caribou, 68

Brant, breeding ground of, 149

British Columbia, game legislation
of, 283; reserves in, 253

Brondgeest, J. T., quoted on antelope,

7s)

Buffalo, almost disappeared, 113;
cross-breeding of, 138; destruction
of, 117; disposal of surplus of, 138;
distribution of, in Canada, 114;
domestication of, 136; end of,
hastened by railways, 119; former
meat supply of Indians, 118; fu-
ture of, in Canada, 136; in Europe,
5; last shipment of robes of, 122;
losses of, by storms, 116; methods
of slaughter of, 118; migration of,

INDEX

116; northern and southern herds,
120; protected by Indians, 119;
protection of, in parks, 113; range
of, 18, 113; slaughter of southern
herd, 120; suitable to winter con-
ditions, 137; where existing, 5

Buffalo, wood, estimate of number of,
124; numbers increasing, 133; need
protection of reserve, 126; pro-
tected by Indians, 128, 133; range
of, 123, 127, 130; two separate
bands, 129

Buffalo Lake bird reserve, descrip-
tion of, 305

Buffalo Park, creation of, 134; de-
scription of, 240; number of buffalo
in, 135; wapiti in, 34; wild life in,
240

Burnham, John B., on causes of
scarcity of grouse, 164

Bury, H. T., quoted on moose, 52;
on woodland caribou, 69

Cabot, Wm. B., quoted on Labrador
and Niagara, 214-215

Camsell, C., report on wood buffalo
by, 129

Canada, last stronghold of big game,
26; status of wild life of, 2

Canada goose (see geese)

Canadian Birds, catalogue of, 149

Canadian sportsmen, advantages of,
14

Canadians, lack of appreciation of
wild life by, 7

Caribou, 10, 56; as a source of meat
supply, 11, 26; danger of extinction
of, 21; distribution of, 59, 69; eco-
nomic value of, 64; enormous
herds of, 63; habits of, 58, 61;
Osborn’s, 70; spring killing of, by
Eskimos, 65; utilization of, by
Indians, 63; range of, 68; Rocky
Mountain, 71

Caribou warble-fly, 67

Catlin, on numbers of buffalo killed,
119

Cats, as bird destroyers, 181

Cattalo, at Scott, Sask., 142; breed-
ing of, 140

INDEX

Caucasus, buffalo of, 5

Cavell, Mount Edith, 236

Cedar Lake game reserve, area of,
249

Central Experimental Farm, a bird
sanctuary, I9I

Chaplin Lake bird reserve, descrip-
tion of, 303

Chapman, Robert, quoted on moun-
tain caribou, 69

Charlton, H. R., on game protection,
267

Christy, Miller, on number of wood
buffalo, 124

Civic game reserves, value of, 294

Clarke, Dr. John M., on birds of
Bird Rocks, 308

Clearwater and Smoky Rivers re-
serve, 255

Clubs, interests of, in wild life, 292

Code of ethics, the sportsman’s, 298

Commission of Conservation, investi-
gations of, 166; on provincial game
reserves, 243; recommendations of,
31; reports of, 4; resolution of, on
treaty on bird protection, 268

Community effort in wild life con-
servation, 286

Connaught, Duke of, quoted, 242

Conroy, Inspector H. A., report on
Indians, 128

Conservation of Fish, Birds, and
Game, quoted, 66

Cooking Lake forest reserve, descrip-
tion of, 252

Cougars, 195; number killed in
British Columbia, 198

Coyotes, 194; bounty paid on, in
Alberta, 199; bounty paid on, in
Saskatchewan, 201; destroy sheep,
197; number killed in British Co-
lumbia, 198; organized control of,
needed, 204

Cram Lake bird reserve, description
of, 304

Cranes, Little Brown, 155; Sandhill,
155; three species of, 154; whoop-
ing, 154

Criddle, Norman, bird census of, 172

Crocker Land Expedition, 97

337

Crown lands, Dominion parks re-
stricted to, 236

Crows, consume cut-worms,
food of, 167

Curlews, 156, 159; Eskimo, migra-
tions of, 20; long-billed, 160

Cypress Hills forest and game re-
serve, description of, 252

Cypress Hills game reserve, area of,
250

170;

Dall’s white mountain sheep (see
sheep)

Danish Government, administers fur
trade of Greenland, 261

Deer, as a meat supply, 7, 26

Deer, Columbia black-tailed, 46

Deer, mule, characteristics of, 43;
distribution of, 44; habits of, 44;
in Alberta, 45; in British Columbia,
45; in Manitoba, 44; in Rocky
Mountain Park, 45; in Saskatche-
wan, 44; in Waterton Lakes Park,
45; slaughter of, 45

Deer, white-tailed, 8, 9, 37; abun-
dance of, 41; distinguishing fea-
tures of, 38; distribution of, 38;
habits of, 39; meat supply by, 42;
original wide range of, 41; species
of, 37

Doghead Point game reserve, area
of, 249

Domestication of animals, 310

Dominion National Parks, area of, 242

Dominion Parks Act, 258; regula-
tions of, 275

Don Pablo, Michel, buffalo herd of,
134

Duck Mountain game reserve, area
of, 249, 251

Ducks, 149; baldpate or American
widgeon, 150; black, 150; canvas-
back, 152; eider, 152; gadwall, 150;
golden-eye or whistler, 152; mal-
lard, 150; merganser, 150; pin-tail,
151; redhead, 152; scaup or blue-
bill, 152; scoters, 154; shoveller or
spoonbill, 151; teal, 151; wood, 151

Duck-shooting, clubs and private
reserves, 293

338

Edmonton, J. T., quoted, 45

Education, value of, in wild life
conservation, 286

Eider ducks, economic importance
of, 153

Ekblaw, W. Elmer, on musk-ox, 92, 97

Elk (see wapiti)

Elk Island Park, description of, 239;
wapiti in, 34; wild life in, 239

Elk River reserve, 253

Elk teeth, slaughter of elk for, 27

Enemies of birds, destruction of, 181

England, practice in, on damage by
animals, 9

Eskimo curlew, 264

Eskimos, food supply of, 12; killing
of caribou by, 65, 66

Ethics, sportsman’s code of, 298

Extermination of wild life, causes of, 17

Fall shooting, regulation of, 24

Fannin’s saddle-backed sheep (see
sheep)

Farmers, rights of, to wild life, 290

Fauna, Canadian, groups covered, 2

Federal Migratory Bird Law, 266, 267

Female animals require protection, 22

Field-Naturalists’ Club, Ottawa, ef-
forts of, on bird sanctuaries, 191

Fisher, fluctuations in, 229; range
of, 229

Flies, bull-dog, 329

Florida Everglades, drainage of, 19

Fluctuations in numbers of fur-
bearing animals, 213

Food and water for birds, provision
of, 189

Forbush, E. H., quoted, 181

Forest fires, effect of, on wild life, 22,

51

Fort-a-la-Corne game reserve, area
of, 251

Four Years in the White North,
quoted, 97

Foxes, destructive to game-birds,
210; fluctuation in numbers of, 222

Franklin, Sir John, quoted on barren-
ground grizzly bear, 107

Fraser, W. W., quoted on control of
wolves and coyotes, 203

INDEX

Fruit-bearing trees and shrubs, list
of, 184

Fur-bearing animals, value of, 11

Fur Farming in Canada, 4

Fur resources, national ownership
of, 260

Fur trade, chief occupation of north,
258

Fur trader, independent, effect of, 13

Game as food, sale of, 331

Game Birds of California, 149

Game Birds, Wild Fowl and Shore
Birds, 149

Game Conservation Board, British
Columbia, 34

Game legislation, provincial, 277

Game protection, by farmers, 290

Game Protective Associations, or-
ganization of, 295

Game Refuge Act, New Brunswick,
243

Game reserves, area of, in Canada, 256

Game reserves, in Alberta, 252; pro-
vincial, 243; summary of, in
Canada, 255

Game Resources of Alaska, quoted, 60

Gannet, breeding, 308

Gaspesian Forest, Fish, and Game
Preserve, 244

Geese, blue, breeding-ground of, 149;
Canada, breeding-grounds of, 146;
migrations of, 146; tags of, re-
turned, 148; Hutchins’s, range of,
148; snow, or white, breeding-
ground of, 149; reserve for, in
Nova Scotia, 308

Glacier National Park, 238, 240

Goat, Rocky Mountain, 5, 86; distri-
bution of, 88; habits of, 87; in
Dominion parks, 88; number killed
in Alberta, 88

Goshawk, destroyer of game-birds,
210

Graham, Maxwell, 75

Grasses, collection of, 131

Great Auk, 264; extinction of, 20

Greenland, musk-ox of, 5; fur trade
of, 261

Grenfell, Dr. Wilfred T., 328; dis-

INDEX

poses of reindeer, 329; experiments
of, with reindeer, 324; on uses of
reindeer, 325

Grindstone Point game reserve, area
of, 249

Grizzly bear (see bears)

Grouse, I61; pinnated, or prairie
chicken, 162; causes of decrease of,
164; prairie sharp-tailed, 163;
ptarmigan, 162; Richardson’s, 161;
ruffed, 162; spruce, I61; sage, or
sage-hen, 165; scarcity of, 163

Gulls, inland, feed on grubs, 171

Hall, W. C. T., quoted, 245

Hanbury, D. T., quoted on caribou, 63

Harkin, J. B., report of, quoted, 34

Harmon, on abundance of wood buf-
falo, 124

Hawks, Cooper’s, description of, 211;
food of, 168; sharp-shinned, de-
scription of, 211

Hearne, Samuel, on occurrence of
wood buffalo, 123; on _ barren-
ground grizzly bear, 107

Henry, Alexander, on former abun-
dance of buffalo, 117; on grizzly
.bear, 103

Hind’s expedition, 1859, 119

Hollister, N., quoted on Rocky Moun-
tain caribou, 71

Hornaday, W. T., quoted, vi, 19, 27,
73, 97, 116; ethical code of, 298;
estimate of buffalo by, in 1889, 122,
134; on attempts to colonize musk-
Ox, 311; on buffalo on prairies,
137; on effects of railways on buf-
falo, 120; on extermination of buf-
falo, 113; on habits of musk-ox,
317; on musk-ox in captivity, 316

How to Attract Birds, 184

Hudson’s Bay Co., annual returns of
musk-ox skins, 99; fur returns of,
216, 220, 222; moose killed for, 53;
sales of musk-ox skins by, 93;
sales of skins of whistling swans
by, 144; returns of skins by, 225;
returns of bear-skins by, 102, 108;
rights of, 261; trade of, 12; wood
buffalo meat brought to, 125

339

Hulbert, A. B., on buffalo routes, 123

Humane Society, Ottawa, efforts of,
on bird sanctuaries, 191

Hunting territories, Quebec, 292

Hutchins’s goose (see geese)

Indian Affairs Dept., take over Gren-
fell reindeer, 328

Indians, Dog-Ribs, 62

Insects destroyed by birds, 167

Isle of Bays reserve, 251

Jackson, Dr. Sheldon, on reindeer,
319, 326

Jackson Hole, wapiti secured from, 34

Jarvis, A. M., on number of wood
buffalo, 125, 126

Jasper Park, description of,
wild life in, 236

Johnston Lake bird reserve, descrip-
tion of, 302

Jones, C. J., buffalo cross-breeding
by, 139; experience of, with buffalo,
136

Joy, Sergt. A. H., quoted, 64

236;

Keele, Joseph, quoted re sheep, 85

Kenaston, Prof. C. A., exploration
by, 121

Kermode, F., bear species discovered
by, 110

Killing must be regulated, 19

Kipling, quotation from, 14

Klotz, Dr. Otto, quoted on wood
buffalo, 125

Knight, J. A., on geese at Port Joli,
309

Labrador, caribou of, II; experi-
ments with reindeer in, 324

Labrador duck, 264; extinction of,
18

Lac la Biche bird reserve, descrip-
tion of, 306

Lake Lenore bird reserve, descrip-
tion of, 303

Lake St. Martin game reserve, area
of, 249

Lake Winnipegosis game reserve,
area of, 249

340

La Nauze, Inspector, report on musk-
ox by, 95

Lantz, David E., quoted, 37

Last Mountain Lake bird reserve,
description of, 302

Laurentides National Park, descrip-
tion of, 245; wild life of, 245

Lawton, B., quoted, 31; on wolves
and coyotes, 199

Legislation, provincial game, 277

Lemoine, Father, quoted on wapiti, 28

Life Histories of Northern Animals,
quoted, 73, 226

Lion, mountain, 195

Lithuania, buffalo of, 5

Live stock, destroyed by wolves and
coyotes, 195

Lloyd, Reuben, antelope on farm of,
74; game preserve of, 289

Loring, J. Alden, quoted, 45

Lynx, Canada, 209; fluctuations in
number of, 219

MacDonald, T. K., experience of, 226

MacFarlane, R., quoted, 50, 69, 92,
93, 107, 114, 216, 226, 234

MacKenzie, Thomas P., quoted on
losses of sheep, 196

MacLeod, Sergt. R. W., report of, on
wood buffalo, 128

MacMillan, Dr. Donald B., on abun-
dance of musk-ox, 97

Macoun, John, on wood buffalo, 124

Macoun, J. M., collection of northern
grasses by, 131

Macoun, W. T., list of trees and
shrubs by, 184

Macrae, J.A., quoted on wood buffalo,
125

Manchester, city of, bird protection
by, 180

Manitoba, game legislation of, 281;
provincial game reserves in, 249

Many Island Lake bird reserve, de-
scription of, 305

Market hunters, 21

Markham, Sir Clements, writings of, 97

Marsh, Miss E. L., sanctuary of, 289

Marten, fluctuations of, 226; feed on
adult insects, 169; migration of, 227

INDEX

McAtee, quoted on attracting birds,
184 «

McConnell, R. G., quoted on moun-
tain sheep, 85

McDonald, R. C., quoted, 32

Mellor, Corp., report on wood buffalo
by, 127

Merriam, Dr. C. Hart, collection of
bear skulls of, 107

Mershon, W. B., quoted, 20

Mexico, birds not protected in, 156

Mice, importance of as food of other
animals, 214

Migratory Bird Treaty, action of
governments on, 268; effect of, on
game birds, 156; provides close
season for swans, 145; text of, 270

Migratory birds, causes of decrease,
265

Migratory Birds Convention Act,
258, 264; regulations under, 274

Miner, Jack, sanctuary of, 146, 289;
tags returned to, 148

Ministik Lake bird reserve, descrip-
tion of, 306

Mink, fluctuations in, 230

Miquelon Lake bird reserve, descrip-
tion of, 305 '

Moldavia, buffalo of, 5

Moose, 4, 46; as a food supply, 56;
distribution and abundance of, 48;
habits of, 55; number killed, 48,
50; protection of, 47

Moose Mountain game reserve, 250

Mount Robson Park, 254

Mountain caribou (see caribou)

Mountain lion, 195

Mountain sheep, special reserve for,
255

Moving pictures, value of, in educa-
tion, 288

Mule deer (see deer, mule)

Mulloy, G. A., report of, on wood
buffalo, 128

Murres breeding, 308

Musk-ox, 5, 12; description of, 89;
distribution of, 95; domestication
of, 310; habitat of, 97; migrations
of, 98; protection of, 98; range of,
89; slaughter of, 92, 94; suggested

INDEX

sanctuary for, 94; value of, as fur-
bearer, 93
Musk-ox robes, value of, 98
Muskrat, fluctuations in, 232

Nature study, value of, 287

Nelson, Dr. E. W., discovers new
species of sheep, 84; on control of
predatory animals, 207; on range
of buffalo, 116; on wood buffalo,
124; on Dall’s sheep, 77

Nesting-boxes, 177

New Brunswick, game legislation of,
279; sale of game in, 333

New Brunswick game reserve, 243

New Mammals from Canada, Alaska,
and Kamchatka, quoted, 71

Nichols, D. A., quoted, 32

Non-agricultural lands, use of, 7; po-
tential value for wild-life reserves,
10, 12

North American Fish and Game
Protective Assn., 267

Northwest Game Act, 100, 125, 258,
259, 260

Northwest Territories, attempt to
introduce reindeer into, 329; de-
velopment of, 10

Notes on Mountain Sheep in North
America, quoted, 77

Nova Scotia, deer bones found in, 41;
deer introduced into, 42; game
legislation of, 278; game reserve
for, 256; sale of moose meat al-
lowed, 332

Nuthatches, insect food of, 168

Odell, Carmen, introduces deer into’

Nova Scotia, 42

Ogilvie, W., quoted, on wood buffalo,
125

Oliver, Hon. Frank, quoted, on wood
buffalo, 125

Oliver Lake bird reserve, description
of, 305

Ontario, game legislation of, 281

Osborn’s caribou, 70

Osgood, W. H., quoted on caribou, 60

Ottawa, game reserve suggested in
federal plan of, 294

341

Otter, fluctuations in, 232

Our National Elk Herds, quoted, 28

Our Shorebirds and Their Future, 157

Owl, great horned, destructive to
birds, 210; food of, 168

Pakowki Lake bird reserve, descrip-
tion of, 306

Panther, 195

Parks, national, protect wild life, 235

Parks Branch, 75, 138, 236, 268

Pasquia game reserve, area of, 251

Passenger pigeon, 264; slaughter of, 20

Peasemarsh Farm sanctuary, 289

Peonan Point game reserve, area of,
249

Percé Rock, as a bird reservation, 307

Pike, Warburton, quoted on caribou,
61, 62, 64

Plea for the Conservation of the
Eider, 154

Plover, 156

Point Pelee National Park, descrip-
tion of, 241

Poison, for destruction of predatory
animals, 208

Polar bear (see bear)

Porcupine game reserve, area of, 251

Port Joli, N. S., reserve for geese, 309

Prairie chicken (see grouse)

Preble, E. A., quoted, 21, 45, 51, 85,
126, 218

Predatory animals, 17, 193, 206, 207,
293

Predatory birds, 210, 293

Prince Edward Island, game legisla-
tion of, 278

Private sanctuaries, 289

Protection and encouragement of
birds, 176

Provincial game legislation, 277

Provincial Museum, Victoria, sheep
specimen in, 77

Puffin, breeding, 308

Puma, 195

Quail, or bob-white, 160

Quebec, game legislation of, 280

Quetico Forest Reserve, description
of, 248

342

Quill Lakes bird reserve, description
of, 303

Rabbit, or varying hare, fluctuation
of, 216

Raccoon, fluctuations in, 232

Railways, effect of, on wild life, 18

Rainey, Paul J., herd of musk-ox of,
316

Raising deer and other large animals
in the United States, 37

Red Deer Point game reserve, area
of, 249

Redberry lake bird reserve, descrip-
tion of, 303

Reindeer, advantages of, 12; develop-
ment of, in Alaska, 318; importa-
tion of skins into Canada, 59-60;
introduced into Northwest Terri-
tories, 329; purchased from Europe,
326; regulations for, in Alaska,
322; use of, in Canada, 324

Reindeer Island game reserve, area
of, 249

Reserves, private, feeding on, 293;
food-planting, 293

Revelstoke Park, 241

Richardson, John, quoted, 107, 124

Riding Mountain game reserve, 28,
249

Robins, as insect destroyers, 167

Rocky Mountain caribou (see cari-
bou)

Rocky Mountain sheep (see sheep)

Rocky Mountain Park, description
of, 237; wapiti in, 34; wild life in,
237

Rondeau Provincial Park, description
of, 248

Roosevelt, Theodore,
value of clubs, 292

Rutland, Vt., action of sportsmen
of, 9

quoted, on

Sage hen (see grouse)

Sale of game, 332, 333

Sanctuaries for birds, 190, 289

Sandpipers, 158; least, 159; migration
range, 155; semi-palmated, 158;

INDEX

solitary, 159; upland plover, or
Bartramian, 159

Saskatchewan, bird reserves in, 300,
301; game legislation of, 31, 282;
some reserves in, 250

Saskatchewan Rivers (North and
South) game reserves, 251

Saunders, W. E., bird protection
work of, 175

Schultz, Hon. Dr., estimate of num-
ber of wood buffalo, 124

Science, quoted, 41

Scott, Capt. R. F., quoted, 287

Scott, D. C., quoted, 15

Seton, Ernest Thompson, quoted,
28, 31, 44, 73, 75, 93, 104, 126,
218, 226

Sheep, black mountain, description
of, 76, 81; Dall’s, description of, 76,
84; losses of, in British Columbia,
195; mountain, 5; protection of,
203; Rocky Mountain, 76, 78, 79,
80; Saddle-backed (Fannin’s), 77;
Stone’s, or black mountain, 76, 81

Sheldon, Charles, quoted on sheep,
77, 78, 81, 85

Shikar Club, object of, 297

Shore-birds, or waders, 155

Siberia, importations of
from, 318

Skunk, fluctuations in, 230

Smith, Harlan I., discovery of, 41

Snipe, 156

Snow or white goose (see geese)

South America, bird protection in,
156

Sparrows, native, as weed destroyers,
169

Sport and Travel in Northland of
Canada, quoted, 63

Sportsmen, interested in game pro-
tection, 296

Spring shooting, effect of, 23

Spruce Woods game reserve, area of,
249

Stefansson, V., on caribou, 60; on
musk-ox, 92, 98; on domestica-
tion of musk-ox, 311

Stone, A. J., quoted on moose, 52

reindeer

INDEX

Stone’s black mountain sheep (see
sheep)

St. Lawrence, bird reservations in
Gulf of, 307

Strathcona Park, 254

Swallows, feed on adult insects, 169

Swamps, effect of drainage of, 23

Swans, trumpeter, 145; whistling, 144

Taverner, P. A., 241, 255; estimate
by, of birds on Bonaventure
Island, 308; on Canada goose, 146;
on scarcity of grouse, 164; on
whistling swans, 144

The Pines game reserve, area of, 250

Thrush, food of, 168

Tit, blue, insect food of, 167, 168

Townsend, Dr. C. W., quoted, 154,
319

Trading posts, new,
Arctic, 60

Trapping of wolves, coyotes, 204

Treaty on bird protection, resolu-
tion on, 267

Tree-creepers, insect food of, 168

Trees and shrubs attractive to birds,
184-188

Trembling Mountain Park, 244

Turtle Mountain game reserve, area
of, 249

Tyrrell, J. B., on barren-ground
grizzly bear, 107; on caribou, 63;
on moose, 52; on musk-ox, 94

Tyrrell, J. W., quoted on caribou, 65

in Canadian

United States, animals extend range
to, 5; raising deer and other large
animals in, 37; wild life lost to, 1

United States Dept. of Agriculture,
bird census of, 175

Useful Birdsand Their Protection, 181

Utah Live Stock Board, estimate by,
of losses of sheep by wolves, 206

Vancouver, bird sanctuary in Stan-
ley Park at, 192
Vermont, experience of, 8, 9

Wallachia, buffalo of, 5
Wapiti, or elk, 4, 5; as meat supply,

343

36; bulletin on, 37; decreasing in
Alberta, 31; distribution of, in
Saskatchewan, 30; estimated num-
ber of, 28; habits of, 35; in British
Columbia, 32, 33; in Manitoba, 30;
popular name for, 4; range of, 28;
representative of European rein-
deer, 26

Warblers, insect food of, 168

Wascana game reserve, 251

Waterton Lakes Park, description of,
238; wapiti in, 34; wild life in, 239

Weed seeds eaten by birds, 169

Wharton, W. P., estimate by, of
buffalo in 1912, 134

Wheeler, Dr. W. M., Preface, v

Whistling swan (see swan)

White Bear Lake bird reserve, 304

White, James (J. W.), buffalo in
Wainwright Buffalo Park, 135; on
sale of reindeer meat, 325

White wavey geese, 149

Wild fowl, slaughtering grounds of, 24

Wild life, conservation of, 7, 18; con-
ditions militating against, 235; re-
lation of Indians to, 12; danger in
numbers of, 19; economic devel-
opment of, 10; enemies of, 193;
extermination of, 17; protection of,
by Dominion Government, 258; rec-
reative value of, 13; relation of,
to natives, 12; value of, to farmers,

291

Wild Life Conservation, 9

Wild Life Protection, Advisory Board
on, 259

Wild life protection, individual effort
in, 286

Wilderness of the Upper Yukon,
quoted, 77

Wilkins, George H., quoted on musk-
Ox, 95

Williams, Bryan, quoted, 33, 53, 70,
83, 88, 198

Wilson, Dr. C. W., quoted on moose,

53
Wintemberg, W. J., discovery of, 41
Wire fences, effect of, on antelope, 72
Wolverine, fluctuations in, 232
Wolves, bounty paid on, in Alberta,

344

199; destruction of stock by, 206-
207; in Laurentides Park, 245, 246;
enemies of deer, 193; fluctuation in
numbers of, 225; food of, 225;
number killed, 198

Wood bison (see buffalo)

Woodcock, 156

Woodland caribou (see caribou)

Woodpeckers, food of, 171

Yak, proposed cross-breeding with, 142

INDEX

Yalakom game reserve, 253

Yellowlegs, 156; greater and lesser,
159

Yoho Park, 240

Yukon, caribou of, 11; fur resources
of, 262; killing of game by Indians
of, 263

Yukon Game Ordinance, 258, 262

Zoological Society of New York, on
musk-ox in captivity, 316

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