LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE Source. SB 191 M2 P6 w^ IP III n II ISE r,!^)^ H lElE l!^. ^ Correspondence College of Agriculture CORN— PART ONE ji ^ J THE Correspondence College of Agriculture CORN— Part I History, Types and v arieties of Corn By HARRY B. POTTER, B. S. Assistant Professor of Farm Crops in Iowa State College This is the First ofja Series of Four Books giving a Complete Course of Instruction on Corn. COPYRIGHT, 1910 Ihi CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE NOTE TO STUDENTS In order to derive the utmost possible benefit from this paper, you must thoroug^hly master the text. While it is not intended that you commit the exact words of the text to memory, still there is nothing: contained in the text which is not absolutely essential for the intelligent corn grower to know. For your own good never refer to the examination questions until you have finished your study of the text. By following this plan, the examination paper will show what you have learned from the text. Part I— CORN INTRODUCTION. The study of a crop, such as corn has become, involves a con- sideration of many complex, yet interesting-^ items which include figures, facts and ideas. In the case where figures are involved to any great extent we generally have a study which might be classed as economics. Where facts are a part of our Avork there are features of agricultural progress emphasized by accurate data secured, as a rule, by some experiment station. Classed under ideas are those generally accepted opinions which in most cases are both practical and practicable, and yet which have never been made a matter of definite experimentation for the purpose of ascer- taining to what extent, if at all, they are really money-making schemes. In other words, we have had ideas for many years as to how corn should be treated. The Indians had ideas before we did. Some of these ideas, as the years of agricultural development passed, were placed under the perfect control of experienced men. As a result of their work, which took place (as has been saidj usually on experimental farms, there exist today certain facts which will stand the test of the most careful critic. As a result of this transition from ideas to facts there has been a history laid down which shows where corn has traveled in its course, why it has developed in certain well defined sections to such an extent, why the development in two sections has not been the same, nor like the change in any other section. These matters of history ^*Hare given to us more or less in figures, all of which point to the •">-<■ development of one of the greatest world crops. to CORN PLATE I— A Good Ear of Corn This is an ear of Reid's Yellow Dent and shows remarkable uniformity. Iowa State Colleg-e. CORN 5 Corn as a World Crop. No one doubts the place of corn as a world crop. Every na- tion has been raising- it for years past, and as the history of agri- culture advances there seems to be a greater eagerness on the part of all to participate in the raising of corn, our greatest cereal. A comparison of the years 1904-1908 will show how all nations are concerned. The following table gives for the above years the total yield in million bushels for each continent : 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 Europe 304 4^0 608 490 528 North America 2,576 2,812 3,021 2,686 2,762 South America 180 146 199 79 143 Australasia .11 9 9 11 9 Africa 59 38 38 42 o7 Total.... 3.110 3,445 3,875 3.308 3,479 This table l^rings out the importance of corn as a whole crop, since the annual yield is around three and one-half billion bushels, on an area of about one hundred and thirty-five million acres. The folloAving table gives, for the continents, the amount of land under corn for years 1904-1908, in million acres : 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 Europe 24 24 25 26 25 North America 93 94 97 lOO 102 South America 5 6 7 8 7 Australasia 3 .3 .3 .3 .3 Africa 2 2 2 2 2 Total : 124.3 126.3 131.3 136.3 136.3 North America stands out from among all of the rest in acreage and yield. Likewise the United States of all the North American countries is the one where corn is most popular. Rank of the United States. The table below shows how the United States ranks in yield. If acreage were given, the same general ratio of countries would be shown. Figures are given in million bushels : CORN 7 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 United States 2.468 2.708 2,927 2,593 2,669 Canada 20 21 24 23 23 Mexico 88 83 70 70 70 CHART II Comparative Acreage of all Cereals in the United States, 1909 10 MILLIONS OF ACRES Per Cent 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 HO^Irp^^^i Corn H . ■1 H H M H H ■i H M OI XOld.1 53.8 Wheat im ^ ^ ^ ■ _23.2 Oats ^^ ^ ^ ■ _16.2 Barley Flax __3.4 m ■ 1 1 1.4 Rye 9 Stickwheat 3 Rice .3 AVith these fig-iires before us, the importance of corn as a crop among all nations is very evident, and when we consider that seventy-five per cent, of the crop of the world is raised in North America and ninety per cent, of the corn of North Amer- ica is raised in the United States, it is also evident that the United States has a great responsibility as an example for other nations. It is not to be wondered then that we will find in some of the newspapers of worth such statements as these: "Imagine if you can what a corn crop of 3,121,391,000 bushels for this year with reserve holdings amounting to 119,056,000 bushels means to this country. The Agricultural Department Report, issued Wednesday, is astounding. It simply runs ahead of our fondest hopes and establishes the farms of America as greater than ever the productive basis of real prosperity. Three billion bushels of CORN Scutellum Tip Starch Tip Cap Plate 2— The Physical Parts of the Corn Kernel Represents a longitudinal section of the kernel, germ laid ha.re. —Bou'inan and Cross/ey. CORN 9 corn is equivalent to a per capita distribution of thirty-five bushels for each person in America. The country's prosperity is assured by this new record crop. It may be a more o^eneral prosperity where the increased volume will more than offset the high net re- turns of recent years, when a smaller crop sold at a greater price per bushel." In other words, this enormous yield of corn in the United States will mean more dollars in the pockets of more people than ever before. Chart I. bring's out graphically the relation of this corn crop to the continents of this world and indicates very clearly where the United States stands as a corn growing nation. Corn Among other Cereals, But it is not sufficient to consider the United States and the corn crop alone. If we take the comparative acreage of the cereals as shown by Chart II., we get a graphic representation of the value of corn among the other cereals raised in the United States. The average person fails to realize the importance of the corn crop ; especially if he lives in a wheat-growing section. TABLE I.. Acreage of Corn as Compared with Total Acreage of All Farm Land in Each of the Ten Leading States in Its Production in 1900, Acres of State. Farm Land. Illinois 32,794,728 Iowa ■ 34,574,337 Missouri 33,997,873 Nebraska , 29,911,779 Indiana 21,619,623 Texas 125,807,017 Kansas .' 41,662,970 Ohio 24,501,985 Oklahoma 15,719,258 Kentucky 21,979,422 Acres Per in Corn. Cent. 7,139,898 21.8 8,048,946 23.3 6,453,943 18.9 8,093,464 27.1 4,031,600 19.1 4,553,495 3.6 8,624,770 20.7 2,888,924 11.8 544,000 3.5 2,664,124 12.1 lO CORN CHART III Production of Corn in the Ten Leading States, 1909 Illinois Iowa Missouri,., Indiana Nebraska . Kansas Ohio Texas Kentucky. Oklahoma MILLIONS OF BUSHELS 100 200 300 400 Per Cent of 50 SO 50 SO Tot'l Prod'ctn ^ ^ ^ ^ ■ 13.3 IB H H ■ 104 Mm " ■ 7.7 7.1 i[a ■ 6.9 B 5.5 H 5.5 4.-4 1 . _. 3.7 3.6 TABLE II. Production and Population. Total Production Corn per Year. Population, in U. S. (bushels) Capita (bus.) 1850 23,191,876 592,071,104 25.5 1860 31,443,321 838,792,742 26.6 1870.. 38,558,471 760,944,549 19.7 1880 50,155,783 1,754,591,676 34.9 1890 62,622,190 2,122,327,547 33.8 1900 75,997,873 2,666,440,279 35.0 CORN II Prominent Corn-Growing States. As the United States, then, is the first amoni( all nations in the production of corn, it is only natural to turn to the states which make this fact true. In Table I. will be noted some facts regarding- the ten leading states in corn production in 1900. It is not always fair to consider one fact alone, but when it is realized that a state is willing to devote a high percentage of farm lands to corn, the state must be considered a corn-producing one. The figures given are for the year 1900, and while those figures are not changing particularly for some of the highest states, they are materially changing for a great many of the states not now among the so-called corn belt. Chart III. represents the common way of comparing states ; namely, b}'^ taking the total production of each state, reg'ardless of the amount of land devoted to that work. The per cents, given in this chart re])resents the per cents, of total pro- duction in the United States. This is more readily shown by Chart IV. and Chart V. At the same time that these graphic pic- tures are illustrating the relative importance of the various states as corn producers, they show the enormous change in the total production as far as the United States is concerned since the decade 1869-1878. Corn per Capita. As the corn crop is intended to serve mankind in one way or another, it is always natural to compare the yield with the popu- lation. Table II. gives the increase in population since the year 1850 and besides it the total production of corn in the United States since that time. It is noticeable that the corn per capita - has g'radually increased until it has reached the large amount of thirty-five bushels for each person in the United States. This means that corn alone adds twelve to fifteen dollars to the amount of money available for each individual. More Corn to the Acre Desired. But after all these facts are considered and we realize the im- portance of corn as a world crop, as a crop in the United States; as a crop in our own state, and as a crop in our own county, we turn to any teaching 'which will help us raise that crop more I 2 CORN CHART IV. CHART V. CORN 13 CHART VI Yield Per Acre in the United States from 1866-1909 BUSHELS 5 10 15 20 25 30 Ave. Bu. 1866-1870___ ^ ■ ■ - - H 24.6 1870-1880. __ m^ll 27.1 1880-1890. __ " ■ ■ ^m 24.1 1890-1900. __ ■■ ■■ WM wmm 24.1 1900-1909. . _ H H wm HH ■ 25.8 1909___ ■i tm Hi ^^ 1 25.5 profitably. It is not uncommon nowadays to hear lectures on corn, and the main topic of discussion at these lectures is how to produce more and better corn to the acre. Fig-ures and statistics will not enable us to do that work. They only act as incentives for greater effort on our part ; and that effort is to be expended with the idea of raisino- more corn to the acre. Yield per Acre in the United States. It is interesting in this connection to note the yield per acre in average figures in the United States from 1866 to 1909. This is shown in Chart VI. It must be borne .in mind that average figures are the only ones that can be justly used, and while in- stances may be known where 100 bushels, and over, of corn are raised on an acre of land, it is also known when we get the aver- age figures that there must be some exceedingly low yields to bring the average so low. Yield per Acre, Locally. It is not a very bad comparison to use only the figures giv- ing the average yield ' per acre ; and, the student can do this not only in comparing his state with other states, but his county or township with other counties or townships. Table III. is given 14 CORN with the idea of showing how this comparison can be made. The first column represents figures which are averages. The second column shows what the crop did in 1909. Getting a comparison of this kind, one is able to see whether his particular locality is achieving much along the lines of corn improvement. To sum up all that has been said along these lines of sta- tistics and figures, Table IV. will be used. This chart represents various phases of the question of which state leads in the pro- duction of corn. Data for 1909 are used and the states ranked according to acreage, but there are other figures in the columns which might perhaps have as well been used to bring out the points at hand. TABLE III. Average Yield per Acre, 1879-1908 and 1909. Rani 1 2 o 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Bush 1879- 1908. .38.9 .38.0 :. State or Territory New Hampshire. Ohio Iowa 37.9 Vermont 37.9 Massachusetts . . . 37.2 Illinois 36.9 Connecticut 35.9 Maine 3S.3 Indiana 34.4 Pennsylvania ....33.7 New Jersey .....33.4 Nebraska 33.1 Wisconsin 32.9 Rhode Island ....32.6 Missouri 31.9 Michigan 31.0 California 30.8 Dis. of Columbia. 30.7 Minnesota 30.0 New York 30.3 Kansas 29.1 Maryland 28.4 Indian Territory. .26.0 Idaho 25.3 Kentucky 25.3 els 1909. 35.1 39.5 31.5 37.0 38.0 35.9 41.0 38.0 40.0 32.0 32.7 24.8 33.0 33.1 26.4 35.4 34.8 34'8 34.5 19.9 31.4 •30.6 29.0 Rank. Bushels 1879- State or Territory. 1908. 19C9. 26 Nevada . ■. 25 27 West Virginia.. . .24, 28 Oklahoma^ 23 29 South Dakota.... 23 30 Arizona 23 31 Oregon 22 32 Tennessee 22 33 Delaware 22 34 Montana 22 35 Washinp'ton 20 36 New Mexico. .20, 37 Virginia 19 38 North Dakota 19 39 Texas ...., 19 40 Arkansas 18 41 Utah 18 42 Wyoming 19 43 Colorado 17. 44 Mississippi 15, 45 Louisiana 15. 46 Alabama 13. 47 North Carolina. . .13 48 South' Carolina. .. 11. 49 Georgia 10. 50 Florida 9. 31.4 17.0 31.7 32.0 30.7 22.0 31.0 35.0 27.8 31.3 23.2 3l'0 15.0 18.0 31.4 28.0 24.2 14.5 23.0 13.5 16.8 16.6 13.9 12.6 CORN 15 Note:— All states except Oklahoma, South Dakota, Wyoming, Nevada and District of Columbia are figured for the total 30-year basis. TABLE IV. Rank in Corn Production, 1909. ^_, 0 j; 3 m ' Hg. 6 K (J be .5 c fcc^ 0 ^ 0 >. 0 V -a 2 0 u m < >% > PhP It is interesting-, in noting the columns of Table IV., to take into account the blank colums of "% of Farm Lands" and "Quality." The former figures were difficult to secure accurately, so the column was left blank. The suggestion, however, of that item in the comparison is present. The column of data regarding "Quality" would be well nigh impossible of expressing, but that there is a difference in quality, in corn from one state as com- pared with that of another, there can be no doubt. And so a careful inspection of the market reports, giving grades on corn from different places, might well be made. LABORATORY EXERCISE. Take the last Year Book of the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture that you can secure and find from the fig'ures given in it whether your own state and community has improved to any material extent in the work it has been doing along corn grow- i6 . CORN ing-. A letter to your Congressman will secure this book for you, free of charge. A letter to your Governor will determine for you whether your own state produces a State Year Book. If it does, secure one of these books and a closer account of the corn-pro- ducing- sections of your district can be found. THE HISTORY OF CORN. Doubt as to Its Origin. As was said in the introduction of the work, corn has made for itself a history ; one which perhaps no other cereal has made, and yet we are not exactly sure of its origin. Some have said that corn originated in China. Some have said that it originated in Mexico, South America, and some would even have the crop pro- duced first in some of the islands of the Atlantic Ocean. But it is pretty definitely established that America holds first claim to the crop which she now holds first claim to produce. DeCandolle's Account. DeCandolle, who wrote some time ago, gave a history of corn which is pretty generally accepted, at least it can be said of him that his book on the "Origin of Cultivated Plants" is more fre- quently quoted than any other book along the same line. He says of corn that it "is of American origin and has only been introduced into the old world since the discovery of the new. I consider these two assertions as positive in' spite of the contrary opinion of some authors and the doubts of the celebrated agriculturist Banofous, to whom we are indebted for the most complete treatise on maize. No one denies that maize was unknown in Europe at the time of the Roman Empire, but it has been said that it was brought from the East in the Middle Ages. The principal argument is based upon a charter of the Thirteenth century, published by Molinari, according to which two crusaders, companions in arms of Boniface III., Marquis of Monferrat, gave in 1204 to the town of Incisa a piece of the true cross and a purse containing a kind of seed of a golden color and partly white, unknown in the country and brought from Australia, where it was called meliga, etc. The his- torian of the Crusades, Michaux, and later Daru and Sismondi, said a great deal about this charter, but the botanist Delile, as CORN i; well as Targionitozzetti and Bonafons himself, thought that the seed in question might belong to some sorghum and not to maize. These old discussions have been rendered absurd by the Comte de Riant's discovery that the charter of Incisa is the fabrication of a modern impostor. I quote this instance to show how scholars who are not naturalists may make mistakes in the interpretation of the names of plants ; and also how dangerous it is to rely upon an isolated proof in historical questions." This characteristic argument follows through the work of DeCandolle until the reader comes to believe that Indian corn or maize, notwithstanding the fact that it was grown early in Egypt and India and China, came from America. He says as a conclusion to his argument that "maize is not a native of the old world. It became rapidly diffused in it ^fter the discovery of America, and this very rapidly completes the proof that had it existed anywdiere in Asia or Africa, it would have played an im- portant part in agriculture for thousands of years. We shall see that the facts are quite contrary to these in America. At the time " of the discovery of the new^ continent, maize was one of the sta- ples of its agriculture, from the La Plata valley to the United States. It had names in all the languages. The natives planted it around their temporary dwellings where they did not form a fixed population. The burial mounds of the natives of North America who preceded those of our day, the tombs of the Incas, the catacombs of Peru, contain ears of grains of maize, just as the monuments of ancient Egypt contain grains of barley and wheat and millet seed. In Mexico, a goddess who bore a name derived from that of maize answered to the Ceres of the Greeks, for the first fruits of the maize harvest were offered to her, as the first fruits of our cereals to the Greek goddess. At Cusco the virgins of the sun offered sacrifices of bread made from In- dian corn. Nothing is better calculated to show the antiquity and generality of the cultivation of a plant than this intimate connection with the religious rites of the ancient inhabitants. We must not, however, attribute to these indications the same importance in America as in the old world. The civilization of the Peruvians under' the Incas and that of the Toltecs and Aztecs in Mexico has not the extraordinary antiquity of the civilizations of China, Chaldea, and Egypt. It dates at earliest from the be- i8 CORN ginning' of the Christian era; but the cultivation of maize is more ancient than the monuments, to judge from the numerous varieties of the species found in them, and their dispersal into remote regions." Corn an Old Crop to America. And so it can be readily seen that corn is a very ancient crop. In America, the Indians, of course, raised much of it be- fore the vv^hite man came, and after the white man settled in this country and began to^ conquer one place after another, he, of course, learned much from the Indians as to how to select the best ears for seed, arid how and when to plant the corn. Of course, their ideas were very crude. The Indians usually cleared a, small spot and the squaws did the planting by making small holes in the ground with a stick and dropping in each hole the number of kernels they desired. Sometimes a small fish would be used as a fertilizer. In the fall the corn would be picked and stored away in pits dug in the ground. Such methods as these we have reason to believe were used by the early settlers of this country, but the native ability of the white man led him to im- prove the methods in vogue among the Indians, and it soon be- came possible for him to cultivate a large area in producing the corn that he desired. Work of the Colonists. The first successful attempt of the English to cultivate corn in North America was in 1608, and that along the James River in Virginia. Before that time, there must have been some fairly g-ood corn raised, for, soon after it, as many as thirty acres in one piece are recorded. It is said that as early as 1650 corn to the extent of 600 bushels was exported from Savannah, and by 1770 the amount exported from this same place had reached 13,598 bushels. From this time on, the average increased very rapidly until we have the enormous figures already recorded. The main increase in yield in the United States has been due to the increased acreage. Now that the corn acreage is practically com- plete, it is necessary to increase the 3aeld per acre. CORN 19 THE ORIGIN OF CORN. Directly in connection with the history of corn should come the origin of the corn plant. For long- before the history of corn began, the history of the corn plant was in the making. All plants are known to have come from lower forms and it has been the effort of many writers to ascertain what was the form of the plant from wdiich the present corn plant came. It might be well to note a few things which can be seen when the green corn plant is developing. We have developed at the top of the plant what is commonly called the tassel. Below this tassel, some dis- tance down on the stalk, we have the ear of corn, borne on a shank much the same as any fruit would be borne on a stem. The leaves of the corn stalk alternate from one side to the other the entire length of the plant. If we would imagine the plant as branching at every place where the leaves originate, we would have what is now thought to be the parent of the present corn plant. In other words, the corn plant came from a very much divided and branched plant. As the ear developed, the lower branches, which were practically useless, were discarded, became dwarfed, and of no use whatever to the plant. Only the one branch, namely, that on which the larger ear w^as developing, was permitted to continue growth. This ear, or surrounding- it, were branches which had been doing the same work that the tassel does. The tassel had been occasionally developing kernels of corn, but as the years passed,, the tassel developed into the form we now have it, which furnishes pollen and does nothing- else. The ear developed only kernels and left the tassel for its work of pollenation. As a result, there is established the so- called male (tassel) and female (ear) parts of the plant. The closest planty which we have today, to which w^e mig-ht credit the origin of corn is the Teosinte plant. It is a much branched plant bearing the seed at the ends of all the branches. Since the ear originally was a tassel, the question naturally arises, how is it that there is always an even number of rows on the ear of corn, and the question may be answered by saying" that the central part of the tassel which developed into the ear bears an even number of rows of flowers. The side branches of the tassel of course have diminished until Ave see them now onlv in freak specimens of corn. 20 CORN Laboratory Exercise. Secure from the field any ears which seem to be misformed. If they have a part of the tassel hanging- to them, notice the way that the central part of the tassel seems to have developed in pro- portion to' the other parts. Many freak ears are due to the fact that the corn plant producing such ears is going back to the original type from which it first came. THE BOTANY OF THE CORN PLANT. The Kernel. In reality, when anyone studies corn, or any crop which is cultivated by man, they are studying botany in one phase or an- other. The whole purpose of all plants is to produce seed which will have the power to reproduce the plant. In other words, the final work of any plant is the production of seed. Especially is this true of cereals. And so the study of the kernel itself, when corn is being considered, is of a very great deal of importance. Plate 2 represents the parts of the corn kernel. Take the ex- ternal features of the kernel alone, we have what we might term two parts : the germ, in which lies all the living matter, by means of which the plant of the coming year is able to start; and the endosperm, in which the food material is stored. The diagram of Plate 2 gives these parts more in detail. Plate 3— Cross Section of Kernel g, germ; fp, floury or starchy portion; hp, horny or corneous portion CORN 21 The Plant. Although the averag-e person does not think of corn as be- longing to the same type of plants as oats and timothy, yet that is true. In the botanical world there are a great many families of plants. One of the largest of these families is the "grass" family, known as "gramineae." Into this family, corn, oats, wheat, barley, rye, blue grass, timothy, and many other of our common farm crops fall. These plants are characterized by their hollow stems, their fibrous root systems, their leaves with par- allel veins, and their seeds being borne in small leaf-like struc- tures. Parts of Corn Plant and Their Uses. Root Starts. — Each one of the parts has a definite use. Be- fore giving those uses, it will be necessary to go into detail as to the general structure of the plant itself. As soon as moisture surrounds the kernel, the embryo, or germ, within the kernel, be- gins to swell and the root branch, or the radicle, breaks through the seed coat and begins its way into the soil. This radicle at its Plate 4 — Kernels Germinating Primary root indicated by r. In lower rigfht-hand drawing-, some adventi- tious roots are showing. — Paminel, Grasses of loiva. 22 CORN tip is covered by a cap as are all the other roots which develop later. This part of the root system, that is the cap, is known as the "root cap" and acts as a protection as the root works its way between the soil particles. Beginning of Leaves. — Soon after the radicle develops into the root which we know as the primary root, the plumule or the miniature leaf in the embryo breaks through the upper part of the embryo and begins the formation of the plant above ground. This plant unfolds much in the same way that a telescope will tmfold ; and it grows rapidly to its full height. The Root System. In the meantime, the roots are also developing. Just above where the primary root is attached to the embryo of the seed, ad- ventitious roots start. These adventitious roots grow rapidly and begin tO' take plant food from the soil. They ramify in all di- rections, attempting to accomplish this purpose with the greatest ease. Of course, before the time that they are able to take plant food readily from the soil, the young plantlet must draw for its supply of growing material upon the endosperm of the seed itself. As soon as the food material of this endosperm is exhausted, and all of it is necessary in producing the young plantlet, there is noticed in the soil nothing but the seed coat of the original kernel. Right at that point it is noticed that the .adventitious roots are strongly developed and also that the primary root has died. That is, the root which came out directly at the radicle point was of no service after the development of adventitious roots. This is true of the grasses. Each part of the rootlet will be seen to be covered with fine hairs which are called root hairs. As the roots are pulled from the ground these root hairs obscure themselevs by holding a large quantity of soil to the rootlet. Their action in the soil, as the plant is growing and developing into organs of usefulness, is to take in plant food which has been dissolved in the soil for its use. In the meantime all of the rootlets are growing still farther into the soil, guarded as they are by the root caps at their ex- tremities. As soon as the plant food is absorbed by these root hairs it is taken into the central part of the rootlet, which is known CORN 23 as the central cylinder, and carried from there to the part of the plant where it is needed. The plant itself, partly by the action of the roots and partly by its own action above ground, has been able to gTow to large proportions and the wind, as it pushes the plant to and fro, has demanded some sort of protection against the breaking of the stalk. This protection is seen in the form of what are called brace roots. Brace roots are nothing- more than the ordinary roots of the plant. The plant_ is made up from top to bottom of what are known as nodes and internodes," the nodes being those parts which one might readily call joints on the plants, and the internodes being the parts between those different joints. These brace roots that come out of the plant will be found Plate 5 — Corn Roots and Stalk Brace roots are seen. Some have entered and have become feeding- roots. The split stalk at the right shows the nodes as merely partitions of the stalk. — Iowa State College. 24 CORN to develop at the nodes. The roots below the ground have also developed at the nodes. If these brace roots enter the gTound as they sometimes do and begin to send out their small branches to all parts of the soil they will have the same use as the under^ ground roots ; that is, the taking- of plant food for the purpose of adding to the growing plant. But the brace roots also have the special function of supporting the plant and it is pretty generally thought that whether the brace roots touch the ground or not^ their presence and the fact that the plant shows a tendency to develop brace roots indicates a strong system of roots under ground, and this, of course, would mean a more favorable condi- tion for any plant. As this plant, at the stage when the brace roots are devel- oped, has become cjuite large, the prominent features of all of the plant are noted. First of all, the stem is hollow, as is true with other grasses. That is, there is a material much harder than any of the rest of the plant on the outside of the stalk, so that if a cross section of the stalk is made a circle of hard, woody material is seen. The purpose of this hollow column is well shown in practically all buildings of any size whatsoever. The columns which are put into those buildings are hollow. Being hollovy, they offer, a greater support for the material used than would otherwise be true. So it is with the corn plant and with the oat plant. The hollow stem gives a greater support, which is needed when the ripened ear bears down with all its force iipon the plant below. Within the hollow column is noted, in the case of the corn plant, a great deal of bulky material which we term the pith. This pith has two functions, primarily. The first, perhaps, is to support the plant from injury as it is blown by the winds. The principle is shown if we have a rubber tube well filled with water and one that is not. Perhaps both of the tubes will stand upright when there is no pressure from the outside, but, if a side pressure is given to both tubes, the one Avhich has the least amount of water will bend first. As another example, if a piece of paper is made into a cylinder, unless there is some support from within pushing outward on the sides of the tube, these sides will col- lapse if any great pressure is brought to bear. Corn, since it is a tall plant, must resist a great deal of the action of the wind, and CORN 25 so possesses this pith which constantly pushes outward on its walls. The pith also has the function of holding- food material and plant water until such time as it will be needed by the plant. The nodes, which we have said might commonly be called joints, but which are no more joints than the partition between two rooms is a joint between the two rooms, also aid the pith m assisting the cylinder of woody material in maintaining its rigid Plate 6— Section of a Corn Stalk The node and the pith holdingf numerous fibro-vascular bundles above it are shown. — Iowa State College. 26 CORN form. Through the pith and up through the woody wall of the stalk we have extending what may be called tubes, but better called "fibro-vascular bundles." These l)undles give a great deal of support to the plant but, at the same time, they are carrying- plant food from the roots to the green parts of the plant or to some other part where it is needed. Outside of the structure of the stalk itself, which has been mentioned, is the epidermis which corresponds to that similar covering which is developed in all forms of higher plants. This epidermis acts mainl}- as a protective covering guarding the parts Plate ^ — Ear and Leaves Lower leaf shows where, in the groove of the stalk and under the leaf sheath, the lower ear was attached. The rain g-uard on each leaf can be seen. The leaf sheath of lower leaf extends almost to node above. — Iowa State College. CORN • 27 of the stalk which are tender and need a great deal of care if the}' are to perform their functions to the best advantage. The leaves of the corn plant are arranged, as has been said, alternately from the top to the bottom of the plant ; that is, a leaf is found first on one side, then up at the next node on the other side is the next leaf, and so on up the plant. Each node of the plant bears a leaf. From the node where the leaf is attached, up the stalk for eight inches, more or less, extends what we call the leaf sheath, wrapped tightly about the stalk itself. This leaf sheath acts in conjunction with the woody wall to make a hollow cylinder of hard material for support. Underneath the leaf sheatli may be found the bud which corresponds to the l:)ranch which originally came from the plant; that is, from the plant as it ex- isted hundreds of years ago. The leaf sheath turns off into the leaf blade itself. At the point where the leaf separates from the stalk proper, and bends into the air in graceful form, is an exten- sion which wraps itself tightly around the stalk and known as the rain-guard. This rain-guard is a fringed piece of material which, as its name suggests, has the function primarily' of keeping moist- ure from going down between the leaf sheath and the stalk itself. As a matter of fact, in corn this use is not prominent, but in small grains, where it is necessary for the leaves to swing by their leaf sheath to a certain extent, it is necessary that there be no dirt be- tween the leaf sheath and 'the stalk. In corn, however, the leaves do not depend upon this axle motion for their protection against the winds. The principal protection which the corn leaf shows is that of the uneven edges of the leaf. The corn leaf as it begins to grow does so more rapidly at the edge of the leaf than it does at the central 'part. As a result there is the wavy appearance which is so common to every one familiar with corn. As the wind blows the leaf from side to side the wavy edges permit the leaf on one side to be stretched and the other side -to be folded. This means that there is no tearing of the leaves and that the plant is not unnecessarily strained. The central part of the leaf has a collection of the fibro-vascular bundles, and by means of them is able to maintain a graceful support of the leaf itself. As one goes further up the plant it is noticed that the ear comes from under a leaf sheath. In fact, in ascertaining whether a stalk is a barren stalk or not the leaf sheath is usuall}' felt. This 28 CORN of course is in accordance with the development of the plant, which has already been mentioned. The ear is borne on a shank com- posed of nodes and internodes just as the stalk itself is composed. Leaves arise at each node, but with the ear we call those leaves' the husks. In fact, it is supposed that, as the present plant was developing- from the original plant already cited, the branch merely contracted in size, all the leaves remaining ; and in doing so, they covered completely the ear of corn. So we have surrounding the ear and its kernels a protective covering of leaves differing in their structure from the ordinary leaf because of the functions they have been forced to perform. 'erminating the stalk is the tassel. From this tassel comes the pollen grains which make it possible for kernels of corn to develop. Each one of these tassels is composed of numerous flowers which bear only the male organs. These male organs are composed of a slender support on which rest hollow sacks. In this hollow section is manufactured the pollen so essential in the production of corn. It is interesting tO' note at this place that these hollow sacks, or anthers, open at the side, after they have drooped Plate 8— a SingivE; Flower CORN 29 over, in order that the plant may avoid self-fertilization. For corn requires cross-fertilization for perfect results. These sacks also, if they were end opening, would lose their pollen much before such would be desired. Being side opening, they permit the wind to distribute the pollen at its will. These pollen sacks on their slen- der supports extend out of small leaf-like pockets, just as is true of many grasses ; but on the tassel we have very seldom developed any organs which may be classed as female organs. That is, the whole function of the tassel is the production of pollen for the fertilization of flowers borne elsewhere. Those flowers appear on plants throughout the field at the place where later we find the PivATE 9 — Ear and Tassei. in Bi,oom Each kernel is represented by a silk. Each pollen sack contains many pol- len grains. — Iowa State College. 30 CORN _ear of corn itself. The young ear of corn before any pollen has reached it is no'tliing but the cob, as we ordinarily know it, covered with a great many flowers which do not have any male parts. The tassel in most cases develops before the silks of the ear. The silks of the ear as they develop correspond to, and are, in fact, the pistils of the plant. Each would-be kernel sends forth a silk wliich pushes itself from out the husk and is ready for pollenation by the pollen from some other stalk. The ear really develops in three sections. That is, the kernels form the lower part of the ear send out silks first ; the kernels from the central part of the ear send out silks next ; and the lip last. Each silk that comes out requires one pollen grain in order that the kernel from which it came ma)^ be able to develop, but there is little difficulty in securing pollen enough to accomplish this work. It has been estimated that each anther, or pollen sack, produces about 2,700 pollen grains. A single tassel contains 7,500 pollen sacks, making a total of 30,250,000 pollen grains per plant in the cornfield. It is estimated from this that if every grain of pollen were to reach a silk there would be 30,250 grains for eacu ovary if each stalk produced but one ear as is ordinarily the case. As soon as the pollen grain reaches the silk, the egg on the cob is fertilized and the kernel begins its development. From them we have developed all the parts which are noticed in the natural kernel. The plant food has been taken from the soil, and also from the air and turned into forms which can be used or stored in the kernel. At this point it is interesting to notice just how it is that the plant gets this food material which is so necessary for the devel- opment of itself' and the reproduction of its kind. Nothing has been said so far concerning the fact that the plant is green in color. It has been mentioned that the root hairs and the rootlets are able to absorb from the soil certain plant foods which are nec- essary for the growth of the plant, but at the same time that this action is going on, the leaves are appropriating the water which the roots are sending to them and are taking in through pores in their epidermis carbon dioxide gas from the air. This water and carbon dioxide gas are united in the leaves to form starch. This is done by means of the green coloring matter in the leaves and the action^f sunlight upon that green matter. The coloring matter CORN 31 itself is called chlorophyl. The process is called photosynthesis. This plant food then, which has been secured from the soil and from the air, is used by the plant in the development of the kernels. It is, of course, carried to the kernels in liquid form. All food materials are transported in that way in all plants. The embryo is first formed and then the remainder of the kernel. In this process we have brought to the kernel a great deal of food material. As the plant matures and the grains get harder, this food material is placed in definite parts of the grain itself and we have arranged those parts as has already been indi- cated in Plate 11. ^\'ith the completion of this work wc ha\'e the completion of the growth of the corn plant and it dries at the same time that the ear is maturino-. Plate 10— Faulty Pollination For some reason many would be kernels were never pollenated and irreg-u- larly formed kernels are the result. — Iowa State College. 32 CORN LABORATORY EXERCISE. Part I. Secure some well formed kernels of corn and moisten them' well in warm water. After the seed has swelled quite a little, remove it from the water and by the use of a penknife separate the various parts of the kernel. The three parts which will be most easily separated will be the hull, the endosperm, and the embryo. At the same time that this is being- done the other parts given in Plate 11 may be noted. Part II. Take a number of well formed kernels, put them between moist cloths which are to be kept moist, or put them in an ordi- nary seed corn germination box, and allow them to germinate. Note daily the following results : Radicle breaking through the seed coat; beg'inning of the plumule formation into leaves; adven- titious roots starting underneath the seed coat just above the radicle ; root hairs on all roots ; green coloring matter beginning to show in the leaves. Note. — It will be necessary to have the corn germinate in the light if the green coloring matter shows. Part III. Secure a well developed stalk and look for the following- items : nodes, rain-guards, leaf blade, woody wall of the stalk, pith, fibro-vascular bundles. At the same time that these points are being noted recall their use as it has already been stated. CLASSIFICATION OF CORN. Nothwithstanding the fact that the plant is of so much im- portance in the production of good corn, all writers so far have taken into consideration mainly the ear and the kernel in classi- fying corn into various types and varieties. This is because the CORN 33 ear is available at all times, while the plant is not. . And so what- ever is mentioned by any one in regard to the classification of corn will be based upon the ear itself. Corn as a separate species is termed Zca mays. Dr. E. L. Sturtevant, in his bulletins on "Varieties of Corn," published by the Office of the Experiment Stations, in 1899, says : "The species Zea mays includes exceedingly divergent forms. The height of the plant in varieties and localities has been reported from eighteen inches for the Golden Tom Thumb pop to thirty feet or more for varieties in the West Indies, and single stalks in Tennessee at 22yi^ feet. I have seen ears one inch long in the pop class and sixteen inches long in the dent class. The rows in varieties may vary from eight to twenty-four or more, and in individual ears are reported from four to forty-eight. A hundred kernels of Mini- ature pop weighed 46 grains; of Cuzco Soft, 1,531 grains. In some varieties the ears are long and slender; in others, short and thick ; in the Bearfoot pop, flat. Some varieties have flat kernels ; other varieties have spheroidal kernals ; yet others, conical kernels. The summits of the kernels may be flat, rounded or pointed, or indented." So' Dr. Sturtevant continues to mention differences in the ear and difiPerences in the kernel, in structure and in form, and also in prolificacy, or the ability of the corn to produce a great deal of other corn. In noting these differences and in attempting to classify all corn that we know at the present time into types. Dr. Sturtevant outlines the following types of corn and gives their characteristics. These types are made primarily on the arrange- ment and character of the endosperm, although resulting therefrom are noted marked variations in the shape of the grain. If a Dent Mays is split through its two longest diameters, the endosperm will appear to consist of two parts. (See Plate 2.) One will be white and starchy, the other will be glossy or horny. On charac- ters such as these, Dr. Sturtevant makes his separation. Types of Corn. 1. Pod Corns (Zea tunicata). 2. Pop Corns (Zea everta). 3. Flint Corns (Zea indurata). 34 CORN 4. Dent Corns (Zea indentata). 5. Soft Corns (Zea amylacea). 6. Sweet Corns (Zea saccharata). 7. Starchy-sweet Corns (Zea amyleasaccharata). There are given three types of kernels under each of the above types: (A) The kernel broader than deep, (B) the kernel as deep as broad, (C) kernel deeper than broad. The characters given for each type seem independent of climate or cultural conditions. 1. Pod Corns. In this group each kernel is enclosed in a pod or husks, and the ear thus formed is enclosed in husks. Be- sides being- called Pod Corn it is often named Egyptian Corn, Primitive Corn, Husk Corn, and Forage Corn. The plant itself is very leafy and suckers abundantly, in this wa}- suggesting the primitive type from Avhich it must have come. Occasionally now there is seen in cultivated fields of corn a reversion to this old and primitive form. . "The pod corn specimens that we have studied are A'cry re- sistant to weevil infection. Once our whole collection of varieties of corn was destroyed except the pod corn. The kernels of all the groups that we have found on podded ears are of a very flinty character, and are in the podded specimens slightly smaller than in their unpodded forms. Humboldt says of maize in AiT^^erica, that 'when left to nature the birds prevent their reproduction by destroying the seeds.' Podded corn is less conspicuous than the naked kernels of cultivated varieties, and is looser on the cob, yet firml3- attached. This favors protection from and distribution by birds. As insect and bird depredation furnish the strongest bar- rier to the growing of wild forms of maize, these protective char- acters assume an importance in the argument in favor of pod corn being an aboriginal form, and justify Darwin's conclusion previ- ously cjuoted. The property of floating upon water, which the podded kernels possess in strong degree, would also facilitate dis- tribution in a state of nature, as also the moisture retained within the pod." 2. Pop Corns. These corns are characterized by the exces- sive proportion of the corneous or horny endosperm and the small size of the kernels and ear. This horny texture gives the ability of these corns to pop. Popping is the complete turning inside out . CORN 35 of the kernel through the explosion of the contained moisture on the application of heat. A little starch present in the kernel will not prevent proper popping, but very much or an excess allows the kernel merely to split when heat is applied. The true pop corn is tender in its eating. There is only one type of corn with which one would confuse the pop corn, and that is the flint. Flint corn, however, has a larger kernel and has not the ability to_ pop. Of the varieties of pop corn there are really two classes: (1) the rice and (2) the pearl. The former is pointed and sharp on the outside, the latter, is smooth and round. Both are good pop corns. The plants vary in size from a few inches to several feet. The ears are of various lengths. The' pop corns seem to be more subject to freak growths than any other type, and are capable, as a rule, of producing more ears to the stalk than any other type. 3. The Flint Corns. These corns are characterized by the flinty endosperm surrounding a starchy portion of" much bulk. The hard, flinty portion varies in thickness, but is always so thick that when the kernel dries there is no dent. The width of the kernel is usually greater than the length. The ear is long and small in circumference ; the plant is small, suckers freely and is able to mature good corn in from 90 to 140 days, the more fre- quent period being about 100 days. This makes it an excellent variety for some of the northern states, like the Dakotas, Minne- sota and AVisconsin, New York and the New England states, where it is grown with a great deal of profit and in abundance. 4, The Dent Corns. This is the type of corn which is grown so commonly. It is recognized by the corneous endosperm, or the flinty portion, at the sides of the kernel. The flinty portion is lacking" at the tops of the kernels and as a result there always occurs the dent from which the type is named. When such corn is taken north from the section in which it is native, more of that horny matter which characterizes the flint corn is developed, and as a result the dent decreases ; and only with a great deal of care- ful selection will it remain a well bred dent corn. The plant is characterized by a strong and vigorous growth, broad leaves, few suckers, and usually only one ear to the stalk. The kernels in their physical characteristics are wedge-shaped, usually longer 36 CORN than they are wide. In fact, the type as a type is noted for the depth of the kernels, and the large germs. The time required for maturity will vary from 110 to 150 days, but a period of 130 days is usually considered the extreme limit. It is on this corn that the trades of the continents with regard to corn are established. If all the corns were noted as they affect commerce and local trade, there would be but two to be consid- ered : Flint and Dent. And of these two the dent type by an over- whelming majority would have first place. At this place it might be well to insert the qualities that go to make a good dent ear of corn, such an ear as is shown on the first pages of this paper. A good dent ear of corn will be in gen- eral shape cylindrical or nearly so, with well shaped' kernels run- ning uniformly from the butt to the tip in straight rows. The kernels will be wedge shaped, not peg shaped; and their length will be from one and one-half to two times the width. The germs will be large. The tips and the butts of the ears will be well cov- ered, that is, regularly covered with straight rows of deep kernels. The shank will be just large enough to accomplish its jDurpose, which is to support the ear on the stalk until husking time. The size of ear will be no larger than will mature in the district where the ear is being grown. Its proportion will be approximately as follows : the circumference three-quarters of the length. 5. The Soft Corns. This type of corn has no flinty endo- sperm whatsoever. As a result of uniformity of drying there is no dent in the kernel. A great many of the mummy corns that have been discovered in various parts of South America would come under this class. However, that such corns are found only in southern countries is not true, for some specimens have been secured from Manitoba. 6. Sweet Corns. This is- a well defined group of corns which are very well known in most parts of the United States. They are characterized by the translucent, horny appearance of the ker- nels and their more or less crinkled, wrinkled, or shriveled condi- tion. This type seems to be less subject to freak growths than many of the others. "It is extensively grown for canning pur- poses, and is grown in Maine as a field crop for this purpose in CORN 37 localities too far north for the ripening- of seed. A number of the early varieties ripen their crop as far north as Ottawa, Canada. On account of the property of the seed ripening on the cob when picked at an early stage of edible maturity it is difficult to say how far northward it might not be grown in the care of intelligent growers. Sweet corn seems to be but little grown in our Southern states, and apparently improves in quality as it moves northward. The principal packing districts in 1891 were in Maine, New' York, and the Atlantic coast as far south as Virginia, although the busi- ness is assuming importance in the central west." - 7. The Starchy Sweet Corns. The appearance of the kernel of this type is that of the sw^eet corn, but the structure shows only the top to be like the sweet type. The lower half of the kernel is like to soft corns. There is little known about these corns and they have not been produced to any commercial extent. Laboratory Exercise. AA^rite to some reliable seed house and ask them if they could secure an ear of each of the various types of corn for you. After you have been able to get the corns, place the ears side by side and note the following points : size of ear ; shape of ear ; kerne] coating; shape of kernel. Cut the kernel through in two direc- tions and note the composition, looking for the starchy part, the horny portion, and the germ. COMMON VARIETIES OF DENT CORN. In each type there are varieties, but the varieties that are of interest to most of the farmers of the country are those of the dent type. Varieties are distinguished by difference of the ear. Very little attention is being paid to the stalk, although experi- mentalists are emphasizing that phase of the question more today than they have for several years. Sturtevant classifies about 325 varieties of dent corn, and to go into^ detail as to a very great many of them would be a tiresome task for any one, but the principle upon which they are classified becomes very interesting. Some of the points which are noted in making a distinction between one variety and another are : 38 ' CORN 1. Shape of the Ear, This may vary from the extreme taper to the extreme cyhndrical, the one which tapers just shghtly being' the one which is considered the best. 2. Length of Ear. This will vary for the varieties, much de- pending- upon the locality in which the corn is grown. 3. Circumference of Ear. Usually is about three-quarters of the length, but this will vary a little one way or the other with the variety. 4. Condition of the Kernels. Some varieties have kernels on the cob a little looser than other varieties. 5. Color of Kernels. The common varieties are different shades of yellow and white. 6. Indentation of Kernels. Some varieties have been bred for a deeper dent than others. As the corn is moved to the north the dent is reduced. 7. Shape of Kernels. Some kernels are wedge shaped, others are square shouldered. Each variety kernel has some pretty clearly defined characters. ' , 8.. Length of Kernels. Usually given as deep, medium *or shallow. 9. Number of Rows. This will vary from eight to twenty-six. 10. Space Between Rows. It is not desirable to have much space between the rows, but some varieties are allowed more than others. The shape and the depth of the kernel will determine this to a great extent. 11. Arrangement of the Rows. Most varieties are paired, but a few^ varieties have each row distinct in itself. 12. Filling of Butts. Some varieties permit a flatter Ijutt than will other variety types. Reid's Yellow Dent is well rounded. Boone County White is flat. 13. Filling of Tips. The tips should be well filled but not at the expense of some other part. 14. Shank. The cup shaped cavity where the shank was at- tached should be as small as the size of the ear will allow. CORN 39 15. Size of Cob. The shelling percentage of a variety will depend upon this factor to a great extent. 16. Color of Cob. Alost yellow varieties have red cobs. Most white varieties have white cobs. The red cobs vary in shade of red. 17. Per Cent, of Shelled Corn. The per cent, of shelled corn means the per cent, of the ear that is actual corn. Some variety standards are often given as high as 88 per cent., but this figure is really higher than the average good ears Avill really shell. AVhen one variety is being compared with another variety it is well to hold in mind the fact that unless the corn is normal, well matured and well dried the comparison will not be just. For example, an immature ear would probably show a much different dent than one that was not so immature. So, to make the com- parison fair, it is necessary to secure well treated ears and then to have a great many of such ears of each variety, for if only a few ears are examined the differences noted may be those affect- ing only the ears at hand and not the variety as a whole. A FEW STANDARD VARIETIES. Reid's Yellow Dent. This variety has been grown in almost every state in the Union. In 1846 Mr. Robert Reid moved from Brown County, Ohio, to Tazewell County, Illinois. He took with him the corn then known as the Gordon Hopkins corn. He planted this corn on his farm near Delavan, Ills., but it did not prove the success he had hoped for (as it was too long in maturing). Be- cause of a poor stand from his seed, the next season he replanted the field with the Little Yellow corn. As a result his seed for the following season was mixed, but from that time on he selected carefully, and others jiave done likewise with the same strain of corn. As a result we have a recognized variety in this corn wherever it is grown. Among the contemporary breeders is Mr. D. L. Pascal, of DeWitt, Iowa, who raised the ear shown in Fig. 1 of this paper. Learning is one of the old varieties, but the type of the ear has been changed to such an extent that at the present time there are few men who grow the real Leaming. It was developed by 40 CORN J. S. Learning while he was living- at AVilmington, Ohio. ]Mr. Learning- took a great deal of care in the selection of his seed and after him his son carried on the w^ork. Man}^ of the varieties that are common today trace back to the Learning blood, but few hold to that taper which characterized the first strains. Leaming is a good yielder, being a little earlier than the Boone County White, and later than Silver Mine, and Reid's Yellow Dent.. This makes it especially adapted to the central part of the corn belt. Legal Tender was started towards that type wdiich it now holds about 1876, by Nims Brothers, of Emerson, Iowa. They discovered two distinct types in their seed corn, one a short, thick ear, and the other a long, slim ear. By crossing these two types and following that wath careful selection they originated the Legal Tender variety. This variety is restricted more or less to the dis- trict from which it came. It has never been widely distributed, and probably, with its present type, never will be. Boone County White is one of the most popular corns of the country. This variety was originated by Mr. James Riley, of Boone County, Indiana. It was made by selection from a large, coarse corn of the time, known as A'Vhite Mastodon. The type was established entirely by selection, and, soon after that, various breeders all over the central and southern part of the corn belt began to raise it. Silver Mine was originated by Mr. J. H. Beagley, of ,Ford County, Illinois. The type was brought to a standard by several years of very close breeding. After that the Iowa Seed Company purchased the stock of Mr. Beagley and named the corn Iowa Silver Mine. It is characterized by the broad, deep kernel with a very rough dent. Often confused with this is the Silver King corn, which is entirely different, being- much smaller and much earlier maturing. Minnesota No. 13 illustrates what may be done by the effort of an experiment station. This variety was brought out by the Minnesota Experiment Station from some corn which they found in their locality. It has become very popular in, those states where it is adapted, namely, Minnesota and the Dakotas. It is qharacterized by a deep kernel for the period of maturity which is required. * CORN 41 Pirate 11— Silver Mii<:E.—/owa State Colles:e 42 CORN Laboratory Exercise. Secure three or four varieties of corn from the most con\e- nient place and note carefully the different points as given in the outline above. Variety Tests. There always are, in the states where experiments have been in operation very long, variety tests being conducted. TheSe tests, however, are the work of men who spend their entire time at such business and should not be attempted by the farmer. Corn variety tests are necessary in every community, for the results of one place wall not apply to another. So- it is much better for the farmer who has a corn of medium yield to select from that corn rather than to send to some distant place for seed on the grounds that reports from that place on the corn were large. Corn moved any distance, especially if soil and climate are different, will not do as well as corn raised in the immediate localitv. 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U < Q bi A Sb (« bi g 2 2£ £ b £ b £ E E < 5 s ."? t^ wS 5 5 ■4 S 5 ■^ S 0 1" H u"- 5 t^ t-^ so '^ •^ -c •0 vO 1*^ Si '~ C/3 K .s en lO < o o 6 o i s d 3 0^ S 2 06 3 t^ 3 D d d d d d d d d d a rl a 11! 2 rt rt rt rt a d n fi >. rt ji ^ H O 6 ^ ^ ^ 0' ^ ^* ^ CJ ^ H _; w (« en tn lA CO m cn CO in V 3 tc 0 >. S u 2 ^ b( Z ^ t^ _o ■o ^ be 11 d s 2 c 3 a :j n n ,S rt y a. • ii j= > >• i bi o 8 M 2 •0 n 0 c V A bl a u Z c c 0 ■0 "0 S3 e 1 « J n in M 0 ° 2 0 2 » M i CJ - ^ ,o ^ u5 ^ t^ 00 <>•* d s 2 2 i ^ CORN 45 EXAMINATION Note to Students— These questions are to be answered inde- pendenth'. Never consult the text after beginning 3'our examina- tion. Use thin white paper about 6 in. x 9 in. for the examination. Number the answers the same as the questions, but never repeat the question. Mail answers promptly when completed. Questions on Lesson I 1. What place does America hold among the nations of the world in the production of corn? Give approximate figures. 2. Where does the United States stand as compared with the other countries of this continent? Give figures. 3. What is the average yield of the United States, bushels per acre? 4. AA'hat is the average yield per acre in your state? In your county? 5. Has the average yield of corn per acre increased or de- creased in your state? How do you explain this? 6. In the United States what can you say as to the place of corn among the other cereals? 7. Where did corn come from? Discuss. 8. W^here do we learn first of corn being produced in the United States or in the country now occupied by the United States? 9. Of what benefit were the Indians to the white men as they began to grow, and cultivate corn? 46 CORN 10. How long have European countries been cultivating corn? 11. From what plant do we think corn came? 12. How do you explain the fact that the tassel is at the top .and ear at the side of the stalk? 13. What features, as corn is noted in the field, lead us to believe, as we do today, about the origin of the corn plant? 14. What do you understand by "a grass"? 15. Tell whether the following are grasses or not: wheat, oats, corn, clover, alfalfa, buckwheat, timothy, dandelion. 16. Draw a diagram of the kernel of corn, naming the parts. 17. Describe the germination of the kernel of corn. 18. How do the roots start from the kernel, and what names are given the various kinds of roots? 19. Explain how the stalk is made up. 20. Give five ways the plant has of protecting itself against the wind. 21. Of what uses is the pith? The fibro-vascular bundles? 22. What sort of a root system do we want, and why? 23. How does the plant feed? 24. AVhat is chlorophyl, and how 'is it used? 25. Describe the tassel and the developing ear. 26. How is the pollen of the corn plant distributed? 27. To whom do we refer for the classification of varieties and types? 28. What is a type? A variety? CORN 47 29. Name the types of corn. 30. Distinguish between each. 31. What qualities would you think ought to be possessed by a good feeding- corn? 32. What corns are of commeicial importance? 33. What are some of our most common varieties? Name eight, 34. How Avould you distinguish Reid's Yellow Dent from Learning? 35. Give the history of Reid's Yellow Dent. 36. Give the history of Boone County White. 37. From what three sources do our varieties come? 38. If varieties are to be compared, what is essential? 39. What do you understand by "variet}^ tests"? 40. When will a high yielding corn be of little or no use to the farmer? Write This at the End of Your Examination I hereby certify that the above questions were answered entirely by me. Signed Address f 3E nra 1 1 ^^S='i| IT 3^ Bs G>rrespondence College of Agriculture 11 !^< CORN— PART TWO J wi A THE Correspondence College of Agriculture FT. WAYNE, INDIANA CORN— Part II Corn Culture By HARRY B. POTTER, B. S. Assistant Professor of Farm Crops in Iowa State College Ttis is the Second of a Series of Four Books giving a Complete Course of Instruction on Corn. COPYRIGHT, 1911 The CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE NOTE TO STUDENTS In order to derive the utmost possible benefit from this paper, you must thoroughly master the text. While it is not intended that you commit the exact words of the text to memory, still there is nothing: contained in the text which is not absolutely essential for the intelligent corn grower to know. For your own good never refer to the examination questions until you have finished your study of the text. By following this plan, the examination paper will show what you have learned from the text. Tbe Photograpts used in this book ^vere obtained through tbe courtesy of Iowa State College Part II— CORN INTRODUCTION. The production of a large amount of good corn during any given season does not depend upon any one factor. It depends upon a great number of considerations, the absence of any one of Avhich will cause a loss to the individual concerned. The subject of this second study in corn has to do with the factors leading to a high yield of corn. Of course, our object in studying corn, no mat- ter what line of work we are following, is to learn how to secure a greater number of bushels to the acre ; but when we speak of ".corn culture," we think of those things which afifect the crop directly, such as the plowing of the ground, the preparation of the seed bed, the selection of the seed corn, and the methods of hand- ling that seed corn before it is ready to be put into the field. So Corn Culture has to do with those things that the average farmer meets in every day life ; those things which cause so much trouble if not cared for properly, and give such satisfaction if followed CO! rectly. Of course many counties of every state are now inter- ested in local corn shows of some kind and these shows exhibit corn which' is of a certain type or variety, and the men exhibiting those varieties say that that corn is the best for their conditions be- cause it yields the most. In most cases where these local shows are held, we find table after table covered with fine corn which is said to be high yielding. For example ; word has just come to the writer's desk concerning a local corn show for a town of about three thousand inhabitants, the corn being sent to this show only 52 CORN fc ' ^ , *" 1 ,*•%? t""*; .^■~ :v, "' '.=#.*' *.*^«is^*', ^*^'* •?, oS •^si o i-HM O) o s^ ba .j3 S S a) MX Pi OJ c3^ m «; c3 CORN 139 tween all of them, for each off-kernel is very objectionable. It is well to hold the ear about eighteen inches from the eyes and then turn it slowly until a complete revolution has been made. "Whether any other of the facts regarding the purity of the corn are noted or not this one should be, and carefully. It is the first thing that the judge notes, for the reason that the corn that has a mixture of bloods is very seldom indeed a high yielder for continuous years. 2. Shape of Ear — The shape should conform to the variety type, and yet all varieties are conforming to that ear which is cylin- drical or nearly so in shape. At least, an ear should be full in the middle and carry well out to the tip. In general, as has been men- tioned, the circumference should be about three-quarters of the length. The measurement for the circumference should be taken about one-third the way from the base to the tip. There is a dan- ger of getting the length too great if a tape line is used. It is bet- ter to use a rigid rod and cite the length. 3. Shape of Kernel — The shape of the kernel should conform to the variety type. This, of course, would be true, for it has been already said that the shape of the kernel determiaes the shape of the ear. The shape of the kernel should be full. The kernels should touch at their edges for their entire length. That will make the ker- nels wedge shaped. A rounding crown gives a smooth appearance and indicates that there has been very little breeding. 4. TJmformity in Size and Shape of Ears — The size and shape of all ears in the sample should conform to the variety type and be uniform for all ears in the sample. 5. Uniformity in Size and Shape of Kernels — The size and shape of all kernels on each ear and of the kernels on all ears in a sample should conform to the variety type and be uniform through- out the sample. This will insure more even stands and such corn from such seed will mature at more nearly the same time than if uneven kernels were planted. In fact, in all kinds of plants as well as animals, uniformity to a point or to a number of points will in- dicate good breeding. 6. Character of Dent — The later the variety, the deeper the kernel may be and the deeper the dent of the kernel usually is. It has been found that the medium dent is the one that usually yields 140 CORN the highest, other things being equal. But of course- there will be- a difference in the different varieties on this point. 7. Straightness and Arrangement of Rows — ^The rows of kernels should run straight from butt to tip. Any twisting of rows around the ear is objectionable. The arrangement of rows depends on the variety type. For example: Reid's Yellow Dent is dis- tinctly paired, while Golden Eagle is arranged in single rows. THE CONCLUSION. The four parts that have been studied may now be placed to- gether and a summary made of the whole card. The four parts make each individual ear score 100, if it is perfect. Of course there is no ear in your sample that is perfect, but add iip the columns and put the total score down. Look at the photographs of good ears and see- if you are satisfied with the result. If you want to place the ears as the card would have them, then use the space marked ''Rank of Ear." Indicate the ear with the highest score as 1, the one next with the number 2, and so on down to the last, 10, which will have the lowest score. The form which will complete the other parts of the card is: Perf. Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total Score 100 Rank of Ear A REVIEW. Now before anything else is noticed of this work go back and review all of the points that have been mentioned. Go carefully over the work already done, and see if you would make any changes. Put a new ear in the ten and see what difference there is between that one and the one that it replaced. Then you will be able to see points that you have failed to see clearly before and when you start on the variety study the task will he an easy one. CORN For Variety Study Only. 141 In some sections there is so mucli importance placed on thie merits of a variety that there is often need of having the various points for the variety differences well in mind. If there is a de- mand for a score where the variety characteristics are the only ones to be considered the following card will be used to advantage : Traeness to Type, or Breed Characteristics 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 (1) Shape of ear 25 (2) Shape of kernel 25 (3) Purity of color of cob 10 (4) Uniformity in size and shape of kernel 10 <5) Purity of color of grain 10 (6) Straightness of rows 5 (7) Arrangement of rows 5 8) Filling of tips 5 (9) Filling of butts 5 Total - ^ 100 VARIETY STANDARDS NAME OF VARIETY Northern Section Central Section Southern Section 142 CORN 1-1 a> fj 4). -H,CJ O CD /-<*^ to (U _.rt „ S "2 JI f-i oj cS »: oj IL, •-; 03 ^ (P to oD