LIBRARY OF ARCHITECTURE AND ALLIED ARTS Gift of The Heirs of R. Germain Hubby, A. I. A. ..4 UNIV. OF CALIF. LIBRARY, LO8 ANGEL ~«F> j. • '• v '* ' * ? Residence of Mrs. Elizabeth O.T. McKay.atWest Medford, Mass. Win. Y. Peters, Architect. A simple modern treatment of the Colonial, retaining some of the interesting crudeness of the parent style. t THE COUNTRY HOUSE A Practical Manual of the Planning and Construction of the American Country Home and its Surroundings. Illustrated by E.KiyODERHOLTZ^ v and others. Copyright, 1904, 1905, by Doubleday, Page & Company Published, December, 1905 All rigktt Including tk.it / translation i,,i, /tr including tk€ Urban Ptanainf Ufcwy A/ A To the home-building public, with the hope that it will be of some practical value to its readers. REFACE «r> "T is said that a man must needs build three houses before he will have one to suit him. It is the purpose of this work to forewarn him of some of the actual difficulties, that he may avoid the aforesaid expensive preliminaries, and to suggest such various points as are apt to escape his notice in the scheming and laying out of the country house. In preparing this work the author is indebted to many men of professional standing who have kindly offered their help and suggestions, to the many owners who have allowed their houses to be photographed, and to the following works, which may well be consulted by the reader if he should desire to investigate the subject more deeply: "Building Superintendence," by T. M. Clark; "Building Construction and Superintendence," by F. E. Kidder; "Construction Details," by F. W. Chandler; "Details of Building Construction," by Clarence A. Martin; "A Dictionary of Archi- tecture and Building," by Russell Sturgis; "The Decoration of Houses," by Edith Wharton and Ogden Codman, Jr.; "American Sanitary Plumbing," by James J. Lawler ; " Plumbing Simplified," by Wm. Paul Gerhard, C.E. ; " Hot- Water Heating, Steam and Gas Fitting," by James J. Lawler; "Heating and Ventilation of Resi- dences," by James R. Willett; "An Outline gf Ventilation and Warming," by James Baldwin; "Principles of Ventilation and Heating," by John Shaw Billings; "Heating and Ventilating Buildings," by Prof. R. C. Carpenter; "The Disposal of Sewerage of Isolated Country Houses," by Wm. Paul Gerhard, C.E.; "House Drainage and Water Service," by James C. Bayles; "Water and Water Supply," by W. N. Corfield, M.D.; "Sinking and Boring Wells," by Ernest Spon; "Water Supply Engineering," by A. Prescott Folwell; "Modern Methods of Sewerage Disposal," by Geo. E. Waring, Jr., M. Inst. C.E.; "Munns' Practical Land Drainer"; "The Private Stable," by J. A. Garland; "Poultry and Pigeons," by Hugh Piper; "European and Japanese Gardens," published by Coates; The Architectural Review; The Brochure Series of Architectural Illustrations ; Country Life in America. The author is further indebted to Mr. E. E. Soderholtz for his collaboration in the procuring and selecting of photographic material, as well as for many valuable suggestions. His expertness in photography and understanding of architecture have served this volume well. It is regretted that, in some instances, it has been so extremely difficult to discover the architects and owners of certain examples that the author has been obliged to omit the credit which would otherwise have been given. ONTENTJ' CHAPTER. I. — SELECTION OF THE SITE . 3 Business centre (5) — Sources of supply — Privacy — Public nuisances (6) — Soil (8) — Water supply and drainage (10) • — Natural possibilities (n) — Purchase (12) — Title and deed— Style and site (13)— Practical example (15). CHAPTER II. — PLANNING THE HOUSE . . 22 Client and architect (22)— Rough sketches (25)— Rules of planning (26)— Practical example (32). « CHAPTER III. — CONSTRUCTION OF THE SHELL 42 Soil (42)— Laying out— Foundation (43)— Concreting (45)— Underpinning— Piers (46)— Braced frame (47)— Balloon frame (49)— Floor timbers (51)— Partitions (52) — Roof (54) — Boarding (55) — Floors (56) — Brick walls (57) — Stone walls — Lathing (58)-Plastering (59). CHAPTER IV. — DETAILS OF FINISH . . . .61 Cornices (61) — Gutters (64) — Conductors — Roof shingle (65) — Slate — Tile (66) — Flashing (68) — Outside finish (70) — Stucco — Brick (72) — Window and door openings (73) — Stonework (74) — Piazza (75) — Steps — Interior details (76) — Painting (78)— Hardware (79). CHAPTER V. — DOORS AND DOORWAYS . ..... 80 Early treatment (81) — Colonial (86)— Hardware (88^ — Types (89) — Construction, etc. (93). CHAPTER VI. — WINDOWS AND WINDOW MOTIVES . . . 100 Early treatment (100) — Location, size, etc. (101) — Types (105) — Hangings and shades (107 — Fittings (108) — Construction (112). CHAPTER VII. — FIREPLACES, CHIMNEYS AND FIREPROOFING . . 117 Early treatment (117) — Wooden mantels — Embellishment (120) — Accessories (122) — Construction (124) — Fireproofing, etc. (127) — Fire escapes (133). CHAPTER VIII. — HALLS AND STAIRWAYS ...... 136 Early treatment (136) — The American problem (138) — Rise and tread (141) — Style and treatment (141) — Furnishings and embellishments (145) — Construction (146). Xii CONTENTS— Continued PAGE CHAPTER IX. — LIVING AND OTHER ROOMS ...... 149 Drawing room (150) — Reception room — Library (152) — Smoking room (154) — "Den" (155) — Billiard room (156) — Morning room (157) — Salon (158)— Ball- room— Music room (161) — Bedchamber (162) — Boudoir — Dressing room (165). CHAPTER X. — THE DINING ROOM AND KITCHEN AND THEIR RELATIONS . 166 Early treatment (166) — Banquet hall (167) — Breakfast room (168) — Dining room (169) — Furniture (171) — Kitchen (172) — Practical example (179). CHAPTER XI. — HEATING, VENTILATION AND LIGHTING . . .183 Adaptation (183)— Natural heat (184)— The fireplace— The stove (185)— The furnace (186) — Direct radiation (189) — Indirect radiation — Direct-indirect radiation (190) — Systems of steam and hot water (191) — Ventilation (193) — Inlet and outlet locations (194) — General principles (195) — Example (198) — Lighting (201). CHAPTER XII. — PLUMBING ......... 205 Service (205) — Tank-supply system (207) — Hot-water boiler (208) — Pipes (210) — Cocks (213) — Pump (214) — Tanks (217) — Lavatory — Sink (219) — Tubs (220)— Shower bath — Closets (221) — Wastes — Traps (222) — Back-vent system (224)— The simple system (225) — Tests (227). CHAPTER XIII. — WATER SUPPLY AND DRAINAGE ... . 228 Problems (228) — Water (229) — Wells (230) — Springs — Storage (236) — The "ram" (241) — Pumps (242) — "Under" and "deep" drainage (243) — Sewerage (244)— The cesspool (445) — Sub-soil system (247) — Garbage (249). CHAPTER XIV. — OUTBUILDINGS, GATEWAYS, ETC. . . 250 Stables (250) — Barns (255) — Poultry houses (257) — Pigeon houses (260) — Automobile houses — Ice houses (261) — Boat houses (263) — Bath houses (264) — Swimming p<><>]> (266) — Gate lodges (267) — Fences (268) — Gateways (270). CHAPTER XV. — GARDENS AND THEIR ACCESSORIES . . 2,73 First considerations (273) — Formal gardens (275) — House and garden (277) — Flowers (278) — Pergola (281) — Arbour and trellises (282) — Summer houses, fences and walls (283) — Steps (284) — Seats (285) — Fountains (286) — Sun dials, statuary and garden pots (287) — Urns, free columns, Hermae and lanterns (288) — Bridges and gates — Old models (289). CHAPTER XVI. — CONTRACT AND SPECIFICATIONS ..... 299 Remarks (299) — Form of contract (30x5) — Remarks (303) — Form of specifications (3°3) — Masonry (304) — Carpentry (306) — Metal work (311) — Painting (312)— Plumbing (313). CHAPTER XVII. — PRACTICAL HINTS ....... 318 This chapter is arranged alphabetically. 1ST OF Old door-knocker from Goldsboro, Me. Pool and Casino at the Falkner Farm, Brookline, Mass. Charles H. Platt, architect .... House at Bronxville, N. Y. . Residence of Mrs. Elizabeth O. T. McKay Old Nichols's doorway and gates at Salem, Mass. Porch in the style of French half-timber work A modern hallway ...... An Italian jar ....... House on the "North Shore," Mass. Facing Chapter I. — Entrance Gates to "Maxwell Court" HEADING, CHAPTER I. — The Maine hill country A California avenue of palms .... The old Royal House, Medford, Mass. . A bit of the Berkshire Hills ..... A summer cottage at Boothbay, Me. The lodge at "Yaddo," Saratoga . . . . An estate on the Hudson River .... Looking across Newfound Lake, N. H. . . The Orchard House, Concord, Mass. . . . A site in Roxbury, Mass. ..... A California vineyard . . . • . . . xiii . Cover inlay. . Front lining Half title Frontispiece Title page Dedication Preface Contents List of Illustrations PAGE 2 3 4 5 7 9 10 ii 12 13 H 14 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued PAGE On the Penobscot River, Me. . . . . . . .15 A site on the Hudson River. A practical example . . . . 16 & 17 A hill site in Dutchess County, N. Y. . . . . . .18 View of Frenchman's Bay ......... 19 Old birch growth on the Maine coast ....... 20 HEADING, CHAPTER II. — A $12,000 house of field stone .... 22 House at Osterville, Mass. ......... 23 Brick and stucco house at Manchester, Mass. ..... 24 An excellent adaptation of English and French half-timber work . . 25 Log and stone house at Bar Harbor, Me. ...... 26 Residence of E. S. Hand, Esq., Southport, Conn. ..... 27 Stucco house in the English influence ....... 28 An excellent example of English design ....... 29 Plan of the practical example on the Maine coast ..... 30 Plan and views of the site on the Maine coast . . . . 31 Stucco house at Glen Ridge, N. J. ... ... 32 Another view of the Glen Ridge house ....... 33 A Most interesting stone house . . . . . . . -34 The Old Royal House, Medford, Mass. 35 A stucco house at Cohassett, Mass. ....... 36 Entrance side of Cohassett house . . . . . . . -37 A gambrel-roofed Colonial house . . . . . . . .38 An eight-room gardener's cottage ........ 40 House of General Harrison Gray Otis . . . . . . .41 HEADING, CHAPTER III. — A modern Colonial house .... 42 Fig. i. — Showing the use of batter-boards ...... 43 House at Lawrence Park ......... 43 Fig. 2. — Sections showing wood and brick construction . . .45 Central motive of the Hammond House ...... 46 Fig. 3. — Braced framing ......... 47 Fig. 4. — Balloon framing ......... 48 Showing rough stucco walls ......... 49 "Maxwell Court," Rockville, Conn 50 Fig. 5. — Section through frame of house . . . . . 51 A simple cottage ........... 52 House at Bronxville, N. Y. . . . . . . . • 53 Showing a rough-stone and shingle combination ..... 54 Portion of old Whipple House . 55 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued xv PAGE House at Chestnut Hill, Mass. ........ 56 "Foregate," the summer home of Mrs. Gordon Price .... 57 "Eastover," at Wyoming, N. J 58 A modern development of the Colonial ....... 59 A simple New York State type ........ 59 Court side of Royal House ......... 60 HEADING, CHAPTER IV. — A mission house ...... 61 Fig. 6. — Sections of wooden cornices ....... 62 Portion of house near Philadelphia, Pa. ...... 62 "Maxwell Court" 63 Entrance motive to house in Swampscott, Mass. ..... 64 Entrance motive to house at Peterboro, N. H. . . . . .65 Entrance to a brick house ......... 66 Entrance motive to house at Locust Valley, L. I. . . . . .66 Living side of house at Kingston, N. Y. . . . . . .67 Entrance motive to house at Philadelphia . . . . .68 Servants' quarters of house at Newburgh ...... 69 Portion of house at Bryn Mawr, Pa. ....... 69 Fig. 7. — Portion of chimney . . . . . . . . -7° Showing difference between pine and cedar shingles .... 71 Fig. 8. — The square window ........ 72 Entrance to "Belle Aire" 73 Fig, 9. — Several types of stone wall ....... 74 Fig. 10. — A portion of brick or stone gable ...... 75 Three chimneys adapted to the English style . . . . . . 76 Showing an open cornice, etc. ........ 76 Page from modern hardware catalogue . . . . . . • 77 Old music gallery at Alexandria, etc. ....... 78 HEADING, CHAPTER V. — Old Dutch door ...... 80 Old doorway on Washington Street, Boston . . . . .81 Doorway of old Custom-house, Portsmouth, N. H. . . .82 Doorway to Hammond House ........ 83 Doorway on the lines of the Renaissance ...... 84 Doorway in the Chase House ........ 85 An adaptation of the Japanese ........ 86 The old Longfellow doorway ........ 87 Street entrance to Royal House ........ 88 Courtyard entrance to Royal House . . . . . . .89 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued PAGt Interior doorway at Gunston Hall ........ 90 Interior doorway at Whitehall, Md. . . . . . . .91 Fig. ii. — Diagram showing parts of an ordinary panel door ... 92 Doorway of Hammond House ........ 93 Fig. 12. — Old and new methods of door construction .... 93 Vestibule door at Alexandria, Va. ... ... 94 Doorway at old Whitehall, Md. ........ 95 Old doorway at Deerfield, Mass. ........ 96 Fig. 13. — Fine example of Colonial architraves ..... 96 An interior doorway .......... 97 An unusual door-hood . ......... 98 Fig. 14. — The veneered door ........ 98 A modern doorway at Arlington, Mass. ....... 99 HEADING, CHAPTER VI. — A modern treatment of the circular bay . . 100 French window motive .......... 101 Modern Colonial bays . . . . . . . . . .102 House at Chestnut Hill, Mass. . . . . . . . .102 An example of the English casement window . . . . . .103 Entrance motive to house at Cambridge, Mass. . . . . .104 Entrance motive to house at Lynn Mass. . . . . . .105 Mullioned window in old house at Flushing, L. I. . . . . . 106 Interior of (above) window ......... 107 Fig. 15. — One method of building the casing ...... 107 Old church window at Newburgh, N. Y. . . . . . .108 Fig. 16. — Plan of three-opening mullioned window . . . . .108 Portion of house at Wayne, Pa. . . . . . . . .109 A semicircular bay . . . . . . . . . .109 Excellent glass motives . . . . . . . . .no Window in old Bowne House . . . . . . . 1 1 1 A second-story bay . . . . . . . . . .112 A bay at Newburgh, N. Y 112 Fig. 17. — Section of a simple window frame . . . . . 113 Fig. 18. — Section of a window in a brick wall . . . . .114 Fig. 19. — Showing the construction of a "French" window . . .114 Entrance motive to the Emerton House . . . . . . .115 Fig. 20. — Showing the construction of a cellar window . . . .116 HEADING, CHAPTER VII. — In the Peabody Institute . . . 117 Hooded fireplace in studio . . . . . . . . .118 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued xvii PAGE Fig. 21. — Showing the use of the old fire frame . . . .119 A delightful example of delicate detail . . .. . . .119 Mantel in the Nichols House, Salem, Mass. ...... 120 A modern hooded Gothic example . . . . . . . .121 A library alcove at Chestnut Hill . . . . . . . .123 Fig. 22. — Showing a safe method of chimney and fireplace construction . 124 An interesting dining-room fireplace . . . . . . .125 Parlour mantel at Jamaica Plain, Mass. . . . . . 126 Old mantel from the Lee House . . . . . . . 127 A well-tied fireplace motive . . . . . . . . .128 An old Salem mantel . . . . . . . . .129 Fig. 23. — Showing a fireproof staircase . . . . . . .130 Old fireplace and accessories . . . . . . . 131 A most excellent rendering ...... 132 Mantel at Fairhaven, Mass. ......... 133 Fig. 24. — Showing an effective form of fire escape . . . . 134 Fireplace in a Bohemian cottage . . . . . . . .134 An American development of the English Renaissance . . . 135 A simple, big and home-like treatment . . . . . . 135 "Indian Harbor," Greenwich, Conn. ....... 135 HEADING, CHAPTER VIII. — A simple and well-lighted hall . . . 136 An upper stair-landing .......... 137 Old Colonial stairs at Jamaica Plain, Mass. . . ... 138 Landing (of above) . . . . . . . . . .139 A Japanese rendering at Fall River, Mass. ...... 140 Upper hallway (of above) ......... 141 A modern hall at Hingham, Mass. . . ... 142 An example at Cambridge, Mass. ..... 143 A simple staircase ... ...... 143 Old stairway at Carters Grove, Va. . .... 144 An Elizabethan treatment .... ... 145 An old staircase at Alexandria, Va. . ... 146 A modern hall at Williamstown, Mass. ... ... 147 Fig. 25. — Showing the construction of stairs . . . . . .148 HEADING, CHAPTER IX. — Den in house at Overbrook, Pa. ... 149 Living hall at Bayville, L. I. . . . . . . . .150 A billiard room at Cambridge, Mass . 150 A general living room at Cohasset, Mass. . ... 151 xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued PAGE Showing musical instruments . . . . . . . . • 151 Parlour in the style of Louis XV. and XVI. . . . . . -153 Living room at Fall River, Mass. . . . . . . 155 "Den" in house at Salem, Mass. ........ 156 Parlour at Salem, Mass. ......... 157 Living room at Newburgh, N. Y. . . . . . . . .158 Billiard room at Jamaica Plain, Mass. . ^ . . . . . . 158 An informal general living room . . . . . . . 159 Reception room of Messrs. Price and McLanahan . . . . .160 Library at Montclair, N. J. . . . . . . . . .162 Corner in library at Kingston, N. Y. . . . . . .162 A simple chamber .......... 163 A chamber alcove .......... 163 Dressing room at Cohasset, Mass. . . . . . . . .164 An unusual "den" at Osterville, Mass. . . . . . . .165 HEADING, CHAPTER X. — A winter dining room . . . . .166 A dining room at Montclair, N. J. ....... 167 Dining room at Wenonah, N. J. . . . . . . .168 An old-time kitchen . . . . . . . . . .168 A dining room at Bronxville, N. Y. . . . . . . .169 A simple dining room at Magnolia, Mass. . .... 170 Fig. 26. — Showing an isolated kitchen . . . . . . 171 The wainscoting and the ceiling are noticeable . . 171 Dining room at Jamaica Plain, Mass. .... . . 172 Dining room at Winchester, Mass. . . . . . . 173 A dining room at Montclair, N. J. . . . . . 174 A fine, simple design . . . . . . . . . .174 A kitchen corner . . . . . . . . . . 175 Fig. 27. — Section through a kitchen sink . . . . 175 Everything is simple and to the point . . . . . . .176 Fig. 28. — Section through draught box . . . . . . .176 This shows the exposure of the kitchen utensils . . . • 177 A light and convenient kitchen ...... .178 A kitchen dresser . . . . . . . . . .178 The feeling of simple comfort . . . . . . . • J79 Fig. 29. — Section through dresser ..... • I79 Fig. 30. — Plan showing a good outlay . . . . . . .180 Fig. 31. — Detail of a revolving service box . . . . . .180 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued xix PAGE Kitchen and dining-room suite . . . . . . . .181 House at Woodmere, L. I. . . . . . . . . 182 HEADING, CHAPTER XL — A fireplace of stone 183 Sun parlour in Japanese house ........ 184 A New England sun parlour . . . . . . . .185 Hanging vestibule lantern ......... 185 A fireplace in Colonial kitchen . . . . . . . .186 Old mantle in the Ladd House . . . . . . . . 187 A hall fireplace at Wynnewood, Pa. ....... 188 An adaptation from the Japanese . . . . . . . .189 Fig. 32. — Section showing indirect system . . . . . .190 Fig. 33. — Section showing direct-indirect system . . . . .190 A glazed-tile mantel . . i . . . . . . .191 A parlour mantel at Lynn, Mass. . . . . . . . . 192 A parlour mantel at Salem, Mass. ........ 193 A dressing-room mantel . . . . . . . . .194 A good fireplace of tile . . . . . . . . -195 The screen of this unique bracket lamp . . . . . .196 Exterior bracket lantern . . . . . . . . .196 Mantel in living room . . . . . . . . . 197 Plans and section showing ventilation and heating . . . . 199 Hanging electrolier . . . . . . . . . . 200 A hanging electric lantern . . . . . . . . 202 Electric sconces . . . . . . . . . . 203 Electric table lamps .......... 204 HEADING, CHAPTER XII. — Portion of a small bathroom .... 205 Fig. 34. — Section showing the plumbing of a house . . . . 206 Fig. 35. — Section through hot-water boiler ...... 207 A kitchen range with suspended hot-water boiler ..... 208 A large soapstone kitchen sink ........ 209 An elaborate structure of brick and stone . . . . . .211 A summer house . . . . . . . . . .211 An excellent example of shingle work . . . . . . .211 Example of popular adaptation . . . . . . . .211 End of a first-story laundry . . . . . . . . 212 A laundry stove ........... 213 A good example of modern bathroom . . . . . . . 214 Fig. 36. — Showing two types of pumps . . . . . .214 xx LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued PAGE Portion of a bathroom .......... 215 A double lavatory . . . . . . . . .216 A simple porcelain lavatory . . . . . . . . .217 Fig. 37. — Horizontal section of a wooden tank . . . . .217 Portion of a small bathroom .... ... 218 Tin-lined copper sink . . . . . . . . .219 Fig. 38. — Section of basin ......... 220 Fig. 39. — Section of a modern syphon closet . . . . . .221 Fig. 40. — Section showing trap forms ....... 223 Fig. 41. — Types of the non-syphoning trap ...... 223 A shower bath ........... 224 Fig. 42. — Section showing the installation of the back-vent system . . 225 An enamelled kitchen sink ......... 226 House at Merion, Pa. .......... 227 HEADING, CHAPTER XIII. — Nearly concealed by cedars .... 228 Detail of rustic well ........ . 230 A rustic-well house . . . . . . . . . 231 Fig. 43. — Sectional diagram showing a well ...... 232 Windmill on farm of Thomas W. Lawson, Esq. ..... 233 The hacienda of Mrs. Hearst ........ 235 The outlay best fitted to sand stretches ....... 235 The Girard Foster House, at Lenox, Mass. ...... 237 Inner court of house at Bryn Mawr, Pa. ...... 237 Cottage at Grindstone Neck, Winter Harbor, Me. . . . . . 237 Elizabethan house of Allen H. Reed, Esq. ...... 237 Supply tank and lookout ......... 238 Door to tank house (above) ......... 239 Water tank of Mrs. Hearst ......... 240 Fig. 44. — Section of hydraulic ram ....... 240 Old powder house .......... 241 A water tower at Roxbury, Mass. ........ 241 Fig. 45. — Blind and combination drains ....... 243 A tank at West Hampton Beach ........ 244 Tank and windmill at Southport, L. I. .... . . 245 Hiding an iron standpipe ......... 246 A windmill that is not unsightly ........ 247 Fig. 46. — Showing the flush tank ........ 248 Windmill and tank combined ........ 249 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued xxi PAGE HEADING, CHAPTER XIV. — A modern Colonial stable .... 250 Fig. 47. — Plan of stable . . . . . . . . .251 Stable at Overbrook, Pa. ... . . «, , . . . 252 Stable at Dedham, Mass. ......... 253 Stall room of stable at Newburgh, N. Y. ...... 254 Barn and poultry house ......... 254 Stable on the D. C. Blair estate . . ... 255 Fig. 48. — A good stable or barn vent ....... 256 Fig. 49. — Section through a barn .... c ... 256 Two views of barn at "Fairacres" . . . 257 The Thomas W. Lawson dove-cote . 258 The most approved form of poultry house , , . . . . . 259 Fig. 50. — A poultry house . ...... 259 Old dove-cote at "Shirley" .... .... 260 Fig. 51. — Small pigeon house . , . „ . . .261 Pigeon house in stable ..... .... 261 A clean, rich, free treatment ... ..... 262 Stable at Woodmere, L. I. .... .... 262 An ideal barn and courtyard . . .... 262 Old Colonial gates at Salem, Mass ....... 263 Fig. 52. — Sketch for a combined boat and bath house .... 264 A dignified treatment of the entrance wall ...... 265 Boat house at Southport, L. I. ..... 266 Fig. 53. — Plan and section of a swimming pool . . . 266 Gate lodge at "Pine Banks" . • . 267 Ice house at Kingston, N. Y. ......... 267 Old gates at Medford, Mass. . ... 268 Fig. 54. — Sections of picket fence and stone wall , . 268 An English lich-gate .... .... 269 Garden gate of Royal House ... . . . 269 Gate-lodge at Lawrence Park ..... . . 270 An interesting circular barn and stable ....... 271 The summer house of the Royal estate . . ... 272 HEADING, CHAPTER XV. — A pergola 273 The Blair garden ........... 274 Plan of Blair garden ........... 274 Garden of Mrs. D. C. Blair 275 Japanese fountain .......... 275 * xxii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued PAGE Garden steps ........... 276 Garden wall at Greenwich, Conn. ........ 277 Pergola and sun-dial .......... 277 Garden gate at Glen Ridge, N. J. ....... 278 Hermes ............ 278 "Maxwell Court," Rockville, Conn. 279 A vase at "Maxwell Court" 280 Wall of entrance court ... ..... 281 "Maxwell Court." The garden gate . . . . . . .281 A side porch ........... 283 Old Prince House at Flushing, L. I. . ...... 284 A rustic summer house .......... 285 The garden at Mt. Vernon ......... 285 The Italian well-curb .......... 286 "Maxwell Court." Pergola 287 Sun-dial in cedar garden ......... 288 A vista in the Stevens' garden ........ 289 Seat in the Stevens' garden ......... 289 An ivy-covered stone bridge ......... 290 A rough-stone bridge .......... 290 Stone steps in formal garden . . . « . . . .291 Garden of Mrs. Larz Anderson ........ 292 Plan of the Anderson garden ......... 293 Fountain in garden at "Fairacres" ...... 294 A bit of the rock garden at "Yaddo" . .... 295 A modest gate ........... 296 Bit of garden at Newburgh, N. Y. 297 Rock garden, "Yaddo" .298 HEADING, CHAPTER XVI. — An interesting rendering .... 299 A shingled house . . . . . . . . . . 315 An eighteenth century Dutch stone house . . . . . .316 A children's playhouse ..... ... 316 "Wyanhoe," James River, Virginia . . . . . . .316 A modern type of American country house . . . . . .316 The Goddard House at Brookline, Mass . . . . • 31? HEADING, CHAPTER XVII.— House at Bronxville, N. Y 318 Fig- 55- — Section and plan of balcony . . . . . . • 3J9 Fig. 56. — Sketch showing construction of a bulkhead . . . • 3J9 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued xxiii PAGE Fig. 57. — Section through wall and drain ... . . . . . 320 Fig. 58. — An outside closet ......... 320 Fig. 59. — Section of bed of drive . . . . . . . .321 An inexpensive flower trellis ......... 322 Fig. 60. — Section of casing ......... 323 Fig. 61. — Showing the right-angle triangle ...... 325 Fig. 62. — A bay window ......... 325 Fig. 63. — Showing the laying of shingles . . . . . . . 326 Fig. 64. — Suggestion for a trap ........ 327 Fig. 65. — The queen-post truss ........ 328 End of a simple arbour ......... 329 Section of bridge . . . . ... . . . 330 THI, COUNTRY HOUSE, Entrance Gate* to " Mi :, Conn. Charles A. Plat THE COUNTRY HOUSE CHAPTER I SELECTION OF THE SITE NCE the world was very young, and our prehistoric ancestry (if the Darwinian theory be accepted) roosted in trees, or swung therefrom by appendages long since eliminated and hence not found in the accepted Parisian fashion plates. Then there were neither doors nor windows, and the needs of the bath were not imperative. Gentle breezes blew as aimlessly as now; heavy foliage offered shelter from the sun; hair grew downward to keep out the weather, and the lee side of a tree trunk was better than a house. Later came the cave man — he who invented the cellar. He had no tail, but just what he may have been is not definitely decided. Recent research seems to suggest that he must have been a good climber, despite the lack of caudal appendage, although he probably struck for his hole when he could, and built him a fire as protection against outside invasion. Little as we may know, it is evident, however, that he carefully chose the site of his cave in reference to the demands of his simple life, and if his ready-made home did not fulfil these he rejected it altogether. Thus we find him on elevations, near streams, and within reach of flint and the metals which he has so cleverly wrought. The Country House A California avenue of palms, demanding the low-pitched roof and overhanging ea\ the droop of the trees Our problem is the same. We are limited by our needs, and must, like birds and ani- mals, adapt natural conditions to them. With these the home may be temporary; with us it is per- manent— that is, if we are fortunate in the exercise of our good judgment. Generally one can tell the natural inclination of every individual, from the flat shuffle of the cityite to the mo- mentous tread of the countryman, each of whose steps is a day's work. Tin- migrating cityite is easy to mark; he never really forgets the flat step; but he, like the parrot, catches the half sense of things. There is he of the country inclination, with his hat on the back of his head, a straw in his mouth, stepping high, like a hen, from past experience with mud, sand and stones. The other variety is like a dog that has swallowed a mustard plaster — no matter which way he is headed for the time being, he will eventually bring up at water, though from reasons of an entirely different nature. Both hands are shoved deep into his pockets until he is round shouldered, and when he walks it is as if the lower part of his anatomy were in one piece. His nos- trils are extended as if always smelling for wind, and when he looks at his watch he pulls his hat over his face and shades his eyes with his hand. Be the destination of he who flees from the city what it may, the same general problem confronts him; the same general conditions are to be considered, and the same general requirements to be met. He still requires to eat, sleep and breathe fresh air, and the sunshine is just as requisite to his personal comfort, be he by shore or mountain. This first problem, that of the site, is most important. The average man will build a fairly good house on a bit of land entirely unworthy of it. We can- not all draw plums, but let us at least have a decent slice of the pudding. It has been the usual method among prospective builders to determine upon the style and plan of the house to be built, and then to choose a site most unsuited for the purpose. This method of procedure is, strictly speaking, an illustration of the hackneyed "putting the cart before the horse," and yet jt is frequently done with success. To have a general idea of what the plan may be is perhaps not overreaching the mark to any extent, and yet the "general idea" Selection of the Site should not be so firmly fixed as to cause future com- plications, as it is very apt to do. As is often the case, one looks about for existing examples that please him; this is natural. If in the research he becomes com- pletely and in- separably wedded to some particular style, then this style must govern the choice of the land and be ever uppermost in the question of its selection. The better way, by far, is to determine on the site, procure it, and fit the house to the conditions it involves. This is the legitimate method of procedure, and will give better results in the end. We all of us work, or have at least some connection with a business centre. This, first of all, should be a check in the matter of selection. The average man is expected, except during his vacation, to be at a certain place each day for the transaction of business. His first care is that he shall not spend too much time on public conveyances in travelling back and forth. If he be located in a town or small city his problem is perhaps simpler than he of the large city; in either case, the nearness to public conveyances and a forethought for the future growth of the locality are all important. Although growth is natural, one does not care to be hemmed in with mushroom edifices before the first coat of paint has become hard. If it be a case of a summer home simply, the problem differs again. More land is naturally implied, and, as a general thing, the conditions of summer and early fall alone are to be considered. Here again the question of ease of The old Royal House, Medford, Mass. Showing a flat Colonial site with deciduous growth. The lower view gives the anatomy of the general lay-out 6 The Country House access arises, and if one isolates himself it should be with the understanding of what it involves. If the man of the house is to come up every week, a com- pulsory drive of from thirty to forty miles each trip has its drawbacks, and eventually becomes tiresome. Whether the case be that of the suburban or country home, the general condition of the public highways bears strongly on the question of ease of access. The one is to be considered for the entire year; the other offers the best there is in it. It is always better to have lived in the chosen locality through the proposed months of occupancy, before building, in order that one may understand the conditions thoroughly and guard against unpleasant surprises. One might as well be in the midst of wilds as to be located in a country where the source of supplies is poor. Of course one does not expect the country store to carry all the numerous little pet fancies of a capricious palate, but one does expect a certain amount of staple product, and occasionally a yeast cake that is not more than three days over the five-year limit. If one has chosen well, the finer needs of the table may be supplied from town. It is wise, however, to patronise the local man to some extent, if he is reasonable, in order that he may be encouraged to keep up his stock and that one may be sure at the same time that one will not go hungry. To rely entirely on outside supply is to tempt fate to the extent of an empty stomach and bad temper. Fuel, too, is an item of some importance, and though prices are often quite reasonable in the country, yet, if it comes from a distance, the cartage, which may prove heavy, must be reckoned with. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the question of privacy; it seems to be seldom considered by the masses at large. The good old continental practice of making a closed-in estate, a little world of one's own, is set at naught by the average builder. The absence of fences and tree screens throws what should be the owner's exclusive domain open to public invasion, and his neighbour's business becomes as important as his own. This is particularly true of the suburban "lot" — a poor little beast, bestraddled by a good, healthy house, whose tendency to reach out is nipped by circumstances which compel it to pull in both knees and elbows to escape its neighbours, like a fat alderman confined to space in a political parade. Nearness to the highway is another menace to privacy, considering that the average American house faces the street. This is particularly obnoxious in a case where the lot is lower than the street and the casual passer-by can tell what sort of a rug you have on the floor. Naturally, if the house be planned after the English $tyle, with the living room to the rear and facing the small private garden, then there is no objection to the structure setting closer to the street than is ordinarily in good taste; kitchen windows are high, and that part of the house generally takes care of itself. The neighbourhood and neighbours — look to them well; both may change, even if of the best; this is your risk. As an extra precaution give yourself elbow room; it is convenient at times. There are often public nuisances which, in some places, are hard to get 8 The Country House rid of. If your neighbour's pigpen is as good at fifty rods as it is at one — look out for it. If there is manufacturing within the radius of a mile, examine it care- fully and note what it does. If there be a waterway handy, watch out for drain- age; and the more especially if it passes through your proposed site. Your neighbour can, with either good or bad intentions, make things highly interesting for you. Marshes and swamps are often very obnoxious. Investigate — it may be worth while. As has been previously stated, it is best to live in the locality for a while and learn about it. The principal thing to avoid, in the way of soil, is clay. It is best to have nothing to do with it, but if the conditions are so very extraordinary otherwise, and you are willing to drain both your wallet and the land thoroughly, as well as excavate and grade with gravel to the limit, it can be done. Soft, swampy land is also to be avoided, and the conditions of a rocky soil or ledge must be fully taken into consideration before any decision is made. Of course one must risk the striking of a ledge or rock in the digging of the cellar; it cannot always be foreseen. The best soil is, of course, gravel. The water filters through it easily and gives the owner some chance in the game. Sand filters too, but it will wash badly unless protected. A house built on a rock partakes of the rigidity of its foundation. It is apt to vibrate slightly during a thunder storm, a fact which might annoy the timid individual to some extent at first. It is solid, however, and will not settle. The cellar under such conditions is a question. There is the ordinary summer house that may require no cellar. If the ledge slopes quickly, a cellar may be had on the lower side of it; but this should have a wooden floor, free from the ledge, . to avoid such surface water as may flow over it. Blasting can be done, but this is too expensive for the ordinary house. A slight elevation is, of course, the best site for the house itself, be this natural or artificial. The slope of the land, if it be marked in character, is better toward the south or in the direction of the best outlook. Things do not often happen exactly as we may wish — then begins the problem, which differs from others, and hence the advisability of planning the house for the land. The direction of the outlook is better toward the sun, that the living room may receive healthy sun- light at some time during the day. It is advisable not to set a house too near the sea, unless it be at a con- siderable height above it. The storms of winter are often severe, and the place for the ocean is surely not in your living room, to say nothing of the damage to the outside of the house. From six to twenty inches of house wall is not much against a wall of water, writh miles of wall on wall coming right along, with a soaring, snorting hurricane back of it, urging it on. Once upon a time a cheerful idiot built a little camp on a two-by-four island in the most placid of inland lakes. His island was about four feet above summer level at the highest point, and his front porch set out over the water on posts. That winter the elements distributed kindlings to all the camps on the lake, and the porch was no more. The next winter did things to the camp itself, and the following summer the wreck was abandoned. 2 ,. --2 s s s •a * x ** " a U > S IN! 8 *• O ^ li! • « • u t> > * I- B « S ¥ ^ S S a ff TO The Country House The lodge at " Yaddo," Saratoga. A situation which suggests quiet and repose These two prob- lems of \vater sup- ply and drainage are probably the most important or a 1 1 considerations in the building of a house. With their nearness to perfec- tion comes perfect health, and if they do not exist what excuse is there for a home anyway ? The water supply — a vital con- sideration— is either through public ser- vice or is a private affair. It will not take long to determine on the character and efficiency of the former. It should be pure and plentiful, and of sufficient pressure to guarantee its usefulness in time of fire. In this connection the effectiveness of the fire department should be considered, and rates of insurance often stand for much. There is one advantage about the public service — if it should become pol- luted or otherwise impaired, the public will rise as a body to demand puri- fication. If, however, its natural conditions are not good, it is little short of useless. With the private service it is different, inasmuch as it may become a single- handed combat against natural odds or the power of corporations or moneynl individuals. Such conditions as these are expensive and exasperating, and should be well guarded against at the start. When the public service does not exist, it is the question of the spring, or either the dug or driven well. The spring is a rarity (and by spring is meant that which is large enough to come to the surface in considerable volume- wells are oftentimes fed from small springs) and, of course, is to be treated as the dug. well of greater or less size. The driven well is more expensive, but perhaps the best, while the dug well is the most common. If it be possible, samples of the water should be analysed before the purchase is made. Care should be taken that the well is not in a position to receive the drainage from any out- side source — this is most important. Where one can drain into a public sewer he is relieved of considerable worry and calculation on that score, although it is just as well to know where the sewer empties, and to be sure that by any miscalculation it does not connect with the water supply in some way. In locating drainage on the estate where the private supply exists, it is Selection of the Site ii of great importance to see that the house and stable drain will not come too near or interfere with your drinking water, and that its final disposition shall be at a considerable distance from it and the house. It is the natural possibilities of the site that should appeal to the pro- spective builder and be taken advantage of as far as possible. Elevation is a good thing, but if it necessitates much of a climb it should be avoided. Trees, too, are excellent, but their close proximity to the house should not be considered, as they shut in the view, hinder the circulation of air, help to decay the shingle roof, and fill the gutters with litter that eventually decays those of wood and clogs the conductors. Neither should they shut off the sun too completely — a certain amount of it is necessary. On the other hand, they may serve as a wind shield to cut off the house from the north or other points of the compass from which cold winds blow. Unless a hardwood growth is quite thick it will become use- less for this purpose in winter, and even if close it becomes little more than a "strainer." Often the house can be shielded from the wind by setting it in the lee of rising ground. It is not only in the winter that cold winds blow, but during the summer and fall one is likely to experience considerable discomfort from them. A thorough knowledge of the locality beforehand will tell one what to expect and guard against. The outlook is, of course, one* of the things which one naturally does not forget to consider; but it is not necessary to cut out every tree which comes anywhere near it. Vistas can be cut, or, as in the case of the sweeping view, the trees can be thinned out and trimmed so as to make it count for more and become more interesting than the frankly open sweep. Consider your building from the point of view of material at hand. Wood is always safe, but in a rocky country the rough stone, with proper surroundings, is excellent. Gener- ally speaking, stone harmonises best with soft wood growth, while brick seems to be best adapted to tht deciduous tree. Wood can be han- dled to go with either. The cedar, being more formal, can be used in com- bination with any material. Plaster (or rough-cast) is, ac- cording to its treat- ment, possible anywhere. The above generalities are not laid down as infallible rules, but, broadly speaking, they apply. It is readily seen that the utilisation of the handy material has another advantage — that of cheapness. This little item is not to be sneezed at, considering the present rates of labour and material. An estate on the Hudson River. The long undulating lines of the land add much to the character and possibilities of the place 12 The Country House It is well to have a fairly accurate outline of what you intend to do in the way of the placing of the buildings before you have definitely decided on the land. The house, stable, sheds, barns, poultry houses and yard, cow yard, kitchen garden, kitchen yard, well house and whatever else you may intend to embody should be roughly mapped, with due regard to the suggestions previously made. After the purchase has been made, a plan should be drawn as accurately as possible, either by an engineer or by the owner. This should give the height from the street grade; the trees and their condition, character and kind; soil and location of ledge (if any). To help this plan in its intelligibility it is well to make a series of photographs of the place from various established points on the plan, as well as views from the road. When this is done, owner, architect and landscape gardener have something to work from, although the site will probably be visited by the latter. In making the pictures of the proposed site of various buildings, it is well that some person of known height be included in the view, standing on the site in question. This gives the scale at a glance, and is of much value to the architect, who may not visit the land until after the sketches are made. If the question of price be an item with you, know this — that if you wear store clothes, a collar, and keep your shoes in passable condition, the average countryman will take you to be made of money and tack on the price accor- dingly. When a man hails from the city his fate is settled. No one with any sense of decency will object to paying a fair price for an article. On the other hand, one does not care to be taken in on the strength of an imaginary fortune. The better way is to get a trustworthy resident to make the bargain in his own name and for you not to be known in the transaction. Be sure, however, that this is done with the knowledge and under the direction of a lawyer, other- wise your "trusty resident" may own the land instead of yourself, and offer to sell it to you after- ward at more profit than he is entitled to. It is always best to put a binder on the land as soon as you decide that you Looking across Newfound Lake, N. H. A good location, ample height and excellent view. Want It, OT suggesting the Colonial farmhouse that VOU Want it, pending the looking up of the title. If you do not do this someone else may get in ahead of you. The best way is to bond the property for the sum agreed upon, paying a small sum to hold it for a stipulated length of time. This gives you the refusal of it for that time and for that price, and if you decide that it is not what you wish Selection of the Site The Orchard House, Concord, Mass. This suggests the possibilities of the old site you lose only the binder. In this way several sites may be considered and the best selected. Be sure, however, that you have a lawyer's advice in your transaction, unless you know absolutely what you are doing yourself. One argument in favour of the lawyer is that the laws of the various states often differ, and things which seem to be all right are not. For in- stance, if you buy a piece of land on the Maine coast, and in your deed your land is described as running in such and such directions, for such and such a distance to the shore, and hence by the shore, etc., you naturally suppose that you have a shore privilege. The fact is that you have no legal right whatever. On this point the law holds. Your deed should read "to tidewaters of so-and-so," and "by tidewaters so-and-so." Hence, get a lawyer; he is worth his hire. In the matter of the title your lawyer again comes to the front; he is familiar with such work. If you know as much about it as he does, look it up yourself, but under no circumstances slight it — a clear title is important. If you do not make sure that the man who sells you the land has an undisputed right to it, someone may come along at any time and convince a court that his right is better than yours and — you lose. It isn't worth the risk. One rests easier with both the copy of a clear title and the deed, properly recorded, stowed away in one's inside pocket. Not infrequently the old site offers as tempting a haven or one even more so than the new site. Its possibilities are well developed and the problem of rejuvenating becomes unique. In some instances the old trees are most tempt- ing, although if these are not perfectly sound it is better not to consider them for a moment. Younger trees with a life before them are preferable to old ones whose life is near spent. The various styles of houses are adapted to certain sites. Of course there are exceptions to the following, as there are to every rule. The careful designer often carries to a successful completion that scheme which at first seems impractical. The Country House It must be confessed, however, that these instances are, in comparison with the number of failures, rather a small percentage of such attempts. Generally speaking, the formal Colonial and English styles harmonise best with the compara- tively level site and the drooping fluffi- ness of deciduous trees (see "Royal House " and " Estate on the Hudson"). Rough, rugged sites like the view in "Roxbury" de- mand an irregular design of consider- able force and strength — the rough A site in Roxbury, Mass. This demands a rough stone design of considerable force and strength Stone Wall WOU1Q QO very well. Rough stone is out of place, however, if used in a locality foreign to it, or where there are no rocks on the surface to carry out their character. The long sweep, as in a "California Vineyard" calls for long, sweeping lines in the house. The "Berkshire Hills," as seen in the distance, might suggest several things; a house back of the pines might be a robust and vigorous detailed "Colonial." The "Maine Coast" might be shingle, log, or rough stone and plain plaster. The "Newfound Lake" and the "Penobscot River" suggest strongly the rambling irregularity of the Colonial farmhouse. The "Avenue of Palms" calls loudly for a low-pitched roof with over-hanging eaves which shall suggest the droop of the trees. The various styles of tropical houses might give new and excellent ideas — it is an interesting problem. It has been already suggested that the "Estate on the Hudson" could be embellished with a formal Colonial design. It will be noted, however, that the existing building is will set in its place and seems a part of the grounds. This is in a measure due to the fact of its reg- ularity and lack of aggressiveness. I n design its central motive i s derived from the French farmhouse, while the wings are embel- ches of country call for the low structure, with long, ~ . sweeping lines lished With dormers Selection of the Site having the low pitch of the English half-timber period. In speaking of the English half timber, it is well to add that a design in this style would not look out of place on this site. One very good method in determining the design that suits the site is to collect photographs of foreign examples, which can be gotten in the larger cities; domestic examples should first be well studied to understand their adaptability. Of course, it is not reasonable to suppose that these can be taken literally; conditions of living are different. They will, however, offer invaluable sugges- tions for adaptation. Besides photographs, there are some high-class architectural publications which reproduce these, and which can be seen at many of the libraries. Not only should the acknowledged styles of the Continent be considered, but also the less known art of nations in other parts of the world. It is quite no- ticeable that parts of rough and pine-clad Maine bear a strik- ing resemblance to some parts of Japan. It would be impos- sible to imagine the bamboo in this con- • i nection, and yet a modification of the simple Japanese house is not so foolish as it seems first. Some of at On the Penobscot River, Me. A chance for long, low, rambling Colonial line* the pine growth in this state reminds one most forcibly of the charming specimens in Japan; and as to stone — Maine can surely hold her own. Now, for the sake of direct argument, let us take a practical example (see cut). This site is on the Hudson River. It does not matter where. If you find it (and it is safe to say you will not), lay hands on it at once — it is a gem. Well above the river runs a highway, broad and ample. Northeasterly, about three-quarters of a mile, runs another highway, equally ample and generally parallel to the first. Connecting these two is an old road more or less irregular in its direction, and, being semi-public, is cut off by gates at either end (see "G"). A short distance up on the old road from the river road the path divides, the right-hand branch swinging off to reach a clear, cool spring, which comes from the rocks (see "A"). This road swings round to intercept the main branch again at a point at which it makes a right-angle turn to the northwest. The road by the spring is about twenty-five feet above the land below, a rough o i ' — o g s i8 The Country House stone wall retaining it. As the dip of the land below the road is considerable, it gives a view from above, through and over the trees to the south (see "D"). The land below the road slopes to the river, where a screen of trees effectually hide the railroad (see "F"). The soil is good. A few ledges crop out at intervals and the stone walls would furnish considerable building material. The growth is largely cedar, oak and maple, with a sprinkling of locust and a few elms. This growth is very well distributed, and is even thicker than is shown on the plan, as the pictures suggest. The highest point on the land is near the northern line and, with the trees, offers an excellent wind screen. So much for the present conditions. Now for the possibilities of the place. (On the plan the site is indicated as lighter than the adjoining property, and the existing roadways lighter still.) The fact that the old crossroad is semi-public is the only stumbling block, and at first this seems a serious objection. Remaining in its present location it makes the lot impossible, but there is nothing to prevent the extending of this road in line with the easterly portion, and thence by the easterly boundary to the highway below. This does two things — makes the westerly portion of the old road a part of the estate and gives a back way and service entrance through the new extension. From outside encroachment we seem to be secure, as the highest land is on the lot and there is no chance to throw drainage across the property. Further, the lot is a mile away from one station and two miles from the other. The river road is not the main highway and consequently has reasonable chances of escaping the trolley. These facts offer a reasonable excuse for the non- interference of the mushroom class of house. Having saved a portion of the old road, the next question is, what is to be done with it ? It is important that this should be util- ised, as its natural conditions are ex- cellent. Let us see — the spring — yes, the spring is a fea- ture and must come into the game some- how. A carriage driving in must make a turn in order to get out. Then why not make a loop to connect the two diverging forks of the road and solve the problem thus ? In this way the overflow from the spring can be made a watering place for the horses and its present intention retained. The A hill site in Dutchess County, N. Y. The knoll, sheltered by the oak growth to the north, is a good location 20 The Country House loop is interesting enough in character to be worth perfecting, and is a pleasing way of solving the problem of the drive. As the stables should, of course, be handy to the drive, it has been indicated to the eastward of the loop and near the service entrance and the extension of the old road. If it is deemed too con- spicuous in its pres- ent position, it can be put behind the trees farther to the south. In fact this Old birch growth on the Maine coast An excellent chin house seems a good one, inasmuch as it will solve one problem very nicely. The manure pit can be hollowed out of the face of the nat- ural terrace, and be made with an arched stone or brick roof, with the chutes leading to it from above. As the wall faces the south a projecting outside pen can be added, and thus the pigs will be comfortably housed and one more bothersome question disposed of. Naturally the first consideration would be the location of the house. In this instance, however, the disposal of the road, which we have already con- sidered, was the important question. Then, too, one could see at a glance where the location of the house should be; and even if there were any hesitancy, the sunset across the river, the view through the trees and a glance at the wind- sheltering hill would instantly dispel it. The ordinary thing to do would be to put the house on the upper side of the drive and let it go at that. Fortunately this is not an ordinary problem. The sunset and the river at once suggest a long frontage in that direction. Although we have decided on the upper side of the road, we still go back to the spring. Here is an idea — why not carry a wing of the house across the road, arching over it ? In this case the billiard room and den can be placed on the spring side, where they become semi-detached from the main house by means of the arch, which is an advantage. Of course there will have to be a corridor from the main part of the house to the den, but this can, if necessary in rising to clear the arch, remain at that level, allowing the like raising of the billiard room and den floors, which will give a room below each of them. Thus there can be a storeroom under the billiard room, and the room under the den can be used for the pump, as the water supply naturally comes in at this point. The den should be carried up into a tower. Selection of the Site 21 The main outlay is simply the dining room and parlour, with a wide hall between and stairs at the northeasterly end. The library is south of the parlour and next the arch. The kitchen and service are in an L to the north and at an angle to the dining room, so as not to interfere with the view. The service driveway comes in at the east of the kitchen, by the way of the stable. A deep veranda seems to be requisite across the front of the house, which might continue narrowly over the drive to the den. A simple formal garden can be placed to the southwest, with a summer house at its extremity, and on a line with the central walks and the hall. On the crest of the hill to the north of the lot is a chance to erect a windmill for further water supply and for general use. This would be well in case of fire. Below the windmill, under the hill, where it would be sheltered from wind, ex- posed to the sun and handy to the water, the kitchen garden could be placed. The gardener's or caretaker's lodge has been located on the upper side of the road at the old gate, as this location seems a good one. It might, perhaps, be shifted to the other side of the road, where it will be under the bank and lower. In this case the living room and sleeping rooms could be on a level with the drive and the kitchen and dining room below. The drainage is easily taken care of. It might be carried to the lower ground below the natural terrace. It could, if thought desirable, be carried across the road into the field by the river, taking in the lodge on the way, and this would probably be the better method. Either would require about the same amount of pipe, considering one cesspool in both cases. The open field across the road will allow of tennis courts and a large garden if desired. There would, of course, have to be some thinning out of the growth in order that the best of it be given a better chance. With this, vistas could be opened up to such bits of view as were deemed worthy. On the whole, the plot is in remarkable condition for occupancy as it is, barring, of course, the right of way through it. The house shown is merely to give an idea of a good style to follow. This excellent example is based on the French farmhouse, and it suggests some- thing perfectly in harmony with the stone and the wood growth. The sky line of the "problem" house would have to be more vigorous, however, but this is a matter of adaptation. There is another style that could be used on this site with equal success — • that of the Italian — plaster walls or stone and plaster, and tile roofs. By this is not meant the larger and formal villas, but the simpler and more irregular creations of the hill towns and country. The cedar, which suggests forcibly the Italian landscape, we have in abundance, and the scheme is thoroughly practical. Under this treatment the spring becomes the Italian fount or well. This general solution of the problem is, of course, not the only one, but it is somewhere near to a good solution and suggests the way in which such a problem should be considered. The rough plan came as a natural result of the existing conditions. The average builder would not, perhaps, get as far as to see the house outlay at once — it is not his fault if he does not. t A $12,000 house of field stone partially covered with stucco; a type common in English towns CHAPTER II PLANNING THE HOUSE T IS a common saying that a man must plan and build three houses before he will get what he wants. Judging from the way in which he ordinarily goes about the job, there seems some reason for this statement. The planning of a house requires considerable thought and calculation. It is a most serious matter and should be taken seriously. The owner naturally has ideas of his own, and generally pitted against these are many time-tried conditions and the question of good design, as exemplified by the architect. We have said "pitted" for the lamentable reason that these things are generally antagonistic. It has been the common thing to consider the architect as one who wittingly lays himself out to spend about twice as much as the stipulated cost of the structure, and the owner as a confirmed crank who will antagonise any idea advanced by the architect and stick like glue to a few petty and insignificant notions. Both are ot course false, and yet there is a reason for these things, and when they are thoroughly sifted the owner will be found all unconsciously responsible for the larger part of them. If you have ever gone over the capitol building at Hartford, Connecticut, you will undoubtedly have heard the guide remark in conclusion: "And the most wonderful thing about it is that it was built within the appropriation,'* just as if this fact were a novelty — which it is. 22 Planning the House It has always been a failing of the general public to expect about twice or three times the value of every dollar it spends. In the case of the building of a house, the prospective builder wants this and that and something else that he has seen, until the grand total has run up, without the slightest exertion, from the five-thousand-dollar limit to ten or fifteen thousand. It is so natural to want things, and so fatally easy. To meet the wants of his client and in the hope of pleasing him, the architect naturally blunders into the same snare. Even at the risk of over-run- ning a little, he attempts what he knows to be impossibilities. Often, too, he wittingly runs over in the knowledge that clients frequently have named a certain limit, with the predetermination of spending more if necessary. There are, of course, unscrupulous architects who intend to deceive and involve the client, but these, happily, are few. Unfortunately, though few in number, they may have done much to further the false notion of the profession at large. There is another condition which does much to roughen the smooth relations between client and architect, and that , is the remarkable self-assurance of the former. Does the average man at- tempt to plan a loco- motive, a sailing vessel or the detail survey of a railroad ? He goes to the ex- pert, of course. With the house it is different. It is so simple — 1 ike " rol- ling off a log/' The architect is only a copyist, anyway — he doesn't originate anything. Just here he makes a grave mistake. Yes, the average man can plan a house, and it may stand as long and as well as an- other; he can plan a locomotive, too, but will it ever get beyond the model 5 Tl L House at Osterville, Mass. An interesting solution of the summer problem. r 1 he hoUSe Chapman & Frazer, architects The Country House FIRST FLOOR is an inoffensive and mobile animal. If it be tremendously ugly it won't explode, and if your front door opens into the kitchen pantry it isn't a locomotive that will not run. It is not a ship that will "turn turtle." If your roof should look like a number- ten hat on a ten- days-old puppy, or an impossible rail- road grade; if you do have to crawl on your hands and knees under a roof valley to get into the best chamber- still no catastrophe will occur, except perhaps a slow and sure arrival at the insane asylum. A man was once asked the question as to who designed his house. He replied: "My wife; Mr. So- and-So drew the plans." As the edifice i __ _ .j was a little masterpiece throughout, .LU.-HI I B""*e *oan nuuox. I ' 1 1 T r J' riu|||i|J and the wife of a very ordinary sort, it is readily seen at how much some people rate the architect's labours. There are some people of taste who are better T tiaiHfiS KOH I HAU UMAtr «• « 1 1 • 1 -I i -• t I fitted to be architects than many of the profession, but they lack, almost always, the intimate knowledge of the subiect which tends to complete success. \\ c frequently see and hear of houses "built without an architect." We can- not dispute the possibility; it is the result that we question. Now if the client would only be willing to admit that the architect is master of his profession, and the architect in turn be thoroughly honest with the client and with himself, then things might run a little smoother and pleasanter than they often do, and the general results would gain very con- siderablv. Brick and stucco house at Manchester, Mass. A simple and _,. •• • dignified rendering. Andrews. Jaques & Rantoul, architects I he Sensible Way tO gO about the Planning the House An excellent adaptation of English and French half-timber work. Cost about $17,000. Wm. L. Price, architect matter would seem to be by progressive stages. If you have an idea of what you wish, make rough sketches of it and think it over. New ideas come — put them on paper. If you can blunder through a drawing in any sort of shape, get a drawing board, T-square and triangle and lay the first plan out to scale. Then you will discover that the stairs will not go up within the space that you thought and that your pantry isn't large enough — just such things as you should discover, too. Calculate for furni- ture, etc., and when you have gotten what you think is right, make a trac- ing of it and take it to your architect. At this stage he should be made familiar with the pro- posed site, so as not to work entirely in the dark. He may then, too, be able to suggest things which you have over- looked or have not thought of. Your architect should be chosen with care, and friendship should have nothing to do with the choice; such a combination of relations is often disas- trous. You have probably seen some particular thing which you fancy; the man who did it is the man you want; don't get someone else to copy his design. If you have no very clear idea as to what you wish, go to the professional man at once. In any case get rough sketches at first, so as not to make too expensive a job of it; if the finished plans have to be altered too much, the architect is apt to lose his interest and to neglect or slight yours. While your outlay is being put in shape, try other schemes or keep on with the original sketch, trying to better it. This last can be done by making the PL* 26 The Country House new sketch on tracing paper over the first. Keep all your efforts, as they are valuable for reference. Pick out the best features of your many attempts and try if they will combine; they probably won't, but try. Do not prolong your fun so as to make the architect too much work in changing and rechanging. When your architect has de- livered his sketch, go over it and sleep on it. If you think it is not as good as yours, tell him so in a pleasant \vay and he may tell you something you do not know, or vice versa. Try the tracing paper on that, but be sure that you understand thoroughly what the drawing means and learn how to read it before you condemn it. The first floor is the most important; the second floor generally adjusts itself, and you can see in a general way how it will work out. After your first floor is settled, draw the second and attic and cellar, or let your architect have the first try at it. It is important that you should take as much time as possible to think the thing out, but when it is satisfactorily settled go ahead. Mistakes and omissions are expensive, if one tries to rectify them during the process of construction, and it is very seldom that they can be satisfactorily rectified. If it be possible, the three-quarter-scale drawings (if any) should be finished up to the figures at the time the plans are to be estimated upon. In this way the client knows better what he is to get, the contractor has a fairer show, and omissions and mistakes are less likely to occur. It is next to impossible to lay down many hard-and-fast rules to govern the planning of a house. Personal habits and ideas are all-important factors; and what might be inadequate for one man might be perfectly satisfactory for another. A few general hints will suffice to set the reader to thinking, and in setting these forward for his consideration we are doing all that can be done. First, we should consider the convenience of the plan and its reference to every-day uses and the ease with which it can be kept up and cared for. Do Log and stone house at Bar by a local carpenter, and very suggestive despite its faults Stucco bouse in the English inference, at Clifton, Mass. Chapman & Frazer, architects 28 The Country House not "bite off more than you can chew" is an old saying fit to be remembered. Consider as much as possible the working organs of the house, so that all who have anything to do with it, either owners, guests, servants or tradespeople, shall find what they want without too many steps or too much trouble. Nor should any of these conflict in any way in work- ing of the general machinery. C o n - sider the diverse points between which the most trav- elling is done, and bring them as mar together as possi hie- without conflicting with something else. It is not desirable that your servant should be obliged to climb over the dining-room table in order to answer the front- doorbell. Make your plan simple and the rooms i n natural relation to one an- other, and don't have to go through a room of a some- what retired char- acter to find one of a more public na- ture ; as, for instance, through the library into the living room. \\ hen one is obliged to encroach on any / one function to per- form another it bad planning. is Planning the House Once upon a time a man bought an old Dutch Colonial farmhouse on a beautiful spot in the state of New York. Its exterior was charmingly simple and dignified. Not so the interior. The front door opened into the sitting room, and the servant was obliged to go through this room and the dining room to answer the bell. The front stairway led from the sitting room through a slit in the wall into a chamber, and they were as steep as a barn ladder. One night the head of the house got up to get the baby a little subjugator and neg- lected to light a lamp. First he tried to get into the servant's room, which aroused that terrified worthy to screams; then he tried the guest's room with like result. Finally he escaped through the son's room, only to fall part way downstairs in an effort to cross the landing. By this time the whole house was up and look- ing for the burglar. Steps from one room to another and all places where one is likely to get a fall should be avoided. The making of one part of the house on a different level from the rest is picturesque enough, but is it worth the while ? A confusion of doors is bad. For instance, not long ago an old lady who had occasion to arise in the night mistook the backstair door for that desired and, there being no landing at the top, she stepped off and fell to her death. Such backstairs should have a landing with a rope or gate across it at night, if by any chance they are allowed to exist at all. Every house should have a permanent front and back vestibule or enclosed porch. This is important in order to keep out the cold, and further because there are often callers at both front and back doors whom one does not wish to admit further into the house. Then again the vestibule is an An excellent example of English design, at Overbrook, Pa. Cost, about $12,000 Wm. and Walter Price, architects The Country House admirable place for storm clothing and umbrellas. The portable vestibule is ugly and generally unhandy. It is well that there should be a direct and independent avenue of communica- tion between the kitchen and the front door. The reasons for this are obvious. The relation of the kitchen to the rest of the house is one of importance, the great difficulty being that the odour of the cooking generally permeates the whole establishment. The ordinary remedy is to arrange two sets of doors between it and the rest of the house, which is some help at least. A most excellent scheme is suggested in the plan of the "Osterville" house by Messrs. Chapman & Frazer. In this the kitchen is separated from the rest of the house by a porch, the opposite sides of which are open. This allows of a current of air, which is a most effective remedy for the pursuing odours of cabbage and the like. This, of course, is for a summer house, but it seems as if a modification of this for cold weather might be effected. A radiator with a partial screening-in might effect this. It is often very convenient to have sleeping rooms on the first story, at least for the family use. It saves much running up and do\vn stairs in cases where one is not wholly dependent upon servants. Every sleeping room should have a comfortably large closet; its con- venience cannot be overestimated. Bathrooms are usunl'y located on the second floor, so as to be handy to the sleeping or dressing rooms. There should be a toilet on the first floor for family use and one in the basement for the servants. Th e re should be a trunk room, and this should be located on the sec- ond story, if pos- sible, where it is most convenient to the packing and un- packing. If not on the second story, it might be located on the floor below and be used for both trunks and bicycles. Sometimes, h o w - ever, it is more con- venient to place it in the attic. Plan of the practical example on the Maine coast. The shore is shown closer to the house r»* I than it should be, simply to give the relation of lines. The sketch shows what might be done with the exterior great ventilators, 3S Planning the House 31 w^ell as excellent to remove the chill or damp of the early spring or fall and frequently of a summer day. From the point of view of the purist, every room in the house should be finished in the same style. To be more liberal and to help out the feeling and intention of the several rooms, there seems to be no ob- jection to using several different periods of the style of the country, viz., Louis XIV., Louis XV. and Empire. This should not be done, however, unless abso- lutely necessary to carry out the purpose ot the rooms. Such combinations as Colonial and Gothic are out of the question, al- though Colonial and Italian would do very well. In a Colonial house, for example, such an introduction as the Turkish is not to be thought of, unless it be applied to such a room as the den or others, out of the main group, and in a measure set off from the vital considerations of the plan. The importance of the veranda in the planning of the country house must not be lost sight of. It should be at least seven feet wide, and wider if possible. If covered, it should not be allowed to darken the ad- jacent room; or, in other words, the room should have other sources of light in case j^l^BII^HHBa^^HIH^Hi the Veranda side be insufficient. It is far Plan and views of the site on the Maine coast. The easier tO shut OUt light than tO let it in. In "PPer view is of the site from the southeast, the middle ... . is the view from site to the south, the bottom is a a Country Where insects become an important general view of the site from the southeast consideration (and they have an insinuating way of forcing their attentions on one), a portion of the veranda should be screened in with access only through the house. In this way it becomes a part of the house, without the objection of going through an unscreened passage to get to it. If it can be located so as to be convenient for outdoor meals it is an advantage. In some parts of California it is said to be necessary at times to go out of doors in order to keep warm. Under such conditions the sun parlour becomes a necessity. As more can be learned in the actual going over of some particular problem, The Country House let us consider the accompanying site on the Maine coast as a practical example. This has the advantage of being just such a problem as one would be called upon to consider. It is still an unsolved problem, and the reader starts with practically the same advantage as the writer. It is not the unsatisfactory ques- tion of how has it been done, but how is it to be done ? There may be those who will fall in love with this site and wish to know where it is situated. Forbear, gentle thirster for knmvl- stucco house at Glen Ridge, N. j. A weii edge, and know that studied example on English lines , P ... H.Van Buren Magonigle, architect thlS SCCrCt IS JCaiOUS- ly guarded. The site is on the shores of a bay, contains about forty acres, and is about one-half mile from the main highway. As shown on the plan, it is irregular in shape and divided into three distinct divisions — a second-growth wood to the north, a cleared farm, and a triangular sheep pasture. The second-growth, which lies on either side of the private road, is mostly larch and white birch, with a sprinkling of spruce. The farm proper is cleared and has upon it a cottage house, a barn, a shop and another small building, all in fairly good condition. The portion of this part toward the bay is the mowing field. The pasture is freely strewn with rocks (granite) and has a fringe of trees along the shore, mostly spruce, pine and old-growth birch. The point is fairly high on the bay side, sloping back gradually to the road. The highest point on the site is about midway of the rail fence between the mowing field and the pasture. To the north of the farm building a small inlet runs across the private roadway. This suggests much in the line of future lay-out. The soil is gravelly and of considerable depth, the whole front structure Planning the House 33 Another view of the Glen Ridge house, showing how the thatch effect has been suggested in shingles being on a ledge foundation. This ledge, extending to the east, becomes destitute of soil, and serves as a breakwater to the cove. Off the shore to the south several lobster pots are set, showing the possibilities in that direction; on the cove side are gener- ous clam beds. From the high ground one can see to the west the sun- set across the water, to the south the sweep of the bay with the islands, to the east an along- shore view, and to the north the inland country with its hills and mountains. It has been necessary to give a general idea of the plot, so that the reader can gain a fuller idea of the conditions than the pictures alone suggest. Now let us consider the problem of the planning of the house, the utilisation of the farm buildings and other obvious problems. In looking over the ground there seems to be but one place for the house, and that is to the easterly end of the pasture, just clear of the fringe of trees. This is shown in the two land pictures and the plan. Of course there are other good places, but this seems to be the best suited to the natural conditions, and furthermore is far enough from the shore to warrant the structure remaining a house rather than a lobster trap. It requires no disturbing of the growth to get the northerly, easterly and southerly views. The westerly outlook is somewhat shut in by trees on the upper side of the fringe; those below can be seen over, in a similar manner to those shown in the picture looking across the bay. It has the advantage, too, of not being too closely shut in with trees, as is the case with several other delightful spots in the midst of the growth itself. Water can be gotten to the north of this spot, and the open space seems an excellent location for a windmill and a tank, both from its position and its height above the house site. We assume the water possibility from the fact that the farm has a good wrell near the top of the same ridge. As the pasture is at the present time tenanted by sheep, which keep the herbage cropped to a velvety shortness, it suggests that this feature might well be retained, sheep and all. It is an inexpensive way of keeping the grass cut, as well as a most interesting feature of the place. If it 34 be can and The Country House found that they encroach too much on the immediate dooryard, they easily be fenced out of that portion of it. However, they are not goats, , in any event will not get on the roof and devour the shingles. The stable can j be located on the slope of the hill near the pasture fence and just over its brow to the north, so that its drainage shall be in the direction of the garden. The existence of the farm build- ings is fortunate, from the fact that they can be rented to some responsible party or serve as the gardener's or caretaker's quarters. In any case a care- taker and fresh vegetables are as- sured. These build- ings are, as pre- viously stated, in fair condition, and could be put in first-class condition with the outlay of little money. There is another consideration here which is most decidedly in our favour — the cottage could be used by the owner until his house is completed. He can spend his vacation here in looking over the outlay and gathering data for his plans, which can be put in shape during the winter. He can then be upon the scene of construction the following season — under the feet of the workmen— \vhere he is sure to make himself generally disliked and have nice things said of him. And now to the plan itself. After consider- able scribbling on rough sketches, we have evolved the accompanying scale drawing as something to illustrate the possibilities. Its rooms have been A most interesting stone house at Wallingford, Pa. Cost about $7,000. Wm. L. Price, architect Planning the House 35 The old Royal House, Medford, Mass. Showing the simplicity of Colonial planning made of fairly large size, as it seems best that they should be. There has been no price restriction, but we must not be too extravagant. The scheme sug- gested would cost from $20,000 to $30,000 in the rough field stone of that locality. It might even be built for less. It depends largely on the inside finish. The most important views being those to the west and south, the same should be considered in the laying out of the plan. The din- ing room has good views toward the bay and across the garden and the water toward the west and the sunset. There is also a window to the east which will allow the morning sunlight to enter the room. The living room has an extensive view of the bay, with the garden in the fore- ground, and through the open arch of the alcove a view of the sunset through and over the trees. This room has also two windows to the north, commanding a view of the approach to the house. It will be noticed that the long axis of the house is not due east and west; it seems wise that this should be rather in line with the point of sunset in midsummer. It makes no real differ- ence, of course, and is a matter of individual taste entirely, its only ad- vantage being in the long view thus obtained. As it is, a person stand- ing on the reception-room hearth at this time of the year would get a clear, uninterrupted vista of over fifty feet through the three rooms, and this vista would continue on through the trees. All the rooms are well lighted, with the light concentrated where SECOND FLOOH DINING- KOOM FLOOfZ The Country House feasible, and have also considerable wall space, which is of course an essential. The fireplaces of the dining room, reception room and alcove are made wide enough to take a four-foot log; that of the hall has a three-foot opening. In considering the general arrangement of the house and the relation of one room to another, we naturally begin with the entrance. The north vestibule is shown in a projection; it might well, and perhaps better, be within the line of the main house; it is a matter of taste. It is, however, provided with a carriage stoop and horse block and should be surmounted by a hood. To the rear of the vestibule is a combination of passage and closet under the front stairs which allows of easy access to the toilet as well as hanging room for clothing at the back of the chimney. You can enter at once into the reception room, or by the passage, hall, and west vesti- bule gain access to the garden. It is through this en- trance that guests would naturally enter, and, as will be seen by the plan, it is easy of access from the kitchen and yet wTell enough shut off by doors to make it difficult even for the odour of cab- bage to escape by that route. The west vesti- bule, wrhich opens upon the garden, is in reality the family entrance, for it is more than likely that much of this traffic will be through the garden. There are large windows in its A stucco house at Cohasset, Mass., designed on Italian lines. John Lavelle, architect tWO Walls tO allOW Planning the House 37 Entrance side of Cohasset house of the lighting of the hall, and a box seat to hold footwear. It would be better if this seat were located under the inside window and a door cut through the south wall so as to give access to the screened piazza, thus avoiding the passage through the dining room for ordinary use. The closet off the vestibule offers hanging room for over -garments, as well as a passage from the living room to the hall. This isolates the reception room and makes it unnecessary to pass through it in going from one part of the house to another. The piazza area is not extraordi- narily large, because in its consideration the garden is made to count as an open piazza, the roofed-in structure being con- sidered more from the point of an open-air dining room. If more be desired, however, it can readily be carried around the south side of the dining room. Although we have considered screens in this connection, it is not really necessary, as there are very few mosquitos in this locality. It is good planning, however, to provide against them, for occasionally a damp, warm season will liven up the pests considerably. The dining room has access to the piazza through a French window, making it possible to set a table out of doors. Its connection with the kitchen is through the china closet, which arrangement, giving two doors in the interval, should in a measure keep the kitchen door from the rest of the house. The buffet is built in between the dining room and the china closet, with a slide between. The pantry is placed on the southeast corner, and provided with two windows so that it may get what air there is stirring. The kitchen is large and its outside walls are practically all glass. The sink is set in the centre of a 13-foot shelf, giving ample room on either side. There is also room for a table near the cellarway and a swinging shelf next the dining room. The kitchen is also handy to the back door, the back and cellar stairs and the two front doors, and has a clothes closet of its own in the back hall. On hot and close days the opening of the china closet door and window, the north kitchen window and the hall and back doors will give a relieving cross-current of air. The back stairs, hav- ing a door at the foot, will prevent the kitchen odours from besieging the second story. The servants' hall, being across the hallway, is within reach of the kitchen and has a good easterly outlook. The Country House A gambrcl-roofed Colonial house at Kingston, N. Y. Wilson Eyre, architect The bath and toilet are separate, an evident matter of convenience. These are calculated for the family use. Although there is room for two bathrooms on the second story, it seems wise to pro- vide for a tub below as an extra. The servants' toilet should be located in the basement and their bath in the attic. The large living hall is somewhat higher studded than the other rooms, and in addition is fin- ished into the roof. This roof is sup- ported byfourrough- hewn and simple trusses. There are provisions for four window seats in bays, which can well be boxed in and j • provided with hinged covers. There is a step suggested between this room and the alcove. It was done with the idea of a tile floor, and as the alcove is an end motive and really a nook, the usual rule regarding such steps may per- haps be overruled. The alcove is provided with a well- lighted seat and a large fireplace. A sort of bookstall is built in back of the seat, which in reality makes a reading room of the alcove. As the demand for a large library in a country house is a rarity, the shelf room shown is in all probability sufficient. The L to the north has been utilised as a large photographic dark room in view of the beauty of the country in which the site is located and the great temptation, consequently, to make studies of it. This is perhaps larger than is necessary, and the portion next 3ECOMD FLOOR, Planning the House 39 the chimney might well be made into a storeroom. Access to it is had through the living hall as well as from the outside. Before taking up the possibilities of the second floor some brief outline of the outside conditions may not be out of place here. Owing to the wild and irregular outlay of the plot, any thought of the ordinary garden has been abandoned; and, besides, we do not wish it to be too elaborate. It is true that an informal rock garden, based, perhaps, on the Japanese, might well be used if it were not for the very suggestive shape of the plan The idea of putting the garden into the angle of the house, thus squaring it up and making a terrace out of it, seems on the whole a good one. Its plan is simple, and not too elaborate to be taken care of by the lady of the house — that is, in a large measure. We should not think of inflicting the mower upon her, but the flowers are another matter. A sun dial stands at the intersection of the cross paths, bordering which are flower beds. A small hedge encloses the outer sides of the four small grass plots, and a hedge is planted against the south wall of the living room, bordering the main walk. At the intersections of the flower beds and the hedge are placed eight Roman pots filled with hydrangea or the like — anything which will make distinct spots. Although the garden is on formal lines, the flower treatment should be irregular in detail, to harmonise with the landscape. The terrace is enclosed by a wall having in it seats opposite the cross walks. The entrance to it is through an arch in the extension of the westerly wall of the alcove. This entrance might well be provided with a stile to keep the sheep out of the flower beds. The utilisation of small spruce and cedars, in moderation, about the house is to be considered. The cedar hedge between the main approach and service entrance is advisable. Instead of making walks through the short-clipped grass, flat stepping stones, after the manner of the Japanese, will be found more effective and in character with the scattered rocks. Edges to drives and paths could well be made of loose stone as indicated. The second story has not been studied out to scale, but the first floor gives a fairly good idea of what it might be. There are chambers over the westerly part of the dining room, the hall and vestibule, the kitchen, the servants' hall and the reception room. The kitchen chamber can have a small dressing room over the pantry and the dining-room chamber one over the easterly part of the dining room. The bathroom can be placed over the china closet, with a door into each dressing room. The wall between the bath and servants' hall should extend up to the second story, and continue south to form the east side of the upper hall- way. The space over the first-story bathroom should be left open into the hall- way to light it. A bathroom should be over the front entrance, with doors into the hallway and the reception-room chamber. As the living hall is quite high, a bay could be made in the reception-room chamber, overlooking it. There can be two servants' rooms in the attic, one in the north and one in the south gable. In the second story of the L and over the dark room can be a studio. The Country House For this reason the walls have been made at an angle with the rest of the house, so as to get the straight north light. This could be a billiard room or a den if desired. Off this room and over the alcove can be made a balcony, which might serve as a ±*LTmS^m* ' <*!•?* music gallery in event of a dance. As this is the country of rough stone, it seems that it would be a most excellent material for the house walls. If laid in white mortar with not too deep a joint, so that the white of the mortar shall count, its effect would be excellent. As to the general exterior, the small sketch shows what might well be done An eight-room gardener s cot- . , . tage on a large estate near tO make a Simple big Boston. Cos, about $6,000. an(J sojid structure, Coolidgc & Carlson, architect* . not too elaborate for the place. The pitch of the eaves sug- gests one type of Swiss chalet. And now with these preliminary studies we are ready for the architect. Some minor changes will have to be made — we must expect that. We have made a beginning, however — a fairly good beginning, perhaps, because it is in the right direction. We have some- thing to work on, something to pull to pieces, and without that we have nothing at all. Of course there are other solutions of the problem — that we granted at the start. This one may not suit you. If it does not, take a bit of paper and try it yourself; it is good practice. It is not the writer's intention to go into the question of style; that is a long road and a half understanding of it would do more harm than good. The pictures shown illustrate the diversity of style, and the architect is the one to carry out this side of the problem. Of exteriors, in a general way, without regard to style, these few words might be said: Be simple and truthful in Planning the House 41 your exterior, as you should be with your plan, and let the former be an honest interpretation of the latter. Keep the roof simple; the more valleys the more leaks. Keep the plan simple; the more angles the more costly, as the plan naturally expresses itself in the exterior. Make your material count for that material and no other; the slight suggestion is permissible, but the out-and-out attempt to deceive is bad; the grained door and imitation stone and marble come under this head. We may make a shingle roof to suggest the English thatch, or treat our wooden siding in the form of stone, but the first gives the line only and is so slight as not to deceive as to material, while the latter is not marbled. In conclusion, remember that the best design is that which shows no effort to make itself interesting; the excess of ornament does not necessarily mean good design (in fact quite the contrary), nor the absence of it an inferior thing; and lastly, that it is the simple thing that wears and becomes less tiresome from constant use and long association. House of Gen. Harrison Gray Otis, Los Angeles, Cal. An example of plaster mission work A modern Colonial house showing the hip roof " decked " at the top. CHAPTER III CONSTRUCTION OF THE SHELL ITH the plot of the house roughly measured and staked out, it is best to make several soundings so that the character of the soil may be definitely determined. Clay is to be avoided at any cost, unless you can get below it for a foundation. Rocky or ledgy soil is apt to be infested with springs calculated to make a swimming tank of your cellar if you are not careful. This is particularly so when the rock itself has to be cut into, as it opens up veins and fissures likely to be permeated with moisture. Ordinary soil, too, has its ground water or moist strata, which stands at varying levels according to the season. To go below this is to attempt to drain the country. Don't try it unless there be a good chance to rid yourself of it. Soil elevations are usually above ground water, and in such cases perfectly safe, as the sub- strata is ordinarily level or has less curvature than the top soil, which has been exposed to washing and the various untold actions during its submerged condition. It is always the best policy to make the soundings where the soil is supposed to be the wettest, and to a depth below that to which you intend to dig. In this way extreme conditions are tested, and some idea is obtained of just how near you may be above trouble. Having definitely determined on the location of the house and roughly staked out the same, the first step is to remove the loam from the site and to such a dis- Construction of the Shell 43 tance from the house as it may be required to grade, or at least for ten feet, so that it may be out of the way of the working room. It should be piled in some con- venient place, where it will be \ undisturbed and yet handy for future grading. Batter boards are then set at the house angles at the height of the underpinning, to a 1 1 o w of lines being stretched across (see Fig. i). The batter board consists of strips of boards nailed hor- izontally to uprights driven firmly into the ground. They are sometimes set about one- half inch above the required height so that the various lines XsC can be notched 1 X •^ " 1 1 f.\^\N.NXN\\NNS ;1 1 .'ft) s •<<; ! « «? 5 jS, Quiltn* of * » V 1 1 i ] NX * X +„ %• v. 5 1 i ^ ::.4$ ^^^^^^^^ / x I^^^^J^^^ / 66 H. from A'fa'C' down to the requir- ed level. First the Fife 1. Showing the use of batter-boards in laying out the house principal Wall line is established and the underpinning and foundation set off from these. In the case of the notches, the line is held taut by means of a brick or stone as a weight at either end; if nails are driven into the batter boards, to serve instead of notches, the lines are made fast to these and pulled as taut as possible. It is always better to have a sur- veyor lay out the house. He is in the habit of being care- ful and accurate, and your edifice is less apt to be out of square or out of level than if laid out by another. The excavation for the cellar should be made at least 8 inches larger all around than the outside of the foun- j . I* * I *t . * Will allow for the House at Lawrence Park, Brv,nxville, N. Y. A simple and vigorous example of stone and shingle work, with low-pitched hip roof. Wm. A. Bates, architect 44 The Country House pointing of the wall on the outside, and also a space to be filled with sand or gravel for the carrying off of water from the foundation. The excavation should be made to a depth which will insure a cellar head room of 8 feet at least (see Fig. 2). The ordinary house, set on a level, requires 2£ feet of underpinning above grade. If set on a side hill it may reduce the uphill side; the total light and air area should not, however, be less than in the level example. The foundation trench should be 2 feet at least below the cellar level and of a width determined by the width of the building wall, which, in turn, depends on the weight of the structure and character of the soil. In case the cellar bottom is within reasonable distance of a known ledge, it is well to exca- vate the foundation trench to it so that an absolutely firm footing may be assured. If this extra depth is enough to warrant it, the width of the trench will have to be increased on the inside to allow the mason access to his work. The foundation, usually of stone, is sometimes built of brick. Brick, how- ever, is porous and is apt to chip and crumble with freezing, while the rough field stone withstands moisture and wears better. Foundations should be laid in cement mortar, brought to a smooth face inside and out and thoroughly pointed on both. This repels moisture and vermin alike, whereas the common dry wall with only one face and rough projecting stones on the back invites trouble. This common form of wall is little more than useless. Being open at the back, the water passes into it, loosens the flimsy point- ing and comes through into the cellar. The wet wall freezes and, aided by the projecting levers on the back, heaves itself out of shape. After the water and frost come the rats, and it is then simply a question of how long the wall will stand the combined inroads of these three. The thickness of the foundation wall depends entirely, as already stated, on the weight it has to carry and the climatic conditions. The ordinary wall in New York and Boston is built of an even 2O-inch thickness. In Bangor, Maine, and the vicinity foundations are built 3 feet at the bottom, tapering to 20 or 24 inches at the top. This is not merely a localism; the 2O-inch wall has been tried and proved a failure. Sometimes it may be advisable to line up the inner side of the foundation with brickwork. In this case it should be on a line with the inside of the under- pinning so as to present one even surface, and it should be tied into the stonework by being built with it. Underneath all foundations a footing course should be laid. This should pro- ject beyond the outside of the foundation several inches on either side. The amount of this projection as well as the depth is determined by the character of the superstructure and the soil. Six inches projection on either side and per- haps a foot thick is the average. There are two common ways of building a footing course. The simpler and less expensive form is to fill the footing trench with loose stone, laid dry, on which the foundation is raised. The loose footing in this case serves as a drain for such water as may find its way through to the cellar wall; the water is carried off in like manner through a blind drain of loose stones. Construction of the Shell 45 In the case of a brick or stone structure, the footing is made of large regular stones, each of which is of the full width. The drain may be a porous pipe laid outside the footing (see Fig. 2), or instead of the pipe broken stone can be substituted. It is always best that the top of the footing course be at least 6 inches below the top of the cement bottom to insure the latter a dry surface. All stone work should be well bonded; that is, each course or layer of stone should break joints with the course below it. This breaking of joints should be generous. In order to tie the wall together in its width headers are used. These are simply ordinary long stones, set with the length across the wall. The courses should occur frequently, say every 3 feet. A good mason will see to it that they do. In this way a portion of the wall cannot drop out at the bottom and cause trouble to the superstructure. The whole ties together as a solid mass. The cement used for the founda- tion and all such below-ground work should consist of one part best cement to two parts clean, sharp sand. This should be mixed fresh as required, and not allowed to lie. A mortar con- sisting of one part lime, one part ce- ment and two parts clean, sharp sand is gOOd, but thlS miX- f-iit-o ic «/-»!• ic ci-tvinrr tUre IS nOt 38 Strong as the cement alone. Concrete for the cellar bottom should consist of one part best cement, two parts clean, sharp sand and three parts screened pebbles or very small stones. This should be at least 3 inches thick (4 is better) and be finished with a skim Fig. 2. Sections showing wood and brick construction a. Brick fire stop d. Quarter round g. Vaulting or air space b. Sunk girts e. Part of sill h. Fire stop c. Furring I. Drain k. Flashing The Country House coat of cement. It is best to make the flooring with a slight drain about the out- side wall (see Fig. 2), with a trap at the lower end entering the drain. This drain should on no account enter the sewer or house drain. There is no need of extending the area of possible trouble any further than is necessary. It is not probable that with the ordinary precautions water will enter the cellar, but if it should this will be found of much value. Mortar for exposed brickwork or stonework should consist of one part best cement, one part lime and two parts clear sharp sand. Pure lime mortar may answer, but the above is better. The underpinning, the portion of wall between the foundation and the first floor, is, in the ordinary frame dwelling, of brick. This should be laid close with struck joints, having { ""*"" '^J a course of headers every sixth course; this effectively ties the wall together. A "header" brick is one laid with the end or head to the weather; its length extends into the wall, forming what is termed a "bond" with the rest of the work. The "stretch- er" brick is laid in the ordinary length to weather. Often the un- derpinning is rough or cut stone, which is laid in the manner of its kind. The cellar piers are usually built of brick, one foot square, from a stone foot- ing below the cellar level, and provided with iron caps. Sometimes iron posts are substituted, and even 4-inch iron piping has been used with success on light structures. The iron cap is essential, however, for the secure support of the girder, since it does not shrink as does the ordinary wooden cap. The iron post has the advantage of less bulk than the brick pier without corresponding loss of strength, which is often a very great consideration. The framing of a house is an important consideration. It should not only hold together but be rigid as well. The frame that will jar when the baby falls off the divan is not a rigid frame. The form of construction may have varying details common to various constructionists, but its main principles are substantially the same. way, the Central motive of the Hammond House, Annapolis, Md. Hip roof with pediment projection. The projecting courses between stories emphasise the floor line Construction of the Shell 47 The braced frame is the old-fashioned form of our ancestors. Being usually made of spruce, its timber dimensions are less than were those of the old oak frames, in which the corner posts projected into the room. The sill, the foundation member of the frame, is usu- ally of 6 x 8-inch stock, set upon the underpinning 2 inches back from its outer face. Commonly it is merely laid there, but it is far better that it be bedded in mortar to shut out any draft which may find access through slight inequalities of the wall. In some instances the sill is bolt- ed to the foundation, the bolts being built into the wall and projecting above it through the sill; nuts and washers are then affixed from the top. This will prevent the superstructure from taking French leave, without the knowledge of the foundation. The sill shown in Figs. 2 and 3 is made up of a 4x8 and a 2 x 6 spiked together. This is done for certain rea- sons which will be explained later. The common method of joining the intersecting angles of the sill is to "halve" them together. A mortise is cut through the two halves to allow the tenon or tongue of the post to enter. The halved sill is then spiked together, and the post, when in place, secured by a wooden pin pass- ing through the sill and tenon. The ordinary post is of 4x8 stock. We prefer the post made up of a 4 x 8 and 4x4 (see Fig. 3). 4 x a and a. 2.x b joist ELEVAT/OM d loy-eMcer. Fig. 3. Braced framing This is as strong one way as the other and will stand cutting away for brace, girts 48 The Country House etc., better than will the single stick. The two sticks, having different grains, tend to an increase of strength in their combination. The sunk girt is placed at a height sufficient to receive the ends of the second-floor timbers upon it, and is framed into the posts and pinned. The raised girt is set on a level with the top of the floor timbers and, like the sunk girt, framed into the posts. Both girts are commonly 4x8 sticks. The plate, the capping member of the wall frame, is ordinarily 4x6, and this is small enough. Like the sill, it is halved at the angles and mortised to receive the post. It may be made up of two 2x6 pieces spiked together, which form has its advantages. The braces have an obvious office — they preserve the plumb and rigidity of the frame. The braced frame, un- like the balloon frame, can stand alone, and is complete in itself without the aid of temporary support. It is always ad- visable, in instances where the braces are framed into a made-up sill or post, to "lag bolt" the members of the made- up timber together; the strain is such that ordinary nailing is apt to loosen (see Fig. 3). The ledger board which supports the attic floor timbers is of i-inch stock let into the inner side of the studding. In comparison with the girts it appears weak, but it is really stronger than it looks. It is held firmly on edge; thus its depth, which is its '// • mtlt Uf »/ mt v, f i/tJ tn, i,tl,f,je jfl/t,j ftf,H,r Fig. 4. Balloon framings strength, is not allowed to become impaired by twisting. This and the support afforded by cutting into the studs make it adequate for the purpose. Window and door studs, usually 4x4, can be made up of two pieces of ordinary studding, but the single stick is perhaps better for the braced frame. They are framed in, at each end, to the horizontal members. The head stud, which forms the top of the window or door opening, should be framed on as the tie beam of a miniature truss, which, coming under girts and plate, helps to support them, and at the same time prevents the head stud from sagging and bearing on the door or window frames, which would happen were the truss omitted. Of course, for the ordinary opening, the girt would change but very slightly, if at all; yet the brace makes a more rigid structure, and one less liable to jar, which is the aim of good construction. The sill stud receives the weight of the window, and should be made secure. It is not necessary that it should be framed in. An ordinary piece of boarding Construction of the Shell 49 under each end, nailed to the upright frame stud with the common "jack" or short studs between, will support it. Common studs are usually 2x4 and are seldom framed into the larger timbers, although this may be done. If securely nailed they will be found strong enough. If they are to be framed in, the mortise should be but slight, so as not to cut away too much wood from the large timbers. In such cases, too, the made- up sill (see Fig. 3) will be of advantage, as all the mortises can be cut before it is spiked to the 4x8; and as these mortises can be cut through it, the actual labour is less. In a large house it may be advisable to make the common studding 2x5. In such a case the*upright sticks should be increased accordingly. Studs are commonly set 16 inches on centres. If more rigid work is re- quired, they can be 12 inches on centres. As ordinary laths are 4 feet in length, and as it is desirable to lay them without any more cutting than is absolutely necessary, one or the other of these spacings should be adhered to with accuracy. Properly speaking, the balloon frame is one in which the frame alone is not self-supporting, and the studding runs continuously from the sill to the plate. No braces are used except temporary ones; the outside boarding, laid diagonally, is depended upon to hold the frame to- gether and in shape. It is not advis- able, however, to construct a balloon frame without the brace in some form or other. Hence the "long brace" is employed in the better work of this sort. Fig. 4 shows a section of balloon framing with a good form of bracing. The sill is laid in the ordinary way. The posts, which are usually simply nailed at the foot, should be mortised into the sill and held in a perpendicular position by the use of temporary diag- onal stays. The window and door studs are made up of two 2x4 studs, one of which should be mortised into the sill. The common studs are securely nailed at the foot and carried up to irregular heights, spaced and held by tempo- rary stays, as already stated. The first floor timbers are set in place and enough of the under floor covering laid loosely upon them to work on. The "false girt," which is the same as the "ledger board " of the braced frame, is then let Showing rough stuccco walls' with pitch roof and overhaneing into the inside of the studs, and the second-floor timbers put in place and floor boards laid loosely upon them. The height of the plate is then calculated and the uprights cut oflF or spliced out to 50 The Country House meet it. A 2 x 6 timber is then nailed across the top and another laid upon it, breaking joints at the corners; this forms the plate. As is often the case, the attic floor timbers are laid on the plate, although the "ledger board" can be used if a higher story is desired. After the rough skeleton has been erected, and prior to boarding in, the "long braces" are set in place and securely spiked to all points of bearing. They are of 2-inch stock, let into the outside of the frame, and are made as long as possible. The ex- ample shown is a common and awk- ward corner in which the simple l\*£ ft? form of bracing is utterly out or the question. If the window "a" were not there the straight brace could be used as shown by "b." As it is, the other example of clean and healthy design. lir'icc f'l'olll the DOSt us add to the effectiveness of the long to the plate is neces- sary. The joint at "c" is halved and consequently weakens the brace; it should be reinforced by a 2-inch strip at the back. The cleats "d" are used to keep the brace from slipping. The latter is not framed in at the ends. It will be noticed that the head and sill studs, like the upright window studs, are made up (securely nailed together). This method, if properly car- ried out, is strong, effective and economical inasmuch as it often uses up short pieces of studding that are too long for bridging. The balloon frame, however, has its limitations. Window and door openings should come over one another, otherwise the framing becomes much weakened and complicated. The fact that a window is omitted in the motive does not matter. If the window "a" were omitted, the double studding need not of necessity run to the height of the plate. The ordinary stud is merely reinforced up to the false girt. This is one of the advantages of the made-up window stud. Prior to boarding in it is necessary to see that the false girt and plate are straight and true. The balloon frame at this stage is apt to be very shaky, having no heavy girts to keep the wall in line. This straightening process is effected by diagonal braces laid flat on the second and third floor timbers or up- " Maxwell Court," Rockville, Conn. An excellent The low hip roof is decked to reduce the height, and th lines. Charles A. Platt, architect Construction of the Shell right braces from the floor to the member in question. These braces should remain in place until the permanent braces are substituted. The outside board- ing, the under floors laid diagonally, the braced partition and the partition bind- ings are effective agents to the desired end. It is important that the boarding in of a balloon frame should be laid diagonally, as it is a most effective brace in itself. If 1 t s direction be changed several times on the same wall surface its ef- fectiveness will be greatly increased. Ordinary floor timbers are of 2 x 10 stock; this, of course, in cases where they can be supported without too great a span. Lower floors are, under ordinary circumstances, eas- ily supported on girders and piers in the basement; other floors, how- ever, must be made self-supporting. It is better to lean toward the side of strength and rig- idity than to cal- culate too closely. It is not only that a floor will bear the weight imposed upon it, but that it will do so without too much sag and will not give. Such things tend to crack and dis- lodge the plastering and make a spring-board of the house in general. We have advanced beyond the Colonial methods, in which the timbers, though bulky, were comparatively slight in depth. It is the depth that counts. It is safe to abide by the following rule, which, though it may be slightly excessive, is in the right direction. For a 12-foot space or under, use 2 x 10 spruce timbers, set 16 inches on centres and cross-bridged two to three times. For 12 to 15 foot span use 2 x 10 spruce timbers, set 16 inches on centres, and every other timber "doubled" up (two timbers spiked together) and cross- bridged three to four rows. Fig. 5. Section through frame of house The Country House For 15 to 20 foot span use 3x12 Southern pine timbers, set 16 inches on centres, crowned one-half inch, and cross-bridged 4 to 6 rows. For 20 to 25 foot span use 3x14 Southern pine timbers, set 16 inches on centres, crowned one inch at 25 feet, and cross-bridged 6 to 8 times. A -floor timber is "crowned" by making the centre slightly higher than the ends and the profile a slight curve. This is done to overcome a natural settle- ment or sag, and to prevent the floor from being hollow or "dished" in the middle. Ordinary short space need not be crowned. Theoretically the floor timber sets on the girt or partition head, without alteration of any sort; practically, be- cause of the varia- tion in depth, they are "size d" o r notched at the bot- tom so that the tops A simple cottage, showi nation of hip and pitch roofs will all be at the same level when set in place. The amount of cutting cut is determined by measuring from the top. Floor timbers should be selected so that their crowning edges come at the top. If they have no crowning edges such should be worked out. They are framed or notched to the sill and girder alike, their points of bearing being nearly at the same level. "F" in Fig. 5 shows the framing of floor timbers into the girder, with 2 inches of the sticks lapping at the top so that they may be nailed together and to the girder. Floor timbers are cross-bridged at intervals not greater than 6 feet, and fre- quently less, by the use of I x 4 strips set in a straight line in a double row (see Fig- 5)- They are firmly nailed to the floor timbers by two large nails in each end, thus forming a sort of truss which not only stiffens but distributes the weight as well Partition studs are usually 2x4 and spaced the same on centres as are the outside studs. They are of one-story length only, and have heads and soles or their equivalent (see Fig. 5). Where set on line with a girder they set directly upon it, the girder taking the place of the sole. The head is commonly 32x4 spruce stick, but it is much better if made of 3 x 4 Southern pine. The head of a partition which receives the floor timbers should be set at the height of the sunk girt, so that they may be sized upon it (see "B," Fig. 5). If the partition extends two stories or more, the head of the lower partition be- comes the sole of the partition above it (see "A," Fig. 5). A partition running parallel to the floor timbers above, and extending only one story, should set under a floor timber, so that no sagging of the floor shall Construction of the Shell 53 depress the ceiling furring and crack the plastering, as would be probable if the partition came between the timbers (see "E," Fig. 5). If it be thought, necessary to introduce a fire stop on the partition head (and it is perhaps better so), two beams should be "straddled" 4 inches, with straight bridging between, so that the partition may come in the centre and the interval above be filled with brick and mortar. A partition running parallel to the floor timbers and extending through it should have a space of 2 inches on either side between the studding and the floor timbers, so that the finish may be properly nailed (see "A," Fig. 5). This space is straight-bridged and the interval between the floor timbers is filled with brick and mortar. A partition unsupported from below should be trussed (see Fig. 5). If it be set across the floor timbers, the sole should set on the rough flooring. If it be set with the floor tim- bers and is light, the floor timbers under it should be three in number, separated to admit 2-inch straight bridging between (see "D," Fig. 5). Ordi- narily two floor timbers straddled 5^ inches apart are made to do this work. Three are better, however, as it takes but com- paratively little to sag a floor. If the partition be heavy, as in the case of two stories, four timbers may be used (see "C," Fig- 5)- The two centre ones should be spiked together, forming a sole for the studding, and the tWO OUter Ones • i i * i i straight- b ridged and 2 inches from the sole on either side. If the partition be very heavy a regular truss partition must be made. Partitions, as well as outside walls, should be bridged. This can be done House at Bronxville.N.Y., showing a large pitch roof with unusual dormers. Walker & Morris, architects 54 The Country House with straight bridging (see Fig. 4), or better, by giving it a little incline, so that it may be drawn tighter. This last method has a tendency to adjust itself to the shrinkage of the studding, even if loosened, which advantage the straight bridging has not. The weight of the brick stops helps to assist this (see Fig. 5). The roof, which ordinarily is, and should be, very simple, often offers some quite complex problems in framing. In fact it is, perhaps, in this last form the most difficult framing problem. We shall deal with the simple problem alone, even to the exclusion of the dormer, which is but a small edition of the main ln"' ;"u' r'u UJ" tl;imm-- The origin of the pitch roof is very old; it was used by the early Greeks and Romans entirely. It slopes or pitches away from the ridge towa id the two opposite sides, forming a triangular wall surface, called the gable, at either end. When this gable is detached from the main wall, as is the case in Greek and Roman temples, by the horizontal return of the lower members of the corn- ice, it is called a pediment, and includes the whole triangular motive. The roof as we know it is framed with rafters, notched into the plates and meeting at the ridge on either side of a ridge pole. The common rafter is of 2 x 9 stock; it is not advisable to make it smaller in a main roof, although the small dormer rafters are often made of 2x4 stock. To keep the rafters from kicking out at the bottom, tie or collar beams are run from each rafter to the one opposite and secured by spikes. 1 hus the tendency to force the outer wall outward is obviated. Ordinarily the collar beams are likewise the ceiling timbers of the attic rooms. When the attic-floor timbers are set on the plate they make an additional tie. With an irregular plan we generally find the main roof intersected by a lesser roof at right angles; the line of this intersection is called the valley. In fram- ing, one valley rafter is carried to the main ridge and the other intersects it at the height of the ridge of the smaller roof. The valley rafter should be heavier than the common rafter. WTith the ordinary 2x9, it should be 2x 12; if a larger roof, 3x12 or 14. In the latter case the common rafter is likely to be strengthened also. The hip roof, like the pitch roof, is composed of straight planes from the ridge to the eaves, only that instead of pitching two ways it pitches (in a square Showing rough stone and shingle in combination Construction of the Shell 55 plan) four ways, being thus somewhat pyramidal in form. In this type the gables are eliminated by the pitch of the roof. The hip rafters (those which come at the return or intersection of the several roof planes) should be heavier than the common rafters — practically of the same size and strength as the valley rafter. This form of roof is very strong and is well adapted for large houses, where dormers will admit of enough lighting area for the attic, or for small houses where the attic is used for little else than a storeroom, and little light and head room are required. The gambrel roof, so common in the Colonial farmhouse, is most artistic, and very practical for the purposes for which it is designed. It consists, as in the case of the pitch roof, of two sides sloping in opposite directions, but, un- like the simpler form, each of its two sides is made up of two distinct pitches. Although these pitches vary and have no rule to govern their actual relation, still they are always alike, in that the lower pitch is comparatively steep and the upper much flatter (see Fig. 5). It will readily be seen that the idea is to eliminate one story, and, at the same time, by making the lower pitch steep, to gain considerably more space and head room than the simple pitch roof would give. The lighting areas are gotten through dormers, and much good small closet and drawer space can be had where the lower walls are furred in. The framing is comparatively simple (see Fig. 5). A plate is required at the intersection of the two pitches on which the rafters rest, and, overlapping one another, are spliced. The lower rafters rest on the plate proper, and often in the modern work, though not always, a short false rafter is used to give a slight "kick" to the eaves. Ordinarily the lower pitch embraces but one story. If it is desired to include more, the floor timbers are framed to the rafter with a ledger board or some similar substitute, every other timber being spiked to the rafters as a tie beam. It is essential in this case that the floor timbers should be at right angles to the roof, rather than parallel to it, thus find- ing a bearing and effecting a strong cross tie at the same time. After the framing of the walls is complete and any member out of line has been braced or shored into proper position, the rough boarding is put on. This is usually of spruce or hemlock and should be of f stock, planed on one Portion ol ,old T^T' " VT^' Ma?s"showin8 the ' . overhang effected by the use of a large projecting girt side to avoid uneven thickness, and laid with the planed side out. It is not necessary that this boarding be matched; in fact it is just as well that it is not; nor is it imperative that the joints should be The Country House laid absolutely close. Rough boarding is seldom of absolutely straight edge, and if laid as it comes leaves more or less irregular joints. In the old work of the braced frame the boarding was laid horizontally. This is a good method, and saves both time and labour. The nature of the balloon frame, however, demands that the boarding be laid diagonally. Its direction should be changed several times on each wall surface so that the bracing shall be effective both ways. Although there are those who insist on the horizontal boarding for the braced frame, yet the additional strength afforded by the diagonal board- ing is no small factor toward the general rigidity of the whole. Theoretically the braced frame is rigid, and in oak the reality comes close to theory; yet as we build to-day it is far from being true practically. Of course it is almost impossible, under the conditions im- posed by present methods and materials, to make the frame structure so rigid that it will not rock a little. And it is for this reason that it is wise to take advantage of every stiffening and strengthening method that can be easily used. The roof boarding should be the same as that used for the wall. Here again, in the case of the pitch or gambrel roof, the diagonal boarding can be used to advantage, as these roofs have no absolute braces in the framing. The hip roof, on the contrary, is, from its construction, self-braced, and the boarding can be laid in the usual manner. Sometimes the roof is simply covered with horizontal strips, spaced so as to receive the shingle nailings. This, at best, is not a first-class method for what is to be considered a good kind of house, although it may do for the simpler summer house or camp. It has one advantage, perhaps, that of the ease with which a leak can be detected and located as compared with the difficulty of doing so in the boarded type. Under floors should be of matched hemlock of even thickness, laid close and diagonally to insure a breaking of joints between them and the upper floors. Ordinarily the under floor is laid in line with the upper floor, and at right angles to the floor timbers. As it is necessary that the upper floor breaks joints with the lower, this method requires some diligent watching on the part of the superin- House at Chestnut Hill, MASS., showing the transition of the gambrel to the pitch roof; the cottage to the two-story effect Construction of the Shell 57 tendent, owing to the paper used between, which renders it most difficult to detect the unbroken joint. The diagonal under-flooring obviates this difficulty. In the case of the parquet floor, the underfloor should run at right angles to the timbers. Sometimes but one floor is used, but this is a decided mistake in good work. It causes noise and dirt. With the shrinking of the floor boards come cracks, and through the cracks come cold air and dust; and if we lay a carpet it *N will rise and swell like a toad. Brick walls are, in the ordinary forms, simple of construction. They may be solid or vaulted. The vault- ed wall is one in which an air space, usually of 2 inches, is left in the inside (see Fig. 2). This space extends from the bottom to the top and is cross-tied so as to form a practically solid wall; the space about the floor timbers is filled in solid. It is readily seen that increase of width and stability is thus ob- tained, without increase of material and very little extra labour. There is another advantage — the ordinary brick wall is more or less porous and apt to take in moisture, and this air space keeps the moisture from penetrating the inner shell. It can be used as a ventilation flue, which, furthermore, serves the purpose of keeping the space itself fairly dry. This vaulted wall is an outside wall feature, not an inside one. Generally speaking, an outside wall should not be less than 12 or 14 inches thick, and if in the lower of the two stories, 16 or 18 inches is better. An interior wall which has to carry any considerable weight and is of normal height should be 12 inches thick. This will answer for the first and second stories, but the cellar support should be 16 inches thick. An 8-inch wall should not be used to carry any great weight; it may be used in the attic or for small partitions, but never in the outside walls. The method of setting floor timbers in a brick wall is simple and unique (see Fig. 2). As the bearing is ordinarily 4 inches, the bottoms are sized that distance in from the ends. The ends are then cut away, from 4 inches at the top to noth- ing at the bottom, so that in case of fire the falling timbers will not act as a lever and pry the walls over, as would be the tendency if they were square. !(:__ " Foregate," the summer home of Mrs. Gordon Prince, at West Manchester, Mass. A simple, clean and well-balanced design. Andrews, Jaques & Rantoul, architects The Country House " Eastover," ti Wyoming, N. J. Joy Wheeler Dow, architect! is also well to leave a little space all around the end of the beams to allow a circulation of air and thus prevent dry rot. At intervals of not more than 8 feet in the length of the wall the floor timbers should be "anchored" to it. This line of an- choring should be continuous through the building from side to side. The anchors are usually made of $-inch flat iron bands, i£ inches wide and 4 feet long, turned up about 4 inches at one end, while the other is per- forated for attach- ment to the beam. The turned-up end is built into the wall just behind the outside face course and the bar carried back along the side of the beam and spiked to it. The stone house is built of a stone "facing" for effect, backed up with smaller rough stones or brick, the whole being bonded and tied together with anchor irons. These irons should be galvanised, and are usually of one 12-inch iron I inch wide. They are turned up at either end in opposite direc- tions; one end is rounded for insertion into the stone, the other turns up on the inside of the wall. As the drill hole is from i£ to 2 inches from the face of the stone the length of the anchor is easily estimated. In the case of a rough field-stone wall the lining is often omitted; the wall is laid entirely of this stone and studding set against it. In this case it is impor- tant that the usual brick fire stops be not omitted. In a stone or brick wall the plate is bolted to its top. This is done by building in the bolts at intervals of from 4 to 6 feet, so that they will project above the wall and through the plates. The washer on the bolt head which sets into the wall is usually a stout strip of iron about 12 inches long. Wooden laths are 4 feet long. When the studs are 16 inches on centres there are three nailings to a lath; when 12 inches on centres there are four. They should always be laid horizontally, three-eighths of an inch apart, with joints broken every 6 to 4 courses (see Fig. 5). If the joint is broken every lath it makes a better job, but this is not as convenient as the other method nor as common. Above door and window openings the laths should extend over to the next stud beyond the jamb in order to prevent cracks in the plastering. Construction of the Shell 59 A modern development of the Colonial, retaining the simple lines and tall pillars of the earlier days. Henry B. Alden, architect The same rules will apply to the ceiling, only care should be taken that the furring is straight and true before lathing commences. In the case of the brick wall, the furrings are fastened to the brick work and the laths laid on them in the usu- : " ^ ai way. Wire lathing has many advan- tages, and where it can be afforded should by all means be used. It is ap- plied to the stud- ding and furring, and usually by means of staples. Where used it should be of the heaviest, so as not to sag in the inter- vals between sup- ports. The fact that it is non-conbustible and holds the mortar very tightly makes it far superior to wooden laths, and worth the extra expense. As the projecting corners of a chimney breast or other similar features are quickly destroyed, if of plaster, it is best to use the angle bead (a f-round wooden or metal member), which, fitted to the angle before plastering, receives it, and is not so liable to be damaged as the plaster corner. It is always best that the plastering be carried to the floor. In this case two grounds are necessary, one at the bottom and one further up at the top of the base- board. This gives a secure nailing for that member (see Fig. 2). As the face of the ground denotes the face of the plaster, the thick- ness of that mem- ^ simple New York State type of Colonial cottage, of old-fashioned long shingles. Cost $5,500. 1 • i -i » Elizabethan treatment in brick and stone IS Commonly Called Spanish tile. As Entrance to a brick house at Cambridge, Mass. The trim is of wood, a common practice in Colonial work Details of Finish 67 it is now made, it is more like the old English "pantile," that is, having half of the vertical surface convex and the other half concave. The convex portion over- Living side of house at Kingston, N. Y. Wilson Eyre, architect. This shows an excellent piazza with flanking benches. The blinds, in which the lower panels are solid, are worthy of note laps the concave and sheds water into the latter, which acts as a vertical drain. The old Spanish tile was made of half-round sections, a series of which laid concave side up were overlapped by a series convex side up, producing the same result as the pantile. In Northern latitudes, where it is desirable to get the tile-roof effect, as in Italian design, it is best done in copper. Roof covering is made of this metal in the tile form, and is most excellent. If a plain flat copper roof is to be used, the sheets should be tinned on the edges, so that they may be soldered. The proper weight is 16 ounces. The ordinary tin roof is expensive in the end, owing to the constant care that must be lavished upon it. Copper, the initial cost of which is more, requires little attention and wears indefinitely*. If a house be located in an isolated spot and is left for the winter without a care- taker, the copper roof is in constant danger of being stolen and sold as junk. This has actually been known to happen. Thus you may suddenly return to a roofless house. The Country House The best material for flashing is copper; next to that is lead, which is, however, hardly second best. There are two methods of flashing, that of the long and that of the short pieces. The first method consists of using long strips of metal, ordinarily from 16 to 2O inches wide, laid lengthwise of the angle and soldered together. This is tacked at the edges, with the roof covering overlapping it (in case of valleys), or vice versa (in the case of hips). In some parts of Maine the open valley done in this way shows some 2 feet of flashing on each pitch, while the gutter flashing extends up over the roof some 3 feet before it reaches the shingles. This method, though ugly, is effective where snowr is plentiful and where heat is not excessive enough to cause much expan- sion. Shrinkage and expansion are the great drawbacks to long flashings; they are apt to pull the metal out of shape, causing bad leaks. Were it not for the fact that the ordinary gutter flashing extending under the shingles were punched full of holes in the nailing on of the roof covering, this last exposed method would not be made necessary. The second method consists in using short pieces instead of long, which over- lap each other, unsoldered. This allows for contraction and expansion, and, for the average climate of this country, is a better method. In reality this flashing is a flexible shingle, laid in courses to conform with the roof covering. It is ordinarily, for valleys and hips, cut in a keystone form, so that when in place the outside edges are perpendicular to the eaves and ridges, and they should be fully 1 8 inches long and 10 wide at the bottom or narrow part. Valleys are either open or closed. The open type is most common, and is in reality an open drain. It should be wrider at the bottom than at the top, so as to induce the descent and loosening of snow lodged in it. The close type shows only the slight ends of the flashing, the shingles extending fully into the angle. We have already shown how the lower portion of the roof can be treated to prevent snow leakage and at the same time avoid the ugly exposed flashing half way up the roof. In a similar manner, the valley may be treated. It requires simply a wide drain under the valley, the details of which are easily figured out. Some arrangement of this sort with the close valley will serve as a most excellent safeguard against snow leakage. Entrance motive to house at Philadelphia, Pa. Walter F. Price, architect. A good combination of stone, plain rough- cast and half-timber work. The carving is delightfully crisp and simple Details of Finish Servants' quarters of house, at Newburgh, N. Y., showing a good piazza and steps ; also a telling use of the long shingle effect Either of these forms of flashing, already described, can be used to flash about dormers, the problem being similar to that of the valley. It is advisable to flash under the last course of shingles on either side of the ridge, and this flashing should be in one piece bent over in the form of the ridge or "saddle" board which surmounts the finished job. Stepped flashing is used for joints between the incline of the roof and a vertical wall of brick or stone, i. e., on sides of chimneys and gables that project above the roof. The common method is to use small pieces of metal of such shape and size as to conform with the shingle courses. The exposed vertical edges, which overlap the piece below it, are set so as to space one or two shingle courses. The tops are bent over and let into the horizontal masonry joints at least 6 inches from the roof. These top joints should be built into the chimney or other wall as it is constructed, and not forced in from the outside afterward. It is also best that they be carried into the wall far enough to turn down over the outside brick course. This makes it impossible for it to slip out. The loose ends are adjusted to the shingle course afterward. A better way than this general method is to cut the flashings in a rec- tangular form, the exposed edge on the chimney being set at an angle so that its continuation when bent upon the roof shall be horizontal or in line with the shingle courses. This makes a better overlapping joint, the tendency of which is to shed rather than invite water, as is the case with the vertical overlap (see Fig. 7). The tops of the flashings can be turned into the wall as already described. The lower side of the chimney is flashed with a lead "apron," which extends in one piece horizontally over the roof shingles, up one or two courses on the chimney and into the horizontal joints. The upper side of the chimney should be provided with a "cricket" Portion of house at Bryn Mawr- Pa- Wra- L- Price> archi- . . r , . , tect. A creditable handling of stone and stucco as influenced Or miniature rOOf, Which Serves tO by French and |nglish half-timber examples 70 The Country House throw the water on either side of it and avoids the ugly snow pocket other- wise formed in the straight intersection. If the chimney be but one flue wide a much lower "cricket" will suffice than if the chimney be wider. If the walls of a gable end project enough above the roof, the stepped flashing can be used; if not, the flashing must extend to the stone. The common and worse way to do this job is to use long flashings, the wall edges of which are turned and forced into a "raggle" or groove cut in the face of the coping stone. Expansion and contraction soon loosen and destroy the efficiency of this method. Instead, the groove should be cut into the under side of the coping stone about 3 inches from the back face. The flashing, which should be of the short, rectangular sort, is carried between the wall and the coping and turned up into this groove, thus holding it fast (see Fig. 7). If the space between the copper and stone be coated with elastic cement no water will get into the wall, from that side at least. If this flashing is found to interfere with the setting of coping anchors, the grove can be cut nearer the roof side of the wall. Ordinarily copper flashing should be used, never In cases where it has to be modelled around Fig. 7. Portion of chimney and sec- tion through stone coping, showing the flashing of each zinc. joints consisting of more than two planes or the inequalities of rough stonework, lead should be used. Its malleable qualities are excellent, and with care that it be not punctured close joints can be obtained. Outside finish, when it is intended to be painted, is usually of clear pine Before putting any piece of finish in place the wall behind it should be covered with< a thickness of heavy sheathing paper, which shall project 3 inches beyond it, so as to break joints with the other paper when laid. It makes a better and more lasting job if the back of all finish be painted before being set in place. The water table, of whatever design, should be flashed with lead or zinc at the joint between it and the wall covering; the flashing to extend under covering at least 4 inches. The lower member, which projects over the underpinning, should have a drip, i. e., the edge should be bevelled so that the water will not run back into the wall. Corner boards should be slightly reduced on the back to within I inch of either edge, so that any curling of that member shall not open the joint between it and the wall covering. In this case the board is nailed at the edges only. The ordinary flashing for such work is a 4-inch strip of zinc laid 2 inches under the finish. The exposed portion is covered by the wall covering, and thus makes a satisfactory piece of work. It is still better to use lead flashing turned into the angle and tacked to the edge of the finish. Belt courses (generally used to separate two different kinds of wall finish) run horizontally, and follow^ the general rule of the water table as to flashing. Details of Finish The bottom edge which overlaps the wall covering below should, as in the case with the frieze of the cornice, be either rabbeted or furred out to overlap it. Where the lower wall is of brick or stone the belt course becomes practically a water table, and should be constructed as such. Window and door casings are flashed, as are the corner boards, except the head, which should always have an apron of lead or copper turned into the angle and well tacked to the top, after the manner of the water-table flashing. When the outside casing is flush with the boarding, the side flashing should be treated in the same manner as the head. All outside finish should project far enough from the face of the wall to show fully one-half inch beyond the extreme projection of the wall covering. All wall covering requires a thickness of heavy sheathing paper stretched on the rough boarding before it is laid. Paper should be laid horizontally, each width overlapping the one below it 3 inches, and be secured by nailing through tin washers. These widths of paper are laid as the sheathing progresses so that it shall not get damp and swell, as would be the case if it were all done at once. Wall shingles, according to lengths, can be laid with various exposures to the weather. It is not wise that the weatherage exceed one-third the length of the shingle. Michigan pine shingles, which come as long as 20 inches, can be laid nearly 7 inches to the weather; thus the effect of the old Colonial shingle is easily obtained. This same effect, practically, can be gotten by laying the courses in pairs with an 8-inch weatherage and ^-inch between each course of shingles in the pair. If three courses are laid together in this way and then one plain course between the courses of three, it is possible to get the effect of from 12 to 15 inches weatherage, as the single course counts but little by contrast. In laying the first course of shingles on either wall or roof, the butts are cut about 3 inches; the second course is laid over this, with the butts even. With the third course the spacing begins. Shingles laid next to upright finish should be nailed on the finish edge only, so that they will not shrink at that joint, which should be fairly close when laid. The two shingles coming in the first course over a casing should break joints with the upright edges, rather than be laid in line with them. Recently there have been considerable redwood shingles in the market. They are beautiful in colour and texture, and so far reports are in their favour. As their grain has a tendency to Showing differences in the wearing qualities between the hand-shaved pine snd the sawed cedar shingles. The former, which is 18 % inches long, has done duty for 125 years, the latter for 1 5 years coarseness, their wearing qualities are very naturally questionable and are yet to be determined. The Country House Showing ccniruetian, of , tntir/i rt- /a Me Ctp Jfortt . Common. Sand - HrtJtr uurjt tvtry jiMtA Cturvt fi £onl. Enf/itA Soni . Fig. 8. The square window. Stone cap and sills showing various kinds of brick work Clapboards come in varying lengths, according to the section of the country. They are of pine, laid from the top downward, nailed to every stud, and the nails set for puttying as in the finish. The ends should be closely and evenly fitted together, so as to show as little joint as possible. The usual weatherage is 4^ inches; more is unsafe on account of the small lap; less is apt to split the clapboards as the grain runs lengthwise. Siding comes in long lengths and is laid like the clapboard, only that it is rabbeted together. It is sometimes laid on the studs without boarding; such a method is not advisable for the best work, while it may answer for the summer cottage. Some very good effects can be gotten by the use of siding; a moulded edge is often used with excellent results. Stucco, so far as the general results show, is not a wall covering particularly suited to our colder climate. It has been used in many instances, however, in New England and the North Atlantic states, with good results. Its great tendency is to crack and fall off, and the discreet builder will avoid it on general principles, unless it be for a fairly warm climate. If one is desirous of using it in the North, and can find an example handy which has stood the test, and get one's job done by the same workman, his chances of a decent wall are good. The great trouble is to get this work done carefully and properly. While differing slightly in the method of application, yet that laid in the usual way, on wire lathing and furring strips affixed to the boarding, is as good as any. The furrings should be frequent, and of a triangular shape, with the lathing affixed to the apex of the triangle, so that none of the clinch of the plaster shall be lost. The sheathing paper used on rough boarding, in this connection, should be waterproof and well lapped, and nailed with galvanised-iron nails through tin washers. The nailings should be more numerous than in the case of contact sheathing. Common bricks for wall facing should be of even tone, regular, and not too light in colour. Light bricks crumble and break easily when struck one against the other; such should be rejected. Even good bricks vary in colour, according to their distance from the fire in burning, and the usual method is to sort over the lot and "cull" them according to shade. They are then laid in the wall, grading from light at the bottom to dark at the top. The common brick measures nearly 8 inches in length, 4 in width and 2 in thickness. The old English brick was much larger, and the various face brick made to-day are of various sizes, being often long and thin. Details of Finish 73 The common method of laying the facing brick is in courses of stretchers, with a course of headers every sixth course. This makes a good wall, both in ap- pearance and stability. "Flemish bond" is laid of alternate headers and stretchers in each course; "English bond" consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers (see Fig. 8). Both these last make as strong a job as can be built, there being little choice between them. Flemish bond is generally preferred for effect, and was largely used in the Southern Colonial architecture. It is not advisable to lay any sort of masonry in freezing weather. Bricks are ordinarily laid wet; in freezing weather, however, they should be laid dry. The most common method of supporting the masonry over a door or window opening is by the stone cap or lintel. Although it has the appearance of carry- ing the load above single-handed, yet it is reinforced at the back by a relieving arch, which takes the load and prevents the stone from breaking. This arch, segmental in form, is turned on wood centres, and consists ordinarily of two courses of brick set on edge with close joints (see Fig. 8). The wall being bonded together above it, is thus supported, while the capstone is relieved of the strain. If an extra heavy weight comes over the opening the depth of the arch is increased, and frequently a piece of railroad iron is inserted over the cap to relieve this latter member directly. Floor timbers coming above an opening are sometimes supported on iron beams set in the wall above the arch, or by framing a header into the timbers on either side of the opening for the sup- port of those in the interval between. Where an arch is substituted for the cap, the relieving arch usually takes its form, being above it correspondingly as the rabbet made in the vertical jambs for the insertion of the window frames. In such cases the centres are removed after the arch is set. Should the arch be near the corner or end of the wall, or be of such form, or be loaded so as to exert a consider- able thrust or spreading pressure upon the two piers from which it springs, a tie iron should be built into the wall and securely anchored in either pier, to counteract such pressure. If the arch be fairly high, this iron may extend across the open- , J. . , r i • T Entrance to Belle Aire, Maryland, showing the effective use mg at the height Ot the Spring; if of Flemish bond as laid in two shades of brick 74 The Country House low, it can be inserted above the arch. The spring of the arch is its point of beginning on the piers. Stone sills are either "lug" or "slip" sills. The former is built into the wall at either end, the built-in portions being called the "lugs." The slip sill, having no Ttaniom Aihlar - Quarry -fact. IT Rubbl* . 1 I _U_L J_L i i i i Courstd Aihlar - tinned -face . £/it*n*f mi/trui of tntAtrmf • #iin mtrt/t Fig. 9. Several types of stone wall .ugs, is only as long as the width of the opening, and is slipped into place after the opening is finished. This sill is generally used for basement windows where no other brick walls exist. Care should be taken that the course of brick under the lug sill be not inserted until after the wall has settled and the mortar is thoroughly dry and hard, otherwise the sill is apt to be broken. If this course be laid up solidly at first, the settlement of the walls at the side of the opening, which is greater than the portion under the sill owing to the unequal distribution of weight, is very apt to force the lugs down while the central portion remains practically normal. The result is obvious. Sometimes it is merely the mortar joints between the sill and brick work that is omitted; while this is effective, the other method is perhaps safer. Although the stone facing is subject to a variety of forms and treatment, we shall consider only those commonly used in the country house (for illustrations see Fig. 9). Random work is composed of stone of various sizes and shapes, laid with an eye only to good bondage and effect, and regardless of courses. Its face may be irregular and rounding, as in field stones; or more even, as in the case of slate. The joints should be well filled with mortar and "weathered," or pitched, so that water shall not enter the wall. Stones used in rubble work are approximately rectangular. They may be laid "random," without reference to courses, or in courses of varying heights. The stones used in ashlar are cut in rectangular shape and the outside edges, Details of Finish 75 regardless of the face, made straight and true, so that the finished mortar joints shall come in one vertical plane. Random ashlar consists of blocks of varying size laid without regard to courses. The best results are obtained in limiting any continuous horizontal run of joints to 6 feet; less than this is better. Where the stone used is not so expensive as to be a mere shell, a most effective joint is obtained by making the back wedge-shaped, so as to tie in with the rough wall (see Fig. 9). This wedge should not be pointed enough to break off. Coursed ashlar explains itself; the courses may be of the same height or not, and the stones of uniform or varying sizes. For the most severe styles uniform stones and courses are generally used. Ashlar has either a rough or "quarry" face, or a "dressed" face. Owing to the fact that ashlar does not extend through the wall so as to bond the whole together, it is secured to the backing by means of anchor irons. Four- inch ashlar should have an anchor in every stone; thicker ashlar should be anchored about once in every running 3 feet and every 2 feet in height. Belt courses, cornice stones and top courses should have an anchor in each stone, and in extreme cases two. Coping stones on gables should be anchored securely to the wall to prevent their sliding. The kneelers or corbels which receive the thrust can take care of themselves, but hardly more. It is best that they be anchored too. Sometimes an intermediary stone is introduced in the pitch to lessen the weight of the coping thrust. This is effective, and oftentimes a most artistic arrangement (see "b," Fig. 10). This, however, is not absolutely necessary as the anchoring will be sufficient. The junction of the piazza with the house should in all cases be made tight and solid and be well flashed to avoid leakage. The foundation of piazzas should be brick or stone, carried well below frost, and of sufficient bulk to avoid any chance of settle- ment. Nothing looks worse than the settled piazza, which has the appearance of being ready to slide off into the ground. This is a common fault, due largely to the insufficient size of the pier footings. The piazza floor should be of matched ij Georgia pir^e, blind nailed. It should pitch outward J inch to the foot and be laid in the direction of the pitch, with ample facilities for free drainage. The sills should be painted all over with a generous priming coat before being enclosed. This and a coat of tar on the top edge will preserve the member from premature decay. The butts are particularly susceptible, owing to their porous nature. The foot of all columns should be tarred or set in elastic cement. a " tfitcftor-iron 3> » Jfnteler Fig. 10. A portion of a brick or stone gable showing the anchoring of coping stones The Country House Three chimneys adapted to designs in the English style. Each suggests the number of flues it carries Up to 8 inches or so in diameter they can be turned from a solid stick. If in excess of this, the made-up hollow column is preferable, owing to the invariable tendency of large, solid sticks to "check" or crack. There are several patent made-up columns on the market which are worth considering. All steps, whether of stone 01 wood, should have a slight pitch, to effect the shedding of water. If of wood they should be of the best Georgia pine, 2^ inches wide by ij thick, laid with open joints. A step made up of 2 x i^ inches, set edgewise, furred £ inch apart at intervals of I foot and bolted together through each furring, makes a better, though more expensive, job. Stone steps are preferable to wood. Even in a flight of wooden steps the lower one should be of stone. Granite is perhaps the best stone to use, unless there be other and different stone in the house which it is advisable to duplicate. INTERIOR DETAILS Wooden bases are set prior to laying the upper floor. In this wray any shrinkage at the bottom is not noticeable, and the upper floor, butting against it, can easily be taken up and replaced. In the best classes of work a small quarter round is inserted into the angle between base and flooring, so that the floor may be more easily swept. With a tile floor, tile or marble bases are preferable to wood. Ordinary upper floors are best of Southern pine, i. e., hard pine from which the pitch has been extracted. Floors that are to be exposed are better of rift Georgia pine. More expensive floors can be laid in any of the hard woods used for that purpose, such as oak or maple. Upper floors should be laid of matched stock, blind nailed, and not exceeding 3 inches in width. They ^| should be clear stock, free from knots, sap and shakes. There should be one thickness of building or asbestos paper between the rough and top floor- ing. This serves to some extent as a deafening, and in the case of the asbestos, as a fireproofing. Parquet floors are usually laid by the people who manufacture them. These specialists understand their busi- t-** ?^» ^•Bfr'"r* i , , . . ness better than the ordinary carpenter, and a superior job is the result. To prevent sound from travelling Showing an open cornice, leader, moulded siding and water- r table, an of good design through a floor it is best that a concrete, Details of Finish 77 composed of cement, sand and screened cinders, be laid below the flooring. To effect this shoulder strips are nailed to the sides of the floor timbers, 3 inches from the top, on which short half-inch boards are nailed, or it may be possible to use up short pieces of seven-eighths stock. The concrete is laid on this to a level with the under side of the flooring. For a cheaper method deafening felt, used in two or three thicknesses between the floors, is fairly effective, and is most generally employed for this purpose owing to its inexpensiveness. Tile, where laid upon wooden sup- ports, should be treated in the follow- ing manner: One-inch rough flooring is laid on strong cleats affixed to the inside of the floor timbers, after the manner of the concrete floor deafening. On this is laid one course of brick set edgewise. The tiles are then laid in a cement bed on top. The depth of the rough supporting floor below the top of the floor timbers is governed entirely by the sum total thickness of brick, cement and tile, which latter is on a level with other floors. Where cornices are used in con- nection with the plaster walls, they should be of stucco. They are "run" before the finish coat of plastering is applied. The angles between the walls and the ceiling are filled out and made as rough as possible, that the cornice shall adhere firmly when put up. Where panelled wainscoting, walls or ceilings are to be used, their general construction should be the same as that of doors (see chapter on doors). It is put in in sections, each section being made and fitted at the factory. They should not be constructed until the rough walls are in place, as these are apt to vary slightly from these scale calcula- tions, and the mere fraction of an inch makes considerable difference in such work. It is customary to measure the rough wall when completed and send these careful figures to the maker or, better, let him make his own measurements. Picture mouldings should be well nailed to the studding, and should be set on a line with some member; or, if independent, so placed as not to conflict with other members. There is no sense in running them close on top of the window casings; if that is about the desired height, they should butt against that member, carrying out the line of the cap or upper member. Page from modern hardware catalogue showing the revival of old Colonial patterns in door knockers The Country House * PAINTING AND HARDWARE Outside woodwork is "primed" as soon as possible after it is set. This prevents warping and several other undesirable things. The nail holes are then puttied up prior to laying the second coat. Knots and sap streaks should be shellaced. Two coats are enough at first; the third coat only serves to con- ^ __ ceal bad workman- ship. Furthermore, lf\ if a year be allowed J-t I « — —^^^^ to e^aPse tne fimsn ^bJK will have a chance to shrink, and then it can be puttied up, if necessary, before the third coat is laid. It is customary <> paint from the roof down, so that the finished work shall not be spat- tered. Body and trim, even if of dif- ferent colour, a re car- ried along together from one hanging of the staging. Exposed exte- Old music gallery at Alexandria, Va., and interior capital from " Brandon," Virginia. HOT tin OT galV3- nised iron should have two coats of metallic paint, to protect it as much as possible from rust. Inside woodwork should receive one coat of oil to prevent putty from falling out; otherwise it should receive the same treatment as the exterior, two coats usually being applied. All paint used should be of the best, and is generally specified as "lead, ground in oil." There are several good prepared stains on the market, which save mixing. Cresote stains, though excellent for exterior work, are apt to retain their odour too long for the interior. All shingle roofs should be stained. In this process "dipping" should be insisted upon, i. e., the shingle is dipped into a vessel of stain so as to cover two-thirds of it from the butt up. In this way only is the staining effective. If painted on, the natural shrinkage soon leaves uncovered places exposed, and it is these small channels that receive most of the wear and Details of Finish 79 which it is most important to protect. Wall shingles should be treated in the same way. Inside stain should be applied before puttying and the putty be coloured to match it. This stain should be wiped with an old cloth, so that no surplus may collect and give a painty effect to the finish. Outside finish, if stained, should be treated in like manner. Stained and hardwood finish usually receive an application of wood filler* two coats of shellac or varnish, each of which is rubbed down to a dull finish with pumice and water. Floors may have an application of linseed oil, and are finished with hard wax, well rubbed in. The above treatments vary slightly in different localities and according to different authorities. All exterior woodwork, if it is to have a natural finish, should receive a coat of wood filler and one or two coats of spar varnish. It should be re- varnished every year. Much could be said of hardware that would be superfluous, and much advice given that would not be followed, since these matters must be decided by individual taste. Briefly, all hardware should be good in design, and simple and effective in its working. The leaning toward simplicity is advisable, because it lessens the care, if for no other reason. There are many manufacturers who are turning out excellent designs, both new ones and reproductions of old work. Their catalogues are full of good suggestions. As to material, brass comes easily first. It requires some attention however, and yet for front-door fittings nothing could be better. Bronze is effective, and, in several ways, superior to brass; it takes care of itself, and requires little attention. Glass knobs are made in many interesting and novel forms, many of which are excellent. Care should be taken, however, to select such patterns as are not likely to come out of their setting; a knob in the hand is hardly worth two in the door. For cheaper work, some patterns of the porcelain knob are satisfactory. In late years the old-fashioned knocker has received a new lease of life, and some very good reproductions are being manufactured from which to select. Bell pulls may get out of order and batteries run dry, but the door knocker can generally be*relied upon. All door hinges should be of the "loose-joint" pattern, which permits the door to be lifted from its hangings. In heavy doors the "loose-pin" butt is better than the "loose-joint." The pin can be drawn out at the top, making its manipulation in unhanging easier than with the other pattern. It is best not to include the cost of hardware in the general contract. Far better that the owner select the hardware in the presence of the contractor and pay for it himself. The contractor under these circumstances can give con- siderable advice. The hardware thus purchased can then be set by him as a part of his contract. When the hardware is thus furnished, the contractor should formally notify the owner, at least two weeks in advance of the time it is required, so as to allow for any reasonable delay in filling the order. Old Ouicb door and side setts. The Bowne House, Flushing, Long island, N. Y. CHAPTER V DOORS AND DOORWAYS HE origin of the true door is not known, nor is the inquiry of great importance. With the Greeks the doorway signified a "passage of air," which is as good a definition as we of the present day can give it. The intervening centuries of much cheerful experience with the door have tended to confirm rather than cancel this signification. An open doorway will allow of the free passage of more air than of people in a given time; therefore the air should stand godfather to the door. That the Greeks appreci- ated this fact is quite evident, and testifies to their keenness of perception. Like all other essential parts of the house, the door must have sprung from necessity. The cave man rolled stones to the mouth of his cave to protect his household from the dreaded invasion of animals. Later, man built habitations, perhaps first in trees, as an experiment, and to be safer from the prowling menace. With these first habitations the door may well have begun. Mr. A. B. C., tired of draughts and of acting as a windbreak to the rest of the family, became indignant, went out, slew a beast and hung its skin up over his rathole of a doorway. He had made a door. Skins were probably a very long time in use, being much more serviceable even than woven stuffs, which were not introduced until a much later period. Even in feudal times, when the outer door had grown formidable in size and 80 Doors and Doorways 81 strength, the inner doorways^ were closed by means of heavy hangings, a custom still popular. The antique door was pivoted in the centre and revolved. The door of Roman antiquity was frequently of bronze, especially in public buildings. The doors of the Middle Ages were usually of solid oak planking, set edge to edge and dowelled, the whole held together with wrought-iron bands and more or less ornamental strap hinges. A modification of this form is often used at the present time. Frequently, too, these doors were studded with nails, having huge heads, driven through from the outside and clinched on the inside. The hinges were held in place by the same means. The doors of older castles were made narrow, so as to allow the passage of only one person at a time. This gave the occupants a decided advantage in the defence of the stronghold. The portcullis, which was really a door, or gate, sliding vertically, was usually made of sufficient width for two horsemen to pass abreast. In the time of Christ we read that the angel rolled the stone away from the entrance to the tomb. This at first seems quite a task, and gives it a decided tinge of the supernatural, but when we consider that the stone was round like a cheese-box and rolled in a groove cut into the rock, the task seems less diffi- cult. The panelled door is of compara- tively recent origin, dating back only to the sixteenth century. It was, nat- urally, in Italy that the door was first treated as a serious architectural prob- lem. We find many fine examples of fifteenth-century Italian in which architraves, or casings, of harmoniously coloured marbles were used. Some were severely simple, with perhaps the introduction of plain marble disks at intervals in the panelling, with simple friezes and caps. Others, much more elaborate, contained carved medallions, and friezes and caps of a correspond- ing richness. The doors themselves were, in the better examples, inlaid. Some of these are most beautiful in line and colour. At a later date, with the revival of the classic, the architrave took on the form of the column and cap support- ing the characteristic pediment. The pediment thus took the place of the "over-door," and was frequently very elab- orate. Sometimes the over-door effect was painted on the flat wall surface, espe- cially in the case of very high studded rooms. Old doorway in Washington Street, Boston, Mass. This example is somewhat marred by the more recent door and the ugly bay set foolishly on top of the hood. 82 The Country House The "over-door" was a feature used in most of tlie early examples, even up to about a century ago. It consisted of various devices intended to connect the door with the ceiling. Sometimes this took the form of the pediment; sometimes columns running to the cornice enclosed elaborate panels over the door; and sometimes, too, a window or transom light took the place of the panel. These motives combined with the window motives in giving apparent support to the cornice of the room. The past century introduced low doors, which were sometimes pleasing and more often not. The great trouble is that the low doorway is simply a hole in the wall, without any architectual connection with the lines of the room. Of course it wrould be unwise to empha- sise too strongly a door which, like a closet door, was unimportant and yet had to exist. Raphael largely influenced the Italian style of his time and, in fact, of the present day. Marquetry was abandoned, and doors, now panelled, were painted. This painting was much influenced by the work of the classic fresco painters. While Italy embraced the classic tradition and made free use of it in her doors and doorways, she made little use of wood carving. The French, on the other hand, generally avoided the severe lines of the orders and adopted carving to a great extent. The Italian style was severely architectural, while that of the French was more free and buoyant. Thus the temperament of a people finds expression in its art. Doorway of old Custom-house, Portsmouth, N. H. This fine example has a touch of the Gothic in the entablature. It is perhaps a little light in composition with brick. Architraves were usually of wood, often richly carved — an entablature supported by wooden brackets — and the overdoor motive was sometimes a painting, a paint- ing and stucco combined, or a bas-relief and carving. During the earlier Gothic period France created, in this style, some delightful specimens of design and wood carving, vying with the Germans in this respect. Gothic being par- ticularly the style of the carver, great variety of design and conception was the result. In the time of Louis XIV. much painting was used, and frequently combined with carving in a very pleasing way. During this period, too, locks and hinges became an important factor of the design, a revival of the mediaeval idea. Marvellous creations in bronze and wrought iron were brought forth. Doors and Doorways The influence of Gabriel tended to simplify the rather excessive outbursts of the later Louis XV. period; carving was very frequently omitted from the panelled door, and the more or less elaborate painting on a gold ground was introduced. In the style of Louis XVI. a return of classic influence helped to temper the perhaps too free treatment of the pre- vious reign. Beauti- ful details, some- times flat and sometimes in relief, were controlled by an architectural basis of construc- tion, which influ- enced and directed the main scheme of adornment. With the Ger- mans, those mas- ters of wood carving, t h e earlier doors were very simple in character, and the doorways judi- ciously ornamented in the style of the Gothic. Carved panels of beautiful design and work- manship have come from their hands. Gothic carving reached its highest perfection in Ger- many during the fif- teenth century. Oak was mostly used, and the earlier ex- amples were very low in relief. Later, examples, however, show such an in- i -,i i Door to Hammond House, Annapolis, Md. A fine example, both as regards proportion, scale Crease 111 Skill that and detail. The comoosition is good and the masses and colour well adjusted 84 The Country House the already growing boldness of relief was carried even into the round, in cases where this was possible. German craftsmen evidently believed in paint, as many of these carvings were thus embellished. It is doubtful if such a treatment would add anything to the already beautiful texture of the oak, unless perhaps the colours were much diluted and used as a sort of stain. Even then they were better used sparingly, so as not to overbalance the natural textural beauty. Some of the most charmingly individual examples of Gothic treatment are to be found in northern Tyrol, where the German influence is strong. It is wood architecture pure and simple, with a great freedom of artistic line and handling. Door posts, heavy and crude, run to the ceiling, and across the door head runs a shelf, with little or no pro- jection beyond the posts. A carved panel surmounts this, and small bands of geometric carving enrich the edge of the post-like architrave. The door itself, with its flattened Tudor arch, is per- haps two panels in height, perfectly plain, and devoid of any moulding save for the chamfered edges of stiles and rails. Some examples have the upper corners of the door clipped, and are solid, with fine specimens of ornamental strap hinges and locks. The archi- traves are well-designed Gothic mould- ings, which follow the outline of the door. Often, too, in the later works, where the wall is plastered above the wainscoting, the Gothic door head took on elaborate forms of wood carving, boldly relieved against the plastered wall. These are but a few of the many and varied treatments. The English in their charming little half-timber houses usually treated the door in a very simple manner. Carving was only occasionally, and then sparingly, used on exterior door posts. The natural wood, which was generally oak, was counted upon for effect. In the more elaborate edifices of the Elizabethan style, perhaps the most com- mon form of exterior door was that of bourway on the lines of the Renaissance, with an influence of _, /"< i • T i • r i the Elizabethan the I udor Gothic. Its chief character- Doors and Doorways istic was the low Gothic arch, the point of which was usually about one third of the span above the spring or starting point of the arch. It was usually solid, wTas hung on strap hinges, and frequently divided into simple or elab- orate panels by strips nailed on the side opposite the hinges. The door- way itself had often simply moulded stone jambs, all within the line of the wall, while astride the arch, like a sad- dle, sat the usual label moulding of the English Gothic. Interior doors were commonly square headed, and were frequently treated in the manner of the wainscoting in which they came. This treatment served to conceal the door to a great extent. Later the com- bination of classic and Gothic pro- duced some highly interesting results, as well as many strik- ingly bad ones. The Classic pilaster sup- ported a Classic entablature, in which were distrib- Doorway in the Chase House, Annapolis, Md. A suggestive example of the Southern Colonial. The door is well studied in mass and detail 86 The Country House uted Classic and Gothic details. Sometimes the Gothic got in a telling stroke; then again you had to hunt for it. One striking feature is the terminal pilaster, in which the shaft of the motive ta- pers from the cap toward the base. Some good effects have been ob- tained with its use. In the carving very few planes were used, and the effect of the whole is rather to- ward the stiff and brutal, although it is often excellent, and, further, is strictly on the lines of wood carving. At a later date the influence of the Italian predominated, but it lacked the grace and beauty of line which characterised its parent. This was the Georgian style. Sir Christopher Wren did much to raise this degraded style, and several examples of our own early work are attributed to him. The term "Colonial" is some- what misleading. It is really a copy of the Georgian, and is, in some instances, pure Georgian. But as the conditions of the col- onies demanded greater simplicity, in their generally poorer condition An adaptation of the Japanese at Fall River, Miss. Cram, \Ventworth & and DrobleiTlS of life tllCV WCTC Goodhue, architects * . . ' { . . led to invent, modify and devise motives which differed materially from the parent style. The Southern examples of Maryland and Virginia are perhaps nearer, in most instances, to the English models. On the other hand, many of the New England examples show novel though not always successful treatment. The earliest forms were of course very simple, hardly any attempt at design being made. Later developments were more pretentious, and in many instances suggestive of luxury. The general basis of design being Classic, the results were more or less severely architectural, some examples adhering closely to Greek and Roman pro- portions. More, however, deviated in the Italian direction, and these were perhaps the most pleasing. The more successful of the free examples have a tendency to lightness of detail, and frequently introduce ornament of a Gothic character. Those leaning toward a heavy treatment are generally, unless purely Classic, clumsy and in bad taste. The principal legacy of the Dutch settlers was the Dutch door. It was brought with them from the fatherland, and seldom, if at all, penetrated either to the South or East, being confined to the vicinity of its introduction, principally in New York and Pennsylvania. This door, which was always exterior, was constructed in two halves, each swinging inde- - . Doors and Doorways pendent of the other if desired. Thus the lower half could remain closed, while the upper was opened for light and air. Provision was made for bolting the two halves together so that the whole thing became an ordinary door. With this very handy form the children were kept in, and stray pigs and chickens out, while the door, to all intent and purpose, remained open. Another Dutch notion was that of the seats flanking either side of the entrance. These were used with and without the porch motive. It wras prob- ably from this source that Rip Van Winkle first learned to "tarry"; hence, old Tarrytown should have been well supplied with this commodity. The Colonial doorway took on many forms, which are best exemplified in the illustrations. An early form was that using the corner block, in which the architrave received into its corner intersections a square ornamental block. In wooden examples where the baseboard projected, and often when flush with the architrave, this last member was set on a plain base of sufficient projection to receive the baseboard. Another modern treatment was to enclose the whole with a back band and omit the base. From the nature of this construc- tion, the architraves were made symmetrical. Later came the pilaster, surmounted by either the straight cap or the curved or seg- mental pediment or the straight or curved "broken" pediment. Some- times the pilaster was abandoned as part of the design and the ped- iment, varying in form, was sup- ported by brackets. Another form of door treatment was the Vene- tian door. This consisted of three divisions separated by two mullions, che larger opening of which formed the windows or side lights. An arch over the door constituted, with this | triple arrangement, what is termed the "Palladian motive," and not infrequently the arch, made ellip- tical in form, spanned the three openings. This considerable area of glazing offered a chance for beautiful leaded glass. The door itself was usually simple in char- acter, no carving being introduced except in the panel mouldings. -, ' . 5 I ne old Longfellow doorway at Cambridge, Mass. sometimes the montant was of extra width, beaded in the centre to suggest double doors. This was used only when the doorway was of extra width. Such treatment, however, is hardly to be The Country House commended, as a door wide enough to look well thus treated wTould, under ordinary circumstances, be wide enough to be made openly a double door. Those who may be tempted by the fascinating lines of the Japanese will do well to study the original models; for while these, in their existing form, are hardly practical if copied blindly, they never- theless suggest great possibilities in adap- tation. The style is marked for its bold and graceful lines and its elaborate carv- ing contrasted with plain surfaces. Tin- usual door is simple in its lower half, and has inserted in its up- per half a carved and perforated panel of teak. Early outside doors in America were usually hung on strong, substantial, iron s t r a p hinges, with box locks, and were further re- inforced by a door bar of oak, which swung on a bolt from the hinge side of the door into a socket on the other side. As has already been stated, very early doors, being Street entrance to Royal House, Medford, Mass. This doorway is almost perfect. The 1 ' proportions and mouldings are simple and good pi VOl, revolved, and are termed pivot doors. The hinge superseded the pivot, and has been used in one form or another ever since. The box lock (which was attached to the outside of the lock rail) has continued in use on the Continent, but has been replaced in England and America by the mortise lock. The mortise lock was introduced into England toward the end of the eighteenth century. Doors and Doorways A sash door is one which is glazed in the upper portion; it may or may not be a sliding sash. A "jib" or "concealed door" is made flat with the wall, has no architrave and is intended to be unnoticed. It is used HBRj when it is necessary to preserve the sym- metry of the room, as in a closet or in a other unimportant doors. These doors are hung on pivots instead of hinges in the manner of some of the early cabinets. They are now little used, as their chief auxiliaries, the secret passage and stair- case, are things of the past. The "swing door" is hung with double-action hinges, and, having no strik- ing piece, swings freely both ways. Instead of the double action hinges a strip the width of the door and a couple of inches wide can be hung to the door frame in the ordinary way. The door in turn is hung to this strip, with the hinges on the opposite side from the first set. To this is added a coil spring for each set of hinges, in order that the door rriay remain shut when not in use. In the private house the swing door is commonly used as a means of communication between the kitchen and dining room; in this case the upper part should be glazed, so that the approach of persons can be readily detected from the other side. Ground or stained glass may be used, but it is advisable to have a certain amount Courtyard entrance to Royal House. This example is interesting from the point of its strong simplicity The Country House r of plain glass which shall enable one to see clearly. If the house is large enough, and the service demands it, two separate doors should be provided, one to be used for entrance and the other for exit. The "weather doors," used in winter to reinforce the outside door in keeping out storm and cold, are com- monly batten doors of plain matched stuff, with a makeshift sash, perhaps, screwed against a hole in the upper half. That this is ugly and unneces- sary goes without saying, and more especially if it forms the entrance to the "dog house" usually tacked about the front door. Here is a chance to use as close models some of the strongly simple examples of either the Middle Ages or the New England Colonial. Where there is no vestibule, the weather door and the outside door coming together are awkward to handle, resulting often in jammed fingers and other little pleasantries. A better plan is to have a vestibule and two well- separated doors. The inner outside door can be made more delicate in design than the outer, or weather door, which may be of the Dutch pattern. With this arrangement the inner door becomes practically an inside door, hence the reduction in scale of details is possible. In pleasant weather the outer door could remain open (or half of it if a Dutch door), and in the winter and stormy weather it could be closed. Another fault, where the two doors are together, is that the outer must of necessity swing out, and, while having some advantages in repelling the weather, is very apt to stick, and, when suddenly opened, upset some portly caller over backward and down the steps. One can- not expect one's friends to appreciate such treatment. The real objection to the swinging in of the outside door is that its construction allows for the accumu- lation of rain and snow in the doorway, which, becoming frozen, is a bother and hindrance in opening the door. An extended porch or piazza might prevent this to a certain extent, but in its absence there are those who may be willing to risk the bones of others and prefer that the door swing outward. This may be easily prevented by having enough glass in the upper panel to enable one to see who or what may be outside; side lights may answer the purpose, but they are less direct. A still better idea is to have a wrought-iron or bronze grating on the outside, and the glazing behind it in the form of a swinging or sliding sash. The pedlar who is wont to shove Interior doorway at "Gunston Hall," Virginia. A food example of the straight, interrupted pediment. A bust is sup- posed to occupy the space at the top Doors and Doorways his way into the house is thus taken care of, and even the persistent book agent is held at bay. Door stops are too well known to need much description; they are generally of wood, and are screwed into the baseboard to prevent the door swinging against the wall. They are hardly ornamental, owing to the position in which they are placed, and thould be kept of the same colour as the baseboard. They are now frequently made of brass, but it does not seem that their importance should be emphasised by the use of this metal. They have, however, the ad- vantage of being made in longer sizes, which may answer in special cases. The "double door" consists of two doors hung from opposite jambs, swing- ing so as to engage each other in clos- ing or opening the door. They are usually hung with loose joint butts, so that they can be removed if desired. One^ half is provided with a bolt top and bottom, which, set into the edge of the stile, engages the sockets set into the threshold and the top jamb. The other half carries the lock which en- gages the first half. This arrangement allows of the first half being bolted, ,•11 i i ir i i while the second half can be used as a single door. A small moulding is affixed to the face of the inner style of the second half, projecting beyond the edge so as to break the vertical joint between both halves when closed. About the time of the introduction of the mortise lock came the "sliding door." Its general appearance is that of the double door, only instead of swinging it slides into wall pockets on either side, thus being entirely out of the way. This treatment, of course, increases the thickness of the partition, which is constructed of two rows of studs set flatwise, so spaced that the finished parti- tion would be about 9 inches from plastering to plastering. The inside of the pockets should be sheathed with ^-inch matched sheathing, as a protection against dust and draught. Stops should also be utilised to keep the doors from sliding too far back into the pockets. Early examples were let into a rabbet at the head and rolled on small brass tracks set on the floor. The best modern method hangs them from overhead tracks, which does away with the stumbling block on the floor. Often this small track is retained to steady the motive, and in modern work is but very little in the way. When closed they are fastened by an especially designed mortise lock which is operated by a sunken knob or other arrangement. Interior doorway at " Whitehall," Maryland. A beautifully rich example of colonial work The Country House The sliding door has some advantages over the double swinging door. When open, it is out of the way entirely and does not occupy wall space, which is the case with the double swinging door. The modern room of moderate dimen- sions, in which the swinging doors are installed, loses practically the whole side as a satisfactory background, and the floor space within the radius of their swing is absolutely useless. Ordinarily, perhaps, the doors would not be often open, though this would depend largely on the frequency with which the occupants of the house entertain. But sliding doors have most important advantages : they permit of the circulation of fresh air without danger of banging. The closed swinging door is far less healthy, and is, moreover, an awkward thing at the best. When opened to its fullest extent, especially in a small room, it fre- quently infringes upon half the available wall space. On the other hand, the swinging door is easier to keep closed, and is more truly architectural in all positions than is the sliding door. One finds its easy movement, in opening and closing, hardly retarding to one's passage when in a hurry, while the sliding door works more heavily and requires a special effort to open and close it. We have men- tioned these things, not with the idea of forming a prejudice against either style, but to show the shortcomings of each, that the builder may choose between them in special cases. In the planning of a house, the swing of a door should be indicated on the plan to show its full latitude. The "batten door" is usually made of | stock, tongued and grooved and secured by battens on one side; one at the top, one at the bottom and perhaps one in the middle, with a diagonal brace if necessary. These braces, or battens, are best secured by means of screws. They are used where any rough door is required, as inside cellar doors or bulk- head doors. In the latter case, care should be taken to give it a sufficient pitch to shed the water. Ordinarily they are hinged at the side and let into a rabbet on three jambs, which often allows rain and melting snow to freeze up the joints. This may not be, in some localities, a serious objection, yet it seems as if the accepted construction of the bulkhead door is far from perfect. About the only safeguard is to pitch the door as much as possible so that water will run off quickly and snow will be less liable to lodge. Fig. 1 1. Diagram showing parts of an ordinary panel-door A. Door a. Door styles B. Door frame I,. Top rail C. Casing or architrave c. Middle or lock rail D. Threshold d. Bottom rail e. Panel f. Panel moulding g. I!a< k liand h. Wall k. Floor line Doors and Doorways 93 It is always better, on account of weight, to build bulkhead doors in two halves, unless the width be fairly narrow. The joint between the two halves should be broken by a weather strip to exclude moisture. A recent scheme, which is de- signed to do away with the bulkhead, places the cellar entrance under a flight of inside stairs, in such a way that the necessary head room is obtained to allow of the outer door being made a vertical or ordinary door. This places the steps on the inside of the cellar wall. The idea is excellent, but can- not always be adopted owing to the arrangement of the plan. Another method is to enclose the outside cellar steps with a small house. This often may be most effective as to looks, as it surely is in convenience, but it usually has the appearance of a huge and ugly dog house, unless carefully handled. Screen doors should not be of the usual stock pattern, as they will kill any design that was ever made. It is better to have the architect design them while he is doing the house. They then stand a chance of being har- monious. They should be light and simple, yet strong enough to prevent the children from falling through them. The ordinary panel door is usually two panels high and two wide; this type is taken for conve- nience, only (see Fig. n). Its flanking vertical members are called "stiles," and the central vertical member is called the "montant or centre stile." Often this member is omitted, as in the case of horizontal pannel- ling. The horizontal members are the "top rail," "mid- dle" or "lock rail" and the "bottom rail." Early panel doors were put together by cutting mortises through the stiles and inserting the tenons cut in the ends of the rails (see Fig. 12). They were kept in place by wooden pins. Now as wood shrinks hardly at all in the direction of the grain, and considerably in other directions, it will be seen that the tenons and pins soon became much in evidence. This fact evidently Doorway of Hammond House, Annapolis Md. This little gem is entirely pleasing and satisfactory Fig. 12. Old and new methods of door construction a. Rail b. Stile c. Mortise line d. Pins x. Wedge 94 The Country House annoyed the finer senses of the public, or perhaps the door builder did some in- venting to outdo competitors, which is more likely. However this may be, the better door of the present day has the mortise made so as not to run through the stile; and the tenon, split in the middle for the insertion of a wedge, is coated with glue and forced into place. It is readily seen (see Fig. 12) that this makes a most effective joint, and yet one almost, if not quite, regrets the pins, from an artistic standpoint, which show clearly its manner of construc- tion. The door is hung on hinges from the "frame," which in turn is nailed to the door studs on either side. The old nu-rh- od of treating the frame was to rabbet for the door; in later work a stop, or strik- ing piece, was fas- tened to the inside, thus forming the rabbet. Of the two methods, each has an advantage. The stop admits of hanging the door on either side of the partition at will; but unless it is very well put on it is apt to gape open, thus leaving a crack through from one room to the other. The old form has not this disadvantage, but the door cannot be changed from one side of the casing to the other without a great amount of trouble; however, it is perhaps the better for serious work. Whichever method is employed, the frame is best made from 2-inch stock; closet doors can be made slightly lighter if desired. , mewhat difficult to keep clean on top Doors and Doorways 95 In the beginning the plans every door determined. As their should be well gone over, and the swing of swing is usually marked on the plans, there should be most carefully thought out, not only should be no mistake. This with reference to con- venience in opening and shutting but with a view as to what it is liable to strike or displace, in the way of furniture, pictures or other wall orna- ments. It may be desirable to give the entering guest his first impression of a room in some par- ticular direction, and the door should swing opposite to this to enforce its notice. All other things being equal, this can be taken advantage of, although never to the sacrifice of conve- nience. On general principles, doors should open inward, so that the guest is not obliged to step back in his natural passage from the open air to the hall, the hall to the recep- tion room, the recep- tion room to the liv- ing room, the living room to the dining room, and so on. He should be made to feel that his welcome was cordial rather than restrained. Chamber, bathroom and toilet should always open in. No door should open into a passage, other than a closet door, which always opens toward the outside. It is inadvisable to swing a door over a register or against a radiator; the veneered door might possibly stand it for a while, but it is tempting inevitable fate. Doorway at "Whitehall," Maryland. This beautiful example is somewhat marred by the upper four panels of the door, which seem to be of later date and set in like a sash 96 The Country House Returning to the door structure: The frame is secured to the door studs on the inside of opening, and any deficiency between the frame and studs is furred in at the point of nailing. It is well to see that the door frame is placed in the centre between the stud opening or, better, the room, as, in case there be much play between them, any attempt to disre- gard this and nail one side of the door frame to the stud would result in a slight throwing off centre of the whole doorway. Ordinarily, perhaps, this might make little difference, but an over door of some de- signs is apt to be found noticeably out with ceiling decorations or panelling and the flanking wall motives of an academic or balanced plan. The architrave is ad- justed by fastening one edge to the door frame and the other to the door stud. The back band is the outermost member, and is rabbetted to fit over the architrave, forming in design a part of it (see Fig. 13). From its character and position the back band adds strength and colour to the doorway, and relieves it of a certain flatness. Practically it receives the butting of the base and dado moulding. Door panels, especially of soft wood, are apt to shrink considerably, and if hindered in shrinking will crack. It is {Jierefore advisable in adjusting the panel mouldings that they should be nailed into the stile and rail rather than into the panelling, as in addition to cracking they are Ijable to pull away from the stile and leave ugly gaps in following the panel. As such springing is only possible in the centre of the panel, since the ends are held in place by the return mould- ing, it is readily seen that what is liable to happen to that panel is likely to be annoying enough. The nailing into the panel at its ends is less liable to be attended with evil results, but this should be done in the centre only, for obvious reasons. A vertical panel is termed a "standing panel"; a horizontal one, a rig. 13. Fine examples of Colonial architraves and door «i • i mouldings with raised panels tying panel. Thresholds or door sills are usu- ally of | stock, preferably of oak or maple, but selected close-grained hard pine makes the next best thing. They should be considered as regulating the swing of the door from the floor, and as such should be thick enough to keep the door Old doorway at Deerfield, Mass. A fine suggestion for modern Colonial work .»- Voor-stile — *•••• ftoor-panel — - Doors and Doorways 97 amply clear of rugs, mats, etc. Exterior door sills should be rabbeted on the tread or top to prevent rain and other moisture from entering the house. These door sills are best made from 2-inch stock. Of the softer woods, clear white pine makes the best door. Whitewood doors are cheaper and frequently take stain well, but they should be avoided on account of the way in which they warp and twist. The ordinary door is usually of i^ to 2-inch stock. It is not advisable to make even closet doors less than the former. Some closets de- mand it, but a thin door is gen- erally too thin for the mortise lock, and every door should have a lock of some kind. The solid hardwood door is not to be recommended on account of the high temperature of our houses; anything but a veneered door will warp. The solid door is also heavy. Sometimes hard- wood doors are made of two thicknesses; this is not as good as the three-piece veneered type. It is better to make all doors, outside of pine, of the veneered type; those of the interior can be made with ^-inch veneer on panels and |-inch on stiles and rails. The panel mouldings should be solid, while the jambs or edges should be of from ^ to f-inch stock, all of which should be built upon a core or body of white pine. This is the three-piece door; a five-piece being constructed by the use of a double layer of veneer on each side, in which case the grains of the wood should run in opposition. The five-piece door is, of course, more expensive and naturally better, and is to be recommended for outside doors, where the heat on one side and the cold on the other are sure to do things with the most carefully planned of man's contrivances. If the core of the outside door be made of "staves" or strips glued together instead of the solid core, it is better. In the building of all veneered doors care should be taken to see that the panel moulding fully covers the joint between the veneer and the door (see Fig. 14). If this is not An interior doorway influenced by the style of Louis XV. and XVI. 98 The Country House done it suffers in looks, and in the case of the outside example exposes the joint to the tender mercies of the weather. Transoms are sometimes used over doors for the purpose of ventilation. When used they should be large enough to pay for putting them in; the glass should not be less than 12 inches high. They are sometimes hung in the centre of the ends or at the bottom; in any event they are controlled by means of adjustable openers. In the house of moderate cost, stock doors (for the interior) will save something in expense, but they ought not to be used as outside doors unless of exceptional construction, as the best of this sort is none too good or too well equipped to stand the test to which they are subjected. In suggesting the stock door, it is only with the idea that it may be used in the simple and less archi- tectural efforts, and even then the architect should have a hand in their selection. Wherever possible the door should be designed especially for the place, as any creditable effort is likely to be utterly ruined by the introduction of a foreign motive. Doors are usually 2' 10" by 7' o", but it is better that they be 3' o" wide except in the case of the closet door, which may be narrower. Some authorities claim that when a doorway is over 3' 6" the door should be double. This seems to be hardly practical, as it requires both doors to be opened in order that the ordinary per- son may pass comfortably. If it is desirable to increase the ordinary opening to 3' 6" the single door will stand it. Sometimes the 4' o" door is made to swing, but with a con- siderable strain on the hangings. Such door had better be slid, and if the swinging door is insisted upon the increase to 5' o" is slight, and the double door may be used. The 3' 6" door, however, is the limit; it is the largest for swinging and the smallest for sliding doors. Wide doors can be slid, but an 8-foot opening ought not to be a common thorough- fare, unless, perhaps, the doors are to be kept generally open. It would be impossible to lay down any fixed rules as regards the size of doors as elements of design. A 3' o" by f o" or 7' 6" door looks well if rightly treated. On general principles a doorway 6' o" wide by 7' 6" high is easier of treatment than one where the opening is square or the width excedes the height. There is, perhaps, a tendency to go to extremes in Fig. 14. The veneered door, showing good and bad construction a. Panel !'. Moulding c. Veneer .! '.' : '.y An unusual door hood at Newport, R. I. Doors and Doorways 99 double-door openings. People who entertain about four time} a year wish to knock out partitions in order that the house may be "open" to the guest. Under any circumstances there is a lack of privacy about this, which one is sorry to note as entirely "American." In the architectural treatment of doors and doorways, it ought always to be remembered that they are a very important part of the composition and should be made harmonious and tie in with the rest of the scheme. Im- portant doors should be so emphasised as to be found when wanted, while closet doors and the like should be kept subservient to the rest of the gen- eral scheme. If two doors are placed in a wall in such a way as to balance one another, they would naturally be treated the same. If one of these leads to the parlour and the other to a closet, it is not good design. One does not care to waste one's sweetness on the depths of a closet when one is expecting to strike the hostess dumb with envy. It is better to keep the height of all doorways in One room the Same, in A modern doorway at Arlington, Mass. It is based on the old , . J 1 example shown on opposite page which case closet doors may be pan- elled in the interval; the same use may be made of the transom. There should be some sort of studied relation between the height of the doors, windows and mantels. Sometimes, as in the English Gothic, the unimportant doors occurred in the wainscoting, being panelled in the same manner, and having no distinc- tive architrave or conspicuous hardware. This takes care of the problem very satisfactorily in one way, but the door should not be so entirely hidden that one must consult a plan of the house to tell where it is. It is perhaps not putting it too strongly to say: Never make a doorway without a door! There may be exceptions, but there generally comes a time when it is desirable, if not absolutely imperative, that the opening be closed. This may be accomplished through the agency of the sliding door, which takes up no desirable space and yet is ready when called upon. A modern treatment of the circular window bay. Andrews, Jaques & Rantoul, architects CHAPTER VI WINDOWS AND WINDOW MOTIVES [IHE first windows were simply holes, and unglazed. They were naturally small, as those living in the open air did not require large ones. The windows in southern countries, too, required but small area, owing to the intensity of the light; the reverse is true in the more northerly localities. Classic Greece and the later Roman Empire used the window but sparingly. The prevalent form of ancient dwelling was built with a court in the centre; the windows opened upon this court. In the Pompeian dwelling the windows, located on the court side, were high from the ground and in a measure protected from the weather by the projection of the cornice. Windows have followed the general outlines and peculiarities of the door- ways, and with the use of glass were subdivided in many and varied forms. With the middle of the fourteenth century the square-headed form became common and, with the Gothic, very elaborately designed tracery was employed. Glass was little used by the Romans, although its manufacture was known to the Egyptians about 2,000 years B. C., and perhaps much earlier. However, their climate hardly required it, and by them it was used in the form of vessels. Glass was first used in England, for the glazing of windows, about 1180. Stained glass is claimed to have existed as early as the year 1000, but nothing definite is known until the opening of the twelfth century. Windows and Window Motives 101 Except for the Spanish in Florida and southern California, the French in Louisiana, the Dutch in New York and the Swedes in Delaware^ the influence in the United States was that of the English down to the latter part of the nine- teenth century. The forms of windows were generally simple, and as the English copied largely from the Italian revival, many of the better forms are from this source. One of the first considerations in regard to- windows is their location in the room. They must admit light and air; they must give a clear outlook, and yet not rob one of one's privacy. If your estate be small it is not well that your neighbour should be able to tell by casual observation (through an opera glass) whether the label on your smoked ham be that of Swift or another, or that the game piece on your dining-room wall be a genuine "Old Master" or a chromo. Hangings will do much, but it is not well that they should become an absolute necessity. Another thing, and an all-important one, is the relation of the window to the furniture. Piano backs do not look well from without, to say nothing of their effect from the inside. Chairs, sofas, sideboards, beds and the like should be provided for. If they are not considered, they have an awkward habit of getting under foot and of destroying what might have been otherwise a well- calculated lay-out. Some people have an idea that to pepper the windows in with arcade-like regularity means good lighting. Perhaps it does, but a home is not a public school. There is such a thing as too much light, all supposition to the contrary, and there is also danger in too little, which is, perhaps, after all, the greater evil. There is much diverse opinion as to whether windows should be dis- tributed or brought together in one motive. One argument in favour of the latter plan is that the light is more concentrated and that a more generous view is afforded if the windows of one side of the room at least be grouped. With this grouping, the wall space also becomes more massed and affords a better chance for the distribution of fur- niture. Of course there are places where the ordinary width of a single window can and should be used. The style of the edifice and the size of the rooms should govern this largely, but on general principles it seems better that the s-ame amount of lighting surface were better in its concentration than distributed among several small windows. French window motive in the influence of the Classic revival at Flushing, Long Island, N. Y. The stairs are of later date 102 The Country House It may often be found of advantage to use a short, high window, as over the piano or sideboard, but it should never be used above the dresser nor above the sofa or couch unless they be of a char- acter which avoids the possibility of draught. The dresser should receive light from the side or rear. Even in the case of the sideboard or piano, it is better that the light should be toned down, so that it shall not shine too strongly into the eyes. The piano should always receive a stronger light from the side or rear. Stained glass or hangings can well be used to reduce the light. The size of the window varies according to its location and require- ments. The ordinary width is about 3 feet; in extreme cases only should it be less than 2 feet. The absolute dimen- sions are governed by the glass, which comes in sizes of 6, 8, 10 inches, and so up. It is better to keep the width of a single window within 5 feet; and especially where the sash is of the common sliding sort should the relation of the width to the height of the sash be carefully considered. If the sash is too wide in propor- tion it is apt to jam in raising or lower- ing; it is also heavy and hard to lift. Where a number of w i n d o w s are grouped together in the mullioned form, as in the Eliza- bethan style, it is better that they should be narrower and more numer- ous, for the above reason. Sometimes the window motive consists of three windows together, House at Chestnut Hill, Mass., showing several different window motives well adapted to i wiApr in rK#» ..... LI1C W 1 1. 1 v . Ill i 1 1 1. the style of the structure they embellish Modern Colonial bays on Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. The estimated cost of the bays, constructed of best pine stock, are: Large bay $285: small bays, each, $50 Windows and Window Motives 103 centre with the narrower ones flanking it. In this case, provided that enough air can be gotten from the two side ones, the centre one can have a fixed sash, and consequently be wider than if it were to be opened. If the air is not sufficient from the two sides, the whole or part of the centre opening can be made a "French" window. As regards the height of the window stool from the floor, there are several conditions which would govern this. The ordinary first-story window is in the neighbourhood of 2 feet from the floor; the second-story should be higher. In a case where the windows are in danger of affording the passerby oppor- tunity to look through, they should be about 3 feet from the floor; a fixed window seat or settle would be well in connection with them. Kitchen and bathroom windows should naturally be fairly high. A little care and thought in this direction is a good thing all round, as it adds to your own personal comfo-t and privacy, while on the other hand the neighbours will not know as much. It is no one's business but your own whether you wear red, green or yellow stockings, or go barefoot; whether you sit cross-legged or hang your feet on the mantel top. There may be extravagances, but one is responsible only to oneself. Look to it, then, that your windows are high enough from the floor for your ample protection. In northern latitudes the window should be carried well to the ceiling, as O7 against the lower window of the tropics. In the high-studded room the transom can be used to advantage; it should be employed wherever possible, as it venti- lates the room where ventilation is most needed. There should be, however, a studied relation between the window and door trims, so as not to disturb the general ensemble of the interior. Corresponding horizontal lines are to be striven for in all such problems. For instance, the height of the door, if not carried to the cornice, might be on a line with the top of the window proper, the transom of which extends to the cornice; again, the door, if there be no window transom, might have a surmounting frieze and a crown mould, which should be the same as the mould on the window top and at the same height. There are several ways to preserve these lines; the main thing is to see that they exist. In the early glass division of windows the panes were small. The medium- sized panes have their advantage, as they are readily replaced when broken, even An example of the English casement window as applied to the bay. This very simple type has the English diamond panes, and is inexpensive, being in a stucco wall The Country House in the rural districts. Another consideration in the glass division of the window, and one of great importance, is to arrange the horizontal divisions in such a manner that sitting or standing near the opening the vision is not obstructed by them. This may require some en- gineering on the part of the designer, but it is well worth the while. The principal difficulty comes from the difference i n the height of different people. The very small panes of the early colonies are rather inconvenient in this; besides, they .IK' hard to clean. The medium-sized glass is better, and if the lower sash is not divided at all in its height, the problem is simple. It is always annoy- ing when standing at a window to be obliged to dance up and down in order to see out of it. To some tastes CML large plate glass seems to be the only desirable thing. To be sure, one gets Entrance motive to house at Cambridge, Mass. The recessed windows above give added i j space to the balcony. The side lights below are rich and simple view, but replacing it is expensive and often inconvenient, especially if one's workman and material have to come from a distance. Then, too, some may object that a large plate lets in too much of the out of doors. Surely the lines of the room are in a measure destroyed by it, whereas the smaller panes tend to their preservation and to give the outside view the effect of a decoration. Further, if we get all the effect of the outside from the more or less close confines of the interior, there is less incentive to stir out of doors. As anything which tends to destroy the harmony of the general Windows and Window Motives 105 design is to be carefully avoided, it is well to give the question of large and small panes some careful consideration. There are three kinds of windows in common use in this country. In the ordinary two - sash window the sash are hung by a cord or chain playing over a pulley in the top of the pulley stile, and balanced by weights hidden in boxes on either side. The French, or casement, win- dow is hung on hinges and swings into the room. It is often made in two vertical halves, which operate as does a double door. It frequently ex- tends to the floor, and hence is used as a means of access to balconies or piaz- zas. The English casement window is very similar to the French, only that it does not extend to the floor and gen- erally swings out. For common use the first is to be preferred, although but half the glass area is available for ventilation. With the addition of the transom, however, the ventilating area should be sufficient, even in our Northern climate, where highly heated houses require a considerable change of air. This form of window is as tight as a window can be. With us the French window is mostly used in its capacity of door. If used in an exposed position it should be very carefully adjusted, as it is more liable to leak than either of the other two. It should be panelled at the bottom to the height of the other window stools; first, to preserve the lines, and second, to avoid damage by Entrance motive to house at Lynn, Mass. The Palladian window surmounting the porch is evidently part of the lighting agency of the upper hall. The estimated cost of the various parts are : Porch $390, Palladian window $ 1 20, door motive $ 1 50 io6 The Country House children. In the matter of ventilation this window will do all that is possible, and its inward swing allows of the adjustment of storm sash. The English casement window is generally used in the upper story or gable end, where the space is small and the inside swing would be in the way; also where small mullions are desired in place of the more or less bulky weight boxes of the sliding sash. Owing to its opening to its full area, it makes a good window for the attic, where the heated roof requires the full measure of air. It should not be used, however, where storm windows are desired, as their outward swing makes the adjustment of the latter impossible. It is somewhat tighter than the French, but does not exclude the weather as does the sliding sash. The forms of windows are nu- merous. Those in common use are the single square-headed window, the round-headed window, the mullioned window and the Palladian motive. The first two need no further descrip- tion. The mullioned window is a motive in which two or more separate windows are placed side by side, usually as close as their construction will permit. The Palladian motive was original with the Italian, Andrea Palladio, who was born about 1518. The English copied it extensively, and it became common with us in the Colonial. It consists of a mullioned window of three divisions, the central and larger of which had originally a round head. The two flanking windows were smaller and terminated in a square head at the spring of the central Mullioned window in old house at Flushing, Long Island, N.Y. arch. Both the mullioned WJndoW and ^y^lS™"*"****™'1*™*1™10""0**1*** 'he Palladian motive are used in important locations. The staircase window takes on many forms, and has been the object of much invention. The bay window is a projecting window motive too common and too varied in form to call for much description. Briefly, it is a several-sided and mod- erately sized break in the straight wall, usually well filled with glass, and affording a view to the right and left as well as to the front. It may extend to the ground, in the case of the first story, and have a foundation of its own, or it may overhang at the floor, window seat or sill level, and be supported by brackets or otherwise. It is a convenient and admirable feature in the country house and worthy of consideration, wrhich it has not always received. With the bay, the window seat naturally suggests itself. This is better built Windows and Window Motives 107 Interior of window shown on opposite page. A good example of the use of corner block and head panel into the window motive, and thus made a fixed part of it, although in a square bay a settle or couch can be used to advantage. As we all know, the accumulation of odds and ends, which it is often desirable to keep, makes it necessary to provide some place for their storage. News- papers and maga- zines, remnants of toys, odds and ends of various kinds, are very apt to find no really safe hid- ing; place when O l gathered up in a hurry. You may lay down rules for- bidding theirwhole- sale distribution from cellar to garret, but prohibi- tion will hardly prohibit. With this in view it is well to provide the window seat with a hinged cover, so that the otherwise wasted space can be utilised. The hanging of window curtains and shades is more often badly done than well done. This is partly due to the lack of calculation in the designing of the window motive and the hanging itself. As blinds, screens, storm sashes and solid shutters enter more or less into the calculation, let us consider the whole window with all its embellishments. In the first place, owing to the lowness of the sun in northern latitudes, the curtain seems to be an essential, but it should never be allowed to destroy the effect of the window casing, as it usually does. In the better houses of the Renaissance, the window curtains were straight pieces of fabric, hung across the window opening; they were often omitted entirely. They should never be too heavy. In fact, if they are thin enough to admit of seeing the archi- tecture through them, it is better. Fig. 15 shows one method of building an architrave, when the curtain is to be considered as a permanent hanging. npi i / \ 11 r ^L ^* ' Fie. 15. One method of building the casing when the hangings The reveal (a) allows for the setting in are to be consideregd as permanent Of the CUltain rod (b) and the Shade ». Reveal b. Curtain rod c. Shade roller rff io8 The Country House fixtures (c) so as not to destroy the window outline, and at the same time cover the glass opening fully. A small curtain pole is preferable to a large one wherever it will hold the weight required of it. If it is so that the reveal forces the back band too far into the room, the moulding (d) can be used. Although the reveal can be used with any window, the cut illustrates its adaptation to the French style, with the idea of showing how the curtains can be managed D easily, so as to interfere with the window swing. A cord, the middle of which is fastened to the inner ring at f, and running through the other rings (except the last ones), is carried through double pulleys back of the curtain at the angles (e-e). The ends, terminating in tassels, are allowed to hang with the curtain. The other half of the hanging is treated in like manner, and it is readily seen that the pulling of one pair of ends will open and the other close the curtain. The fact that the hangings are frequently draped back at the bottom does not interfere with the working of this scheme. The shade should always be hung on the out- side of the window opening and never in it, as it is liable to admit stray shafts of light at the sides, which are extremely annoying at times. Fig. 16 shows an arrangement of a three-opening mullioned window in a brick wall, in which the central one is a French window opening on a piazza and the side openings are of the sliding sash type. With this as a basis, let us continue with the window embellishment. It will be readily seen that curtains can be hung on the inside of the recess, and shades be placed near the sash and managed in the manner already shown. Owing to the awkward swing of the French window into the room, which is more or less ob- jectionable when treated singly, the side window seats with large ends naturally suggest themselves. This Old church window at Newburgh, N. Y. A good motive for the simple and effective handling of the staircase window Fig. 16. Plan of a three-opening mullioned window in a brick or stone wall in which the central opening is. French window "French" window s«sh b. Inside blinds c. Outside screens d. Outside reveal c. Sliding sash f. Seat ends j , doCS tXV ° talCCS C^.» mgS— It Ol tllC Windows and Window Motives 109 Portion of house at Wayne, Pa., showing treatment of Elizabethan bay. Wm. L. Price, architect open window (a), and makes an added feature of the seat. A door stop properly placed will prevent the window from marring the seat end. As blinds on the outside of a house are always awkward things to get at, and as the chances for inside ones in this case are excellent, they have been adopted (see b-b-b). They should be, if painted, of if-inch clear pine stock, fitted with movable slats in the lower half and hung on wrought-iron or brass angle butts. The man who invented the adjustable win- dow screen meant well, but he fell flat at the start. What we buy at the department store for nineteen and one- half cents each is a very good article —that is, to keep the flies in; it surely does not keep them out. The more expensive kinds are no better; they make you think so because of their price. When they are in the window they leave an opening between the sash, through which flies and mosquitos swarm in delight. The more simple form of half screen, which slides from top to bottom of the window opening, is better. Unless the sash are thrown wide open, however, it leaves that same little space between the sash as an invitation to the undesirable, and not infrequently we wish the window only open in part. The best form cf screen is the full-sized one hung on hinges on the outside of the window casing (see c-c-c). Its being hung allows the washing of the window, and, at the same time, its covering of the whob opening permits the window to be opened in any manner desired. As is frequently the case during stormy weather, it is desirable to open the sliding-sash window at the top for ventilation. If the outside reveal (d-d) is not deep enough to protect the window head, as in a wooden wall, the screen should be built with about four fixed blind slats at the top. This Will keep OUt the Weather, will not inter- A semicircular bay, lighting a high-storied room no The Country House fere with the ventilation, and as there is plenty of light in the summer it will not cut off enough of this to count. Of course in the case of outside blinds this is unnecessary. Copper wire makes the best screen covering, although the most expensive; common wire rusts in spite of paint and soon goes to pieces. If copper wire be beyond the reach of your purse, gal- vanised wire is the next best thing. Where the outside blind is desired, it is better to employ some form of "opener" which manipulates it from the inside. In this case the blind can be arranged to work outside of the outer screen. Great care should be used in the arrangement of the outside blind, to see that it alwavs lies flat to the wall when thrown open and does not come "cross other open- ings. In the shingle- window motives the problem is some- what simplified, but the mullioned win- dow is apt to give considerable trouble in this direction, and bay windows are simply out of the question as a general rule. A good form of inside blind is the '* Venetian." In this the slats are affixed to wide tapes, and the blind is capable of being condensed into a space equal (theoreti- cally) to the thickness of the slats. Where they are used an ample pocket should be provided for at the top of the window motive. If this is not Excellent glass motives, both in the treatment of the doorway and the high bay. The latter might well be adapted to the staircase motive Windows and Window Motives in done they will have to be hung in the regular pockets, which are awkward in the extreme. A wicket or swinging sash should be provided for ventilation in all storm windows. This usually occupies the space of one pane of glass and should swing inward. All storm sash, storm doors and screens should have a number to corre- spond with one on the casings of the several windows. These are best cut in with a knife, using the Roman nu- merals for simplicity in cutting. As these various accessories are fitted to the individual openings, it saves much time and bother, occasioned by getting the wrong thing in the wrong place. Solid batten storm shutters can be affixed in the same manner and from the same screw eyes as the storm windows (see "Practical Hints"). This shutter is an essential where the house is to be closed for a part of the year. The storm shutter should always have a small perforation in its upper half so as to shed a ray of light into the room. This is necessary in the opening and shutting of the house, otherwise it would be left in absolute darkness, and furniture and pet corns are liable to suffer in con- sequence. The shutters of our forefathers were frequently pierced with a small star or crescent, which was evidently an after consideration, judging from the manner in which it was done. These forms are good, but, whichever is used, it should not exceed 4 inches in diameter. It is better if the piercing be glazed; the Colonial bull's-eye light is not bad for this purpose. A good form of storm shutter for the summer home of those who can afford it is one made on the lines of the old, simple-panelled Colonial shutter (see the Bowne House at Flushing). This old form should be reinforced with matched sheathing, between which is sandwiched a piece of sheet iron, firmly bolted through the stiles and rails. The bolts should be placed with the heads on the sheathing side and the reverse end welded down after the nuts have been set tightly in place. These shutters should be hung permanently on heavy wrought- iron strap hinges, so that when open the panelled face is outermost. The effect thus obtained is not at all unpleasing. If hung in pairs, strong bolts can be used to secure them. In some of the later work a shutter is used in which the upper half is a blind with fixed louvers, and the lower half is panelled. It must be remembered that any shutter, no matter how strong, is not im- Window in old Bowne House, Flushing, Long Island, N. Y. The solid shutter, common during the Colonial period, was fre- quently pierced through the upper panel by a crescent or star form for the admission of a faint light 112 The Country House A second story bay ai Newburgh, N. Y., with effective glass divisions. The oval Colonial window makes an excellent closet light pregnable. To he who premeditates burglary its removal is like the cracking of a nut — an extreme pleasure in anticipation of the meat within. Its only purpose is to dis- courage the atten- tions of honest folk and small boys. Screens may answer for flies and the like, but the suc- cessful barring of one's own kind is an Utopian dream too good to be realised. Windows, al- though differing slightly in the minor details of construc- tion, are in the main alike. Frames of those set in wood, brick and stone walls, and in the cellar window, differ considerably in the manner of adjustment. The ordinary window in the wooden wrall is shown in Fig. 17. We will refer to this in its description. With the exception of pulley stiles, stop beads and often the yoke, which are of hard pine, the sash, outside casings, sill, and the inside casings (where paint is used), are of white pine. The usual dimensions of stock are as follows: Sash to carry double thick German glass, i£ inches; sash to carry plate glass, 2 inches; sills, 2 inches; casings, ; inch; stop beads, i inch; pulley stiles, | to i£ inches; yokes, i£ to 2 inches; stools, I to i£ inches. The sill should have a i^-inch pitch so that water will be readily shed. The bottom of the outside casing where it intersects the sill (u) should be cut out to allow water to drain from sash groove. Flashing (n) should be of 16- ounce copper or lead extending 3 inches under the outside wall covering. Never use tin. The spaces above the yoke and A bay a, NewburRh, NY used in connection with the u J th JJJ snoUld be Caulked with gamhrel roof. The stone underpinning extends to the window tills and gives a generous stool on the inside plaster. Windows and Window Motives Plan Head The sash are usually hung on sash cords, the better sort being braided or woven. Metal chains, though they cost more, will last longer and are to be preferred. The common window weight, which is enclosed in the box behind the pulley stiles, is of iron. For heavy windows lead weights are better, as iron, at the weight required, becomes too bulky. Care should be taken to see that the weights properly balance the sash, otherwise there is sure to be trouble with the windows not staying in place. Axle pulleys over which the window cord or chnia plays should be of the best pattern and have ordinarily about ij-inch wheels. The window pocket is cut in the lower half of the pulley stile and in the groove of the lower sash. It is used in the hanging of weights and also to repair broken sash cords and for like troubles. As the stop bead has to be removed in order to get at the pocket, it should always be screwed in place. Always fasten a stop bead with round-headed screws. Much trouble is occa- sioned by the binding of win- dow sash in damp weather. This in a measure is unavoid- able, owing to the excessive swelling of the white pine. To avoid the excess of it the sash should not be fitted too snugly; a little play is necessary. As the dry weather will shrink the sash and perhaps allow it to rattle, it would be well to use a narrow rubber-edged weather strip on the vertical stop beads, to control the lower sash and correspondingly to control the upper sash on the inner edge of the outside casing. It is well to bevel slightly the edge of the top rail of the upper sash (a) and the stop bead which engages it, so that when the window is closed it will be held firm. The bottom rail of the lower sash (d) is held in like manner, and a sash-fast is used which will draw the meeting rails together. Thus there should be little trouble with the rattling or leaky window, even when the sash have ample play in the grooves. A very necessary adjunct to the above fittings, and one which adds much to the ease of manipulating the window, is the sash lift. Two should always be provided for on the bottom rail of the lower sash; they are preferably of the projecting sort. It is well also to have two mortised lifts set in the top rail of the upper sash, as there is little or nothing to get hold of in case it should bind. With lifts thus adjusted, one has less fear of breaking glass, and possibly receiving an ugly cut. Fig. 17. Sections of a simple window frame in a wooden wall a. Top rail (upper sash) m. Clapboards b Meeting rail n. Flashing c Muntin o. Stool d Bottom rail (lower p. Apron sash) q. Lathes e Sash style r. Plaster f Pulley style s. Ground 1 Outside casing Inside casing t. Weight box u. Drain for sash I Ground casing groove j . Stop bead w. Weight k. Outside boarding x. Sash lift 1. Parting bead The Country House As a matter of utility, the stained sash is to be preferred to the painted one, as paint is very apt to stick, damp weather tending to soften it. The construction of the window as set in the brick wall is shown in Fig. 18. O The principal thing is to see that the joints between the brickwork and woodwork are made weather tight. Thus the intervals are filled in with plaster or cement as shown, and the staff bead (k) is adjusted after the window has been built in. It is well to bed the staff bead in elastic cement, a mixture which partakes of certain Head .'• [' 'i '-,'•'• V\| :••! |.;;.y.>d Plan Fig. 18. Sections of • window in a brick wall , Top rail b. Bottom rail c. Style d. Pulley style e. Stop bead f. Finish g. Casing E. Furring k. Staff bead n. Ground p. Plaster w. Weight Fig. 19. Showing the construction of a " French" window n. \v . • „' stone t. Ash pit Cellar bottom r. Copperchimney flashing w. Fillet z. Damper Fireplaces, Chimneys and Fireproofing 125 temperature of the brickwork. Holes should not be made in the base of this air space, as the draught thus formed would tend to unequal conditions calculated to crack and destroy the brickwork. The argument against this method of construe- tion will be on the score of space and labour, but no space or labour should count when safety from fire is at stake. The two walls should be tied to- gether with headers every s i x courses in the manner of a vaulted wall, which they really form. Under no circum- stances build a 4- inch chimney; such work is criminal. It endangers the lives of all the occupants of the house, which are surely worth the additional expense of a good job. An expert should be on the work continually to see that the chimney and fire- place are properly constructed. All flues should be lined with terra- cotta or burnt-clay linings, laid with close joints. They should extend from the bottom of the flue and throat of the fireplace to the extreme top of the chimney, and should be built in with the brickwork as the chimney is carried up. Ordinary fireplace flues should be 8 by 12 inches inside, also range and heater flues. The very large heater may require a 12 x 1 2-inch flue; the manufacturer of the heater will know this. The flue should extend directly from the centre of the fireplace, any change of direction to be made with gradual slant. Some claim that the round flue will draw better than the square one, which may well be, as the ascending heat takes a slightly spiral course. A lo-inch round flue is the ordinary size, while the large fireplace for cordwood should have a flue 12 inches An interesting dining-room fireplace of brick and painted stucco 126 The Country House in diameter. The round flue should be put together like drainpipe, with a collar joint, and carefully cemented. An 8 x 8-inch square flue may answer for a very small chamber stove or the like, but it is unfit for anything else. Insist on using an accepted make of flue lining. Every fireplace, range and heater should have a separate flue. The height of the ordinary fire- place should not ex- ceed 25 to 26 inches. An excess of this allows cold air to pass up the chimney, as the opening does not heat readily above- this height. The cold air in pass- ing up the chimney will check the draught; such as comes down will rebound from the flat shelf back of the throat. What chance is there for good results under such conditions? 1 lie size of a fire- place for the burning <>t cordwood should be 4' 6" wide and 3' to 3' 6" high. The depth of the ordinary fireplace is from 14 to 1 6 inches; of larger si7.es from 1 8 to 26 inches. The throat of the fireplace should be directly over its centre, and should be made about one-eighth the area of the fireplace opening. Under ordinary circumstances this opening is too large, but an iron plate resting on the aforesaid shelf serves as a damper, and can be drawn forward by means of a poker so as to reduce the opening. Some forms of dampers are made to be controlled from the outside. The excess opening gives a leeway for days of bad draught. The fire- place should be lined writh fire brick, laid with close joints or an iron lining, as may be preferred. The straight-headed fireplace should be supported by iron bars. Parlor mantel at Jamaica Plain, Mass. This is a fine example of elaborate modern Colonial. The painted panel makes a good central spot in the composition Fireplaces, Chimneys and Fireproofing 127 The fireplace facing can be of stone, brick or tile, as desired, and show an 8-inch or, better, a 12-inch face clear of the woodwork. There should be an iron cover to the ash dump provided at the back of the fireplace which connects with the ash pit in the cellar. This ash pit should extend to the first floor, and should have a 12 x 1 6-inch iron door with frames (in cellar), built into the chimney during its laying up. Thus the ashes can be dumped into the pit, which is cleaned out when necessary. The hearth is built on a trimmer arch which extends from 20 to 24 inches from the chimney breast to the "skew back" attached to the header beam. Two inches of con- crete are laid there- on and brought to a level, on which rests the tile or brick hearth. As the prov- ince of the "skew back" is to keep the trimmer arch from falling when the header shrinks, it should not be omitted. The "tail beams" or short floor timbers which butt against the "header" between the two "trimmer" or side beams, are usually tenoned into the header, and further supported by an iron stirrup carried under them and turned over the header beam. As fire spreads readily through the flues made by the hollow partitions, it is absolutely necessary that such flues be cut off by the insertion of some non- combustible material. In brick walls courses of brick between the flooring and plastering are projected from the wall face, so that fire cannot pass up the flues between the furring and the wall. A rough stone wall should be lined with brick Old mantel from the Lee House, Marblehead. An interesting and effective treatment, with a touch of French in its design 128 The Country House and treated in like manner, or if the studs be set against the rough stonework a stop of bricks and mortar should be inserted at the floor level to shut off the flue. In a wooden outside wall the space from the foundation wall to the under side of the rough floor boarding, and from the inner face of the foundation wall to the outside boarding, should be filled in solid with brick laid in mortar mixed with plaster of paris. Also between the studs above the flooring three or more courses of brick should be laid in like manner, to ex- tend above the upper plaster ground. In the inner partitions on the first floor bricks and mor- tar should be laid on the floor joist, its full width, to the height of the under side of the rough flooring, and three or more courses above it be- tween the studs to a height above the plaster ground. On floors above the first brick and mortar should be laid on all partition heads to extend to above the plaster ground. Two courses of brick and mortar should be laid on top of all partition bridging to the full width of the partition. The space between the plate and the under surface of roof boarding should be filled in solid with brick and mortar to the full width of the partition. Where a partition is set to extend only one story, independent of partitions above and below, the space from the footing to a height above the plaster ground should be filled with brick and mortar; also from the partition head to the under side of the floor boarding. Where the walls of attic rooms are furred in from the line of the outer wall, one course of brick and mortar should extend from the partition head to the under side of the roof boarding. The hollow space occasioned by the furring out A well-tied fireplace motive, entirely out of the room proper. The old fire frame could well be used in a treatment of this sort Fireplaces, Chimneys and Fireproofing 129 of the chimney breast should be carefully looked to. Before setting the furring the ceiling should be lathed with metal lathing and rough plastered from the chimney outward as far as the breast will extend. After the furring studs have been set, two courses of brick and mor- tar should be laid upon the floor space thus enclosed and on the partition footing. Brick and mortar stops should also be inserted on the partition head to the under side of the flooring. The wooden partition about the staircases, and such rooms as contain staircases, should be filled solid with brick and mortar from the first-floor beams up. The said beams should be properly supported in the cellar to carry this extra weight, and should be cov- ered with metal lath- ing and plastered, so as not to leave any exposed sur- faces. If the par- tition should not have a bearing or support from the cellar up, or be built about the stairs and upon the stringers, two courses of brick and mortar, extending horizontally on cross bindings at intervals of not less than 3 feet, beside the usual number of courses at the foot and head of the partition, should be used. Pro- vision should be made in the framing to carry this extra weight. The space between the stringers at intervals of 3 feet should be filled solid with mortar mixed with plaster of paris. Wherever the stringers set on the floor or landing in such a way as to offer a bearing, this space could be filled to the limit with bricks and mortar. It is always best in the planning of the staircase motive to have the connection continuous from cellar to attic. This arrangement admits of cutting off by double (or single) doors on each story, so that the stair well becomes, with proper fire- proofing, practically an independent tower. If this is done, cellar stairs should An old Salem mantel of simple, direct design. It is to be regretted that the of the old fireplace is to be harnessed to a stove 130 The Country House be included in the motive, and should be enclosed in a brick wall, with a fireproof door opening into the cellar and an exit into the open air. An alternative is shown in Fig. 23. This will take a little more room than the ordinary effort, but in a large outlay, where it would add materially to the general safety, the extra room would not be missed. It consists of two adjoining and practically in- dependent wells, connected only by fireproof doors. The staircases alternate from one well to the other on the successive stories, and in this way cut off one floor from another. The fireproof door mentioned should be of the pattern de- scribed under that head. Back plastering is applied to the inside of the outside boarding in a wooden wall. The best method is to furr out with lath placed in the angles formed by the studs and boarding, and lath and rough plaster on this. Thus a clinch is secured for the plastering. This should all be done after the laying of brick fire stops. Metal lathing should be used in preference to wood, especially on the cellar ceiling, chimney breasts, the under side of stairs and about the staircase. If applied to wood furring, it should be held in place by staples. Metal lathing should also be used wherever a furnace pipe or other heating pipes pass through the partition. Doors made of white pine and covered with tin on both sides, over which veneering is applied, are almost fireproof. The door frame should be covered in like manner. The above will stand more than the iron door. For rougher work a door covered with tin, without the veneering, will answer. In addition to the usual fire stop in wooden walls, the danger from the furnace is further reduced as follows When furnace pipes pass th.-ough par- titions they should be made double, with a ^-inch air space, and the adjoining studs should be protected by tin set on furrings upon it. The studs should be at least 3 inches from the pipe. All hot-air pipes should be covered with a wrapping of J-inch asbestos to a point fully 15 feet from the furnace. The space about the double pipe can be filled with mortar or plaster of paris to good advantage. One register (perhaps that in the hall) should be fastened open so that it cannot be closed. This is an infallible gauge on the furnace. The cold-air box should be constructed entirely of galvanised iron, and so arranged that when the cold air is cut off the supply will come from the cellar. The inlet for cold air should supply a sufficient amount of air at the top of the furnace, Fig. 23. Showing a fireproof staircase, which utilises two disconnected wells ». Airspace d. Exit door h. Floor level b. False ceiling c. Fireproof door e. Ground level i. Cellar bottom k. Line of house Grated vent Fireplaces, Chimneys and Fireproofing Old fireplace and accessories at Bull Run, N. Y. Photograph by Julian Dimock between cover of the hot-air chamber and cover of the furnace, that the ceiling above may not be overheated. A galvanised-iron shield, 6 inches larger than the diameter of the heater, should be • suspended from the ceiling above the heater, leaving a sufficient air space between it and the ceiling. Never use other than a metal ash can; wood is too dangerous. Always keep matches in fireproof boxes with cover. Shingle roofs laid in mortar, though expensive, make a fire-resisting surface where it is | often sorely needed. If ever an absolutely fireproof mixture is produced, the place for it above all others is on the shingle roof. Gutters should be either metal or metal lined; many fires are started from burning firebrands lodging in them after rolling ofF the roof. For the above reasons slate is preferable to shingle, and metal gutters to those of wood. All wooden structures should have stone or brick underpinning at least 12 inches from the ground, and no woodwork should come below that height unless otherwise properly protected from the possibility of fire from burning grass. Openings under piazzas and porches for lattice work should not be made nearer to the ground than 12 inches, and the lower step and step buttresses are best constructed of non-combustible material. A flagging of brick, stone or composition should extend fully 16 inches from the wall of the cellar bulkhead. The reason for the above precaution is that mischievous boys and careless workmen often start serious fires while burning out grass, and it is well to forstall this as far as possible. Fireproof paper should be laid between all under and upper floors, between the outside boarding and sheathing of all vertical wooden walls, and between roof shingles and roof boards. The ordinary floor deafening, which is usually composed of cement, sand and cinders, makes an excellent reinforcement to the fireproof paper in floor construction. One length of fire hose placed on each floor, including the cellar and attic, so as to cover the entire area, is advised. It should be in an open hall way, pre- ferably near the stairway, and should always be connected and ready for use. It should be located near a night light so that it can be easily found in the dark, and 132 The Country House it need not be an unsightly feature if planned for in the first place. The globe might be red, with "Fire Hose" ground in it. This is essential, as it might be a guest who would dis- cover the fire. A 2 - i n c h standpipe from the main ser- vice or, in the ex- treme, the attic tank will supply these. I he ordinary pails of water in the cellar kitchen and attic are handy and effect! \r. If the attic tank be employed, a length ot hose may be handy for attach- ment to the main that supplies it. The above pre- cautions are im- portant. They are always ready, and much time is saved. A fire checked in Him- may mean the saving ot lives and money. The question of whether or not the lightning rod is really useful or is an invitation to destruc- tion has not as yet been d e fi n i t e 1 y settled ; even the best experts disagree. If used, they should be of copper, which is the best conductor, and they should be properly insulated and grounded deep enough to reach moist earth. The neglect to attend to these two points is probably the cause of the utter worthlessness, and even dangerous qualities, of most lightning rods. The ordi- nary metal gutter and conductor, if connected with points on the roof and the moist earth at the bottom, will be less ugly and fully as effective as the regular rod. Moisture is a great conductor of electricity; this fact should be remembered. A most excellent rendering, influenced by the styles of Louis XV. and XVI. Fireplaces, Chimneys and Fireproofing 133 For the ordinary small and medium-sized country house, the precaution of a coil of knotted rope in each chamber or second-story room is most excellent and inex- pensive. This rope should be made fast to the upper part of the wall near the most desirable win- dow or, if possible, between two win- dows. A recess about 16 inches high can be made between the stud- ding, and the rope secured to a large screw eye inserted firmly in the top. A picture hinged at the top will cover the coil within the recess, and a large silk cord securely fastened to the end of the rope may be allowed to hang in full view below it. If a tassel having a metal ring engraved with "Fire Rope" be attached to the end of the cord, the unfamiliar guest will soon understand its meaning, even if not told. This contri- vance is easily found in the dark, and as easily pulled from the recess. If small children are about it may be advisable to shorten the cord. In larger houses, in addition to the above, it may be deemed advisable to have a regular fire escape. Fig. 24 shows the best method, which is far from being an ugly one. It is a staircase tower of brick (stone-faced if in a stone house) which ha^ no connection with the house other than by the several balconies at each story above the first. The exits from the house to the balconies should Mantel at Fairhaven, Mass. This design follows closely the better motives of the old English woodwork. Charles Brigham, architect. 134 The Country House be off a common passage and away from the general stairways. The balconies should not cross in front of other openings in the interval between the main exit and the tower, although they may extend beyond to include chambers if desired. The doors into the tower from the bal- conies should not have locks. The simple catch is sufficient, and the doors themselves should be armoured with heavy tin on both sides. The exit door at the bottom should likewise be fire- proof and without a lock; a simple bolt on the inside is its best fastening; never use a key. It might be wise to provide a small sledge, which could be tied to the handle of the door by a 4-foot cord. In case the door or bolt should stick this could be used. The door should swing outward. All windows in the tower should be on the side farthest from the building, small, and heavily glazed. It might not be a bad idea to screen the exit door with ivy or some other climbing growth. This will effectively hide it from the prying eye. An alternative form of the above might be made by substituting a sliding pole for the stairs, after the manner of fire houses. The size of the tower would be much reduced, and even the women, after a trial trip, would have no trouble or hesitancy in using it. Fig. 24. Showing an effective form of fire escape Fireplace in t Bohemian cottage at Media, Pa. Bailey & Truscott, architects A simple and well-lighted hill at Chestnut Hill, Mass. CHAPTER VIII HALLS AND STAIRWAYS HE hall is the oldest room of the private dwelling. It is satu- rated with tradition and romance. We moderns strive for these in vain, forgetful of the origin and true purpose of the room. In the early feudal dwelling of northern Europe the hall was in reality the house itself, being used for entertainment, eating and sleeping in turn. It was large in size and all-important in the consideration of the building. As time went on other rooms were tacked on in a somewhat haphazard fashion — mere necessities, unstudied a-nd unrelated. This general jumble of rooms was due partly to the fact that the feudal castle, being built on a rough and irregular site for purposes of defence, naturally communicated its lack of symmetry to the plan. With the added rooms came the staircase, an equally unimportant necessity. This was spiral in form, to economise space, small in size and conveniently stowed away within the thickness of a wall, and later in turrets as well as walls. As it was deemed important, owing to the spirit of the times, that there should be several ways of traversing the motley array of rooms, these much begrudged must-be-hads were peppered into the general lay-out with an apparent abandon truly remarkable. The secret staircase of romance, under guard of concealed buttons and sliding panels, had its beginning in the rugged existence of this period. This belittlement of the staircase continued with the 136 Halls and Stairways 137 Gothic style, and extended even into the Renaissance. In fact, with the Ger- mans and French this latter,, style was for a long period simply an application of classic detail to the old lines and arrangements. Later, they learned from the Italians the possibilities and true importance of the staircase and profited accord- ingly, but it never entirely lost the clearly defined earmarks of feudalism. In Italy the existing conditions served to bring about far different results. Her walled towns made the castellated building of the North unnecessary. Being the birthplace of the simple and regular plan, the importance of the stairway as a decorative feature was soon recognised and its true relation to the house and hall established. Therefore the tortuous, winding staircase was early abandoned for other less secret communications, and the stairway became a feature of the design. The principal forms used were that of the straight staircase between two flanking walls and that which had one landing and a half turn in its flight. This latter form admitted of a continuous motive from the bottom to the top of the building, and galleries on the second story and above, which occupied about the same space and held the same relation to the apartments of these stories as the general hall below did to the first-floor plan. These two forms were also those used by the English in their work following the feudal period. As has been previously stated, the northern staircase was thrown in without regard to the hall. One was more likely to find oneself in the privacy of a lady's chamber or hanging over the edge of a cliff than in any close relation to the room of many uses. Hence the guest who wandered at night was very apt to meet with trouble, if not positive danger to life and limb. With the Italians, on the con- trary, the staircase often started from the entrance way, thus being easily ac- cessible. The Eng- lish outlay was somewhat more complicated. In the Gothic houses the entrance door open- ed directly into the hall. Frequentfy a screen was erected across the end of this room, which replaced in a meas- ure the vestibule and at the same time afforded pri- vate passage to the staircase located at one end. For some reason or other the English architect, though at a later period borrowing extensively from the French, never quite An upper stair-landing, showing the ramp and curve of the hand rail 138 The Country House understood the true value of the vestibule as did his neighbour across the channel; consequently the vestibule is seldom used in England. It will thus be seen that the staircase was cut off from the hall, and the hall itself more or less of a vestibule, as far as use is concerned. With the Colonial the vestibule was still omitted, after the manner of its model, while the staircase was condensed into, and became a feature of, the hall. This was probably due to the general simplification of the plan and to an effort to save space. In the construction of the Italian staircase, marble was the chief material em- ployed. It was used for the rails and balusters as well as the stairs proper. The French had a weak- ness for the iron rail and baluster, in which material some very beautiful work was executed. The English, though using both marble and iron in a meas- ure, had a decided tendency toward \\ood. As the Italian marble staircase had its natural origin in the marble finish of its halls, so the English wooden ef- fort was but the natural treatment where wooden ceil- ings and wall panel- ling were used. A mixture of these two would have been de- cidedly out of har- mony. There are sev- eral things to be considered in the planning of the hall and staircase of the Old Colonial stairs at Jamaica Plain, Mass. American COUHtry house. First, it is safe to lay down as a fixed rule that every house should have a vestibule. This gives two doors between the house proper and the out-of-doors, which is quite Halls and Stairways 139 important. It is not conductive to a cheerful temper to have a chance visitor enter your hall and track clay or mud across your best rug, intermingled with a rivulet deposited by a wet umbrella. If the said vestibule exists, he will be freer from slander ; and if a closet or recess for wet clothing, etc., is provided, his reception will be most cheerful. A small seat added will allow one to re- move rubbers and overshoes with some degree of comfort, and a box under the same offers storage for this very neces- sary footgear when not in use. The vestibule further serves to do away with the cheerful matched-board storm porch which many otherwise sensible people allow to decorate the front of their houses. As has been previously stated, a glazed outside door or side lights are very serviceable if one cares whom he admits to his house. It is just as well that you are able to see without being seen. The hall proper, in conjunction with offshooting hallways, is used as a means of communication with the various rooms, and as such should be neither too large nor too small. The hall is really the heart of the house, and the hallways and stairs the arteries of the system. If the hall is to be used as a reception room, the staircase should be separated from it in such a manner that a person can readily traverse the rest of the system without being obliged to pass through it at all. The vestibule should likewise have separate connection with the kitchen, so that servants are not obliged to interrupt conversations, to their own annoyance as well as that of the host and the visitor. Where the hall is used as a living room (a return to first principles), it is doubly advisable that the above precautions be observed. As a matter of fact, the living-room hall is only fit for the free life of the shore or mountain summer home. It may be picturesque and attractive, but convenient — never! The servants will spread your affairs among the neighbours fast enough without coming into the living room after information, as becomes almost unavoidable. In a word, the publicity of the hall makes it un- suitable for a living room. In the planning of the staircase it is best to see that it is well lighted and ven- tilated; also that it is not so much crowded upon itself as to make the handling of furniture next to an impossibility. With this in view, plenty of head room should always be given, and the landings be generous enough to admit of the turning of furniture upon it. Ample staircases even are apt to be scarred and Landing of Jamaica Plain stairs, showing details of post, balusters and rail Halls and Stairways 141 battered unless you watch the expressman. If this is true of the carefully calcu- lated scheme, then the true story of the careless effort is not for juvenile litera- ture. The importance of the easy staircase is not to be underestimated; this one problem is the architect's usual stumbling block. A professional stair builder, with much architectural knowledge, has been known to plan a flight of attic stairs which were decent in every way but one — when you reached the top you had to crawl on hands and knees in order to get into the attic. This may be a trifling inconvenience for some, but most of us would object seriously. All-important in the stair problem is the question of easy treads. Some few wise people prefer to have their sleeping rooms for constant use on the first floor and the excess on the second floor, knowing full well that they were never intended to climb stairs. To these we remove our hats with a mixture of respect and awe — awe because of the strength of character that would do a sensible thing in opposition to the general custom. Among the masses of country folks the first- floor bedroom has long been used and appreciated. Returning to the tread question: The usual rule for determining this is that the product of rise and tread shall equal 70. Hence, if the tread be 10 inches, the rise should be 7 inches; if the tread be 12 inches, the rise should be 5f inches. For ordinary stairs the lo-inch tread is as steep as should be made for comfort; if it be pos- sible, the 12-inch tread should be used for front stairs. The common material for the stairs of our country houses is wood. As the Colonial and Elizabethan seem to be the prevailing styles, this is well. Hardwood treads, hand rails and newel posts are to be preferred, even if, as in the Colonial, the newel be painted, as are the risers, bal- usters and stringer board. It is always well to have a sep- arate staircase for the use of the ser- vants, thus avoiding their use of the main staircase. In the small house, one way of condensing the stairway is to carry the back stairs to the main stairway landing, making the half flight above common to both. This should be done in such a manner that a person using the back Upper hallway of Fall River example, showing lighting agency 142 The Country House stairs cannot be seen from the hall below. In the case of the front stairs hav- ing a straight run this condensing cannot be done; it is only possible where a landing and half turn are made. As to the treatment of vestibule, hall and staircase, there are certain things to be considered. We have already likened the hall to the heart; being such, it should be simple, strong and vigorous. The treatment of the vestibule should be severe; a mere civ- ility to the knocker at the gate. The character of the hall relaxes a little — the courtesy of admit- tance. The stair- case, a private thoroughfare, should suggest a passage, without attraction to destroy the effect of its true purpose. While not so severe as the hall, it can hardly, in good taste, come very close to the full re- laxation of the living room. On the above basis of relationship we will, as already suggested, make the vestibule simple and severe. The marble or simple tile or mosaic floor is appropriate for this, with forceful doors and little if any decoration. The hall floor may be paved with tile, marble or mosaic of a character less severe than the vestibule. It hardwood is used, a simple, vigorous border would be in keeping and the wooden panelled dado with panelled stucco walls (pro- vided the walls are not entirely of wood) would carry out well the general feeling of the design. Stucco walls call for a stucco ceiling, or perhaps a beamed ceiling with stucco panels. Beams thus used should have some apparent means of support from the floor, as suggested by the pilaster. In the case of the wrooden walls the beamed or panelled ceiling seems imperative. The embellishment should, however, be simple and devoid of flourish. Such rich touches as are introduced should be carefully studied, that they may not destroy the dignity to which the room is entitled. Where the marble floor is used, the base should be of marble to harmonise. Whatever is done with the room in the way of finish, its true purpose should never be lost sight of. Some claim that the fireplace should not be used as a decorative feature of the hall. From the point of view of the purist and the true intention of the A modern hill it Hinghim, Misi. Halls and Stairways 143 room, this is un- do ubtedly so. Nevertheless there is a decided ten- dency toward its use in this country. The trouble lies in the fact that it is gener- ally made too "pret- ty," the chief fault with all our halls. We have spent much money and elabor- ated upon the old Colonial models, but it seems as if much of this were done very unwisely. If the fireplace be used at all It should be An example at Cambridge, Mass., showing a simple ironwork and hall seat. When the i i • hall is used as a reception room the seat is an important consideration, and its location so as to Simple ana Severe 111 j,e |,anciy an