J

ew and Old Book
!6l6thAve. N V

WANT

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

MODERN FARMING:

IN A SERIES OF TREATISES

BY

DISTINGUISHED AGRICULTURISTS

EDITED BY EGBERT SCOTT\BUBN,

ONE OF THE LATE LECTURERS AT THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

WCROPS.

A, FULLARTON & Co.,

STEAD'S PLACE, LEITH WALK, EDINBURGH
AND 115 NEWGATE STREET, LONDON.

EDINBURGH:

KULLARTOW AND MACSAB, PRINTERS, LEITH WALR

MODERN FARMING:

CKOPS.

CONTENTS.

TREATISE I. — THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS. Wheat, its
Varieties, Choice, and Treatment of Seed — Preparation of Vari-
ous Soils — Sowing, Manuring, and General Management of the
Crop. By the Author of "Retrospective Notes on Farm Crops
and Cropping. "

TREATISE II. — THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS. "Wheat — Its Dis-
eases and Insect Pests — Its Storing and Preservation. By the
Author of "Retrospective Notes on Farm Crops and Cropping."

TREATISE- II I. AND IV. — THE CULTURE OF FARM CROPS. Cereal,
Green, and Forage Crops. Being Practical Directions for the
Cultivation of Barley — Oats — Beans — Pease — Flax — Turnips —
Mangold Wurtzel — Beet-Root — Carrots — Parsnips — Cabbages-
Grasses and Clovers. By the Author of " Retrospective Notes
on Farm Crops and Cropping. "

M373375

EDITOE'S PREFACE

THE present volume is based upon a series of articles
on "Farm Crops and Cropping," which has appeared
within the last few years in the " Journal of Agri-
culture, and Transactions of the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society." Much of the matter therein given
has been here availed of, but the whole has been re-
modelled, and a large amount of new material added,
in order to bring the volume within the scope of the
Miscellany, of which it forms a part, and up to the
most recent date of practical experience. From the
interest which the articles above alluded to excited
at the period of their publication, it is hoped that in
their new, amended, and greatly-extended form, they
will serve — in the much wider circle this Miscellany
addresses, and aims at reaching — that practically use-
ful and suggestive purpose the author, in their pre-
paration, had in view, and which he has here en-
deavoured more fully and completely to realize. In
succeeding Parts of this important department of
Farming Literature — the Culture of its Crops — the
subjects of Oats, Barley, Beans, Pease, Turnips, Man-
gold Wurzel, Cabbage, Artificial and Natural Grasses,
Clover, &c., &c., will be consecutively taken up, and
fully discussed and illustrated.

THE

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

DIVISION I.

THE CEEEALS OR GRAIN CROPS.
PART I.— WHEAT.

CHAPTER FIRST.

INTRODUCTORY. ORIGIN OF WHEAT.

1. OF all the grain crops of the farm, wheat is the most
important, as being that chiefly on which man is dependent
as a food. In tracing the history of this invaluable plant,
we find that its origin is lost in the remotest antiquity.
In Holy Writ, and in the writings of classical authors,
we meet with abundant evidence of its wide-spread utility
as a food for man. Believing it to have been created spe-
cially for him, and starting into existence as complete in
itself as the acorn which grows upon the oak, it serves
little practical purpose to devote time to proving, or at-
tempting to prove, that the wheat plant has been developed
from an inferior grass.

This development theory is no new thing. -The Greeks,
centuries ago, endeavouring to trace the origin of the wheat
plant, believed that they could trace its origin to the wheat-
like grasses which then, as now, were met with on the
shores of the Mediterranean, and which are known as the

A

2 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

" ^Egilops ; " and it is somewhat singular that, in recent
times, the speculations as to the origin of wheat take pre-
cisely this direction of those of ancient times. Of modern
savans who have paid attention to this department of agri-
cultural science, M. Esprit Fabre, of Agde, in France, has
devoted considerable time to its investigation. Of the
grasses known as the ^Egilops, to which, like the ancients,
M. Fabre traces the origin of the wheat plant, there are
three species, the ^Egilops triundalis, ^Egilops Ovata, and
^E. triarestata. To these three a fourth is sometimes added,
and which is called ^E. triticoides, from its possessing some
of the triticoid characteristics of wheat. We say this i?
sometimes added to the list of species of ^Egilop grasses.
but as M. Fabre believes that he has shown that this fourth
is derived from the ^Egilops ovata, the classes may be
taken as three in number only. But although M. Fabre
believes that the result of his experiments with plants of
the species ^Egilops ovata was a plant to which the name
of -^Eg. triticoides was given, and from the seeds of which
he ultimately, by sowing them in succession for twelve
generations, obtained a " true wheat plant ; " other author-
ities take exception to this decision, and maintain that
the plant ^Egilops triticoides was not a distinct species, or
a new plant, but that it was merely a hybrid plant, which
possibly resulted by a union between a plant of the com-
mon wheat, and a grass of the species /Egilops. This in-
genious idea was first broached by M. Godron, and was
followed up by a series of most elaborate investigations
which ultimately established the fact that the ^Igilops triti-
coides was a hybrid, and that it was easy to understand
how its cultivation resulted in bringing it to a true wheat ;
for, as M. Godron says, hybrids, " when fertile, tend to
return, after a certain number of generations, to one of the
two types which has given them birth." Space prevents
us from going farther into this question of the origin of the
wheat plant — we can only refer the reader desirous to pur-
sue the matter, to the Journal of Agriculture (No. 82, p. 139),
where a resurn6 of the points involved will be met with,

ORIGIN OF WHEAT. 3

merely pointing out here, that as yet no evidence, in any way
to be relied upon, has been presented in favour of the view-
that the wheat plant has been developed from a grass.
The difficulties in the way of the development theory are
great indeed, — so great, that it takes a much more credulous
spirit to enable us to accept conjectures of so vague a kind
as true, than to believe that as for wise purposes, God created
man, so he created at once the wheat which was to form
then, as it does now, so important a part of his daily food.
Not to name here the scientific difficulties surrounding the
development theory, the common sense ones are sufficiently
startling to give us pause before we accept it as correct.
Thus, to glance at one only of the many considerations, —
who amongst the early races of mankind saw with prophetic
glance the food-bearing wheat in the lowly grass which he
trod upon, and which waved in the wind but as a worth-
less weed to others, and by whose incessant care was its cul-
tivation carried out, till at last this care was rewarded by
seeing the grass converted into grain 1 If it took a modern
savan so much long and patient painstaking care to bring
about a result which, after all, to put it in the mildest way,
was very doubtful, is it possible to conceive that, in the
remote periods of man's history, some one, nay many, were
found to exercise a like care 1 It is difficult to conceive of
this j much less difficult surely is it to believe, if we can
accept of the fact that as the acorn has been produced from
the oak from the earliest stages of created things, so in
like manner has the wheat plant borne upon its stem
the life-supporting grain. Practice in farming will be
none the less wisely followed out if the farmer, in place
of endeavouring to prove that it is by the exercise of
man's wisdom and his guiding care that we owe the wheat,
he believes in patient faith, and trust that it " is one of
those natural blessings " which a good and kind Provi-
dence bestowed upon him.

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

CHAPTER SECOND.

BOTANICAL PECULIARITIES, AND VARIETIES OP WHEAT

SEED STEEPING.

2. Wheat belongs to the order of plants monocotyledonous
— that is, having one seed-lobe, and having endogenous
stems — that is, stems which are increased from within, and
are hollow and nearly parallel, or of equal diameter through-
out, not increased by layers or rings (exogenous). The
leaves are long and tapering, and have parallel veins not
reticulated like the leaves of exogenous plants. This class
of plants is termed Glumoles, from the glumes which take
the place of the calyx or outer envelope of ordinary flowers.
The order in this class of plants to which wheat belongs is
called Graminacece, and the genus Triticum ; so called
because the seed is to be ground or triturated (from, tritum)
before being fit for use as food. The species of the family
of triticoid plants are exceedingly numerous, and various
writers have adopted various classifications. M. Yilmorin
classifies them under seven heads, and the arrangement is
adopted in Professor Wilson's excellent work, " Our Farm
Crops." The principal classes are T. sativum and T. tur-
gidum. (1.) Triticum sativum, or common wheat, this
being divided into two classes, the " bearded " and the
" smooth," the bearded having twenty-seven, and the
smooth seven varieties ; to one of these belong our common
winter and spring wheat, these again being distinguished
by one colour, as red and white. Of the white varieties,
the following are named by Professor Wilson — Brodies,
Chiddham, Dwarf Cluster, Essex, Fenton, Hopetoun, Hun-
ter's, Pearl, Spring, Talavera, Uxbridge, Velvet-eared or
Rough-chaffed. Of the red varieties — Barwell, Browick,
Bristol, Glover's, Heckling's Prolific, Keningland, Lammas,
Piper's Thickset, Spalding's, Yelvet or Woolly-eared,
Bearded. The second class of cultivated wheat is Triticum
turgidum; this class is, however, not in general cultivation,

THE KIND AND QUALITY OF THE SEED. 5

being confined to districts where soil is cold and stony.
The yield of this class of wheats is generally high in quan-
tity, but in quality is low and coarse ; but the straw not
being, as in the other class of wheat, perfectly hollow, but,
partially filled up with a pith-like spongy substance, is
strong, and capable of standing well under adverse circum-
stances, and is useful for thatching purposes. The varieties
of turgid wheats named by Professor Wilson are Eivet
common, Eivet bone, Egyptian or Mummy wheat.

3. Winter and Spring Wheat. — The class of Triticum
sativum has been in agricultural nomenclature, and is still
by some divided into two — summer or spring wheat, Triti-
cum sativum; and winter wheat, Triticum hibernum. This
distinction is, however, now discarded, as it is admitted
that by change of circumstances their characteristics may
be changed also, so that by repeatedly sowing winter wheat
in the spring, we can alter its ripening capacities so as to
make it spring wheat, and vice versa. " Spring and autumn
wheat," says Professor Buckman, " are not specifically dis-
tinct ; both the one and the other may be sown in any
month of the year, a subject upon which I have experi-
mented again and again, and thus given a spring wheat
the habit of a winter one, and the reverse."

4. The kind or variety and the quality of the Seed. —
The whole subject is one invested with the deepest interest
to the agriculturist desirous to obtain the maximum of pro-
duce with the minimum of outlay. In an exceedingly
interesting and able paper by Mr. W. Wallace Fyfe, in a re-
cent number of the Journal of the Bath and West of Eng-
land Society, on " Farm Seeds and Seeding," there are some
very suggestive remarks on this very point, of which we
give here a very brief resume, referring the reader to the
article itself for fuller details. After referring to the un-
fortunately too general ignorance on the subject prevailing
amongst farmers, Mr. Fyfe draws attention to the evidence
which so many fields of wheat show as to the carelessness
with which the seeds have been selected, bringing about
a general discrepancy of result ; and in place of having the

6 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

produce of one particular kind — a condition, as Mr. Fjfe
remarks, " essential to good cropping, and uniform ripening
and growth " — the seeds are chosen, or rather, to speak
correctly, taken indiscriminately without choice, so inter-
mixed in variety, that the " stalks of some overtop the
others, and many of the grains drop dead-ripe out of the
ears before the rest are ready for cutting down." The
farmer, he justly remarks, cannot control the seasons, but
by choosing his seed- wheat with care he may modify them
to a very considerable extent in his favour. With the
deeper cultivation of our soils, secured by improved and
powerful mechanism, it is probable that if better results
are not attained in a degree easily marked by common ob-
servation, still we may predicate with safety, that a condi-
tion of matters will be brought about more favourable than
hitherto to the cultivation of the finer and more productive
grains. Seeing that this will be one of the good results of
an improved system of culture, the importance, as Mr.
Fyfe remarks, of being able to discriminate between one
kind of grain and another, is obvious enough. Taking
the number of wheats cultivated generally at the present
time at fifty, " nevertheless minute marks appertaining to
particular grains," must be registered and borne in mind
by experts in examining them. " The mere size, shape, or
colour afford no distinctive tests. One grain, however, has
a central ridge which is characteristic, another is pointed
to both ends, a third to the right, and a fourth to the
wrong or life-bud extremity only ; a fifth variety is marked
by the prominency of these life-buds, a sixth possesses
near the pointed end a peculiar wrinkle, whilst a seventh
and an eighth may be known by having this wrinkle more
or less pronounced. These peculiarly distinctive marks
are nevertheless only to be taken as such in the several
classes of wheat to which they are specially appropriate,
since accident or sport in vegetating may render them in-
terchangeable in others also." Although the distinctive
marks characterising different varieties of wheat are thus
liable to change, still on the whole, " means exist of suffi-

DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SEED-WHEATS. 7

ciently describing every variety of grains in cultivation,"
to attain which most desirable end Mr. Fyfe suggests the
use of the microscope, while prudently pointing out that
" trial and experience will alone determine their suitable-
ness for any given soil, climate, or situation, for any estab-
lished system of cultivation, or any new and experimental
method of growth ; " he says, and says truly, that " in the
first instance it is surely of some moment to know what
the seeds really are, and to make a study of their charac-
teristics."

5. As regards the different varieties of Seed-ivheats little
need here be given further than to glance at the names
and leading peculiarities of those generally cultivated in
this country, following here the classification and selection
adopted in the paper from which we have quoted. Of the
white wheats thirty varieties are named. These are Archer's
prolific and Australian wheat — this last has created some
attention amongst growers of late, in the hope that, main-
taining its characteristics of early growth, " the period of
our harvest might be altogether accelerated." This in some
trials of it has been realised, Mr. Fyfe mentioning an in-
stance where it ripened a month before the usual time ; in
other trials the hope has, however, not been realised. In
some, indeed, of which we ourselves have been cognisant,
the per-centage of ruined or non-germinated seeds was
alarmingly large ; and it does not follow that because a
wheat may possess characteristics favourable to early
growth and prolific powers in one climate, it will show
these in another. The cultivation of Australian wheat has
been undertaken largely by the Continental Agricultural
Societies, specially that of the Belgium Central Society.
Seed has been widely distributed, and every means taken
to arrive at a just estimate of its value. The following
paper, from the pen of M. Vogelhanger in one of the foreign
Journals, will be of service here.

" The diversity of opinions given on the subject of
wheat from Australia, and the request which you made me
with regard to my personal information, require me to give

8 CULTURE OF FAEM CROPS.

you, upon this kind of corn, some short notices, resuming
my observations of ten years ago, when I cultivated this
cereal. I will state first, that under this denomination
there are several kinds of grain in commerce which differ
much in their quality, in the quantity of their produce as
to the place where they come from, and especially as to
the degree of their acclimatization. I commenced by cul-
tivating the wheat from Australia, as procured to me by
Mr. Vauden Bosch, a learned agriculturist, in the island of
South Beveland. This corn gave me at first a fine and good
produce, but I abandoned it soon, because its crop dim-
inished yearly, and it degenerated, so to say. Then comes
in turn the wheat that our Society, I believe, had ordered
to come direct from Australia intermediately by the ship-
owner Duclos, at Ostend. The latter had the goodness to
send me, in October 1857, two hectolitres, which I sowed
as soon as possible in a good piece of ground, very fertile.
This corn gave me, in 1858, a produce of 60-J hectolitres
the hectare, a wonderful produce in the countries here, ex-
citing the incredulity of several of my compeers, but never-
theless true and authenticate, of which I have given a de-
scription in the Landbow Gourant, No. 51, of the year
1858. The wheat had very short ears, from 5 to 7 cen-
timetres, with husks of a dark brown colour, so that the
grains were almost white, very heavy (83 kilogrammes by
hectolitres), with a very fine film, and giving a flour which
makes the finest bread. The grains are very much ser-
rated, and are joined one to another, which was the cause
of the great crop ; the straw, shorter than that of other
kinds of wheat, gives the advantage of never being laid.
Since 1858, when I cultivated this kind with advantage,
and in competition with the Talavera, an English, red-
strawed wheat, and the " ruwarige " of Gueldre, and al-
though I have reasons for always being pleased with it,
I must admit that its produce has diminished much, vary-
ing from 40 to 30 hectolitres by hectare. I endeavour
myself to prevent or to diminish the degeneration by
sowing each year, upon a piece of ground apart, the grains

DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SEED-WHEATS. 9

having the finest ears ; these I made to be put in sheaves
(at least with scissors) until I had a hectolitre of grains, a
very useful and easy operation, since the colour and form
of this kind of wheat makes it different from all others.
Mr. Van Alsteyn, member of council for our Society, praises
his Australian wheat as much, — seed got also by the in-
tervention of the Society, and for which he has been first
at Brussels. The grain seems really to have precious
qualities, but differs much from mine, as much in ears as
in grain and straw. Perhaps it comes from another part
of Australia ; some one told me that mine came from the
neighbourhood of Sydney. Although it has been so, up
to this year I have always sowed my ground with this kind
of wheat, but I have never observed wastes occur by cold
before snow and winter were over. Sown by means of
the corn-drill of Hornsby, in October of the last year, at
22 centimetres apart, it grew very well, passed the first
part of the winter and the frost at the season without
hindrance, so that, after the frost, I did not perceive
any waste. But some days following it was cold again
(without snow), which was the cause of the greatest dis-
aster. The greater part of the plants gave way in March,
as they were very incapable of resisting longer. Con-
fident in the vegetative faculties which this kind possesses
to the greatest degree, some cultivators allowed the crop
to take its chance ; others decided to destroy the remain-
ing part, or to replace it by barley in spring, or, later,
by oats or pease. It happened thus that the greatest
part of sown ground with Australian wheat was ploughed
and rendered capable of producing other grains. As for
myself, I resolved to sacrifice everything, but having alone a
third of my land I put in pease, recalling the experiments
that I had made last year with different kinds of wheat, bar-
ley, rye, &c., and particularly with the wheat from Halett,
planted grain by grain in the ground, according to the pre-
scription indicated, experiments of which I have given a
description in the Landbow Courant, or Vylad of this
year ; the fields sown with Australian wheat, although the

10 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

plants have been frozen certainly nine-tenths, present a
most luxurious aspect ; the strongest stems push to the
number of from 20 to 30 each plant ; the large leaves, of
a dark green colour, and showing in appearance great
strength, hinder one from seeing the interstices of the rows,
and promise a produce which, although not being so abun-
dant as is usual, will be, however, very remunerative for the
expense and care which the cultivation of this wheat re-
quires."

6. Eesuming our list of white wheats, we note first the
improved Berkshire, possessing some of the characteristics of
Archer's prolific, already noticed. Brittany or Breedar.
Brodie's, much esteemed in the Lowlands of Scotland for
the beauty of its sample and the earliness of its ripening.
Brown-strawed Scotch Cheedh am orChedharn, also known as
Pearl white. Chevalier ; under this name several varieties
are included — the ten-rowed variety yields a heavy pro-
duce, the grain being thin-skinned, straw of medium length.
Cluster wheat, first introduced under the name of Dudney;
there are two varieties, the 'dwarf and ' tall.' Dantzig
wheats are referred to by Mr. Fyfe as having been found
' to be not at all adapted to our climate ; ' and, further,
the experience obtained by growing them here is corrobo-
rative of the opinion held by 'almost all our advanced
practical men,' that the practice is not a good one which
proceeds upon the assumption or theory that the develop-
ment of the grain is favoured by a change of seed from ' a
later to a more forward climate.' In introducing these
wheats, brown, red, and white, the hope was entertained
that the ' habit of late maturity ' acquired by them in cold
countries would be found capable of change by their trans-
ference to our climate. ' Duck's-bill yellow ' wheat was
introduced into Jersey by Colonel Le Coteur from Kiel, on
the Baltic; the young plants are very hardy, the ears
' singularly compact,' the grain plump, and of a light yel-
low colour, yet easily shaken out, and yielding an inferior
flour. ' Essex white ' is held in high estimation by millers
from the fine quality of flour it yields ; the straw is about

DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SEED WHEATS. 11

4 feet 6 inches in length, not apt to lodge, and yielding
fine handsome ears, with a transparent thin-skinned grain.
' Eltham,' known also as ' Whitworth,' in the county of
Durham and the northern wheat districts of England,
where it is in great repute for spring sowing, arid for its
early ripening. * Eclipse,' although a favourite in the south
of England, was not successfully introduced into Scotland,
alteration in the quality of the sample being the result of
the change from a superior to an inferior climate. ' Een-
ton's,' ' Hunter's,' ' Hopetoun,' and ' Mungoswells,' are all
allied Scotch wheats, enjoying a high reputation in certain
districts. Of the straw of these, Eenton's is the shortest,
being 4 feet 1 inch ; Hunter's 4 feet 5 inches ; Mun-
goswells 4 feet 5 inches ; and Hopetoun, the longest, 4 feet
7 inches. Of these, Mungoswells is chiefly used in East
Lothian, the place of its introduction, the introducer being
the well-known authority in cereals, Mr. Patrick Sheriff.
' Essex rough chaff,' although much grown, is ' subject to
blight in unfavourable summers.' It is esteemed by the
London millers from yielding ' a find white flour with
little bran.' ' Grace's ' wheat, in its general character-
istics, resembles Hunter's wheat ; much grown in certain
districts of England ; it is ' considered too delicate for the
climate of Scotland.' ' Kent white ' is both hardy and
prolific ; it is extensively grown in England. ' The Eed-
chaffed wheat ' is in high favour with- many farmers, the
quality being fine, giving a weight of from 62 to 64 Ibs.
per bushel. ' Red-strawed white ' is suitable for both win-
ter and spring sowing, an early ripener, and gives an aver-
age yield of from 63 to 68 Ibs. per bushel. ' Talavera,'
the prime favourite, says Mr. Eyfe, ' for quality in the
wheat crop;' it can be sown at a later period of the season
than any of the common wheats. ' Taunton Dean,' a
favourite in Suffolk, where it ' yields heavy crops of a mel-
low sulphur-coloured elongated grain, tapering towards both
ends, inserted in long and compact ears, with straw of
moderate height and stiffness.' Another wheat greatly
cultivated in the south of England, with a variety of names,

12 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

is ' Trump, or Trumpeter's wheat.' Under the name ot
' Hardcastle,' a stiff-strawed variety, it is grown extensively,
and considered the ' best and most fruitful of the whites.'
The grain is thin-skinned, and averages from 63 to 66 Ibs.
per bushel. ' Uxbridge ' yields wheat the great favourite
of the London millers; 'it is everywhere prolific, and its
grain, though somewhat small and short, is plump and
white, forming an elegant sample. Uxbridge is well
worthy the attention of the cultivators of fine wheat.'
' Whittington,' Wellington, or Eleys wheat was introduced
from Switzerland by Mr. Whittington of Eipley, who re--
commended it for ' thin and inferior soils ; ' it is not
adapted for rich and heavy soils, the straw being in the; e
apt to lodge on it ; is long and soft. It is in some dis-
tricts considered valuable for spring sowing, as it ripens
early.

6. Of the red ivheats, Mr. Fyfe names twenty varieties :
' blood red ' is the variety commonly cultivated in the
west of England, although ' it is by no means a model pro-
duct of the red-wheat.' ' Erowicks ' has the reputation
of being the best ; it is highly thought of by millers, who
habitually use it for mixing with white wheat flour. The
' bearded or April red,' see fig. 3, enjoys a good reputation
as a profitable crop ; indeed, bearded wheats are gradually
rising in estimation, and they seem especially adapted to
fickle and stormy climates. The ' beard ' has many use-
ful qualities ; it prevents the grain from being knocked up
in windy weather, acting like a spring or a ' buffer ' when
the ears are forcibly driven in contact by the wind ; the
elasticity of the beard is also useful in preventing the ears
lying too closely together when in the sheaf, so that a free
circulation of the air between them is maintained. Of the
red wheats, ' nursery ' is held in high estimation by mill-
ers, ' who value this wheat alone equally with our best
white, since its seeds, which are small, long, and slender,
with a bright shining skin, yield flour of the best quality.
It is distinguished by having an ear with white chaff and
straw of the medium length, and its popularity is no mar-

DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SEED WHEATS. 13

I

14

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

4. Norfolk Wheat. 3. Baai-ded Wheat. a. California Wheat.

CHANGE OF SEED WHEAT. 15

vel when the mere weight and bulk of its produce is taken
into account ; the ordinary yield of nursery wheat weighs
66^- Ibs. per bushel, and counts twelve sacks per acre.'
The ' red lammas ' is the most esteemed of the red wheats
in Scotland. The c kessingland,' a prolific red wheat, is
thought by Mr. Fyfe to be the progenitor of the ' giant
pedigree ' and ' nursery prodigy of the day.' For notices
of the ' characteristics of other red wheats, as Spalding's
prolific, Piper's thickset, Kent red, Hallett's pedigree nur-
sery (see fig. 1), golden drop, giant, Essex, or golden red,
Dunstable cluster red, conservative, Biddle's imperial, and
Britannia, we refer the reader to Mr. Eyfe's paper. In fig.
1 we give a drawing of Hallett's Pedigree Wheat, of which
more hereafter ; in fig. 2 a drawing of Californian Wheat ;
in fig. 3 a drawing of Bearded or April ; and in fig. 4 of
[Norfolk Wheat.

7. The subject of the ' change of seed wheat ' has been
much discussed of late ; this, like other ' vexed questions '
of agriculture, is marked by the contrariety of opinions
brought forward by those who ought to be authorities.
Generally, however, a ' change of seed ' is considered a de-
sirable point to be attended to ; so much, indeed, is this
view held by some, that they change their seed every year.
The subject, says a writer in the ' Mark Lane Express,' is
one which deserves ' full discussion.' He says : —

" The points I wish more particularly to have cleared
up are — 1st, the nature of the change, i. e., the kind of
wheat ; 2d, the best change, and the best kinds of wheat
for different soils ; 3d, the best change of climate, i. e., from
a warm to a cold district, vice versa; 4th, the best change
from different soils, i. e., from clay to chalk, or peat to loam
or sandy, or to gravelly soils, or vice versa in each case
respectively, or whatever changes may have been found
desirable from soil to soil in any case.

" A friend of the writer occupies a farm in Bedfordshire,
and another in Lincolnshire marshes. His custom relative
to his seed-corn is to change it from one farm to the other
annually ; and he assures me he does it with great benefit

16 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

in both cases, one of the proofs being, and that under re-
peated trials, and upon both farms, he finds that in com-
petition with other kinds of seed- wheat the importations
in both cases ripened earlier by about ten days than those
varieties grown for comparison. The Bedfordshire farm is
a retentive clay, the marsh farm a thin loam, upon a silty
or sea-sand subsoil. This is a fact worth knowing, and I
trust my readers will give us many such, and also many
other useful facts tending to elucidate this subject.

" At the risk of being thought presumptuous I will offer
my advice. Every farmer should regulate his course in
these matters according to his best judgment and experi-
ence. The varieties of wheat are very numerous ; he best
knows what sorts have proved well under his culture;
these he should adhere to rather tenaciously, but with
occasional deviations, or by introductions of new sorts, if
well recommended. He should always change his seed ;
but he must be very careful that the seed is clean, and
from a favourable district or climate ; this he soon ascer-
tains, either by his own experience, or on the information
of others. The great thing is, that he takes care to do it.
Depend upon it, that if this change be judiciously effected,
it will amply repay the little additional cost. My opinion
inclines most to a change from either a chalky, gravelly, or
peaty soil, to a good loam, or a clayey loam, or heavy clay,
and vice versa; also a change from a warm or a dry climate
or soil, to a cold or a wet climate or soil; and I should
demur as to taking seed-corn from a cold or wet climate at
all. I should also recommend sowing the best and heaviest
grain, and not to drill in more than from six to nine pecks
per acre, always taking into consideration the fertility of
the soil and the order of seeding."

8. In connection with the raining of seed for the direct
purposes of the farm, it is worth noticing here the ad-
vantages which would accrue from the habit of a close
observation of each field of wheat when near its period
of ripening, with a view to select and save those ears
which, from their size or the beauty of their sample,

SELECTION OF SEED-WHEAT. 17

afford a marked contrast to the general average of ear in
the same field. We have never yet walked carefully along
the side of a field of wheat — and it is generally towards the
outer lines, where the grain is exposed to light and air,
that attention should first be paid — but we have seen ears
which in value far surpassed others by which they were
surrounded. There can be no doubt that if this careful
supervision of our wheat-fields were given each season, not
only would the best samples of any given or recognised
variety, but samples of new varieties would be obtained.
The marking of these would be a work doubtless of some
trouble, and so also would be their gathering and the plac-
ing of them in proper packets or bags ; but in one sense it
may be said that business is a trouble, and yet no man
thinks of neglecting his business because it is so. In
gathering the selected ears a careful description of their
peculiarities should be drawn out and kept for after-refer-
ence, along with one or more of the ears. The ears selected
for the purpose of raising produce in the following season,
should be carefully cleaned and laid aside till the period of
sowing. A plot of land should then be selected and laid
out in subdivisions, and one or more of these allotted to
the sowing of one particular variety. It will add much
io the, value of the experiments, and greatly, we may here
remark, to the pleasure of the experimenter, if he will keep
an accurate record of the " behaviour," as engineers say, of
the produce of each plot — the dates of sowing, of brairding,
blooming, and ripening. While writing these remarks on
a subject in which we are specially interested, and in the
carrying out of experiments in connection with which we
have derived much pleasure, we have come across a few
remarks in a contemporary journal bearing so closely upon
the subject, that we shall do our readers good service in
making them here. The article is one on the propagation
of hardy and prolific varieties of our cereals ; and in point-
ing out how this may best be done, the writer has the
following : — " But there are limits to the beneficial in-
fluences of such improvements j and the ascertained produce

18 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

of the present year's crop will, in most cases, force more
strongly upon the attention of authorities that it is very
important to select varieties which are comparatively highly
productive even in adverse seasons. Some misapprehension
exists as to the influence of improvements. A dry soil is
necessarily of a higher temperature than one which is wet,
and consequently is better adapted for the growth of the
more tender kinds of the cultivated plants, more particu-
larly of wheat. Still the temperature of the atmosphere
and the amount of sunshine are very important conditions
for the healthy growth of all the corn crops ; and too much
stress should not be put upon the counteracting influences of
drainage, deep stirring, and high cultivation, in adapting
land for the cultivation of the more tender kinds of cereals.
The grower of corn requires to study to obtain a superiority
of produce so as to acquire a high average return during
the period of occupancy; and as inclement seasons occur
at longer or shorter intervals, it is the more necessary to
grow hardy and productive varieties, as well as to render
the soil suitable for the healthy growth of those kinds
selected. The combining of these conditions will usually
secure success." "We shall hereafter point out how the
experiments connected with the raising of good samples
or of new varieties should be carried out; but we have
here to add to our notes one from the article above allud-
ed to, having reference to the produce of the experimen-
tal plots. It should be carefully seen that the character
of the produce agrees with the one which was originally
recorded, "as it is quite probable that a new kind has been
produced accidentally — what vegetable physiologists term
' sporting.' " It is right also here to remind the experi-
menter of what the writer of the above article has so
judiciously drawn attention to — namely, that all the ex-
periments will not be alike or at all successful ; but * if
success crowns one selection out of ten, the raiser of a new
and superior variety will generally reap some pecuniary
benefit, while his name will be recorded as the propagator
of a hardy and productive variety.' We heartily coincide

THE CHOICE AND QUALITY OF SEED. 19

with the writer of the article in his opinion that agricul-
tural societies have made a mistake in confining their
attention exclusively to the encouragement of superior
breeds of animals, and in neglecting the encouragement of
the raising of new varieties of the vegetable produce of the
farm, on the successful and productive raising of which,
the existence of the animals so much depends.

9. As regards the choice of Seed and its quality, it
certainly is remarkable how little care is in general exer-
cised. It seems indeed to be but stating a truism when
we say that the labour of cultivation is altogether lost if
we use seed which cannot be fruitful, or that which is
diseased. The axiom in farming should never be lost sight
of, ' as the seed sow the crop,' and the further axiom, that
we lose all our labour in preparing land if we commit to
it seed which will bear the minimum of produce, or what
is worse, bear none at all. Although what we have said
as to the importance of having good seed if we require
good crops is evidently founded upon correct principles, and
is indeed the creed of the enlightened portion of the agri-
cultural community, nevertheless, that a contrary opinion
is held by some will not be wondered at by those who
know how uncertain a thing agricultural practice is, and
how far removed from the position of a fixed science agri-
culture is. But it is, however, difficult to believe that one
writing to an agricultural paper should give advice to
others, based upon such a principle as this, ' if you desire
to reap a first-rate article you must sow a second-rate
article,' Evidence is then offered in support of what is
called the ' truth ' of this extraordinary opinion, but into
which we do not care to go. The writer has been taken
in hand, and, to make a bad pun, ably handled by the
well-known writer, " The Old Norfolk Farmer," of whose
reply we have only space to give the following : — " But
to be consistent," the correspondent " should carry his
principle out a I'outrance, as the French would say. Thus
in selecting his breeding cattle and sheep he must reverse
the practice of great men, and choose the most ill-shaped,

20 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

raw-boned, half-starved animals he can find. What is
sauce for a goose is sauce for a gander, and if the principle
is good in the case of wheat, it must be also in that of all
other grain and seed, and of animals as well." No more
need be said ; if this new view is right all our scientific
teaching is wrong, and nothing is left us but to begin again
and upon a new tack. That the quality of grain or seed
has a very marked influence upon the produce of the crop
there can be no doubt, for, as one of our highest authorities
says, a diseased or weak parent cannot give a sound or
strong progeny. The following remarks, from the pen of
a Continental Authority on this point, will be useful
here.

" Seeds which have not acquired their full develop-
ment, and all the qualities of the species they represent,
generally yield but weak products. There may be ex-
ceptions, but the facts which I shall cite appear very
conclusive.

" Seeds that are incomplete for want of maturity cannot
produce complete types. Do we not find similar results
in animals that are too young or too old1? A bull, a cow,
a horse, whose members are incompletely formed, cannot
impart what it does not possess. A decrepit animal, too —
can it impart what it has lost? I think not. Dogs of a
breed whose tails have been cut for many generations are
born without tails. I have had pigs in a similar condition.
Cows without horns produce similar calves.

" In gardens, we obtain plants deprived of certain organs ;
others which have them in abundance, and which end in
producing varieties. Thus eschalottes which have been
too long sown near onions, yield no longer any seed, and
become useless. For the same reason, some varieties of
potatoes have ceased flowering, because we take them up
for a long time before the period of flowering. Seed taken
from flax and hemp of great height, but not having acquired
their full maturity, yield very small products ; and if we
continue to harvest it before it is fully ripe, the plants will
go on diminishing in vigour and height to such an extent,

THE CHOICE AND QUALITY OF SEED. 21

that after some years our flax and hemp seeds will be
transformed into dwarf species.

" Colza, of the large kind, which we harvest before its
complete maturity, in order to avoid losing the seed, di-
minish in height after a few years. If afterwards we allow
these degenerated species to attain maturity, we shall restore
their size by degrees, until they reach the point from which
they had declined. We may therefore diminish or increase
in size the breeds of animals and species of plants, by em-
ploying for reproduction, individuals that have acquired all
these qualities, and are capable of transmitting them ; or
else, by taking others imperfect, and unable to impart what
they do not possess.

"Twelve or fifteen years ago, trefoil sown in one of my
fields, after presenting in autumn the finest appearance,
disappeared in the spring. The leaves shrivelled up, the
stalks did not rise, the major part of the plants dried, and
were attacked with a species of decay. I attributed this
disease at first to the state of the soils, then to the tem-
perature ; in short, to three or four other causes more or
less likely ; but the bad quality of the seed did not occur
to my mind.

" Some years later I harvested, before its full maturity,
some rye that T had sown for forage, and which, not being
able to consume it in proper time, was kept to make bands.
It was cut while yet green ; but the grain, in appearance
ripe, had probably not acquired that degree of perfection
indispensable for reproducing its species. I sowed this
rye in order to obtain forage in the spring. It came up
well, and exhibited a good vegetation at first ; then the
foliage became yellow and wasted, and the soil became so
denuded, that I found it necessary to plough it up to re-
place it with another crop. Many causes were alleged for
it, but the true one remained still unknown. Last year,
however, in a field of three hectares, which had borne a
fine crop of beetroot, I sowed in April barley and clover.
In two-thirds of the field I sowed clover-seed of middling
quality that had been taken from very vigorous plants, but

22 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

the heads had not ripened in a uniform manner. In the
other part, I sowed seed perfectly ripe, and of the best
quality.

" At the time of harvest, after having cleared the field
of cereal crops, the cloveu was fine throughout, and the field
presented a uniform aspect. As the clover was high enough
to be mown, it was cut for forage in October, and it main-
tained its fine appearance until December. Towards that
time many of the stools of the clover in that part where
we had sown the bad seed dried up ; then others ; and at
last, in the spring, there remained of them only a few tufts,
here and there ; the rest had either died out or were so
poor that we could no longer reckon upon them : they
seemed to have been pierced by insects. Those stools,
proceeding probably from the refuse seeds, still subsisted,
and yielded a middling crop, being few in number ; the
second cutting was rather better, but still it was meagre.
In that part in which the good seed was sown I retained
a good crop of forage, cut green, and the second cutting
was very fine, very thick, and seemed of a different
species.

" In view of this fact, I recollected my first pasture of
trefoil and rye, and of some sowings of wheat, which had
the same result. "When farmers come to me for seed of
my large beetroots, in order to have them of the same size
on their farms, I say to them, ' Dung well and plough deep,
and you will have them as fine with any other seed.' In
the meanwhile, I have often been assured by them that
they have sown my seed, and others less ripe, and the beet-
root proceeding from them appeared not to be of the same
species.

" I will not go so far as to say that everything depends
upon the seed ; for a good seed committed to a bad soil, or
one badly prepared, will assuredly yield a bad crop ; whilst
seed of an ordinary quality will sometimes succeed in a
good soil. But I am satisfied, from observations which I
have had the opportunity of making during an extended
practice, that the choice of seed is very important, and that

PREPARATION OF SEED FOR SOWING. 23

we cannot make too great sacrifices to obtain seeds well
harvested, and that have arrived at their full maturity."

10. Preparation of the Seed for Sowing, — "Wheat un-
fortunately is subjected to a disease arising from the attacks
of parasitic fungi, which produces what is called ' smut.' In
a future part of this series we shall go fully into the subject
of diseases of our farm crops ; meanwhile, we give a few
remarks upon the means in practical use for getting rid of
the smut in wheat, which, if allowed to remain in the seed,
greatly deteriorates the produce in quality and quantity.
When we consider the fact that when the spores of the
fungi, which produce smut, and those which produce
' bunt,' another disease which is even more dreaded than
the smut, enter the plants which they attack by means of
the spongioles of the roots, we see at once the necessity
that exists for securing clean seed ; and further, when we
know that the spore-dust which adheres to the grains is of an
oily or greasy nature, we also see that the substance which
we employ to cleanse the seed should be of an alkaline
nature. Lime and urine • are the alkaline substances used
for dressing wheat-seed for the prevention of smut and bunt,
and sometimes sulphate of copper : it is questionable, how-
ever, whether the use of the latter is advisable, inasmuch
as it is likely to have a bad effect upon the germinating
powers of the seed. The following, upon the methods em-
ployed in using lime, urine, and vitriol dressing, from the
pen of a student at the Royal Agricultural College, and
extracted from a recent publication, is so apposite' to the
point under consideration, that we make no apology for
giving it here : —

" A sack of wheat is placed on the floor in the form of
a conical heap, flattened and concave on the top ; a lump
or two of lime are then thrown into a bucket, and a gallon
or six quarts of boiling or cold water added. A rapid
ebullition ensues, during which time it should be well
stirred, to insure a perfect slacking of the lime. In this
state it is thrown into the concave top of the conical heap
of wheat, and well mixed with a shovel till all the grains

24 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

appear to have come in contact with the lime, and then
left for a few hours, when it will be dry enough for drill-
ing. This method of dressing is generally done over-night,
and left in a neat conical heap (which the superstitious old
farmer used to cross with the ' besom,' the handle of which
was thrust into the cross) till the morning. This eccentric
method was adopted with the belief that it kept the witch
from executing her evil designs. When urine is resorted
to for pickling, it should be kept in a tub for a few days
prior to using it, as fresh urine voided from healthy sub-
jects possesses an acid reaction instead of an alkaline, which
it only acquires by keeping a short time. The urea, a
nitrogenous compound in urine, takes up four equivalents of
water, and becomes converted into two equivalents of car-
bonate of ammonia — ' smelling salts ' of the chemist —
giving the whole an alkaline reaction : a condition which is
necessary to insure the removal of the smut-balls. . .

" Where urine is used, the wheat may be dipped into
it; or the former may be poured over the latter in sufficient
quantity to well moisten the whole.

" Another agent which is commonly used in pickling
wheat is sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), in the following
manner : — 4 Ib. of the vitriol should be dissolved in about
two gallons of boiling water, and when fully dissolved,
placed in a large tub — an old hogshead cut through the
middle answers the purpose very well — and add about 20
gallons of cold water. Procure a wicker basket of suitable
shape to go into the tub, large and strong enough to hold
a bushel and a half of wheat. Place the basket in the
liquid, and gently pour into it the wheat. By adopting
this precaution the light arid imperfect grains, chaff, or small
seed will float at the top, and may be skimmed off the sur-
face. Having proceeded thus far, lift the basket, and
allow it to drain over the tub; empty the same, and
proceed with the next lot. This method will be found
very convenient as well as effectual; but the most effec-
tual remedy consists in selecting a good, clean, and even
sample for seed, from a climate suitable for a change, when

POISONS USED FOR STEEPING WHEAT. 25

each kind of dressing will be found to answer the pur-
pose."

11. Arsenic and other poisonous substances are also used
for steeping wheat, and are more or less effectual. Of late
a considerable discussion has taken place with reference to
the dangerous effects of these poisonous steeps for wheat ;
the two following paragraphs comprehend nearly all that
can be said on both sides. The first is from the pen of
Mr. Hewitt Davis, a well-known agricultural authority, —
second from a correspondent of the Agricultural Journal.
" The use of poisoned seed-wheat," says Mr. Davis, " is so
general, and is attended with so much danger to human
life, and is so destructive of game, that I trust I may be
permitted to question the supposed advantages that give
rise to it. My own practice as a farmer for many years
was to use copperas, arsenic, and other mineral poisons in
preparing my wheat for seed, as a means of preventing
smut, burnt ears, and other diseases from the growth of
parasites on the corn, coming under the name of { uredo.'
I was told that these powerful mineral poisons destroyed
the sporidia of disease without injuring the sound seed.
But seeing the sad consequences in the game-field and
rookeries, and one year losing nearly all my young turkeys
from their getting into a field newly sown with wheat, I
was led to ask how it was possible that seed corn could be
benefited, and the seed of parasites be destroyed by the use
of poisons shown by the growth of the corn to be so in-
nocuous to vegetable life ; and I came to the conclusion that
the benefit from dressing of seed corn was due to the cleans-
ing that it got in the process, and not to any effect of the
poison upon the seed ; and for many years afterwards my
practice was to well wash the seed corn in sufficient water
to cover it, and allow all the lighter grains and seeds, &c.,
to float, and be skimmed off. In this way a complete
separation of the sound grains from the diseased and noxi-
ous matter that often accompany it takes place ; for the
former all sink, while the latter float, and are easily separ-
ated by well stirring and skimming. From this practice I

26 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

found all the success I ever had from using poisons ; in-
deed, I may say much more, for in this way all that was
obnoxious was more easily got rid of.

" It is idle to suppose that any mineral poison can be
destructive of uredo, which is known to have a vegetable
growth with the grain, and yet be innocuous to the seed
corn, the germ of life being the same in both.

" I believe the practice of poisoning bread corn is one
that greatly calls for repression. The practice of washing
and drying wheat after it has been prepared for seed, and
then throwing it into the bulk for market, your readers will
see is not unlikely to often occur, and who can tell what
mischief may not spring from allowing arsenic to be used
for such purposes 1 "

The following from "Sell's Weekly Messenger:" —

" The Eev. T. W. Booth, Vicar of Friskney, in the county
of Lincoln, has written a letter to the Times, which is cal-
culated to convey the impression that the custom of farmers
in using arsenic for their seed-wheat is dangerous, perhaps
malicious. The Eev. gentleman states that he has known
crows and game to have been poisoned by it, and recom-
mends swimming the seed-wheat instead. The object of
farmers in using arsenic is, of course, to prevent smuts, and
though there are numerous specifics recommended for the
same purpose, arsenic is found to be the surest preventive.
The writer of this has for 30 years used arsenic for seed-
wheat, at the rate of 1 Ib. dissolved in as much water as
will saturate three sacks, the wheat being afterwards dried
with quick lime ; and during that time there has been no
evidence of either crow or partridge having been poisoned.
And we see daily proofs of this statement ; for as soon as
the drill commences to deposit the seed- wheat in the ground
the crows at the same time commence to dig it up again if
not carefully tended (and often, in spite of this, much loss
is sustained); so that if the seed prepared with arsenic
would really poison crows, the dead birds must be seen
somewhere. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that
a stronger application of arsenic or strychnine would ren-

INJURIOUS ACTION OF LIME. 27

der wheat poisonous, but this would be for a malicious
purpose, and not in the ordinary course. Now, with regard
to swimming wheat in salt water, the great use is, that you
are enabled to skim off noxious seeds which the dressing-
machine has failed to separate ; but in this case the old
system of sowing by hand must be adopted, as it is scarcely
possible to get the seed sufficiently dry to pass the cups of
the drill; and, again, the process is slow and dangerous.
It is dangerous, because if a quantity of wheat be steeped
a day or two beforehand (which must be the case if the
drill is required), the weather may become adverse either
by excessive rain, snow, or frost, and the seed so prepared
cannot be sown, in which case it would become spoiled;
and, moreover, in wet seasons, when the land is wet and
the wheat in middling condition, the additional moisture
caused by swimming is injurious."

13. As to the injurious action of lime upon tlie germinat-
ing powers of the seed, there appears to be in the minds of
some authorities no doubt. " Unless," says a writer in a
Canadian journal, " it can be known that lime serves other
purposes than merely drying it for the advantage of handi-
ness in sowing, I have' reason to think that its use for this
purpose does harm oftener than we suppose, and that if its
application, in conjunction with the wetting or damping,
does kill all that is sickly, it may, and does under some
circumstances, injure the vitality of the best of seed. It
is a well-known fact that kiln-dried grain does not grow
well; and the practice of farmers in scrupulously steeping
and liming no more seed than they expect to need within
ten or twelve hours, and washing off the lime of any por-
tion more than they can use in one day, that they may not
lose it the next, is good evidence that lime, in a new slaked
hot state, adhering to damp grain, has a similar effect to
kiln- drying — burns and destroys its vegetation power. I
remember of having once heard it remarked by a shrewd
farmer that he suspected ' that liming of the wheat to be no
better than it was called.'

" I had always a desire to satisfy myself of the doubts

28 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

I entertained of the efficiency of the liming process. In
Canada I resolved on giving myself the benefits of my
doubts, and sowed half of a field of wheat with seed im-
mersed and dried with lime, and the other half with wheat
just as it came from the thrashing-mill; my object being,
not to test the smut question, but whether wheat thus
limed was in any degree injured in vitality by it. The re-
sult demonstrated my doubts to be correct : the steeped
limed seed brairded, or came up, much thinner — I think
about a third thinner — than the portion from the seed
which was not washed and limed, but sown as it came from
the mill. Another circumstance in the case threw addi-
tional light upon the question. I filled my hand as full
to cover the same ground as I had elsewhere, and put
equally as much seed on the steeped and limed as in the
other portion, but what surprised me most was to see it
come up so much thinner than I had ever seen the same
quantity of seed produce elsewhere, and with this considera-
tion in its favour, viz., that of fine growing weather (it
being spring) and no drawbacks that attend the growth of
winter wheat. This case satisfied me that lime does thus
destroy, in some degree, the vitality of wheat. It was a
plain experiment — sowing with and without liming — the
limed portion was too thin a crop, and the unlimed was a
thick-standing, good crop.

"I believe in the preventive in question for smut, and I
also believe liming of wet or damp wheat to be injurious
to its vegetative or producing qualities."

On the same subject a writer in the Prairie Farmer
has the following : — " We may say that we do not believe
it strictly necessary that lime, in addition to brine, should
be used to destroy this parasitic fungus — it only makes
assurance doubly sure, inasmuch as experiments have proved
that lime water alone will destroy it. If wheat is allowed
to stand in brine that will float a hen's egg, twelve hours,
we should have no fear of smut if no lime touched it ; and
we should have no fear that fresh, thoroughly slaked lime,
applied to dry it, would affect the vitality of any portion

SOILS FOR GROWING OF WHEAT. 29

of the seed that would ever germinate. It is possible to
apply lime before it is completely slaked, and in that case
it might affect the seed disastrously. Our correspondent
should remember also that limed wheat is more bulky than
that which is not limed — that the hand can hold fewer
kernels in consequence; and it seems to us quite as pro-
bable that the seed did not germinate because it was not
sown, as that any of it was destroyed by the lime. We
do not think his experiment establishes his doubts at all.
Pure water, if administered to the seed in sufficient quan-
tities, will clean it of this parasite, but salt and lime are
more efficacious, and we think quite as harmless to the
seed. Plaster or gypsum is a good substitute for lime as a
drying material. It is less offensive in its effect upon the
hands."

CHAPTER THIRD.

SOILS FOR GROWING OF WHEAT PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT

OF ROTATIONS.

1 4. As regards the nature of the soil upon which wheat
may be grown, it may be said that while almost every de-
scription of soil may produce it, those soils nevertheless are
best adapted to it which are more or less clayey. Heavy
lands are, indeed, generally classed as wheat lands. But
if the preparation of the land is properly attended to, wheat
may be grown to the greatest perfection upon almost every
soil. But while each variety of soil involves some differ-
ent mode of preparation, there are certain points which
must be attended to in all soils. These essentials are, first,
"thorough drainage;" second, "complete cleaning from
weeds;" third, "proper rotation of cropping;" fourth,
"judicious manuring;" and fifth, "an entire change of
seed from hot land to cold, and from cold land to hot."
This change of seed will always be advantageous, and espe-

30 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

cially from hot to cold soils, in which case it will frequently
bring the harvest a week earlier. Wheat is generally taken
after clover, the roots of which, becoming decomposed, yield
nutriment to the wheat plants, while they give that solidity
to the soil which the wheat plant requires for its healthy
development. It has sometimes been noted that where
the clover plant has failed the wheat plant succeeding it
has failed also. These instances do not often occur ; when
they do, they show an adaptation of the two plants to each
other, or a mutual sympathy which justifies the correctness
of the practice so generally followed of making the wheat
follow the clover. We have said above, that according to
the nature of the soil so is its management.

14. We purpose now to bring under review the various
classes of soil, and the management which their pecu-
liarities involve. And first as to clayey soils. Upon these
soils a full summer's fallow is occasionally resorted to as a
preparation for the crop, more especially when the land
has got into a foul state with couch grass, &c., &c., and to
which cleanness cannot be restored with the partial fal-
lowing which is available through the growth of green
crops. It is also to be noted that this thorough summer
fallowing has a good influence upon the soil, as it allows the
atmospheric influences to more perfectly decompose its con-
stituent parts ; so much so, that in some instances it has
been observed that more advantage has been obtained by
giving a thorough summer's fallow without manure than
by a partial fallowing with a plentiful supply of dung.
On the heavy lands of the Midland Counties, where a
summer's fallow is followed, the land, towards the end of
July or beginning of August, is thrown up into two bout
stetches — after, of course, it has been thoroughly pulverized
and cleaned from weeds — one yard wide, and manured with
8 to 10 cart-loads per acre, precisely as if for the turnip
crop. Others spread the manure over the land, and plough
it in, so as to have the stetches or furrows from 2 to 8
yards wide. In both of these cases the land should re-
main untouched till the time of sowing, although it often

PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT OF SOILS. 31

happens, where the latter mode is practised, that the weeds
come up so strong, that before sowing it is necessary to
cut them up with the horse hoe, as the harrow would be
ineffectual in removing them. Where the former method
is adopted, the plough alone is sufficient to remove the
weeds. The seed is sown under the furrow, in what is
called the " spraining system," one seedsman sowing to two
ploughs, the ploughs merely reversing the furrow formerly
dunged. The seed should not be sown when the soil is too
dry or in a dusty condition, as the young plants are in this
state of soil apt to become "root-fallen ; " and even where the
soil is of a closer texture and this is not likely to happen,
wheat does not nourish so well as when put in after rain.
Indeed, Mr. Roberts — an authority on this point — says that
land cannot be too wet for sowing wheat provided it works
kindly, and the seed can be well covered. There are, however,
some soils of sandy clay which should not be worked or
stirred while wet, as they will run together and form a hard
crust of soil, through which the young plants have a diffi-
culty to penetrate. The best period for sowing on soils of
the kind now under description is from the last week in
September to the middle of October ; the plants rarely be-
come winter-proud on soil of this description. We have
said that under draining is one of the essentials required in
all soils ; some maintain that this being attended to in
clayey soils, there is no necessity for upper water furrows.
Mr. Roberts says that he thinks this a mistake, for he finds
that upon soils of this nature the surface water does not
go off sufficiently quick without it.

15. When land of this kind now under consideration,
clayey or tenacious, has been got into a high state of cul-
ture, it is frequently made to carry a crop of turnips or
mangolds. But these crops cannot always be got off the land
in time, so that spring wheat has to be sown upon it, and
the seeding delayed till January or February. White tur-
nips grown upon the fallows, and fed off during Octo-
ber and November by sheep, form an excellent preparation
for wheat on clayey soils in high condition. In cases

32 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

where tins plan is adopted, the following is the rota-
tion : —

First Year, Fallow for turnips. I Third Year, Beans or pease.
Second Year, Wheat. | Fourth Year, Wheat.

The next round being —

Fifth Year, Fallow for Swedes. I Seventh Year, Clover.
Sixth Year, Barley. | Eighth Year, Wheat.

16. Wheat on clay soils is often sown after beans; the
dung is applied to the beans, and the crop well hoed, so
that the land is clean for the wheat — hence the advantage
of sowing the beans in drills. This plan of dunging the
land for the beans is better than dunging the land directly
for the wheat, which practice often is a cause of blight.
By having an intermediate crop of beans the blight is
likely to be prevented, and a better crop, both of beans and
wheat, secured. "Where farm-yard dung is scarce, and
cannot be applied to the beans, rape-cake, at the rate of 8
to 10 bushels per acre, may be drilled in at the sowing of
the wheat. On the heavy clay lands of Norfolk and Suf-
folk the wheat follows either clover or beans and pease,
barley being the crop immediately succeeding the fallow,
so that the rotation stands thus : —

First year, Fallow.

Second Year, Barley.

Third Year, Half clover, half beans or pease.

Fourth Year, Wheat.

1 7. The best farmers apply dung to the pulse, carefully
hoeing the crop. The wheat is drilled after the beans, al-
though by some it is dibbled after the clover. The clover
layers are manured heavily with, farm-yard dung, either on
the young plants during winter, or a short time previously
to turning over the land for wheat; the wheat comes
kindlier, and the clover plants are benefited by the plan of
dunging the clover in winter. It may certainly be ob-
jected to this system that the manure is exposed all the
winter to the atmosphere, and that much of its fertilizing
properties may be wasted ; on the other hand, it may be

PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT OF SOILS. 33

said that the clover will take what its growth specially re-
quires, leaving the other constituents to be assimilated by
the wheat. This system of grain-growing, as practised by
the best farmers of Norfolk and Suffolk — the homes, par
excellence, of the " drill husbandry " — might be followed
with advantage in other districts of England, where the
furrows or stetches are wide, and brought up to an enor-
mous height in the centre by repeated ploughings. This
absurd form and width of the furrows brings about many
disadvantages ; the grain is always of unequal quality,
being very inferior towards the furrows as compared
with that at the crown of the ridges, and, from the width
of the stetches, the horses tread upon and poach the land
very much. In Norfolk and Suffolk the stetches are flat,
or but slightly rounded, and are of such width that the
drill takes the stetch at a bout, while the horses in this, as
in all the succeeding operations of harrowing, &c., walk in-
variably in the furrows, so that all treading on the land is
avoided. Those farmers who love the high-backed furrows
should remember, or, if not knowing, should be made
aware of the fact, that the raising of grain crops on the flat in
place of upon ridges is the tendency of improved agriculture.

18. Light, Chalky, or Gravelly Soils. — On soils of this
kind the wheat crop generally follows the clover or trefoil.
Should the clover fail, a crop of early pease is substituted,
and on these being removed, cole-seed or tares or white
mustard is laid down, and eaten off by sheep in the au-
tumn. The land thus prepared succeeds well with the
wheat. To prevent the wheat plants being thrown out, or
the ravages of the wire-worm, the soil is consolidated either
by the use of the roller or by treading with folded sheep.
Light soils are greatly improved by being mixed with clay,
and the process is considered essential where a good crop
is desired. Light lands require more seed to the acre than
heavy soils, and the end of October is the best time for
sowing. In light soils 10 pecks to the acre is not an un-
usual quantity.

19. Rich, Deep, Loamy Soils. — Wheat in soils of this

c

34 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

kind is successfully cultivated after potatoes, the potatoes
being got oif the ground not later than October. In many
districts, as in East Ham, Romford, Barking, Edmonton,
and Enfield, it is no unusual thing to grow potatoes and
wheat alternately for many years. And we may note
that we have seen the practice adopted in the north, of
England with remarkable results. But where this species
of what may be truly called hard-cropping is followed,
it is necessary to manure the potatoes very liberally. The
potatoes may then yield 300 to 500 bushels per acre, and
the wheat from 30 to 40 bushels. Four pecks of seed per
acre on this quality of land will be sufficient, and care
should be taken not to sow it earlier than the end of Oc-
tober or the beginning of ISTovember, as, if it is sown earlier,
the plants are almost sure to become winter-proud. Where
a rich, strong loam contains a larger proportion of clay,
wheat and beans may be, and are, sown alternately, and
successfully too. In some cases where the beans are kept
perfectly clean by repeated hoeing, ploughing the land for
the wheat is often superseded, all that is required to be
done being to harrow the land previous to dibbling or drill-
ing the wheat.

20. Peaty Soils. — To enable soil of this character to
bear wheat, it must first be thoroughly drained, so as to
get it in some degree consolidated ; thereafter it must be
mixed with clay or inorganic matter, and well treaded,
rolled, or pressed before and after sowing. In the fens of
Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, where peaty soils are
thus improved, the improvement in the quality 01 the wheat
keeps pace with that of the land, approaching that grown
in sandy and loamy soils, while the quantity greatly ex-
ceeds that grown on light sands or gravels. A process,
which, appears adapted for the preparation of peaty soils
for wheat, is to plough the land shallow, drill, roll, and
hand-dibble the seeds in the grooves made by the roller,
finally covering the seed with a harrow. Solidity of soil
is absolutely essential in peaty soils. Dibbling the seed —
giving, as it does, a stiff straw — appears to be the best
adapted for peaty soils.

PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT OF SOILS. 35

21. Fresh broJcen-up grass land. — On this land oats are
preferred to wheat as the first crop ; but when the surplus
vegetable matter of the soil has been reduced by burning,
tillage, and the mechanical application of suitable earthy
matter, wheat can be grown of good quality. In conclud-
ing the remarks upon the various soils, let it be remembered
that in all soils prepared for wheat, it cannot be too stale
or solid, provided it be free from weeds, and the surface-
soil sufficiently pulverized to enable the seed to be easily
covered.

22. We now draw attention to an admirable Essay, by Mr.
Roberts — 'previously named — in the Journal of the Royal Ag-
ricultural Society of England, on the management of wheat ;
and first, as to the " Treatment of the Crops in Spring as to
pressing and hoeing" Pressing in the dry weather in spring
is especially useful on loose and open soils, and on soils
which require draining ; for where water saturates the surface
soil, it becomes increased in bulk during winter by its
conversion into ice, raising the soil, and tending, when a
thaw comes, to throw out the plants. When soil treads
loose in the spring, it is important to use the heavy roller.
Crosskill's Clod-crusher is also highly useful, but it can
only be used in very dry weather. Folding with sheep is
also useful. In the fens the loose soil along the drills is
consolidated by men and women trampling along them.
Where the land is foul when the seed is sown broad-cast,
the hand-hoe must be unsparingly used to keep down the
weeds. Where drilling and dibbling has been the mode
of sowing practised, the horse-hoe can be used with advan-
tage. Whether weedy or not, hoeing is practised by some,
and doubtless with advantage, as it enables the plant to
take a fresh start in the loosened soil. Hoeing should be
begun as early as the weather in the spring admits. Har-
rowing is often practised with success, more especially where
the land is crusty and the roots have struck deep in the
ground. Any mode indeed of loosening the surface-soil in
spring enables the plants to take a fresh start and to im-
prove amazingly. Harrowing light sand and gravelly soils

36 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

obliquely, or at right angles to the drills, is peculiarly ad-
vantageous, tending, as it does, to destroy the poppy and
other weeds which infest such soils. To destroy the poppy,
it has been recommended to harrow when the surface-soil
is slightly crusted with frost. If the plants are extremely
luxuriant in spring, it is beneficial to ' flag ' them, as it is
called ; that is, to cut off, by a scythe or bagging-hook, the
blades or leaves from the stalk ; this should be done early,
not later than May, as if done later, the ears, or. the part
which would form the ears, might be cut off.

23. In an able paper, by Professor Tanner, in the Jour-
nal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, on " The Mechanical
Condition of the Soils favourable for the Growth of Seed,"
there are some practically valuable remarks in connection
with the wheat crop, to which we now direct attention in
the following condensed epitome — " The heaviest clay soils
are generally prepared by bare falloiv ; when this is properly
managed, the soil becomes broken up by the winter s frost,
baked by the spring and summer's sun, and crumbled by
the descending rain and the gentle dews, and in combina-
tion with its implemental stirring and inversion, it is
finally changed from a close adhesive bricky character to
one in its pulverised condition, fitted for the wheat plant.
In some very heavy soils the bare fallow is essentially ne-
cessary for the wheat crop preparation. The degree of
fineness for the wheat crop, to which the soil is to be re-
duced in heavy clays, is a matter in which there is consid-
erable diversity of opinion ; but the general opinion seems
to be that the land should not be rolled so as to bring it
into a fine state unless the land is foul, and it is necessary
to give the seeds of any weeds which may be in the soil a
better opportunity to grow. Even in such cases, risk is
run in wet weather of having the soil pasty • so that it is
better to keep the soil in a small lumpy state than in a
dusty one. The last ploughing of heavy soils should leave
the land in ridges, and the ploughed earth should not be
broken down till sowing. It is advisable to prepare these
soils early in the season, while the earth may be easily

PEACTICAL MANAGEMENT OF SOILS. 37

thrown together in a dry state, and thus left till sowing."
Professor Tanner agrees with Mr. Roberts as to the advan-
tages of having the stetches or furrows narrow, so that they
may be covered at one bout with the harrow or the drill,
and the horses may walk in the furrows. If the land has
been prepared in good time and in good condition, and the
weather favourable, Professor Tanner would prefer to sow
the seed broad-cast, rather than run the risk of losing the
proper time and condition of soil by choosing the slower
operation of drilling. In all clay lands of a strong charac-
ter, it is of the utmost importance to avoid the poaching
and treading of the land by the horses, and to have the
seed in, as early as the climate of the locality will permit
of. For so attractive and retentive of moisture is clay of
this character, that it not only absorbs it from the air, but
when rain falls its pores are filled up, and if pressed upon
a firm adhesion of its 'particles is the result ; the feet-holes
of horses retain therefore the moisture long after the land
is generally dry ; and the contraction of the soil when dry-
ing, and its expansion while being wetted, have a most
deleterious influence upon the growth of the plant. When
the seed is got in it should be harrowed, but only suffi-
ciently to cover the seed, not to make the surface smooth,
and rolling should be certainly avoided. If a fine surface
is obtained either by over-harrowing or by rolling, the first
heavy rain which comes, forms a muddy coating which, in
dry weather, becomes a dry crust. This crust prevents the
play of the atmospheric influences upon the rootlets of the
plants, and hinders their tillering. The surface should
therefore be left in a rough state consistent with the actual
covering of the seed. These rough clods act as good shel-
ters to the young plants during the hard frosts and the
biting winds of winter and early spring, and will mellow
down into a fine tilth as genial weather approaches ; so
that when spring-rolling is carried out, a valuable help will
be given to the young plants. But while the farmer is
counselled to leave his lands rough, it is not meant thereby
that he has to leave it so rough as to be negligent or slo-

38 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

venly in appearance ; a neatly finished corn field is an
indication of general good management. So that while
the surface is left rough, labourers should be sent in to
finish neatly off all the furrows and water-gutters, which
latter should be given to all lands of this class, even
although carefully under-drained. The above remarks have
reference to the mechanical condition of heavy soils where a
' bare,' ' naked,' or ' summer fallow ' — for by all these names
is it known— is the practice. We now come to what Pro-
fessor Tanner says on the management of clay soils where
the wheat crop is preceded by a crop of autumn food or
early roots, as rape, cabbages, vetches, mangolds, or pota-
toes ; the soils where these crops are taken may be desig-
nated medium clays, being of a somewhat lighter character
than those heavy tenacious clays where the bare fallow is
the best mode of preparation. Where beans has been the
preceding crop, the land having been hoed, will not be
very foul with weeds, and may therefore be looked upon
as in pretty good condition. It may be the better for being
skimmed and having the weeds burnt ; where this cannot
be done, through the ground being too hard, the plough
may be used, preceding its operation with the fork, so as to
get out the couch grass. Where summer tillage has been
well carried out, a single ploughing is all that is necessary.
Where the autumn food, as rape, vetches, has been con-
sumed by sheep on the land, and it has in consequence of
rain falling become very hard, two ploughings may be
necessary, and if so, 1 0 to 1 4 days should elapse between
the two ploughings, so as to allow the soil to regain the
firmness necessary for the seed. It is always, however,
well where this second ploughing can be avoided, for it
does away with or tends to do away with the solidity of
seed-bed which wheat requires. It is seldom, however,
that in stiff clays there is any difficulty in getting this
solidity of seed-bed, although after vetches, the land is apt
to be puffy ; but this is corrected by feeding sheep upon it
to consume the crop as it stands.

24. Where the wheat has to be sown after an autumn

PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT OF SOILS. 39

crop of green food upon light land, it is requisite to be
very careful as to the firmness of the soil. It is generally
objectionable to sow wheat upon this plan in the southern
districts, though it is often practised in the northern dis-
tricts of England ; but there, measures are specially taken
to give firmness to the soil. The crops of autumn food
which in these districts usually precede the wheat are rape,
turnips, and rape, and common turnips, and these are
always consumed on the land by sheep. After the land
is ploughed, the presser is taken over it ; but if this does
not give the necessary firmness, sheep may be turned in to
tread it down, thus giving a consolidation which no rolling
can ever give it. Should all this fail in consolidating the
soil properly, the only way is to change the cropping, and
take the wheat after clover, which after all, in such soils,
is the best preparation for the wheat crop. But as there
is in the northern counties a strong objection to wheat after
clover, the only mode at disposal is to sow the seed while
the land is wet, which will secure the firmness required.
A clover ley, well inverted by the plough, offers a fine firm
furrow; hence its advantages for the wheat crop. The
furrow is all the better for lying for some time after inver-
sion, so that the seed may be sown upon a ' stale furrow.'
It is also advisable to use a skim coulter with the plough
to assist in burying the turf completely, otherwise the clover
is apt to spring up between the furrows, which is objec-
tionable.

25. As the land becomes lighter, on which it is proposed
to raise a wheat crop, the laiid-presser comes in to aid
most opportunely and efficiently in getting a consolidated
seed bed. Professor Tanner states that he has frequently,
with advantage, used a small drill in conjunction with the
presser for sowing clover ley, especially in wet seasons when
the soil is disposed to be rather adhesive. Such land, he
says, can often be ploughed up quite dry enough for imme-
diate sowing ; but before a sufficient breadth of it can be
prepared for a day's work of a large drill, it gets too wet to
be worked, and often has to lie therefore a considerable

40 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

time before drilling. But by the use of one of these press-
drills, the ground can be pressed, drilled, and harrowed,
close after the plough.

26. Professor Tanner draws special attention to an
important condition in wheat culture, namely, the degree of
moisture in the land. The seed he conceives should be
sown 011 clay soils as dry as possible, for moisture will be
sure to follow rain. Where the land is on the contrary
wet when sowing is performed, the particles of soil cohere
together. There is less objection to the working of light
soils in a wet condition. It is not often, the Professor re-
marks, that sowing is carried on in the south of England in
wet weather ; but yet he has seen it done, and while the
land was quite muddy; nevertheless, the crop was the best
on the wetted land j but he judiciously remarks, this which
may be safe upon one soil will often be very injurious
upon another apparently of the same character. The pro-
portion of sand or grit which soils contain is that indeed
which separates those soils which can be worked without
injury while moist, from those which cannot be so done.
In sandy or gritty soils the germination of the seed is little
delayed, even although sown when wet.

27. Climate, the Professor points out, is that which almost
alone decides the time when seed should be sown, " for
neither the character of the soil, proximity to the sea, ele-
vation, nor any other individual influence decides the prac-
tice, but that peculiar knowledge which renders local
experience alone worthy of confidence." October and
November are the usual months for sowing in the principal
wheat districts ; but the period from the middle of Septem-
ber to the end of the year must include all the sowings of the
autumn wheat. The more exposed the situation the earlier
the time, and the greater the quantity of seed to be observed
and required. In the mild districts of the west of England
the sowing may be made at the end of December without
any damage to the crop \ but in northern districts, seed
sown so late would nearly all miss, and those which would
germinate would produce wretched plants. The rule which

PKACTICAL MANAGEMENT OF SOILS. 41

regulates the quantity of the seed, Professor Tanner says,
is this — " The early sowings require less seed, whilst for the
later sowings, the quantity should be gradually increased ;
and again, as the soil and climate become more favourable
to the growth of wheat, less seed becomes necessary. The
iirst sowings will take 5 to 6 pecks per acre, whilst the
latest will range up to 8 pecks, and on poor land, up to
.is many as 1 0 pecks. The influence of soil upon the quan-
tity of seed to be sown is very marked, the richer the soil the
less the seed required ; this is accounted for by the supposi-
tion that in rich lands the plant tillers better than in poor
soils, throwing up a greater number of poor stems. In poor
land, therefore, more seed is necessary to increase the stems
and to enable the crop more thoroughly to search for food
in the soil."

28. The depth to which the seed should be sown depends
upon the closeness of the soil, and therefore changes with
different textures of soil. On loamy soils, a depth of one
inch is found to be the best, but in proportion as the soil
becomes lighter should the depth be increased till it reaches
1J and 2 inches. The mode of ploughing in seed-wheat
with a three or four-inch furrow, the Professor says, is
clearly wrong, for at such a depth, the plant will not es-
tablish its roots in the soil, and its growth upwards will be
much delayed. If any difference in the depth is to be
made in loamy soils, it should be made thus : — the early
seed should be sown the deepest, as then there is plenty of
time for the growth of the plants, and a deep growth insures
a firmer root ; but no variation in depth should exceed half
an inch. The lighter the soil the greater the depth, for
the firmer the root obtained.

29. In sowing Spring Wheat the soil need not be so
firm as for autumn wheat ; but the difference is only one
of degree. For when wheat is sown upon land not suffi-
ciently firm, the plant fails in the severe weather of winter;
the more solid the bed, therefore, the firmer the hold of the
roots in the soil ; so that frosts cannot dislodge the plants.
The great necessity then for a firm seed-bed in autumn arises

42 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

from our desire to insure stability of position of the plant
during winter. This necessity does not exist so markedly
in spring ; the preparation of the land in this season for
the wheat crop, is therefore much less troublesome and
costly than that of autumn. When the roots of the pre-
ceding green crops have been removed from or consumed
upon the land, it is ploughed once, and the seed is sown as
soon as a favourable opportunity presents itself, so as to
have the soil in good dry working order. A second plough-
ing, for the reasons already stated, is seldom given. Spring-
wheat should be sown early; none, excepting theApril-wheat,
should be sown later than February in the eastern, and
March in the western districts of England. We have thus
given a rapid resum£ of Professor Tanner's paper, so far as
it relates to the wheat crop. We now, in concluding this
chapter, do the same office for a prize paper by Mr. J. P.
Pratt, in the Journal of the Bath and West of England
Society, with a view to draw more special attention to the
writer's system of managing very heavy clay lands, usually
placed under the summer fallow system.

30. The ordinary system pursued by occupiers of poor
clay lands, in which the working of the summer fallow is
generally deferred till May, when the first ploughing is then
given, admits, as Mr. Pratt points out, " of no improvement
of the land for wheat, or indeed for any other crop ; for
naturally the same results will follow, year after year, while
if possible, its stubborn and adhesive texture is increased
during the two years' rest, during which the land is gene-
rally under grass as it is called (and truly so, for it produces
nothing), by the winter rain constantly hammering on and
hardening its surface, shutting up every aperture from the
beneficial effects of frost and sunshine, thus defeating the
very work of amelioration which nature has provided."
Mr. Pratt then details his mode of working a system of fol-
lowing from autumn through winter, on all the heavy lands
of his occupation, and of which we now offer an epitome.

31. On the best description of land, Mr. Pratt grows
mangold-wurzel and the artificial grasses, alternately, with

PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT OF SOILS. 43

wheat. The foundation of this course of cropping is laid
by ploughing and subsoiling, to a depth of fourteen inches,
the ' ley wheat erishes,' doing this as soon after harvest as
possible, and has sometimes been done as early as August.
The rough surface and weeds are exposed to the sun-
shine of September, sometimes, as above stated, of August,
which opens up fissures into which the rain of winter de-
scends, passing through and between the clods, and when
frost conies, helps the work of disintegration wonderfully.
The influence upon the clods in this way is very different
from that obtained by the usual fallow with its hard sur-
face, upon which the rain beats and the frosts act only
superficially. In February or earlier, dry weather should
be chosen to ' change sides ' with the fallow and expose the
under portion to a similar process. This helps to evapor-
ate cold winter water, and to raise the temperature of the
soil. Mr. Pratt draws attention here to another and ' ap-
parently incomprehensible, but nevertheless, perfectly sound
advantage ' obtained by the drying of the soil, for the drier
the clods are made in winter and in early spring, the bet-
ter they retain the moisture in the dry summer months.
March winds and the subsequent frosts operate again upon
these reproduced clods, produced by changing sides with
the fallow as before stated, and bring them into a fine tilth
in remarkable contrast to the hard tough shining furrow
of ' brick earth exhibited, where the ploughing and fallow-
ing have been deferred, as is usually, or often the case, till
spring.' The labour of preparation for the mangold-seed
is trifling, comparatively, and the horse-hoe finishes the
work of the summer fallow. Since Mr. Pratt has adopted
this system, he has effected a large saving, in the spring,
of horse labour, and the work of clod-crushers and rollers
is in a great measure superseded by the work of natural in-
fluences.* The few remaining clods left here and there,

* See Mr. Stephens' work, " Tester Deep Land Culture " — Black-
wood & Sons — for a most suggestive chapter on the influence of the
atmosphere in reducing clods to a fine tilth, and also for a very re-
markable prophecy or suggestion that, by the extension of deep cul-

44 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

over the field, are beneficial rather than otherwise, inasmuch
as they hinder that cementing action which wind and sun
(after rain) have upon line mould \ while they act also as
shelter-clods for the young plants, and retain moisture near
them, while they finally get themselves reduced to fine
mould for the roots to penetrate in. The same system ap-
plies to every description of heavy land, from the richest
to the poorest ; rape, however, being taken in the case of
the poorest soils in place of mangold-wurzel. Eape, Mr.
Pratt states, surpasses all other fallow crops for heavy land ;
for, in addition to its possessing deeply penetrating roots
which open up and drain the soil, it comes to such an early
maturity that ample time is allowed to have the land pre-
pared for the succeeding wheat crop. None need, he says, be
deterred from growing rape from fear as to the poverty of the
soil. Mr. Pratt has proved, by successful practice in a cold
and undrainable clay at a high elevation, and which had been
abandoned as worthless, " that when a crop has once been
grown, it is much easier to grow a second crop after, for
the soil is by these means raised a stage in fertility, the
climate is improved, and the temperature of the soil raised
by the circulation of the air through it by means of the
fibres of the rape plants ; and if further evidence be requir-
ed, 35 bushels per acre were produced, where 20 had never
been attained before."

32. The preparation for wheat after seeds, alike with
that after roots, extends, in Mr. Pratt's system, over
the whole previous year. Indeed, the whole system of
cultivating both corn and roots is so entirely bound up, and
each part of it is so dependent upon the other, that Mr.
Pratt does not know how to separate the two. In Sep-
tember, or as soon after harvest as showery weather offers,

ture, clod-crushers and the like would be superseded. "We have our-
selves, for a long time, advocated the notion that the imposing array
of implements and machines are, many of them, the mere necessities
of a bad system of culture. By bringing in a more philosophical
system, as deep culture, we shall reduce, we think, our implements
to a minimum, wry tnuch below the present standard.

PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT OF SOILS. 45

the clover erishes or ley should be well manured on the
surface with farm-yard compost, or from 3 to 4 cwt. of
guano. Care must be taken not to allow the sheep to
nibble the plants too closely, whilst they should not be
allowed to pasture later than October. When the clover
crop has to be grazed off the same land, it is especially de-
sirable, in the case of the grass seeds, to defer the grazing
till the plants are 8 to 10 inches high. The greater the
surface vegetation of the seeds the more nourishment they
draw from the atmosphere. Indeed, every effort should be
made to increase, by every possible means, the amount of
clover vegetation above the surface, and the corresponding
roots below, so that an increase of food for the coming
wheat crop may be secured.

33. The ploughing of the rape and turnip or mangold
wurzel erishes must be of a shallower description than that
on the clover ley. The ploughing should, for wheat, in all
cases be in the direction of the field's slope, for each furrow,
if well turned, acts as a drain. And where the soil is very
wet and tenacious, with a flat situation, it will be advisable
to plough it up in beds of 13 feet wide, these being gra-
dually formed by a rounded slope from the centre, or "bye,"
to the bottom furrow. After ploughing, the rape erishes
will be sufficiently prepared for the seed by a double stroke
of the harrow in the direction of the furrows, the drill after-
wards proceeding across them. The leys will probably re-
quire more harrowing, but in all cases the amount of harrow-
ing will increase or diminish with the dryness or wetness of
the season. These operations being all completed, the fur-
rows are all cleared, and free vent made for the water.
Other furrows must also be made through every hollow.
Mr. Pratt gives some notes as to the varieties of seed
wheat, the times and mode of sowing, &c., &c., but these
points we have already discussed.

46 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

CHAPTER. FOURTH.

DIFFEKENT MODES OF SOWING THE SEED THICK AND

THIN SOWING.

34. There are three methods employed in sowing the
seed — (1.) Broadcasting; (2.) Drilling; and (3.) Dibbling.
Of these three the first two are the most generally prac-
tised, the third being quite exceptional. Broadcasting has
the great advantage of being quickly done, so that in un-
certain, showery weather, where the land is already pre-
pared for the sowing, the seed may be got in while the
weather remains good, while by the slower operation of
drilling the opportunity of fine weather may be lost. The
great objections to broadcasting are the great quantity ot
seed it involves, and the encouragement given to the growth
of weeds. These are both obviated, at least to a consider-
able extent, by the drilling system, the quantity of seed
being less, while the spaces between the drills enable the
hoe — hand or horse — to be worked in spring. The
quantity of seed can also be regulated by the drill to the
greatest nicety. An objection to the drilling system has
been made, and doubtless in some districts truly obtains,
namely, that in consequence of a loose, continuous furrow
being made from one end of the drill to the other, the ravages
of the wire-worm are aided. This can be avoided, however,
by running a Crosskill roller across the line of the drills,
thus breaking up each drill into short spaces. The great
point is to stop the continuity of the path of the wire-worm
and to force it to come up to the surface at each plant
rather than move from plant to plant. " Dibbling " is
just as much in advance of drilling as drilling is in advance
of broadcasting, so far as the saving of seed is concerned
and the capability of keeping the growing plants clean and
free from weeds. Taking a review of the circumstances
attendant upon the growth of the wheat plant, there can
be no doubt that the mode of sowing which dibbling pre-
sents to us does indubitably enable this growth to be best

MODES OF SOWING THE SEED. 47

developed. We dismiss our notes of its advantages at
present by simply pointing out that, not only by it do we
enable the plant to tiller well out in the early stages, and to
give plenty of room for the later stages of its growth, and
for the light and air to play around it, but that we obtain
a stronger plant, finer straw, and richer ears. There is
one fault, however, which we have found in our own practice
to be dependent sometimes upon the dibbling, namely, the
rust which the plants are liable to. We say sometimes,
for not always is this rust an accompaniment of dibbled
grain. In some instances we have also noticed that while
the deteriorating influences of rust upon broadcast and
drilled grain upon its quality were very marked, this was
not the case in the case of rusted dibbled grain. Indeed,
there has been always something very different — on a close
inspection — between the kind of rust which infects dibbled
grain and that which we have noticed in grain sown in
the usual methods. What that difference is we are not at
present prepared to say, but it appears to us as likely that
the freer access of light and air to dibbled grain, as com-
pared with broadcasted or drilled grain, does bring about
a less virulent kind of rust. Certainly, so far as we have
noticed — and we have examined no small number of spe-
cimens— the influence of rust upon the grain of the dibbled
wheat has in no instance been so marked as in the case of
grain broadcasted or drilled.

35. The depth at which the seed is sown, and the width
between the drills, exercises a most important influence
upon the prospects of the crop. The experiments of Mr.
Hallett the reader will find explained in Chapter Sixth. We
meanwhile place before him a few opinions of authorities as
to the width or distance between the drills — the first of these
being from the pen of Mr. Lawrence of Cirencester : —

" I had observed some years ago, that practically the
question of width lay between 7 and 9 inches, and the
quantity of seed varied between 2 and 3 bushels per acre.
Desirous of arriving at some conclusion on these points for
my governance on my own farm, which comprises heavy

48 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

and light land, I have, during the last five years, sown
several half-acre plots in the same field, varying in width
from 8 to 12 inches between the rows, and with from four
to eight pecks of seed per acre. Any one who has tried
such experiments will have found, on comparing those of
one year with those of another in different fields, very per-
plexing discrepancies arising from the variety of land some-
times occurring in the same field, and other disturbing causes.
It is therefore only by repeated experiment year by year in
different fields that a reliable impression can be arrived at.
The result of the experiments on my farm has been in
favour of 12-inch intervals and six pecks of seed. The
largest produce I had in any year was from four pecks of
seed with 1 2-inch intervals. I may add, these experiments
have been made indifferently on light stonebrash and tena-
cious soils on stiff clay. During seasons in which mildew
has been prevalent, I have observed that it has to a some-
what greater extent attacked the straw of the 12 -inch than
that with 8 or 9 inch intervals — a result I should not have
anticipated a priori"

36. On this point of narrow and wide drills, the following
tabular statement of the results of experiments carried out
by Mr. Birch Wolf will be suggestive. The land was
marked out in the centre of a 50-acre field of wheat, two
plots being arranged of 5^ roods each, one plot being sown
at the rate of 6 pecks per acre, with the drills 9 inches
apart, and the other plot with 7 pecks per acre, the drills
7 inches apart : —

9-iNCH DRILLS.

Seed per Number of Produce of Total assumed Produce

acre. sheaves. 20 sheaves. per acre.

4 & £4 £-$

£3 O> Tn s-> & to ;_ 2 o>

PQPnC? O> pq PH O'pqpL,

996 112 811 536

7-iNCH DRILLS.

936 124 940 635

MODES OF SOWING THE SEED. 49

It should be stated that the 9-inch drills had the advan-
tage of being hoed. It will also be noticed that the quan-
tity of seed was not equal in both cases. Much of the
value of experiments of this sort is lost through the inad-
vertence or carelessness which prevents the simple rule being
attended to, that the trial should be equal in all respects.
Here the question to be decided was the influence of width
of the drills upon the seed sown, and yet the quantity of
this was not equal. In another trial by the Messrs.
Dixon of Withani in Essex, the quantity of seed used
in the two widths was very properly the same, at the rate
of three bushels per acre. The width of the stetches or
furrow was in both cases 10 feet, but one half of the
stetches carried 19 rows or drills, the other half 13 rows.
The whole quantity of land thus sown in equal divisions
of 19 and 13 rows or drills to the stetch of 10 feet was
3 roods 37 poles. The produce was as follows: —

Bushels. Pecks. Stones. Ibs.

19 rows, 348 sheaves, 23 If, weighing nett 106 8
13 „ 374 „ 21 Of „ „ 96 8

Our narrow rows did not stand up so well as the wide, but
yielded a shade the better sample. The soil was of a mixed
quality, and the seed was of the variety known as " the
golden drop."

37. The method of sowing generally adopted on the Con-
tinent is the broadcasting but the more advanced agricul-
turists are fast adopting the drilling, or, as they term it,
" cultivating in rows " or lines. On the relative advantages
of the two modes, we find that some of their leading men
have experimented extensively, so that in this department,
as in others connected with agriculture, we find ready to
our hands much information that is more or less practically
valuable, always, at all events, suggestive in our own prac-
tice. The following, from the pen of M. J. A. Grand-
voinnet, on the relative advantages of broadcasted (volee)
and drilled (en ligne) crops will be useful in this direc-
tion : —

" A greater amount of work is really necessary to obtain

D

50 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

good crops if the com is sown broadcast, in comparison
to the work necessary when the cereals are sown in
drills, because a small amount of cleaning work required
for each crop in turn during the proper time is more effi-
cacious and more economical than a great amount of work
done in a single year, and accumulated upon the single
area of the roots, or other fallow ground crops. When
the cultivation in rows is systematically followed in a
proper way, and in a favourable time for hoeing with the
hand and by horse-hoe, the earth is easily kept in order,
and consequently gives its produce more regularly and
more independently of the seasons than cultivating and
sowing it at random, by which the cultivator has no more
control or power as soon as he has sown the seed and
harrowed it in.

" Above all, in a soft soil which naturally is overrun in
spring by many bad herbs, the cultivation of corn in rows
ought to be beyond doubt adopted, because of the ease
which it gives during the interlineary work to destroy bad
branchy herbs, such as the wild vetch, &c., which destroy
completely, in the course of time, the crop of wheat by
taking complete possession of the ground.

" Light soils, such as sandy earth, calcareous or gravelly,
is also good for cultivation in drills. The error principally
committed by sowing corn in these soils in rows is indubita-
bly the use of too much seed, which gives a greater num-
ber of plants than can vegetate and mature well there.
In these light soils, drilling in rows ought to be adopted,
and following the systematical use, careful of horse or
hand hoeing, an operation which may be executed with
much greater effect, and more frequently upon dry soils
than on retentive clayey soils, however well drained they
may be.

" A fact too little taken into consideration by cultivators
is, — wheat when uniformly sown in drills resists dryriess,
preserves its colour much better for a. longer time, and gives
a greater produce of grain in light soils than by being
thickly sown.

MODES OF SOWING THE SEED. 51

" This error of sowing irregularly has often, without
doubt, had an unfavourable effect on the system of sowing
in rows. Because if the uniform drills are not adopted in
cultivating in rows, it is not astonishing that the results
have been more favourable to sowing at random than to
sowing in rows.

" All farmers may have observed with what tenacity the
plants in rows keep in the ground, compared to those
sown broadcast ; this tenacity arises from the seeds having
all been placed at the same depth in the soil, and accord-
ingly all the plants are equally well rooted ; whereas by
sowing broadcast, too thickly, the irregularity of harrow-
ing brings about a great inequality in the depth of soil
covering ; the weakest die, and give place to the stronger,
until a proper proportion is left for each square.

' After having weighed all arguments for and against
the sowing and the after culture and cultivation in rows,
and by keeping count also of the very imperfect manner in
which they have been very frequently done, and after hav-
ing done the same for sowing broadcast, we think the
conclusion is, that the advantage is decisively on the
side of cultivation in drills.

In 1786, Mr. Amos, a very clever cultivator of the last
century, published his experience on the two systems of
cultivation. For wheat he got the following results, the
details of the expense of cultivation omitted —

A hectare sown in drills.

Produce— 31 hectolitres, 94 litres, at 18 fr., 97^ the

hectolitre, . . . fr. 616 69

Expenses — Hire, seeds and expenses for cultivation, 161 44

Balance, fr. 255 25

A hectare sown broadcast.
Produce— 26 hectolitres, 95 litres, at 18 fr., 97^ the

hectolitre, . . . . fr. 513 94

Expenses — Hire, seeds and expenses for cultivation, 165 85

Balance, fr. 348 06
In favour of cultivation in drills, . fr. 107 19

52 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

" Thus for three-quarters of a century cultivation in
drills was, by experience, admitted to be more advantage-
ous than ordinary cultivation. This fact proves very
clearly the slowness with which agricultural improve-
ments are adopted.

" A similar experiment was repeated by Mr. Amos in
1791, and he got an equally favourable result —

A hectare of Corn in drills,

at the distance of 229.
Produce — 37 hectolitres, 72 litres, at 17 fr., 25 c.

the hectolitre, . . ; fr. 454 06

Expenses — Hire, seed and expenses for cultivation, 146 38

Balance, fr. 507 68

A hectare broadcast.
Produce — 31 hectolitres, 94 litres, at 17 fr., 25 c.

the hectolitre, fr. 560 64

Expenses — Hire, seed and expenses for cultivation, 145 61

Balance, fr. 415 03
In favour of sowing in rows, . . . fr. 92 65

" From these details it will be seen how it happens that
where two farmers occupy the same kind of soil ; if the one
cultivates in rows, he will have an advantage of more
than 100 francs for each hectare of corn that he cultivates
more than the farmer sowing his wheat broadcast, which
proves, that success in cultivation does not depend so
much on natural circumstances as on the skill with which
the ground is cultivated."

38. Dibbling, or setting, as it is sometimes called, is by
many spoken of as a new thing. It is not so ; in fact, its
practice on an extended scale was commenced so early as
1765. In old magazines, and specially in the original re-
ports of the oldest of all our agricultural societies, namely,
the Bath and West of England — which reports, by the way,
are now difficult to be had — we find abundant evidence
given of the advantages of the dibbling or setting system.
The result of the inquiries made by the secretary of the
Society, in the latter part of the last century, showed that,

MODES OF SOWING THE WHEAT. 53

both as regarded quantity and quality, the dibbled wheat
was superior to the broadcasted ; the ears of the wheat were
" indisputably larger, the grain of greater bulk, and speci-
fically heavier, while the berry of the corn was more equal
throughout, few small grains being mixed with it. The
average quantity of seed then used being three pecks per
acre, the cost of dibbling it being 6s. per acre, and the
average increase of produce, as compared with broadcasting,
being two bushels per acre. In one well-authenticated
case the increase was eight bushels per acre, and in price
Cd. a bushel better. The following description of the
method adopted in the practice of the period we have al-
ready alluded to, will be useful at the present time, when
the dibbling system is on the increase. The wheat is
generally planted upon a clover ley, and, if it be very light,
it should be ploughed a week or ten days before -the dib-
bling is commenced. In this light land a fall of rain will
not be disadvantageous, as the soil will be so far solidified
as to enable the holes to be made easily, and to be main-
tained perfectly open till the seed is dropped. Where the
land is heavy, the ploughing should be done only a day or
two before the dibbling, and in this soil it is absolutely im-
perative that the sowing should be done early in the season,
as it is impossible to dibble properly in heavy land in wet
weather, the dibble holes simply becoming a series of little
wells, in the bottom of which the water collects and rots
the grain. The land being ploughed, a man should follow
the plough with a spade, and break down or level the fur-
row where this may have been leffc uneven by the plough ;
then a roller is to be passed over the surface. The dibbling
then commences, which is carried out either by women or
by men. The dibble is made of iron, 2 feet 9 inches in
length, with a wood handle ; the lower part of the dibble
is made of a conical form, and calculated to make, when
forced into the soil up to its neck, a hole 2 inches deep.
The dibbler walks backward, and after forcing the dibble
into the soil, before drawing it out, or rather while in the
act of drawing it out, turns it partly round ; this consoli-

54 CULTUKE OF FARM CROPS.

dates the sides of the hole, and keeps it open till the seed
is deposited. The holes are made in the top of the furrow,
at distances 3 inches from each other. The seed grains,
two or three in number, are dropped in the holes by chil-
dren, who follow the dibblers, — two grains being dropped
in at the early part of the season, three at the later part.
After the grains are deposited, the land is bush-harrowed
twice or thrice, according to the lightness of the soil, and
in the same day.

39. There is no doubt that improved practice in the cul-
ture of grain points to the dibbling system, or at least to thin
sowing ; everything, therefore, that can tend to throw light
upon the subject, and its practical bearings, is of vast im-
portance. Amongst those who have paid attention to it
we may name Mr. Hardy of Maldon, Essex, who has de-
voted much time to its practical points, and who thus, in
a paper — which we deem right to reproduce here — draws
attention to what may be called good and bad practice of
wheat dibbling : —

" Dibbling wheat is good, provided it can be, and is,
performed in a proper manner ; for, by the dropping pro-
cess necessarily combined with it, the surface of the land
is consolidated, and the kneading of the subsoil by horses
is avoided, both being essential for the well-doing of the
crop. Dropping the grains, if justice is given to the plan,
is better than by any modern implements and inventions of
quickness, whether it be the common drill, invented by
' Tull for his organ pipes,' or Sigma's 'modern and admi-
rable planter,' both of which are good in the esteem of
many. But I contend that they sow the grains too many
in one place, though it may be in equal quantities, which
only gives them credit thus far. It is, however, to be re-
gretted, and necessary to be noticed, that this dropping is
generally misapplied, and done in a confused, hurried, dis-
orderly, and imperfect manner, by idle or incompetent boys
and girls, placing too many or no grains at all into one hole,
and even by the most industrious and careful women em-
ployed to do it, the quantity in each plantation is deposited

MODES OF SOWING THE WHEAT. 55

(especially in cold and windy weather) too unequally to
end in the best results, varying from nil to 20 or more
grains, whilst one, two, or three, would answer the purpose
much better were they placed there more uniformly — even
admitting the holes to be made extravagantly thick or thin,
at the will or desire of the planter. I prefer the single-
hand dibble, which an experienced workman can handle
with great dexterity and quickness, and can occasionally
plant with his left hand, in its right place, and at its pro-
per depth, more precisely the number of grains his em-
ployer wishes to have planted ; or, better still, by two care-
ful women following the dibbler with small baskets, or
measures, and a nut shell made to hold any desired num-
ber of grains. This nut shell to be dipped and filled at
every planting, and dropped into each hole by the right
hand, as if by rule ; or it may be, by dint of practice and
care, nearly as exact with the finger and thumb, and this,
too, at no more expense in the end than ordinary dibbling
or dropping in the slovenly and incomplete manner I have
described. Children, however, could do it as well, or bet-
ter, if they would, and did not the cold prevent them ; and
the only way to persuade them to do it properly is by
kindness of master and man, and, moreover, by rewards in
money to the best competitors — for their own use. As I
have so frequently endeavoured to prove rational and uni-
form seeding to be better than irrational and careless thick
seeding, from 1-^ to 2, 3, or even 4 or 5 bushels per acre,
as is sometimes practised in Scotland, for securing the best
of crops, I am particularly requested by several distin-
guished agriculturists to publish a recapitulation of my
views, what quantity I consider is best suited for planting
an acre of land, and at what distance the holes should be
dibbled to admit of from 1 to 6 or 7 grains to be deposited
in each hole at the rate of 1 bushel per statue acre. I will
here briefly subjoin my calculation for their guidance.
. . . . There are then 160 square roods, or 4,840
yards, or 43.560 feet, or 6,272,640 square inches in a
statute acre of land. There are also of small grained wheat

56 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

about 10.000 grains in a pint, or 20,000 in a quart, or
160,000 in a peck, or 640,000 in a bushel, consequently,
if it were required to be planted single grains at 1 inch
apart square, it would require only 9 bushels to plant an
acre. If the holes or plantations are required to be made
at 6 inches apart square, about the distance practised in
the ordinary way, at 1 bushel per statute acre, it will ad-
mit of just 1,045,440 holes, and 6 grains for each planta-
tion, provided the whole surface of the land were to be
covered, with no furrows between. But as furrows are in
most cases required, no seed is necessary for the?n, which
reduces the number of plantations on an acre to about
897,520, viz.: — at 1 bushel per acre, 7 grains for each
hole, at 6 inches apart square, or 4 plantations on every
foot, which, if planted with precision, will admit of all
casualties the wheat plant may be supposed to have to con-
tend with from birds, rooks, pigeons, partridges, pheasants,
rats, mice, slugs, wireworms, moles, hares, rabbits, and
other destructives, also frosts, rains, and snow, imperfect
cultivation, weeds, &c. But what of the issue when neither
of these mishaps do occur, as they often do not, when
planted well, with double this quantity of seed, or more 1
Some will reply, and I admit it with truth, that it would
ripen earlier, and prevent its tillering too much in the
spring, which causes a coarse and uneven sample. But it
then certainly would only eventuate in producing a puny
and root-fallen crop — a weak progeny of less than one good
ear's produce from each grain sown, and not able to with-
stand the ills attending it, at least in such a climate as ours,
so unapt for ripening corn in very many seasons. I my-
self contend that 1 grain only at a place (though I would
not trust to it unless I could plant it early in September)
is far preferable to more, as then that one plant can be best
ensured. But it must be planted early, in order that it
may tiller in autumn, and enable it to perform its natural
capabilities. Thus, it would require only 10§ pints to plant
an acre, — I mean, were the whole surface of the land
planted at 6 inches apart square, or 4 plants on one foot.

MODES OF SOWING THE WHEAT 57

I repeat it, though I do not set it down as a general rule
to follow, that 1 plant will produce more than the 6, 7, 8,
9, 10, 20, or more would or could, were they allowed to
be grown in any one place. I have proved it repeatedly
by experiments, and others may do the same, that one plant
at a place, or in one hole, will invariably produce more
than any other number above it, proportion ably from 1, 2,
or it may be to 50. I conclude, then, that whatever quan-
tity of seed we choose to plant for securing the best of
crops and sparing the seed, every grain ought to be planted
separately, in order that each and ail may tell, and not be
subjected to linger, fade away, fall down, or prematurely
ripen. As it proves to be correct practice to do this by
experiments repeatedly made on small plots of land, why,
I enquire, would it not answer the purpose to do it on a
broad scale ? "

40. We have yet, however, to note before leaving this
department, to advert to the mode of raising a crop of wheat
by transplanting. This method has had some attention
directed to it of late, from the circumstance that one great
difficulty attendant upon these new, or — as from what we
have detailed, of old experiments — what we may call revived
modes of raising crops of wheat, is the getting ready the
land in time to admit of the very early sowing which thin
seeding or dibbling necessitates. By planting, however,
a small space in the corner of a field or in the garden, at
an early period, say August or September, a number of
plants may be raised to be good and vigorous when the
land is ready in autumn. The following, from the " Agri-
cultural Gazette," will be interesting on this point : —

" A few years ago an experiment was tried at the model
farm at Glasnevin, near Dublin (suggested by the one re-
corded by the celebrated gardener, Miller), of transplanting
wheat in the spring, parting the roots so as to make each
plant into ten or more. The crop was as good as from a
field sown in the usual way. It may be worth considering
whether this plan might not be advantageously tried if we
are to have another wet season \ for the very weather which

58 CULTURE OF FAEM CROPS.

is utterly unfit for sowing is the best for planting, accord-
ing to the well-known proverbial maxim, ' Set wet, and
sow dry.' Some persons, not well acquainted with country
affairs, might suppose the process to be much more tedious
and more costly than it is. They will, perhaps, be sur-
prised to hear of the payment made by many nursery gar-
deners in England to the women and children employed
in transplanting small forest trees (about a finger long)
from the seed-bed. They pay 2d. a thousand; and many
women and children are glad to earn in this way from 4d.
to 6d. a-day. It is even found to answer in some parts of
England to sow wheat in the way that is called ' setting '
or ' dibbling,' dropping the grains by hand into holes made
for the purpose, as, indeed, is always done with beans. It
would not take much more time and labour to lay the little
off-sets of the wheat in a shallow furrow, and then slightly
cover them over. And, as some set-oif against the expense
of labour, is to be reckoned the saving of the seed wheat.
But, however, the alternative is not between sowing or
planting a field of wheat (the former being in such a season
as this impossible), but between the planting and the leav-
ing of the field absolutely waste for a whole season."

41. There is tl nothing new under the sun," and it holds
good of this so-called " new " system of transplanting wheat,
for perhaps the most complete record of what has been done
in transplanting of wheat is to be met with in papers pub-
lished eighty years ago in the Transactions of the Bath and
"West of England Society, a glance at the leading features of
which will here be interesting. Thus, a Mr. Bogle — the
name need not be taken as ominous by our Scottish readers —
states that he has known wheat transplanted in September,
October, November, February, March, April, and even as
late as the middle of May, all of which have answered
well. And the result of what he observed in connection
with the subject led him to believe that wheat is not ail
annual but a perennial, provided it is eaten down by sheep
or cut repeatedly by the scythe or the sickle, so as to prevent
the plants coming to ear. (For a very suggestive note on this

MODES OF SOWING THE WHEAT. 59

point see a recent article on Thin Seeding by the Old Norfolk
Farmer in " The Journal of Agriculture," Nos. 77, 78, New
Series, Blackwood.) Mr. Bogle estimated that the plants re-
quired for one hundred acres could be raised on a plot of one
acre. And we may here state that, planted at distances of 9
inches each way, 77,440 plants will be required for an acre.
A very remarkable feature connected with the mode of trans-
planting is the enormous increase we can obtain by it when
we divide the original plant, giving each part to a separate
whole, care being, of course, taken to have at least one rootlet
to each divided part transplanted. There is a well-authen-
bicated experiment carried out by a Mr. Charles Miller of
Cambridge in 1769, who obtained from one single grain
the enormous produce of 2 1,1 09 ears, the corn from which
measured three pecks and a half, and weighed forty-seven
pounds. This was obtained by the following mode : — On
ihe 2d of June, 1766, the wheat, common red — was sown,
and on the 8th of August a single plant was taken up.
This was divided into 18 parts, and each part planted
separately. These tillering well, some were taken up in
•September and again divided, and the remainder were al-
lowed to remain in the ground a little longer, till between
that time and the middle of October the whole were taken
up and divided, the result of the final division being the
obtaining of sixty-seven plants. These sixty-seven plants
were allowed to tiller all winter, and in spring, between
the middle of March and the 12th of April, the whole
were taken up and divided, till 500 plants — these plants
were the final planting — which produced in the aggregate
the enormous number of ears noted above — 21,109 ears.
Some of the roots produced one hundred ears, and many
of the ears produced measured seven inches in length, and
contained between sixty and seventy grains. Wheat is — so
far as our experiments have proved, and they, are corrobo-
rated by those of others — by no means a difficult plant to
transplant; it takes kindly to the ground, and stands even
a sharp frost well. The produce of wheat transplanted in
the autumn, say October, is greater than that transplanted

60 CULTURE OF FAEM CROPS.

in the spring, say in March ; the result of one experiment
may be represented thus, winter, 20 ; spring, 8. We have
already said that in transplanting wheat it is necessary, or
•considered necessary, that the plants should have tap-roots.
We tried a good many plants with and without tap-roots,
and so far as the readiness of the plants to take to the
ground was concerned, we could not trace any difference.
All we planted of both kinds took at once, and those hav-
ing no tap-roots were merely white at root, and did not
certainly look as if they could possibly strike, but strike
they did, and soon. We mention this fact as corrobo-
rative of the statement, that the wheat plant is a very easily
transplanted one.

42. On the subject of thin and thick sowing a vast deal
has, been written ; space does not permit us here to give
even the most rapid of resumes of this, interesting as
it undoubtedly is. A very excellent view of the arguments
which have been made from time to time on the subject
will be found in a paper in the " Journal of Agriculture,"
by the " Old Norfolk Farmer," entitled " On Thick and
Thin. Seeding." We can here only glance at the subject.
Mr. Mechi, who has for a long time been, and is still, the
advocate of thin sowing, says that thin sowing should be
early sowing on heavy land, this being the invariable re-
sult of all thin sowing trials. The land should also be
drained, subsoiled, and kept free from weeds by the hand
or horse hoe, if thin sowing is to be a success. On light
lands and bog lands the wheat plants are apt to be de-
voured by the wire-worm, to prevent which the roller
should be freely used. On reclaimed bog, a deep, rich,
vegetable soil, Mr. Mechi says it is imperative to sow
thinly three or four pecks to the acre, or the crop would
be mostly straw. Thin sowing somewhat delays the ripen-
ing of a crop, especially if sown on heavy land so late as
November or December. Anything beyond 1 bushel of
seed per acre has not had the effect of increasing the yield,
the extra seed being so much wasted. The plants from the
1 bushel of seed, Mr. Mechi found, kept their healthy green

THIN AND THICK SOWING. 61

colour throughout, never having turned yellow in spring.
This, we may remark in passing, we have found to be an
invariable attendant upon the plants of thin-sown wheat, a
healthy greenness most refreshing to look upon. But the
2-bushel plants of Mr. Mechi turned yellow, the 3-bushel
plants still yellower, and were decidedly the worst plants
in the field. Mr. Mechi, in a later communication to an
agricultural journal, has the following, the perusal of which
will be interesting : —

" It must never be forgotten that thin sowing is the
parent or first cause of large and vigorous ears to select
from ; on this point there can be no mistake, seeing that
thick sowing has an exactly reverse effect, diminishing and
crippling the growth of the ear, until, with extreme quan-
tities, there is scarcely a good kernel or good ear. There-
fore, in order to get good ears to select from, we must sow
moderately. It would be a very dangerous experiment to
sow generally so small a quantity of seed as one peck per
acre. In highly cultivated, warm, mellow soils, free from
weeds, and in good heart, where harvest is ready by the
1st of August, or earlier, such small quantities may be
sown, provided the sowing is done early ; but we must
ask ourselves how much, or rather how little, of the
land of this kingdom is in the state I have described. One
kernal in a hole, at intervals of 9 inches by 4, would,
under favourable circumstances, be ample, and produce
much more than if four times that number were sown ; but,
then, we have rooks, French partridges, birds, mice, arid
wiroworm to contend with.

" The latter may be easily got rid of by sowing or plough-
ing in rapecake, with or without salt, the latter to be com-
mended. Light-land men* would be astonished to see our
cold tenacious birdlime -like seed-beds in a wet seed-time,
even where well drained and deeply cultivated. The seed-
ing of friable manageable soils cannot be compared with
such a state of things. Besides, the time of harvesting
depends upon the quantity of seed sown, and the period at
which it is sown.

G2 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

" It is all very well to talk of sowing in September, but
in many districts this year all hands were then employed
in harvesting, and in late districts seed time will probably
be in November and December. On my own farm, ex-
perience has taught me the danger of so small a quantity
as one peck per acre, and I know of some cases this year
where one peck of Mr. Hallett's wheat on one acre has
been found to produce only three quarters of inferior
quality per acre on land which generally produces five or
six quarters. Parties who have been thus unsuccessful,
should, equally with those who are successful, communi-
cate their results for the information and guidance of their
brother-farmers.

" Absurd quantities of seed continue to be sown as a
general practice ; but I would advise my brother agricul-
turists to feel their way down to a proper minimum quan-
tity, suited to their soil and climate, by small experiments
in their fields. I see so many farms where weeds are
allowed to luxuriate and perfect their seeds almost undis-
turbed, in competition with the cereal crops, that in these
it would be the height of folly to attempt thin sowing.
There they must sow thick, to pre-occupy the ground and
smother the weeds, as they will not clean-hoe. Thin
sowing, to be successful, demands, like a thinned turnip
crop, a frequent use of the hand and horse-hoe, to which
much of the land of this kingdom is still a stranger."

43. While much has been written on the advantages of
thin sowing, thick sowing, however, has not been without its
advocates. It is well known that broad-casting is more in
general favour in Scotland, and some districts of England,
than drilling ; and it is hard to believe, as suggested by
Mr. Barclay, " that so great an advantage as the sowing of
a bushel and a half of seed per acre can have been over-
looked for so many generations. It seems more reasonable
to suppose that long practical experience has taught the
farmer the more prudent course of a liberal supply of seed."
Mr. Barclay, here quoted, in a communication to the Royal
Agricultural Society's Journal, gives the result, in a tabular

THIN AND THICK SOWING. 63

form, of some experiments on the three modes of sowing
corn, dibbling, drilling, and broadcasting, which are re-
markably in favour of broadcasting, and which, he says,
if not conclusive against the thin sowing mode, now so
much advocated, should, at all events, induce caution on
the part of farmers not to depart hastily from the prac-
tice of their forefathers. The experiments detailed in the
table here given were conducted with great care, on level
land of uniform quality, a good deep loam on chalk sub-
soil ; and the crop was preceded by clover ley, folded by
sheep. The land was ploughed 5 inches deep, as it was
not thought desirable to bring the sheep dressing below
that point. The seed was sown on the 7th of December,
and the dibbled and drilled wheat was hoed in the follow-
ing spring ; the broadcasted was harrowed in the spring.
The plants in the thin-sown plots were by far the health-
iest looking throughout the season ; but when harvest
approached, the quality of straw and grain was soon shown
to be inferior. The samples of the different lots were
valued by an experienced miller.

64

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

*

?

to ,_

to

? II r f

2. " jjf — £.

2. |f- a s

J" cT

I

Quantity
of seed per
Imp. acre.

K ~ 0 0

o

3 £ | || ||

p o'
•^ CO

System of
Sowing

f- |- ~ |-

5

practised.

2 S! £

1

^ >~ ^-< ^~<

(-=T<

s? S* H' 5* E" ?T £' g1

-~a,

Grain

.

produced.

» cc" Sj | os " ^Iccoo c^liwio "

wco«

s £ i a ir

Weight per

bushel.

CO -M Ci CT

Straw pro-

o

duced.

i^-1 HS ^3 HS

HE

--I --! -~l -~i.

-=l

» " S. *}s S- "» S- p

p -
"• p

""* 52. t,-, «• en "* ot ""

Ci ai o 5^0 a. Ci

C5 "•

£g ^b gj

i

^ "S o o

1

Value of

1 f I I

1

the grain.

5 f f f

F1

-

111

S S a 5 S

CO CO

o o w o o

o o

R ^ 1; »

p

*."i «"S ^"S **"o

s

Value of
the straw.

00* 00* COg" Clg"

o 5"

»O COO coo cr<Q

SP9

Total

j? ^=' 3 =' ^ =' ? ='

j« J3

value of

^ J5 J2 1 J2j^ ^ Jj I j*-j2

1^*2

the pro-

CO t^.03 OCOtO CO tOO O J 10 -4 CS

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duce per

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acre.

O OO » O«O O ^03 O'CJO O

1 = 0

THIN AND THICK SOWING. 65

44. Mr. Barclay seems to have been aware that the
shallow depth to which the land was ploughed must have
had an influence upon the productiveness of the thin sown
samples ; hut, even admitting this, he thinks that the large
differences between the produce obtained could have hardly
been made up had the land been ploughed deeper. It
seems to be pretty well established, that where thin sowing
is practised, deep and effectual tillage of the soil is impera-
tively necessary ; and it certainly is a strong point in favour
of the thin seeding system, that it does thus involve the
necessity of deep and careful stirring of the soil and its
weeding, for where these are attended to, bad farming can
scarcely be said to exist. Further, Mr. Barclay has overlooked
the fact that early sowing is an essential element of success
in thin sowing. Now, from our own experience alone, we
should have had no difficulty in predicating, that the thin
seeding carried out so late as the 7th of December, would
not produce either good quality or great quantity of grain or
straw. Be it noted here, that ice are not advocating thin
against thick sowing ; it is our duty chiefly to draw up the
the best information on the subject at our disposal, adding to
it, here and there, such remarks as we can give, likely to elu-
cidate any of the points opened up. Indeed, so far as the
question involved is concerned, we should be disposed to
counsel that it be kept an open one, for we feel assured, that
no one mode of practice is universally applicable to all locali-
ties, irrespective of soil and climate. In one locality, with
peculiarities of soil and climate understood, we might strongly
advocate the adoption of the thin mode of sowing ; while in
another, we would as strongly advocate the very reverse mode
of proceeding ; and yet we could give a reason why we did so,
which would abundantly clear us from the charge of incon-
sistency. A firm conviction of this great truth that agri-
culture is not a fixed science, but open to all the disturbing
influences of elements, themselves disturbed, as soil, climate,
locality, difference in manorial and regenerative agents,
would, we feel assured, keep down the persistency, or shall
we say, the dogmatism, of those who, with good reason —

E

66 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

and this may well enough be admitted — believe that
their theory or mode is well founded upon facts derived
from their own experience; nevertheless err in supposing that
that experience is applicable to all districts, no matter how
widely the difference may be between their peculiarities of
soil and climate and those of their own. We repeat a
truism when we say that the real progress of agriculture
has been much retarded by the persistency with which
some have advocated the application of a system to all
localities and soils, which has proved of value in their own.
Agriculture is specially the art in which repeated trial and
experiment is desiderated, and this trial and experiment
must be conducted by each one for himself. And as Lord
Portman remarks, " a series of experiments for many years
in the same district is required to settle the question in
such district. In one large district it is found best to sow 2
bushels of seed in drills at 9 inches apart, and that is there
the general system. In another, more or less seed is re-
quired, dependent upon climate, soil, elevation, exposure
to wind, game in more or less abundance, birds, insects,
&c. No one rule is good for every district." On the same
point, Mr. Miles says, " I feel convinced that very many
circumstances, to be determined alone by the tenants of the
respective farms, must decide the quantity of seed to be
sown on the respective localities." Again, Mr. Loft re-
marks : — " I do not believe that any specified quantity of
seed can be laid down as the proper quantity for all de-
scription of soil and climate ; practice and experience must
alone be the guide ; for although I am willing to admit
that wheat tillers well on this soil (Lincolnshire marshes,
a loamy clay, or a strong tenacious clay sub-soil), I find,
from repeated trials, that it is not safe to sow much less
than 8 pecks to the acre, on an average. I now generally
begin seed-time with 7 pecks as the minimum, gradually
increasing, as the season advances, to 9 pecks per acre."
Mr. Eoberts, to whose Essay 011 " The Management of
Wheat" we have already referred, states that the quantity of
seed varies from 4 to 10 pecks per acre, but that it depends

THIN AND THICK SOWING.

67

entirely upon circumstances, such as the time of sowing, and
the manner of sowing. The poorer the land, the greater nrist
be the quantity of seed. On a poor gravelly soil, where
manure is not attainable, 10 pecks drilled at from 6 to 8
inches, will be least quantity required ; wherever in such
soils this quantity is at all sensibly decreased, in like pro-
portion both quality and quantity of the grain is decreased
also. If 2^ bushels are used broadcast, 2 bushels will be
equivalent if drilled, and 5 pecks if dibbled, The follow-
ing table, as given by Mr. Birch Wolfe in the Journal of
the Royal Agricultural Society, as to the " proper quantity
of seed for wheat," will appropriately close this department
of our subject. The soil was heavy clay, in good heart ;
the seed used was of the Spalding variety. The produce
from each plot was very nearly the same ; the dibbled failed
most in plant, but tillered well, and yielded rather more
than the rest ; but in proportion as the plant was thin, so
was the grain coarse and light. Mr. Wolfe has come to
the conclusion, that in soils similar to his own, and taking
the average of seasons and all other circumstances into ac-
count, there is great risk of loss in drilling land at a greater
distance than 8 inches, and with a less quantity of seed
than 6 pecks per acre. The following is the table given
by Mr. Wolfe :—

Width of
Drills in

inches.

Seed at
rate per
acre.

Produce
in
Sheaves.

Produce in
Grain from
the 3 roods.

Produce at
rate per
acre.

Ibs. weight
per
bushel.

9

5 pecks,

689

Qrs. B. P.
400

Qrs. B. P.
522

62J

61

7 do.

665

400

522

624

8

6 do.

681

403

532

63

Dibbled &

dropped
by hand
at 8 in-

6 do.

692

410

540

614

ches.

68 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

CHAPTER FIFTH.
MANURES FOR THE WHEAT CROP.

45. Farm-yard manure, or dung, possessing as it does all
the manurial constituents required for farm crops, would be
all that is necessary for the wheat crop if it could al-
ways be obtained in sufficient quantities. Without an appli-
cation of it, indeed, to the soil in which the wheat is grown,
the crop does not thrive so well as is desirable, for the straw
is strengthened by it, while the yield of grain is decidedly in-
creased. Should, however, a moderate quantity of it be ob-
tained, then the Bother artificial manures, which will pre-
sently be described, will be applied with great advantage.
"When farm-yard manure, or dung, is applied to the land in
liberal quantities for the wheat, it should not be applied
directly to the crop, but rather to the preceding crop of
pulse, clover, or root crop ; for if this is done, all those ac-
tive ingredients are taken up by these preceding crops, which,
if given to the wheat crop directly, would only force an abun-
dance of straw, to the detriment of the grain, while, on the
contrary, the ingredients left by these crops leave the land
in a proper heart for the wheat. If a naked fallow precedes
the wheat crop, the dung should be applied to the land as
early in the summer as possible. The practice, therefore,
of manuring in the autumn directly for the wheat is objec-
tionable. In the Midland Counties the plan is often
adopted of giving four or five loads of dung to the acre,
and half a folding with sheep, as a good manuring for the
wheat crop. A large proportion of land is manured for
wheat, especially upon dry soils, by the folding of sheep
alone ; it consolidates the soil, and kills, or at least lessens
the ravages of, insects. To fold sheep upon fallows is also
often of advantage ; while the same may be said of it when
practised upon light soils after sowing the seed. Green
crops are sometimes ploughed in directly, instead of eating
them off with sheep ; opinion is divided as to which is

MANURES FOR THE WHEAT CROP. 69

the best. Where the soil is light, the benefits of consoli-
dation obtained by the folding of sheep are, of course, lost
in the former mode. Where hen dung or pigeon dung can
be obtained in sufficient quantity, a top dressing of 30 to
40 bushels per acre will be beneficial to the wheat crop in
almost every kind of soil ; the manure should be covered
in with a light harrow, or it may be drilled between the
rows of plants. Soot is generally very beneficial as a top
dressing to the wheat crop ; 30 to 40 bushels per acre is
the quantity applied, and this should be given not later
than March. As soon as applied it should be covered in,
and applied also in damp or moist weather. Soot, it is
right to state, is not so markedly beneficial in some as it
is in other soils. Eape-cake is a very valuable manure for
wheat, applied at the time of sowing ; it acts also as a pre-
ventive of the ravages of the wire-worm, at least it has
done so in some soils ; it may also be drilled in between
the rows in spring ; from 8 to 1 6 bushels may be applied ;
its beneficial effects are best displayed in heavy soils, with
a dry subsoil. Malt-dust has — -to the extent of 30 to 50
bushels per acre — been also used with advantage to the
wheat crop. Bones on dry soils may, at the rate of 16 to
30 bushels per acre, be applied with much advantage.
Guano may also be used, but some caution in its use is
necessary, as, if applied early in autumn, it is apt to over-
stimulate the plants, and make them " winter-proud ; "
loss is also apt to ensue from this practice, as the winter
rains are likely to wash out the guano. Where the land
is heavy and the climate cold, and the weather, therefore,
anything but stimulating in temperature, guano may be
applied with advantage in November. Nitrate of soda is a
valuable artificial manure for the wheat crop, but it should
always be applied in spring, never in autumn, as, when so ap-
plied, the same results are likely to happen as those to which
we have referred above in treating of the use of guano.

4 6. In an exceedingly valuable paper on the use of
artificial manures for farm crops, read before the Hexham
Farmers' Club by Mr. Jacob Wilson of Manor House,

70 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

Woodburn, Morpeth, the whole subject was fully dis-
cussed, and a highly practical value given to it by a series
of directions as to the kind of manure to be used for
the various crops and in various soils. Of these we give
here the portion referring to the wheat crop: — (1.) For
Sandy Soils. "For wheat in autumn, 2 cwt. rape-cake and
2 cwt. superphosphate will be found a suitable application,
but in spring sown wheat, 1 cwt. each of guano (I mean
Peruvian), nitrate of soda, and 2 cwt. of common salt, or

2 cwt, sulphate of ammonia, and 2 cwt. salt, would be an
excellent dressing, and if this were divided and applied at
three intervals till May it would be still better." (2.) For
Calcareous Soils. " Wheat being usually sown after clover
on this description of soil, receives an application of farm-
yard manure on the lea during the latter part of summer,
which is immediately ploughed in. In spring a top-dress-
ing is very desirable, and is now much more general than
formerly. Nitrate of soda and common salt, 2 cwt. of each,
applied separately or together, have invariably produced a
good effect. This dressing should be applied towards the
end of March, and after the land has been rolled, to con-
solidate it, and counteract the effects of the previous frost.
From this, then, I think we have a right to assume that
nitrate of soda and salt is the most suitable application, not
only to wheat, but to the rest of the cereal crops. Perhaps,
however, for oats, 1 cwt. of guano might be substituted for
1 cwt. of salt with a good result." (3.) For Clay Soils.
" If artificial manure is to be applied to autumn sown wheat
after clover, bare fallow or beans, 4 cwt. of rape-cake, or

3 cwt. guano, or even a mixture of these two substances, at
3 cwt. per acre, would be found effective. For wheat after
turnips I should not consider any artificial dressing neces-
sary in the autumn, but 2 to 3 cwt. of guano, or 1-J cwt.
sulphate of ammonia, with 2 cwt. of salt, or 2 to 3 cwt.
phospho-Peruvian guano, applied in March, would be ad-
visable." (4.) For Vegetable Moulds. " The organic being in
excess of the mineral matter in the soil, must here guide
us in our application of artificial manures ; inasmuch as

MANURES FOR THE WHEAT CROP. 71

from the large quantity of leaf-producing material, pro-
vided, on the decay of this organic substance, the danger
of flagging, and going down must be guarded against. Salt
is the most useful substance that can be applied for stiffen-
ing the straw, and to it might be added a soluble phosphate
manure, say 2 cwt. of the former, with 3 cwt. super-phos-
phate sown broadcast in March." (5.) For Loamy Soils.
" For winter wheat 4 cwt. rape-cake, or a dressing of bone-
dust, applied at seed time, would be enough, if after beans
or bare fallow ; but for spring application, 3 cwt. guano
used in March, or 2 cwt. each of nitrate of soda and salt,
or even 1^ cwt. sulphate of ammonia and 2 cwt. salt at the
beginning of April would be a satisfactory dressing. If for
spring wheat I would recommend 3 cwt. guano, at seed time,
or 1^ each of guano and nitrate of soda at a later period."
47. The subject of wheat manuring has received much
attention from the celebrated agricultural chemists, Mr. J.
B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, who have experimented most
extensively, and over a long period of years, in order to
arrive at practically useful results. The papers published
by them on the subject are exceedingly valuable and sug-
gestive, but their length utterly precludes all possibility of
giving here even the briefest of epitomes of them. Pro-
bably in the following extract from their summary of re-
sults is to be found that which bears most practically upon
the subject. To the proper understanding of the first part of
the extract it may be necessary to acquaint the reader other-
wise ignorant of the fact, that the two great schools of agricul-
tural chemistry are, first, that led by the celebrated German
chemist Liebig ; and, second, that by the no less celebrated
English authorities, Lawes and Gilbert, to whom we have
already referred. The Liebig school maintain the necessity,
as a primary one, of supplying the wheat crop with mineral
or inorganic constituents, the organic being chiefly supplied
through the medium of the atmosphere. The school of
Lawes and Gilbert maintain, on the contrary, that all soils,
more especially wheat ones, are abundantly supplied — many
in excess — with mineral or inorganic constituents, and that

72 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

organic but nitrogenous manure, being in deficiency, must be
supplied. In brief, Liebig, believing in the deficiency of
mineral constituents, indecrees their ultimate withdrawal
from the soil, and counsels their supply as the primary work
of the farmer. Lawes and Gilbert, holding the converse, say,
trust to the supply of mineral constituents which all soils
have, and which will be brought into active agency by
deep cultivation, but supply the nitrogenous constitu-
ents which they have not. These two schools have for
years maintained a controversy which has resulted in much
that has been practically valuable and suggestive, although
of much also that has scarcely been within the claims of
the dignity of science. It is right to state that the general
belief of the farmers of Great Britain is coincident with
that of Lawes and Gilbert, and which may be, as it has
been often, expressed thus — " phosphates for the turnips,
nitrogen for the wheat." This much being premised, what
is now given from an able report by Messrs. Lawes and
Gilbert 021 the subject of manures for the wheat will be
easily understood. After alluding to the controversy to
which we have above drawn the attention of the reader,
Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert thus proceed : —

" But independently of the evidence of direct experiment,
such as is afforded in the results above referred to, we
would here reiterate the opinion given in substance in for-
mer papers, and founded on a very extensive acquaintance
with the practical experience of farmers in the use of ar-
tificial manures in every district of Great Britain for many
years past, that in 99 cases out of 100 in which wheat
grown in the ordinary course of agriculture requires further
manuring, it would be much more increased by the appli-
cation of nitrogenous than of purely mineral manures ; in
other words, that in the ordinary course of agriculture with
rotation, as practised in this country, the supply of mineral
constituents immediately available for the wheat crop is
almost invariably in excess, relatively, to. the immediately
available supply of nitrogen from the atmosphere, or the
accumulated stores within the soil itself. Furthermore,

MANURES FOR THE WHEAT CROP. 73

with few exceptions, the worse the so-called " condition "
of the land, that is, the more it is in the agricultural sense
exhausted, the more striking would he the effect of exclu-
sively nitrogenous compared with that of exclusively min-
eral manures.

" What, then, are the common practices of British agri-
cult are which lead to this result 1

" Let us take an example as we have done "before — the
practice of the so-called four-course rotation — of roots,
barley, clover (or beans), and wheat. Let us further assume,
for the sake of argument, that on the average, 30 bushels
of wheat, 35 bushels of barley, and the meat from the con-
sumption of 10 tons of swedes and clover, equal to 6,000 Ibs.
of clover hay (or 1,500 Ibs. of bean corn), are the products
sold from each acre of the farm in the four years, and that
the straw of the corn crops, and the excrements from the
animals feeding on the roots and the clover or beans, are
retained on the farm as manure, and returned periodically
to the land. Confining attention, for the sake of simpli-
city of illustration, to those mineral constituents which, so
far as existing knowledge goes, are the most likely to be-
come relatively deficient in the majority of soils, it may be
estimated that, under such a course, the average annual loss
per acre by the sale of corn and meat would be, of potass
from 4^ to 5 Ibs., of phosphoric acid from 7 to 8 Ibs., and
of silica about 3 Ibs.

" But all practical men will admit that the amounts of
produce here assumed to be exported from each acre, or
equivalent amounts in other forms, could only be so under
one of two conditions. Either the soil must be naturally
a very fertile one, or the produce must be kept up by means
of purchased cattle food, or artificial manures. In the case
of a soil so fertile as to have yielded, for any considerable
number of years, the average produce supposed, without
assistance from import, it may well be questioned whether
it, with its workable subsoil, would not be competent to
yield annually, by decomposition, the necessary amounts of
the mineral constituents mentioned ; and if of them, of

74 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

others also, for an all but indefinite period. In the other
case — that in which the produce is kept up by means of
the import of cattle food or artificial manure, or of part
one and part the other — the loss of the constituents in
question, derived from the soil itself, will, of course, be by
so much less than the amounts assumed above, and that of
others will be also reduced. There can indeed be little
doubt that, in actual practice, the loss to the soil itself, by
the sale of corn and meat, is generally more nearly one
half, and frequently less than one half, of the above assumed
amounts of the constituents mentioned ; and that of others
will be less accordingly.

" So far as the purchase of food for stock was relied upon,
no selection could well be made from the 'current supplies
in the market, that would not bring upon the farm more
of the mineral constituents than the increase of produce
due to the manure obtained from it would receive from the
land in the form of corn and meat. In fact, to increase
the sales of corn and meat, by the import of cattle food, as
generally practised, is to increase, and not to diminish, the
amount of available mineral constituents within the soil.
If, on the other hand, the produce were kept up by means
of artificial manures, the rules of selection among intelli-
gent practical men are such, that almost invariably much
more of phosphoric acid, at any rate, would be brought
upon the land, than would be removed from it in the increase
of corn and meat due to the use of the imported manures.

" In the case supposed, without import, it is probable that,
in the majority of instances, phosphoric acid would be the
most liable to become deficient in relation to other consti-
tuents. The sources of phosphoric acid developed in recent
years, promise, however, to answer to any demand that seems
likely to be made upon them to remedy such exhaustion of
it as the present agricultural practices of the country induce.

" In the case of imports, on the other hand, especially
where they consisted chiefly of the current artificial manures
rather than of cattle foods, potass would be the most likely
to become deficient. The sources of potass in the market

MANURES FOR THE WHEAT CROP. 75

are, indeed, not large, and its price is high. Still it would
be a very economical manure if it increased the immediate
produce by an amount containing anything like the pro-
portion of that supplied, which is obtained in the case of
nitrogen, when nitrogenous manures are employed. But
current practices have certainly not yet so far reduced the
relative supply of potass in our soils, as to render the ap-
plication of direct potass manures to the wheat crop at all
profitable to the farmer. The results detailed in this paper
clearly show, however, that salts of potass are effective
enough on the growth of wheat when the immediately
available supply within the soil is really unduly exhausted
relatively to that of other mineral constituents, provided
only that there be no deficiency of available nitrogen. In
the case of leguminous crops, indeed, potass manures will
frequently greatly increase the amount of nitrogen assim-
ilated over a given area, without any direct supply of the
latter by manure. And should it happen that our modern
system of town drainage should lead to such an exhaustion
of our arable lands of their due proportion of available
potass, that potass manures from without should become
really effective, there can be little doubt that a sufficient eco-
nomical source of supply would soon supervene on such a
demand.

" There is, of course, no question that if the manurial
constituents resulting from the consumption of the corn and
meat sent into our towns could be returned to the land
whence they came, its produce would be considerably in-
creased ; for with the mineral constituents, there would
always be associated nitrogen, in amount which would serve
to render effective a considerable portion of all, if not the
whole of some, of those constituents. If, however, human
excretal matters continue to be diluted with water, to the
extent recognised by the growing system of urban defeca-
tion, and if dilute liquid sewage cannot be distributed in
small quantities over large areas at a much lower cost to
the farmer than has yet been proposed, there is little hope
that the manurial constituents derived from the human

76 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

food sent into our towns can be re-distributed over the area
from which they came. Indeed, having regard to the
inapplicability of dilute liquid sewage to arable land, except
in small quantities and at particular seasons, and at the
assumed cost of distribution, it appears probable that the
most profitable mode of utilization of sewage will be, to
limit the area by applying the greater part, if not the
whole, to permanent or other grasses, laid down to take it
the year round, trusting mainly to the periodically broken-
up rye-grass land, and to the application to arable land of
the solid manure resulting from the consumption of the
sewaged grass, for obtaining other produce than milk and
meat by means of sewage.

" In the illustrations given above, therefore, it is sought
to convey an approximate idea, on the one hand, of the
utmost extent, and on the other, of the probable limit of
the loss to which our arable soils are subject by the sale of
corn and meat, supposing the mineral constituents be not re-
turned to the soil whence they came. Confining attention to
this object, we necessarily keep out of view the cases in which
roots, hay, or straw are largely sold, for, in such, compen-
sation is generally made by the return to the land of town
manures of some kind. If this be not done the loss of
mineral constituents will, of course, be very considerable.

" In view of the facts above adduced, we think it may
safely be concluded, that the modern practices of this
country, taken as a whole, do not tend to the injurious ex-
haustion of the mineral constituents in anything like the
degree that has been assumed by some. Further than this,
we think the evidence is more in favour of the supposition
that, in a great majority of our soils, they are, by the com-
bined aid of progressive liberation, and of restoration from
without, becoming, in the course of cultivation, richer rather
than poorer in immediately available mineral constituents
relatively to immediately available nitrogen. So far as this is
attained at the expense of the constituents of the soil itself,
there is of course the less to fall back upon within a given
depth from the surface. But it surely cannot be denied,

MANURES FOR THE WHEAT CROP. 77

that if there really is an annual liberation of mineral con-
stituents in available form for the growth of plants, at least
a portion of this may, -with propriety, be sold off the farm
for good and all.

" The exact amount of annual loss of mineral constitu-
ents which any soil, with its workable subsoil, can per-
manently support without injury, cannot indeed be proved.
But such evidence as is at command goes to show, that,
under the conditions at present existing, the nature and
extent of the loss to which our soils are subject are such,
that the majority are deficient of available nitrogen rather
than of available mineral constituents, so far as the require-
ments for full crops of the cereal grains are concerned.

" Insisting strongly then, as we have always done, upon
the absolute necessity of a full supply of available mineral
constituents within the soil, relatively to that of nitrogen,
we still believe that, in the actually existing conditions of
British agriculture, it is not they, but the available nitro-
gen, that is generally to be relatively deficient.

" What then are the sources of available nitrogen, within
the soil, to which the farmer must look for the production
of good crops of wheat ?

" In former papers in this Journal we have pointed out
that his chief means to this end was the adoption of a
suitable rotation of crops, alternating with his corn the so-
called 'green,' 'fallow,' or ' fodder ' crops, an important
office of which it is to collect from natural sources, or to
conserve on the farm in the form of manure, available
nitrogen for the increased growth of the saleable cereal
grains. We have further maintained that, as either by
bare fallow, or a rotation of crops, with the consumption
of the fallow crops and the retention of the straw on the
farm, the accumulation of available mineral constituents
will generally be in excess of the available nitrogen, it is
the amount of the latter rather than of the former, that
will be the measure of the increased produce obtained by
such means

" Indeed, on many of our heavier soils, and even on

78 CULTUKE OF FARM CROPS.

lighter ones, if purchased cattle food be liberally employed,
corn crops may be grown more frequently than is consist-
ent with what have generally been considered the estab-
lished rules of good farming, not only with pecuniary bene-
fit to the producer, but without injury to the soil. On
heavy soils barley of better quality may be obtained after
wheat than after a root crop. But when corn is taken
after corn, great attention should be paid to the cleansing
of the land, and manure should be liberally applied. When
wheat follows another corn crop, not less than 50 to 60
Ibs. of ammonia (or its equivalent of nitrogen in some
other form) should be applied per acre, and when barley
or oats follow a corn crop, from 40 to 50 Ibs. The quan-
tity of phosphate employed with the ammonia should be
greater for spring than for autumn sown corn crops."

CHAPTER SIXTH.

RECENTLY-INTRODUCED NOVELTIES IN THE PRACTICE OF WHEAT

CULTURE LOIS WEEDON CULTURE HALLETT's SELECTION

SYSTEM ARTIFICIAL FRUCTIFICATION.

48. In commencing this chapter with an account of the
" Lois Weedon" mode of cultivating wheat — so called from
the name of the vicarage of the Eev. Mr. Smith, its intro-
ducer— it scarcely can be said to be a recently-introduced
system, inasmuch as it is now over twenty years since the
Rev. Mr. Smith commenced its practice. The main feature
of the system is growing a succession of crops of wheat
upon the same land and without manure. Strictly speak-
ing, the expression, " the same land," is scarcely correct, for
the same breadth of land is always under wheat, different
portions of that breadth only are under the crop directly.
This is brought about by the peculiar mode in which the
land is laid out in intervals of what may be called fallow and

LOIS WEEDON MODE OF CULTIVATING WHEAT. 79

g

o
I— I

£
g

0)

to,

-£
g

I

p
*s

2"

80 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

crop-bearing parts, and which will be understood by an
inspection of the preceding type diagram of a field of wheat
cultivated on this system.

The following is the account given by Mr. Smith of the
commencement of his system, and of some of its features as
now adopted by him : —

" At the outset of niy farming, fifteen years ago, the field
before us was in grass, which I pared and took off the land ;
then ploughed it the full depth of the 5 inch staple for a
crop of oats, followed by vetches. After this came the first
triple-rowed wheat crop with its wide intervals, which I
dug one spit deep, bringing only a very few inches of yel-
low clay subsoil to the surface. The second year these
well-stirred intervals bore the wheat crop, and the stubble
was dug in. And thus, year after year, alternately, the
same acre of land has had a fallow and a wheat crop too.
In the third and fourth years the spade went down a fe\y
inches deeper; and so, gradually and regularly, for four
years more, till a depth of 16 or 18 inches was reached,
when I stayed my hand ; and, after that, was satisfied for
the four folloAving years with a single spit. Last year,
however, I returned to the double spit and a fresh inch of
clay ; and this brings me back to this year's operation,
which we are come out to view.

" The digging, as you see, is two spits deep ; and after
the pan was a little stirred, the staple and the stubble were
turned upon it, the clods shattered, and the second spit,
with its sprinkling of yellow clay, was gently laid upper-
most, in such a form that the frost might be felt right
through the whole. Look ; you can almost see down to
the subsoil.

" ' And what follows next ? ' These high-ridged inter-
vals will lie thus during winter, higher than the tender
wheat, and so protecting it, and checking the drifting snow.
The winter fallow over, I shall stir and level the ridges with
the horse-hoe, well clean the rows and the intervals, keep-
ing the surface of the latter constantly open till the wheat
is about to flower. Then will come a process peculiar to the

MR. SMITH'S SYSTEM OF CULTIVATING WHEAT. 81

plan, and which meets a difficulty in our uncertain climate
of no ordinary importance. The rotation-farmer has a
heavy crop of wheat ; but, heigh-ho ! the wind and the
rain — he is utterly helpless against these ; his wheat comes
down ; the rain it raineth every day, and his hopes are
blighted. I owe my general immunity from this disaster
to the broad space of my fallow intervals, which enables
me to take a turn with the plough up and down, and so —
the soil being well pulverized, mind that — to earth up my
wheat with the mould-board.

" Immediately after this operation follows another of
singular efficacy in swelling the grain : I subsoil — with
Sigma* s subsoiler — as deeply as I can with two horses, in
the centre of each furrow just made by the plough ; and
this closes the work till harvest.

" The crop being carried, I make preparations at once
for sowing. I first lightly horse-hoe and clean the fur-
rows ; then plough close to each stubble, casting the earth
back again into the centre. There are thus two furrows
in each interval, and these I subsoil, which leaves the whole
of the land intended for the crop in a hollow pulverized
condition. But, though wheat loves a mellow bed, it
loathes a soft one. I therefore consolidate the soil with
the double clod-crusher, which takes two beds at once, the
horse walking on the stubble in the centre. This being
done, I wait till near the middle of September for the rains,
if it may be, to perfect the culture.

" I should be glad to have your close attention while I
now describe the sowing, because, upon the accuracy of this
process depends not only the goodness and fulness of the
crop, but the great pleasure of, perhaps, a daily inspection
of true lines and even vegetation of this beautiful plant, for
ten months in the year. All machinery for sowing, besides
the single-hand dibble, I have long discarded. I reject
even Sigma' s admirable Planter, which I hear is so effec-
tive, believing all to be comparatively unsafe and inefficient ;
for, with the hand dibble, — with the right hand dibbling
and the left dropping the grain, / can see the seed de-

p

82 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

posited — I know it is there in its right place and at the
right depth. I am satisfied, too, with the rapidity with
which the practised workman does his work. It is true
his work is worked out for him more accurately and quickly
than he could do it himself. Another hand stretches a
line, nearly, but not quite in the centre, from one end of
the interval to the other. With a light hand implement —
invented by Sigma — which holds three small mould-boards
set at the required distance apart, he now, guiding the
middle mould-board by the line, draws with almost mathe-
matical truth three minute furrows, in which the dibbler
deposits the seed. And, when the whole piece is com-
pleted, if the surface be dry enough, I cover over the seed
and close up the channels with the Crusher.

" At spring the Crusher is again employed in compress-
ing the wheat plant ; after which the hand, and the hand-
hoe — another of Sigrna's capital inventions — are busy be-
tween the rows as long as it is safe ; and then comes the
last scene of all — the sickle and the harvest home."

49. Halletfs Selection System. — What is meant by this
term, and what power it brings with it in enabling the far-
mer to increase to a large extent the produce of his wheat,
has been ably explained and practically illustrated by Mr.
Hallett. Mr. Hallett sets out by assuming that the "wheat
plant, from its nature, requires a mode of culture which
permits its perfect growth ; and where it is so cultivated, by
the repeated selection of the seed, of which, as in breeding
animals, the result is a pedigree, we can gradually increase
the contents of the ears without in the slightest degree
diminishing their number." And he maintains that a good
pedigree is as valuable in plants as in animals, and that in
the careful rearing of the seed which has this qualification,
'•' lies our only means of materially increasing the produce
of the cereals." This notion as to the pedigree of plants car-
ries with it so many important considerations, that it will
be useful to glance at the main features of Mr. Hallett' s
arguments, all the more that they are impugned by many
authorities, and not less openly sneered at by others — a

HALLETT'S SELECTION SYSTEM. 83

mode of treating a scientific subject in every way to be
reprehended, as beneath the dignity of any science. More-
over, the experiments — if trials on so large a scale as Mr.
Hallett has instituted should be so called — of Mr. Hallett
have been so carefully and conscientiously carried out, that
his system is entitled to a patient investigation, not with a
view to carp and quibble at the difficulties with which his
theory may be surrounded, but to endeavour to find out, if
possible, how these may be overcome, and what real prac-
tical value may be obtained from it. In connection with
the stock of the farm, the importance of " pedigree " is
everywhere recognised. Mr. Hallett points out that it
is even recognised in the case of plants, inasmuch as, if the
farmer wants a good mangold, turnip, or the like, he selects
the seed from a good parent. But this principle is ignored
as a general rule in regard to the cereals, although why it
should be so it is difficult to say, inasmuch as the minutest
characteristics of a plant of wheat will be reproduced in its
descendants ; so much so, that we can not only perpetuate
the advantages presented to us in an individual ear, but,
by the accumulation of selection, make further advances in
any desired direction ; the union of good qualities impart-
ing a cumulative force, and their successive renewals and
establishments conferring, as in animals, a " fixity of type."
But Mr. Hallett points out what, on consideration, will
prove to be a most important point, but which, neverthe-
less, has been too often ignored — namely, that the principle
of starting with "accidentally tine ears, and simply keeping
the produce unmixed, without any further selection," is a
wrong one. This is a very different thing from starting
annually with one of a known and a good lineage. Mr.
Hallett is of opinion that the formation of what he calls a
" race of high-bred " cereals admits of a more rapid and
higher development than that of stock, inasmuch as they
are more prolific, and give a much wider choice in each re-
newed selection. Further, that in place of the delicacy of
constitution observable in high-bred animals, a character
the very opposite of this is obtained in the selected high-

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

bred cereals, as these are descended from a line of ances-
tors, " each of which was the most vigorous of its year," and
possessed, moreover, the combination of those1 good quali-
ties by which they were enabled, during the period of selec-
tion, to withstand the vicissitudes of the season. Mr.
Hallett gives a striking illustration of these truths, as he
maintains them to be, in the following. In these experi-
ments " the kind of seed, the land, and the system of cul-
ture employed, were precisely the same for every plant
for four consecutive years, neither was there any manure
used nor any artificial means of fostering the plants re-
sorted to."

TABLE SHOWING THE IMPORTANCE OF EACH ADDITIONAL
GENERATION OF SELECTION.

Length

Contain-

Number of

Year.

in

ing

Ears on

inches.

Grains.

finest Stool.

1857

Original ear, .

4|

47

5>

1858

Finest ear,

64

79

10

1859

Do.,

7*

91

22

1860

Ears imperfect from

wet season,

»>

,,

39

1861

Finest ear,

8|

123

52

Thus, by repeated selection alone the length of the ears
has been doubled, their contents nearly trebled, and the
" tillering " power of the seed increased fivefold. Mr.
Hallett also points out that he at first started by selecting
from accidentally large ears, in the supposition that these
would give a much finer produce the next year ; but he
found that the quality of the grain was so bad as to be un-
saleable, and this result was the invariable one of all trials
in this direction. He therefore adopted a plan which we
think was the most philosophical of the two — namely,
selecting an ear which gave the finest quality of grain, and
trusted to the power of the selecting principle to increase
the size and development of the ears. Mr. Hallett chose,
in the first instance, the " nursery" wheat, the finest red

HALLETT'S SELECTION SYSTEM. 85

wheat known. The following is the plan of selection
adopted : — The produce of a single grain is a bunch, or, as
Mr. Hallett calls it, a " stool," consisting of many ears.
The grains are carefully taken from each ear, and are planted
in such a manner that each ear, or rather the grains which
were taken from it, occupies a row separate and distinct
from any other row, and the distance between each grain
in the row is 12 inches. The grains from another ear are
sown in another row, 12 inches from the first row, so that
all the grain is deposited in 1 2-inch squares. When the
ears produced from the different grains are ready, a very
careful study and comparison of the stools from all these
grains is made, and the finest one is selected, and accepted
on the principle that the parent grain which produced that
" stool " was the finest of the lot. The grains produced
from each ear of this stool are again planted or sown in
separate rows, as above described, for the selection of the
second year, and so on each year. The result of the repeated
investigations of these repeated trials has shown Mr. Hal-
lett the essential importance of repeated selection, inas-
much as in the grains produced from the same ear one is
found greatly to excel all the others in vital power. Mr.
Hallett, referring thus to these and to other circumstances,
which space does not permit us to allude to here, as evi-
dence that " selection " is capable of increasing the contents
of the ear, proceeds to show that it is also powerful in in-
creasing the number of the ears. There are no correct, or
even approximately correct, data at our command showing
the number of ears produced from the usual quantity of
seed sown per acre, which may be set down at 7 to 8 pecks.
Mr. Stephens estimates it at about the same number as
there are grains in a bushel, or under 800,000, which is
equal to about one ear of produce for every two grains of
seed sown. Taking these data as they are, Mr. Hallett
computed the numbers given in the year 1861 upon the
two systems, one his own selection, and the other an or-
dinary method. The two fields upon which these were
tried were simply divided by a hedge. In the one in-

86 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

stance — the old method — the number of pecks to the acre
of seed sown was 6, and from this the crop was 54 bushels,
consisting of, at its thickest part, 934,100 ears. On the
" selection " system, the quantity of seed sown per acre was
four and a half pints, the seed being sown or dibbled 1 2
inches apart each way, and the number of ears produced
was 1,000,880, or 67,760 ears in excess of the other yield;
thus giving this excess with a saving of twenty-one times
the quantity of seed. The system of " selection " in being
carried out into practice, will obviously modify that as at
present adopted. The first modification is the time of
planting; that this must be earlier than the present is
obvious enough, inasmuch as a grain which has to occupy
a large space of ground, and is expected to produce a
greater number of ears, will require a longer time than if
grown under ordinary circumstances. The second modifi-
cation is, the necessity for apportioning the quantity of
seed in proportion to the time at which it is committed to
the ground. This, however, is done in ordinary practice,
where the quantity of seed sown is greater in proportion
as the time of sowing is later. The third modification is,
the distance at which the seeds should be sown ; this may
also be subjected to change, according to the time at which
the sowing is done. Mr. Hallett, in giving directions upon
these three points, says that he can only do so on the sup-
position that he has selected seed to deal with; for the
different grains of ordinary wheat are so very unequal in
reproductive power, that it "would be manifestly impossible
to fix on any uniform distance " or quantity. For, as re-
gards distance, it is clear that if a certain space was that
which was required for a vigorous grain, for a less vigorous
one it would be too much. While on this point, Mr.
Hallett draws attention to the fact, that by selection the
reproductive power of wheat is equalized in a very remark-
able degree ; and that the equalization is just in proportion
to the length of tirne over which the selection has been
carried; and this equalization is not confined to one, but
it is observable in all the peculiarities of the plan.

ARTIFICIAL FRUCTIFICATION OF WHEAT.

87

The following is the mode recommended when this sys-
tem is proposed to be carried out on a small scale of a
few acres, the grains being dibbled singly in holes not ex-
ceeding 1^ inch deep: —

Distance
between
the Rows.

Distance
in the
Rows.

Quantity of Seed.

In August or early in
September,
In September, .

In October,
Towards end of month
After October, .

9 inches.
9 „
6 „

9 inches.
6 „
6 „
4 „
3 „

1 bushel on 6 acres.
l,i 4 „

i „ 2^ ;

1 „ 2 „

H ,- 2 „

50. Artificial Fructification of Wheat. — The discoverer
of this mode is a Frenchman, by name M. Hooibrenck,
and his theory is that, in ordinary circumstances, natural
fructification of the wheat is so feebly carried on and out,
that artificial fructification should be adopted where greater
products are demanded. The process by which M. Hooi-
brenck proposes to effect this artificial fructification is as
follows ; — Across the field of wheat he stretches a cord, to
which are attached pieces of wool, some of which, at inter-
vals, are smeared with honey. These pieces of honey-
smeared wool, being in contact with, the ears of wheat,
render, or are supposed to render, the stigmas glutinous,
and to favour the adhesion of the pollen to them. By the
movement of the cord, the pollen, which is taken up by
the pieces of wool which have no honey smeared upon
them, is given out to the smeared pieces, and by them to
the stigmas, coating these, so to speak, with pollen, and
thus artificially impregnating them. A strict investiga-
tion into the physiology of plants tends, however, to make
it, we think, abundantly clear that, imposing as this theory
of artificial fructification is, there is, in reality, little — we
should say, rather, no^-need of it. Nature does her work
sufficiently well, in this department at least, to need
no help from man. Is it, indeed, in view of the fine re-
lations which exist between plants that the process of fruc-

88 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

tification is one in which man can help 1 Can any of his
processes, no matter how delicately adjusted they may be,
come up to that fine adaptation of means to an end which
we find surrounding us in all the departments of nature1?
To both of these questions it need not be considered pre-
sumptuous to give a reply in the negative. The truth is,
that although it may be said, in reply, that the fructifica-
tion of our cereals being dependent upon chance, that
chance may be lessened by some process which will secure
greater certainty, nevertheless, we find, in fact, that there
is produced in practice such a superabundance of pollen,
that, although much is scattered fruitlessly by the winds,
or dashed into uselessness by the rains of heaven, enough
is left to impregnate the flowers, the quantity produced by
each ear being far in excess of what the fructification really
demands. Hence a large balance, to use a commercial
phrase, remains to cover losses, even large as they may be,
resulting from the above natural causes. But even grant-
ing that it would be advisable to save the pollen, which
might otherwise be lost by some artificial means, it is more
than questionable whether — -indeed, an investigation into
the matter will show that there is every probability that —
the plan proposed by M. Hooibfenck cannot and will not
be successful; for it proceeds upon the assumption — how
dangerous the assumptions in the nature of scientific ques-
tions are our readers well know — that the smeared wool
takes up or gathers the pollen, and afterwards delivers it
to the stigmas. How do we know that either of these
things is done? Whatever may be said in favour of
artificial fructification — as much may be said of it —
of isolated examples of flowers, there is, we venture to
say, so much that is practically difficult to be overcome in
applying it to flowers in the mass, as those of a corn field,
that it will not take a place, at least in our day, amongst
those processes which can be made available by the farmer
in his everyday labour^

INDEX.

Paire

Pave

Arsenic as a steep for Wheat,

25

Fallow, bare, for Wheat,

36

Artificial Fructification of

Farm-yard manure for the

Wheat, ....

87

Crop, ....

68

Artificial Manures for Wheat

Fructification of Wheat, arti-

in various Soils,

69

ficial, ....

87

Australian Wheat,

7

Germinating powers of Wheat

Bare fallow for Wheat,

36

Seed, action of lime upon,

27

Bearded Wheat, .

14

Gravelly, light, chalky Soils,

33

Botanical peculiarities of

Growing Wheat, new systems

Wheat, ....

4

of,

78

Broadcasting Wheat Seed, .
Broken-up Land for Wheat,

46
35

Growing Wheat, Soils for, .

29

Hallett's Pedigree Wheat, .

13

Calcareous Soils, artificial ma-

Hallett's " Selection System"

nures for,

70

of growing Wheat, .

82

California Wheat,

14

Hardy on the Dibbling of

Chalky, light, gravelly Soils,
Change of Seed Wheat,

33
15

Wheat, . .
Heavy Clay Soils, Pratt's Sys-

54

Choice of Seed Wheat,
Classes of Wheat,

19
4

tem of managing the Wheat
Crop on, .

42

Clay Soils, artificial manures

for, ....

70

Lawes and Gilbert upon

Clayey Soils for Wheat,

30

Wheat Manuring,

71

Clays medium, for the Wheat

Light, chalky, gravelly Soils,

33

crop, ....

38

Light land for the Wheat

Climate, influence of, upon

crop, ....

38

the Wheat crop,

40

Lime, action of, upon the ger-

Condition of the Soil, me-

minating powers of Wheat

chanical, necessary for the

^Seed, . .

27

Wheat crop,

36

Lime and Urine Steep for

Continental Cultivation of

Wheat, ....

24

Australian Wheat

8

Loamy Soils, artificial Ma-

Continental opinion on the

nures for,

70

Drilling as against the

Lois Weedon mode of culti-

Broadcasting systems,
Continental opinion upon the

49

vating Wheat,

78

quality of the Seed as influ-

Manures, artificial, for Wheat

encing the Crop,

20

for various Soils,

69

Manures for the Wheat crop,

68

Depth to sow the Seed,

41

Manuring Wheat, Lawes and

Dibbling Wheat Seed,

52

Gilbert upon, .

71

Drilling Wheat Seed, .

47

Mechi on Thin Sowing,

60

Drills, width between the, .

47

Mechanical condition of Soil

Fabre's, M., investigation in-

necessary for the Wheat

to the origin of Wheat,

2

36

90

INDEX.

Page

Moisture in the Soil for the

Wheat Crop, .

40

New varieties of Wheat, se-

lection of, ...

17

Norfolk Wheat, .

14

Order, Botanical, to which

Wheat belongs,

4

Origin of Wheat,

1

Poisonous Steeps for Wheat,

25

Pratt's system of managing the
Crop on heavy clay Soils, .
Preparation of the Seed for

42

Sowing, ....

23

Qualities of Seed Wheat, .

5

Quality of Seed, influence of,

upon the Crop,

20

Raising of Seed Wheat,

16

Red varieties of Wheat, . 4—12

Roots, Wheat after,

42

Rotation for Wheat,

32

Sandy Soils, artificial manures

for,

73

Seed, choice of Wheat,

19

„ depth to sow the,

41

„ Wheat, qualities of, .
„ preparation of, for Sow-

5

ing,

23

,, quality of, influence of,

upon the Crop,

20

,, raising of, for Sowing,

16

,, steeps for,

23

„ wheat, change of,

15

,, wheats, varieties of, .

7

Seeds, Wheat after,

44

Selection of new varieties of

Wheat, . . . _ .

17

Selection system of growing

Wheat,

82

Soil, mechanical condition ne-

cessary for the Wheat crop,

36

Page
Soil, moisture in the, for the

Wheat crop, ... 40
Soils, artificial Manures for va-
rious, ... 69
„ clayey, for Wheat, . 30
„ fresh, broken-up land, 35
,, for growing Wheat on, 29
,, light, chalky, or gravelly, 33
„ peaty, ... 34
„ rich, deep loamy, . 33
Sowing the Seed, different 46
modes of, ... 49
Sowing, thick v. thin, . . 60
Spring treatment of the crop, 35
,, and winter Wheat, . 5
Steeps, poisonous, for Wheat,

remarks upon, . . 25

Steeps, various, for seed Wheat, 23
Systems, new, of growing

Wheat, .... 78

Thick and Thin Sowing, . 60
,, and Thin Sowing, gen-
eral notions upon, 65
,, sowing, experiments and

opinions in favour of, 62

Thin and Thick Sowing, . 60

Transplanting of Wheat, . 57

„ old experiments on, 58

Varieties of Seed Wheats, . 7
Vegetable Moulds, artificial

manures for, ... 70

Vitriol steep for Wheat, . 24

Weedpn, Lois, mode of Culti-
vating Wheat, ... 78
Wheat Manuring, Lawes and

Gilbert upon, ... 71

Wheats, varieties of Seed, . 7
White varieties of Wheat, . 4—7

Width between the Drills, . 47
Wilson, Jacob, on artificial

manures for various Soils, 69

Winter and Spring Wheat, . 5

THE

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

DIVISION I.
THE CEREALS OR GRAIN CROPS.

PART II.
THE DISEASES AND PRESERVATION OF WHEAT.

CHAPTER FIRST.

THE HABIT OF GROWTH OF THE WHEAT PLANT.

1. BEFORE proceeding to describe the diseases of wheat,
it will be useful to point out the chief peculiarities con-
nected with its habit of growth. These are not only in-
teresting in themselves, but afford, when investigated, some
valuable lessons, useful in farm practice. It will be doing
those of our readers a service who have not considered the
subject from this point of view, if we go somewhat into
details ; and this we cannot better do than by giving a ra-
pid resume of an admirable paper by Professor Buckman
in the seventeenth volume of the ' Royal Agricultural So-
ciety's Journal'

2. Habits of growth of wheat plants. — If we examine a
grain of sound wheat, we find that the perisperm or outer
husk (a a, fig. 1) covers the embryo, b c; this having at its
upper part the plumate 6, from which the axis ascends,

G

90

CULTUKE OF FARM CROPS.

Fig. 1.

which carries the leaves, and ultimately
the seed; and at the lower part the
radicle c, from which, on the seed ger-
minating, the roots proceed. On the
seed being placed in the ground under
circumstances favourable to its proper
germination, the radicle a, fig. 2, bursts
through its integuments, and lateral
rootlets begin to develop themselves
to the right and left. These rootlets
are but sheaths, which, at the early
stages of the germination of the seed,
cover the true root l>, fig. 2. These roots are elongated
for a greater or less distance without sending out lateral
branches or fibres; but these at last appear proceeding
from slight projections on the side of the roots. These
fibres, again, give rise to other lateral branchings out, and
are called fibrils. These developments take place in win-

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

THE PROCESS OF TILLERING. 91

ter-sown wheat — which is that we are at present examin-
ing— according to the mildness and severity of the season.
Little progress is made in cold weather, but in mild a few
fresh rootlets will bud from near the base of the old ones,
and coincident with which a bud starts from the axil of
the first leaf. Where the plant is hardy, each of the early
leaves may develop like a bud, and new roots will start
and strike into the soil, from which to draw up the nutri-
ment; so that in a short space the initiative of several
heads of what will be obtained from a single seed, as shown
in fig. 3, in which a a are the heads starting from the
axilla of the root-leaves, these last in the diagram being
turned back, so as to show the leaf-buds. We thus see
that in the process of tillering — as the technical phrase for
this first development of the wheat plant puts it — the two
organs, roots and leaves, are developed coincidently with
each other, a new bud requiring a new root to bring up its
nutriment from the soil, whilst the older roots branch out
into fibres and fibrils, and get further removed from the
centre of growth.

3. The process of tillering does not go on under uni-
formly favourable circumstances. Much depends, for in-
stance, upon the thickness with which the seed is sown,
and upon the mildness of the season. Upon the question
of thick and thin sowing we shall have something to say in
its proper place; (see Vol. on Wheat, Part First of the
Cereal Crops ;) so we shall at present leave it, only now
stating that, where thick sowing is practised, the plants
come up thin and emaciated, and so close that there is
no room for their laterally branching out. Mild weather
in winter causes the condition in the wheat plant known
as winter proud, in which the upward development has
not been arrested ; so that its strength is given to the part
above ground, weakening the tillering process, which
enables the roots and fibres to be developed to their pro-
per point. Where wheat is in this condition, the beneii-
cial eifects of eating it down by sheep, or even cutting it
by the scythe, will be easily understood. We now come

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

to examine the habit of growth of the wheat plants in the
spring, which bring about a renewed action of the growth
of the winter-sown wheat. Many of the older fibres die
during the winter, but on the return of more genial wea-
ther new buds are produced, new roots being pushed into
the soil, and new fibres and fibrils are produced from these.
When the central axis of the plant has by these means
been developed or elongated sufficiently, tillering of the
plant ceases, and the whole of its strength is devoted to
supply the upper part with its leaves and stems. These
latter vary, in number, according to the value of the plant,
from five to twenty, and produce the ears of grain, which all
ripen nearly at the same time. Such is the habit of growth
of winter-sown wheat. Professor Buckman next proceeds
to show the difference between it and that sown in spring.
4. Winter and Spring Wheat. — As stated in Part First,
par. 3, p. 5, winter and spring wheat are not specially dis-
tinct ; and that it is easy to give a winter wheat the char-
acteristics of a spring one, and vice versa. Professor Buck-
man gives the following table, showing the results of some
experiments upon different varieties of wheat, bearing upon
this point : —

TABLE OF THE GROWTH OF WHEAT IN EACH MONTH OF THE YEAR.

Years.

Months.

Height.

Length
of Head.

Remarks.

Ft. In.

In.

1851.

June

3 - 5

3

Clean straw.

July

2 10

2

Do. do.

August

4 1

4

Do. do.

September
October

3 11
3 10

4

4

Do. do.
Rather blighted.

November

3 9

4

Do do.

December

3 10

34

Much blighted.

1852.

January

3 10

34

Do. do.

February

3 6

*i

Do. do.

March

...

C Failed as a crop,

April
May

... ...

•< but same year
( ripened.

WINTER AND SPRING WHEAT. 93

"The winter," says Professor Buckinan, "was mild and
wet. All the samples were gathered in August. The
September, October, and November plots gave the best
samples ; that sown in March, April, and May was by far
the worst in the series. Blight both in straw and ear was
most prevalent from December, though in Spring months
that sown in June, July, August, and September, was
clean in the straw ; but the ears of the July sample, though
they ripened, were remarkably small. From this experi-
ment we see, that although the wheat sown in the autumn
months certainly succeeded best, yet that of the spring
months gave a yield : and indeed winter varieties of wheat
are often not sown until as late as the latter end of Febru-
ary; and we must remember, that if winter wheat be left
until the spring for sowing, it behaves in its rooting and
tillering much as spring wheat, and hence the difference is
merely one of growth." This difference may be described
briefly : in spring the winter-sown wheat sends forth new
roots and fresh librils, tillering and forming tufts, the
shoots of which root precisely like the central blade : this,
which may be called the second growth of the winter-sown
wheat, takes place at the same period as spring-sown wheat
is coming up. The growth of the spring-sown wheat be-
ing so much quicker, as the time for its development and
ripening is so much shorter, than that of winter-sown
wheat, does not, therefore, tiller to anything like the same
extent. The development of the roots and fibrils goes on
regularly, having no period of rest. The difference, then,
between the growth of winter and spring-sown wheat is
only one of degree; nevertheless the difference is such,
that it involves different treatment on the part of the far-
mer. In the first place, spring wheat must be sown more
thickly than winter, as each seed brings forth a much
smaller — as a rule — number of ears, and the thickness of
the plants in the ground modifies the effects of the droughts
which may probably supervene. So far as regards the
preparation of the soil — on which point we have yet much
to say in its appropriate place — that for spring must be

94 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

very carefully prepared, so as to have a deeper tilth and
more uniform depth than that for winter-sown."

5. " Tkrowing-out " of the Wheat Plant, — Before dis-
cussing the subject of the habit of growth, in its early
stages, of the wheat plant, it will be useful to give here a
resume of what Professor Buckman says on the subject of
the lifting action of frost on wheat plants, commonly called
throwing-out. The changes to which soils, remarkably
varied as they are in texture, &c., &e., are subject under
atmospheric influences, are most commonly — 1. Pulverisa-
tion and expansion after frost ; 2. baking after rain ; 3.
Compression when filled with moisture; 4. Cracking in
drought. Some soils are so loose that heavy winds shift
them along with their sustained crops; this is more espe-
cially, if not wholly, the case with soils resulting from the
disintegration of the more silicious bed of the new red
sandstone. The evil may be remedied by giving a more
tenacious stability to them, by mixing them with marl.
It is a curious disposition of circumstances, that in districts
where this soil is met with, stiff kuper marls of the same
formation are also met with. In Worcestershire, as pointed
out by Professor Buckman, the marl forms rounded knolls,
from which it can be carted easily downhill to the light
lands. The expansion of soils takes place very generally
in "clunchy" clays, all marls having much lime and ar^
gillaceous matter in their composition, with a comparatively
small proportion of sand. In soils of this nature the frost
penetrates, and by expansion lifts the masses upwards in a
remarkable degree. The soils in the Chalk and the Oolites
are sometimes very liable to this expanding and lifting ac-
tion— so much, that the wheat plants growing on them are
frequently lifted out and left unplanted after the soil is
rendered more solid by succeeding rains. Heavy rains get
rid of this to some extent, by working the soil round and
down upon the roots of the plants, and even to such an
extent as to produce a skin or pellicle on the upper surface.
Eolling and sheep-treading are also beneficial in such cases.
But where this artificial consolidation is given to upraised

"THROW ING-OUT" OF THE WHEAT PLANT. 95

soil, it is essential that, on the plants having again fairly
taken to the land, hoeing and top-dressing should be done,
to loosen the soil, and to expose it with its chemical ferti-
lisers to the atmospheric influences, when the accelerated
growth takes place. Professor Buckman points out that
the best way to obviate the evils of this expansion of soils,
in heavy lands, is to raise as large green crops as possible,
and to plough in all the leaves. By this means a more
equitable pulverisation of the soil is obtained, and by the
gradual admixture of vegetable matter a loamy soil is ulti-
mately produced. Farmyard dung, when in a fresh state
— not decomposed and rotten — sometimes acts in increasing
the expansive lifting action of soils, as the long straws act
as media for conveying water into the soil, and which,
becoming frozen and expanding, lifts the soil. In the
stiff and argillaceous soils of the Lias and Oxford clays,
the rain acts not by crumbling and lifting, but by en-
larging the plastic mass of soil, so that it is compressed
very tightly round the roots of the wheat plants, depriving
them of their free power of growth and action. This plas-
tic element in soil, as pointed out by Professor Buckman,
is most injurious to wheat, from the comparative slowness
with which decomposition proceeds, air and light being
kept out. Coldness is also a marked characteristic of such
soils, from their retentiveness of water. The remedy in
such cases is thorough drainage, mixing the soil with burnt
clay, dressing with town-refuse, coal ashes, &c., the use of
fresh long farmyard manure, and of all other means by
which the texture will be lightened, and the soil made
friable and pulverised. Stiff soils are peculiarly liable to
crack in dry weather, which is very injurious to the de-
licately-formed roots and fibres of wheat. If, after a long
continuance of dry March winds, the soi^gets cracked, the
fibres are rent and the secondary growth is impeded, so
that when the return of more propitious weather fills up
the cracks, and restores ihe soil to its proper condition for
the maintenance of growth, that growth is given for some
time in repairing its condition, in place of aiding the general

96 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

growth. Having thus described briefly the general habits
of growth of the wheat plant, it will be obvious that the
final and perfect development of the seed or fruit will be
dependent upon the way in which their habits are aided.
In the points involved in the discussion of the question as
to how the productive capabilities of wheat are dependent
upon the mode in which its habits of growth are consulted
and assisted by the modes of culture, Mr. Hallet, in a re-
cent paper in the ' Journal of the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety,' has some interesting and suggestive matter. Mr.
Hallet, by the term tillering, understands the " horizontal
development" of the roots; by the "vertical develop-
ment," the growth upwards of the leaves and stems ; and
by the " natural " growth of wheat, that mode of cultiva-
tion which gives free play to its nature, or by which the
habits of the plant — as those we have already described —
are best aided. The extent to which the "horizontal"
development takes place in the growth of the wheat plant
may be seen from the fact "that the stems of a single grain,
having perfect freedom of growth, will, in the spring, while
lying flat upon the surface, extend over a circle of 3 feet
in diameter, producing at harvest from fifty to sixty ears."
The vertical development is also dependent upon the way
in which the horizontal development is aided or retarded.
This, as Mr. Hallet points out, is abundantly shown by the
fact that thin crops generally produce fine ears. For de-
tails of great interest connected with the culture of wheat,
the reader is referred to Part I. of the present series on the
Culture of Farm Crops, chap, vi., p. 78, par. 49.

CHAPTER SECOND.

THE DISEASES OF WHEAT OP VEGETABLE ORIGIN RUST

MILDEW SMUT, &C., &C. BURST, &C., &C.

6. Classification of Diseases. — It is impossible to over-
estimate the importance of a knowledge of the diseases

PARASITIC FUNGI. 97

which attack this the most important of all our farm crops
or of the best known and most readily available means
by which their attacks can be prevented or remedied. It
is obvious enough that this department of our series
carries with it many considerations of the highest value ;
for it is plain enough that we may take the utmost pains
to ensure cultivation of our crop, and yet lose it quickly
by the ravages of disease, all the more dangerous be-
cause so insidious, and the origin and progress of which
are so invested with doubt and difficulty. Hence the
value to the practical man of that knowledge of these dis-
eases which may enable him to prevent their attacking his
crop, or of lessening their evils should they unfortunately
visit it. Following Professor Henslow's classification of the
diseases of wheat, we shall give our notes under the two
heads "diseases of vegetable," and second, "diseases of
animal or insect origin."

7. Parasitic Fungi. — The diseases which attack the
wheat plant, and which come under the first class, owe
their origin to the attacks of parasitic fungi. A fungus is
a cryptogamous or cellular plant, which grows in contact
with organised matter, never drawing its nutriment directly
from the soil, water, or atmosphere, like other plants; but
living by imbibing from the plant or organised body in
which it grows the juices which characterise it. This
nourishment is drawn through the medium of the " stalk "
or "stem" or "spawn" of the fungus — called, in the lan-
guage of botany, its " mycelium." The fungus is totally de-
void of flowers, but is propagated by what are called
"spores," or sometimes "sporules;" these are generally
colourless, but if possessed of colour, that is never green.
Fungi, as a rule, attain no great size, and are small com-
pared with cryptogamous plants, as ferns, to which they are
closely allied ; many of them are, however, so wonderfully
minute as to require the highest microscopic powers to make
their presence manifest ; hence the obscurity under which
the subject of the investigation of their habit rests ; and it
so happens that it is amongst this class that those fungi

CULTUKE OF FARM CROPS.

are met with, which are the causes of the most com-
mon of the diseases which infest the graminaceous plants.
These minute plants assume different forms ; sometimes, as
in the case of the fungus — which we know by the name of
mould — being made up of a series of minute sacs or cells
strung together by a bead-like process as in fig. 4, each of
which may be separated from the other, and yet — as is sup-
posed— still remain reproductive. Other fungi assume still
more complicated, and in many cases very beautiful, forms,
as in fig. 5, where the "sporules" or "spores" are seen ter-

urinating the tips or extremities of the thread-like processes.
If, then, the plants themselves are so minute as a whole,
as we have already stated many of them are, some faint
notion may be obtained of the extreme minuteness of the
sporules by which they are propagated or multiplied.
Professor Henslow mentions that Fries — one of the great-
est authorities in this branch of natural history — calcu-
lated that a particular fungus might contain ten million of
sporules, while M. Bauer measured the spores of the species
of fungus (uredo foetida) known as "bunt " or " smut balls,"
at 1^\)(j of an inch in diameter; so that a single grain of
wheat measuring only the thousandth part of a cubic inch
would contain 4,000,000 of sporules; while, then, it is
hardly possible to conjecture how many sporules each
spore* contains, since they are scarcely distinguishable

* Professor Henslow (in his paper in the Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society) gives the following note, which may be useful

PARASITIC FUNGI. 99

under very high powers of the microscope — still some idea
may be formed from the above statements of the astonish-
ing— nay incomprehensible — reproductive powers of the
parasitic fungi which infest our farm crops. It is not to be
supposed, however, that all the parasitic fungi are merely
" pests," while under certain conditions they truly are so ;
they nevertheless play an important and a beneficent part
in the economy of nature ; for, attaching themselves to de-
caying matter, they hasten its decomposition, suck up its
juices, which would otherwise taint the atmosphere, and
thus act as the "scavengers of nature." "Of these parasi-
tic fungi, some,'' says the authority we have already quoted,
" are restricted to one species of plant, some to another ;
but, generally speaking, most of them are capable of living
upon more than one species of the same genus; where, of
course, we might expect the resemblance in all points to be
very close. Some fungi confine their attacks to the seeds,
others to the stem or leaves, and some even to one side
only of the leaves. One of those which attack wheat lives
only on the grain, another more particularly attacks the
short stalk (the pedicil) on which each flower is seated,
whilst three .... are restricted to the straw, chaff, and
leaves, but all five live at first beneath the epidermis, and
not upon it. In this respect they bear a close analogy to
those parasitic animals which live within the bodies of
other animals, some immediately beneath the skin, others
in the intestines, and others, again, within the very sub-
stance of the muscle. It is the extraordinary minuteness
of the sporules of these fungi which allows of their being
absorbed by the roots, and probably also through the pores
of the stem and leaves of the plants; and then they are
conveyed by the sap to the various parts where they are
enabled to germinate, grow, and fructify. The sporules of

in preventing errors of description. "The terms sporce, sporulce,
sporidce, &c., have either been applied synonymously or vaguely
"by different authors. The more modern practice appears to be to
use sporulae, for the ultimate granules analogous to seed ; sporidia for
the cases or vessels containing them ; and sporce for the additional
covering which sometimes includes several sporidia.

100 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

fungi appear to be everywhere dispersed through the at-
mosphere, ready to germinate wherever they may find a
dead or living subject in a condition suited to their at-
tacks. Common mouldiness, for instance, which so readily
forms on many substances in a moist situation, is the most
familiar example of the inconceivable numbers in which
the sporules of a minute fungus are everywhere diffused."
We are now prepared to detail briefly the various diseases
attacking wheat arising from the presence of fungi — the
first of which we notice is,

8. Rust. — Of this disease — the attacks of which cause
such extensive losses of the wheat crop that all the other
diseases are by some considered of comparatively little mo-
ment— we take, as introductory to the more practical re-
marks in connection with it, the following from one of the
Agricultural Reports of the Government of the United
States — from the pen of Mr. Lewis Bollman of Indiana.
The extract affords us some very interesting particulars re-
specting the history of this terrible scourge of the wheat
crop. "The oldest of our histories," says Mr. Bollman,
" the Bible, frequently alludes to it as common among the
Jews, and represented it as one of the punishments in-
flicted on that disobedient people. They were warned that
disobedience would be followed 'with blasting and with
mildew;' and when thus punished, the prophet Haggai
says: 'I smote you with blasting and with mildew, and
with hail, in all the labours of your hands ; yet ye turned
not to me, saith the Lord.' The Hebrew name for the
rust, yarcoon, meaning a yellow colour caused by moisture,
is indicative of the cause and appearance of the disease
then as we find them now. The Grecian and Roman
writers have transmitted to us like names and causes.
The Greeks called it erusitee, and the Romans rubigo. Ovid,
describing the rubigalia, a religious festival established by
one of the earliest rulers of Rome, makes the priest say,
' If the sun fervently heats the moist stalks, then, 0 dread
goddess, is the opportunity for thy dread wrath. Be mer-
ciful, I pray, and withhold thy rusting hands from the

RUST. 101

crops.' In all times, and among every civilized people,
this disease existed, and a moist stalk heated by a hot sun
is the cause of it ; hence heavy dews, precipitated by clear,
cool nights, succeeded by a hot sun during the day, soon
develop the disease now as it did in the most ancient
periods. It was not until the microscope was invented that
the true nature of the disease was known. There is a
species of plant which lives on the sap of other plants,
called parasite. The rust and smut are plants of this
character. The microscope shows the fact that rust is a
perfectly formed plant, having roots, stems, and branches,
and producing seed too small for the unaided eye to dis-
cover. These exist in innumerable quantities in the at-
mosphere, awaiting the condition essential to their germi-
nation and development. What these are we have already
seen. In the language of Ovid, they are the sun fervently
beating on the moistened stalks. When this moisture
proceeds from showery weather, no danger need be appre-
hended; but when from dews precipitated by cool nights,
then the rust rapidly develops itself Whether the mois-
ture in drying so rapidly causes a contraction of the outer
portion of the stem so as to induce splitting, or whether
the coolness of the night causes it, is not certainly ascer-
tained. Be this as it may, the result is the same — an im-
perceptible splitting of the straw through which the sap
oozes out. The invisible and multitudinous seeds of the
rust attach themselves to this sap, and burying themselves
in it, rapidly vegetate, striking their roots in the openings
of the straw, thus diverting to themselves the sap of the
plant, which should go to the filling out and ripening of
the grain. Hence it so rapidly shrivels, and often becomes
worthless.

"What is the remedy against this evil? The Romans
sacrificed a red bitch on the altar of the goddess Eubigo,
the priest entreating her to withhold her rusting hands. If
the farmers could be persuaded to sacrifice all bitches to the
goddess, then an altar ought to be erected to her on every
farm, for the indirect benefit to the wheat crop by increased

102 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

sheep husbandry would more than compensate all losses
from the rust.

" The Jewish prophets regarded the blasting and mildew
as a punishment for the sins of the people. When a peo -
pie by rebellion, under such high condition of prosperity
as exhibited by the census of 1860, seeks its own and the
destruction of others, and the overthrow of the best govern-
ment the world has seen, blasting and mildew of the wheat
crop will not stay their impious hands. But, regarding the
remedy for rust, through the microscope, we find that it
is not in all stages of the growth of the plant that the
straw is liable to split under heavy dews and a hot sun.
It is not in its growing state, but in its ripening stage only,
that this result is produced. Hence, whatever rapidly
shortens the ripening stage lessens the danger. For this
purpose there is nothing equal to stable manure, the pre-
cise effects of which on the soil and on the wheat crop will
be stated under the head of manures. Another remedy is
in immediate harvesting when the crop is affected by the
rust. The following instructive experiments on this point
I find in Mr. Klippart's essay on wheat. Mr. George D.
Hendricks, of Preble County, Ohio, writes Mr. Klippart as
follows: — 'In 1842 I had a large field seriously affected
by rust, and, having read in the Genesee Farmer the ne-
cessity of early cutting, I put a hand cradle to work and
left ; was absent a few days, and, on my return, found my
hand had only cut a few dozen of sheaves, avowing that it
was so green that he knew it would be worthless. I then
procured hands and had the field cut, but too late for more
than half a crop, whilst the portion cut at first was plump,
and had well-filled grains.' "

The 'rust,' 'red-ray,' 'red-gum' or 'red- robin' — for by
all these names is it known, although the first is the most
general — is the result of the attacks of a fungus known
as the uredo rubigo. It forms yellow or orange-coloured
blotches or powder spots upon the stem, the leaves, and
the chaff; and so common is it sometimes that a whole
field of wheat will have quite a red tinge given to it. The

MILDEW.

103

Fig. 6.

colour is different from the patches of bunt or smut fungus,
being, as above stated, yellow or orange, or rather varying
from orange-yellow to brown. In fig. 6 we give a sketch
of the sporules. Professor Henslow states,
with reference to rust, " that he believes
agriculturists have confounded under this
name, or the names we have above given,
the attacks of what systematic botanists
have distinguished as two distinct species
of fungi — one of these we have named
above is the uredo rubigo, the other is
named uredo linearis" Of these two spe-
cies the Professor conjectures that whilst the spore of the
uredo rubigo undergoes no change, that of the uredo line-
aris is merely " the young state of a distinct form of spore
which, when further advanced, is called puccinm graminis."
9. Mildew. — This last fungus, mentioned in preceding
par., is that which, according to Professor Henslow, pro-
duces the disease called the " mildew." The name pucci-
nia is given from a Greek word signifying thickly ; and so
called from the thick masses which infest the plants. The
common appearance of the straw of wheat attacked by mil-
dew is represented in fig. 7. The ripe spores are of an

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

104

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

intensely black colour, they are club-shaped at the head,
as at b in fig. 8, divided into two chambers as shown, each
of which contains a number of sporules. These club-
shaped heads spring from tapered stalks. The patches on
the straw or leaves, as in fig. 7, are composed of an immense
number of these spores — in such profusion, indeed, that they
sometimes burst through the epidermis of the stem and
leaves, "that the whole plant appears as if it had been
scorched." In fig. 8 a a represents part of the straw.
The Eev. Mr. Sidney, in an able paper in the Eoyal
Agricultural Society's Journal, on the " Parasitic Fungi of
the British Farm " (to which we are indebted for the basis
of our illustrations), draws attention to the importance of
not confounding the true mildew, which we have described
and illustrated above, with " another black fungus which
gives a dingy aspect to whole fields towards harvest, and is
often called mildew; but which never attacks a plant till
it is previously diseased, and which, for want of any other
name, I am obliged to announce by its botanical name,
cladiosphorum herbarum" In fig. 9 we give an illustra-
tion of its appearance in the straw, and in fig. 1 0 an illus-
tration of the sporules ; from which the difference between
this and the real mildew will be at once seen.

10. Smut. — Like all the parasitic fungi attacking wheat,

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

THE BUNT FUNGUS. 105

the fungi producing the disease so called above, appear on
the plant in the form of masses of dust. The botanical
name for the fungi now under notice is uredines (from the
Latin word uro, I burn, from the scorched appearance they
give to the plants which they attack). The "smut" is
formed of the spores of an uredo called the uredo segetum.
This sooty powder resulting from the attacks of this fungus
appears on the flowering parts of the plant; the pedicels
or little stalks, on which the flowers are seated, swell,
become very fleshy in appearance, and become ultimately
filled with black dust. The smut fungus is often confounded
with the bunt fungus (next to be noticed) ; but although
resembling it in the colour and shape of the deposits of '
dust, these deposits are not half so large, while they have
none of the disgusting odour which distinguishes the bunt
fungi or dust. The smut fungi are not so much dreaded
by the farmer as the bunt fungi, inasmuch as the spores
have generally dispersed before the corn is cut, while they
impart no disagreeable odour to the flour which may be
made from the com infected by them. The smut or dust
brand is comparatively rare in the wheat crop, common,
however, in the barley, more so in the oat, and not met
with in the rye crop.

11. The "bunt" or "pepper brand" fungus is much
more dreaded than the smut. The botanical name for it is
uredo fcetida, so called from the peculiarly disgusting odour
it imparts to the infected grain. When an
&' • infected grain is crushed, in place of flour,
a black, oily, and foetid mass is exuded, the
interior of the ovary is entirely destroyed,
the only part remaining being the integument
or outer skin, which serves as a case or sac
to contain the spores, which amount, as we
have already observed, to the enormous
number of four million in one grain. Fig.
11 shows the sporules of the bunt fungus
on their mycelium, their diameter being about the six
hundredth part of an inch.

106 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

12. Causes of the Attacks of Must, Mildew, fyc. —
As already noticed, Professor Henslow is inclined to
believe that both rust and mildew proceed from the
same fungus (uredo linearis) " under different forms or
states of fructification." The Professor states that he has
observed the mildew fungus (puccinia graminis) mixed with
the rust fungus (uredo rubigo) in a way which strength-
ens his opinion j further observations are, however, required
to decide the point. A popular notion connected with the
blight of wheat by mildew is that " the berberry bush (ber-
beris vulgaris) is in some way or other frequently connected
with" its production. This opinion is, however, founded
apparently upon conjectural notions, or upon carelessly
made observations ; and requires to be put to the test of
a rigid examination and experiment before it can be re-
ceived as correct. Although ergot is generally supposed to
be a disease which attacks rye, still, as Professor Henslow
remarks, a close investigation of the wheat crop will proba-
bly result in proving that it is more frequently to be met
with than is supposed ; the Professor suggests that should
the ergot even prove abundant in a wheat crop, it will be
worth while to pick the diseased grains out from the rest of
the sample, not only for the purpose of purifying the remain-
der, but for sale ; the ergot being a peculiarly valuble me-
dicine in competent hands, although it is, when partaken
of in flour, highly dangerous. Professor H. Y. Hind, of
Trinity College, Toronto, has made very elaborate investi-
gations in the diseases which attack wheat of the class
now under description. The result of these he has given
in a report to the Canadian Government. The points
involved are of such importance that we here re-pro-
duce the major portion of the Professor's remarks on
the subject: — "Ammonia, we know, exists in the atmo-
sphere, probably to the extent of one part in ten mil-
lion parts on the average. At times the quantity of am-
monia present is much greater than the above ratio, at
other periods less. Eain water contains on an average
nearly one part of ammonia to the million, and of nitric

CAUSES OF THE ATTACKS OF EUST, &c. 107

acid about five parts to the million. Dew always contains
ammonia, and mists have prevailed so rich in this sub-
stance that the water had an alkaline reaction. Barral
analysed the water collected in the rain-gauge of the Ob-
servatory at Paris. He found that in one year 1074 Ibs.
of ammonia fell with the rain, and 10 '7 Ibs. of nitric acid.
In July he found the amount of the ammonia to be the
greatest ; in September the amount of nitric acid to be the
greatest. The ammonia was least in March, and increased
gradually to July. In August it diminished suddenly, and
continued to diminish until October, attaining its second
maximum in February. These observations, although
very interesting, are not satisfactory, because they were
made in the neighbourhood of a great city. Hence we
find that Boussingault discovered much less ammonia in
the air far away from towns — a gallon of rain water con-
taining only one twenty-fifth of a grain of ammonia. As
a general fact, however, the water collected during fogs was
extraordinarily rich in ammonia, containing on an average
one-third of a grain to the gallon ; but an instance has
been known — before referred to — of a gallon of water from
a fog containing not less than four grains of ammonia.
The constant presence of this substance in the atmosphere
is not only now fully established, but its influence upon
vegetable growth in this gaseous form is of the highest in-
terest, and possibly of the highest importance. The ex-
periments of M. Ville upon the effects of ammonia in air
upon vegetation, show how rapidly and remarkably its in-
fluence is felt. If ammonia be artificially introduced into
air in the same proportional average as carbonic acid is
found to be constantly present, namely, about one part in
2,500 parts of air, its influence soon shows itself upon the
leaves, which continually acquire a deeper and deeper tint.
The presence of such ammoniacal vapours not only stimu-
lates the vegetation, but changes the growth of the plant,
and causes the development and enlargement of particular
organs. In prosecuting a series of experiments on the
phenomena of vegetation, with a view to ascertain whether

108 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

nitrogen was directly absorbed from the atmosphere and
assimilated, M. Boussingault observed the growth of min-
ute green cryptogamia on the outside of the flower pots
which had been exposed to the air, but he failed to detect
any vegetable growth on those from which fresh air had
been carefully excluded. The sudden growth of varieties
of fungi during misty weather has often been noticed,
and their appearance may be accelerated by the introduc-
tion of a small quantity of vapour of ammonia into any
confined space where they are observed. I am not aware
that any extensive experiments have been made upon the
growth of fungi in an atmosphere rich in ammonia, such as
certain fogs. I have, however, remarked with surprise
their absence in an atmosphere from which ammoniacal va-
pours were probably abstracted by powdered charcoal, with-
out, however, drawing any conclusion from the observation,
until attracted by the curious discovery of M. Boussingault,
that fogs are eminently rich in ammonia. The presence of
a large quantity of this plant food in certain fogs is not
difficult to account for. Not only does the gradually in-
creasing quantity of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere be-
fore the positive appearance of mist in any locality, collect
and condense rare and widely-diffused ammoniacal vapours,
but the exhalations from the soil, produced by decompos-
ing vegetable matter, are arrested and accumulate. The
period of the year when fogs rich in ammonia may be ex-
pected depends naturally upon the frequency of the fall of
rain — upon the moisture of the atmosphere, and upon
the winds. In Canada it appears reasonable to sup-
pose that we may expect to find fogs rich in ammonia
during the hot months of July and August, when the
rain-fall is not so great as in September. During these
months mists frequently hang over the fields, particularly
in low situations. The exhalations of vapour of water
from the leaves of plants being then checked, and their
juices partially stagnating in an atmosphere often rich in
ammoniacal vapours, all the conditions for the appearance
of the fungus called "rust " on the stems and leaves of the

CAUSES OF THE ATTACKS OF RUST, &c. 109

cereals appear to be fulfilled. It is commonly remarked
that rust is most prevalent on new land; this is perhaps
explained by the large amount of vegetable matter thrown
into a state of decomposition by excess of air and the con-
sequent production of ammonia. There is no doubt that
much of the ammonia thus generated would combine with
vegetable acids, and be fixed by clay, &c. ; but some por-
tion could not fail to combine with carbonic acid, and es-
cape into the air in the form of the volatile carbonate, as is
observed to a great degree on manure heaps even where
gypsum or other solid fixers of ammonia are employed to
avoid it. We must regard new land as a storehouse
of ammonia and other plant food which become liable
to volatilize when liberated by too free an exposure to
air without proper precautions. If the supposition be
correct that "rust" is mainly occasioned by the con-
currence of mists or fogs in July or August, rich in
ammonia, stimulating the growth of the sporules in the
stagnated juices of the plants, and that the active agent in
inducing the sudden appearance of that destructive para-
site is really ammoniacal vapours, we have a remedy at
hand which promises, when properly and carefully applied,
if not entirely to check, at least so far to arrest the growth
of the parasite as to claim a general trial, especially as its
effects would probably prove equally availing in arresting
mildew. What we require is an available absorbent of
ammonia and its volatile compounds; not an absorbent
which will destroy this valuable plant food, but one which
possesses the property of inducing it to assume another
form, perhaps equally available as a fertilizer, although of
much slower action. Eecent observations show that pow-
dered charcoal answers these requirements. Charcoal not
only absorbs ammonia to an immense extent, but it also
oxidises it to nitric acid, and thus renders it temporarily
inert, but not unavailable to future fertilization. Powdered
charcoal is distributed with the utmost ease over large
areas. Being an extremely light substance, and easily re-
duced to a fine state of division, the least breath of air is

110 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

sufficient to carry it for hundreds of yards. Any one who
tries the experiment of gently shaking a muslin bag contain-
ing coarsely powdered charcoal, in a gentle wind, will find
that the operation of sowing, as we may technically express
it, a ten acre field would certainly not cost one-tenth part
of the labour of sowing the same field with plaster ; and
as that operation is not unfrequent in this country, a prac-
tical guide is at once furnished of the amount of labour
the operation involves. Powdered charcoal thus sown is
very uniformly distributed by the least motion of air, and
its effects are marvellous. In a stable, for example, strongly
smelling of ammonia from fermenting urine, ari ounce of
powdered charcoal, shaken by means of a muslin bag or
any fine net work, rapidly and uniformly distributes itself,
and instantly absorbs the ammoniacal vapours. A curious
instance of the action of this deoderizer occurred at Bala-
clava during the heat of summer, when the stench was al-
most intolerable in that painfully celebrated harbour. A
ship-load of charcoal arrived packed in bags, and the men
who were engaged in transferring the cargo to the shore
were covered with the dust, as was every object in the
neighbourhood — the stench which before prevailed sud-
denly and completely disappeared. Nothing is more simple
than the manufacture of charcoal. A few billets of wood
are to be piled like cordwood, then well covered with sods,
with the exception of two orifices, one to admit a little
lire, and the other to allow the smoke to escape, until the
heap has well taken, and then to be firmly closed for the
purpose of allowing slow combustion to go on in the ab-
sence of air. When cool, the charcoal may be crushed in a
stout canvas bag by a lever, not by blows, and when sifted,
furnishes the required material for sowing. If we ^assume
with Fresinius that the quantity of ammonia in the at-
mosphere amounts to less than one ten-millionth, the
amount it would contain would exceed 50,000,000 tons,
while that of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere is
3,300,000,000,000 tons, the weight of the air itself being
5,050,000,000,000,000 tons or five thousand and fifty

CAUSES OF THE ATTACKS OF RUST, &c. Ill

billions. The connection of rust with ammonia is exempli-
fied in many different ways. We often find, for instance,
that richly manured fields are liable to rust ; and where
isolated patches of manure or dropping of cattle occur in a
field of wheat, the grain growing on those patches will be
rusted generally, but not always. Charcoal beds have long
been considered "rust proof" in the United States. Liquid
manure, when applied to crops, has proved very beneficial
in enabling them to escape rust, while neighbouring crops,
manured in the ordinary way with solid farm-yard manure,
were much affected. In one case the ammonia would be
all absorbed, in the other case part would return to the at-
mosphere. Damp situations, fogs, and the season of the
year when the decomposition of vegetable matter is most
active, and therefore the atmosphere often charged with
ammonia, are all conducive to the propagation and develop-
ment of this fungus. Rust does not appear to be found
on those parts of the wheat plant which are not exposed
to air and light, such as the roots and those portions of
the stem enclosed in the sheath of the leaves. This arises
from the simple circumstance that there exist no stomata
in those parts which are not exposed to light, hence a spe-
cies of negative evidence that a large proportion of the
sporules of rust enter the stomata directly from the air, and
vegetate there. Fries states that the sporules of certain
fungus are so inconceivably minute that they rise like thin
smoke into the air by evaporation, and are dispersed in
innumerable ways. He calculated that in one individual
fungus the number of seeds exceeded ten millions ; and
Mr. John J. Thomas of Wayne county, JSTew York, has esti-
mated the number of plants of rust on a single wheat stalk
to be twenty millions." As affording what may probably
be considered a corroboration of the Professor's views —
above detailed — as to the cause of rust, we may note that
in our experience dibbled wheat in which the plants have
been widely separated, and as a consequence more than
usually exposed to the free play of the atmosphere, has
always been very much rusted.

112 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

13. Remedies for the Fungoid Diseases of Wheat
already described — To some extent in the last paragraph,
taking up Professor Hind's view of the cause of rust, some
of the remedies have been indicated ; and the reader in-
terested in other modes will find those usually adopted in
practice described in Part I., WHEAT, of this present series,
beginning at par. 10., p. 23.

Some sanguine cultivators believe that it is possible, by
care, to exterminate the fungi which produce bunt and
smut in wheat, but that this hope is not well founded is
evident enough when we remember that it is not the wheat
alone which is infected with them, but the grasses which
grow in our pastures, and moreover — which is worse — in
those which nourish at our roadside. The sources then of
a supply of sporules being so numerous, it seems as if the
farmer was driven to one point only, care in the selection of
the seed ; and with reference to this point Professor Henslow
throws out what we conceive to be a most important sug-
gestion, namely, the setting aside some portion of his land
for the careful cultivation of seed wheat. There may be,
he says, some practical reason which forbids this being
done ; but it seems nevertheless to him that it would be
" always worth while for every farmer to set aside some
portion of ground to be more carefully tended than the rest
for the purpose of securing good and perfectly clean seed.
Among other reasons for such a practice, he would then be
able to weed his crop from every plant infected with bunt
or smut, before the fungi ripened." When we consider
how small a space of ground would be required to raise
seed sufficient for a large breadth of the wheat crop, it is
difficult to see why objections could be made to this very
common-sense plan. True, the careful cleaning of this
plot, and the not less careful weeding out of infected grains,
would be troublesome ; but if the trouble which the plan
would involve is all the objection that can be raised to it,
why then no more need be said. We nevertheless believe
that a large proportion of the success which we wish to
believe yet remains for the future of agriculture, lies in the

REMEDIES FOR FUNGOID DISEASES OF WHEAT. 113

direction of great care in those minute details preliminary
to the larger, and as we now consider them, the more im-
portant operations of the farm. It seems to be but stat-
ing a truism when we say that the labour of cultivation is
altogether lost if we use seed which cannot fructify ; and
in great measure lost if we use seed which must produce
bad crops. We would think little of the engineer who
would make a steam engine of the highest finish in detail
and calculated to give out the maximum of work, and then
attempted to work it by burning in its furnace half coal
or half shale, or shale altogether — and yet, in some de-
gree, many farmers do the same in elaborately working land
to prepare it for producing large crops, and then putting in
seed which cannot possibly yield them. If then the care-
ful raising of good seed is objected to, it behoves the farmer
to see that such seed as he has at command is really free
from the fungi spores. This he can secure, if he likes, by
dressing, and this operation should never be omitted. It
would be doing the cause of agriculture good service if a
series of elaborate and carefully conducted experiments
were made having reference to the employment of various
dressings for wheat. Professor Henslow suggests the fol-
lowing as the "kind of experiments that may be called
for :" — In the first place, it will be necessary to collect a
parcel of thoroughly bunted or smutted wheat seed, dividing
this into a number of small packets, each containing the same
weight or the same number of grains. In washing or steep-
ing the contents of any one of these packets, which should be
numbered as No. 1, No. 2, &c., the grains which float should
be kept apart, and the fungi which come to the top should
also be collected and placed in a packet and marked as F 1
(fungi from No. 1), F 2 (fungi from No. 2), &c. The fol-
lowing washes or dressings may be used.

No. 1. Seeds unwashed to serve as a comparative experiment.

No. 2. Washed in cold water only.

No. 3. ,, ,, scalding watei'.

No. 4. ,, ,, water with lime, the proportions to be specified.

No. 5. ,, ,, in water and brine in the following proportions.

114 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

(a) 2 parts of water to 1 part of saturated* brine.

(b) 1 part of water to 1 of saturated brine.

(c) 1 part of water to 2 of ,, ,,

(d) Saturated brine.

No. 6. Washed in sulphate of copper.

No. 7. Sprinkled but not washed with brine, — to which may be
added,

No. 8. Washed with stale urine.

No. 9. „ „ fresh ,,

No. 10. Washed in chloride of lime and water. Under which
head the subdivisions (a) (b) (c) and (d) No. 5, may
be used. These also may be used with the sulphate of
copper, No. 6 — in order to test the utility of different
strengths of the mixture.

Another set of experiments should next be made by se-
lecting perfectly clean grains, and infecting them by rub-
bing them over with the fungi, obtained from the washing
of the different packets of .diseased seeds as above described.
This will be class

No. 11. Rubbed grains with fungus of

(a) packet F 1.

(b) packet F 2.

(c) packet F 3.

(d) packet F 4.

Infected seeds should then be washed in pure water to
obtain the fungi which will float ; these being put up in
packets and numbered. Pure or clean seeds should then
be washed in various dressings as below, and then rubbed
over with the fungi, as,

No. 12. Seeds steeped in lime and rubbed with fungus of packet

No. 2.

No. 13. Seeds steeped in brine and rubbed ,, ,,

No. 14. Seeds steeped in sulphate of copper ,, ,,

The whole of the dressings given in Nos. 1 to 9
may be thus used. The experiments last named may be
repeated by washing the seeds — steeped and rubbed as
there described — in pure water, in order to remove any of
the mixture that may adhere to the surface. Such, some-
what differently stated, is an outline of the experiments

* By saturated brine is meant brine made by dissolving salt in
water till the point is reached at which the water will dissolve no
more salt— this point is called the "point of saturation."

REMEDIES FOR FUNGOID DISEASES OF WHEAT. 115

suggested by Professor Henslow, and, on the mode of fur-
ther conducting them, we beg to suggest the following.
The seeds thus obtained should then be finally packed, and
with each packet a note given of the process under which
it has been placed ; or simply marked with the number of
the experiment, as " No. 9," which will indicate that it
has been washed with stale urine. Different plots of
ground should then be laid out, one plot allotted to the
seeds of one packet. A slight sketch-map being taken of
the whole as arranged.

Plot No. 1.
Packet No. 1.
dressed as in
No. 4.

No. 2.
Packet No. 2.
as in No. 1.

No. 3.
Packet No. 3.
as in No. 2.

No. 4.
Packet No. 4.
dressed as in
No. 9.

No. 5.
Packet No. 5.
dressed as in
No. 3.

No. 6.
Packet No. 6.
as in No. 5.

It will be necessary to have the plots separated a con-
siderable distance from each other, at least three feet.
And comparative observation as to the conduct — so to
speak — of the contents of each plot will be more easily
made if the seeds are dibbled at distances of 9 or 12 inches
each way. A register should be kept of each plot, the
produce of each, the time when the disease — if any — ap-
pears, and the number of diseased grains obtained from
each. The produce at harvesting of each plot should be
carefully kept separate in packets and labelled for further
experiments or examination. All this will be troublesome
doubtless; but having conducted a large number of experi-
ments— bearing upon different points — in this careful way,
we can, from our own experience, promise those who may
conduct similar ones to those we have indicated, a large
amount of positive pleasure in carrying them out. It is
difficult, indeed, to give one any idea of the interest which

116 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

the plots excite in one. From the moment the seeds appear
above ground the interest increases daily; and it will be
strange indeed if the experimenter does not find himself
making numerous and oft -repeated visits to the plots to
watch and record the progress of the plants which they
bear. We have little to say of the measures to be taken,
or which can be taken, to prevent the ravages of the rust
fungus (uredo rubigo and uredo linearis) and the mildew
fungus (puccinia graminis). The spores of these fungi do
not — it is understood — enter the plants which they infect
by the roots, but by the more minute pores in the stems
and leaves which botanists call stomata. The point is,
however, doubtful ; but as the " fungi at first make their
appearance in little cavities seated immediately beneath
these pores, it certainly looks very much as if the sporules
entered there. The stomata are naturally exhaling organs,
continually discharging, under the influence of light, a large
proportion of the water which they imbibe by the root. But
in moist weather the function is impeded, if in some cases
it J)e not actually reversed, when it would be easy for the
sporules to enter these invisible stomata with the moisture
imbibed by them." Excessive manuring, and especially
manuring directly for the wheat, is pretty well understood
to be the cause of mildew and rust ; and Mr. Knight states
distinctly that mildew is induced by foggy weather. Hence
the benefit of the practice followed by some of growing early
varieties so as to have the crops off the ground before the
autumnal fogs set in. It is also fairly established that
wheat grown in light soils is more liable to mildew than
wheat grown in heavy soils; and that spring wheats are
less liable to the attacks than winter wheat. " Amongst
the antidotes to mildew," says the Eev. E. Sidney, " I ven-
ture to name clean farming, amendment of the texture of
the soil, ventilation and letting in light, checking over-
luxuriance in the young plants, growing early varieties in
places subject to it, and avoiding putting on manure di-
rectly before wheat, and howing the wheat when young."
In a word, whatever tends to make the plants become sickly

DISEASES OF WHEAT CAUSED BY INSECTS. 117

— as " excess of heat or cold, drought or wet, sudden changes
of temperature, poverty of soil, over-manuring, shade, &c. —
tends also to the liability of the crop to be attacked by rust
and mildew.

CHAPTER THIRD.

DISEASES OF WHEAT CAUSED BY THE ATTACKS OP INSECTS.

1 4. Peculiarities of Insect Life. — Before describing the
particular insect pests of the wheat crop, it will be useful,
as well as interesting, to glance very briefly at some of
the peculiarities of insect life. The science of entomology
has only of late years been cultivated with a marked de-
gree of success ; previous to this development of interest
in it, it was considered by men of science as a department
of natural history beneath their notice. It is now, how-
ever, recognised as a science bearing with it many impor-
tant interests, more especially of those connected with the
arts of agriculture and horticulture. An insect, has been de-
fined as " an animal with a vertebra, six-footed, with a dis-
tinct head furnished by two antennae — a pair of confined
immovable eyes — breathing through openings leading to
internal air-tubes or trachece — sexes distinct — adult state at-
tained through a series of changes called "metamorphosis."
What these changes are, or of what this metamorphosis
consists, we now explain. The first condition is the "egg ; "
from this is produced the second change, the "larva" — po-
pularly known as a caterpillar; — from the larva the "pupa,"
or chrysalis, is produced, and from the pupa the " imago,"
or perfect insect. In fig. 12 we illustrate the "larva" or
caterpillar condition ; in fig. 1 3 the pupa or chrysalis ; in
fig. 14 the imago or perfect insect, as the "wheat midge."
Of the various orders into which insects are divided we
have not space here to enter; nor is it necessary for the
purposes of our treatise. Suffice it here to allude to those

118 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

Fig. 12. Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

classes having a special interest to agriculturists. The
order Coleoptera — a name compounded of two Greek words
which signify a sheathed winged insect — comprises all the
varieties of beetles. The beetles are furnished with four
wings, two of which are used for flying, which are transpa-
rent and membraneous, as illustrated in fig. 15. — the other

DISEASES OF WHEAT CAUSED BY INSECTS. 119

Fig 15.

two wings are hard and horny, and are used
to protect the flying wings. The order in-
cludes a great number of tribes, some of which
— as the snout beetles — are so numerous that
no fewer than 80,000 different kinds belong
to it. They are all eminently destructive of
farm and garden produce, to wit, the corn
weevil, (calandra granaria). To the order
Diptera — which name indicates the chief
characteristic of the insects belonging to
it — "two winged" — belongs several insects,
the attacks of which form the principal
plague of the wheat crop — namely, the "wheat
midge " (cecidomyia tritici), and the " hessian
fly" (cecidomyia destructor). The character-
istics of this order of insects are wings — one illustrated
in fig. 1 6 — two in number, which lie horizontally. The
head is hemispherical, the antennas very long, generally as
long as the body, the legs long. To the order Lepidop-
tera (scale winged) belong the vast number of moths, but-
terflies, the larvae of which are nearly all eminently de-

Fig. 16.

Fig. 17.

120 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

stractive of garden and farm produce. We illustrate in
tig. 1 7 a wing of an insect of this order. The larvse of the
coleopterous insects or beetles are popularly described or
known as grubs — the larvse of the lepidopterous insects, or
butterflies, moths, &c., as caterpillars — and those of the
dipterous insects, maggots. Having thus explained very
briefly the chief characteristics of insect life, we now pro-
ceed to describe the various insect parts of the wheat crop,
beginning with,

15. "Ear-cockle" "pepper corn," or "purples" by all of
which names this is known. The grains of wheat infected
with this disease become of a dark green colour, which
ultimately changes to one nearly black; they lose their
usual oblong rounded shape, and become nearly spherical
like a small peppercorn — hence one of the names of the dis-
ease ; the husks or chaff spread open ; the awns are twisted ;
so that infected ears are easily observable. On crushing the
grains thus diseased they are found to contain no flour but a
moist cottony substance, which, under the microscope, and
when moistened with water, is discovered to be a moving
mass of exceedingly minute eel-shaped animalculae, and to
which the name is given of vibrio tritici. The disease
occasioned by the attacks of this animalcule is stated to be
very injurious to the grain; but it is by no means com-
monly met with, or perhaps, to state the matter more cor-
rectly, it is not commonly suspected. On grinding the cot-
tony mass of animalculae it is said they remain behind with
the bran and not to pass through with the flour. " When a
small grain of wheat is seen by the side of one infected
with the vibrio, the young plant which springs from the
former is not infected before March ; but then the animal-
cules begin to find their way from the blighted grain into
the earth, and thence into the young corn. They gra-
dually ascend within the stem till they reach the ovule (or
young state of the seed) in the flower-bud even before the
ear has shown itself." A remarkable peculiarity connected
with this animalcule is its vitality, which they will retain
for six or seven years. Even if kept till they are reduced

EAR-COCKLE. 121

to a state so dry that they are easily powdered, yet if mois-
tened with water they will at once revive. It is difficult
to estimate the numbers which a grain of wheat may con-
tain ; but when in the young state fifty thousand might be
accommodated in the space. When full grown the vibrio
is monstrous in size compared with its condition while
young and in the grain. The remedy for this disease does
not lie in merely immersing the seed in water, for al-
though they float at first, still they soon sink so that they
cannot be separated. By subjecting them to scalding hot
water, Professor Henslow has noticed that the vibrio are
killed, and suggests '* the possibility of exposing infected
examples to a temperature that might be sufficiently high
to kill these animalcules, without being so hot as to de-
stroy the germinating powers of the corn."

1 6. The " wheat midge " (see fig. 1 4), is not by some consi-
dered an enemy of the crop worth troubling themselves
about -, others, however, who deem that a loss of one-
twentieth of a crop — which has been known to be occa-
sioned by it — is a loss worth considering, have paid atten-
tion to its habits and the means of preventing its attacks.
The "wheat midge" or fly, of which the name is " Cecidomyia
Tritici" may be seen collected in large numbers or clouds
in the month of June, between the hours of seven and
nine in the evening, hovering over and seeking places in
the wheat in which to deposit their eggs. These eggs de-
posited within the blossoms produce caterpillars, the larvae
of the midge, and which feed, their heads immersed in the
stigmata, according to the most plausible theory, upon the
juices which are secreted by the ovary, thus obstructing
its growth, and this whether it has been fertilised or not.
According to others, the caterpillars feed upon the pollen
after it has been shed by the anthers, thus preventing the
fertilization of the young seeds. Whatever be the food the
caterpillars feed upon, certain it is that their ravages effec-
tually prevent all fruitful development of the ovary, and
all advancement of the grain " beyond the state in
which it appears at the time the flower first expands."

i

122 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

The length of the caterpillar is about one-twelfth of an
inch ; it has no legs ; the colour is a citron yellow. When,
about to pass into the chrysalis or pupa condition, it spins
itself a fine transparent web, and which is attached to a sound
grain or to the inside of one of the scales of the chaff.
Seeing, as Professor Henslow suggestively remarks, that
" there is a strange economy in the insect tribe, by which
particular species in certain seasons favourable to their
production are enormously multiplied," it does seem worth
the attention of farmers to consider how best the increase
of the wheat midge may be prevented. As the chrysalides
of this insect remain attached to the chaff scales during
the winter, it appears at first sight the best plan to burn
the chaff ; or to scald it for food after the grain has been
thrashed out. But it appears that in some cases the cat-
erpillars drop from the chaff scales to the ground before
the crop is removed, and burying themselves in the soil,
are, it is presumed, changed to chrysalides, and remain
buried till they are finally changed into the midge. In
this latter case,. one authority presumes that the caterpillars
must have been ichneumonized before they could have
their habits so changed. By this term is meant that the
caterpillars have been attacked by one of the tribe of in-
sects called ichneumons, which lay their eggs in the bodies
of other insects, usually while these latter are in the cater-
pillar state. The eggs being hatched in this strange re-
ceptacle produce caterpillars which devour the non-vital
parts of their living conveyance, which thus dies, or is
passed, before it is finally destroyed, into the chrysalis stage.
The caterpillar of the ichneumon also passes to the chry-
salis state, and which remains in the body of its victim,
or issues out of it before passing to the chrysalis state. The
caterpillar of the wheat midge has " certainly one, and pro-
bably not less than three distinct species of these ichneu-
mons appointed to keep it in check." The most active of
these — the Platygaster Tritici, ichneumon flies or midges
— a black four-winged insect with a sharp-pointed tail —
may be seen in the months of July and August flying

THE WHEAT-MIDGE. 123

about the ears of wheat, for the purpose of finding the
caterpillar of the wheat midge in which to deposit their
eggs — which, with a marvellous instinct on the part
of the ichneumon fly, are adjusted in number nicely pro-
portioned to the size of the caterpillar; so that just as
many ichneumon caterpillars will be produced as the size
of the wheat-midge caterpillar is calculated to maintain.
By this fine and beneficial adjustment the wheat midge —
which would otherwise probably be such a scourge as would
ultimately destroy our wheat crops — is kept down. One
writer, while mentioning the fact that in one year the loss
sustained in the wheat crop of one district was equal to one-
third of its whole amount, and observing that all the cat-
erpillars had descended into the earth by the 1st of Au-
gust, counselled means to be taken under like circumstances
for destroying them while in that situation. If, as seems high-
ly probable, these caterpillars which do drop from the chaff
scales of the ear to the ground are ichneumonized caterpil-
lars, this counsel was the very worst which could be given ;
for if followed, the farmer's best friend would be thus
destroyed. Does not this fact show the importance of the
habits of all our farm insects being thoroughly studied and
known; and is it not, moreover, a remarkable instance of
the fine provision made by our All-wise Creator to pre-
serve the fruits of the earth, while at the same time he
demands the exercise of care on the part of the husband-
men, that the pests of the crop should be left in the chaff-
scales where they can be most easily destroyed ; while
their natural enemies or destroyers should drop to the
ground, where they are best preserved to resume in the
following season their saving office.

Professor Hind, in the paper already alluded to, gives
much information as to the means employed to prevent the
attacks of the "wheat midge" as adopted in North Amer-
ica. From this we take the following, which may be sug-
gestive to some of our readers : — " The remedial measure
which appears to be immediately suggested by a study of
the habits of the wheat midge, is of the simplest descrip-

124 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

tion, and everywhere practicable. The maggot of the midge
previous to assuming its larvae condition, buries itself an
inch or a little more below the surface of the ground. That
when the time arrives for their assuming the fly state, they
wriggle themselves to the surface for that purpose. It is
only by a series of alternate contractions and expansions
of one side and the other that they can make their way up
from an inch below the surface to the light and air, for
they possess no feet, or other exposed members when in
the pupa case. If, therefore, the pupa be buried, say six
inches below the surface, it is permanently imprisoned, for
nature has not provided any apparatus to enable it to ef-
fect its escape under such circumstances. If, therefore, at
any time between August and May of the following year,
the ground be ploughed to a depth of at least six inches,
and in such a way that the furrow slices lie as compactly
as possible, there can be no doubt that a vast majority of
the pupae will perish from inability to escape from their
imprisonment. But how much greater the probability of
every individual pupa perishing if the ground be ploughed
seven inches deep immediately after harvest, and left un-
touched until the follo\ving August 1 Every one knows
that it is not possible, in ploughing, to turn a sod or fur-
row slice completely over, so that all parts shall be altogether
reversed. The furrow slices may be made to lie with great
compactness, but there will be interstitial spaces into
which the pupa3 may fall or wriggle themselves, and event-
ually escape. When the field is ploughed immediately
after harvest, not only will the autumnal rains fill the
spaces beneath and between the furrow slices by washing
down fine particles of earth, but the influence of many
months of winter and spring will consolidate the furrow
slices, and their compactness may be ensured by rolling
in May, or the early part of June, before the fly ap-
pears. Rolling the land immediately after ploughing
is accomplished, will give further security to the pri-
son in which the pupae are inclosed by this simple ar-
tifice."

THE HESSIAN FLY. 125

17. (a) The Hessian Fly, (b) the Thrips, (c) Wheat
Stem Fly, (d) Wheat or Corn Saw Fly, (e) Wheat Para-
sites.— (a) The Hessian Fly. Fortunately the farmers of
this country have not had as yet the same experience of
this terrible scourge of the wheat crop as the farmers of
North America, where at one time, in some of the States
of the Union bordering the Atlantic, its ravages were such
that the cultivation of wheat was likely to be altogether
arrested. Although not unknown in Europe, having been
under the cognizance of naturalists as existing in France,
Germany, Switzerland, and some of the larger islands of
the Mediterranean \ still its ravages have been confined so
much to America, that some naturalists have asserted that
it is strictly an American insect. The Hessian fly is so
called from the opinion at one time held in America that
it was introduced into that country in 1776 by German
troops taken over from Hesse, in Germany, to reinforce the
British army then in possession of Staten Island, near New
York. The insect is dipterous, not unlike the wheat midge
(see Fig. 14), but the antennae are shorter, the wings more
elongated, and the hind part of the body pointed. The
scientific designation of the insect is cecidomyia distinctor.
The fly lays her eggs on the leaves of the young wheat in
November and May. When this is done with autumn
sown wheat, the plants in spring assume a straw colour
and appear to be withered ; the shoots only to which the
maggot is attached wither thus. The maggots appear to
live by suction merely, as they do not incise the stem or
otherwise injure it. When the autumn maggot has arrived
at its full growth the outer skin becomes detached, and
serves as a case first for a larva, and secondly, for a pupa
or chrysalis case. The outer skin becomes hardened, and
within the protecting case the maggot remains throughout
the winter months. As spring approaches, the larva changes
into the pupa condition — still within the same case — and,
after remaining in this condition for eight or ten days, the
pupa works its way up through the soil to light and air,
where it emerges through the case, which now cracks, arid

126 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

assumes the form of the Hessian fly so much dreaded by the
American farmer. Very numerous have been the plans
proposed to stop or prevent the ravages of this fly ; these
possessing no great practical interest to our readers, need
not be detailed here, but it will be interesting simply to
name them. They are, (1) growing wheat in a fertile soil,
or making soils, otherwise poor, rich with judicious manur-
ing ; (2) late sowing of seed ; (3) grazing ; (4) use of the
roller ; (5) mowing ; (6) steeping the seed in various eub
stances ; (7) growing oats as a decoy; and (8) wheat as do. ;
(9) deep covering of the seed ; (1 0) sun-drying the seed ; (1 1)
procuring seed from unaffected districts; (12) sprinkling
salt, ashes, or caustic lime over the young plants; (13)
burning and ploughing up the wheat stubble; and (14)
using what are called "fly-proof wheats." Of wheats which
come under this distinction are " Underbill," " Spelta,"
"Chmia," "Mediterranean," "Etrurian," "White Flint;'
" Chidham," and (bU de rile de hoe) "Early hoe wheat."
Of these remedies now named, some are more or less
advantageous, some altogether fanciful. — (b) The Thrips.
(Tlirips cerealium\ (thrips tritici), (coleothrips trifascicata.)
Of these three varieties of the insect, the first, "thrips
cerealium," is perhaps the most destructive ; it is said to have
destroyed in the year 1805 one-third of the wheat crop in
Piedmont. The colour of the insect is black ; it has a slender
body with a long lizard-like extremity. In hot weather it is
abundant to a remarkable degree ; to such an extent indeed
is it present in the wheat crop, that the naturalist Kirby
states that he never examined a single ear in which it was
not found. The opinion of this naturalist was decided that
it derived its nourishment from the grain ; an opinion in
which Linnaeus also coincides. It is said to infest wheat
grown upon strong heavy soil more than those grown upon
light ones ; and crops sown late than those sown early. —
(c) Wheat Stem Fly, (chlorops pumilionis). The colour
of this fly is black, at least its upper part, the under side
of the body being pale yellow. The maggot is small and of
a white colour, the pupa yellow, smooth, and shining. The

THE WIRE-WORM. 127

maggot attacks and destroys the central shoots of the plant,
dwarfing the lateral ones which are pushed out on the de-
cline of the central stem. — (d) The Wheat or Corn Saw Fly,
(" cephus pygmoe.as") is small in size, of a shining black
colour ; the larva is of a yellow colour with a dark head.
It takes up its abode within the stem, which it gradually
eats away. — (e) Wheat Parasites. These are supposed to
be very numerous — we say, supposed — for not much is
known either as regards their numbers or their habits. The
wheat louse, " aphis cerealium," is a green-coloured insect
with dark longish horns ; it infests the ear for some time
preceding harvest. The Corn Bugs ('• miris tritici" and
" miris erraticus") are found frequently attacking the ear of
the plant in its various stages. Nothing is known defin-
itely as to their habits. To the insect pests which we have
now described, we may here add that the grub of the cock-
chafer ("Melolontha agricola"- and (i Melolontha ruficomis")
and the caterpillar of the winter moth (noctua tritici) at-
tack and do great injury to the wheat plants in their various
stages. Formidable, however, as is the list of the insect
scourges of our wheat crop, that list is not yet exhausted ;
there remain, at all events, two to be named, which are as
destructive, if not more so, than any yet alluded to. These
are the " wire- worm " and the " grub."

18. The Wire-Worm. — While certain crops have what
may be called their own peculiar insect scourge which
affects it alone, or at least plants of the same natural order,
as the turnip fly the cruciferae, and the midge and Hessian
fly the graminse or cereals ; the true wire-worm is such a
universal feeder that no plant can be said to be safe from
its ravages. What therefore we have in the present divi-
sion of our work to say about it, although referring speci-
ally to the oat crop, will also have a practical bearing upon
the wheat crop, which is perhaps more ravaged by this pest
than any other crop, and for reasons stated in next paragraph.
In practice, it is the habit of farmers to class all grubs and
worms under the designation of wire-worms ; this has of
course given an appearance of much greater importance to

128 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

the ravages of the wire-worm, so called, than is properly
due to it ; but as that able entomologist, Mr. Curtis, ob-
serves, the true wire- worms " have enough to answer for
on their own account, and the great ignorance," therefore,
" that has existed regarding them," gives a high degree of
practical utility to all remarks bearing upon their charac-
teristics and on the best mode of meeting these ravages.

The wire-worm is known as the elater Uneatus, other-
wise the agriotes Uneatus, also, cataphoegus Uneatus. It
is the larvse of a very numerous species of beetle of the
genus elater ; as many as sixty are known in this coun^-
try, and are all eminently destructive of vegetable life.
These larvae feed upon the roots and the lower part of the
stems of the cereals and grasses, and are particularly de-
structive to the oat crop, arising from a very general practice
of taking this immediately after the breaking up of grass
land in the soil of which the eggs are abundant. The
body of the wire-worm is long and slender, about one inch
in length, cylindrical, made up of a series of twelve rings
or segments ; the three segments nearest the head bearing
three legs on each side ; the body is smooth generally, al-
though provided with a few hairs scattered here and there ;
the colour is yellowish, with brownish head. The length
of the pupa or chrysalis — the third stage of insect life — is
about one-fourth that of the larva ; its colour is whitish, and
is made up of ten rings and segments, the last of which
bears at the abdomen two short projecting spines ; two
black spots are placed over the eyes. The wire-worm re-
mains in its larvse or grub condition for several years.
The "imago "or perfect insect, the last stage of insect
life, is a beetle, known popularly as one of the snapping
beetles or bugs ; its length is about one-third of an inch ;
the colour of the body is brown, the legs a dark yellow.
The name of the genus elater is given to it on account of
the peculiar power possessed by the beetle of leaping
up when placed by any circumstance on their backs, a
characteristic notable enough, as those who are acquainted
with the habits of insects know ; many will have doubt-

THE WIRE-WORM. 129

less noticed beetles lying on their backs making painful
but useless efforts to recover their position ; these do
not trouble the genus elater. The wire-worm is often
found in such marvellous abundance eating down the crops
as fast as they come up, that the only remedy thoroughly
effective is starving them out by keeping the land free from
vegetation, ploughing and stirring it frequently, and keep-
ing it as clean as possible. The birds which prey upon
insects are the best friends of the farmer in many cases,
not the less are they so in this endeavour to get rid of the
wire-worm, vast numbers of which are devoured by them.
The wire- worms are also preyed upon by an ichneumonous
parasite and by several insects ; the small black shining
beetle, the steropus madidus, also devours them largely.
In breaking up grass land a good preventive of the ravages
of the wire-worm, according to that eminent agricultural
entomologist Curtis, is to shallow breast-plough it to a
depth of two inches, or by paring and burning the surface
before the ploughing is done. All sorts of remedies have
been suggested for the destruction of the wire-worm, as
steeping the seed in wine and then drying it with sulphur,
liquid ammonia, and also by the growth of white mustard,
a plant which seems to be particularly obnoxious to the
larvse, but of which it has been said, in view of the fact,
that there is perhaps no more noxious weed than this plant,
when land is neglected, that the remedy may be worse than
the disease. Salt, to the extent of 10 bushels per acre,
and lime, 100 bushels to the acre, have both been tried,
but in some cases with marked results of anything but a
gratifying character. In America a plan which has been
very successful, is taking a crop of buckwheat after the
grass has been broken up — late ploughing and frequent, as
often as possible in the autumn, then sowing pease in the
spring, then frequent ploughing next autumn — this plan
followed, no crop succeeding has been attacked.

Curtis, in his well-known paper in the Journal of
the Royal Agricultural Society, has completely exhausted
•11 that can be said on the habits, characteristics, and

130 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

modes generally adopted to prevent the ravages of this in-
sect scourge of our farm crops. In the 6th paper of this
valuable series (Vol 5th of the Journal, 1844), the reader
anxious to go deeply into the subject will find a vast amount
of matter bearing upon it ; it will answer the purpose we
have in view in the preparation of these "notes," if we
give here a rapid resum6 of the principal points there
touched upon.

Of the beetles belonging to the genus elater, or leaping
beetles, which are the parents of the true wire-worm ; there
are four species which most commonly attack the cereal
crops. These we very briefly describe, referring to the pa-
per above alluded to for a detailed description of them.
(1.) The Elater sputator. This is the smallest of these
four common species, its colour is variable, and is met with
in our corn fields in the spring, (2.) Elater obscurus
This is larger than the last species ; and like it is met with
in the spring. (3). Elater lineatus. Of this Mr. Curtis
says that it is "supposed by some to be a variety of the
foregoing species. It is now by far the most abundant,
and is found in spring and summer." (4.) Elater rufican-
dis. This is the largest of the four common species, and is
found in the spring infesting nettles abundantly. It is not
yet determined, or if determined, not, at all events, widely
known, whether the eggs are laid by the female beetle in
the earth or in the base of the cereal plants. When the
wire-worms are first hatched they are very small, but at-
tain, when fully grown, a length of from three quarters of
an inch to an inch ; their growth is slow. One remarkable
peculiarity possessed by the wire-worm is the long period
in which it remains in the larvae condition, namely, five
years ; thrice during this period they eat off, so to speak,
their outer skins ; this at intervals probably corresponding
with their increase in size. Following upon this curiously
interesting operation, the wire-worms are white in colour,
and have tender skins; recovering, however, their normal
condition of tough smooth skin, they move along the sur-
face and dig or burrow into the bosom of the soil with great

THE WIRE-WORM. 132

facility. Having gained the last stage of its larvae or worm
condition, it descends deeply into the soil, and forming a
bare walled elliptical-shaped cell there, it assumes the pu-
pa or chrysalis form, this taking place somewhere about
the end of July or the beginning of August, and retaining
this pupa condition some three or four weeks, probably,
however, for the whole of the winter in some cases where
buried deeply in the soil. Early in August, however, is
the period, ascertained by observation, when the insects
work their way through the soil and commence their life on
its surface as the perfect beetles. These " beetles run with
their heads down, and drop when approached; they also
Jiy ivell, and are perfectly harmless, feeding only on flowers."
Of all the cereal crops the oat crop suffers most severely
from the attacks of the wire-worm; so much so that "some-
times it compels the discouraged farmer to lay down valu-
able land as pasture, to a very great disadvantage." The
barley crop suffers from the attacks of the wire- worm, these
being indicated by the change of colour which in spring
time the crop undergoes from a healthy green to a sickly yel-
low. The wheat plant also suffers very much from the at-
tacks of the wire-worm, which are said to continue through-
out the whole of the winter; but Mr. Curtis takes leave to
doubt whether this is the case, " for during severe frosts,"
he says, " they descend into the soil like the larvae of the
cockchafer, retiring deeper and deeper as the cold increases ; "
but early in the year, depending greatly on the tempera-
ture, they make ample amends for their fast, if such be the
case, by diminishing, if not destroying, this important crop."
The wheat crop, when taken after a clover ley, is sure to
suffer worse after this than after any other crop ; " Indeed,"
says Mr. Curtis, " when white clover, or suckling, and rye-
grass layers have been left for seed, it is scarcely possible
to get a wheat crop on account of the wire-worm."

As regards the soils most likely to favour the develop-
ment and habits of the wire-worm, a few notes will be use-
ful and suggestive. Land bordering on marshes, and con-
sequently with a spring and friable soil, is very subject to

132 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

attacks of the wire-worm. Gravelly and sandy soils have.
in some neighbourhoods been found most affected. Waste
and wood lands, and old pastures, are "harbours for the
wire- worm." As a rule it may be accepted that "gravelly
and sandy soils are most infested, strong loam and clay most
free from them." Having thus glanced at the habits of
the wire-worm, the crops which it attacks, and the soils in
which they best flourish; we shall, in our next paper, take
up the consideration of the best means, or at least those
usually adopted in practice, either to prevent them from
committing their ravages, or at least greatly to modify them
and reduce them to a minimum of mischief.

19. The Grub.— The grub of the farm fields—par emi-
nence, the scourge of our corn crops — is the larvse of a fly
known vulgarly as the " daddy longlegs," " spinning-maggie,"
and to natural historians as the "crane fly." Mr. Jamieson, in
one of his "Fordyce Agricultural Lectures," thus describes
the habits of the grub: — "The fly makes its appearance in
greatest strength in July and August, and shortly after lays
its eggs. The number of eggs laid by one insect is very
numerous — in one case he had counted as many as 600,
but the usual quantity was probably about 300. They
were deposited in grass land in a great variety of situations
— in meadows, in lea-lands, by roadsides, the skirts of
plantations, in garden lawns, and even in the turf on the
roofs of cottages. How long the eggs lie before the lame
come out is not known, but, probably, the majority were
hatched in autumn or before winter; and they would
be found in the grub or larva state from January to August.
The eggs being deposited in grass land, it was accordingly
in the corn crop which had been sown in land ploughed up
out of grass that the larvae made their appearance — that
was to say, in what farmers called their lea-corn. It was
rarely that they were found in the corn following a crop of
turnips — neither was it found in a yaval crop, or a crop of
corn taken upon land that was under a grain crop the pre-
vious season. Although not complained of, there could be
no doubt that the grub is as plentiful in grass-land or pas-

THE GRUB. 133

ture as among lea-corn; for a case is mentioned in the
spring of 1813, where in Holderness, in Yorkshire, several
hundred acres of pasture were destroyed by the grub.
Grass plots in London were said to be attacked by them,
as well as many garden plants, such as lettuce, dahlias, car-
nations, &c. It was related too, that in some of the mid-
land counties of England, where they are in the habit of
taking a crop of potatoes after clover, it has been found
necessary to breast-plough the turf and burn it before
planting the potatoes, to prevent this grub from destroying
the crop. In France also the grass land suffers from it.

"The grub remained under turf and flat stones during
the day, coming out to feed after dark, and during the
night they might be found eating at the tender blades of
the young braird. It is probable they attack the roots, but
it seems to be the green blade they prefer. About the
month of July, the grub assumes the state of a pupa or
chrysalis, casting its skin, and being covered by a brownish
membraneous case; and after a week or two the brownish
membrane covering the head and thorax splits, and the
creature having wriggled up to the surface, gradually extri-
cates its limbs from their covering, and out it comes as
the Daddy Langlegs — certainly a most marvellous transfor-
mation.

" The grub was not a new pest ; for it was known long
ago under the name of the ' torrie-worm.' Some people
said that guano and other artificial manures now in use
helped to breed grub. This notion was very like that of
the farmer, who answered Sir Robert Peel's advice to get
some improved implements, by saying, 'We farmers, Sir
Eobert, have got an idea that iron ploughs breed weeds.'
In England the grub was particularly abundant in 1816,
1817, and 1818, and was not much felt again until 1829
and the following years. From our experience here it
would seem that grub abounds in certain seasons more
than in others ; but he had no doubt that there was more
or less grub every season, though their effects are not al-
ways equally marked. Many farmers were of opinion that

134 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

a frosty winter did good service in ridding them of the
grub ; but it was to be remarked that there had been very
severe frosts in some of our recent winters — that of 1860,
for example. Snowy winters were also said to kill the
grub. As to the truth of this he could not vouch ; but it
was the fact that our winters lately had been pretty free of
snow, so that this notion was so far supported."

We now proceed to the consideration of the practical
points connected with the modes of best meeting or prevent-
ing the ravages of this scourge of the farm. Much has
been written upon this important subject descriptive of the
attempts which have been made from time to time to pre-
vent the ravages of the grub ; so much, indeed, that the
space of one of our volumes would not suffice to do justice
to even the most rapid of resumes of it. We can therefore
find space to glance merely at what has been most recently
expounded in connection with the subject. At a recent
meeting of the Fettercairn Farmers' Club, Mr. Scroggie
stated what appears to us to be the true mode of dealing
with this scourge — namely, in the preparation of the soil
for the sowing of the seed; that it is not in the after-ap-
plications to it, as top-dressings of this or that manure, nor
in the preparation of the seed, as in the case of wheat, but
in this, and this only, the preparation of the soil The
habits of the grub lead us inevitably to conclude that the
proper condition of the soil seems to be best brought about
by attention to two things — first, by burying the surface
of the lea ; and, second, by well rolling and consolidating
the ground. The one without the other will not suffice,
more especially the mere rolling, inasmuch as, if the grub
gets fairly possession of the soil, no amount of rolling seems
to have any effect upon its vitality. But by burying the
surface of the lea we bury also the eggs, and exclude them
from the adjuncts necessary to bring them into life — the
air, the heat, and the light; and then by rolling we con-
solidate the ground, and prevent the newly-hatched insects
from "burrowing in search of food." The modes, how
ever, of burying the surface of the lea, and, by consequence,

THE GRUB. 135

the eggs which it harbours, will vary as the circumstances
of the soil or locality. In good soil, free from stones, the
plough, with its skim-coulter, with running or dragging
weight and chain, will be found an efficient implement,
peeling or paring off the rough surface, and depositing it in
the bottom of the furrow. In cases of stony, rough soil,
this implement would not be adaptable, the plan then to
be adopted being the taking of a light furrow in the first
place, and then following this up by a deeper furrow in the
same trench. But in place of using two implements one
might be arranged; and we are inclined to believe that
Hancock's Pulveriser Plough would be found efficient, for
not only will it effectually bury the surface lea, but it will
bring the soil into that finely pulverised condition so es-
sential to the healthy and rapid development of the plants.
And this rapid development is of most vital importance in
the case of a corn crop likely to be attacked by grub, just
as much so as it is in the case of the turnip crop, to bring,
with as great rapidity as possible, the leaves into that stage
where they will best resist the attacks of the fly. We be-
lieve, indeed, that in a method of applying manures to the
crop so that this rapid development of the plant in its early
stages is secured, lies the secret of success of growing the
corn crop free from the ravages of the grub ; always, of
course, in conjunction with the good preparation of the soil
and its after consolidation. Before the seed is sown, it ap-
pears to be a good plan to give the soil a thorough harrow-
ing, and after this a good turn of a heavy roller should be
given. After the seed is sown it is covered in by a double
stroke only of the harrow, after which the roller is passed
across. By this means a shallow covering for the seed is
secured, which will tend in like manner to secure a much
more vigorous brairding or development than would be the
result of a deeper sowing. If the land is poor in quality,
this vigorous development will be further insured by giv-
ing a top-dressing of some artificial manure, of all of which
nitrate of soda is probably the best, this being mixed with
common salt. Salt, by the way, is stated by some to be a

136 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

'perfect cure' for the grub; but of this, as of all applica-
tions having a similar aim — namely, killing the grub — it
may be accepted as a truth that before you can apply as
much of it as will be necessary to kill the grub, you will run
a good chance of doing something more than that — killing
the corn, a consummation by no means devoutly to be
wished. In this, indeed, as in other things, 'prevention
is better than cure.' And the naming of this time-
honoured proverb — honoured, we fear, in too many cases,
more in the breach of it than in the observance — brings to
our recollection two capital papers on the prevention of the
ravages of the grub, which proceeds upon the principle that
prevention is better than cure, and that this prevention is
secured by no mode so effectually as by arranging the rota-
tion of the crops of a farm, and the modes of working the
soil for these, in such a way that they will have a direct re-
ference to the habit of the grab. The papers alluded to are
first, one from an American Journal, and secondly, one
recently read by Mr. Johnston at the Fettercairn Farmers'
Club, and of it we below present a very brief resume, giving
first that from the American Journal, which opens thus
suggestively : — " Nothing can be applied to the land suffi-
ciently powerful to destroy them. You cannot poison them,
but you can make the land unfit for a wire-worm to live-
in it.

" If you observe attentively a field in which the wire-
worm is beginning his depredations, you will see that the
latter commence where the ground is loosest, and that they
spread from there slowly to all sides. If, perchance, two
furrows have been thrown together in ploughing, so form-
ing a sort of ridge, the worm invariably commences to eat
along this ridge, where the ground is drier and more loose
than on the rest of the field. We see this very plainly
here, where all fields are thrown together into lands or
ridges, which are from 1 to 3 rods wide, and whose ridge
sometimes is 2 to 4 feet higher than the furrow. This is
by no means a commendable practice, and is more and
more disappearing, but it still exists, and where it does so,

THE GRUB. 137

there the wire-worm first destroys the crops along the
ridges and gradually descends towards the furrows. Ano-
ther experience is, that the wire-worm is particularly dan-
gerous to such crops as are preceded by clover, the rotting
remains of the clover keeping the soil loose and dry. Even
more ! we have whole tracts of land which formerly were
wet and stiff, but of late have quite changed their qualities
by being underdrained. .Now on such lands the wire-worm
was entirely unknown before the drainage; but as soon as
the drains were showing their effects the wire-worm made
his appearance, and soon became a great plague.

"Now to the remedy. Destroy the looseness of your
land, and you will not be troubled by the wire- worm. We
have taken a flock of sheep and driven them up and down
on a field sown previously with oats, and there never ap-
peared a worm as far as the sheep had come, though the
rest of the field had to suffer hard. 'The sheep has a
golden foot,' says an old adage; their small feet are the
best roller known, but it is an expensive job ; our shep-
herds hate it ; it is no advantage to the flock, and 400
sheep can do only a small day's work. So we employ
other means.

" Five years, ago we used to think that thorough har-
rowing was the only means to prevent depredations by the
wire-worm. I have frequently heard some of our best and
most successful farmers say that the fate of the crop de-
pended on the harrow. I have seen fields harrowed twelve
and even sixteen times after the throwing on of the seed.
My old chief had a walking-stick with a sharp point, and
he was all day walking over the field to try whether he
could find a loose spot. He would push his stick into the
ground, and as long as a hollow place was to be discovered
the teams had to keep on. ' The horses' hoofs must tramp
it hard,' he would say, when our patience sometimes be-
came exhausted. Frequently when I thought of sending
the teams home for the night, he would come out with his
stick and the tired horses had to begin anew, and many a
field was so treated hours after the moon had risen. I say
K

138 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

this because I know that in America, especially in the west,
little attention is being paid to harrowing. You consider
mostly the job done when the seed has been covered. I
had been engaged in farming for nine years in the States,
and when in 1859 I tried my hand at it here I at first
shook my head at so much harrowing, and thought it an
unnecessary expense. I know better now. Thorough har-
rowing is the first rule of good tillage ; it is the best re-
medy against the wire-worm. But we have introduced
better implements of late ; the harrow alone does the work
too slow, and not good enough ; we now employ iron roll-
ers made in sections similar to Croskill's clod-breaker.
We roll the land before and after seeding, and one rolling
often has more effect than four rounds by the harrow ; the
roller cannot be too heavy; it packs the ground and de-
stroys the haunts of the worm. Smooth rollers could not
do this ; they merely pulverise and press the surface and
are often dangerous to use — if the surface is reduced to
powder, a rain will bake it into a crust. We want the land
packed at the bottom of the furrow — open on the surface.
I am satisfied that if we could, by steam power, drag a roll-
er of 10,000 pounds over the field, this would pay better
than to use one of 800 pounds. Smooth rollers, however,
I regard with distrust.

" Sometimes at seeding time the land will be so dry that
even by the aid of the roller it cannot be packed. In this
case we roll the land after the seed has come up. Oats
will bear such an operation very well when the young
shoots are 2 to 4 inches long ; winter wheat will bear it
in the spring, though not with a smooth roller. It hap-
pens, that owing to dry weather or other circumstances the
field remains too loose, and the worm begins his work of
destruction. In this case we use, with best success, liquid
manure. I have drawn such liquid manure upon an oat-
field in May, where the wire-worm was committing the
greatest depredations. Of course the wheels of the wag-
gon injured the appearance of the field, which looked like
a garden before ; but they did not injure the crop. The

THE GRUB. 139

tracks of the wheels soon disappeared under the reviving
haulm ; the worm was completely routed, and we harvested
a tolerable crop of oats. The worm cannot bear the smell
of liquid manure from the tanks, but the latter must be
applied on growing crops to have effect. When applied
before seeding, it loses its smell too soon. I used to pump
water into the tank and stir up the old settlings (the tank
being very large) to make the stuff last, so that I have had
nearly 100 loads (for four oxen each) drawn in a season, and
saved a good many acres of oats.

" The above are facts proved by experience. Let me add
that sometimes after a cavalry manoeuvre on seeded fields,
the whole crop seemed destroyed by the horses' hoofs, and
consequently was taxed and the owner indemnified; but
afterwards the crop revived and gave a highly remunerative
harvest. We must loosen the ground by ploughing, but we
cannot pack it too much afterwards for crops of small grain,
barley excepted, provided wre keep the surface from baking."

Mr. Johnston, while, however, in the second paper
above alluded to, advocating, as the main features of
his preventive measures, a change in the rotation of the
cropping, nevertheless holds that other remedial measures
are necessary. But a few sentences back we alluded to the
use of salt as a preventive. Our authority, in a certain
way, advocates the use of this, with a view to attack, and,
if possible, poison the grub at that stage of its development
when it is weakest. With our unfortunate ignorance of
the real habits of the grub (what a fine opportunity, by the
way, for our agricultural societies to do something in the
way of inquiry and observation in the complete mode we
have more than once in the course of our papers advo-
cated !) we do not know precisely at what period of the
year it is in its weakest condition. Mr. Johnston, however,
conjectures that this is in the month of February; and as
the attacking and poisoning agent is salt, he recommends
this to be applied in this month at the rate of 10 cwt. per
acre, harrowed well into the soil, and the land thus pre-
pared seeded with oats four or five weeks thereafter. Our

140 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

authority is, we need scarcely say, an advocate for means
to be adopted for disturbing by mechanical means the con-
ditions necessary to mature the egg into life by breaking
up the surface of the lea, or by skim-ploughing, having for
aim the complete burying of the surface beneath a good fur-
row. As to breaking up of the lea surface, Mr. Johnston
is of opinion that before ploughing it will be advantageous
to harrow the surface, by which means not only will the sur-
face be disturbed, but much of it will fall to the bottom of
the furrow. Eibbing or stripping the lea, and then harrowing
down the cut-up slice is thought well of by some ; but our
authority is inclined to think it not of much value. He
says that his latest experience shows that the more finely
the soil is pulverised or triturated without the clods being
cut up with it, the better for the crop. In skim -ploughing,
where it is difficult — as in some cases it will be found to
be — to attach a skim-coulter to an ordinary plough, Mr.
Johnston recommends the first ploughing to be done with a
one-horse plough, taking a slice as thin as it can be easily
taken — say two inches thick. This being thrown into the
bottom of the furrow, the next ploughing is done by two
horses, and the plough brings up a good rough furrow,
completely burying the sward at a depth of from five to
six inches.

While on the subject of ploughing or preparation of the
soil, it is worthy of note that our authority distinctly opposes
the fine, high-set, angular furrow-slice which some seem
to think highly of, and which, indeed, by many of our most
eminent agricultural authorities, has always been looked
upon as the very highest standard of ploughing. Those
high-set ridges or furrow-slices give corresponding angular
depressions or hollows, which, our authority believes, or is
inclined to believe, act as shelter-places for the grub to be
developed in at early spring-time. Further, the seed, as it
is sown broad-cast, falls mainly into these furrow-depres-
sions ; and brairding actually provides, or at all events
seems to us to provide, a supply of food for the grubs there
located, without involving any trouble on their part to go

THE GRUB. 141

and look for it. When we see so many things in farm
practice nowadays tending to do away with the notion that
the only way to prepare the soil for cropping is to throw it
up in the angular furrow-slices so long known and carried
out, and to prove that other modes, as grubbing or the like,
are better, it will be odd if another reason is found against
ordinary ploughing, and in favour of other modes of pre-
paring the soil, in the fact that the latter are more likely to
prevent the ravages of the grub.

But while advocating remedial measures such as we have
adverted to, Mr. Johnston strongly insists upon the impor-
tance of introducing rotations other than those now in
vogue, and which are more likely to meet the circumstances
of actual practice. When we remember that green roots
and leguminous crops have all hitherto resisted the at-
tacks of the grub — if they are, indeed, liable to them
— we see that, by introducing these methodically into the
rotation, so that we ' have our whole lea broke under one
or other of such crops as turnips, potatoes, rape, cabbage,
beans, or pease, we will have stolen such a march as will
tend to certain victory.' Mr. Johnston suggests that the
whole might be placed under potatoes; but, in view of the
difficulties attendant upon the lifting of these in many lo-
calities, he suggests one-third of the ' break ' to be in po-
tatoes only; one-third to be in tares — those tares to be
sown between February and June in rotation, so that by
the time Swedes fail the farmer, he will have a capital
green food to replace them, and as the rotation crops of the
tares come into use, they will likely give a supply of food
up to September or turnip time; the remaining third of
the ' break ' to be rape for sheep, and cabbage for cattle.
Mr. Johnston says that he has no experience of the value
of rape, yet he believes that it must be good, else it would
not be so much grown in England as it is ; and we think
he is right in this. We know something of the culture of
rape, and of its value as a feeding material not only for
sheep but for cattle — the latter, so far as our experience
goes, being remarkably fond of it — and we confess to some

142 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

surprise that it is not more frequently grown on soils
adapted for it. We purpose, in the volume of this series
treating of Forage Crops, to present our readers with a few
Notes in connection with this crop. As to the value of
cabbage as a feeding crop little need be said here, albeit
some notice might be taken of the ignorance of some of our
practical men as to this.

In the case of those who wish to 'be relieved,' as our
authority terms it, of the tares, beans, the cabbages, or the
rape, he recommends them to take as many potatoes as they
wish, or take two successive crops of oats, or if not a second
crop of them, one of barley. This will by some be deemed
most heterodox advice ; and yet a great deal can be said
in favour of the plan of taking two cereal crops ; and we
have known it, as indeed we now know it, to be practised
successfully. Nor need the faet be the less encouraging to
those who are desirous to break through the prejudice
(shall we call it?) existing upon the point, that the first of
our practical, as the first of our chemical, authorities are
in favour of the practice ; certainly they are of opinion
that it is not productive of the evils that some blame it
with. But although two cereal crops may be taken in suc-
cession, our authority recommends the practice with modi-
fications. The following is the rotation which he names
as being most likely to commend itself to every intelligent
proprietor and factor, as well as make it easy to the farmer : —
' Grass three years, save the part made potatoes, which
will only be two ; 3d, potatoes ; 4th, cereal crop ; 5th,
turnips ; 6th, crop sown down with grass. If two white
crops are wanted — and, with good farming, no reasonable
proprietor, unless ignorant, would object — we would say,
three years grass ; 4th year, potatoes of a part, while the
other part was oats ; 5th year, all the break, oats or barley ;
6th, turnips ; 7th, crop of barley sown down with grass
seeds. It will be noticed that there are only two crops
taken from the part broken up for grain at three years old
— the other part made potatoes ; only one crop of oats
is taken from it.' Such are the suggestions made by Mr.

UNSOUNDNE3S OF GRAIN BY INSECTS. 143

Johnston on the subject of a change in rotation. It has
been taken up by other authorities during the last few
years, and will yet more, we venture to say, be taken up.
If the discussion which will ensue does no other good
than directing attention to, and promoting inquiry upon,
all the points connected with the theory of rotation, it will
do great service to agriculture ; for the truth is, we are by
no means assured of what really constitutes a correct prin-
ciple in rotation, or whether — which is, we fancy, much
more likely to be the case — the phenomena attendant upon
the change of crops are not invariable but rather are variable,
being dependent upon a wide variety of circumstances tend-
ing to introduce a corresponding variety in practice. The
whole subject has, indeed, to be gone thoroughly into before
information can be eliminated which will be of trustworthy
service to farmers generally. Is this another subject, in ad-
dition to the many we have already indicated, which ought
to be taken up by one or all of our agricultural societies ? "

DIVISION SECOND.
THE STORING AND PRESERVATION OF WHEAT.

SECTION FIRST. CAUSES OF UNSOUND GRAIN INSECTS

MOISTURE.

20. Insects which Cause Unsoundness and which De-
stroy Stored Grain. — The depredations which insects com-
mit upon the wheat crop are not confined to those in the
field, which have been described in last section ; but they
are carried out, and with remarkable vigour, in the places
in which it is stored. The following is an account of the
insect pests of stored grain : — "(1) The Weevil (calandria
f/ranaria) is a snout beetle, about one-eighth of an inch
in length, with a slender body (see Fig. 1 8, in which we
give a diagram of the weevil, natural size, with part of the
head magnified), of a dull reddish brown colour, furrowed

144 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

j». lg wing-cases, and long punctured thorax.

A single pair of these insects may
produce six thousand descendants in
a year. They are destructive to stored
grain in both the perfect and larva
state. The female lays her eggs in
wheat in the granary. The young

maggots burrow into the grain and consume its contents,
leaving only the husk. Their transformations are perfected
within the husks they have chambered out in the larva
state, and so secretly are their operations conducted that
it is impossible to detect their operations by simple in-
spection of a heap of wheat. The presence of these in-
sects may be detected by the weight of the grains ; on
throwing a handful into a bucket of water the diseased
grains will float. After the female has, by means of her
rostrum or beak, deposited an egg in the grain, she covers
it up with a sort of glue of the same colour as the husk,
hence the difficulty of detecting the presence of this depre-
dator in the granary during the time when it is in the
larva state. On the approach of cold weather the weevils
retire from the heaps of wheat and seek shelter in crevices
and cracks of the floor and walls. They remain torpid for
a while, and after having paired, soon die. They avoid the
light, hence one reason why constant turning of the wheat
and sifting is advantageously employed to drive them away.
They lie in general four or five inches below the surface of
the heap, and here the majority pair. Kiln drying appears
to be the only certain destruction to this pest. Frequent
turning and airing of the heaps, whitewashing the walls,
and sweeping the granaries very clean, with abundant venti-
lation, are artifices strongly recommended for the purpose
of diminishing the numbers of this pest. It is not likely
that farmers in Canada will suffer much from its depreda-
tion for some years to come. Where large quantities of
wheat, and particularly of foreign wheat, are allowed to
accumulate in store, there, no doubt, the ravages of this
insect will be felt, (b) The Wolf or Little Grain Moth,

UNSOUNDNESS OF GRAIN BY INSECTS. 145

(Stnea Gronella). (In Fig. 19 we give a drawing of the
Fi" 19 caterpillar and of the moth, natural size). Mr.
Curtis says that this moth is completely esta-
blished in Britain, as well as in every part of
Europe. The late Dr. Harris says, that from
various statements, deficient, however, in exact-
ness> ne was le(^ to believe that this insect, or
an insect exactly like it in its habits, prevails
in all parts of the country. Since its existence is quite
established in America, and its known habits are such that
it may at any time appear in destructive numbers in Canada,
a notice here of its general appearance and peculiarities
will not be out of place. From April till August the
moth is found in granaries or magazines, resting by day on
the walls and beams, and flying about only at night, un-
less disturbed. The female lays one or two eggs on each
grain of wheat, until she has deposited thirty or more.
They require the assistance of a magnifying glass in order
that they may be distinguished. The small white worms
penetrate grain and close up the aperture with their round-
ish white excrement, which is held together by a fine web.
When a single grain is not sufficient for its nourishment
the larva unites a second grain to the first by the same
web, and thus ultimately adds together a great number.
In August and September they arrive at maturity, when
they leave their wheat heaps and seek for a place in which
to undergo their metamorphosis. They form cocoons by
working bits of wood into their web, in any chink of the
floor, walls, or roof. These cocoons look like grains of
wheat dusted over. They assume a chrysalis state in
March, April, and May, according to the season. In two
or three weeks they take the form of the perfect -insect
or moth. The following remedies are suggested by Mr.
Curtis : — Floor of granary scoured with soft soap and well
brushed with a stiff broom, roof and beams whitewashed.
The moths maybe destroyed in spring by burning lights
or lamps in the granaries where they abound. All cracks
in the floor or walls should be stopped with plaster of Paris,

146 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

and apertures for ventilation secured by fine gauze. Burn-
ing sulphur will kill the moths. Grain should be cut
early to anticipate the appearance of the moth."

21. Unsoundness of Wheat Caused by Moisture. — This
subject has not yet received the consideration which we
think it deserves ; comparatively few, indeed, know the
extent of the loss sustained every year through grain which
has been got in and stored up in a damp condition. Tak-
ing wheat as the most important of our cereal crops, let us
glance at the points involved in connection with the main-
tenance of or improvements in its quality. Wheat yields
the largest percentage of nutritive matter of all our cereals ;
while in grinding, oats lose about one half, barley a seventh,
wheat loses only a fourteenth. But this assumes that all
are in their best condition for grinding, a point too often
overlooked. The amount of water or moisture in wheat is
one of its important features ; it varies in the flour obtained
from it from 12 to 18 per cent. This is greatly dependent
upon the climate. Boussingault notices the interesting
fact, that the wheats grown in the north of France are ex-
ceedingly difficult to be kept in consequence of the high
percentage of moisture which they contain, as high as from
16 to 20 per cent. Experiments made by this eminent
agricultural chemist showed that unless these grains were
kept in hermetically sealed vessels they rapidly deteriorated
in value. But when the moisture was reduced one-half,
like the wheats of the south which contain 8 to 10 per
cent., the conditions were changed. Where much moisture
exists in wheat, decomposition rapidly sets in, and this con-
siderably lowers the flour-producing value ; and if allowed
to go on, so changes the nature of the grain that bread
flour cannot be made from it at all. Flour obtained from
dry grain gives a higher yield of bread, although the quantity
of flour may be less than from plumper and moister grain.
Age has no deteriorating effect on sound grain. In Poland
grain has been kept sound for half a century, and in Dant-
zic grain is kept in warehouse for seven years without any
deterioration. The pecuniary loss sustained by sending in

TO PREVENT UNSOUNDNESS OF WHEAT. 147

damp grain to the market is very great indeed ; in this
country the subject has never been investigated in the
manner which its importance deserves, not so in America
where men of science have taken it up with spirit. In
that country the estimated annual loss has been reckoned
at from £600,000 to £1,000,000 sterling. Moisture with
heat — a condition almost invariably the result of stacking
or storing badly got grain — reduces the quantity of gluten
which it contains, this constituting the most nutritive
portion of the grain. Sporules of different kinds of mush-
rooms are also developed in consequence of moisture,
these generally appearing in the flour or in the bread made
from it. The best test of the value of wheat flour is the
quantity of bread made from it, and we find that the drier
and sounder the grain the greater is the yield of bread.
A quarter of good flour has yielded 13 Ib. more of bread
than the same quantity of bad flour made from moist and
therefore unsound grain. All authorities have agreed in
condemning the practice adopted by our farmers in send-
ing undried corn with moisture varying from 15 to 20 per
cent, contained in it into the market ; and numerous cal-
culations have been made, more or less accurate in detail,
yet all clearly showing the existence of a loss to the farm-
ing community of serious importance, as well as from the
habit of storing up grain in sheaves in a damp condition.
It is quite obvious that a method or methods of increasing
the bread-producing powers or qualities of a wheat, as well
as of its keeping qualities (so that it may be easily stored
without loss), must be an immense advantage to the farmer.

SECTION SECOND.— METHODS ADOPTED TO PREVENT UNSOUND-
NESS IN WHEAT ARISING FROM MOISTURE THE STORING

OF WHEAT.

22. There is no department of farming in which the value
of the old proverb is so apparent — "prevention is better
than cure" — as that in the harvesting of the cereal crops,
that is, getting them secured in such a way that the grain

148 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

will be put up in a condition best calculated to preserve
their valuable qualities. When the weather at and during
the period of harvesting is, and for some time before has been
fine, rains absent, and abundance of drying sunshine and
favourable breezes, the securing of the corn crop is a matter
of comparative ease ; but when the reverse of all this is
the case — not by any means unlikely in this our variable
climate, with its "weeping skies and blustering winds "-
it is a matter of the highest importance that we should
know the best plans of harvesting, and how to carry them
out. The securing of corn crops naturally divides itself
into two departments ; first, the cutting and stocking or
sheaving in the fields ; and second, the stacking and ar-
rangement of the stack or rick yard. It is not within the
scope of the present volume to treat of the modes of cutting
corn crops now adopted in practice, namely, reaping by
the sickle, mowing by the scythe, and cutting by the reaping
machine — what we have here to concern ourselves with is
the tying up or putting in sheaves of the corn cut by any
one of the above methods. The first process after the cut-
ting is the " gathering ; " and the second, the " putting up
the gathered corn in sheaves." On these the following re-
marks by a writer in the " Mark Lane Express " will be
useful here : — " A successful gatherer takes up the cuts in
the swathe as the mower leaves them, cut after cut, if the
swathe has been properly laid, until she has a sheaf. This
is a very nice manipulation, and upon its proper perform-
ance the character of the sheaf in a great measure depends
as to how it can be bound and stocked. It, therefore, re-
quires a somewhat more detailed notice.

" In gathering a sheaf, three things have to be attended
to, besides keeping close up to the mower. It has, in the
first place, to be made of the proper size — small, in a wet
year like this ; next, the straw has to be kept straight ;
and then, it must be properly laid in the band for tying.

" We must, therefore, attend to the links of our chain ;
and the first link is this : One cut, or so many separate
cuts (a cut being the quantity of corn cut and brought

HARVESTING. 149

round at one complete stroke of the scythe) must go to the
sheaf. One cut will sometimes make a small one ; in
other cases, two or more may be necessary, just according
to the quantity cut and separated from the uncut corn at
one stroke of the scythe

'; In the next manipulation, the straw has to be kept
straight, and the butts even, in order that the sheaf may,
in the first place, be loosely and properly bound, and in
the second place, that it may afterwards stand in the stook.

" The last thing the gatherer has to do in her work is
the laying of the sheaf she has gathered into the band.
Small sheaves are more easily handled than large ones, and
for this reason are generally better laid into the bands for
binding. When the bandster also stooks, the gatherer makes
the bands. Eut in the case of a wet season and small
sheaves, it is better to make the stooking a separate job,
when the bandster makes the bands. In this case the last
manipulation of gathering and the first of binding a small
sheaf become a sort of joint process, the binder sometimes
taking the band for the next sheaf out of the one he has
just bound, but sometimes from the sheaf that is being
gathered, while occasionally the gatherer drops the small
handful for him with which to make it ; the two thus
working to each other's hands. But, whichever of the
three ways it may be, the bandster generally contrives to
have hold of one end of the band while the gatherer is
putting the loose sheaf into it

" We now come to the work of the bandster ; and the
binding of a small sheaf loosely, ' so that the sun may
shine and the winds whistle through the stook,' and that
the sheaf itself may, after all this, and the handling it
sometimes gets, go to the stack-yard without breaking or
losing any of its contents, is a very fine piece of workman-
ship. It must first be properly balanced in the band ;
next it must have an even bottom on which to stand ; then
the top requires to be such as to defend a shower, while
the middle must be straight to support weight ; and, lastly,
the knot or tie of the band must be properly made so as not

150 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

to undo in the handling, These several manipulations are
but the work of a moment, and unless they are all properly
done, the sheaves can never stand as they ought to do in
a stook, but will either be leaning too much one way or
else be turned over altogether by the least puff of wind.
Where hood-sheaves are used, they require to be bound
as close as possible to the butt, and more firmly or tightly
tied than the other sheaves. But it is very seldom that
corn cut with the scythe is hooded.

" Our last proposition on this occasion is stooking. When
the sheaves are small and the straw is very long, the work
is more difficult to execute properly than when they are of
an ordinary size ; but, in either case, the theory of setting
a sheaf is involved in the old proverb — ' Every tub must
stand on its own bottom.' In compliance with this, the
bottom of each sheaf must be made to cover a sufficient
area of ground, and the two sheaves opposite each other
not be set too far asunder. The two sheaves, one in each
hand, then get a gentle pressure down, to make them sit,
as it were, sure on their seats. Their tops are next spread
together, where they meet, like the thatch on the top of a
stack thatched after the English fashion, in order to make
them defend a shower. The simple but important art of
setting a stook depends upon each couple of sheaves being
thus seated firm upon the ground together at proper dis-
tances from each other both ways. All this, too, is but the
work of a moment to an efficient stooker ; and nothing can
be more unpardonable on the part of farmers, especially in
a wet season, than to tolerate the slovenly performance of
a work upon which so much depends.

" Where wheat is reaped with the hook or sickle and the
stooks hooded, the difference of detail requiring notice is
the putting on of the hood sheaves. In this, the same
artistic attention is required to bring the sheaves to an
acute angle at the top, as if no hoods were to be used.
When the crop is too ripe, the ears large and hanging, the
task is often next to impossible, especially when the straw
is short and the top or ear-end of the sheaf is thicker than

HARVESTING. 151

the butt. The work, however, is more easily done with the
small sheaves of a wet season than the ordinary size of a
dry one ; and whenever the top of the stock is too broad
or flat, lay on a small sheaf along the top, then over this
put the hood sheaves, taking care that the whole are stand-
ing right, so that the equilibrium of forces (gravitation)
shall give stability to the stook.

" Success in putting on hoods depends greatly upon the
stooker comprehending his work in all its practical details.
The moment he sees the reason why the different manipu-
lations in the setting of the sheaves are necessary, and why
the whole are required to make the stook stand and the
hoods carry off a shower, the cause is gained, for then he
will soon learn to perform the work successfully. "We have
said that a hood sheaf should be bound near the butt-end.
It should also be so formed as to divide and open equally,
so as to spread around the end of the stook, on the same
principle that a Mackintosh waterproof is spread around a
man's shoulders to keep them dry. On opening the sheaf,
he will at once perceive that the interior forms an acute
angle, and that the end of the stock must fit this angle, so
as to make a workmanlike finish ; and, if he comprehends
this thoroughly, and the angle necessary to carry off the
rain over the end of the stook, he will not rest satisfied
until he puts on both hood sheaves, accordingly finishing
his work to the satisfaction of his employer, and more
easily for himself than otherwise."

There are two modes of setting up stocks of corn in the
field generally used, the round and the longitudinal, and of
these two the longitudinal is the most used. It is easy to
see, however, that it. is not so good as the round mode.
Of the relative values of these two modes Mr. Hardy has
the following useful remarks : — " To protect wheat-sheaves
best from wet and wind, I recommend that the stocks or
shocks be formed round- fashioned, which I find, by practi-
cal experience, will stand more firmly and erect, and will
keep the corn in preservation far better in fickle weather,
and even plumper when it is cut green, being more regu-

152 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

larly dried, when it is too hot and parching, than in ordi-
nary stooks longitudinally formed, which are exposed more
to boisterous winds and driving rains on the whole length
of the stook (at least, on one side of it), and sometimes on
the opposite side, when the wind chances to change during
the storm, where, as in round stooks, much less ears are
exposed on any given number of sheaves, and only one-
fourth of them are subjected much to driving rains, and that
windward, let it blow from what quarter it will, north, east,
south, or west, thus, three-fourths of the corn is protected
and preserved. It too frequently happens that, in the
hurry of harvest operations, too little care is bestowed to
set the sheaves up properly, so as to ensure their not falling
down and being injured, should driving winds and wet oc- '
cur. Long stooks are more subjected to those vicissitudes,
and so take more harm than those of round, formation, from
various other causes which might be enumerated and ex-
plained. One man, instead of two, is sufficient to form
round stooks ; and, if properly and carefully done, they
would, were it required, stand a considerable time firm and
erect, with the corn protected and comparatively safe, till
suitable weather offered for carrying it to the garner. The
quarter which is only exposed to the rain most very soon
dries from the current of the wind around the whole stook,
with less power to blow it down ; and, catching the sun
all day, from its rising to its setting, are benefits which
cannot be derived in ordinary stooks placed lengthwise.
My method is this : First, to place one sheaf, joined firm
on its botton, on the middle of the stetch (not in the fur-
row) for the support of the rest ; secondly, three more
firmly and equi-distantly around it ; and thirdly, three
more repeated ; and fourthly, and lastly, to complete the
stook, place six more outside, at equal distances around the
whole, in all thirteen, pressing the ears, and lapping them
as evenly together as possible. Another advantage of round
stooks is, that the produce of several stetches can be placed
on one, so that the land between can, if necessary, be
cleaned or ploughed before the corn is carted.

HARVESTING. 153

" The same rule applies to beans and many other crops.
Round stooks, too, from the ears being less exposed, are
better protected from predatory birds, which often commit
too great havoc by devouring corn in time of scarcity, and
more especially this year, from the circumstance of their
rejecting the blighted corn (which, unhappily, so much
prevails) and feeding upon the best. On small plots near
neighbourhoods and homesteads, where sparrows frequent
most, one quarter of the entire crop of wheat may be fairly
stated as being destroyed by those depredators j in some
cases the whole."

The following, on the subject of setting up sheaves
and on stacking of corn, is from an able paper read re-
cently before the "Winfrith Farmers' Club:" — "In a
general way sheaves of all kinds should be small, and the
stitch or shock, consisting of from five to eight on each
side, should be made by commencing in what is to form
the middle, as by this course the sheaves lean towards the
centre and stand better afterwards; each sheaf should be
placed or rather struck on the ground in a slanting position
(not upright and made leaning afterwards), and should meet
directly the sheaf on the opposite side, so that each one
may help to support the other. A very secure method for
sheaved wheat, though not often practised or necessary, is
that of cap-stitching, performed by first placing a sheaf on
the ground perpendicularly, then placing others in a lean-
ing position against it to the number say of fifteen or
twenty, the object being to produce a round stitch, firm
and regularly pointed at the top to receive the cap-sheaf
or hood, which is made of two sheaves bound together,
or, what is better, a sheaf double the ordinary size bound
near the tail tightly. This sheaf is spread from the centre
and lifted over the stitch, the ears drawn downward, and
the reed straightened; another band round the whole
completes the stitch, which is thus secure against all
weather, and is a very good practice in small enclosures
and in wet seasons, when from heat and moisture corn
vegetates quickly, also as a means of securing those kinds

L

154 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

of grain with a delicate skin, and which consequently sprout
freely. In changeable and stormy weather all sheaves should
be tied as soon as the corn is cut, whether it be by hand
or delivered from the machine, and it should remain stand-
ing until it is fit to cut and tie, as thus during unsettled
weather it is ready to bind sooner than when flat on the
ground. When corn has become what is termed 'dead
ripe,' it is as well (provided there is no grass mixed with
the straw) to cut, tie, and stack, in the same day. There
are reasons favourable to this practice, which are — first,
economy, as the expense of putting the corn into shock is
saved, and also corn which has * overstood ' has its ears so
crooked down that it is impossible to make a shock secure
from wind and weather. In the usual way, that is when
a few days are allowed between cutting and carting, I con-
sider mown corn tied into sheaf may sometimes be fit to
stack before that which has been reaped; owing to its be-
ing looser and more open in the straw, more air is admitted
through it in the field and also in the stack, an advantage
when it has been put together not in a very first-rate con-
dition. On the other hand, sheaves that have been reaped
settle down closer together when carted, producing a much
firmer stack, and better adapted for the purpose of being
shorn after the harvest work has been completed ; also its
appearance is somewhat neater. A well-made and firm
rick is desirable where rats exist in .any quantity, as I have
found it to be a sufficient guard against any number of
them when properly constructed and shorn before any of
these vermin have made their holes into or under it.
Whether the rick is constructed on a staddle or on the
ground is of little consequence when treated in a proper
manner, as far as rats and mice are concerned. The trim-
ming should be performed somewhat after this manner.
From the eave (which every stack of sheaved corn should
have, to carry the rain falling on the roof away from the
sides) downwards, to within about four or five feet from
the ground, the uneven ends of the sheaves on the outside
may be cut oif sufficient to give a neat appearance, with a

HARVESTING. 155

long blade fixed in a long handle for the special purpose,
or a scythe partly worn with the point taken off will an-
swer nearly as well. The remaining, or bottom part, has
to be shorn with an ordinary cutting-knife, taking away
sufficient, it may be nearly to the bond, of the bottom
sheaves, also the bedding beneath, consistent with giving
this under part that closeness of the reed and hardness
which, being thus obtained, no rat can penetrate, and, from
the small base on which the stack is thus made to rest, the
angle on the outside is such that if a rat jumps against the
side it is unable to hold its position, but falls to the ground
from whence it sprang. The method is very effectual and
also practicable, as I have found stacks so treated within a
short distance of immense numbers of these vermin to with-
stand their attempts successfully a year or even two. This
leads me to consider the best position for the stack, whether
placed in the field or at the homestead, and this must de-
pend on the value placed upon the straw, distance from the
steading, state of the farm roads, horse power, &c. At the
time of harvest, when the stacks are being made, the se-
lection of a proper spot for each leads to the inquiry when
and in what manner are they to be thrashed out, and the
use to which the straw will most probably be applied? I
say probably, because it sometimes happens that the straw,
in its nature best suited for feeding, has been exposed to
the weather, so that it may ultimately cause some devia-
tion in the course pursued from that first intended; there-
fore I would say, first secure for your cattle the straw in-
tended for them, unless it is impracticable to do so from
more weighty considerations, it may be, as regards the grain
within. The stack, if intended for removal to a barn,
should be placed as near as possible to it at harvest-time,
for obvious reasons; it is better to do so at that season
than in winter, or when its removal becomes necessary, at
which latter period more horses are frequently required to
cart home than would be the case at harvest. There is yet
another and equally important point to be considered.
When the day for removal (say in winter) has arrived, one

156 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

should be chosen with a clear atmosphere, free from vapour,
following others of a like favourable nature ; but sometimes
necessity from existing circumstances will not permit the
awaiting of such season; then is the advantage of having
a stack situated conveniently near the barn highly to be
valued. Again, a clear winter's morning is not always
followed by a fine day, and the work of removal having
commenced — a storm overtaking loads by the way — the
greater the distance the loads have to travel the more in-
jury to them results in consequence. Even in such case,
if no rain actually falls, a lengthened exposure to the at-
mosphere tends to give the grain a damp condition. I do
not object to making stacks in the field when it is to be
thrashed by steam; but the spot selected should be adja-
cent to a good road, so as to enable the corn and straw to
be drawn separately to the homestead if required. Thrash-
ing, whether conducted in the field or in the barn, has
each its own proper season, and should be carried on with
greater regard to atmospheric influences than is frequently
observed. It may be prosecuted away from the barn in
the open air during the summer months when fine weather
prevails, and thus the corn may derive much benefit from
the sun's rays or a drying wind ; but I consider that during
the two last and two first months in the year, viz., No-
vember, December, January, and February, it is preferable
in most cases to transfer the greater portion to the barn ;
an exception may occasionally be made, such as during
frosty weather. It is in some measure due to the carrying
on of out-door thrashing by steam power at all seasons of
the year, as pursued by many, that complaints from factors
and millers are sometimes made of the condition of the
grain offered in the market during the winter season ; when
it is sometimes scarcely fit to be ground up at once, still
less suited for storing away any length of time, or for
shipment. This fact should not be forgotten by those who
assert, from the want of being more practically informed,
that barns are unnecessary to a farm under present circum-
stances. The benefit derived from having, not one barn

ARTIFICIAL DRYING OF WHEAT. 157

only, but several on most farms, is decidedly worth consi-
deration. It is preferable to have two barns of moderate
size, rather than one large one, for the purpose as much as
possible of keeping the different kinds of grain separate,
as well as the better disposal of the straw. Where the
farm is large and hilly, as many are in this neighbourhood,
a barn with a shedding attached is very advantageous for
the purpose of consuming a certain quantity of straw by
cattle near where it is grown, in which case the manure is
more easily returned, thereby reducing the expenses of the
farm. Another barn may be allotted to wheat, either filled
with sheaves at harvest time, but I consider better suited
for the purpose of putting the rakings into as they are col-
lected at different times."

23. Artificial Drying of Wheat. — All practical au-
thorities agree in stating that the desiderata named at
the end of par. 2 1 are attainable at a small outlay of time
or money by artificial drying. The advantages to be ob-
tained from drying grain before being ground are thus
summed up by a practical miller. " It will yield much
more flour per bushel, and require about half the ma-
chinery to manufacture it that it otherwise does if not
dried. The quality of the flour is improved at least ten
per cent., as by drying the wheat all impurities of a vege-
table nature are entirely consumed ; and by extracting its
natural moisture the flour will absorb, when baked, more
water than it would before the grain was dried, which makes
the bread much more palatable, it being more spongy."
Any process, therefore, which enables the farmer to get the
highest value for his crop, by preparing it ready in the
highest condition for the merchant or miller, must be ad-
vantageous in a pecuniary point of view. Corn drying
then takes a wider range, and is valuable to a more widely
extended class, than is generally supposed. A few remarks
on some of the methods employed will therefore be of
some utility.

Speculative as the opinion may now be deemed, we be-
lieve nevertheless that we shall yet see a very considerable

158 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

development of the principle of using currents of air and of
other drying means in the preservation of the valuable
grain products of the farm. The principle is applied very
extensively, and with remarkable success, in many branches
of our own manufactures, and to materials not a whit more,
if indeed so valuable as grain ; nor, new as the suggestion
may seem to some of our readers to be, is it in reality so,
for the importance of preserving grain has long been re-
cognised, and it is many years since the first plan was pub-
lished which proposed to effect it.

In the year 1743 Dr. Stephen Hales published a work
in which he described his ventilating machines and detailed
their advantages for a variety of purposes ; amongst others,
he endeavoured to prove their " great usefulness in preserv-
ing all sorts of grain dry and sweet, and free from being
destroyed by weevils both in granaries and ships, and also
in drying corn, malt, hops, &c." That his plan was not
chimerical appears from contemporary evidence of its use-
fulness for these purposes. It consisted in forcing a quan-
tity of air through the mass of grain, flour, &c., by means
of his ventilators. It is unnecessary to describe how these
are constructed, as these comparatively clumsy machines are
now entirely superseded by the efficient fanners of the
present day. It is, however, singular to notice that the
other part of his plan presents a great similarity to a
plan hereafter to be described. Dr. Hales carried a tube
through the centre of the mass, perforated with holes to
admit the air, which was forced into it to the surrounding
mass. It appears that this plan was held in high esteem
by the farmers of the day. A hollow reed or cane per-
forated with two hundred holes was placed in the cen-
tre of the sack, and a common bellows being attached to
the tube by a leathern pipe, a quantity of air was forced
into the tube. The plan was also adopted in France, for
it appears by a statement in the Gentleman's Magazine,
that M. de Humel de Monceau, a member of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, " preserved a large heap of corn free
from weevils for two years without turning, by merely

ARTIFICIAL DRYING OF WHEAT. 159

blowing air through it." This principle of forcing air
through masses of material to be preserved or dried is un-
doubtedly a very valuable one, and deserves the attention
of all agriculturists. The means by which its advantages
can be obtained are so simple and inexpensive, that they
cannot, or should not, stand in the way of realizing these
advantages. We have no doubt whatever, from what we
know of the astonishing power of currents of air, that it
would pay, in every sense of the word, to provide a central
opening to all stacks of every crop, and to force into — not
through — these tubes a large quantity of air by means of
a hand fan, or, still better, to work the fan by steam, and
force the air through pipes leading through a steam chest
or the upper part of a boiler, thus obtaining warmth and
dry air. The outside of the pipes being surrounded with
steam, the air forced through them in its way from the
fanners to the stack would be soon raised to a sufficiently
high temperature. But even where the plan of forcing air
into the central opening in the stacks was not adopted,
considerable advantage would still be gained from the open-
ing or central tube alone. All that would be necessary in
this case would be to have it, if solid, well perforated with
apertures, and a free opening at top and bottom. To get
the latter, the stack would require to be raised from the
ground ; this, however, is done in all cases of improved
stack construction.

24. As evidence of the extraordinary desiccating or dry-
ing powers of currents of heated air passed through, or
in contact with, various materials, we may here give some
interesting results, for which we are indebted to Mr.
Davison of London, who has devoted more time than any
man living to this branch of engineering. The principle
on which Mr. Davison's apparatus is conducted is simply
forcing large bodies of air through a series of arched pipes
heated by an ordinary furnace, and passing thus, at a high
temperature, into the chamber containing the materials to
be dried. The air is forced through the pipes by means of
a fan. The process has been applied to the drying of al-

160 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

most every species of material, the value of which is in-
creased by being in a thoroughly dried condition. There
seems to be an agreement on all sides that a drying appa-
ratus of a good construction, forming a part of the perma-
nent mechanism of the farm, would soon pay the cost of
its construction by the increased value given to various
crops by its use. We believe, indeed, the whole subject
of the preservation of grain to be second to none of all the
important objects which the enlightened farmer has in*
view; nor the less so because at present it does not engage
the attention of the general community, we believe that in
time it will do so. We make, therefore, no apology for
having directed the attention of the reader to a few of its
leading points. And before concluding the subject we will
draw attention very briefly to the modes in use of obtain-
ing and applying a supply of warmed air by using steam
or hot water. There are two ways in which grain, &c.,
may be dried by the application of currents of warmed air
— namely, first, allowing the air to pass over heated sur-
faces, and thereafter to find its way through the mass to
be warmed — and, secondly, warming large bodies of air
by a special apparatus, and forcing these into the chamber
in which the material to be dried is placed. No matter
which of these two modes is adopted, the great aim is to
have the largest supply possible of heated air with the
smallest extent of heating surface. Not the least advan-
tage of a fixed steam engine on the farm is the facility with
which a supply of steam can be obtained, not only for
cooking but for drying purposes. Let us briefly describe
some of the modes by which either the waste steam of the
engine or a special supply of it can be used to the warming
of large bodies of air.

25. The usual way to use steam for heating the interior
of a building is to pass it from the boiler to a pipe which
is led round the apartment in which the wheat is to be
dried. This is placed either on standards near the wall, or
within a conduit or open drain beneath the flooring, this
being covered with open grating, through which the heated

ARTIFICIAL DRYING OF WHEAT.

161

air ascends. When this latter method is adopted it is of
course necessary to supply the conduit in which the pipes
are placed with fresh air. The pipes should be inclined to
the boiler, so that the water of condensation may easily be
taken back to it. Where the return pipe is taken back to
the boiler, returning the steam and condensed water to the
boiler after the circuit is completed, a somewhat compli-
cated arrangement of "trap" or valve is required. To ob-
viate the use of this, it will be the simplest way, if not the
best, to allow the steam to pass from the pipe into the open
air after it has made its circuit, and to have a pipe with
stop-cock attached at the same place for leading the water
of condensation to a small tank, or to the ordinary drain
attached to the building. The diagram below illustrates
one mode of arranging the steam pipes in a drying cham-
ber; a a the flooring beams on which the material to be
dried is placed ; b b the steam pipes. It is obvious that in
all cases where a steam (fixed) engine is employed on the
farm steading, the waste steam may
be employed in the above fashion.
Nor would it be useless to have a ho-
rizontal rack, as a a on the above figure,
above the boiler on which to dry corn
in the sheaf. In place of using pipes as now described, a
very much larger extent of heating is obtained by using

Fig. 20.

I I I I

I

O O

b

162 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

flat receptacles, the surface of which is provided with ribs
or flat projections, (see illustration, fig. 20). These "become
heated by contact, and the result is that each rib becomes
a heating surface. By far the most compact, as probably
it is the most efficient, heating surface is the " heat-box,"
of Mr. Walker of Manchester (see fig. 21). This is made

Fig. 21.

up of a series of blocks of cast-iron. Each block contains a
number of square cells or tubes ; both sides of the divisions
between the cells forming effective heating surfaces. These
blocks, usually six in number, are placed within a hollow
case, of an ornamental form, standing within a few inches of
the ground. Steam or hot water is supplied to the space
surrounding the case, and the heat is communicated to the
blocks. The air passing up the interior of the cells be-
comes mildly heated, its place being supplied and a contin-
ous current maintained through any fresh air flue over the
mouth of which the set of blocks may be fixed. The blocks
and their case — for the case itself forms a heating medium
— which may be denominated the honeycomb or cellular ar-
rangement, will present more heating surface to the air than
can be obtained within a given space by any other form.

ARTIFICIAL DRYING OF WHEAT. 163

The remarkable aggregation of heating power thus attained
in a small space will be best understood when it is stated
that, in a heat-box measuring 27 inches long, 18 inches
wide and 16 inches high, 80 effective feet of heating sur-
face are collected.

We have already explained the furnace system by
which Mr. Davison warms large volumes of air; that
gentleman has recently introduced an exceedingly compact
form of heating apparatus to be used in conjunction with
a fan. This may be described briefly as a fanner surrounded
by a series of convolutions ; these are double, and are filled
with steam. The fanner draws air in at the centre, and
drives it outwards towards the periphery, and as it winds
round and round the convolutions it gets rapidly heated.
Each convolution being made up of a double plate, two
surfaces are obtained, the inside and outside (see fig. 22).
A brief glance at the hot water heating apparatus will suf-
fice for our purpose. When heat is applied to a vessel of
water, as the particles of water at the bottom get heated
they rise up towards the top, while other and colder parti-
cles descend to take their place, and getting in their turn
heated, rise to give place to colder particles. This con-
stant circulation is maintained till the mass is of a uniform
temperature; but if the vessel, which we shall suppose a
tube, is elongated, and a great portion of its length exposed
to the atmosphere, which will rob it of its heat, this uni-
formity of temperature will seldom be attained, so that a
continual circulation of the particles of water will take place
in the tube so long as heat is applied to its lower extre-
mity. This is what happens in the hot water apparatus.
This arrangement is called the low-pressure apparatus, in
which the temperature cannot possibly get above the boil-
ing point — practically, it is far below this.

26. As closely connected with the subject of drying
grain described, and as indicative of the mode of carrying
it out, we translate the following from a Continental journal :
— The Attention to be given to Gram in Granaries. — "The
frequent rains which have taken place during the month of

164

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Fig. 22.

August, in the north and in the centre of France, have
been a great obstacle to the harvest; much grain has been
taken in before being completely dry ; the ears were still
swollen with the dampness, a dampness which they retain
for a long time, even in the granaries. This grain, laid in
heaps, will ferment and acquire a bad taste, and favour the
increase of charengons and other insects if it is not often
removed. 'Le Nouvelle Agricole de Montdidier,' for the
year 1858, shows a way for preserving it much better than
the removal of the grain. This process consists in produc-
ing currents of air in the heaps by means of earthen pipes

RECEPTACLES FOR STORING WHEAT. 165

going from the interior to the outside. In order to per-
form this process I used drainage pipes of Om 035 in
diameter, in price 25 francs a thousand. As these drain-
age pipes are only Om> 35 in length, I caused some to be
made double that size, which were pierced with a number
of small holes. These pipes do not cost more than 6 francs
a hundred. The process of which I speak being as yet little
known, it would be very difficult to find pipes similar to
those which I use. Persons wishing to procure them
would do well to order them beforehand, before winter.
When this process is better known, as it cannot fail to be
at some time, it is not unlikely that tile-makers will con-
struct pipes for the purpose."

27. Storing up of Wheat, Receptacles for. — On the sup-
position that we have got our wheat in good sound condition,
the next question is, how can it be preserved 1 We may
make it dry, but can we keep it so 1 or we may put it in
only partially dry, can we make it while there, wholly, or
nearly so 1 or we may put in a portion damp or wet, can
we prevent this from influencing the portion that is already
sound ? These are questions, the answer to which will in-
volve some details that may be considered interesting as well
as useful. We shall direct attention in the meantime to
the last of these.

28. It has always appeared to us an interesting problem,
whether there could be some means devised for preventing
the spread of disease or unsoundness in collections of grain
without involving either much manual labour or expensive
constructions. The patent granted to Edward Larudant
Bellford professes to give a solution of this problem. The
means by which he does so are exceedingly simple, and are
based on the following theory : — " In vegetable substances,
which contain only a small quantity of moisture, the pro-
cess of decay always, or almost invariably, commences at
the centre of the mass, and from thence extends in all di-
rections. It is well known to millers and others engaged
in the manufacture, storage, or transportation of flour, meal,
and grain, that in those substances such is the case, the

166 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

centre being frequently found soured and heated highly,
while those portions near the outside of the mass are un-
injured. It is also the case in hay or other substances of
a similar nature." Such, then, is the theory ; the practical
method of obviating the evil deduced from thence is very
simple. Take out the centre mass, or insert a tube or series
of tubes in the centre of the receptacle in which the flour
&c., is contained, and the difficulty is met. What the con-
sequence of this simple contrivance is, a brief investigation
will show. Suppose a barrel of dry sponges, having in the
centre thereof a series of sponges saturated with moisture
extending from top to bottom of the barrel, there will thus
be a core of wet in the midst of the dry sponges. Accord-
ing to the theory above noted, the wet will radiate from
the centre mass outwards in all directions, and the sur-
rounding mass will become gradually saturated. As there
is no obstacle in any direction to these radiations of wet, we
can suppose the process to go on by adding a series of
concentric rings of wet progressing towards the external
barrel. It is riot at all likely that the wet will progress
only on one side of the wet central mass, thus forming one
semicircle of wet and another semicircle of dry sponge ;
it is just as natural for the wet to go to one side as to the
other, and seeing that there are no obstacles to its doing so,
the almost absolute certainty is that it will go to all sides.
In the centre of the barrel place a tube ; the consequence
is, that the wet mass is displaced to one side only, and be-
fore the damp or unsoundness can reach to the opposite
side of the tube and the material there placed, it must per-
force travel round the whole circumference of the tube.
But to travel in this way the wet must progress in a lateral
direction, and we have already shown that it radiates from
a point like the spokes of a wheel ; its progress, therefore,
will be mainly outward towards the barrel. By this ar-
rangement, therefore, only a minimum portion of the mass
is damped, and the chances are that before all the mass
round the central tube gets damp — which must necessarily
be a slow process, as each damp portion will only, like its

KECEPTACLES FOR STORING WHEAT. 167

neighbour, radiate from its centre — the flour or grain will
be dislodged from the receptacle. Without the central
tube any wet mass is free to radiate in all directions, with
the tube a large proportion of these rays are arrested by
the tube, and these left free to go amongst the mass pene-
trate only in the line of the moist portion. Were damp
or wet the only evil to be arrested, it would not be so im-
portant a matter to prevent it, as, on the supposition that
only a small portion was admitted damp, by communi-
cating itself to others it would be so divided that in each
it would be almost inappreciable. But wet brings decay,
and decay "grows by what it feeds on;" it progresses
steadily to a consummation. It may be compared to gan-
grene in the animal body, — it must be lopped off, to be got
rid of ; it cannot be brought to a healthy state itself, it must
only be prevented from contaminating the surrounding por-
tions. The invention, when applied to barrels for trans-
portation, is more particularly meant for Indian corn meal
and wheat flour. The following are some data which
may serve as guides to those who may use the plan : —
For a barrel of wheat flour of the usual size, containing
about 196 pounds, for a voyage of about a month or six
weeks, a tube of 2 inches will be sufficient, and one of 2<|
inches for a six months' voyage. As, however, Indian corn
meal is much more liable to decay than wheat flour, it is
desirable that a tube of 7 inches diameter for a six months',
and one of 5 inches for a six weeks' voyage be provided.
The plan is also applicable to corn bins and corn stacks.
In the latter, the central opening is recommended to be
made by means of poles, an opening being made at top
and bottom of the central tube to admit of ventilation.

Whether the theory on which the plan is based is cor-
rect or not, there can be no doubt that the spread of decay
in the mass of flour, &c., will be materially prevented by
the placing of a tube or cylindrical body in its centre ; even
although the decay does not progress radically as suggested,
the effects of contact will be materially lessened. But as
to the great advantages attendant upon the plan, when

168 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

made subservient to the plan of drying wheat by passing
currents of air through it, there can be no doubt.

29. Grain Tanks. — The usual mode of keeping grain is,
as our readers know, on the floors of granaries. This mode
is open to very grave objections, which are obvious enough
on consideration; to obviate these Mr. Bridges Adams has
proposed to use underground tanks of wrought-iron, Of
of these we give here Mr. Adams' own description : —

" There does not seem to be any difficulty in the matter,
if we can divest ourselves of preconceived ideas of the no-
tion that a granary or grain receptacle must necessarily be
a building with a floor or windows more or less multiplied
in altitude. We may reason by analogy as to what is the
cheapest and most effective means of securing perishable
commodities from the action of the atmosphere and vermin.
In England we put our flour in sacks. Brother Jonathan
puts his in barrels, which does not thoroughly answer.
If Brother Jonathan wishes really to preserve
his flour or his ' crackers ' undamaged, he makes them
thoroughly dry and cool, and hermetically seals them in
tin cans. This also is a common process to prevent goods
being damaged at sea. The Chinese, not having much
facility for metal manufacture, line wooden chests with thin
sheet-lead or tin, and pack their teas in them. In Eng-
land we keep our tea and sugar in cases of tinned sheet-
iron. We preserve meat in tinned cases, hermetically sealed.
We put fruit into sealed bottles. In all these cases the
object is to exclude the air as well as vermin. . .
There can be no doubt that if we were to put dry wheat
in a hermetically sealed tinned case, it might be kept as
long as the famed ' mummy wheat ' of Egypt. This will
readily be admitted, but the expense would be queried.
Let us examine into this. A canister is a metallic reser-
voir ; so is a gasometer ; so is an iron water-tank in a ship,
at a railway station, or elsewhere; and a cubic foot of
water-tank on a large scale will be found to cost very much
less than a cubic foot of canister on a small scale. And
if a bushel of wheat be more valuable than a bushel of

GRAIN TANKS. 169

water, it will clearly pay to put wheat into huge canisters
of iron. The wheat canister, in short, should be a wrought
or cast iron tank of greater or less size, according to the
wants of the owner, whether for the farmer's crop or the
grain-merchant's stock. This tank should be constructed
of small parts, connected together by screw bolts, and con-
sequently easily transported from place to place. The in-
ternal parts should be galvanised, to prevent rust, and the
external parts also, if desired. It should be hermetically
tight at all the joints, and the only opening should be
what is called a man-hole — that is to say, a canister top
where the lid goes on, large enough to admit a man. When
filled with grain, the top should be put on, the fitting of
the edge forming an air-tight joint. Wheat put dry into
such a vessel, and without any vermin, would remain wheat
any number of years. But an additional advantage to such
a reservoir would be an air-pump, by the application of
which, for the purpose of exhaustion, any casual vermin
would be killed. If the grain were moist, the same air-
pump might be used to draw or force a current of warm air
through it, to carry off the moisture. By this process, and
subsequently keeping out the air, the grain might be pre-
served for any length of time. As the reservoir would be
perfectly air-tight and water-tight, it might be buried in
the ground with perfect safety ; and thus cellars might be
rendered available for granaries, economising space of com-
paratively little value. The grain would be easily poured
in from the surface, and to discharge it an Archimedean
screw should be used. The size of the reservoir should be
proportioned to the locality, and it should hold a specified
number of quarters, so as to serve as a measure of quantity,
and prevent the expense of meterage. ... If con-
structed above the ground, a stair or ladder must commu-
nicate with the upper part, and the lower part must be
formed like a hopper for the purpose of discharge. For
many farm localities this arrangement might be best, and
wheat might be thrashed into grain direct from the field,
and stored. . . . Granaries of this description would

170 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

occupy less than one-third the cubic space of those of the
ordinary description, and their cost would be less than one-
fifth. . . . With this security for storing safely, a
farmer would have less hesitation in sowing great breadths
of land. He would not be driven to market under an
average value, and might choose his own time for selling.
The fear of loss being dispelled, people would buy with less
hesitation, and the great food-stores of the community
would, by wholesome competition, insure the great mass of
the community against a short supply. But as long as
uncertainty shall prevail in the storage of grain, so long
will it be a perilous trade to those engaged in it, and so
long will the food of the community be subject to a very-
irregular fluctuation of prices. There is nothing difficult
in this proposition. It is merely applying existing arrange-
ments to unusual cases. There needs but the practical ex-
ample to be set by influential people, and the great mass
will travel in the same tract. To the wealthy agriculturist
it will be but the amplification of the principle of the tin-
lined corn-bin, that keeps out the rats from the oats of the
stable. . . . Were this mode of preserving grain to
become general, the facility of ascertaining stocks and crops
after reaping would be very great. The granaries being
measures of quantity, no hand -measuring would be needed,
and the effects of wet harvest weather might be obviated."
30. For Storing up Corn or Grain. — The invention of
M. E. Mile Pasy, of Canton Neuvy le Eoi, France, may be
noticed now. The form of granary which the inventor pre-
fers is that of large vertical reservoirs of a cylindrical form
placed together like the pipes of an organ, and placed on a
platform, beneath which is placed a winnowing machine.
From the winnowing machine the dressed corn is taken up
by a series of small buckets fixed to an endless strap, which
works in the spaces left between the cylindrical tubes.
The corn is delivered to a central reservoir, from whence it
is passed into the interior of the cylinders in which the
corn is to be stored. The cylinders are of wider dimensions
at the bottom than at the top, and all terminate in a funnel

THE CONSTRUCTION OF GRANARIES. 171

so that they may be completely emptied when it is de-
sired to remove the corn from one cylinder to the other, or
to pass it through the winnowing machine, or to send it to
market. The preservation of the grain rests principally
upon a powerful ventilation, which can be repeated eight
or ten times a-year. By means of a gauge the contents are
easily read off. Beneath the platform upon which the cy-
linders stand may be placed crushing or flour mills, which
can be supplied directly from the vessels above.

31. A very complete system of arranging and construct-
ing granaries for the storing up of grain and preserving it
in good condition during its period of storage, has been
introduced by M. L. J. Gustave de Coninck, of Paris, of
which the following is a description : — " The system con-
sists in building the different floors of a granary in a square
or rectangular form with joists, on which the planks are
placed crosswise in such a position as to form hollows be-
tween each, thus presenting alternate crests and hollows.
These planks, not being joined, leave between them on the
crests and in the hollows spaces or grooves, partly closed
by small pieces of wood, which are cut slantingly in order
to facilitate the running of the grain from one floor to that
beneath by the openings. The number of openings varies
for each floor, and is as much larger, and the running of the
grain consequently as much more rapid as the floors are
nearer to the base of the granary. Under each floor, and
consequently at the upper part of each stage, are openings
covered with metallic cloth, which give access to the air.
If a quantity of grain is taken from the lowest floor equal
in volume to that in one stage, an empty space is formed,
into which the cereals run from the floor above ; but, as
there are more openings in that floor than in the one above
it, the flowing takes place more rapidly, and thus leaves an
empty space into which the air enters by means of the
openings. This effect is produced in each stage succes-
sively, and is said to be quite self-acting ; thus the grains
contained in each compartment pass from one floor to the
next, falling through the atmospheric air existing between

172 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

each floor and that above it. The only labour to be per-
formed in connection with the above operation is to raise,
by means of an endless cup chain or otherwise, the grain
abstracted to the uppermost stage of the granary, the quan-
tity of which may be one-sixth, one-fifth, or one-fourth, as
the granary is composed of 4, 5, or 6 floors.

" In the operations above described, the grains, in their
descent, occupying successively all the different stages be-
tween the summit and the base of the granary, are, there-
fore, by means of the friction, without pressure of the
grains against each other, cleansed from all foreign matters,
dust, and impurities which otherwise adhere to their sur-
face, but in this case escape by the perforated openings in
the upper part of each stage. The general movement thus
given to the whole mass of grain is also a great protection
against the insects. As a completion of this system one or
more wire lattices may be placed above the uppermost stage
of the granary, forming sieves on which the grain may
be, in the first place thrown, and which would retain all
such extraneous matters, as pieces of straw, &c., which
might be intermixed. For aerating the grain when at rest,
if required, by causing it to be traversed by currents of
air, some planks of about 8 inches in width may be placed
across the granary, and the walls under their extremities
may be pierced, thus giving admission to the air; the grain
in meeting with these planks falls on each side, leaving an
empty space beneath, of which the section would be that of
a triangle, the horizontal side being formed by the plank
and the others by those of the heaps formed by the grain.
For augmenting the ventilation a tube may be made the
whole height of the granary, to be fed by means of a
powerful ventilator at the base, and connected at each stage
with a smaller tube pierced with small holes and placed on
the floor. This system of construction may be employed
for a stove for drying grain by means of hot air. In this
case the apparatus should be constructed in iron, the floors
should be closer one to the other, and supposing a section
to measure 9 ft. by 9 ft., the distance between the floors

THE CONSTRUCTION OF GRANARIES. 173

should be about 3 ft., and the walls should be plain. A
tube in sheet iron or brass of about 4 in. in diameter or
more, covered by a larger tube, leaving a space between the
two intended to receive a current of vapour, is placed, ver-
tically, the height of the compartments of the granary, with
which it communicates by means of branch tubes, the ends
of which are partially open to the air. The air being dri-
ven through by a ventilator, becomes heated in passing, and
penetrates to the upper part of each stage, leaving by the
small tubes at each stage. This air, the temperature of
which may be more or less elevated, and which thus circu-
lates during the working of the apparatus, dries the grain
completely. The approaching of the floors in this modi-
fied system allows of two similar apparatuses being placed
one above the other, separated by a floor, the openings of
which may be shut by means of rods placed for the purpose,
so that when the two apparatuses are full, the openings of
the floor are shut. The lower apparatus may thus work
alone, and when its upper compartment is empty, communi-
cation may be re-established between the two by turning
the rods."

APPENDICES.

ON the point alluded to in par. 5, p. 94, namely, the effect
of frost upon wheat ; a very interesting and practical dis-
cussion was recently gone through in the pages of a lead-
ing Agricultural Journal. The discussion was opened up
by a writer who drew the attention of those engaged in
farming to the very great — and as he put it — the most
alarming injury which was being done to the wheat plants
by the severe frost then prevailing, and which, in his es-
timation, was likely to result in the destruction of a large
proportion of the crop. This called forth sundry opinions
of other writers, amongst others the writer upon agricul-
tural subjects well known under the nom de plume of the
" Old Norfolk Farmer ; " who thus very decidedly expressed
his opinion that wheat was not destroyed by frost.

" / do not believe there ever was a plant of ivheat de-
stroyed by frost in the United Kingdom. I have known
whole fields destroyed by the root-fall after a long and se-
vere frost; but this was owing to the neglect of the far-
mers in not rolling the wheat, or driving a flock of sheep
over the field, as soon as the frost gave way, in order to
close the soil round the roots. The rationale of this
operation is as follows : — The rains of autumn and winter
swell the soil, and the late-sown wheats, not having ac-
quired much hold on the ground, are raised with it; then
comes the frost, and evaporates the moisture from the soil,
which, when the thaw commences, falls from the roots,
leaving them exposed to the sharp and strong winds of

EFFECT OF FROST UPON WHEAT. 175

March, which blow away the remainder of the soil from
them, and the plant dies, not a natural death, but one
through neglect on the part of the farmer — first, in not
getting his wheat in early enough ; and, secondly, in not
afterwards taking the precaution of closing the soil to the
roots of the plant when the frost was over."

This view was corroborated by other writers who followed
upon its publication, the remarks of one of which we can
only here find room for : —

" I quite agree with the * Old Norfolk Farmer ' that
winter frosts lift up the wheat plants, and, if not rolled
early in spring, are greatly damaged by the evaporating
days and frosty nights of March and April. It is only re-
quisite for any farmer, especially those occupying light-
land farms, to walk across his young growing wheat after
the last little winter has passed away, and he will observe
the rootlets of thousands of plants neither in nor out of
the soil, and in such a state to cause the rootlets to wither
under the influence of frosty nights and sunny days, unless
replanted with a heavy iron roller (Cambridge roller I pre-
fer), applied at the very first opportunity in spring, at a time
when the soil will print, and not too dry as to be dusty.

" I rolled a very thin flat of wheat on the 4th of April
last ; I likewise took the precaution, and' rolled the whole
of my young seeds, as they suffer each year throughout the
country, more or less, from the like cause as wheat, and I
can assure you I am being amply repaid for the trouble, as
my seed-pastures are looking well; whereas my neigh-
bours' look as badly, for want of attending to this impor-
tant means of rolling in early spring. Science applied to
agriculture will achieve much, but practice will frequently
beat science in some seasons. In every winter I have found
that the mechanical treading of sheep, in wet weather, upon
light land (chalk), plays a most important effect upon the
following crops, provided the land be ploughed up and
harrowed before it becomes too much dried in spring.
Chalk soils, with turnips which have been eaten off with
sheep when it has either been covered with snow or har-

176 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

dened by frost, is less trampled or consolidated; hence,
when ploughed, it is loose, and very seldom grows so bulky
a crop as when well trodden in soft weather. It almost
appears that, on one hand, the manure of sheep, in the form
of dung and urine, is trodden and incorporated in the soil ;
on the other hand, it is deposited on the very surface, ex-
posed to the atmosphere, and so the very essence drenched
away with the rain.

"Are there not many farmers who cannot remember
their fed-oif turnip-fields presenting, whilst growing a crop
of corn, an uneven resemblance — that is, some folds ap-
pearing better than the rest, and at harvest turning off al-
most double the quantity of sheaves than other parts ? Yet
the turnip-crop was the same, and the same number of
sheep kept thereon ; but the weather was not the same, so
that the sheep could not act with that mechanical effect
and benefit upon the soil. It is likewise worthy of re-
mark that in autumn, when the land is ploughed for
wheat, so that the soil will tread firmly under the horses'
feet, the wheat will withstand the winter better than when
it is put into the ground in a loose and dry bed of the
chalk formation."

It is right, however, to state that the view maintained
in the above — and which is probably that of nine-tenths
of the practical farmers of the kingdom — was not concurred
in by other writers who took part in the discussion, one of
whom took special objection to the roller as being at all
likely to be useful in land totally unfitted to receive a
horse, let alone a heavy roller, on its adhesive cloggy sur-
face; a condition of land which is too often met with in
the winter and spring months in this country.

B.

It has been a subject of frequent remark that, notwith-
standing all our advance in the theory or what may be
called the science of agriculture, the details of our practice
stands very much at the point it stood at many years ago.
So much truth is there in this, that a very able and acute

CAUSES OF BUST IN WHEAT. 177

authority on farming has stated, that, as the result of a very
wide and varied research into the books published many
years ago on farming, he believes that, with the addition of
a few, comparatively few, paragraphs or pages, the whole
might be published now as trustworthy guides to modern
practice. Of course the same remark does not apply to
the theory or science of agriculture; and although some
may even object to the statement above made that it applies
so closely to the practice, still there can be no doubt that,
embalmed in the pages of old works, lies many a pregnant
truth, many a suggestive fact or hint ; and of the truth of
this we ourselves have had some experience. In view of
this it has appeared to us that we may serve some indi-
rectly suggestive, if not directly practical, purpose, by giv-
ing here an extract from a work published many years
ago, upon the causes of rust in wheat, as supplementary to
what we have said about it in the body of the work, (see
par. 8, p. 100).

On the subject of rust in wheat and its causes, the fol-
lowing by Mr. Hayward in his " Science of Agriculture,"
written may years ago, will be useful : — " I shall take
leave," says the writer, " to state that the observation and
experience of many years have convinced me, that the
opinions of the great reformer of the medical profession,
Mr. Abernethy — that the most afflicting diseases to which
the human species are subjected, are generated in the
stomach, and consequently are to be remedied by the sto-
mach— are perfectly just and well founded; and I am
also convinced, that most of the diseases of animals and of
plants may be accounted for and remedied on the same
principles. From what has been said, it is clear that ve-
getables cannot 'be supported without a due supply of food ;
and that with those, as with animals, the quality and
quantity of food must possess an equal influence.

" Every man is aware that the quality of the food he
consumes is equally as determined in its eifects as the
quantity ; and such, no doubt, is the case with plants, as
1' "i fore observed. When an animal is constrained to live

178 CULTURE OF FAEM CROPS.

on meagre, impure food, it is induced to consume a greater
quantity, to make up as much as possible for the deficiency
of quality ; and the consequence is, a distension of the
stomach and bowels, and this is often followed by a po-
verty and corruption of the fluids, which produces disease
and debility; and the body is wasted by eruptions, and
becomes a prey to vermin. And when an animal (more
particularly during parturition) is glutted with grass and
rich food, a surfeit is the consequence, and it is subjected
to a stagnation of the fluids, inflammations, and eruptions,
which often end in mortification and death ; and plants,
under the same circumstances, are subject to the same
consequences.

" These observations will be found correctly to apply to,
and to afford a clear exemplification of, the rust, or black
blight in wheat.

"On this subject Sir John Sinclair says, 'It appears,
from an able paper written by a distinguished naturalist
(Sir James Banks), that this disease is occasioned by the
growth of minute parasitical fungus or mushrooms on the
leaves, stems, and glumes, or chaff of the living plants;
and that the roots of the fungus, intercepting the sap in-
tended by nature for the nutriment of the grain, render
the grain lean and shrivelled, and, in some cases, rob it
completely of its flour. JN"or is that all ; the straw becomes
black and rotten, unfit for fodder, or little better than
a caput mortuum, possessing neither strength nor sub-
stance.'

" Again, — ' Several of the accidents above enumerated
may contribute to the production of rust ; but there are
two additional circumstances which likewise tend to pro-
mote it. First, — Having the land in too rich a state for
corn crops, and, secondly, — when too frequent a repetition
of crops of wheat takes place.'

" It has been well observed, that when crops intended to
ripen their seed are objects of culture, there is not only
wanted a degree of vigour and luxuriance in the plants
sufficient for the purpose, but if the fertility of the soil be

CAUSES OF RUST IN WHEAT. 179

raised to a higher pitch than is necessary or consistent with
that object, injurious rather than beneficial consequences
may be the result. Land may be too rich for corn crops ;
and it is better to keep it in a well balanced condition, or
in a medium state of productiveness, than in too fertile a
state. The greater quantity of sap and juices in vegeta-
bles growing on highly cultivated lands, it is evident, must
necessarily render them more susceptible of the effects of
sudden and extreme changes, and consequently more liable
to disease. Besides, as mushrooms are produced on beds
of dung, great quantities of manure must promote the
growth of fungi or parasitical plants, on the crops of wheat,
if they are once infected. The wheat produced on the site
of a dunghill is always rusted, even in the most favour-
able seasons : and if the whole field is a species of dung-
hill, how can it escape ? "

A too frequent repetition of crops of wheat, more espe-
cially when accompanied by great quantities of manure
to force a crop, will often have the same effect. The
rust was but little known in the western or the northern
parts of England, or the southern counties of Scotland, until
of late years, when every exertion has been made to in-
crease the quantity of that grain."

Sir John Sinclair also says, " Among the remedies likely
to diminish the effects of this fatal malady, the following
have been particularly recommended : — 1, Cultivating hardy
sorts of wheat ; 2, early sowing ; 3, raising early varieties ;
4, thick sowing ; 5, changes of seed ; 6, consolidating the
soil after sowing ; 7, using saline manures ; 8, improving
the course of crops ; 9, extirpating all plants that are re-
ceptacles of rust ; and 10, protecting the ears and roots of
wheat by rye, tares, and other crops."

And again, he says, " It is likewise stated on the re-
spectable authority of an eminent naturalist (J. A. Knight.
Esq.), that by crossing different varieties of wheat, a new
sort MAY be produced, which will completely escape being
rusted, though the crop in the neighbourhood and in al-
most every district in the kingdom may suffer from it in

180 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

the same year. These circumstances tend to prove that
the rust does not depend solely on atmospheric influence,
otherwise it could not be prevented by changes of seed or
by the crossing of different varieties."

This theory of Mr. Knight's is, like many others of his,
grounded on a superficial view of things, and is a mere
fallacious hypothesis.

Indeed all these great naturalists appear to have be-
wildered themselves in specious theory ; and from not hav-
ing traced the operations of nature to its source, have
throughout mistaken the effect for the cause.

Suppose a farmer was to find a sheep, unhappily reduced
and preyed upon by maggots or the larva of the flesh fly,
he may very justly suppose that the maggots reduced the
sheep ; and as justly expect, that whatever sheep were sub-
jected to the maggots would be reduced in the same man-
ner. Then what would be the best and proper remedy ?
Knowing the maggots to be produced from eggs deposited
by flies, would he try to cover his sheep from the flies ; or
attempt to drive them where there were no flies ? Where
is the farmer or shepherd that does not know that flesh
flies will not deposit their eggs on a healthy part of a sheep ;
or if they do, that they will not produce maggots ? They
know full well, that if a sheep be diseased by eruptions or
wounded, the flies will find out these places, and there de-
posit their eggs ; and, therefore, the remedy is simple.
Cure and prevent the disease, or protect the wounds, and
the evil is avoided. " Eemove the cause, and the effect
ceases."

Very similar will be found the diseases in wheat, called
the rust or black blight, and its cause.

The fungus undoubtedly preys upon that which is in-
tended to nourish and sustain the wheat ; but what afforded
an attraction and lodgment for the fungus ? This is the
grand question.

It is stated, that the fungus is a parasitical plant, like
the misletoe, but this is not the fact ; the fungus has no
power to attach itself to, or penetrate, the healthy stalks of

CAUSES OF RUST IN WHEAT. 181

the wheat any more than the larvae of the flesh fly have
the healthy skin of the sheep.

Any one who will examine the stalks of wheat growing
on a luxuriant, rank soil, at short intervals, about the time
of its first showing the swelling of the ear, will perceive
the vessels to become ruptured, either from the luxuriant
flow of the sap up the tender tops of the plants, being
checked by cold winds, or an unhealthy overfulness, or
some other casual obstruction, and the sap being thus sud-
denly checked will rupture the vessels and ooze out through
little slits or longitudinal fissures ; the discharged matter
will soon assume the appearance of a white jelly as it dries,
it will become yellow, and then brown, and of a hard tex-
ture; and in proportion as the sap-vessels are injured and
destroyed, and this exudation takes place, the plant must of
course, more or less, fail in its supply of nourishment to
the grain. In some cases, the strongest stalks will not be
able to push the ear beyond the leaf, and the corn conse-
quently will be starved. Whilst the season continues dry
and cold the exuded sap will remain like dry gum, but as
it advances, and the weather becomes warm and moist, the
gum becomes moist, soft, and putrefying, and then forms
and affords a nutritive bed for the mould or fungus, which
grows and increases until it is deprived of moisture, or is so
reduced as to be insufficient to sustain it, when it dies ;
and according as the season is favourable or unfavourable
to its growth, it produces a brown or black powdery sub-
stance in a proportional quantity. Thus, then, the founda-
tion or cause of the rust or fungus is the putrefying matter
discharged from the ruptured sap-vessels of the plant ; and
although the ruptures may be occasioned by a contraction
or obstruction of the vessels by atmospheric influence, the
overfulness or over-luxuriance of the plant produced by
surfeit, or the being glutted with rank and unwholesome
food, and its incapacity of digestion and unhealthy ob-
structions renders it more liable to such injuries, and may
therefore be considered as the general cause of the disease,
blight, or rust.

182 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

I have planted wheat in a rank compost of dung, which
from its first appearance in the autumn, during its growth
in the winter, and in the spring, maintained excessive lux-
uriance, but which was ultimately so reduced by rust as to
be rendered weak and incapable of bringing its seed to
perfection ; at the same time, and close alongside, I also
planted wheat in a pure and sweet sand, and supplied it
with a solution or infusion of rotten dung, by way of food.
This never appeared half so luxuriant as the other, but the
stalks or straw grew perfectly healthy and free from disease,
and the grain was of good quality.

The following statement by Sir John Sinclair, as well
as what has been already quoted, will in every respect
be found to corroborate and sustain my observations and
opinions.

He says, "As land in too rich a state is apt to produce
rust, it is found to be an effectual remedy, if, previous to a
crop of wheat, the dung is applied to a smothering crop, as
tares, hemp, &c. Indeed, after cole-seed, wheat is scarcely
ever known to be rusted. The general culture of that arti-
cle, and the use of Dutch ashes impregnated with saline
matter, tends greatly to the exemption from rust by which
wheat in Flanders is distinguished.

" Potatoes, when the crop is large, have the same effect ;
in Flanders, where the wheat is never materially injured
by rust, potatoes are considered, in its best cultivated dis-
trict (the Pays de Waes), as the best preparation for that
crop. If too much dung occasion the propagation of fungi,
which there is reason to believe is the case, smothering
crops, by exhausting and diminishing the strength of the
dung, may take away that tendency."

Undoubtedly the tares, cole-seed, potatoes, &c., growing
on the manured soil, must reduce, if not wholly consume,
its gross and over-luxuriant qualities, and time and expo-
sure effect a more complete decomposition and evolution of
its vitiating effluvia, and thus the great cause being re-
moved, the effect must cease.

Sir John further says, "Mr. Knight is decidedly of

CAUSES OF RUST IN WHEAT. 183

opinion that the disease is taken up by the root, every ex-
periment to communicate it from infected straw to others
proving abortive, and, indeed, if it were introduced into the
ear of the plant, how could it descend, and infect solely the
stem, which is the case, unless when the disease is in-
veterate ]"

As to the fungus passing into plants by the roots, or being
prevented from propagating by any of the means here
pointed out, it appears almost too preposterous to be
seriously thought of.

How difficult do our housewives find it to exclude the
seeds or prevent the fungus growing on their pickles and
preserves, even by tied down bladders and tight corks'?
And if horse dung in a mass be placed in certain situations,
it is well known that even the large edible mushrooms
will rise and grow where they never were seen before.

Thus, then, if the cause of the rust or black blight be
as I have stated, — and the observations both of Sir John
Sinclair and Mr. Knight confirm my opinions, and the ob-
servations of Sir Joseph Banks do not controvert them —
the remedy is simple and obvious; viz., for the production
of seed crops, let manuring follow and not immediately
precede them ; or, at any rate, dung should not be ploughed
in on such lands, immediately before sowing the seeds.

And it is equally obvious that the ploughing in green
crops must be conducive to the production of rust. And the
feeding off turnips with sheep, or folding them on the land,
immediately before sowing, must have a strong tendency
to the same effect.

If, when lands are manured, two or three succulent or
green crops be taken off before it is sown for seed crops,
although the leaf and plant, or straw or haulm of such
crops may not appear so luxuriant in consequence, the seed
will be larger in quantity, and finer in quality. And if, in
the general course of cultivation, dung be applied or given
to the green crops, the luxuriance of leaf, stalk, &c., will
be produced in that form which is most valuable, either as
green food, turnips, &c., or hay; and the succeeding grain

184 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

crops would in no respect be diminished, and the straw,
being free from disease, would be much increased in value.

" From what I have stated, if two crops of wheat be de-
sired in four years, the better mode of manuring for them
is to lay on the dung the first two years for green crops,
and take the two wheat crops following in the last two
years. There never was a more widely mistaken notion
than that a supply of dung given one year can be exhausted
either in that or the following year by cropping with any
thing ; but by burying it below reach of the roots, or so
low that it becomes inert or poisonous, the manure may
be worse than lost."

Sir John Sinclair again very justly observes, " By the
improvements which may be effected by the observations
of ingenious naturalists, and the experience of intelligent
farmers, there is every reason to hope that the diseases of
wheat may, in a great measure, be so mitigated in their ef-
fects that they will not in future be felt as a national ca-
lamity. For that purpose, however, it is necessary that the
diligent farmer should seize every opportunity of improv-
ing his knowledge in the diseases of wheat; should note
down all the circumstances connected with the subject as
they occur, and should compare his observations with those
of others ; that, whether the causes of rust are general or
local, they may as much as possible be obviated."

To this I will beg leave to add that, however repeat-
edly the diligent farmer may have been misled by theory,
he cannot be justified in wholly opposing or neglecting
science. The opinions I have here endeavoured to ex-
plain are grounded on demonstrative practical experiment.
And as it is in the power of every farmer to make the
same demonstration, I trust every one will consider it in
justice, due from all to do so, before they indulge in speak-
ing lightly of them, or in treating them with neglect. "

INDEX.

Apparatus for drying Corn, 162

Appendices, . . . 174

Artificial drying of Wheat, 157

Bellford's mode of preserving

Grain, .... 165

Bunt or Pepper Brand, . 105

Causes of the attack of rust,

mildew, &c., in Wheat, . 106

Coninck's form of Granary, 171

Corn Saw Fly, . . . 127

Cutting of the Wheat Crop, 148

Diseases, insect, of Wheat, 117

Diseases of Wheat, . . 96

Drying Corn by heated Air, 159

Drying Corn by Steam, . 160

Drying of Wheat, artificial, 157

Ear-cockle, pepper-corn, or

purples in Wheat, . . 120

Fly, the Hessian, . . 125

Fly, Wheat stem, the, . 126

Frost, action of, upon Wheat, 93

Frost, effects of, upon Wheat, 174

Fungi, parasitic, of Wheat, 97

Fungoid diseases of Wheat, 96

Gathering of cut Corn, . 148
Grain, preserving, Bellford's

mode of, . . . 165

Grain, preserving, tanks for, 168
Grain, stored, unsoundness

caused by Insects, . . 143
Grain, unsoundness in stored,

caused by moisture, .% 146

Granaries, care of Grain in, * 163
Granaries, new forms of, 170 — 172
Growth, habits of, of the

Wheat Plant, . . 89
Growth of Wheat in each month

of the Year, Table of, . 92

Grub, the, ... 133

Grub, to prevent the ravages of, 1 34

Page

Hale's mode of drying Corn, 158

Harvesting of Wheat, . 148

Hayward on Rust in Wheat, 177

Heated air, drying Corn by, 159

Henslow, Professor, on Rust, 106

Hind, Professor, on Rust, . 106

Hooding of stooks of Corn, 150

Insect diseases of Wheat, . 117
Insect life, peculiarities of, 117
Insects which cause unsound-
ness in stored grain, . 143

Midge, Wheat, the, . . 121
Mildew in Wheat, . . 103
Moisture a cause of unsound-
ness in stored grain, . 146
Moisture in Wheat, amount of, 146
Moisture in Wheat, effect of,
in bread making, . . 147

Parasites in Wheat, . . 127
Parasitic Fungi of Wheat, 97
Pasy's form of Granary, . 170
Pepper Brand, or Bunt, . 105
Pepper-corn, purples, or ear-
cockle, in Wheat, . . 120
Plant, throwing out of the

Wheat, .... 93

Puccinia graminis in Wheat, 103

Red-gum, or rust, . . 102

Red-ray, or rust, in Wheat, 102

Red-robin, or rust, . . 102
Remedial measures for the

Wheat Midge, . . 123

Remedies for rust, mildew, &c., 112

Remedies for Rust in Wheat, 179

Ricks, Corn, making of, . 153

Rolling of winter Wheat, . 175
Rust, mildew, &c., causes of

the attack of, in Wheat, 106

Rust, mildew, remedies for, 112

Rust in Wheat, . . 100

Rust in Wheat, causes of, . 180

Rust in Wheat, Hayward on, 177
N

186

INDEX.

Page

Rust in Wheat, remedies for, 179
Bust in Wheat, Sir John Sin-
clair upon, . . . 178

Sheaving of cut Corn, 149—153
Sinclair, Sir John, upon rust

in Wheat, ... 178

Smut in Wheat, . . 104
Soil, rich, the cause of Rust

in Wheat, . . . 182
Stacking of Corn, . . 153
Steam for drying Corn, . 160
Stocking of cut Corn, 149—151
Storing up of Wheat, recep-
tacles for, ... 165

Table of the growth of Wheat

in each month of the year, 92

Tanks for preserving Grain, 168

The Hessian fly in Wheat, . 125

Thrips in Wheat, . 126
Throwing out of the Wheat

Plant, .... 93

Page

Unsound Grain caused by in-
sects, 143
Uredo Rubigo, or rust, . 102

Weevil, the, in stored Grain, 143

Wheat, action of frost upon, 93

Wheat, artificial drying of, 157

Wheat, effects of frost upon, 174

Wheat, fungoid diseases of, 96

Wheat, Hayward upon rust in, 177

Wheat Midge, the, . . 121
Wheat Plants, habits of growth

of, . . .. . . 89

Wheat, rust in, . . 100

Wheat, Stem Fly, the, . 126

Wheat, Winter rolling of, . 175

Wire-worm, the, . . 127

Wire-worm, habits of, . 131
Wire-worm, land liable to be

infested with, . . 131
Wolf, or little Grain Moth in

stored grain, . . . 144

THE

CULTUBE OF FARM CEOPS,

DIVISION I.
THE CEEEALS OE GEAIN CEOPS.

PART III.

THE BARLEY AND OAT CROPS.

CHAPTER FIRST.

THE BARLEY CROP.

1. OF the cereal or white crops of the farm, barley
claims the place next in importance to the wheat ; to the
leading features connected with its cultivation we there-
fore proceed to direct the attention of the reader. In
hunting up such scanty records as the generally meagre
history of agriculture affords bearing on the early history
of our farm crops, we find but little, and that little vague
and uncertain, with reference to that of barley. As in the
case of wheat, that all is merely conjecture as to its origin,
or by whom it was first introduced. The writings both
of profane and sacred authors abound with allusions to it,
showing the important place it occupied and the estima-
tion in which it was early held. The Eomans held it in
high repute, and the Greeks especially so ; but it is to the
writings of the former people that we owe what we know

N

186 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

as to its habits, and the modes adopted for its culture in
ancient times. The most marked general feature connected
with barley is the wide, range of climates in which it can
be cultivated, in this respect taking precedence of all our
cereal crops, for it can be cultivated, and successfully, in
climates so cold and humid as to prohibit the growth of
wheat, and in climates so warm and droughty as to pre-
vent the cultivation of the oat. Barley, therefore, is an
important cereal ; for it is not only marked for the wide
range of climates in wrhich it can be grown, but also for
its adaptability to high regions, placed at an elevation con-
siderably above that at which wheat can be grown.

2. Barley belongs to the class of monocotyledonous plants,
the sub-class glumifera, order gramina, and the genus
hordeum. The following is the generic description of the
plant : " Inflorescence, spiked, spikelets are flowered three
together, the two lateral often barren (as in the two-rowed
barleys); glumes, two, equal, opposite, so small as to re-
semble short awns or bristles ; palese, two, the lower one
bearded, the upper with two heads; scales two, stigma
feathery, seed surrounded by the palese." The number of
species, and the varieties of each species, is by no means
a settled point. Professor Wilson inclines to believe that
Gasparin's classification of two species, the two-rowed,
(hordeum distichon, figs. 2, 3, and 4,) and the six-rowed,
(hordeum hexastichon, fig. 1,) is the one which is botani-
cally correct. Professor Lindley maintains that all the so-
called species or varieties which some authorities, as Kunth,
reckon up to as many as fifteen, are but variations of the
original type, and this, he says, is the "two.ro wed" or
what is called the " common barley." Of this genus, the
original type of all the barleys now grown, he says, " the
spikelets always stand in threes, and the threes being
placed back to back, it is evident that every ear of barley
must consist of six rows of spikelets. If the middle
spikelet of each set of three is alone perfect, the side
spikelets being abortive, we have the common two-rowed
barley (hordeum distichon) and its many varieties. If the

CLASSIFICATION OF BARLEY. 187

two lateral of each set of threes are perfect, and the centre
spikelets imperfect, as sometimes happens, we then have
the four - rowed barley ; if, on the other hand, all the
spikelets are perfect, we have the six-rowed barley, but the
case of the four-rowed barley being merely accidental, they
may be referred to the six-rowed form, and then we have
only two principal kinds of barley, the two-rowed (hordeum
distichon), and the six-rowed (hordeum hexastichon)" In
Scotland, however, the four-rowed barley is so much grown
and known under the name of "here" or "bigg," that it
seems necessary to include this as a species under its bo-
tanical name hordeum vulgare, although this kind is rarely
grown in the southern districts of the kingdom. The fol-
lowing is the generic description of the three species named
above, beginning with hordeum vulgare : " Florets her-
maphrodite ; fertile, middle grains 'on each side forming a
distinct straight row, lateral ones forming a kind of double
row towards the base, but uniting so as to form one row
towards the extremity of the spike." The different parts
of " bere " are proportioned as follows : the grain nearly
51 parts out of the hundred, the awns nearly 6 parts, the
straw nearly 38, and the roots nearly 5^ parts. The
varieties named by Mr. Lawson are eight in number, (1)
common "bear," "here," or "bigg;" (2) Square barley ; (3)
winter barley ; (4) African, Tangier, or Morocco barley ;
(5) Bengal barley ; (6) black winter barley; (7) naked
Siberian barley ; (8) Nepaul or Himmalaya barley. Some
of these are not now cultivated. The following is Professor
Wilson's classification : (1) black four-rowed ; (2) Victoria
bere ; (3) winter white ; (4) Peruvian. Of these the Vic-
toria is probably the finest. " The straw and ear are
longer and stouter than the common bere ; the grain is
much heavier, weighing up to 54 or 56 Ib. per bushel;
and the produce is much larger, from 10 to 12 quarters
per acre having been obtained to the acre." Peruvian is
a naked barley, of which Professor Wilson says, the char-
acteristic seems to be that they " are not so well suited for
our climate as the ordinary barley," thriving " best whera

188 - CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

a short but hot summer enables them to carry on a perfect
and rapid growth."

3. The following is the generic description of the hordeum
hexastichon, or six-rowed barley ; (fig. 1,) " all the florets
hermaphrodite and awned, seeds placed regularly in six
row.3, has a much thicker spike than common or spring
barley, but is also much shorter ; the number of grains,
however, in the ear or spike is greater, in proportion of at
least three to two. The ear is seldom more than two
inches in length." The species is hardy and prolific, but
yields the coarsest sample of all the varieties grown ; the
grains are long, ill filled, and the awns adhere to them
with much tenacity. It is not much grown in this coun-
try, but when grown, it may either as spring or winter bar-
ley, it being found to answer for either one or the other.
There are no varieties of this species. The ripening is late,
a fortnight or so beyond other kinds. The proportions of
the parts of this species are as follows : — grain, 51 ; roots,
12; straw, 32; awns, 5 in the hundred. The third
species yet to be noticed, hordeum disticJwn, the common
two-rowed barley, figs. 2, 3, and 4, has " ears in general
three or four inches long by one-third of an inch broad,
containing 28 or 30 grains, which are not very close set on
the raches ; awns extending about the length of the spike
beyond its point." Mr. Lawson names of this species
seven varieties, — (1) Chevalier, (2) Annot, (3) Dunlop, (4)
Stains, (5) Golden or Italian, (6) Chancellor, (7) Eupton.
Mr. Keary, in his prize essay on ' Barley Management,' of
which further notice will be taken hereafter, says, that of
all the varieties of barley, Chevalier decidedly ranks high-
est for malting purposes. To the objection that it does not
yield so much per acre as other varieties, he states that
under proper cultivation, there are few sorts to be com-
pared with it.

4. The following from Mr. Fyfe's paper in the "Journal of
the Bath and West of England Society,'' on " Farm Seeds
and Seeding," on the subject of barley seeds, will usefully
conclude this part of our subject.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 1

190

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.
Fig. 4.

Johnson's Providence Prolific.

CLASSIFICATION OF BARLEY. 191

" The practical procedure in regard to barley, then, runs
thus, — the Chevalier, the Thanet and the common barley ;
the recommendation of the Chevalier consisting not only
in its popularity with maltsters, but in the fact of its tall,
stout straw not being liable, in the general experience, to
lodge, and even when it does lodge, not. being subject to
after shoots of germ, although one of our correspondents
reports otherwise. The great fault of the common barley
is its liability to over luxuriance, and to shank over at the
knee when too richly manured. When grown on warm
friable soils, or even when deeply deposited in a tilthy bed,
it is best adapted for succeeding turnips and for being eaten
down by sheep ; but for that matter, so also is wheat,
which, of all crops, loves a hard-pressed surface. One of
our ablest correspondents states, however, that he has of
late years grown wheat after all his root crops and barley,
which he seeds down after his wheat. By pursuing this
system, he grows first-class barley, and ensures better and
more healthy crops of seeds and roots."

Mr. Keary is a strong advocate for a "constant and judi-
cious change of seed," and says that " although it may
sometimes be expensive to obtain it from a great distance,"
he believes that it " will generally repay the cost by an
increase of produce and an improvement of quality ; " and
he gives the following instances confirming his opinions on
this point, which we need not say, are those of the best
authorities on barley cultivation : —

" On two adjoining farms in a barley-growing district,
both much alike as to quality of soil, the occupier of No.
I being in the habit of constantly changing his seed and
sowing tolerably early, and the occupier of No. 2 systema-
tically never changing his seed and sowing rather late.
The quality of the barley grown upon No. 1 in the year
referred to was remarkably good ; and upon No. 2 it was
so very inferior as to be quite unsaleable for any but the
most common purposes, and 2s. per bushel, or 16s. per
quarter, was the difference in the price these barleys fetched,
at several times during that season, on the same day and

192 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

at the same market. The produce per acre, also, was, as
nearly as could be ascertained, very much greater on
farm No. 1."

5. So much for the question of the change of seed, upon
which little further need be said than this, that if the
trouble and slight expense involved by following the plan
here recommended by Mr. Keary, and so emphatically
endorsed by other authorities, be grudged by the farmer,
it is all the more imperative upon him to see that the seed
which he does use of his own or his immediate neighbour's
growth be of thoroughly good quality, clear in colour, with
the ends in no way blackened, full, and plump in shape.
"We have already passed a stricture or two upon the ab-
surdity of using bad wheat for seed purposes ; it is no less
patent, nor, we regret to say it, less frequently done in the
case of barley. Indeed, it is altogether surprising, when
we think of the " natural fitness of things," to see how
careless many farmers are on this point of " seed." Anything
with some seems good enough for seeding ; nor need the
poorness of some crops, which a walk through almost any
district in the kingdom will too readily show, be at all
wondered at, when we come to enquire into the nature and
quality of the seed which has been used. It is worth
while to remember, what is unfortunately too often for-
gotten, that as the seed, so the crop, and that a vast deal
of the cost and labour of the preparation of the land may
be absolutely thrown away by the carelessness we may dis-
play in the choice of the seed which we commit to its
bosom. With reference to the change or choice of seed,
Mr. Fife remarks — " As the foreign names of many of our
barleys imply, the best change is considered to be from a
distant and very different soil; and whether from an early
to a late, or vice versa, this sort of change is of vital im-
portance. But it should be observed, that the change of
seed from an early to a late district is found to be the
means of hastening the period of ripening and of affording
the chance of a finer quality of produce ; whilst the change
from a late to an early district will retard the time of ripen-

THE TIME OF SOWING BARLEY. 193

ing, but afford due time for perfect ripening. The very
best quality of seed that can be procured should in any
case be used."

6. The time of or period for sowing the barley crop is an-
other important part of its economy, and one to which the
attention of the careful farmer is now more directed than
ever. In many districts it is, as a rule, sown too late ; and
in connection with any crop it may be laid down as an
axiom, the later the sowing the poorer the yield. The
celebrated Arthur Young was amongst the first to point
out the value of early sowing of barley ; and the following
is a statement of the results of some experiments of his to
determine the point. Barley sown in February yielded
12^, in March 11J, April 8|, May 6J, in June 3£th.
We have said the later the period of sowing the
poorer the yield ; this may, however, be taken with this
reservation or addition — the later the period after a cer-
tain date ; only it is difficult to name what this date is.
Locality, climate, the peculiar nature of the season, will all
bear upon the decision of this point, and varying as they
do, will of necessity introduce such disturbing elements
into practice, that it will be difficult to lay down a rule
which will be applicable to all districts ; nor, indeed, one
which, if shown applicable to a certain district one season
can be applicable in the same district at another season.
In truth, in connection with this important point, as in
fact with many other points of agricultural practice, little
is left us but conjecture — by none of our agricultural
societies has the determination of this question, by accu-
rately comparative experiments, been taken up. Conjecture,
however, is all in favour of early sowing — say, from the
beginning of March to that of April, and all sowings after
the latter date may in favourable districts be set down as
risky. It would be well for the interests of agriculture if
our Scientific Associations were to take up now and then
the consideration of questions other than those which
seem alone now to occupy their attention and engross their
cares, and this to which we have now alluded might very

194 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

usefully "be made one of them. Mr. Keary has some re-
marks on the " risks" as well as the " advantages " of early
sowing, in which he adverts to what we have already
drawn such marked attention — namely, the difficulty, or
rather the '* impossibility," as he puts it, of " iixing any
period for sowing which will suit all circumstances and all
seasons." If the weather is good and the land is dry and
works well in February, early sowing will " unquestionably
improve the quality of the barley ; " but Mr. Keary doubts
as to the yield being increased. This, as will be noticed,
is in direct opposition to the results of Young's experiments.
Mr. Keary, however, distinctly states what all will agree
with, " that it never can be judicious to meddle with the
land in the spring till it is dry and works well." On strong
cold land the sowing of barley should be earlier than when
the land is light and sandy and the subsoil warm and dry.
In the strong cold land there is no danger, says Mr. Keary,
of a " too rapid growth in the first stages, and the land
having sufficient staple to carry it out, the quality of the
grain will be improved and the period of cutting will be
accelerated. On the other hand, if sown before the land is
in proper tilth and fit to receive the seed, a rough coarse
sample will be produced." As to very late sowing, Mr.
Keary states that its "invariable" result is an "inferior
quality of corn." A great deal necessarily depends upon
the weather in the choice of the period for sowing ; but if
success is desiderated, it is essential that the land at the
time of putting in the seed must be in a favourable con-
dition. What that is is indicated by the saying that " in
sowing barley the dust must rise above the harrows ;" and
yet this, like many other apparently decisive sayings, must
be taken with reservation, for although the land should be
dry, it should only be so relatively, for a certain amount of
moisture in the soil at the time of sowing seems to be a
necessary condition in insuring a successful braird. If the
weather during the preparation of the soil has been so
favourable as to admit of a fine tilth being secured, then
the best condition in which it can be for putting the seed

SOILS SUITABLE FOR BARLEY. 195

in, is after a slight shower has moistened the soil. The plan
of moistening or damping barley seed in very dry weather
has been suggested as a good means of securing a braird.

(7.) A slightly moist, a soft and friable soil, is necessary for
the barley. To secure the two latter features, the whole of
the details of the preparation of the land must therefore
be carried carefully out, and they at the same time indicate
the nature of what is called " barley " soil, a thing essen-
tially different from a " wheat so.il," which latter is diffi-
cult to bring into the fine friable tilth so necessary for the
barley. As regards the soil, then, for the barley crop,
Professor Wilson sums up the whole that need be said on the
subject thus : " Agriculturally speaking, their range is from
the lightest gravels up to the medium loams ; beyond a
medium loam the proportion of clay renders the soil unfit
for the cultivation of barley." The difference in the struc-
ture of the roots of the wheat and the barley plants indi-
cates the difference required in the soil, or rather its con-
dition. The roots of the wheat have a remarkable ten-
dency to push themselves deep into the soil as well as to
ramify in all directions; those of the barley plants have
the power given them of spreading laterally, and a de-
velopment remarkable for its quickness. We see, then,
the wheat plant distinguished by what we may call a ver-
ticality of root-development and a slowness of growth, and
the barley by a horizontality and a quickness of growth.
The roots of the Avheat plant draw their assimilable food
from the soil slowly, and from a great depth ; those of the
barley have to draw it quickly, and from the surface, and
much more in a given time than the wheat roots. This
quick abstraction of the food from the soil by the barley
plant is also aided by a peculiarity which distinguishes
them — namely, the number of root fibres or " hair-like
processes" by which the roots are supplied, and which Pro-
fessor Lindley calls " the mouths of the root." A quick
drawer and a greedy drawer of the manurial matters con-
tained in the soil, and that soil confined by the habits of
growth of the plant, the inference is readily drawn, that

196 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

the crop which precedes the barley crop should be that
which leaves the soil in the condition best fitted for these
habits, and rich in manurial constituents — these conditions
indicate, therefore, a root crop as that which should pre-
cede the barley. The processes involved in the prepara-
tion of the soil for the root crop are just those which bring
about the condition best fitted to aid the growth of barley ;
and the advantages of the rotation are perhaps rendered
still more striking when the turnip crop is partly or wholly
fed off by sheep. " The appropriateness of this course for
barley rather than for wheat, besides the advantage arising
from the season of the year at which the land is generally
clear for the corn, rests mainly on the fact, that the ma-
nure by folding, with the subsequent light working of the
land, is more confined to the superficial layers of soil in
which, comparatively, the roots of the barley play more
freely." At the same time, however, it is to be noted, that
a "disadvantage of growing barley after the folding of
sheep on turnips is, that with high farming the land is apt
to be thus left in too high a condition for the crop to suc-
ceed well in the average of seasons ; whilst on the heavier
lands there is frequently much injury done to the texture,
rendering it difficult to get the fine tilth so essential to the
favourable growth of barley."

8. The various points connected with the question,
What is the best rotation for any given crop ? while
they are most important, and while their right solution
would exercise a most favourable influence upon the
practice of agriculture, are unfortunately so difficult of
decision, and involve so much that, if not often contra-
dictory, is at least conflicting and confusing, that the whole
subject of "rotation" is yet in a most unsatisfactory con-
dition. " Rotations, or systems of cropping," as so sugges-
tively pointed out by Professor Wilson, " must be more or
less guess-work, founded, if you please, upon long practice
and experience, but good only where exactly the same con-
ditions can be secured." But however much discrepancy
there may be between the statements and opinions of far-

SOILS SUITABLE FOR BARLEY. 197

mers as to the beet rotation to be adopted in the case of
any crop, and however much men may disagree as to the
details, still all must, we think, unhesitatingly coincide with
Mr. Lawes and with Dr. Gilbert when they urge the " ne-
cessity of considering the various habits and conformation
of the different crops of our rotations in relation to their
sources of growth;" and agree with them in this also,
" that the important bearing of such considerations in
modifying the conclusions to which a more purely chemical
view of the offices and province in a system of manuring
of the various constituents would lead, is one of the first
lessons which the progress of field experiment teaches."
These celebrated agricultural authorities point out very
clearly the conditions of growth of the barley, and which
we here epitomise. The autumn crop of wheat depends
greatly for its success upon the progress during' the early
months of its growth on its underground development.
Other things being equal, this development of root is greatly
favoured by a liberal supply of nitrogen within the soil ;
and that this being supplied, the range of feeding ground,
so to term it, of the fibrous roots, was so extended, that the
mineral constituents of a much larger area of soil than
would have been otherwise the case were rendered avail-
able, when needed, in the after stages of the plants. The
case is, however, very different with the barley crop ; here
winter-growth and a compressed soil, which tend to increase
depth and area of root-distribution are not present or de-
siderated; on the contrary, we have spring growth, the
staple of soil shallow, light, and open. Under these cir-
cumstances, and a limited period of growth, we find the
" direct supply of some of the rarer but essential mineral
constituents of our soils much more efficient with the bar-
ley crop than with wheat." With the multiplication and
thickly-distributed net-work of roots, which we have shown
to be the characteristic feature of the underground develop-
ment of the barley, " the greater must be the resources of
the plant within its comparatively limited period and area
of growth." Thus it is that the increased supply of cer-

198 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

tain important constituents within a limited area, enables
the plant to provide itself more freely and rapidly with
others it may require.

9. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, as the result of an elaborate
series of experiments upon the growth of barley, have
shown that '' the produce of barley obtained in rotation
(the usual four-course or Norfolk system — turnips, barley,
clover, wheat), even when the turnips were both unmanured
and carted off, was considerably greater than when the crop
was grown annually in succession on the same land," so
that, as they remark, it may fairly be concluded that a
" characteristic effect of alternating the other crops with
the barley " is to leave more available nitrogen from some
source within reach of its roots than is the case when the
barley is grown in successive crops on the same land, or
when a number of turnip crops were likewise taken in suc-
cession off the land previously; and the conclusion they
arrive at is, that, like wheat, barley requires " a nitrogenous
condition of soil," and that full crops cannot be obtained
unless there be within the soil available supplies of nitrogen.
The bearing of those remarks upon the question of rota-
tion is important, and will at once be recognised by the
intelligent reader.

1 0. Let us, then, now draw our attention to a review of
the modes in use for the cultivation of barley. We have
already referred to the preparation of the land. In a prac-
tical paper on the " Management of Barley " by Mr. H. W.
Keary, a prize essay published in the " Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society," there are some very excellent remarks
on this point. And here the importance of attending to
this may at once be recognised, from the fact, so carefully
pointed out by Mr. Keary, that upon it depends most ma-
terially the quality even perhaps more than the quantity
of the crop. So that although, as a rule, what are called
" barley soils " produce the finest yield both iir quality and
quantity, still remarkable differences in these respects are
noticeable, and this arising from the different modes in
which the same kinds of barley are cultivated. Mr. Keary

MODES OF CULTIVATING BARLEY. 199

gives some most excellent remarks upon the modes prac-
tised in various districts. In several of the midland counties
there are fine deep loams upon gravel, and also upon clay,
which produce a " very bold heavy barley," but which,
however, does not take the first place in the London mar-
kets for malting purposes. On such districts, and with
this soil — termed turnip and barley soil — the barley is
usually taken after the turnips, the turnip crop being pre-
viously fed off either wholly or partially by sheep. It is
on such soils that the truth of the adage, " Sheep have
golden feet," is so well exemplified. The land, firmly con-
solidated by the treading of the sheep, and well manured
by them, is broken up by the plough in the autumn or
winter months, and allowed to remain exposed to the ame-
liorating influences of the atmosphere till seed-time. The
land — and this by the practicians of some districts is worthy
of notice — is not again ploughed in spring, but simply
scarified, or grubbed, and well harrowed. The seed is then
deposited generally by the drill, but sometimes it is broad-
casted. A good deal has been said upon the comparative
advantages of these two modes of sowing, but while there
are benefits to be derived from the dispersing of the seed
over the ground — for the more this is done the better —
still the fact that the depth is unequal operates most pre-
judicially against the broadcasting system, for the growth
is most unequal, some of the grains having a start long
before others, so that the quality of the sample at harvest-
ing is most unequal also, and the trouble involved in cut-
ting very considerable. JSTow, by using the drill, we can
secure uniformity in the depth at which we deposit the
seed, and, what is of immense importance in a crop where
uniformity in the quality of the sample is so important, we
can also secure uniformity of growth and of ripening. In
the midland districts which we are now considering, the
sowing season varies, according to circumstances, from the
middle of March to the end of April, the seeds sown be-
longing to the varieties known as Chevalier, Nottingham,
Long Ear, and the old Common barley. Of these the Che-

200 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

valier is gradually growing in repute, more being grown
now than formerly, even although the quantity per acre is
not so satisfactory as other varieties; but it "is highly
esteemed for malting purposes, and therefore commands the
highest price. Barley in these districts is sometimes sown
after fallow, this being where the soil is rather a " strong
clay." In autumn the land is left in a rough and cloddy
state from the plough ; and the seed is sown upon this as
early after February as possible, and then dragged or
scuffled in without further preparation. Simple as this
plan appears, Mr. Keary states the crops produced by it to
be very good, and inclines to the belief that possibly for
such soils it is the best that can be adopted. In some dis-
tricts of the southern counties the turnip-land is ploughed
up as soon as it is dry, well worked twice with the drag-
harrow or with the scarifier, and then the seed is drilled at
the rate of three bushels to the acre. The common sort of
barley is generally used, the Chevalier not being there a
favourite in consequence of the low quantity of its yield.
In Herefordshire, which is celebrated for the fineness of
its barley crops, the best crops are grown upon the light
soils which have a chalk subsoil. Generally these lands
are ploughed only once, the seed being sown in March or
April. On the stronger lands of this country, fine malting
samples c^uld not be obtained from the old Common bar-
ley sown ; now, however, this difficulty is obviated by the
use of the Chevalier variety.

11. Although the barley crop is one which delights in a
genial warmth of soil and of climate, nevertheless we find
its extension very marked in what one would suppose to
be the apparently (for barley) ungenial districts of the York-
shire and Lincolnshire wolds, with their somewhat northern
districts; but good farming has overcome the difficulties
arising from this circumstance, and the barley grown in
these districts equals, if it does not excel, that of other and
more favoured places. The white turnip is generally grown
in these northern districts, the crop being fed off either par-
tially or wholly by sheep; if swedes are grown, they are

MODES OF CULTIVATING BARLEY. 201

not taken up and stored, but left in the ground till wanted
in spring. The reason why white turnips are grown in
place of the elsewhere more esteemed swedes, is, that the
farmers of the wolds believe that a better crop of barley is
obtained after them than after the swedes. Now this
opinion is directly opposed to the experience of the Nor-
folk farmers, so celebrated for the fineness of their barley
crops. As the point is one of a decidedly practical and
important character, it will be worth while to devote a
little space to the consideration of its details. The swede
crop is almost universally allowed to be richer in nutritive
qualities than the white or common turnip, and it may
therefore with safety be predicted that the land will be
more fertilized from the application of the manure of sheep
fed upon swedes than when they are fed upon white tur-
nips. Further, the longer a crop is allowed to remain upon
the ground the more does it exhaust the land. Now, in
Norfolk, the swedes, when grown, are taken up and stored;
while in the wolds of Lincolnshire or of Yorkshire the
white turnips are allowed to remain in the ground till
wanted in spring. Now, asks Mr. Keary, may not this
circumstance be the reason why such a difference of opinion
exists amongst the farmers of two districts alike celebrated
for their good farming] and on the point between them
Mr. Keary has no hesitation in giving in his adherence to
the opinion in favouF of the swedes as the best crop to
precede the barley ; and he believes that, by the extension
of growth of this valuable root, not only would more sheep
be maintained, but that by the increased fertility which
would by its means be given to the land by the manure
obtained from the sheep fed upon it, it would benefit
the clover crop, which follows the barley, and ultimately
the wheat, which follows the clover. In the wold
districts of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire the land is bro-
ken up by the plough after the turnips are fed off by
the sheep; it is then, on the approach of seed-time,
dragged and harrowed; and the seed is generally sown
broadcast, at the rate of 10 to 12 pecks per acre — the seed-

202 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

time varying from the first week in March to the last week
in April.

12. We shall now briefly glance at the practice of the
celebrated barley-growing districts of Norfolk. As already
stated, the swede is the favourite crop for sheep-feeding
purposes in this county, and is that crop which precedes
the barley. But in addition to the use of this nutritious
root by the " go-ahead " farmers of the county of the cele-
brated " Coke," large quantities of oil-cake, crushed barley,
and pease, are given to the sheep. To this system of feed-
ing, by which such a valuable manure is obtained, may be
attributed the rapid fertilization of some of the worst lands
of the county ; and Mr Keary believes it to be by far the
best and cheapest mode of bringing a poor farm into a
high state of cultivation, for the cake, &c., " passing through
the animal, an increase of matter is added to the increase
of corn, and the cost of artificial manure is thus doubly
paid for." But while the barley crop is by this system
undoubtedly raised in quantity, it is thought that by it the
quality is deteriorated; although the pecuniary result may
not be affected, the decrease in the quality being more than
balanced by the increase in the quantity. In the districts
which we have already described, the practice is, as we
have shown, to plough the land early and well in the
autumn. Now, in the Norfolk district, it is a very general
practice to plough twice, experience having, it seems, in-
variably shown that more barley is produced when the
land is ploughed twice than when it is ploughed only once.
In ploughing once the manure of the sheep is not so in-
timately mixed with the soil, the greater portion remain-
ing at the bottom of the furrow ; while by ploughing twice
the manure is equally and intimately mixed with the soil.
The last ploughing is done immediately before sowing, so
that a kinder, lighter, and more genial seed-bed is found
to be the result than when the sowing takes place on the
" dead surface of the land ploughed up many weeks pre-
viously." But it is worth while to note that, although
the experience of the Norfolk farmers is such as we have

NORFOLK SYSTEM OF CULTIVATING BARLEY. 203

now described it to be, it has nevertheless been found that
in all soils, except those of the very lightest and the most
sandy character, the use of the plough for originally — or
for the first — breaking-up of the land for the barley crop,
is not so beneficial as the use of the grubber or the scari-
fier; the furrows turned over by the plough being gene--
rally of such a close and impervious character as to be
little influenced by the beneficial effect of the frost and
atmospheric influences during the winter months. In
some cases, therefore, a strong scarifier, with the teetli
closely set, is dragged over the land in autumn by four
horses, and it is left in the consequent rough and uneven
condition all the winter. The plough is then used to
prepare the land for sowing in the spring, this being
done immediately before the seed-time, the seed being then
put in. Another plan is sometimes, folio wed; in this the
iron mould-board of the plough is removed, and a piece of
rough wood substituted, the object of this being to pre-
vent the furrow being turned completely over, leaving it in
an unfinished or roughly broken condition. By the im-
plement thus prepared the land is broken up in autumn,
and left rough till spring. As soon as the season is suffi-
ciently far advanced, and the land dry, it is well harrowed ;
and immediately before the . seed is thought right to be
put in, the second ploughing is performed, and the seed
put in. In the large light-land fields of the western dis-
tricts of Norfolk it is usual to plough the whole field, and
drill across the ridges or furrows. This plan of drilling
across the furrows produces a more uniformly deep seed-
bed; for it is obvious that where the converse of this
holds, and the drill follows the furrows of the plough, the
seed will not be deposited equally deep, the surface being
uneven, and the drill-coulters running into the furrows will
render the work done uneven. After the drilling is per-
formed, the land is well harrowed, and sometimes the roller
is used in place of the harrow; the grass-seed machine
then follows, after that the light harrow, and the sowing
process is then completed. Where the soil is stronger, the

204 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

drill follows the plough, and this especially in wet weather,
the object aimed at being the thorough completion of each
day's work before night sets in. In these soils the barley
is allowed to stand through the ground, and be pretty
strong in the blade before the roller is applied, This is
light, and its office is to break up the clods, and give a
little fresh soil and firmness to the roots of the growing
plants. On light tender lands the seed is sown broadcast,
and turned in with a light one-horse plough ; this practice
was common formerly throughout the county. In the
strong soils of the county which are apt to work unkindly
in the spring, the following plan of preparing the land by
the two-furrow or ridging system is adopted. A rather
shallow furrow is taken at first, and the return is made
with a deeper one, leaving a small " balk," and turning it
over so as to make a complete ridge. The ridges thus
formed are allowed to remain exposed to the atmosphere
for some weeks, and as soon as the weather allows in early
spring the plough is used to reverse these ridges, and open
up and expose their interior to the atmosphere. These
ridges are in their turn allowed to remain for some weeks
till seed-time approaches, and then a skeleton-plough is
used to split them up; the land is then well harrowed
and levelled as much as possible. The drill then follows
and the operation is completed. If all these operations
are effected properly in dry weather — for which see an
after note — a most admirable seed-bed is secured. The
plan, however, is open to objections, of which the following
are stated. It is difficult to get the land completely level,
and hence, particularly in a dry season, the crop conies up
unequal in growth, being much stronger in the alternate
rows, the furrows thus showing themselves in the growing
crop. This irregularity of growth is of course more ob-
servable in the early stages than in the later, but it is
obvious that its tendency is to maintain itself throughout
the season of growth, so that an irregularity of ripening of
the crop and in the quality of the sample must be the
consequence.

WEATHER FOR SOWING BARLEY. 205

In the Norfolk district, which we are now considering,
the sowing season extends from the middle of March to
the end of April, but the first half of April is considered'
in average seasons the most favourable time. Where land
works well, early sowing of barley is good ; and in Nor-
folk, in the strong soils, it is sown early in March.
" Chevalier " barley is rapidly becoming a favourite.
" Brewers' Delight " grows stiff in the straw, yields a good
sample, equal for malting purposes to " Chevalier," and is
therefore fast coming into repute. The old " Common
Barley " is now but little used. " Long-eared Nottingham "
is used by some, " American " by others, and by others
again a variety obtained from Leghorn.

We must draw special attention to the remarks of Mr.
Keary on the importance of attending to the weather in
which, as well as to the details of the mode by which, the
work is performed. A great point undoubtedly is to
obtain a slightly damp seed-bed; but while this is worth
aiming at, it is impossible to find language strong enough
to condemn the absurd practice of working the land when
it is thoroughly wet — " when the water stands in puddles
on the surface." This, however, is not done in order to
get the kind of seed-bed we have alluded to above, but
specially to accelerate the spring work. The ploughing is
then done, it is true, but it is not sufficiently considered
that numerous harro wings, rollings, and perhaps clod-
crushings, must be gone through before barley can be sown
amongst clods, which are the sure result of working in wet
weather. Soil forced thus into tillage rarely yields the
kind and genial seed-bed required for barley. Some sea-
sons are, however, so continuously wet that it is difficult,
if not altogether impossible, to get the land in proper con-
dition for working. Mr. Keary mentions a plan for work-
ing barley soil in wet weather which he describes as being
specially successful. A piece of cord was tied round the
mouldboard of the plough, this preventing the smooth
shiny surface given to the furrows by the plough in its
ordinary condition, and entirely removing the necessity to

206 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

use the roller. The mode already described of breaking
up the land in autumn by a grubber or scarifier, and
ploughing the land immediately before sowing, appears to
Mr. Keary and other authorities to be preferable from
every point of view to that where only one ploughing is
done, and then putting in the seed.

13. As to Mr. Frere's opinion that the barley takes less
out of the land than the wheat crop, seeing that it runs coun-
ter to the one frequently held, it will be well to note what
is said in support of it. The land selected for trial by Mr.
Frere was the very weakest portion of his heath land,
" black sand on chalk rubble." On this, which is too
light to carry any other " lay " than ryegrass, with an
admixture of trefoil and Dutch clover for sheep food, " the
worst part of the field has been left, at wheat-sowing time,
manured and ploughed at leisure during winter, and sown
with barley on the whole furrow in the spring, part of it
having been folded, the rest having received straw manure, —
a ton or two less per acre than would have been applied
to wheat." Now those who rely upon the respective an-
alyses of the ashes of the wheat and of the barley crop
will, from their similarity, believe that they are equally
exhausting crops. But Mr. Frere, in advancing the con-
trary opinion, points out that our best chemists believe
that the cereals are parting with nitrogen to a considerable
amount, and that during the " whole course of their
growth." As a result of this, the waste of this valuable
manurial agent will depend upon the duration of the
growth of the plant ; so that more nitrogen will be parted
with by the winter wheat, the growth of which extends
over so much longer a period than the barley sown in
spring. Of course, the much - disputed question arises,
Granting that this parting of nitrogen by the cereals is
correct, does it follow that the soil is consequently weak-
ened 1 Those who believe in the large amount of ammonia
derived from the air will of course hold as favourable to
their views this same " nitrogenous exhalation " of the
cereals, rather than the reverse. But to these Mr. Frere

SOWING OF BARLEY. 207

puts the following — " Until we have better evidence that
the nitrogen, as united with oxygen • in the air, becomes
largely available for plants, how can they account for the
supply of ammonia and nitric acid on which they rely ? "
But apart from all " scientific speculations," Mr. Frere be-
lieves that "our growth of barley" may safely be increased
on suitable soils, " and this in view of the facts, that while
the prospects of wheat are precarious, those of the barley
crop are steady, and that by improved skill in brewing,
and by the facilities now offered for transporting beer to
great distances, the. competition offered by the increase in
consumption of foreign wines is counterbalanced."

The following shows the combined results of the crops
of the four following years : —

Value per Acre Value per Acre

Years. of Barley (on of Wheat,
whole furrow.)

1859, . . .£890 £700

1860, . . . 840 9 10 0

1861 (nearly), . . 11 0 0 900

1862 (over), . 10 0 0 10 12 0

£37 13 0 £36 2 0

Average, . . £983 £906

We now come to the consideration of the points con-
nected with the quantity of the seed to be sown, and the
modes in use for sowing it. As in connection with the wheat,
so with the barley crop, great difference of opinion exists as
to the quantity of seed per acre to be used ; some advocating
thick, some thin sowing, while as to the modes of sowing
it, the same diversity of opinion also exists; so that some
advocate the broadcast, some the drill, and some the dibbling
systems. Much of what we have said on all these points
having special reference to the wheat crop (see volumes on
the Culture of Wheat) applies equally well to the barley crop.
Although broadcasting may be said to be the rule, still an
immense advantage arising from the adoption of the " drill-
ing system " is the facilities afforded by it to clean the crop
during the early stages of its growth. We are aware that

208 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

this hoeing and cleaning is not by any means general; yet
if the reader will draw to recollection what has been given
in a former part of the present chapter as to the habits and
characteristics of the barley plant, he will at once perceive
that the growing crop will be immensely benefited by being
cleared from weeds, and the soil consequently well stirred,
so as to admit abundance of light and air, and allow the
atmospheric influences thus to operate in their usual bene-
ficial way. As to " dibbling," from what we have heard,
and from the result of numerous experiments of our own,
we are inclined to think it is even more specially valu-
able for the barley than it is for the wheat crop — so much
so, that if the difficulties attendant upon carrying it out on
the large scale are considered such as to be prohibitive of
the system, we would at all events most unhesitatingly
recommend its adoption in all cases where a special supply
of seed is to be raised from some favourite variety, or where
experiments are being carried out. The whole question of
thick and thin sowing is invested with so many points of
immensely practical importance that we shall be pardoned
if, in addition to what we have already said upon it in a
previous paper, we here draw attention to some very sug-
gestive remarks 011 it by M. Bodih, of the Agricultural
School at Rennes, who is a strong advocate of thin-sowing.
Referring to the well-known dicta, " On rich land sow thin ;
you will always have sufficient seed;" and, "On poor soil
cover the field with seed — you cannot put in too much,"
M.'Bodin says that it will be worth while to inquire from
whence the notions involved in these sayings have sprung,
and how it is that it has come to be believed that putting
a large number of plants into land which does not contain
nutritive principles, and few into soil which contains much
nutriment, opposed as seems written on their face, to com-
mon sense. Under the impression that sowing thickly
would choke the weeds, M. Bodin has adopted it in the
case of certain crops, but the results obtained taught him,
he says, a lesson. By sowing thickly on poor soil, each
grain produces only one stem, and that stem only one ear ;

THICK AND THIN SOWING OF BARLEY. 209

by still farther increasing the quantity of seed, the produce
is still poorer. By the invariable law of plant growth, all
the plants will give some grain; but the question arises,
"Will the stems form themselves, if, by thick sowing to
excess, they grow up thicker and poorer 1 Doubtless, the
more the stems are numerous, the poorer in formation will
they be, for we put fifty in a space adapted only, perhaps,
to grow ten, and yet we expect a good result from such a
mode ; certainly an expectation as likely to be realized, as
he who, putting three times more stock upon poor pasture
than he would upon good pasture, fancies he will obtain a
better result. The more we encroach upon the available
resources of the soil, by putting the plants living upon it
to an extreme in number, the more do we reduce the
quantity of the produce : if we sow fifty where we should
only have ten, it is obvious enough that the food fit for
the full development of ten only must be divided among
fifty, to the manifest disadvantage of every individual one
of the fifty. . But not only is the supply of food to each
plant lessened in proportion to the excess of plants partak-
ing of it, or withdrawing it from the soil, but another and
a very serious disadvantage arises — namely, the roots get
crowded and entangled together, and the " tillering," which
is so essential to the healthy development of each plant,
cannot be secured. It is difficult to say what is the mini-
mum of earth or root space required by each plant, but,
judging from the extraordinary extent to which this de-
velopment takes place where the plant is allowed a large
space of soil to grow in, we have no hesitation in saying
that, as a rule, no plant receives, in practice, its proper
allowance of feeding and growing ground. We remember
very well the result of one out of many experiments we
instituted on the modes of sowing thickly and thinly,
having reference to the extent of underground (root) de-
velopment and upper growth (stems and ears), how struck
we were by the extraordinary mass of rootlets, and the fine
display of stems and ears of a cereal plant dibbled (one of
many sown at 12 -inch intervals), and another of the same

210 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

variety sown broadcast in the usual fashion. The broad-
casted-planted bore a few long lanky stems and small ears;
the dibbled, which, in comparison, might be called a forest
of stems like pillars, round, long, and strong, bearing full
and large ears ; the first with a small knot of rootlets, the
dibbled plant with a huge bunch. The two displayed a
fine illustration of "the thin and ill-favoured," and the "full,
well-favoured " ears of the corn seen in Pharaoh's dream.
But to return to M. Bodin's remarks on this most interest-
ing subject. While approving of thin sowing, he does not
pretend to state the exact quantities which it is necessary to
sow to produce a good crop; nor does he approve of
" calculations taking for their base the quantity of grains
sown ; " on the contrary, the yield per acre seems to him
the most certain. For " in fact," he remarks, " if I sow
some grains singly upon a large surface, the plants will
develop themselves in an extraordinary manner, and I shall
have an enormous produce compared to the quantity of
grain sown, but very little compared with the extent of
ground. By this means we shall gather thirty or forty to
one, being, however, a small return per hectare. It must,
therefore, be left for the cultivator to judge the quantity
of seed required, taking care not to diminish it beyond
what is necessary for the stems to fill the soil."

14. In examining the practice of farming in many dis-
tricts, one is frequently struck with this, that many modes
are adopted which seem to have for their aim to overcome
an evil which owes its existence to a bad system, so that if
the system was remodelled, preventing the recurrence of
the evil, the detail in the mode would not be necessitated,
seeing that it was alone adopted to overcome the evil.
Many examples of this will recur to our readers, and one
may be met with in the argument used in favour of thick
sowing for some of our cereal crops (as, for instance, that
of the barley, which, as is well known to many of our
readers, should, according to almost general belief, " lie
thick upon the ground") — namely, that it keeps down the
weeds, which develop most rapidly when the seed is sown

THE OAT CROP. 211

thin or in rows. But as M. Bodin well remarks, " it
would be better to destroy the weeds by second hoeing or
cleaning, than to run the risk of spoiling your crop, which
there is great danger of, if it is left to fight its way amongst
the weeds." Weeds and crops must be always antagonistic ;
good farming has for its only aim the growth of the crops,
and its most untiring and energetic efforts all conspire to
prevent the growth of the weeds. M. Bodin concludes his
paper by giving a saying, which, although soritewhat
exaggerated in tone, carries with it, nevertheless, a vast deal
of truth — " The worst weed for the corn is corn." On this
point of thick and thin sowing, Mr. Keary, the author of
the Prize Essay on Barley, of which we have already given a
resumd, states that he is inclined to adopt a middle course
between the extremes of thick and of thin sowing. " From
eight to ten pecks per acre in kind and genial soils will
generally suffice ; but on unkind land, in imperfect tilth,
it may occasionally be necessary to sow a larger quantity."

CHAPTER SECOND.

THE OAT CROP.

15. THE next of the cereal crops demanding our attention
is oats — that crop, the produce of which was defined by
the able but at times somewhat surly English Moralist, as
" food for men in Scotland and for horses in England ;" but
the lurking prejudice of which definition was well met by
the smart rejoinder, " Yes, true enough, but where will you
meet with such men and such horses." Notwithstanding
this deprecating estimate of the value of the oat, the crop is
not only in Scotland, but in many parts of England, an
important one. In Scotland, indeed, in some districts, it
is not second in importance to any of the cereal crops ; if
behind wheat, in the estimation of farmers there, certainly
before barley. What we have had to say in connection

212 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

with the history of wheat and barley, we have again to say
in connection with oats. All we know, indeed, of the time
and place and manner of their introduction into the cate-
gory of animal food is, that we know nothing. All is
conjecture, and conjecture, moreover of the vaguest kind ;
less frequent mention is made of the crop in those documents
which take cognizance of the other cereals ; and in Holy
Writ no mention is made of it at all. In the records of
Ttonian History the same absence of direct information re-
specting it is noticeable ; although a curious indirect yet
sufficiently suggestive testimony respecting it is met with
in the statement or story that the Emperor Caligula, in
the very arrogance of wealth, fed his horses with gilded
oats, from which, if we like, we may draw a moral of some
suggestiveness to us all. Eepeating the stereotyped infor-
mation we possess on the history of the oat, — which being
met with everywhere where the subject is discussed, is
excuse enough for its being mentioned here — writers state
that its origin may be traced to Persia or Mesopotamia ;
and, in corroboration of this, the fact is stated that Colonel
Chesney found growing wild on the banks of the Euphrates,
a variety of oats, which, although very unlike our oats,
Dr. Lindley says may yet be their progenitor. Having
given this, we give all the information we know as to the
history of this crop, and proceed therefore to the more in-
teresting, because more practical details connected with its
cultivation.

1 6. Oats belong to the class (in the natural system) of Di-
cotyledonous plants, the order Graminse, and the genus
Avena. The number of species is considerable, some nam-
ing them up to fifty ; but of these, by far the greater num-
ber are of no agricultural value as cereals, being, in fact,
but grasses or weeds ; this reduces the food oats, so to call
them, to the following families, under which all the varieties
of oats cultivated in this country are classified. These are
(1) Avena sativa, or the common oat ; (2) A. Orientalis, the
Tartarian oat; (3) A. brevis, the short oat ; (4) A. nuda, the
naked oat ; and (5) A. striosa, the bristle-pointed oat. The

VARIETIES OF OATS. ' 213

general appearance of the oat is so well known as to re-
quire no specially lengthened description ; popularly the
distinction between it and the wheat and barley is that,
while in these the grains are congregated round a central
stalk more or less closely, the grains of the oat are sup-
ported on tender stalks, which spread out branch-fashion
from a central stem. More scientifically stated, oats are
characterized by " their lax panicles, their two lax mem-
braneous glumes, and the "smaller number of their florets,
each of which has one of its husks or palece armed with a
twisted beard or awn." But there is a distinction yet to
be noted, distinguishing the varieties of the two first-named
species, while the varieties of the Avena sativa or common
oat, fig. 5, are distinguished by the grains or glumes being
borne upon stalks spreading out from a central branch-tree
fashion on all sides ; the varieties of the species of Avena
orientalis or Tartarian oat, fig. 6, are at once known from
their glumes or grains being placed on or proceeding from
the main stalk on one side only, presenting the appearance,
indeed, very much of the feather on one side of a common
quill pen. To these two species, the common and the
Tartarian oat, belong all the varieties cultivated in this
country. What these varieties are we now name briefly
here. To the first-named of the species, Avena sativa or
common oat, belong (1) the Potato, (2) the Sandy, fig. 5,
(3) Sheriff, (4) the Hopetoun, (5) the Angus, (6) the Blainslie,
(7) the Late or Common White oat, (8) the Berlie, (9) the
Poland, (10) the Canadian oat, fig. 7. Of these, (1) the
Potato oat is the favourite and the most ^argely cultivated.
Mr. Lawson states that this variety was first discovered
growing amongst some potatoes in a field in Cumberland
in the year 1788. Another writer, in the Farmer's Maga-
zine in 1803, states that the variety was first imported
from South America, a few grains only having been sent
enclosed in a larger package containing potatoes, the name
was given to them. The seed of (he potato oat is white,
plump, and short ; it weighs heavy, in sample from 40 to
4-6 Ibs. per bushel, and if well cultivated, will yield from

214 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

Fig. 5.

Sandy Oats.

VARIETIES OF OATS.

215

Fiff. 6.

Tartarian Oats.

216

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

Fig. 7.

Canadian Oats.

VARIETIES OF OATS. 217

6 to 1 0 quarters to the acre. The yield of meal is in gen-
eral high, as much as 245 Ibs. having been obtained from
one quarter ; the average may, however, be put down at
210 Ibs. per quarter. The straw of the potato oat is of a
pale yellow colour, and carries, when well grown, a large
" bushy ear." The seeds being very apt in this variety to
be shed, the crop should be cut before it is dead ripe, — a
good indication of the proper degree of ripeness having
been attained, being in an equal mixture of the green
and yellow colour in the straw. The potato oat is, per-
haps, one of the most remunerative of all the varieties,
if grown upon a suitable soil, on which point we shall
hereafter have more to say; meantime noticing the second
of the varieties of which we have above given a list, namely,
the Sandy oat, fig. 5. Mr. Lawson states that this variety
was discovered in 1824-5 011 the farm of Miltown, in
Aberdeenshire, by a herd boy named " Sandy Tampson,"
who first saw it growing upon a recently formed bank of
soil ; his master, Mr. Price, noticing its value, cultivated it
from year to year. The sandy oat is better suited for late
districts than the potato, and although it does not yield so
much in meal, it is, nevertheless, esteemed by the millers.
The grain is smaller than the potato oat ; the straw is stiff,
tall, and not easily lodged ; and the grains are not so apt
to be shed ; when the crop may be cut therefore at a later
period of its ripening, the whole straw should indeed have
a pale yellow colour before being cut. (3) Sheriff oat.
This is comparatively a new oat ; in some cases, with a
favourite soil and under good cultivation, the yield is very
high. It is earlier in point of ripening than the potato
oat ; the straw is of moderate length ; the grain is smaller
and lighter than the potato oat. (4) Hopetoun oat. When
first introduced this variety had a high character ; it had
a larger straw and a stouter than the potato oat ; and was
considered remarkably free from a liability to lodge. Now,
however, according to an authority, its degeneracy is such,
especially in the latter respect, that " no variety so easily
bends over and becomes straw-broken as the Hopetoun.

218 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

The variety has a grain, however, of good quality, large,
with a thick husk, the colour of which is darker than the
potato oat, and can be readily distinguished from it " by a
small reddish mark in the centre of the front of the grain."
The variety is largely cultivated in the north of Scotland.
The period of ripening is much the same as in Potato and
Sandy oats. (5) The Angus oat. This belongs to what are
classed as (7) the late or common oat. The characteristics
of the common white oat are large grain, thick husks, and
late maturity. The Angus resembles the Potato oat in
quality, it is not so liable to shed when ripe. (6) The
Blainslie oat is greatly cultivated in the south-east of Scot-
land ; it has a good well- filled grain of good quality ; it is
early. One peculiarity of the common oats is the excellent
fodder provided by the straw. The grain is well liked by
the millers, as the- meal yielded by them is of superior
quality. (8) The Berlie oat is of two kinds, the English
and the Scotch : of which, says Professor Wilson, the
English " delights in good rich soils," the Scotch being
" better adapted for light than for heavy." The grain of the
Berlie oat is good, yields a good quality of meal, the straw is
long, and the seed rarely sheds. (9) Poland oat, much
grown in England, but inferior to the Potato oats ; there
are two varieties, the black and the white. Intermediate
between the varieties of the two species, the Avena sativa
or common oat, and the Avena orientalis or Tartarian oat,
we may class the " Dun oat," which may be, as it has been,
looked upon as a hybrid between the two species above-
named. The Dun oat is divided into two varieties, the
common dun and the winter dun. The common dun is
grown largely in some parts of Scotland, but always as a
spring crop ; it yields largely, the grain is of good quality,
the meal obtained from it is good. The straw is long, but
is not apt to lodge ; the period of ripening is rather late.
The winter dun is more cultivated in England and the Con-
tinent than in Scotland ; in the former countries it is sown
as a winter crop ; being often eaten down by sheep in
spring, and then allowed to grow for seed. The straw is
•shorter than that of the common ^un.

VARIETIES OF OATS. 219

1 6. Of the Avena orientalis the two varieties are the black
Tartarian and the white Tartarian. As already stated, all
the glumes are carried on one side only of the stalk. The
seed of the black Tartarian oat is very long, and frequently,
under bad culture, provided with a long pointed beard or
awn. Particularly well suited for peaty soils, it often,
when well cultivated in such, yields from 80 to 90 bushels
per acre. The straw is short; the grain, if good, short, and
plump. The black Tartarian is a great favourite in many
districts in England, not only from the large produce it
yields, but because the grain is particularly valuable for
the feeding of horses. The meal produced from it is par-
ticularly good, the only fault being that, from the black
colour of the husk, small black specks give a dirty look to
it. The white Tartarian is also very productive ; the grain
is larger than the black Tartarian, of a dull white. The
straw is long and stout. Like the black, the white Tartarian
oat is highly esteemed for horse-feeding purposes. Mr.
Haxton, the author of the prize essay " On the Cultivation
of Oats" in the Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society
of England, states that he "dibbled 23 varieties of oats in
small lots after lea in a piece of good black land, and the
results were very decidedly in favour of those which we
have marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 7. The best crops he obtained
were from the 'Sandy' and ' Hopetoun' among the early
varieties, and from the 'Late Angus' among the common
oats. The Sandy and Late Angus gave the greatest bulk,
and the straw of both stood remarkably well, although
nearly 6 feet long. The latter was 10 days later of being
reaped than the former, and even then it was scarcely ripe.
Had it been allowed to ripen fully, the difference would
have been from 15 to 18 days later than the Sandy. It
may be mentioned here that, although these experimental
crops were sown with little more than 3 pecks to the acre,
the crop was fully better than that sown broadcast along-
side with 4 bushels to the acre."

1 7. With reference to the varieties of oats used in Scotland,
and the soils to which they are adapted, Mr. Lawson^ the

220 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

eminent agricultural botanist, has some valuable remarks.
He mentions that although there are about sixty varieties
of oats met with, still considerable confusion exists with
reference to them, many possessing such a close approxima-
tion to each other in external appearance that it is difficult
to separate them into classes ; of these sixty varieties, thirty
therefore may be taken as applicable to Scotland ; and of
these thirty, some dozen only are in general cultivation.
These dozen may be named here : - — Potato, Hopetoun,
Sandy, Early Angus, Late Angus, Grey Angus, Blainslie,
Berlie, Dun, Friesland, Black Tartarian, Barbachlaw. Mr.
Lawson has classed these oats according to the soils and
situations, thus : —

First Class, adapted to the best soils and sheltered situa-
tion— 1. Potato Oats, Hopetoun, Flemish, Early Angus,
Cupar Grange.

Second Class, to intermediate soils and situations — 2.
Sandy, Dyock, Berlie, Ked Maobiehill, Blainslie, Grey An-
gus, Late Angus, Poland, Friesland, Lancashire Witches,
Tarn Einlay, Drummond, Pun, Sheriff, Cumberland Early,
Cleland, Siberian, Georgian, Blue Major, Church's.

Class Third, high altitudes and exposed situations — 3.
Kildrummie, Strathallan, Black Tartarian, Old Black, Bar-
bachlaw, Black Muckle, Bristle Pointed.

1 8. Mr. Lawson points out what he considers to be the com-
bination of qualities necessary to be attained in oats, which
qualities, he truly observes, must be ascertained or obtained
by " much care, attention, and frequently repeated trials."
The qualities are — (1) quantity and quality of grain ; (2)
quality and bulk of the straw ; (3) early ripening ; (4) power
of resistance to wind and water, &c. ; (5) adaptation to the
exposure and altitude of different soils ; (6) freedom from
disease. Knowing these qualities, the next point is to ascer-
tain the variety best calculated to give out these. Should
this variety not be in existence, it must be obtained, says
Mr. Lawson, by either the improvement of an old, or, by
cross impregnation, the generation of a new variety.

1 9. Of the principal points connected with the soil and cli-

SOILS AND CLIMATE ADAPTED FOR THE OAT. 221

mate adapted for the oat crop, the writer above named (Mr.
Haxton)has given a most suggestive, if not the most exhaust-
ive resume. We shall therefore do well if we present to
our readers a condensation of this. Scotland is selected, and
selected with precise judgment, as the " type of an oat-
growing country;"' with a cool climate, the mean maximum
in the hottest month of the year, and in the warmest dis-
tricts not exceeding, the soil is peculiarly adapted for the
crop. The climatic or weather influences which affect the
oat crop are different from those which affect the barley
and the wheat; so much is this the case, that we have no
difficulty in knowing — if from no other sources of informa-
tion than that of the market prices — that where the first
price is got for the barley or the wheat of any district, that
the oats of that district will not be good ; and the converse
of this holds equally good. For instance, the wheat and
barley grown under proper conditions in districts south of
the Humber are as superior to those grown to the north of
the Tweed, as the oats grown to the north of the Tweed
are as superior to those grown to the south of the Humber.
Nor is this marked difference traceable to any difference
very marked in character between the geological formations
of the soils ; doubtless these differences do exist, but in no
way so marked as to account for the differences we have
named as existing between the quality of the crops. The
opinion is thus likely to be a true one, that the difference
arises more from a difference in climatic than in geological
causes ; this influence or opinion is corroborated by the fact
that as we proceed northwards and westwards in England,
we come to districts adapted for oat growing. This view
receives further corroboration in taking into account the
" extraordinary results that have been produced by certain
climatic aberrations which have -occurred within the pe-
riod of the present century. Thus, in the very dry sum-
mer of 1826, the oat — especially in the drier districts —
was an extremely light one ; while, on the other hand, the
wheat crop was an extremely good one, bearing a marked
resemblance to the superior quality of south of England

222 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

grown wheats in moderately warm weather. In other
countries, both in Europe and America, although lying
within the same parallels of latitude as Scotland and the
north of England, the oat crop is a failure, or at least gives
an inferior yield, and this, apparently, owing to the high
range of summer temperature prevailing. The conclusion,
then, arrived at, is, that the northern parts of this kingdom,
and nearly the whole of Ireland, derive their oat-growing
capabilities in the first place from their insular position, and,
in the second, from the mountainous character of the land —
a combination ensuring a " large amount of aqueous vapour
in the atmosphere," and its deposition in the ground in the
form of refreshing rains, mists, and dews. But while Scot-
land retains as yet her pre-eminence as an oat-producing
country, just as she has, by improved modes of cultivation,
enabled her farmers to raise now better crops of wheat and
of barley than were produced half a century ago, so may we
expect that, by a like introduction of improved practices
into the south of England, succeed in raising good crops of
oats — that grain which will always possess a high value in
the farm, if not as food for men, as food for horses. But
although it is apparently true that good crops of oats de-
pend more upon a proper condition of climate than upon
the qualities of the soil — for good farming produces good
crops in all soils — it is not by this meant to be assumed
that the quality or nature of the soil is a matter of little
or no importance — not so, for assuredly one soil is better
adapted to produce a good quality than another ; and there
are also certain districts in which oats of one kind succeed
well where oats of another kind will not succeed at all.
We proceed, therefore, to take up the subject of the soils
best adapted for the growth of the oat.

2 OrFor the earlier varieties of the Avena sativa class of oats,
such as the Sandy, the Potato, the Hopetoun, &c., the best
soils are those derived from the alluvial deposits of the
" trap " and " new red sandstone " formation which form
the lower parts of valleys and the more level districts in
which these two classes of rocks abound. So that, as a

SOIL ADAPTED TO THE OAT. 223

rule generally applicable, it may be stated that " wherever
a soil has been formed by the alluvium of rocks or strata
not characterized by the presence of too great an amount
of aluminous or clayey matter, there we have a soil which,
if drained and in proper condition, will produce excellent
crops of the finer varieties of oats." Such is the soil of the
county of East Lothian, and, to a certain extent, also that
of the southern part of the county of Fife, the soil of this
being composed of trap debris and red and yellow sandstone
deposits. All soils derived from trap rock, greenstone, ba-
salt, and porphyry, as is the soil of the northern part of the
county of Fife, are to a greater or less degree fitted for
growing good crops of oats, the lower parts of the districts
where these rocks abound affording a rich alluvium capable
of growing crops " with little trouble or expense ; " and
even in the higher and more thinly covered parts, good
crops may be obtained if sheep-folded and kept two years
under grass.

21. Good crops of oats are produced on soils derived from
the mountain limestones, but they demand more rich ma-
nuring than the freer trap and lower soils.

22. On the clay wheat soils of the celebrated Carses of
Gowrie and of Stirling, the cultivation of oats is not other-
wise generally there precarious, much depending upon the
character of the seeding time. When the soil has been
properly mellowed by the winter's frosts, if the seed-time
is dry, and the periods of growth of the crop not too wet,
the Carse lands produce very heavy crops; but still, unless
all the conditions are favourable, the crop is, as we have
stated above, a precarious one, and does not assume the
important position in the, rotation which it does in other
districts. In clay soils oats are found to succeed best after
a crop of red clover — the stronger the clover is, the better
the oats. On the outer edges of the clay barriers being
reached, we come to a lighter class of soils, which produce
good crops of oats, so that the crop may in such situations
be made to form part of the rotation.

23. The soils of England similar in character to those

224 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

of the Carses of Gowrie and Stirling above described, are
those met with in the Wealds of Kent, Surrey, and of
Sussex, the Gault of Cambridge and Huntingdon, and all
the varieties of clay — the dread of many a farmer — known
as the London or Plastic clays, unfitted for the production
of barley, it is very desirable to have oats grown upon them ;
but this is difficult to be done in some of them; if at-
tempted, it is at the best a precarious and uncertain crop,
although, in some of the better class, oats could be grown
if properly drained. Even the most tenacious of these
bricky clays could be rendered more fitted for the oat crop
by properly draining, liming, and carefully working them.
As already stated, red clover should precede the crop, the
land being ploughed early in winter or late in autumn, so
that the atmospheric influences may be allowed to operate
as long as possible in order to mellow and pulverize the
soil.

24. What are sometimes called '''vegetable manure soils,"
that is, deep alluvial soils rich in vegetable matter, are
" peculiarly adapted to the production of oats," that is, of
course, when passed under a proper regime of culture.
Indeed, where the climate is peculiarly cold or wet, oats
is the only cereal crop that can be successfully cultivated
on such soils. Soils of this character possess the property
of capillary attraction in a high degree, so that when tho-
roughly drained, or when the season is warm, the moisture
they retain is quite sufficient to supply the crop during the
period of dry weather; on the other hand, they can stand
long-continued rains better than clay soils, which get under
such circumstances what is called " soured," and if dry
weather succeeds, cracked and baked. The Fens of Eng-
land have long been famous for the productive crops of
oats, and are cited by Mr. Haxton as an evidence that a
" certain degree of depth and dampness in the soil," even
in districts not climatically suited to the crop, compensates
for their higher temperature and for the lack of atmospheric
moisture. There can be no doubt that this point of cli-
matic influence upon the productiveness of the oat crop is

SOIL ADAPTED TO THE OAT CROP. 225

of very great importance, and should not be overlooked in
treating of the economy of the plant. Having thus glanced
at the peculiarities of the best, and at the moderately good
soils for the oat crop, let us do the same office for those
not so adapted.

25. As the soil from the alluvial deposit of the trap and
new red sandstones may be looked upon as the best and
most fertile for the oat crop, so may the soil, composed of
" loose calcareous matter," be looked upon as the most
sterile. Of this class are the upper chalks of England,
incliosavi sands and gravels. Mr. Haxton, in treating of
this class of soils, draws attention to the fact that it has
been frequently remarked that in the case of light soils,
which have been long under cultivation,, a second applica-
tion of lime, if not positively injurious, is at all events not
beneficial to the oat crop ; indeed, that an " overdose of
caustic lime, or of purely calcareous chalk, is frequently
productive of the worst results." He names instances
where light gravelly soils were rendered incapable of grow-
ing oats for a long time through having been top-dressed
with a rich calcareous shell marl found in beds underlying
peat. On all light soils composed principally of gravel,
sand, loose brown earth, or decomposed peat long under
cultivation, lime should be sparingly used, as an overdose
is always fatal to the success of the oat crop. The same
effects of an overdose of lime are not observable, it is right
to state, in deep alluvial soils, whether these be made up of
clay, loam, or of black mould. Loose, mossy, or gravelly
soils, which have been long under cultivation, are, accord-
ing to the experience of this authority, always the worse
of liming ; and the point is all the more worthy of obser-
vation, as on the first of these, namely, mossy or peaty soils,
oats, as we have before stated, is the only cereal crop which
can be cultivated. Of course, in the primary treatment of
peaty or mossy soils liming is essential, in order to act-
upon the inert vegetable matter, and neutralize or bring
into good action the acids with which it abounds; but as
soon as the soil is fairly formed by liming and by proper

226 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

culture, a second liming will be found more injurious than
beneficial; bone manuring will therefore be better than the
application of lime or of shell marl. Clay marl, rendering
it, as it does the light soil, more cohesive and more absorb-
ent and retentive of moisture, will be beneficial in such
cases. Of all the profitless and annoying soils to take in
hand for the cultivation of the oat crop, that class known
generally as moor-band is the worst ; in these soils, indeed,
consisting of mossy land overlying a subsoil of mixed clay,
sand, and oxide of iron, oats as a rule refuse to grow. The
moor-band, forming a hard impenetrable crust below the
upper surface, completely prevents all capillary action from
below, so that in dry weather there is no moisture ascend-
ing to the roots of the oat crop above ; and the consequence
is, that at a certain stage — generally as the ear or shot blade
is being formed — the plant begins to droop, to turn yellow,
and finally and completely to blast all hopes of a coming crop.
The result is all the more depressing, inasmuch as generally
the crop at its first start has all the appearance of a peculiarly
healthy and promising one. Even when drained and fairly
well cultivated, moor-band soils never yield a successful
crop of oats. The following is a list of the soils adapted
for oats arranged into groups, commencing with the highest
or most favourable soils. First Glass — (1) Eich, friable,
reddish-coloured loams, either alluvial in their origin or
derived from the new or old red sandstones, or basalt, or
from greenstone. ('2) Eich, black loams, at the base of
" trap " hills. (3) Drained and clayed fen lands. Second
Class. — (1) Limed and furrow-drained clay. (2) Medium
trap and whinstone soils. (3) Light loamy land. (4)
Moss or peaty 'land reclaimed. The soils of both these
classes are, with the exception of the last (4) of the second
class, well adapted for wheat as well as oat crops when
they are situated in a dry and a warm climate. The second
soil of the second class — light loamy land — as also the
third, require to be folded by sheep or consolidated by
roller to improve their consistency. On all soft soils, as
reclaimed peat, soft loam, or black earth, the oat crop

SOIL ADAPTED TO THE OAT CROP. 227

assumes of necessity a prominent position, as barley is prac-
tically excluded from them through the tendency it has to
produce straw rather than grain. And although wheat can
be, and is, grown in black earth or soft loam soils, still this
is only the case where the climate is dry and warm, 'and
where the intervals between its appearance on the same
soil are longer than is usual under ordinary rotations.
Oats, therefore, in such soils becomes the grain crop to
which all the aims of the farmer should be turned. The
third class of soils is made up of (1) thin gravel soil left
by the infiltration of water ; (2) poor whinstone soil situated
on the higher parts of greenstone trap hills; (3) loose
sandy soil; (4) loose calcareous soil; and (5) cold, poor
clay soil. It is only by putting this class of soils under
the highest farming, or by keeping them under grass for a
long period, that they can be made oat-producing. Even
where the climate is cool and moist, it is a difficult matter
from such soils to raise good crops of oats ; it is therefore
almost useless to try to do so where they are situated in
dry and warm districts. The easiest and the most econo-
mical way to bring such soils, where the climate is suitable,
into oat cultivation, is to pasture them two or three years
in every rotation, and where turnips can be grown, to bone
manure them, and eat them off the land by sheep. On
the subject of oat cropping of such lands, Mr. Bennett
states that upon stony, poor, sterile clay land, no crop will
pay better than the oat when taken after the summer fal-
low. In Bedfordshire, on land of this class, the following
is the plan of cropping which, Mr. Bennett adds, may be
carried on with advantage ad infinitum — One-eighth of the
fallows to be a dead or summer fallow, the other one-eighth
to be sown with winter tares, eaten off by sheep, and fal-
lowed. In the succeeding year, the eighth which was bare
or dead fallow is to be cropped with oats and seeded
down; the other eighth which bore tares, to be cropped
with barley, and not seeded. The crop next taken off this
to be beans, the other being seeded. At Michaelmas, the
other two-eighths, or one-fourth, to be wheat. As seeds

228 CULTURE OF FAKM CROPS.

(grass) never flourish after tares, the eighth tnat was under
summer fallow should only be seeded.

26. As regards the kind of soil best adapted for the differ-
ent varieties of oats we have already named, the following
" notes " may be useful : — For potato oats the best soil is
black land, or reddish-coloured loam of a consistent and
firm texture, but not clayey. Sharp trap whinstone soils,
and the better class of granite soils, are also well adapted
for the potato oats. As on clay land the roots of the
plants of the potato oats are apt to become sedge-rooted
when there is much rain in spring or early summer, this
class of soil is not fitted for this variety. Sandy oats grow
better in clay land than the potato ; they are most valuable
on soft moss soil. The Hopetoun oat grows well on light
soils; but not on high and exposed parts. For peaty or
marshy soils, the black tartarian oat is well adapted, that
is where they are well cultivated, and clayed or gravelled ;
it is also a good variety for high lying, late districts ; but
is not suitable for dry trap soils. The Dun oat grows best
on clayey or cold soils; becoming rapidly deteriorated in
light dry soils.

27. The place of oats in the rotation of a farm is usually-
after grass which has either been cut for hay or pastured ;
although a modification will depend upon local and other
circumstances. In the five or six course of husbandry, oats
come, as above stated, after the seeds or grass. The crop
may, however, succeed beans or turnips ; in some districts
in England, it is taken after the wheat ; throughout Scot-
land, the rule is pretty universal that the oat should follow
the grass crop. The modes of managing the land after
grass, are fully detailed in the paper to which we have
alluded, and we shall therefore give a resume of what is
there stated in connection with it. If the grass has been
down only for one year, and then depastured by sheep, it
is looked upon as valuable for the oat crop as if it had
been grazed for two years by cattle, and this on account of
the equal distribution of the manure over the surface, given
by the sheep.

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 229

28. While excellent crops of oats can be got off first-
class soils after rye-grass or clover, cut for summer soiling
or for hay, — on second class soils, to have them of the neces-
sary fertility, it is necessary to pasture them with sheep
for one year, or graze them with cattle for two, before
breaking up the grass land for the oats. Where the grass
is, however, cut for hay the first year, the after-grass should
be depastured, and sheep folded on it the following winter,
these being fed with turnips, cakes and grain. If this is
done, giving one acre of turnips to three acres of the lea,
the manuring the land will receive in this process will be
as good as that obtained by depasturing the grass with
sheep for one, or with cattle for two years. When the
soil is inferior, the grass should be kept down, as we have
already stated, at least two years ; but all the better crops
of oats and succeeding crops will be obtained, if three
years be the period.

29. Although climate has a remarkable influence on the
oat crop, irrespective of the condition of the soil, still the
preparation of the land for the crop is a matter of great
importance. Generally it may be stated that, resembling
in its habits of growth the wheat more than the barley
plant, a good, deep, well-stirred soil is necessary for it ;
the roots having more of the descending vertical develop-
ment of the wheat, than the lateral development of the
barley plant. Further, although loving a moist climate
and soil, a thoroughly wet one is prejudicial in a high
degree to the oat ; well drained, in addition to deeply
stirred soil, is therefore essential, if indeed the one can be
obtained without the other. In Scotland, the ploughing
of lea for the oat crop is looked upon as one of the nicest
operations which the ploughman is called upon to perform,
and is carried out with the most'scrupulous care, the pride
of the ploughman being bound up in its beautiful execu-
tion. The lea ploughing is not usually begun till near the
New Year ; but it is in February — the frosts then being
not so severe — that the principal labour is performed
in this department. The older and tougher lea land

230 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

should be ploughed up the first, as it requires to be longer
acted upon by the frost and atmospheric influences of the
winter ; clover being the freest, may be ploughed up last. Mr.
Haxton recommends the press roller to be used in plough-
ing lea for oats, as by it the grassy part of the furrow
slice is completely pressed down and buried ; a seed-bed
being at the same time formed by the tapered or conical
periphery of the wheel. The operation of press- wheel
rolling is also thought to be beneficial in preventing the
ravages of the wire worm, which does great injury to
the oat crop. It is necessary, however, to state, that
the action of the press-wheel roller is not so beneficial,
if indeed it should be used at all, on damp or clayey soils ;
it certainly gives the best results on light soils. In
ploughing lea land, it is absolutely essential to note par-
ticularly the condition of the land as regards its moisture ;
lea should never be ploughed in so wet a condition as to
leave a glazed surface on the furrow slice. This may be
done, as it is often done, early in the season when succeed-
ing frosts are likely to follow which will mellow down the
glazed furrow slices ; but if done late, the chances are that
the glazed furrow slice becomes hardened, and will not
yield kindly to the pulverizing influences of the harrow.
There is no point more frequently overlooked by careless
farmers than this, of the condition in which the land is
when being ploughed. In preparing land for oats after a
root or fallow crop, it is usual, at all events it is deemed
advisable, to plough land as soon as the roots are taken off
the land, giving a second ploughing in the spring, should
that be necessary ; this second ploughing may, however,
be avoided by ploughing deep enough at the first, so that a
sufficient depth of mellowed soil may be obtained in spring
time.

30. On the mechanical condition of the soil necessary for
the oat crop, Professor Tanner has given some excellent
remarks in a paper in the " Journal of the Eoyal Agricul-
tural Society," of which the following is a brief resume :
Oat plants possess greater vital or natural energy than

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 231

barley, resembling, indeed, in this respect, the wheat plants.
This influences the preparation which it , is desirable to
give to the soil upon which the crop is to be grown. Oats
are usually taken either after roots, or upon a fresh broken
clover lea or turf. When taken after roots, the land is
usually ploughed once, and allowed to remain sufficiently
long exposed to the atmospheric influences to be mellowed,
before the seed is sown. When the crop is taken after
clover lea or fresh broken-up turf, the ploughing should
be so much the earlier performed, as the turf is hard and
tough, so that as long time as possible will be given to
the atmospheric influences to mellow and reduce the clods.
If the turf is old, the ploughing should, therefore, be done
before December at the latest ; a two or three year old
clover lea may be left unploughed till a later date than
this. It is admitted, however, that whether in the case of
old turf, or two or three year old clover lea, an early
ploughing is better than a late, for the longer the period
under which the clods are exposed to the atmosphere, the
more mellow, and therefore the better fitted for the crop
the soil is.

31. In order to get the grass of turf land well turned in, it
is advisable to use the skin coulter ; and in addition to
the use of this appliance to the plough, the land press
roller or wheel maybe used with advantage; the object
being not only to bury the grass completely, but to give
a solid furrow. Left thus in autumn, the land exposed to
the atmosphere and frosts in the winter, gets into the
mellow friable condition best suited to the crop ; a seed-
bed, in fact, possessing all the necessary characteristics —
" well charged with vegetable matter, firm beneath, yet
easy of penetration for the rooting of the plant, with a
surface light and free in its character for the germination
of the seed. This firmness of land upon the root must be
distinguished from the hardness with which wheat will
contend after it has once made a fair growth." Professor
Tanner makes pointed reference to the difference between
the liking — so to speak — of wheat and the oat plants for

232 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

firmness in the soil; and notes, that he has known wheat
land so " fearfully trodden during the winter (by no means
an unusual circumstance in hunting districts, when a large
number are in at the death) that all vestige of the wheat
plant has been destroyed ; and yet, at the following harvest
the wheat crop on such portions has been very superior."
This condition of soil the oat could not bear up against,,
for although it requires a firm, it cannot do with a hard
soil. No soil suits the oat better than a ploughed-up turf;
so that conversely, the oat is the best crop to take off a
strong turf. Thus, in the North of England, where the turf
of a clover lea even often becomes too rank for the wheat,
the oat comes in excellently as a substitute ; cases, indeed,
are not often met with there, in which either wheat or
barley can displace the oat crop in newly ploughed up old
and rich turf. The oat crop is remarkable for penetrating
and breaking up turf ; indeed, there is no corn crop so
valuable for this — the turf presenting precisely that con-
dition of soil required for the habits of the plant; and
where the seed requires a light covering, the soil is exposed
to the action of frost, and lightly tilled. To get the con-
dition of soil necessary, the land should be ploughed
" moderately moist," but it should be thoroughly dry when
broken down for the sowing of the seed ; these points
must be attended to, for if the land was worked down at
seed time in that moist condition which favours the solidity
of the furrow when the land is being ploughed up, the
surface soil would be too close and adhesive to enable the
seed to germinate properly.

32. If oats are sown upon turf, the seed should be sown
earlier than if they follow roots or a bare fallow. To early
sowing, this objection may be made, that exposing the
early plants to frost, the blades may become bluish as if
they were injured; but to this maybe answered, that even
if this does result, the plants rapidly recover. Some have
the notion that oat plants do not stand the frost well; this,
however, is a mistake ; a very remarkable experiment was
made many years ago in sowing oats at Christmas. The

SOWING OF THE SEED. 233

plants not only stood the frosts which followed remarkably
well, but the produce was very much larger than that of a
field sown at the usual period. We ourselves have had
oats which brairded in the autumn before the frosts had
set in. and which stood its attacks when it set in fiercely
remarkably well. Early sowing is now rapidly on the
increase; and one reason, indeed, for the almost general
use of broadcasting in place of drilling, is the rapidity with
which the sowing is gone through, so that early sowing is
obtained. Moreover, the land may be in fair enough con-
dition for harrowing after broadcasting, yet not dry and
mellow enough for drilling. Where time will permit,
especially in the case of foul grass land, the drill should
be used, as the use of this machine will enable the weeds
to be destroyed by the after use of the horse-hoe, at least
to such an extent as not to injure the crop, weeds being
very noxious to it.

33. The seed being got in either by broadcasting or drill-
ing, the harrowing should be well done, so as to cover the
seed completely. Some use the roller to smooth off and
slightly compress the land after the harrowing ; but as a
general rule, it will be better to leave the surface rough after
the harrow. The roughness thus given to the surface has
many advantages attendant upon it ; the inequalities pro-
tect the plants, affording, so to speak, little sheltered valleys
between them, in which the early plants can grow when
attacked by cold frosty winds ; further, that by the time
the oats are ready for the roller, the clods will be well
mellowed, and will be easily reduced by the action of the
roller to a fine tilth, which will thus aid the progress of
the plants by adding fresh soil to them. Upon blowing
sands, this roughness of the soil is essential, as it is often
the only means left for protecting the crop. Professor
Tanner states that he has known the greater portion of an
oat crop fairly blown off the land, through the surface
having been smoothed off by the roller after harrowing in
the seed. In such light soils, deep sowing — two inches —
is quite necessary.

Q

234 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

34. We now come to the choice of seed, and much of what
we have said on this point in connection with the wheat
and the barley crop will refer to the oat crop ; certainly
not less pointedly, so far as regards this, that the quality
of the seed be the best which can be got. We are no be-
liever in the notion that poor seed grain gives good har-
vest grain ; the very contrary we believe in. Further,
the seed should be free from injury ; although, to be
sure, this recommendation is of necessity involved in
that already given ; for an injured grain cannot possibly
be said to be of good, certainly not of the best, quality.
Lastly, let the seed be true to its variety, for if you
wish a certain variety for a certain purpose, or as being
adapted for a certain soil, if you do not obtain this
variety, true disappointment will result. We have drawn
attention in a previous paper to the mixture of different
kinds of seeds for wheat. However doubtful this practice
may be in connection with the wheat crop, as doubtful by
some authorities it is deemed to be, there seems little
doubt of this, that a mixture of different varieties of oats
is productive of considerable advantage. The following 011
the mixture of oat seeds is from the pen of the late and
lamented Mr. Finnie of Swanston. " The practice of mix-
ing two or more varieties of seed has become of late years
very common in Scotland. The object for doing so is to
obtain a heavier and more prolific crop, by taking advan-
tage of the particular habit of growth of different varieties,
so that the excellencies of the one may compensate for the
deficiencies of the other. Thus it is common to sow a
mixture of Hopetoun and Sandy oats, because the former
is weak-strawed, stands thin on the ground, but very pro-
lific ; while the latter is strong-strawed, grows thickly, but
is less productive ; consequently a mixture of this kind
generally yields a better crop than when each variety is
sown separately. Of course it is necessary, in such cases,
to select such varieties of oats for mixing as possess about
the same degree of earliness, in order that the whole may
come to maturity at the same time." The following results

THE CHOICE OF SEED. 235

of trials on the same extent of land, made by Mr. Finnie,
show the benefit obtained by a mixture. The following
varieties used alone gave the results as stated, Potato oat
74 bushels, Hopetoun 65, Early Angus 77, Kildrummy 77,
Dun 76, Blainslie 70, Gray Angus 63, Sandy (changed
seed) 61, Sandy (home growth) 56. Whereas, the following
results, Hopetoun (5 parts), Kildrummy (1), produce 85,
Hopetoun and Sandy 80 bushels, Hopetoun and Early
Angus 76, Potato and Early Angus 66, and Potato and
Sandy 66 bushels. From these results Mr. Finnie drew
the following conclusions. " First, it appears that Potato
oats sown alone produced 8 bushels more than when sown
with either Early Angus or Sandy ; secondly, that Hope-
toun oats produced 20 bushels less when sown alone than
when mixed with Kildrummy, 15 bushels more than when
sown with Sandy, and 1 1 bushels more when mixed with
Early Angus. If there was no difference of soil or treat-
ment in the above comparison, it appears that the average
increase of produce from simply sowing a mixture of oats
amounts, in the cases selected, to 13 bushels, from a space
of ground which took 6 bushels to sow it." These ex-
periments show enough to induce others, probably on a
more extended scale, to be made. While the practical man
should never forget that such experiments are not absolutely
correct as indicative of similar results under different cir-
cumstances of soil, locality, and climate, all of which ex-
ercise a most important and modifying influence, neverthe-
less they are valuable as showing relatively the influence of
certain modes of treatment. At the same time, it does not
always follow that experiments made in one place, indicate
what the results, even relatively, may be of exactly similar
experiments made in another and a different place. Thus
it may happen, as, indeed, in practice it often does happen,
that the result of precisely similar experiments in different
places may be precisely contradictory, the indications af-
forded by them in one being totally opposed to those af-
forded by them in another place. All these, and other
considerations more or less important which might be named

236 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

here, very forcibly bring again to our mind the point on
which we have already insisted very strongly, — namely,
the necessity that exists for our leading Agricultural
Societies to come forward to institute a set of experiments
which will set at rest, so far as they can be set at rest, the
various questions now more or less disputed, and which
influence, to a greater or less degree, the future of agricul-
ture. We say, so far as such questions can be set at rest,
the probability being that, in some, if not in many cases,
we shall find that distinct and decided results applicable
to all diversities of practice will never be obtained. But,
as has been well remarked in scientific discussions, the an-
swer No ! is just as valuable to us as the answer Yes !
There are therefore some departments of culture in which
we are at present asking the question, Will this direction
lead to practically useful results ? and which at present we
must continue asking, seeing no one comes forward to say
yes or no ; and it is clear that if progress in that direction
can lead to no good, it is exceedingly useful for us to know
that, inasmuch as we shall have at least the negative ad-
vantage of knowing that all attempts to go in that direction
will be but lost time. It so happens that there are in the
cultural departments of agriculture many question, to which
it is advisable that the answer Yes ! or the answer No !
should be given with all due speed. Isolated efforts to
answer them must, of necessity, in a science with principles
so unfixed and so liable to modification from ever-chang-
ing circumstances as agriculture is, be unsatisfactory and
vague to a greater or less degree. Why should these in-
quiries, involving, as they necessarily do, the expenditure
of much time and labour, be left to be pushed forward by
private individuals 1 In view, indeed, of the persistent ef-
forts made by our leading Societies in one or two direc-
tions— oftener in one than in two unfortunately — we are
very apt to ask what is the object of our Societies' exist-
ence, or is it, indeed, an object that is one only ? How is
it that so much attention is paid to our Stock, while ab-
solutely none is given to the raising of the food which sup-

SOWING OF THE SEED. 237

ports them. All the more urgently need the question be
asked now at a time like the present, when the question is
so often asked, " how are we to find food for our stock ? "
often asked, indeed, not often satisfactorily answered. The
subject then of action, on the part of our Societies, to take
up the settlement of points connected with crop cultivation,
is of great importance, second, indeed, we venture to main-
tain, to none ; and the advocacy of which is in no-wise out
of place in a series of papers, the one object of which is to
gather up, from a wide variety of sources, all or nearly all
that can be said on the subject. NOT is it the most con-
vincing proof, if proof indeed is needed, of the amazing
apathy of our leading Agricultural Societies on some of
the most important departments of cultural economy, that
in these papers we have little information to give of much
value derived from the direct and immediate action of these
Societies. True, it may be said that these Societies give
— liberally it cannot be said they give — prizes for Essays
on these very points. This, we take it, does not convey a
correct notion of how the matter stands. These Essays are
often, nay we say, almost always, very good ; but if based
upon practical experience, that experience being that of in-
dividuals, must necessarily be limited ; and if experiments
are detailed, these also must be limited ; and we have al-
ready insisted upon this, that the points about which so
much uncertainty exists, can only be decided, if, indeed,
they are at all capable of decision, by an extended series of
experiments under different circumstances of soil, climate,
and locality. Can this extended series ever be undertaken 1
will it ever be undertaken by individual enterprise ? There
is but one answer, and one only, to this question. What
that is needs not to be here at least explicitly stated.

35. There are still some points connected with the seed
and sowing of oats to which we must refer here. As regards
the quantity of seed to be employed, we find the same
diversity of opinion existing which we find to exist amongst
practical men on the wheat and barley crop ; some insist-
ing upon thick, some upon thin sowing. It is worthy of

238

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

note here, however, that the opinion of the most advanced
authorities is the same as in relation to the wheat and
barley crop, namely, that thick sowing is not so good as
thin sowing. In Scotland, from 3j to 6 bushels per acre
is a usual quantity ; in England, from 2 to 5. As a rule,
thick sowing is carried out in Scotland on the ground that
it is required, from the habit of the plant not to tiller out
so well as the wheat or the barley crop. Mr. Haxton looks
upon this thick sowing system as a decided error; and
states that " the moistness of the climate has greatly
favoured the practice, and counteracted its bad effects, by
keeping these thickly sown crops in a healthy growing
state ; but in a drier climate, the same error would occa-
sion much more mischief, inasmuch as the thicker a crop
is sown, the more does it ultimately suffer from long-con-
tinued drought. Three bushels of early and small-seeded
oats are quite sufficient to sow an imperial acre with, and
4 bushels of the coarser-grained oats." Mr. Bowie has in-
stituted some experiments which tend to show the advan-
tage of thin sowing. These experiments were carried out
in a soil " rather poor than in good condition." The re-
sults are therefore all the more suggestive, inasmuch as
thick seeding is generally considered applicable to such
soils ; thin seeding being considered only applicable to rich
soils. The following is a tabular statement of results : —

Quality
of.

Seed per
acre.

Yield per
acre.

Weight per
bushel.

Weight of Straw
per acre.

Bushels.
6
5
4
3

Bushels.
534
58]

66i
66f

Ibs.
42|

43
43£
42|

Cwts.
35£
38£
45i

474

36. On this, as on other points, it is not possible to lay
down a rule applicable to all districts and localities, which
must ever be decided by the peculiar circumstances at-
tendant upon each kind of practice ; at the same time it

SOWING OF THE SEED. 239

is worthy of note that the growing opinion is that in all
cereals, oats, as well as barley or wheat, thin sowing is
better than thick sowing j what the minimum and what
the maximum will have to be decided according to circum-
stances. The time for putting the seed in is a point of
practice as much disputed nearly as to the quantity of seed
to be put in. Like the latter the former point must be
greatly dependent upon the locality and circumstances of
soil. Just as the growing opinion is in favour of thin sow-
ing, so is it in favour of early sowing. At the same time
it is to be observed that the land must be in good condi-
tion, that is, it must be sufficiently dry to work to a nice
tilth. This circumstance will generally decide the ques-
tion as to the period of sowing ; for whenever the land is
in " good heart," as the expressive phrase goes, that is the
time to sow, — indeed it appears that it cannot be too early
in the year. As an eminently practical authority remarks
on this very point, ."The time for sowing is to be fixed
whenever the land will work, whether it be in January,
February, or the early part of March." The same authority
says, " never lose an opportunity of sowing when the land
is sufficiently dry to work after the commencement of the
new year." Another authority says, " the oat seed time in
Scotland extends from the 10th of March to the 10th of
April, according to circumstances. In South England,
oats should be sown early in February, and even sooner, if
the variety to be cultivated belong to the later sorts. By
early sowing, the young plants are up and covering the
ground before the hot season arrives, and the natural
moisture is thus economized and preserved from eva-
poration."

37. The sowing of the oat crop next demands our atten-
tion. Generally the broadcast system is adopted, although
the use of the drill is gradually extending from the south
to the north. In Scotland, the oats are sown broadcast on
the winter furrow, the seed being covered in by two, three,
and sometimes four harrows coupled together; the number
of harrows used, however, depends upon the quality of the

240 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

soil — the lighter the soil the greater the number. The
first stroke of the harrows is given in the direction of the
furrows, the harrows following the sower, who can put in
in level ground seed for 25 acres per day; in hilly, 20.
The second stroke of the harrows is either across the ridges
or obliquely to them. The amount of harrowing depends,
however, very much indeed upon the nature of the soil.

38. Of the diseases of the barley and oat crop, little has
to be said here ; those afflicting them and the wheat crop
in common, having been fully treated of in a previous part
of this volume. Of these diseases, the barley is peculiarly
liable to the attacks of the fungoid disease called "smut"
or uredo segetum. To the attacks of the other diseases of
this class named in this volume on Wheat, barley seems
little liable. Of insects, the barley is liable to the attacks
of the wire worm, " elater obscurus." The oat crop is com-
paratively little liable to the fungoid diseases which attack
wheat ; the chief scourge being the wireworm and the grub.

DIVISION SECOND. LEGUMINOUS CROPS.

BEANS AND PEASE.
CHAPTER FIRST. BEANS.

39. Of the crops which are grown primarily for their
seed or grain, and secondarily for their straw, having dis-
cussed those important ones yielding bread stuffs — the
wheat, the barley, and the oats — we are now prepared to
take up that class of this department of farm crops known
by the name of leguminous crops, and of which beans and
pease are the most important ; the name is derived from
the word lego, which signifies something gathered by the
hand. Of the two crops named above — the most important
of the family — we shall take up beans first. The bean be-

OEIGIN OF BEANS. 241

longs to the class of Dicotyledonous plants, that is, plants
which have two seed lobes, or cotyledons, to the order
Leguminosse, the family Faba Vulgaris, and the species
generally cultivated in the fields is Faba Yulgaris Arvensis,
that grown in the gardens being called Faba Vulgaris Hor-
tensis, while a third species, being capable of cultivation in
either field or garden, is called Faba Vulgaris Arvensis vel
Hortensis. Not much is known as regards the history of
the crop, more, however, relatively, than of other crops per-
haps, and at all events more that is interesting and sugges-
tive. We find mention made of them in Scripture, and
the writings of Eoman authors abound in much that is
very suggestive respecting them. The crop appears to have
had its origin in Persia, from whence it was taken to Egypt,
and from thence it spread to Greece and Spain. Egypt for
long, however, was the country in which it was mainly culti-
vated, the rich alluvial soil spreading out on either side of the
noble Nile being particularly suited to its habits of growth.
The Romans, as will have been gathered from what we have
said above, deemed it an important crop, and paid great
attention to its culture; through them it reached this
country at a very early period in its history, where it be-
came, and has since continued to be, an important crop.
We have said that Eoman writers are found to make fre-
quent and singular allusion to beans, and the supernatural
qualities they were supposed to possess. Our readers will
remember the mysterious precept of Pythagoras, " Abstain
from beans," and the not less mysterious, at all events the
very curious commentaries upon it, which have been made
by learned writers of the middle arid of our own times.
The Eomans seemed, however, to have derived their no-
tions respecting the supernatural powers of the bean, like
many other things, from that land of mystery, Egypt, and
to have modified them considerably ; for while they cer-
tainly did attribute very remarkable influences to the bean,
and considered it unsafe to have much to do with them as
an article of food, the Egyptian priests wdlit much farther,
and maintained that it was a crime even to look at them.

242 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

Very curious, truly, were the notions current about beans
amongst the Romans; they were considered as decidedly
opposed to that evenness and tranquillity of mind which,
with the ancients, constituted the summum bonum; they
were liable, if partaken, to render women barren; they
were believed by some to be the residence of the souls of
the departed, and, like the scroll of Jeremiah, they were
written within and without with lamentation and woe, for
their very leaves were supposed to be marked with the
words of wretchedness and death. But notwithstanding
all this, beans were largely cultivated by the Eomans, and
in their writings we can to this day gather much that is
really practically useful in modern culture of the crop.
Considerable importance, therefore, we find was attached
by them to the crop, evidence of which is found in the
fact, that it gave a name to one of the most distinguished
families of the most distinguished period of Roman history ;
for as we find a family deriving its name, Pisanii, from the
pea, so we find another deriving its name from the bean,
the Fabii.

40. "We have already named the two or three species into
which the genus has been, by modern authorities, divided ;
of these there are many varieties. Formerly the vetch was
the representative of the bean tribe, and the bean was
classed under it as the vicia faba ; but the marked distinc-
tion between the seeds — those of the vetch being round,
while those of the bean are oval and compressed — caused
later authorities to class the bean faba vulgaris as a distinct
genus. Botanically described, the bean " has the flowers
axillary, nearly sessile stalks, with several flowers very
short ; legumes ascending, twined, coriaceous ; leaflets ellip-
tical, acute, entire; tendril abortive; stipule half arrow
shaped; toothed at the base, annual, flowering in June and
July; stem, three to five feet high; leaflets smooth, larger
acute at each end, and alternate; flowers from six to ten
and more on a short racemose stalk ; white, with a broad
black velvet-like spot on each wing ; calyx whitish, with
ovate taper teeth ; legume large, thick, oblong, pulpy with-

VARIETIES OF BEAKS. 243

in while unripe, containing four or five seeds; root, tap-
shaped, descending with lateral fibres."

41. Of the varieties of beans cultivated in this country,
the folio wing are the principal : — (1) The "Horse or Scotch ;"
(2) the "Tick;" (3) the "Heligoland;" (4) the "Winter
Bean." The long-podded beans, and the Windsor, are
more garden than field beans, while the variety known as
the Mazagan may be classed, as it has been classed, as an
intermediate variety between the short and the long pods,
and is adapted for both field and garden. Of the varieties
named above (1), the Horse Bean is that cultivated in the
northern districts of the kingdom ; the Tick (2) that in the
south. The stem of the (1) Horse Bean is strong, and
tall, varying from three to five feet in length ; its yield per
acre may be set down at four quarters, the weight at 60
to 65 Ibs. per bushel. The stalk is, in good average growth,
well podded to about the middle of its length, the pods
containing usually three, but often four to five beans. The
bean is larger than the tick, averaging half an inch in
length, and three -eighths in breadth. The horse bean
grows well on strong well-drained alluvial soils, is hardy,
and, as its name imports, is well suited for stable- feeding
purposes. The " tick " is a more prolific variety than the
horse, although the stalk is shorter, the pods and the
beans they contain smaller; it is also better adapted for
lighter soils. The " Heligoland " (3.) is a hardy variety
suitable for the better class of soils in our late districts.
The length of the stalk is shorter than of the two varieties
above named, but the seed is about the same size as the
tick. The yield may be put down at from four to six
quarters, the weight per bushel 66 to 70 Ibs. The winter
bean (4.) This bean is being rapidly introduced even
into the extreme northern districts; it is hardy, prolific,
and is capable of being sown in the early winter or autumn,
and being ready for harvesting in July of the succeeding
year. Another advantage it possesses, is its apparent
freedom from the attacks of the aphides, that scourge of
other varieties of the bean crop. The straw or stalk of

244 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

the variety is from three to four feet high ; the seed is
very small, smaller than the tick, but weighs very heavy,
65 to 70 Ibs. per bushel. Mr. Vallentine, in his Prize
Essay in the Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society on
the cultivation of beans and pease states, with reference to
the kind or variety of beans he has cultivated, that the horse
bean, the " tick," and mazagan are the only kinds he has had
experience in cultivating. Of these, he says that he has
found the common horse bean suited more for heavy clay
soils than for light or loamy soils ; it requires a firm soil,
and runs up to a considerable height ; in favourable sea-
sons he has found it more prolific than any other. The
English and French " ticks, '; Mr. Vallentine says, he has
found to thrive best upon light soils ; they grow less straw
under similar conditions, yet the grain per bushel weighs
some pounds more. On foul land, he says, it is better to
grow the " tick " variety than those varieties which run
more to straw. Of the winter beans, the French and
Russian are those of which Mr. Vallentine has had ex-
perience, and of these he prefers the Russian as being
rather larger in size, and affording a heavier yield per acre.
As to the comparative merit of the winter and spring-
varieties, this authority states that he sees no decided
advantage in sowing winter in place of spring beans. But
when the condition of the labour or work of the farm
admits of it, he would prefer to sow winter beans ; at the
same time he would not interfere with the sowing of the
wheat, in order to get the winter beans in. In any case,
he says that winter beans should never be sown unless
the land is clean, or nearly so, as the autumn ploughing
assists the spread of couch, much more than if ploughed
for spring beans at a later period of the year. Mr. Crother,
in his Prize Essay in the Journal of the Bath and West
of England Society, gives some interesting information as
to the intermediate mazagan and the long-podded varieties,
Windsor and the like. Of the mazagan — so called from
the Portuguese settlement of that name, on the Morocco
coast near Gibraltar — he states that it is hardy, well

THE BEST SOIL FOR BEANS. 245

flavoured though small. Of the Lisbon, a variety like the
mazagan, that it is well flavoured and very fruitful. The
long pod is, he says, perhaps the greatest bearer of all ; it
grows about three feet high, is hardy, and of easy cultiva-
tion. The Spanish bean, otherwise known as the broad
Spanish, is a large bean ; it excels in fruitfulness, as does
also the Sandwich bean, which, although large, is not a
delicately tasted bean. The white blossom, so called, as
it does not bear the black velvety spot referred to as a
characteristic feature of the bean flower, is good and hardy,
although liable to degenerate ; it is very late, and may be
sown even at the beginning of June. Of all the large
varieties, none are so highly esteemed as the Windsor,
"long celebrated for its richness." The varieties best
adapted for an early crop are the mazagan and the Lisbon,
they may be sown in October, or early in November. In
procuring seed, that brought direct from Lisbon late in the
season should be preferred, as it will be more fruitful, and
produce an earlier crop than the seed grown at home. Mr.
Crother notices one variety, the green Genoa bean, of
which he says a peculiarity is, that " if permitted to be
perfectly ripe before they are pulled, and then be well
dried, they may kept in green condition for winter use ;
and if steeped for some days before they are wanted, they
will become tender, and retain their colour and summer
flavour."

42. The soil best suited for the bean crop, is a strong,
rather moist one, firm in texture, yet so as to enable
the plants to send their roots deep into the soil. Lime is
an essential element in it.

43. As regards the condition" of the soil necessary for the
bean crop, Professor Tanner, in the able papers to which
we have, in the course of these chapters so frequently re-
ferred, states— that it requires a soil of a strong and ad-
hesive character; and this as much in fact for the sup-
plies of food which it draws from it, as from the mechanical
qualities which such a soil offers to the plant. Like the
wheat crop, the bean requires a firm condition of land, the

246 CULTURE OF FAKM CROPS.

roots enabling it to penetrate deeply into, and take hold
of the soil ; hence the necessity there is for allowing the
soil to get well settled after it is cultivated, before the seed
is put in. To secure this, the land should be ploughed
early if possible, this giving a freeness to the upper sur-
face essential for a seed-bed, and yet the solidity from
settlement above alluded to. The bean crop is almost
always taken from com stubbles ; this should, if possible,
be cleaned in the autumn, and the manure should then be
spread over the surface, ploughed in as deeply as possible,
and left very rough. In this condition it may be left till
spring time. Some prefer the manure to be spread — well
rotted — early in the spring, and then to be ploughed in ;
but the Professor states that this does not suit the crop so
well as the plan described above, as the land by the latter
mode does not have time to settle, and the land below gets
too consolidated from the absence of the manure during
the winter months. Should the land not be prepared dur-
ing winter, the seed is often ploughed in without the fur-
row slice being broken. The period of sowing extends
over February and March. The earlier, however, the
seeding is got through, the better for the crop. When the
beans are well up, the use of the roller is deemed advis-
able to consolidate the soil, and secure a vigorous after
growth. The quantity required in sowing by the drill is
four bushels the acre. In sowing the winter crop, the
ploughing should be finished by the middle, or at the
latest, the end of September, and left a month to settle
and consolidate ; the land being required in the firm con-
dition already alluded to for the winter sown, as well as
for the spring sown beans. When the ground is firm,
drill the seed, and at wider intervals than used for spring
sown beans. For the latter, Professor Tanner prefers in-
tervals of 24 or 26 inches between the rows ; double rows
at 6 to 8 inches being used, thus —

i
8" 26" 8" 26" 8" — !£! — 6" 24" 6"

SOIL SUITABLE FOR BEANS. 247

44. While pease, as we shall afterwards see, are grown upon
light, beans are grown upon heavy soils ; and if upon
light, only as catch or stolen crops. In growing them
upon heavy soils regularly they form part of the rotation,
as thus — first year, fallow, dunged for wheat ; second year,
beans ; third year, fallow again. In the excellent essay
by Mr. Vallentine, already refered to, there are some valu-
able remarks on this part of the subject, that we here give
a resume of them. Such, as above stated, was the almost
universal custom of cropping heavy soils, in which beans
formed a constant part of the rotation. The wheat was
sown broadcast, or ploughed in, the beans treated the same
way, and neither wheat nor beans ever received any hoeing
or weeding, so that the filthy weedy state into which the
land rapidly got may be easily conceived, and even in this
day, where the system is still pursued, may yet be witnessed.
Mr. Vallentine states that this system was very generally
practised some years ago in Huntingdon, Berkshire, Bed-
fordshire, and Buckinghamshire ; but that now, under the
exigencies of another system, the naked fallow is rapidly
become more and more rare. Mr. Vallentine's own ex-
perience has shown him that it is quite possible to banish
the naked fallow altogether from heavy stiff clay farms,
and yet keep the land clean and free from weeds. The
rotation he has found best for such soils which are unsuit-
able for " roots," or at least unsuitable for thin, easy, and
profitable culture, is as follows — first year, beans, dunged ;
second year, barley or oats, with seeds (grass) ; third year,
seeds, one or two years according to circumstances ; fourth
year, wheat. This being changed into a fifth or sixth
course, and alternating oats for barley in the second year.
By adopting this rotation, the land can be kept clean
throughout the whole of it, and in about the same condition
for each crop. The wheat and the bean crops require to
be drilled and thoroughly hoed, so that the land is left
clean for the barley and the seeds ; the grass land resulting,
being of course broken up for the fourth, fifth, or sixth
year's crop, which is, of course, wheat. On land of a

248 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

medium texture, Mr. Vallentine prefers to take a bean or
a pea crop only every second course, as a substitute for the
roots which are taken in the first course, the object being
to save manure by curtailing the extent of the root or
green crops ; the pulse (bean or pea) crop having thus no
manure, but following the wheat, oats, or barley, as the
case may be.

45. Land intended for pulse crops should be ploughed as
early in autumn as possible, and the drier the soil is the
better ; the heaviest lands should be taken in hand first.
Where the beans follow a grain crop, the manure should
be spread upon the stubble during the winter; the carting
of the manure can easily be done without injury to the
land. This laying of the dung on the surface to lie for
weeks before it is ploughed in, is one of the disputed
points in modern farming; but it is right to say that
opinion is becoming very generally held that it is a good
plan. Professor Yoelcker maintains that there is no loss
of manurial substances ; Mr. Baldwin, on the contrary,
maintains, or at least did maintain, that there is. On this
point, Professor Donaldson refers to the practice often dis-
played in East Lothian, where the manure is spread along
the furrows, or deposited in heaps at intervals, and in this
way exposed for weeks to rain, wind, and sun, till it is
apparently washed, bleached, and dried ; and yet the crops
are equal to those obtained by the usual mode of covering
the dung, and even in some cases a certain superiority for
the crops has been claimed; many years, says this author-
ity, have tested the matter, and, " however much it may
clash with the doctrines of chemistry about exposure and
loss by evaporation, such facts are stubborn things." We
have seen however, above, that chemistry, as expounded
by Professor Voelcker, is in favour rather than otherwise
of the exposure of the dung. The practical authority in
the Journal of Agriculture we have already quoted, is
decidedly in favour of the system of carting on the manure
to, and spreading it over the stubbles in winter, and
ploughing it in. He says, that when so applied in winter

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 249

and ploughed in, the dung acts to the best possible ad-
vantage in every respect, on all but the wettest and un-
drained soils. The manurial substances are absorbed by
the soil as the manure decays, rendering also, the heavy
soils porous, by the mechanical admixture of its heavy
portions. Moreover, by the application of dung at this
season, the manure is so tempered that the forcing of the
plants which, an authority says, results from mixing the
fresh manure with the newly ploughed land in spring, is
avoided, and by avoiding this, disease in the crop is not
so likely, he thinks, to take place ; he believes, therefore,
in the "innumerable advantages of winter dunging." The
great aim in carrying out a rotation in which the naked
fallow is dispensed with, and a succession of crops with
the bean as one of them, kept up and taken off heavy stiff
soils, is to keep them clean. To ensure this, the grain
crops preceding the bean should be well drilled, so that
horse or hand hoeing, or both, can be done. The beans
which follow are, of course, to be hoed also, the distance
between the rows to be regulated according to the condi-
tion of the soil. Beans, by a proper system, can be very
successfully cultivated as a cleaning crop for heavy soils,
however much opposed may be the opinion of some that
they cannot. Mr. Valleritine's experience shows that they
can. The first step in his system is to plough the land as
early as possible in the winter, and if this is properly
executed, no other ploughing in spring will be necessary ;
on the contrary, it may not even be advisable. In place
of a second, or spring ploughing, a simple scarifying is all
that is needed, and will be found to move the soil effec-
tually where the ameliorating influences of the weather
have not penetrated to the depth of four or five inches.
Even this scarifying, Mr. Vallentine has not found neces-
sary, as a working of the heaviest harrows has done all
that was required. The object in view in reducing the
soil to a proper tilth, is to allow the plants to derive the
greatest possible amount ' of nourishment from the soil
during the period of thin growth. Our authority is not,

250 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

however, an advocate of the system which aims at getting
a very finely pulverised condition of soil in spring, before
the sowing of the seed ; on the contrary, he prefers to get
the beans a first start in medium soil, reducing it after-
wards by subsequent cultivation ; thus at once getting
fine tilth, and clearing of the weeds. He deprecates as
" most injudicious," the ploughing and scarifying the land
to excess in February, for the purpose of pulverizing the
land, as the same object can be secured, and better secured,
after the plants have fairly come up. Great loss arises
from the padding of horses' feet in spring, when the dry
weather which generally follows renders land cloddy and
quite unsuited to hoeing and weeding. Mr. Vallentine is
no advocate for hand dibbling of beans at so much per
peck; as it is done generally in so slovenly a manner as
to cause the beans to come up in such crooked, uneven
l,jnes, as quite to prevent hoeing being properly carried out.
He drills his beans in straight lines in spring before the
harrow is worked over the land, and across the furrows or at
an angle, so that the drill itself breaks up the land ; the
seed being deposited at a depth of four inches, but not less
than three. The land is only harrowed once after the
beans are drilled, should it not be dry enough to admit of
the whole harrowing being done. In very stiff clays, it
sometimes happens that the soil becomes all at once finely
pulverized as the beans come up. In this case the use of
the roller is to be recommended, as it levels the land and
prepares it for after harrowing and hoeing, Some object
to this rolling of heavy land, but Mr. Vallentine has found
it beneficial in circumstances as above stated. The same
authority believes that beans are much improved by being
harrowed about a fortnight after they have come up. If
they are very thick on the ground, one harrowing may be
given in one direction, another across the rows. This will
be found very effectual in tearing up the weeds between
the plants. Let it be borne in mind, however, that no
harrowing should be done in a^frosty morning, nor, indeed,
says an authority, any other kind of cultivation. As soon

HOEING OF THE BEAN CROP. 251

as the beans have got above ground three inches or so,
let hoeing be begun ; the sooner this is done indeed the
better after the plants are fairly and sufficiently up. The
earlier the hoeings and the more frequent they are the
cheaper each is, the land is kept cleaner, and by conse-
quence the value of the crop is increased. It is, says Mr.
Vallentine, a great mistake to send one or two labourers
into a field, to clean it after the weeds have grown above
the plants. It would be well if many farmers would bear
in mind what he further says, that if hoeing is not done at
the right time, there is a " certain useless expenditure of
labour." The longer the surface of the land is allowed to
remain untouched, the harder it becomes, and the greater
is the difficulty to break it up and get the weeds out.
True as this is, however, it should not be forgot that it is
equally silly to hoe in wet weather. This only increases
the evil, for not only can the weeds not be got up when
the soil in stiff heavy clays is wet, but when dry weather
sets in, the land disturbed by the hoe gets into such a
hard cloddy condition that after-hoeing cannot be done, or
if attempted, not done well. All these considerations
point to the imperative necessity there is for the farmer to
study well the weather, and to lose no opportunity of
doing what ought to be done. Let this in the duty or art
— for it is an art, as all know who have tried it practically in
the field — of hoeing be remembered as an axiom, that the
weeds should be kept down by hoeing before they have
got strength. But it is better in fact to keep them down,
as Mr. Vallentine says, by hoeing " before they can appear,
rather than to kill them when they have attained a certain
strength." In no department of farm labour is the force
of the proverb so apparent as in that of cleaning land from
weeds, — " a stitch in time saves nine," " one year's weeding
saves nine years' seeding." Mr. Vallentine says, and says,
we are sure, with perfect and suggestive truth, that he never
regretted hoeing any crop too soon, but that many a time
he has felt the loss arising from delay. Hoeing by hand
is esteemed the best, but it must be well done, and to eri-

252 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

sure this, the labourers must be well looked after, — for
shocking work is as often done in the field as it is in other
places. Garrett's horse hoe is a useful implement, but it
should be used before the weeds get so strong and long as
to become entangled in and among the hoes. One au-
thority states that 8 to 10 acres per day may be ploughed
easily by this machine, but when the ground becomes hard
and very weedy, its use should not be attempted. The
common iron plough, with its mould-board taken off, will
be found a very useful implement for hoeing between the
rows ; doing one row at a time is perhaps the easiest way
in soils very stiff and apt to become cloddy and hard on
the surface. Mr. Vallentine gives the statement of ex-
pense of cultivating the bean crop on his system, which it
is well to give here.

One ploughing in Autumn, (cost per acre) . £0100

One drilling in Spring,

Three harrowings,

One rolling, if necessary, ". 006

One harrowing after the plants are above ground,

Sometimes two harrowings, . 006

One horse-hoeing, say on an average of seasons, by the

common hoe or plough, three acres per day, per acre, 018
Two hand-hoeings, just beside the rows, 050

One more horse -hoeing, if necessary, 018

Total cost of cultivation per acre, . 144

46. Mr. Vallentine states, that by this system of culti-
vation the land has always been kept clean, and that the
crop has always been better with much hoeing than with
little. By the still not uncommon mode of culture of the
bean crop, the following is the expense per acre : —

One ploughing in winter, ....

One ditto in Spring, .

One scarifying,

Four harrowings,

Two hand-hoeings, say only , , 076

1 13 0
Cost of cultivation by judicious management, 144

In favour of modern system, . . • 088

PERIOD OF SOWING. 253

47. Such an account, says Mr. Vallentine, "is partly im-
aginary and partly true, as where the horse-hoe is not used
in many instances after the sowing of the seed, the pre-
vious cultivation is the same as the system recommended.
On the other hand, instead of 7s. per acre being paid for
hand-hoeing, more than double that sum is paid for hoe-
ing and weeding together : and after all the land is left
in a filthier state after the crop is harvested than before
the seed is sown."

48. We have already described the different varieties of
beans used for seed on farms, and to what we have said,
we have now to add, what is indeed most important to be
attended to, namely, that the seed to be chosen must be
true to its variety and of the best quality, sound, and free
from disease. Let not the farmer run away with the
notion that any kind of seed will do ; on the contrary, let
it be retained in his memory, as a maxim indisputable,
"bad seeds, bad crops." As with other crops which we
have described, so with the bean crop, — change of seed is
good ; that is, the beans raised in one locality may be
sown with advantage in another. In all cases, it is essen-
tial to have seed which has been properly ripened.

49. The period of sowing spring beans extends from
the middle of February to that of March ; winter beans
from the end of September up to the middle of November ;
but, as Mr. Vallentine says, the earlier the better. The
same authority states that spring beans may be sown from
the middle of January to the middle of March ; and that it
is better to sow any time in February, when the land is in
good condition, than to sow earlier when it is not. Professor
Wilson says that for winter beans the early part of October is
probably the best, as for spring beans February is the best.
By the choice of October for the sowing of winter beans
the stubbles of the preceding green crop will have been
ploughed and well cleaned ; points of vast importance in
the bean crop. In the sowing of spring beans, the first
fine weather after or about the middle of February should
be taken advantage of to get the seed in, for, as well re-

254 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

marked by the authority above quoted, " the bean plant
requires from six to seven months to complete its growth,
and if the period of sowing is delayed, the harvest opera-
tions are necessarily kept back at a period of the year
when each day's delay renders the season less adapted for
the purpose, and the stocks are frequently injured before
they can safely be carted off the field."

50. With reference to this point as to the best time of
sowing beans, does it not, may we ask, appear a strange
thing that with all our Agricultural Societies, — National
and District — we are in possession of no well -defined
trustworthy results of experiments carefully carried out to
decide it 1 But we have said so much in previous articles
as to the apathy of our Agricultural Societies on points
connected with the culture of our crops, that we need not
take up space here by saying more ; if, indeed, saying
more would be productive of any utility, which we are
shrewd enough — however uncomplimentary to the power
of the press it may be — to know it would not. It is easy
enough to talk of the red tapeism of our Government ; is
there none of the disease existing amongst the officials of
our Agricultural Societies 1 Ee this as it may, and pos-
sibly to their minds it is a matter not worth a rush, the
fact is patent enough that, save what we learn from the
experiments of Arthur Young — now very old, save the
mark, what a pun! — we know nothing as to the relative
value of different periods of sowing. It will be well to
note here the results of these experiments. Of seed

sown in November the produce was 4 '00

„ December, „ 3 '4 2

„ January, „ 4 '42

„ February, „ 4 49

March, „ 4'00

„ April, „ 2-1

„ May, „ 1-42.

51. The quantity of seed per acre to be sown varies
with various districts, condition of soil, climate, &c. ; so
that the remarks we have had to make in connection with

MODES OF SOWING BEANS. 255

this department of other crop culture, we have again to
repeat, that no rule can be given applicable to all cases.
As a rule 2£ down to 1-J bushels per acre may be taken
as the quantity of winter beans required ; while for spring
beans from 2 to 4 bushels per acre will be required. The
poorer the soil the greater the quantity of seed required.
52. The modes of sowing the crop, like those of the
wheat crop, are three in number and the same in character,
'namely, broadcasting, drilling, and dibbling. Of the first
of these it is scarcely necessary to state that, with a crop
such as the bean, which in one sense is a foul growing
one, it is bad, as where it is adopted it is quite impossi-
ble to keep the growing crop from the weeds which so
rapidly encumber it. Drilling is done by the ordinary
grain - drilling machine, but with the coulters and seed-
spouts made adjustable, so that the necessary distances
between the rows may be obtained easily. They should
be adjusted to sow the seed at a depth of not lees than
three inches, but nearer four in the majority of soils. In
Scotland, and also in many parts of England, drilling of
beans is effected by the " bean barrow," doing one row at
a time. Dibbling is usually done by the hand, and in a
very primitive way, — a stick dibble being used to make
the hole, and the seed dropped in by hand. The work is
often done by women and children, and almost always done
in a careless slovenly way. The system of getting the
work done by paying so much per bushel or peck dibbled
in is obviously most absurd, and calculated to leave the
way open for all sorts of cheating careless work. Mr.
Vallentine on this point says, that those who adopt this
plan " not only encourage dishonesty, but put a complete
check upon cheap and perfect cultivation afterwards." The
same authority states that the opinion so generally held in
favour of dibbling, arises from a mistaken notion as to its
value ; he says that he has had both drilling and dibbling
done alternately in different fields for some years, and that
he never found any difference in the crop but what could
be traced to the work in either case not having been properly

956 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

performed ; and further gives it as his opinion that "neither
the drill, the dibble, nor the men who use either can ex-
ercise any influence over the crop after the seed is sown in
a proper manner." We are by no means disposed to ac-
cept this dictum as the right one. What is the proper
manner of sowing the seed 1 it may be by the system of
drilling, or, perhaps, by that of dibbling ; it is probable
that one is better than the other. There is no doubt that
one way of sowing seed — any seed — will be done in ac-
cordance with the habits of the plant than another. To
say that all plans of sowing are alike good is not borne
out by analogy or by facts, so far as we know and are pos-
sessed of them. As dibbling seems, for instance, to be the
best mode of sowing wheat, inasmuch as it favours the after
development of the plant more than any other, so do we
incline to the opinion that it is equally the best way to
plant the bean seed. Certainly experiments which we have
made in the field all go to favour this view, and there was
no difficulty in telling which was the best crop, the drilled,
the dibbled, or the broadcasted. So far then from agree-
ing with Mr. Vallentine that the mode of sowing can ex-
ercise and does not exercise an influence in the after growth
of the plants, we believe that it does exercise an influence,
and an important one. Which of all the three ways of de-
positing the seed is the best, absolutely we are not prepared
to say, further than we conjecture that dibbling is the best;
but still all circumstances of culture incline us to believe
that in this, as in other departments, the three degrees of
comparison exist, good, better, best. It would not form a
useless kind of inquiry on the part of the Agricultural
Societies of the Kingdom to ascertain which is the best.

53. The broadcast system of sowing beans being put out
of court as, by almost universal consent, the worst mode of
sowing beans, and the drilling and dibbling retained as
the two best, the question arises what are the best dis-
tances at which to sow the beans, that is, the distance be-
tween the rows. We have already pointed out Professor
Tanner's views on this point; but we may say, what many

DISTANCES BETWEEN THE ROWS OF BEANS. 257

of our readers doubtless are well acquainted with, that the
greatest possible diversity of opinion exists as to the width
between the rows of beans. Some advocate exceedingly
wide intervals between the rows, as much as from five to
six feet ; others maintain that the closer the distances be-
tween the rows the fewer are the weeds, and the less
vigorous their growth. A very usual distance between the
rows in the districts — and we may say that they are the
most advanced in practice — where the bean crop is looked
upon as a fallow or cleaning crop, is twenty-seven inches.
The advocates of the wide intervals insist upon the im-
mense advantages of permitting free access of atmospheric
influences to all sides of the plant ; and they say that this
is obtained best by wide intervals. We have tried almost
all possible combinations of intervals, and we have come
to the conclusion that the width of three feet between the
rows, and where the two central rows, eight inches gives
excellent results; the arrangement is as follows —

3 feet.

3 feet.

Still more remarkable results have been obtained by grow-
ing the rows a less distance apart, 27 inches, but with all
the rows single, thus —

27

27

54. By this arrangement both sides of the plants in the
rows receive the full influence of light and air. In some
beans we grew upon this plan, the podding was something
very remarkable, and all the more so, when compared with
the double-row system, and still more so, when compared
with the three-row system. Thus, in the two-row system,
the outsides, as a b, c d, get the chief supply
of light and air, the inner sides getting
much less, and this in proportion the closer
d the rows are to each other. Make the

258

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

and it is quite obvious that
a I gets comparatively
mospheric influences. If
the astonishing efficacy
ply of light and air in
bean plant, let him sow
b

rows three thus,
the central row
little of the at-
any one doubts
of a proper sup-
raising the produce of the
a patch of this shape abed,
and the interior space broadcasted ;
he will find that while the interior
plants will grow apparently as
vigorously as the exterior ones,
the podding will be confined almost entirely to the outside
plants in the lines a b, c d, d c, c a. Some successful
growers have made the distance between single rows five
feet, and have been perfectly well satisfied with the results.
Perhaps the most complete, if not the most satisfactory,
experiments referring to the distances to be given to the
rows of beans, were those carried out by Mr. George Hope
of Fentonbarns, of which a very full account will be found
in the Transactions of the Highland Society for July
1859, and to which the reader is here referred ; content-
ing ourselves, by here simply stating, that of the three
widths, 8-inches, 16-inches, and 27-inches, the medium
width, 1 6-inches, gave the best results ; the space between
the widest rows being a mass of weeds, those between the
narrower rows being remarkably free from them. Where
dibbling is resorted to, another question arises, and like
many others connected with the practice of agriculture — it
is a disputed one — and it is, what should be the distance be-
tween the dibbled pockets or the beans in the rows 1 Nine
inches is a very usual distance, and we have found it gwe
good, we may say the best, results. Others, again, while
advocating very wide intervals between the rows, advocate
the utmost possible degree of thickness of seeds in the
rows. We have tried this close seeding in the rows, but
did not find the result at all equal to that obtained by
dibbling them at 8 or 9 inches apart. Nor need we be
surprised at this, seeing the superior position of the dibbled

DIFFERENT PLANS OF SOWING BEANS. 259

plants relatively to one another, securing to each plant
abundant supplies of light and air.

55. With reference to the practice of different districts
in sowing beans, Professor Donaldson, in the Prize Essay
on beans and pease in the Journal of the Bath and West
of England Society, has some interesting remarks, of which
a resume will be useful here. On the Plastic and London
clays, broadcast sowing of the crop is imperative, the waxy
tenacious nature of the soil preventing all drilling and
dibbling being properly or economically done. The crop
is thinly planted, and the cleaning is effected by hand-
hoeing while the plants are not high ; open furrows are
left, which renders the operation of hand-hoeing more easy.
On soils of this description, beans are introduced after a
wheat stubble, and followed by a crop of oats, then comes
a fallow ; by this arrangement the clover crop is taken once
only in the eight years, in place of once every four. The
farming in such soils as those now under consideration
leaves, and it may be said, keeps the land foul arid most
displeasing to the eye of one accustomed to another and
a better system. The plants being thinly set, the ground
is exposed, and becomes rapidly dry and parched, arid
hand-hoeing, such as it is, rendered difficult and uncertain,
weeds are therefore got rid of with difficulty, if at all, and
many grow up to seeding. In the best classes of viscous
clays of this sort we art now considering, when the original
deposits are mixed with chalk and chalky marls, the soil
is capable of bearing a thicker set crop which proportion-
ately keeps down the vigour of the weeds ; nevertheless,
even in such lands the farming is foul enough. On the
pure clays first named, the average return of the bean crop
is 16 bushels per acre ; the return on the modified clay
mixed with chalk or chalky marl at 24 bushels. On the
pure tenacious clays of the lias, clunch, or Kimeridge for-
mation, beans are also sown on the broadcast system, but
fairly thick sowing is permissible, which tends to keep
down the weeds, and shading the soil, renders it less baked
and cracked and more fitted for hand-hoeing. In some

260 CULTURE OF FARM; CROPS.

cases a useful purpose is served by ribbing up the land,
after being well harrowed, by a small plough, thereafter
sowing the beans by hand, which fall into the furrows
and are covered by the harrows; hand-hoeing can in this
system be well carried out. In the modified clays met
with in Essex, which have been washed with fresh water,
and in this way divested of much of their usual tenacity,
beans are cultivated in rows nine inches apart, from that
up to two feet, the seed being dibbled in by hand on the
top of the furrow slice, which is made as deep as possible, —
a light harrowing covers the seed and concludes the oper-
ations. This mode is the first departure from the broad-
cast system where soils do not admit of being stirred in
autumn or in the spring ; and where the distance between
the rows is as great as 18 inches, the crop can be kept
fairly clean by hand-hoeing ; but horse-hoeing is scarcely
admissible, the hoes not being able to penetrate the soil
sufficiently,' hardened as it is from the winter furrow, so
that it is difficult to obtain a tilth favourable to absorption
and evaporation. Scarifying, however, is useful as an
auxiliary to the hand-hoeing, as tending to get rid of the
surface weeds. Soils of this class, being well-suited to the
bean, give large crops under this system of culture, from
50 to 60 bushels per acre being not unusual yields.

5 6. Where clays, by mixture with chalk, assume a moder-
ately friable condition, the land is deeply ploughed in
winter and well harrowed, the beans are drilled by a corn-
drilling machine modified so as to deposit the seeds deeply,
the distance between the drills being from 9 to 1 8 inches ;
the seeds are covered by a light harrowing. Another
method in such soils is to well harrow them, and then run
a light plough up, so as to throw furrows at any desired
distance; broadcasting the beans which fall into the fur-
rows and are finally covered by the harrow. Both of these
modes admit of horse-hoeing or scarifying between the
rows in the earlier stages of the growth of the plants,
while hand-hoeing can be done.

57. Where lands are so friable as to admit of autumn

BEAN FARMING IN THE EAST LOTHIANS. 261

or spring preparation, the application of farm-yard dung,
and of wide interval drilling by machine, the perfection of
bean culture is met with. As the beans delight in a deep,
though firm soil, the stubble is ploughed in autumn as
deep as possible, a depth of not less than 8 inches being
aimed at. The ploughing covers in the manure which, in
a rotted condition, has been laid over the stubble at the
rate of twelve cart-loads to the acre. As soon as the
weather is favourable in spring, and the land in good dry
condition, the land is well harrowed, or ploughed, or
broken up by the contrary workings of a grubber. It is
then turned over with furrows 27 inches wide, in the fur-
rows of which IJie seed is deposited by drilled, and the
ridges split by the double mould-board plough, so that
the soil is delivered on each side, covering the seed. Or the
seed may be sown broadcast, and falling into the furrows,
it is covered with the harrow, or by splitting the drills. A
light rolling then succeeds, and then a slight harrowing to
break up the surface. As soon as the plants are about
two inches above the ground, the light plough is sent to
take from the sides of the drills a light furrow, reversing
it into the hollows. The scuffler is used for the subsequent
workings, which are continued as long as the plants per-
mit. After each scarifying, hand-hoeing is performed, and
this as carefully as possible, not only cutting the weeds on
the sides of the drills, but passed between the plants in
the drills, so that the weeds are removed and the soil
loosened. In some cases the drills are earthed up with a
double mould-board plough. This method now described
is carried out on the fen lands, and on deep earthy loams ;
and forms, says Professor Donaldson, " the most perfect
system of bean farming."

58. Perhaps the finest and most successful bean farm-
ing is met with in the East Lothians, where, says this
authority, " the deep loamy clayey concreted gravels near
the town of Dunbar, and the red rolling clays that overlie
the trap rocks south from North Berwick, exhibit the cul-
tivation of beans in a manner that is (elsewhere 1) un-

262 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

equalled." Beans here, generally follow the oat crop. On
this, farm-yard manure is spread and ploughed in by the
winter furrow. The land is then drilled — turnip fashion
— in spring, the beans sown and covered by reversing the
drills, and the after cultivation effected by the horse and the
hand-hoe. In the most recent practice, the land is worked
by ploughing and grubbing, the weeds being carefully re-
moved; drills are then opened by the common plough,
farm-yard dung spread along the hollows, on this the beans
are sown by machine, and the drills are reversed covering
the seed, a rolling levels the drills, and a slight harrowing
opens the surface just before the beans begin to show
through. When the plants are about two inches high,
the small plough, drawn by one horse, is sent in and takes
a deep furrow from the sides of each drill, sending the
soil into the intervals. The drill grubber is used to stir
the soil afterwards, and hand-hoeing is carefully carried
out. In some cases, the drills are earthed up by the
double mould-board plough.

59. The same authority, of whose opinions we have just
given a resume, has other remarks which it will be useful
here to condense. Enlightened practice, he says, recom-
mends the farm-yard dung to be used for beans in a highly
wetted, yet scarcely putrescent state ; the roots of the
young plants delighting to search for nutrition amongst
the rank particles, so that while the tap root descends, the
lateral fibres receive plenty of nourishment. Top dress-
ings of almost any substance are not to be recommended,
producing, as they generally do, more top foliage than grain ;
this tendency is more marked in leguminous than in grain
crops. Dissolved bones, lime, gypsum, glauber salts, com-
mon salts, nitrate of soda, and potash, have all, he says,
been recommended for beans to be sown on the young
plants, and afterwards mixed with the soil by hoeing.
Gypsum and lime require a long time for solution, and
should be applied to the land before sowing the seed; on
the former along with the seed. Lime may be mixed
with the soil by hoeing, or laid in the winter furrow or

MANURING FOR BEANS. 263

on the surface, and scarified into the soil. Decisive trials
are wanting to decide the question between top-dressings of
artificial manures and farm-yard dung, which appears, how-
ever, to be the true manure for the crop. " Top dressings
rather assist a bad, than produce a good crop." Beans are
an excellent preparatory crop for wheat, and appear to be-
stow greater benefit upon the land, and to take less from
it, than any other cultivated crop. But to fulfil these
conditions, the land, says an authority, must be well pre-
pared, and the crop drilled, carefully cleaned from weeds;
or if sown broadcast, thick, so as to cover the soil and
shade it. Where the broadcasted crop is thin and
straggling, low in stature and puny in growth, the land is
exposed and gets hard, rendering not only hand-hoeing
difficult, but affording empty spaces in which weeds luxuri-
ate. In clays of the poorest kinds which will not admit
of thick - sown broadcasted or of drilled crops, beans
should be avoided, as they only fill the land with weeds.
Beans are often classed as a green or fallow crop, but they
are not strictly so, for they perfect their seeds in the same
year in which they are grown, and in the rotation of
modern systems, a green crop is that which does not
perfect its seed in the year of its growth ; and is that
which follows a crop bearing its seeds the same year. The
beans, nevertheless, cultivated in the improved modes, of
more than one of which we have given description, is still
a valuable preparatory crop; it admits of a fair amount
of stirring and weeding, and the soil is ameliorated by
the action of the tap roots which descend into and open
it up.

60. We have already pointed out the physical condition
in which the soil requires to be for the bean plant ; as re-
gards the chemical condition, being what is called a cal-
careous crop, drawing much lime from the soil, the great
essential is, that the soil should have this lime. Hence, we
have seen, that from the soils formed of clay mixed with
chalk and sand, the richest crops are obtained ; if, then,
lime is absent, or at best but sparingly present, it is ueces-

264 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

sary that it should be added. Mr. Huxtable recommends
an artificial manure in which lime is present, and which
is as follows : — ten bushels of lime, two cwt. of super-
phosphate, five bushels of salt and ashes. Mr. Crother,
in his Prize Essay in the Eath and West of England
Society's Journal, states, that if the land has been limed,
the farmer had better depend upon some nitrogenous sub--
stance as a top dressing ; and for this purpose, he says,
nothing is better than guano, at the rate of three cwt. to
the acre. If this cannot be easily obtained, apply twenty
or thirty bushels of soot, with three or four bushels of salt.
As regards the after culture of beans, all that has to be
said is simply this, that on the plants reaching that height
which prevents the working of hand or horse hoes, the
crop is left to itself to take its chance. What this chance
is we shall see, as we now come to describe the " enemies
of the crop."

DISEASES OF THE BEAN CROP.

61. The first enemy, the attacks of which the bean has to
contend against, is the " millipedes," which commence to
eat the seed-bean almost immediately after it has been put
into the soil. The attacks of these insects are either so
complete as to entirely destroy the germinating power of
the seed, or to weaken it so much that the plants resulting
are weak, and liable either to be killed by frosts, or to be par-
ticularly obnoxious to those diseases, or to the attacks of
the insects which infest the crop at a later period of its
growth. The names of the millipedes who thus attack
the seed-beans shortly after being put in the soil, are the
latus pulchellus, and Polydesmus compluratus, of the habits
of both of which, a full account will be found in vol. 5, p.
228 of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England. The seed-beans are much more liable to be
attacked in cold and wet seasons than in comparatively
warm and dry ones. Should the seed-beans committed to
the soil fail to be attacked by these millipedes or false
wireworms, and make such progress as fairly to appear

DISEASES OF THE BEAN CROP. 265

above ground, they have to " cun the gauntlet " of another
and a different set of enemies, not less powerful, however,
for evil ; these are the " weevils," so-called. The weevils
or beetles, belong to the order Coleoptera, and to the family
Curculionidse ; and the species which attacks the beans
was called by Linnaeus, Curculio ; but it is now, as stated
by the able entomologist Curtis, comprised, along with some
twenty other beetles, all scourges of garden and of farm
crops, under the genus Sitona; the species called, as seen
above, by Linnseus, Curculio, is now named Sitona lineata.
These weevils or bean beetles, are of the same colour as
earth, and this, in conjunction with their habit of falling
from the leaves of the plants when disturbed during the
day time, and remaining with their limbs folded up quite
motionless on the soil, renders it an exceedingly difficult
task to discover them at work. They either destroy the
plants as rapidly almost as they appear above ground, or
erode or gnaw away the edges of those leaves which may
have been developed before their attacks commenced. The
weevils burrow in the soil during the dark, generally com-
mencing their attack shortly after daylight. The. end of
March is the period in favourable seasons when the weevils
commence their attacks, but more usually it is April be-
fore they appear with all their destructive force. Hence
may be deduced the practical suggestion, that the stronger
we can have the plants at this season, the more likely are
we to find them able to withstand their attacks. Com-
paratively little is known of the habits of the weevils or
beetles ; so that not -much progress has been made in the
discovery of a remedy or a means of preventing their at-
tacks. From the hard horny nature of the covering of
the insects, it is obvious that no external application, made,
with a view to destroy them, could be made without also
destroying at the same time the plants upon which they
feed ; hence the only resource left open to us is rendering
their food so unpalatable to them by some simple applica-
tion to it, as to drive them, as Mr. Curtis says, " to forage
elsewhere." This is done by dusting wood-ashes, soot, or

s

266 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

lime over the plants early in the morning when the leaves
are damp or wet with dew. Our readers may remember,
perhaps, that Mr. Fisher Hobbs recommended a similar
remedy for the prevention of the attacks of the turnip in-
sect, or fly. Mr. Curtis also points out how a catch crop
may be made by leaving some of the rows undusted, and
when the weevils rush to these in numbers, as to new feed-
ing grounds> and their presence is made thoroughly mani-
fest by the erosion of the leaves, the whole army of insects
might be destroyed by pouring boiling water over the
plants, thus saving the general crop. The same authority
also mentions the fact of a very eminent agriculturist hav-
ing with great success adopted the plan of harrowing or
hoeing the plants, doing either the one or the other of these
whilst the dew is upon them, so as to cover the leaves
with soil, and thus destroy the feed of the weevils.

62. If the plants escape the attacks of the millipedes or
the weevils, and reach the more mature stage when flowers
appear; with these also, appear other insect enemies — the
" humble bee," and the " aphides or plant lice." Bees
are often quoted as friends to man, bearing the pollen of
male plants to the ovaries of female ones, and thus render-
ing them more prolific ; while this is true enough of them
in some, nay, in many cases, it is not so in the case of the
bean plant. The bean flowers are greatly injured by the
humble bees — order " hymenoptera," family " aphidae," genus
"bombus," and the species "bombus terrestris," and "bombus
lucorum" — which operate upon them "by puncturing the
$ase of the flowers, and rendering the incipient pod en-
tirely, or partially abortive." The cause, says Mr. Curtis,
of the humble bees" " thus damaging the crops of beans and
flowers, arises possibly from some unusually large females
— for individuals of the same species vary greatly in size —
not being able to creep into many flowers that are too
small to admit of their bodies, and too long to allow of
their reaching the nectary with their tongues ; they are
not, however, to be thus balked of their feast, and in-
stinct directs them to the exact spot on the calyx, beneath

DISEASES OF THE BEAN CROP. 267

which the nectar is stored, there they nibble with their
strong jaws until they are enabled to introduce their pro-
boscis, and obtain the desired treasure." Humble bees
form their nests in old walls, and amongst heaps of build-
ing rubbish ; they collect moss in summer time for the
making of their nests, and the females come out in spring
to collect the honey and pollen. The destruction of the
bees, if desired, should thus be carried out in summer. The
bees have many enemies, as the " butcher bird," amongst
the feathered tribes ; and the fly " volucella inanis ; " and
the caterpillar of a moth " ilythia colonella" amongst in-
sects -, of these, the latter is the great destroyer of the bees.
63. The great insect enemy of the bean crop in its later
stages of development is the aphides or plant lice ; these be-
long to the order "homoptera," family "aphides," genus " apis,"
and species vicia faba — vulgarly known as the Collier fly,
the black fly, or the black dolphin. The appearance of
these minute insects is generally very sudden, and their
ravages not only complete, if not arrested, but remarkably
rapid. By very fortunate circumstances their presence is
easily detected, and this not only from their intensely
black colour, but from their always appearing at the upper
part of the plant. To meet the attacks of this insect, the
farmer has fortunately a remedy not only easily carried
out, but most effective ; this is, " topping the plants,"
either cutting them off by means of a scythe, a sickle, or
by hand. Care should be taken to carry out this remedy
on the very first appearance of the insect ; hence the neces-
sity of a watchful supervision of the bean field ; and
further, to destroy the cut-off heads either by burning
them, which is the best method, or by crushing them into
the soil with the foot as they are cut off. The insects or
lice are eaten in immense numbers by the calling birds,
and their black larvae by ichneumons and maggots of
dipterous flies; but while the number of the aphides may
thus be kept under by these their enemies, it is doubtful
whether this conduces to the safety of the~crop, inasmuch
as the remedial measures, if they are designed to be per-

268 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

fectly efficient, must be taken at the very earliest stage
of the attacks of the aphides.

64. Beans are also subject to the attacks of another species
of beetle, named, but named erroneously, " bugs." These
belong to the order " coleoptera," family " bruchida?," and
genus "bruchus," so called from their "destructive nibbling
propensities." The eggs of the insect are deposited in the
flowers of the bean, and the maggots resulting from these
eat their way into the seed. Before changing into the pupa?
condition, the maggot eats a round hole from its cell to
the rind of the seed ; the rind at this part is also probably
" partially cut through," so that when " the beetle " is
ready to come out of its cell, it readily forces itself through
the rind. Fortunately the maggots do not destroy as a
rule the germ of the seed, although often they do so com-
pletely eat all the interior that nothing is left but a hollow
case or rind. To kill the maggots, therefore, the beans
used for sowing are recommended to be steeped in brine
or in hot water for a minute or so before sowing. Mr.
Curtis states that " seed should be examined before sow-
ing, and the infested beans may be detected by dull cir-
cular spots in the skin, where no holes are to be found."
Another insect which attacks beans, in common with corn
and other vegetables, is the " mole cricket." This belongs to
the order "orthoptera," family "achetidse," genus "gryllo-
talpa," species "gryllotalpa vulgaris." Residing under the sur-
face like a mole, it burrows horizontally, and has astonishing
muscular powers. It commits its ravages upon the crops
in the night. The only plan recommended to the farmer
on the large scale, is that quoted by Curtis as adopted by
Kellar — " when there is a flat area of 500 or 600 yards,
dig three or four pits in September, 2 or 3 feet deep and
n foot wide* then fill them with horse dung and cover
them over with earth. Attracted by the warmth, all the
mole crickets will resort to those pits from the surround-
ing neighbourhood on the first frost, and may then be
easily destroyed." It is a singular and fortunate circum-
stance that, although most prolific, their disposition is so

THE PEA CROP. 263

ferocious that the mother devours nine-tenths of her off-
spring. The " mole " is also one of their greatest enemies.
Their presence in soils may be detected by the little heaps
of earth thrown up by them in their progress.

65. While, as we have shown, a good deal is known as to
the habits of the insect enemies of the bean crop, little
comparatively is at the service of the farmer as to its dis-
eases. The plants are liable to be attacked by a
"parasitic fungus" termed mildew, this being more the
case when sudden variations of temperature act in con-
junction with cold and wet weather, and in cold, un-
drained, heavy clay soils. A " fungoid disease," which has
been recently attacking the bean crop, will be found very
fully described by the eminent entomologist, the Kev. M.
T. Berkeley, in the Agricultural Gazette, p. 677, vol. for
1859. The leaves are covered with red and brown and
si} u ff- coloured blotches, which are, in fact, due to the
"uredo fabse." The plants sometimes recover from the at-
tacks of this disease even after it has been so far developed
as to give the crop " a very wretched aspect." Another
disease has been described by the same authority as affect-
ing the pods of the bean. Although at first it is confined
to the surface of the pod in the form of a scab or pustule,
it has been found to eat its way through the pod and
attach itself to the seed, which becomes deteriorated in
value.

CHAPTER SECOND.

THE PEA CROP.

66. THE Pea crop next claims our attention. Like the
bean, it belongs to the class of dicotyledonous plants, and
the order Leguminosce,. The family is Pisum, and is, like
the bean, classed into two kinds, — the field pea, or Pisum
sativum arvense; and the garden pea, Pisum sativum

270 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

hortense. As regards the history of the pea, we may state
briefly that it was well known to the ancients, amongst
whom, especially the Romans, it was highly esteemed and
greatly cultivated. As the bean gave a distinctive name
to a noble family of the Romans, so did the pea ; hence
the Pisani. The cultivation of the pea was doubtless in-
troduced into this country by the agency of the Romans ;
if not by them, at least by the people of the Low Coun-
tries. It has been a highly-esteemed crop for centuries,
and, before the introduction of potatoes, formed a very
essential part of the food of the people, so that its con-
sumption was much greater then than it is now. The
plant, botanically described, has the stipulas rounded and
crenate at the base ; the stalks, at the base cylindrical,
carry several flowers, white in colour generally in the
Pisum hortense, or garden pea, but purple generally in the
Pisum arvense, or field pea. The root is annual, slender,
and fibrous : the stems are hollow in their first stages —
are not strong, but brittle; they therefore do not stand
erect, like beans ; they are terminated by fine curling ten-
drils, which take hold of and twine round any firmer sup-
porting material near them. The leaves are pinnate,
abrupt, composed generally of two pairs of leaflets. The
shape of the leaf is elliptical, and the surface smooth and
shining. The flowers are lateral, and cluster, two or three
together, on long, peduncular stalks or stems. The corolla,
as stated above, is either white or purple, and sometimes
variegated. The legumes or pods are generally in pairs,
about two inches in length, of oblong form, pointed at the
end, generally straight, but, in some varieties of the Pisum
hortense, curved scimitar fashion. The seeds vary in num-
ber from five to nine ; they are of various shapes — in
some varieties globular or spherical, in some flattened
spheres or oblate spheroids ; some approach to the cubical,
some to the cylindrical form. The varieties in use for
field culture are — (1) the Common Grey ; (2) Warwick
Grey ; (3) Hastings Grey ; (4) the Dutch or Giant, also
known as the Rounceval, Grey ; (5) Grey Maple, Marl-

VARIETIES OF THE PEA. 271

borough, or Partridge Pea. Of these varieties No. 1 is
that commonly cultivated. It is very prolific, with a long
pod, well filled with from five to eight seeds. It is late
in coming to maturity compared with other varieties, ripen-
ing about the same period as the bean ; hence, in northern
parts of the kingdom, it is sown along with this crop, both
being ready for harvesting at the same time ; and the
strong stalks of the beans serve as supports for the slender
ones of the pea. By this arrangement the produce of the
crop is very much increased. The colour of the stem
varies, but it is very useful as fodder for cattle. The
variety No. 2 of our list is the earliest of the peas fitted
for farm culture, being from four to five weeks earlier than
No. 1, the common grey — hence its value for late sowing.
It does not grow to a great height, or rather to a great
length, three feet being the maximum. The pods are
short, containing generally from three to five seeds only,
the form of which is spherical, sometimes slightly flattened
or compressed on the sides. Between Nos. 1 and 2, in
point of date of ripening, comes No. 3, the Hastings Grey,
earlier than the common and later than the Warwick. Its
stem is longer than that of No. 1, and more feeble and
slender. It is well adapted for light soils, on which its
yield is good. The pods are long, rounded in sections,
and generally well filled with seeds, the form of which is
circular, with compressed sides. No. 4, the Dutch or
Giant Pea, as its latter name indicates, is the largest of
our field peas. Its stem grows to a great length, seldom
less than six, frequently eight to ten feet. This pea pro-
duces its pods in pairs, the form of which is broad and
flat. The seeds are usually five or six in number, and of
a " dun brown " colour, with black eyes ; they are much
flattened in shape, and wrinkled in the skin. No. 5, or
Marlborough Pea, is, like No. 2, the Warwick, an early
variety, and, like the Giant Pea, is a strong grower, the
stems being generally about four feet in length, bearing
large broad leaves, and pods broad-shaped. The seeds
vary in number, averaging from five to seven ; they ar§

272 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

round in form, of a yellow -"brown colour, and having eyes
light-coloured.

67. The soil best adapted for the pea is a warm, well-
drained, loamy, or marly soil. Like the bean, it is a lime
plant, and soils of a calcareous nature are most "beneficial
for it. But although the soil is required to be free and
well-drained, it must still possess a certain degree of co-
hesion and of moisture. Rich in inanurial ingredients it
must also be, if productive crops are desiderated. Its
roots do not take such a hold of the soil as those of* the
bean, hence it may be cultivated in shallower land than
the latter crop. From what has been said above, it will
be seen that heavy clay soils are not calculated for pease.
But when such soils are in good tilth, and in districts gen-
erally warm and dry, pease may be, as they often are, culti-
vated along with beans ; and clinging as they do to the
strong stalks of the beans, the pease yield good crops, and
the united produce is more valuable, it is said, than where
beans alone are grown. The attacks of the plant-lice, or
aphides, are also said to be less severe than where the
crops are taken off singly.

68. Pease do not form what is called a rotation crop,
being generally taken off stubble or grass layers. • On
light soils, by taking pease in place of beans, the clover
may come into the rotation every eighth in place of every
fourth year, and thus reduce the chances of its being at-
tacked with the " clover sickness," if, indeed, which has
been questioned, a frequent recurrence of the clover in the
same soil is the cause of its failure. On stronger, heavier
lands, the pea crop should be placed between two cereal
crops, and, according to a high authority, treated as a fallow
crop. But great difficulties lie in the way of so treating
pease, from their habit of growth. With their long tendrils
trailing on the ground, it is sometimes scarcely possible
at even the early stages of their growth, quite impossible
at their later, to hoe and stir the soil between the rows.
But on this point will be found remarks bearing on it at
another part of this Chapter; meanwhile we proceed to

CULTURE OF THE PEA. 273

notice that some advanced agriculturists are advocating the
importance of bringing the pea crop more regularly into
the rotation of the farm than it now is. One authority
has stated that he has always had the heaviest crop of
barley and the cleanest land which followed pease, top-
dressed with 2 or 3 cwt. of guano ; while, on the other
hand, he found the turnips which were made to succeed
pease lighter than when taken after two years' grass. At
a time when so much is being said about the clover plant
and its sickness, it will be worthy to note here what a
practical man has stated the result of his experience to be
in the growing of pease followed by clover. He states that
in a field one-half was sown with pease, the other with
clover ; the whole field was then laid with clover, and the
half which had been previously under it was bare, not a
head of clover being seen, while the half which had been
with pease had a remarkably fine crop of clover. The
same authority states that the course of cropping he has
adopted where pease or beans came in, is to have turnips
and barley or seeds followed by oats, and then the beans
or the pease.

69. "When taken on the wheat or the barley stubbles,
the land should be deeply ploughed as early as possible,
and left to stand all winter. In spring a second plough-
ing may be given, but a scarifying or grubbing will in
many cases suffice. The surface is then well harrowed,
and the seed put in. If farmyard dung is applied, it is
spread over the surface, and then ploughed in. Lime, or
superphosphate of lime, 2^ or 3 cwt. to the acre, will fre-
quently be mixed with the manure with great advantage.
Where they are both used, Professor Wilson recommends
that the lime should be ploughed in with the winter fur-
row, and the farmyard dung spread over the surface in
spring previous to sowing, the dung being well rotted.
He says, however, and we decidedly agree with him, that
it would be better still to reverse the operation as above
described, ploughing in the dung in the winter furrow, and
applying the lirne or the superphosphate in the spring.

274 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

70. Where the crop comes after the corn or grain crop
which has followed turnips, the land should be made as
clean as possible in the autumn, or if the state of the
weather or other causes will prevent this being done, early
attention should be given to the spring work of the field,
so as to get the land in good heart for the pea crop. The
soil should be ribbed some 12 inches or so wide, but the
seed may either be sown broadcast or drilled on the flat.
The width between the drills varies in practice from 1 8 to
24 inches. In view of the benefits attendant upon the
cleaning of the crop during its growth, in the early stages,
it is better to err in having the distances between the drills
too wide than too narrow. We are inclined to think that,
as a rule, the distances are too narrow. But in this, as in
other departments of culture, practical men have only to
conjecture what is best ; for the experiments, and the care-
ful mode of conducting these, which we have in these
papers and elsewhere advocated as essential to eliminate
practical results in connection with the cultivation of crops,
are as much needed in reference to the Leguminosas as the
cereals. If it is deemed necessary to apply a heavy dress-
ing of artificial manure, it will be advisable to apply it in
two dressings rather than in one — half at the harrowing-in
of the seed, half at the first or second hoeing. However
clean the land may be when the sowing is completed, not
long will it be before it is found that it is bearing some-
thing more than pease ; and as it certainly is JJie aim of
the farmer to make pease the only, if not at least the prin-
cipal, crop which the land is to bear, it will be wise on his
part to go on, as soon as the drills are fairly up, with the
hoeing, this being thoroughly and carefully done. When
we see how often a so-called field of pease is as much a field
of weeds, we have abundant evidence of the need there is
for securing cleanliness of land, and of the reason for the
prejudice, moreover, that exists on the subject of pea cul-
ture. Not seldom, indeed, do we find that a crop is blamed
as the cause of dirty land, when the real nature of the case
is that it is the fault of the farmer, not that of the crop.

CULTURE OF THE PEA. 275

This is specially true of the bean and the pea crop. While
on the subject of manuring and preparing the soil, it is
necessary to note that the experience of many farmers
shows that it is a somewhat unsafe practice to sow the seed
on a newly-manured soil ; inasmuch as the plants are more
apt to run to stalk or haulm than to produce seed. When
of course the plants are grown, as they sometimes are, to
be cut green for fodder in place of vetches, then this plan
of sowing en newly-manured soil is beneficial.

71. Where soils are not in good condition it might be
well to give them two good ploughings, the first having
for aim the cleaning, and this to be followed by a cross-
harrowing, the second ploughing to lay the land up in the
drills. The drills in heavy soil should not be deep, as the
seed is apt to rot ; in light soils the drills should be made
deeper. Where the pea crop is taken upon a clover lea,
one ploughing is found to be sufficient.

72. The depth to which the seed is to be sown is a
matter of some importance : it should never exceed two
and a half inches — two inches being, as a rule, a safe
depth.

73. In close connection with the point now under
notice, we must refer to the difference of opinion there is
as to whether the weeds in a field of pease are best kept
down when the seed is drilled or broadcasted. One
eminent practical authority states that a larger crop will
be secured by broadcasting, and of course fewer weeds,
than by drilling, because the fewer the wide spaces the
less room there is for weeds coming up. On the other
hand, if a field is badly infested with weeds — as, say,
the wild mustard or thistles, which will come up along
with the pease — there can be no doubt of this, that the
drilling system affords opportunities of attacking the weeds
at the early stages of their growth, which is an immensely
valuable feature in the war against weeds. So far as
broadcasting is concerned, the thicker growth of the pease
which the system secures, seems to act as a preventive of
weeds, simply as tending to overshadow or overgrow them.

276 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

It is a mere question between the vigour of the one or of
the other. Not seldom, however, have we seen the ques-
tion decided in anything but the most favourable manner
for the interests of the farmer, by the vigour of growth
being all on the side of the weeds ; in the struggle for
existence — a la Darwin — the pease, poor things ! having
decidedly the worst of it. On the whole, we are inclined
to believe that the balance of evidence is in favour of the
opinion that broadcasting gives a better crop of pease than
drilling, if the land is thoroughly clean previous to sow-
ing. We have italicised the if, inasmuch as on it turns
the whole question ; for if the land is not clean, and weeds
infest it, the drilling system is the best, as it undoubtedly
affords facilities greater than that of any other system for
getting rid of the weeds which will come up.

74. The pea crop suffers from the attacks of certain dis-
eases and insects. The most common disease is blight or
mildew. This arises apparently from a variety of causes,
none of which as yet are very well understood j nor have
they been, as they ought to have been, investigated by
authorities. Doubtless the weather has the most remark-
able influence upon the creation of blight. Sudden and
also frequent transitions from cold to hot, or vice versa,
produce a tendency to blight in other crops as well as in
the pea. The soil, doubtless, has also a great influence
upon the liability of the pea to be attacked by blight.
Thus, it has been observed that pease grown upon heavy
clays of the yellow or blue lias formation, have not been
so subject to blight as when grown upon calcareous, peaty,
or sandy soils. The season or period at which they are
sown has also its influence, as indeed has the kind of
manure used, and the mode of using it. How suggestive
do we thus find the consideration of all departments of
crop culture to be ! As to this great truth, that we know
comparatively little of what we may call the inner life of
those crops — their field habits, and what influences those
habits, whether in the modes of culture and treatment, or
in the more occult causes arising from climatic or atmo-

DISEASES OF THE PEA. 277

spheric changes — we here reiterate what we have often ex-
pressed, that our agricultural societies have yet a vast deal
to do before they can say they have done all they can do
to make known what, for lack of a more suggestive word,
we here call the philosophy of our crop culture. What-
ever may yet be done by them — " if it were done, 'twere
well that it were done quickly " — we will venture to say
the most good will be done if they direct their attention
to discover, if possible, the causes which predispose crops
to be attacked either by atmospheric, vegetable, or animal
diseases, rather than to the discovery of a cure or cures for
these diseases. To prevent is better than to cure, if, in-
deed, cure can ever be successfully carried out when dis-
ease in plant life has once set in. We are inclined to
believe that prevention is hopeful, cure is hopeless.

75. The insects which attack the pea crop, and too fre-
quently rapidly and completely destroy it, are pretty
numerous. The seed when fairly in the soil is attacked,
or very liable to be attacked, by mice, and by the milli-
pede insects. Mice are so fond of the pease that their in-
genuity in discovering the locality of their deposit, and
their perseverance in getting to them, are something won-
derful. One practical man states that he suffered heavily
from the attacks of mice, until he adopted the plan of
spreading a layer of coal-ashes over the soil where the seed
was deposited. Pease have also been recommended to be
steeped in coarse train or lamp oil, and by others in coal-
tar, before sowing, so as to make them obnoxious to the
mice. To prevent them finding out the position of the
seed, it will be well to make the surface as uniform in
appearance as possible. The attacks of the snake milli-
pedes is another cause of the seed being destroyed.

76. Should the seed pass safely through the ordeal
which it has to encounter through the attacks of mice or
of millipedes, the leaves are no sooner developed than they
are in their turn subjected to the attacks of " weevils," of
which the species known as the Sitona lineata, or "striped
weevil," is that commonly found to attack the field pea.

278 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

When the weevils appear in large numbers, they soon clear
the fields of green. The only curative process — which,
although attempted, will also be too frequently curative in
name merely — is to brush the surface of the young plants
with a light seed or bush harrow when the dew is on them,
so as to bring the soil in contact with the leaves ; a soiled
or dirty leaf the weevils will not touch. The same effect
may also be obtained by broadcasting dried road-detritus
mixed with coal-ashes, soot, or with lime.

77. When the leaves are fairly developed, they are
often attacked by the larvae of a minute fly, the presence
of which is indicated by little " faded patches, with a
minute brown speck in their centres." The fly is the same
as that which is one of the scourges of the turnip crop, the
Phytomoza nigricornis, and the larvae of which feed upon
the fleshy parts of the leaves.

78. Should the pea still succeed in passing through these
ordeals, the nature of which we have described, and get
into the flowering stage, it is here again subjected to the
attacks of what is properly called the louse, but scientifi-
cally the Aphis pisi, the colour of which is green — that of
the Aphis fabce, or bean louse, being black. The same
remedy so efficacious in the case of the bean — cutting off
the head of the plant — is, from the nature of the plant,
not admissible in the case of the pea. Of preventive mea-
sures, then, which are all that are left to the farmer for
this disease of the crop, many have been proposed. Salt
is said to be the best, but it requires to be used with great
judgment. Soot also is recommended by some.

79. If, in spite of all these enemies, the pea-stalks
should get the length of being podded, the pods themselves
form receptacles for the larvae of certain fly scourges. And
as the pea itself progresses in growth, it is attacked, or
liable to be attacked, by the caterpillar of the moth Tortrix
pisana; so that when thrashed out they present the worm-
eaten appearance which is as much dreaded by the farmer
as the full, plump, sound sample is cherished by him.
Should he be fortunate enough to have a good sample of

FLAX. 279

this kind to store up, the chances of loss are not yet done
with, for the seed is apt to be ravaged by the attacks of the
beetle, which is found so frequently destructive to the bean
seed, and of which a notice, and the best means of pre-
venting them destroying the vitality of the seed when
sown, will be found in the chapter on the bean crop.

DIVISION THIRD.

FLAX.

80. OP what are termed the "industrial" or the "special"
crops, as flax, hemp, and the oleaginous plants, space only
permits us to treat of the first of these ; and which, when
we view it as the source of one of our important textile
fibres, is certainly the most important of them. Of our
industrial farm crops, flax possesses high claims to a great
antiquity, taking precedence of all other crops of this class.
Frequent mention is made of it in Holy writ, and abundant
allusion is made to it in the writings of profane authors.
It formed one of the principal crops, if not the principal
of ancient Egypt; the crop was also well known amongst
the Greeks and Eomans ; and amongst writers of the latter
people, Pliny gives considerable space to a minute detail
of the mode of cultivating it. Flax in this country was
cultivated from a very early period, and for long was one
of the most important crops we possessed.

81. The botanical order to which flax belongs is linece,
having three genera, and these having ninety species ; of
these the only one cultivated is linum usitatissimum, or
common flax. The plant is annual, grows to a height of
from 18 to 24 inches, and bears numerous flowers of a
beautiful pale delicate blue. The seed pods which suc-
ceed the flowers are of five cells, each of which contains
one seed. This, of a long flattish shape, and of a dark
brown colour with shining surface, contains oil which is

280 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

known as linseed, and the residue of a mass of which is
— when compressed — known as linseed cakes, or generally
as " oil-cake."

82. The flax crop is by no means a favourite one with
farmers generally, as it is by them — as it was indeed by an-
cient authorities — considered to be an exhausting crop. Pro-
perly cultivated, however, it is no more an exhausting crop
than wheat or barley, and its cultivation is consistent with
as good and economical cropping of the land as that of
any other crop. As already stated, flax is a special crop,
from which it may be gathered that it is cultivated only in
special districts. These are chiefly in this country to be
met with in Ireland ; and of the best mode of cultivation
there adopted, the following will convey a fair idea : —

83. The soil found to be best adapted to the cultivation
of flax is a sound, dry, deep loam, with a clay subsoil. As
with other crops, draining and subsoiling are essential;
good flax cannot be expected where surface or underground
waters abounds. The land should be carefully and re-
peatedly cleansed from weeds, to place it in the " finest,
deepest, and cleanest state." This will enable the roots to
penetrate the soil, which they will frequently do to a depth
equal to half the height of the plant above ground. On
light friable loam, one ploughing after wheat may be suffi-
cient, but two will be better ; on stiff soils three are ad-
vised, one of these immediately after harvest, across the
ridges, the remaining two in spring, so as to be ready for
sowing in the first or second week of April Better crops
will be obtained, if the land is so worked that the seed
can be sown in flats. To give the land time to consolidate,
the subsoiling should be done at a not less interval than
two years previous to the flax crop. After oats, where
thorough draining has been carried out, it will be necessary
to plough early in autumn, to the depth of 6 or 8 inches,
the land to be thrown into ridges, to receive the frost and
air, with surface drains ; to be ploughed again in spring 3
or 4 inches deep, so as to preserve the winter surface for
the roots of the flax. This spring ploughing should be

FLAX. 281

done some time before sowing, to give time for weeds in
the land to spring up, and these, when harrowing in the
flax seed, will be killed. To give an even surface, and to
consolidate the land, the land should be rolled after the
last harrowing ; this to be again broken up with a short-
toothed or seed harrow before sowing; this to be up and
down, not across the ridges, or angularly. " The seed best
adopted for the generality of soils is Riga, although Dutch
has been used in many districts of the country for a series
of years with perfect success. American seed does not
generally suit well, as it is apt to produce a coarse branchy
stem ; if used, it should be in deep loamy soils. In buy-
ing seed, select it plump, shining, and heavy, and of the
best brands, from a respectable merchant. Sift it clean of
all the seeds of weeds, which will save a great deal of after
trouble when the crop is growing. This may be done by
fanners, and through a wire sieve twelve bars to the inch.
Home saved seed has produced such excellent crops of late,
that it is strongly recommended that every farmer should
only sow, each year, as much foreign seed as would pro-
duce a sufficient quantity for his flax crop of the following
season. (The produce of seed averages about 12$tmshels
the statute acre, so that the seed saved off one statute acre
will sow about 5.) The thinner portion of the crop would
be the best for this purpose, as when flax grows thin it
produces much seed. This plan, besides the saving effected
in the price of foreign sowing seed, would effectually secure
the farmer from any danger of loss from fraudulently made-
up seed. It will be best in most cases to use the seed
tvhich is saved from this, in the following year, for feeding,
or to sell it for the oil-mills, although it often produces
good crops. The proportion of seed may be stated at 3J
imperial bushels to the Irish, or plantation acre, and so on
in proportion to the Scotch or Cunningham, and the Eng-
lish or statute acre." With thick sowing, the fibre pro-
duced is of greater length and fineness than in thin sowing ;
in the former case, the stem grows tall and straight, pro-
ducing little seed ; whereas, in the latter, the plant grows

T

282 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

coarse, producing much seed, and a very inferior quality
of fibre. To give an equable supply of seed the land
should be marked off in divisions of 8 or 1 0 feet broad, if it
has been laid without ridges. Cover it with a seed harrow
after sowing, and to avoid the small drills otherwise made
by the teeth, go twice over it, once up and down, once
across or angle wise. Finish with the roller, which will
leave the seed covered about an inch, which is the proper
depth. This rolling after sowing is much recommended;
care, however, should be taken not to do it when the
ground is so wet as to cause the soil to adhere to the
roller.

84. The ridges should be little raised in the centre when
the ground is ready for the seed, otherwise the crop will
not ripen evenly. Where it can be dispensed with, it is
recommended not to sow clover and grass seeds with the
flax, as these plants injure the root ends of the flax.
Carrots may, however, be sown in drills where the soil is
suitable ; and when the flax is being pulled, the work-
people can step over the rows, and afterwards hoe and
clean them, finishing with a top-dressing of liquid manure.
After <j^ie flax is pulled, a stolen crop of rape or winter
vetches, or of turnips of the Stone and Norfolk globe
varieties, may be taken. As to the rotation of crops, dif-
ferent soils require a different system. In the best soils
of Flanders, flax is grown in the third year of a seven
course, or the fifth of a "ten course rotation. Flax has
been much abused as a very exhaustive crop, and is con-
sequently to be charily cultivated ; but from the ex-
perience of many years on the Continent, and the last few
in this country, it has been clearly proved that it is not a
more exhausting crop than any other ; two facts or axioms
in its cultivation being, however, borne in mind — first,
that " a considerable interval of time is necessary to enable
successful crops of the same kind to be grown on the same
soil ;" secondly, " that the best, surest, and easiest method
of re-fertilizing, whether by volatile or mineral compounds,
is to be found by re-applying, as far as possible, whatever

THE TURNIP CROP. 283

arises a difficulty in judging as to the exact time to pull
the plant. Before the seed is quite ripe is the best time,
when the seeds are beginning to change from a green to a
pale brown, the stalks for two -thirds of their height being
yellow. Laid plants and wet should be kept separately.
If undrained and improperly levelled ground is used for
the crop, it will grow in diiferent lengths ; each length in
this case should be pulled and kept separately. This is
necessary, as it is highly important that the flax should be
laid even like a brush at the root end ; the value of the
plant is increased or diminished in proportion as this
rule is attended to. Where there is considerable second
growth, the plant should be pulled immediately under-
neath the bolls, leaving the short stalks behind j on
the other hand, where the second growth is trifling in
extent, it is better not to pull it at all, the loss from
mixture and discolouration being greater than the profit.

DIVISION FOURTH.
ROOTS AND LEAP CROPS TUBERS.

87. The Turnip Crop. — Having, in the previous Chap-
ters which we have placed before our readers, discussed the
crops cultivated for their seeds, as the cereals, wheat, oats,
and barley, beans, pease and flax, we now proceed to take
up the points connected with the crops cultivated for their
roots. As the wheat is chief in importance amongst the
cereals or white crops, so is the turnip chief amongst the
root or green crops. It is difficult, indeed, to over-esti-
mate the importance of the turnip crop to the British far-
mer. It not only enables him to produce a large quantity
of food of a nutritious kind for his cattle, but it also enables
him to introduce that kind of farming by which, while
he produces this abundance of green food for his stock,

284 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

he increases also the produce of the cereals. And in
this we see the beautiful mutuality of dependence in
all the processes of modern farming, which is set forth
in the converse of the proverb or saying, "No green
food, no cattle ; no cattle, no manure ; no manure, no
corn."

88. Of the history of the turnip much can be said, al-
though, unfortunately, of what can be said much is con-
jectural, so far, at least, as the history of its introduction
into this country is concerned. Of the place it occupied
in ancient farming amongst the Greeks and Romans we
have, in the writings of authors of these people, abundant
evidence. Under the names of " rapa " and " napus,"
Columella and other writers tell us much that is interest-
ing, and even at this day practically valuable, respecting
the crop, and in what high esteem it was held by the
ancients — so high, indeed, that, after the vine and corn,
it took the third place in the rank of farm crops. We
have said, that much of what the ancient authors wrote
about the culture of the turnip crop is practically valuable
as well as interesting. Thus, on points connected with
the choice and addition of manure, and the kind and pre-
paration of the soil, we find that what is said amongst us
to be the latest and most advanced practice, was known
and practised -by them hundreds of years ago. The very
means which are now advocated by our best authorities to
prevent the ravages of the "fly," which was too well known
to the ancients, are precisely those which were used by
them.

89. As to the date of the introduction of the turnip into
this country we have no authentic information. There is
every reason to suppose that it was introduced by the
Romans, but that its culture was confined for a long time
with us to the garden. The monks, doubtless — to whom,
indeed, we owe the conservation as well as the discovery
of many new plants and processes — paid considerable at-
tention to the crop, and by them we are inclined to think
it was first introduced into field culture. This must, at

FLAX. 285

has been extracted from the soil in the refuse of crops of
every kind." It is considered generally unadvisable to
grow flax more frequently on the same land than once in
ten years. In Belgium it is made invariably to follow a
corn crop, generally oats. In this country where this
crop is usually grown, the same syste'm may be adopted ;
but it should be carefully borne in mind that it is only
after oats follow a green crop on old lea, — never to be
adopted after two or three successive crops of oats. An-
other general error to be pointed out is the making of flax
follow a potato crop. With the exception of very poor
soils, a better crop will be produced by fallowing after
grain, and the double profit of the grain and flax secured.
A very fine crop of flax may be produced by working up
old lea, and planting potatoes ; this crop to be followed by
a grain crop ; the flax to follow this. A gentleman of
much practical experience recommends the following as a
most profitable system of rotation: "1. Oats after the
grass and the clover. 2. Flax pulled in August, then
ploughed and harrowed in with 2 cwt. guano and 2 cwt.
gypsum, then sown with rape. 3. Potatoes or turnips
well manured. 4. Wheat sown in spring with clover or
rye grass. 5. Hay and clover. 6. Grazing. 7. Oats.

8. Flax and winter vetches ; guano as before mentioned.

9. Turnips well manured. 10. Barley sown with rye
grass and clover. 11. Clover and hay. 12. Grazing.
13. Oats." A rotation which would bring flax once in ten
years has been proposed, and is as follows : — First year,
potatoes ; second, barley laid down with grasses ; third
year, out for soiling ; fourth year, pasture ; fifth year, flax,
or the one-half might be better in flax and the other in
oats, so that, with the return of the rotation, which would
be in five years, the flax could be put in the ground, which
in the last rotatory course was under corn, showing a range
of ten years betwixt the flax crops coming into the same
ground. The result of recent investigations has proved
that flax does withdraw from the soil certain matters, al-
though not in the proportion generally received, or in so

286 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

large a proportion as other commonly cultivated crops.
To supply to the soil all the matters which the entire plant
requires, so as to leave the land in the same state of fer-
tility as before, the following compound has been proposed
by Professor Hodges, as a manure which may be sown
broad-cast on the land, prior to the last harrowing, before
sowing the flax seed : —

For a Statute Acre of Land s. d.

Muriate of potash, 30 lb., cost about, . . 00

Chloride of Sodium, . . . .30

(Common Salt), 28 lb., . . . 03

Burned gypsum, powdered, 24 lb., . 0 (5

Bone dust, 54 lb., . . . . 33

Sulphate of Magnesia, (Epsom Salts,) 56 lb., . 40

11 0

The growth of weeds will be much prevented if attention
is paid to the cleaning of the soil; those that make their
appearance must be carefully pulled. In Belgium this is
effected by women and children passing over the ground
on all fours, having coarse cloths round their knees. This
plan is found to be better than walking over, injuring the
plants less ; where walked over, heavily nailed shoes
should not be used. To assist the plants to regain their
erect position after being pressed down, the weeding should
be done face to the wind. Pressed in one direction, the
tender plant soon recovers ; seldom so, if twisted or care-
lessly flattened.

85. The sowing of the crop is the most important opera-
tion to be performed in flax cultivation, as the marketable
value of the straw depends altogether on the manner in
which it has been saved ; hence all information of a
sound practical nature derived from experience is of high
value.

86. When the flax plant is pulled too early, the fibre is
fine, but much loss is incurred by the processes of scratch-
ing and hackling ; pulled late, the increased coarseness of
the fibre is not compensated for by the extra weight ; hence

THE TURNIP CROP. 287

least, have been done as early as the 1 6th century ; for Ray,
writing in the middle, or rather near the end, of the seven-
teenth, says distinctly that the turnip was grown univer-
sally both in garden and in field. It is due, however, to
the memory of Lord Charles Townshend (1730) to state
that, whatever might have been done by others who pre-
ceded him, to his care the turnip crop owes the high place
in farm cropping which it now occupies. We next find
that in Norfolk the crop was held in such esteem by the
advanced agriculturists there, that it formed a part of the
regular rotations, to which, doubtless, it had been raised
by the facilities which the system of hoeing introduced by
the celebrated Jethro Tull afforded for its successful cul-
ture. From Norfolk the culture of the turnip spread to
other districts ; and of these the northern ones of Northum-
berland, and the Border counties of Scotland, may be
named as the chief. By the end of the eighteenth century
the crop may be said to have firmly established itself as
part of British farming. But it must be noticed here, that
the turnips cultivated embraced only the ordinary kinds of
the species Brassica rapa, and did not include the swede,
the most important of all the modern varieties of the crop.
This was not introduced till about the beginning of the
nineteenth century, or at least, as is conjectured, close to
the termination of the eighteenth. As to the history of
the introduction of the swede, we have yet somewhat to
say in another and more appropriate part of this chapter.
Meanwhile we proceed to note that the turnip belongs to
the dicotyledonous (exogenous) plants, or those which have
two cotyledons. In fig. 8 we illustrate, for the sake of
the tyro in agricultural botany, in a rough diagram, a turnip
plant in its early stages : a a the rootlets ; b the stem ;
from the upper part of this the two cotyledons c c, or first
leaves, proceed; these are smooth, and have a peculiar
form, as shown : the leaf proper, a rough leaf d, follows
these. The dicotyledonous plants are divided into two
sub-classes, the diclilamydece and the monochlamydece —
the turnip belonging to the first of these, the dichlamydece,

288

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

or plants in which both the corolla and the calyx are pre-
sent. The sub-class dichlamydece is again divided into
three classes, of which it is necessary here to name only
the one to which the turnip belongs, namely, the malami-
florce. Of this sub-class all the plants have the petals and
the stamen sprung from the receptacle, and are distinct

Fig. 8.

from one another, the stamens being what is termed
hypogynous, that is, rising from the upper part of the
peduncle under the pistils. Of this sub-class, the malami-
florce, the " order " cruciferce is that to which the turnip
belongs, the " genus " being Brassica. In fig. 9 we give
a rough diagram of a cruciferous flower. From the posi-
tion of the petals, a b c d) and from which the name is
derived, the petals are always four in number, and opposite

THE TURNIP CROP.

289

to each other, cross-like. The calyx e is made up of four
sepals imbricated; the stamens are six in number. There
are numerous species of the genus Brassica, but the turnip
plants interesting to the farmer are ranged under two : —
(1.) Brassica campestris — swede turnip (to which also be-
longs the smooth-leaved summer rape and the colza); (2.)
Brassica rapa — common turnip (to which also belongs
the rough -leaved summer rape). To these we should
perhaps add a third, the Brassica caulo rapa, to which
the varieties of kohl-rabi. To the other species

belong all

Fig. 9.

of Brassica belong all the varieties of cabbage and
winter-rape and coleseed. We have already said, what
was certainly almost unnecessary to be said, so well and
universally is it known, that of all the varieties of
turnip the swede is the most valuable to the farmer.
Of the history of the introduction of this variety into
Great Britain much has been written, but much that is
conjectural.

90. A correspondent of an agricultural paper, to whose
industry we owe many interesting facts connected with the
history of the swede, claims, for a Mr. Eeynolds of Adisham,

290 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

Kent, the merit of having introduced it into this country
about the year 1765.

91. Of the varieties, which are very numerous, of the
turnip, the following may be named, classifying them under
the heads (1) swedes, (2) the common turnip, and (3) the
hybrid. The swedes are distinguished by the colour of
their crowns or upper part of the bulbs, as green, purple,
or a mixture of these two, a greenish purple. Lawson, in
his work, enumerates of the green three varieties, five of
the purple, and six of the greenish purple. The names of
the leading varieties of swedes are as follows: — (1) Purple
top, a drawing of this with the leaf is shown in fig. 1 0, —
the shape is pretty nearly of its correct formal type ; in
fig. 11 we give an abnormal root — " finger and toe ; " (2)
Skirving's purple top ; (3) the green top ; (4) Laing's im-
proved purple top. The common turnip is distinguished
like the swedes by the colour of the crown, as white or
yellow. The white may be said to be the antipodes of the
swede, so far as keeping properties and ability to stand
frosts is concerned; white turnips must therefore be taken
up and consumed almost immediately. The yellow occu-
pies the rank between the white and the swede. The
varieties of the common turnip are also sometimes classed
according to their shape — the " globe " resembling fig. 3 in
form, only more spherical — and the oblong, or, as it is
called, the "tankard," of which in fig. 12 we give an illustra-
tion. Of the varieties of the common turnip, whether globe
or tankard, we may name the following : — (1) Purple top,
Aberdeen ; (2) Aberdeen green top ; (3) Skirving's im-
proved purple top ; (4) Gibb's green top ; (5) yellow globe ;
(6) Altringham ; these are all of the " yellow " class. Of
the " white " class the following varieties may be named ; —
(1) common globe ; (2) white Norfolk ; (3) stone globe ;
(4) tankard, of which the favourites are the Norfolk bell,
the Cambridge yellow, and the green top; (5) the stubble
turnip is a variety very quick in its growth — it is so called
from being often taken as a stolen crop from fields which
have been occupied by grain crops and harvested early. Of

THE TURNIP CROP.

291

the class of hybrids, (1) Dale's is perhaps the best, as it
certainly is the most widely known and esteemed ; other

Fig. 10.

varieties are (2) red-top white, (3) purple top, (4) the
Woolton. The hybrid, as its name imports, is a cross be-
tween two varieties, the swede and the common turnip,

292

CULTURE OF FARM CHOPS.

partaking, however, more of the character of the common
turnip both in its roots and its leaves, than of the swede.
It is perhaps scarcely necessary to inform even the tyro in
agriculture that the leaves of the swede, like those of the
cabbage, are smooth and of a soft green colour, those of the
common turnip rough, with the colour of a vivid green.

Fig. 11.

92. Before proceeding to note the peculiarities of the soil
best calculated to produce heavy yields of turnips, let us
glance very briefly at the habits of growth of the plants,
which may lead us to some knowledge of its cultural re-
quirements. If we pull a turnip up, or rather dig around
it, so that we can lay bare, before pulling it up, a large
portion of the surrounding soil, and if the plant has had

293

294 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

abundant space to grow in, we find that the bulb is ter-
minated by small rootlets which proceed from many parts
of its under surface, but chiefly from the tap or central
root and its immediate vicinity. These rootlets, if allowed
freely to develop themselves, are remarkable not only from
their number but for their length and the fineness of their
texture. The seed bearing to the ultimately developed
root the proportion of 1 to 1,000,000, it will be readily
understood that the bulb has to draw from the soil and
from the atmosphere an enormous amount of material;
from the soil it draws this material by means of the root-
lets, from the atmosphere by means of its leaves. The
rootlets, therefore, should have an abundance of soil space,
and not only this, but the soil must be of such a friable
character as to enable these tender rootlets to pierce easily
into and pass through it. Hence we deduce that the
bulbs should not be too near each other; and secondly,
that the soil should be highly cultivated, porous, and
friable — in good tilth, as it is termed. Of the necessity
there is for giving ample space between the plants we shall
hereafter give abundant proof. By securing this ample
space the rootlets have leave to spread laterally, while, by
the depth of soil, they are allowed to descend vertically.

93. A remarkable feature of the turnip as compared
with a grain plant is the development of its leaves. By
the size of the leaves and the green colour they present,
we judge of the healthiness of the turnip crop. The
leaves enable the plant to draw much of its nourishment
from the atmosphere.

94. The place of the turnip crop in the rotation is
always between two cereal or grain crops, and is the crop
which receives the heaviest manuring. In the four-course
rotation it follows the wheat and precedes the barley. By
means of its leaves it draws much, or is supposed to draw
much, of those constituents which are most beneficial to
the succeeding grain crops ; while, from the habits of its
growth, it permits of a large amount of care being expended
upon the cleaning of the soil in which it grows, and the

THE TURNIP CROP. 295

freeing of it from weeds, thus in another way ministering
to the welfare of the grain crop, fo. a good rotation,
turnips should not be too frequently taken off the same
soil, but should themselves be alternated with some other
crop which can be cultivated as a fallow or soil-cleaning
crop, such as the mangold or the beet.

95. The soils best adapted for the turnip are what are
technically called " free and deep " — that is, soils which
are easily pulverised and rendered friable, or quickly brought
to what is called a good tilth, and which can be deeply as
well as easily stirred, in order to insure a soil into which
the rootlets can easily penetrate. Such is the mechanical
condition of the soil required, and which is generally met
with in what are called loamy soils, and what, by the way,
are distinguished as turnip soils by way of contradistinc-
tion to heavy or wheat or bean lands. The chemical con-
dition of the turnip requires that the soil in which it is
grown shall have certain constituents. These are best
met with in those soils which lie upon, or are produced
from, " clay beds of the argillaceous formation." It so
happens, that while the chemical conditions of the turnip
soil are best met with in the soils above named, the me-
chanical conditions are best met with, on the contrary, in
the lightest description of soils lying upon or produced
from the " siliceous beds of the sandstone formation," so that
a contrariety of interest is brought about in the choice of
a soil. That choice, however, is rarely given to the farmer,
being dictated by circumstances of locality and the like;
but it is so far well ordered that, where a soil does not
meet all the requirements, mechanical and chemical, of the
plant, it may, by proper cultivation and the addition of
manure, be brought from a comparatively low to a com-
paratively high condition of cultural efficiency. It should
be noted here that the turnip, in one of its two chief
varieties, the white and the yellow, is much better adapted
to soils of the lightest class than the swede, which can
nourish better in those of the heaviest class.

96. Professor Tanner, in his paper on the " Mechanical

296 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

Condition of the Soil," in the " Journal of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England," has some remarks on the pre-
paration of the soil for the turnip and the swede, so
suggestive that we here give an epitome of them. With
regard to soils of the heavy class, naturally strong and ad-
hesive, on which good and even luxuriant crops are grown,
this can only be done by good cultivation and manure —
the cultivation, meaning here by this term the preparation
of the soil, consisting in giving to it as much of that fine
looseness which enables the rootlets of the plants to go
deep into it and gather their nourishment. This condi-
tion is secured by ploughing these stronger soils before
winter, and by the usual tillage actively carried on in the
spring, and to which we shall in due course refer. In the
class of lighter soils, the fine tilth is brought about by a
much less expenditure of tillage ; so much so, indeed, that
winter ploughing may be dispensed with, and the whole
of the operations done in spring. In some cases of light
land, a spring feed-crop is often taken, which being con-
sumed, gives time enough for the land to be prepared for
the turnip crop. The land, in such cases, is harrowed
down after being ploughed, and left for some days — four-
teen or eighteen — so long, indeed, that the seeds of weeds
have time to appear, so that they can be destroyed in work-
ing the surface when the seed is put in.

97. Professor Tanner points out that, while there is
perfect or almost perfect unanimity amongst farmers as to
the importance of having a fine tilth, and a clean condition
of soil free from weeds, there is not by any means the
same unanimity, but rather a remarkable diversity, of
opinion upon other points — as the degree of moisture
which should be in the soil when sowing is done ; and
indeed, as he remarks, this obtains on all points respecting
the preparation of the soil "immediately preceding the
sowing of the seed." As regards the condition of the
moisture of the soil, some farmers endeavour to get their
soils as dry, others to get them as moist as possible. Thus,
in the practice of working the land fine, and leaving it for

THE TURNIP CROP. 297

a time at rest, so that the weeds would grow, some farmers
would plough the land up, and let it dry for the reception
of the seed ; whilst others, again, would he so fearful of
getting rid of the moisture, that they would disturb the
surface as little as possible, contenting themselves merely
by a simple harrowing. Professor Tanner, who has had,
as he tells us, a fair share of experience in the growth of
turnips and swedes, says that he has always found a dry
seed-bed to he decidedly preferable ; and he says the reason
is not difficult to be understood, as thus : — When seed is
put in the ground in which there is a moderate degree of
moisture, it speedily begins to germinate. The warm at-
mosphere which generally prevails at the season when
turnip-seed is put into the ground accelerates the growth,
and the plants speedily appear above ground. Eat the
very heat which is thus so favourable to the rapid growth,
is so far unfavourable that the moisture in the soil rapidly
disappears ; and the plant, no longer receiving its required
amount of moisture, languishes in its growth, and, keeping
poor in development, becomes liable to the attacks of its
enemies ; and this can only be prevented by the timely
fall of refreshing showers. Eut in the case of a dry soil
for a seed-bed, the seed lies dormant waiting for rain,
which, when it comes, pushes on actively the development of
the plant. The rains of July, when they do come, are so
liberal that they keep up the growth of the plant till it
passes safely the critical stage, and gets the strong root and
the rough plant, which enables it to withstand the attacks
of its enemies. With a dry seed-bed there is doubtless a
delay in the start of the plant ; but the Professor says,
" The delay is immaterial as regards time, but not so as
regards the safety of the crop. If the seed does germinate
during those intervals of dry weather, its existence is really
dependent upon a timely supply of rain ; but so long us
growth has not commenced, no fear need be entertained for
the crop. Dryness at the time of sowing becomes of
greater importance as the land gets lighter in its nature,
and more easily dried by the heat of the sun."

U

298 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

98. After what Professor Tanner has himself said as to
the diversity of opinion on all points connected with the
preparation of the soil just previous to the putting in of
the turnip-seed, we need not be surprised to find other
authorities ''dead against " this opinion as to the necessity
of securing a dry seedbed. Thus we find Professor
Wilson says, a " sufficient degree of moisture in the soil is
always one condition necessary for the germination and
successful start of the turnip plant; and it is always better
to wait a few days until this be secured, than to place the
seed in a perfectly dry seed-bed." Indeed, the Professor
alludes to the " water-drill " — of the working of which we
have, by the way, a capital paper by Mr. Huston, in the
" Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society " — by the use
of which, the necessary moisture is given to the dry soil.

99. In a paper by Mr. R Vallentine in the " Journal
of the Royal Society," the importance of the retention of
moisture in turnip -land is fully gone into ; of this a brief
epitome will be useful here. " Moisture," says Mr. Vallen-
tine, "acts an important part in the growth of roots, and
without a certain amount of it it is impossible to succeed.''
Sandy, peaty, and limestone soils have all a tendency to
lose moisture ; peaty soils especially require to be carefully
treated in spring, so that no moisture be unduly lost —
soils of this character taking up moisture rapidly, but are
freed from it as rapidly ; so that, if it is once lost, almost
no " ordinary summer's rain" is sufficient to make it as wet
as seems necessary to raise a good root-crop. It is Mr.
Vallentine's practice to clean these light friable soils in
autumn, so as to get rid of foul stubbles; and for this
reason, that where the cleaning of the land has to be done
in spring, or just preceding the sowing of the seed, the land
gets so dry that a turnip braird will not be obtained unless
an accidental shower of rain comes. This authority, there-
fore, maintains that all soils which have a tendency to lose
moisture quickly should be prepared for the turnip crop as
far as possibly can be done in the autumn. If this cannot
be done, the chance of a good turnip crop depends in light

THE TURNIP CEOP. 299

land upon the early working in spring. This should be
done in March, or the beginning of April at the latest.
One ploughing or two scarifyings should generally prove
sufficient for dry clean turnip-land ; but if it is not clean,
the working required will be much greater.

100. Where cleaning of the soil has been neglected in
autumn, Mr. Vallentine proceeds to point out how it may
be done in spring, so as best to retain the moisture. In
alluding to the practice often followed of ploughing turnip
fallows — even clean land — some three or four times in
summer, in order to thoroughly pulverise the soil, he says
that he does not hesitate to denounce this practice as quite
against the economy of labour and the chance of a good
crop of turnips. On light soils, he believes that one
ploughing in spring is amply sufficient, this being given
in April at the latest ; and to be followed by the scarifier.
The action of this implement he believes to be specially
valuable, as, while it pulverises the soil and brings the
weeds up to the surface, it exposes little or no fresh soil
to the action of the sun.

101. Autumn dunging of stubbles has been recommended
as a means to retain the moisture in the soil; this Mr.
Vallentine believes to be a good course on clay and loamy
soils when clean, so that the dung is not carted upon the
land when it is too wet; but he does not approve of the
practice on light soils. In dry turnip-land, to retain the
moisture it is necessary to plough as seldom as possible, and
to roll the surface as often as the land will bear without
crusting the surface. Where dung is applied in dry
weather for turnips intended to be grown on the flat, the
land should be rolled the same day as the dung is ploughed
in. If grown on the ridge, the operation of ridging,
spreading the dung, and reversing the ridges on the dung,
should all be done the same day, and the seed sown as
rapidly as possible. Our authority is much against the
practice of spreading dung over a great breadth of land at
once. Where it is considered desirable to retain the
moisture in the field, this should be avoided. Dry turnip-

300 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

land ploughed up in June and allowed to lie in the hot
sun without rolling for a week or more, loses much of its
moisture.

102. In the preparation of the soil, the great points
to be aimed at are the getting of it into a state of fine pul-
verization, or " tilth " as it is called, and its perfect free-
dom from weeds. These are gained by different modes of
culture, varying according to varying circumstances of soil,
climate, and locality. A general mode of preparation of
the soil is to plough it in the autumn as early as the other
labours of the farm will permit ; this ploughing is generally
done in the direction of the ridges, the furrow to be pretty
deep. Previous to ploughing thus, if the land be much
infested with weeds, it will be advisable to cross-plough it
with a shallow furrow ; and then h'arrow it either with a
single or double turn, according to the weediness of the
land. The weeds are then gathered together in heaps and
burned, or better still, carried to the compost heap. After
the land has thus been treated, it is finally ploughed in the
direction of the ridges, with a deep furrow as already ex-
plained ; and left for the winter. The preparation of the
soil in spring will be more or less easily accomplished, ac-
cording to its nature ; if of a good tilth, a one ploughing
across the furrows thrown up in the winter will be all that
is required before drilling for the seed. But in many soils
of a more adhesive character, the working will be of a much
more complicated character, before they can be brought into
the finely pulverized condition so essential to a good crop.
The following may be taken as an example of what will be
required in the way of the spring preparation of an average
quality of soil neither very heavy nor very light. The ridges
ot the last winter ploughing are ploughed across, and a turn
taken with a heavy harrow or drag — if the land is heavy —
along the ridges, or a double turn with a light harrow if
the land is moderately heavy. The land thus harrowed is
next rolled, and then a double turn of the harrow across
the ridges, and the weeds collected for burning or to be
taken to the compost heap. The land is then ploughed in

THE TURNIP CROP. 301

the direction of the ridges, that is across the ridges of the
last ploughing, and then harrowed, the weeds being again
collected. In place of the plough, the grubber is now very
much used for the preparation of land for the turnip crop.
103. The land is now brought into a condition ready
for the manuring, the next important point to be attended
to. The best manure for the turnip crop has long been a
subject of discussion amongst practical men ; of all those
proposed and used, farm-yard manure or dung is that the
most universally esteemed. This will repay a good deal
of time and trouble expended in its preparation. The best
condition for it to be in is a well-rotted short or pulp}7- one.
This condition can be secured by careful attention to the
formation of the dung heap. All the manure from the
yards, stalls, &c., should be spread carefully over the heap,
and the liquid manure from the tank applied daily if pos-
sible. It has been found a capital plan to turn over the
whole of the heap in spring, a few weeks previously to the
application of the manure to the land, and to apply at same
time dressings of liquid manure. Artificial manures are now
much in vogue, but unless honestly prepared, are worse than
useless. Of. these Peruvian guano, superphosphate, and
phospho-guano are the most esteemed. A good way of ap-
plying these has been found in mixing them up with the
farm-yard manure in the dung heap, in the proportion of say
one and a half cwt. of guano, to four tons of manure. The
following remarks on manures for the turnip crop are from
the pen of the well-known authority Mr. Spooner. — " What is
the best manure for the turnip crop on the majority of soils?
We have spoken of the properties and advantages of super-
phosphate of lime, arid pointed out the advantage it pos-
sesses over every other manure, in affording a large supply
of soluble food. It should, therefore, invariably form a
portion of the manure applied for the turnip crop ; but it
must be borne in mind that the manure is not all required
at once, and therefore there is no occasion to supply the
whole in a very soluble form, but rather an advantage in
supplying some portions in a form which comes more

302 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

slowly into action. Thus perfectly consistent with sound
theory is that which we find most successful in practice,
viz., that some portion of the manure should be furnished
in the form of superphosphate, and some in the form of
plain phosphate, joined with a moderate amount of am-
monia, which is just what bone-dust supplies. We have
so frequently found this system successful, that we can with
confidence recommend the following mixtures as highly
suitable for a crop of swedes : —

Superphosphate of lime, ... 2 cwt.

, Bone dust, .... 8 bushels.

to be mixed and drilled with ashes ; or we might vary
it thus : —

Superphosphate of lime, ... 2 cwt.

Bone dust, .... 4 bushels.

Peruvian guano, .... 1 cwt.

The latter might more advantageously be sown broad-
cast, and the two former drilled with ashes. By sowing the
grain broadcast we do not endanger the seed, and we supply
nutriment for the filaments given off laterally from the roots.

104. There are many varietits of guano much richer in
the phosphates than Peruvian guano, but poorer. in ammonia,
and these suit admirably for turnips, particularly when
combined with superphosphate of lime. Such are the
Saldanha Bay, the Patagonian, the Chilian, and other
varieties, more particularly the Bolivian, which is the best.
Although the analysis of some of these guanos very much
resemble that of bones, both with reference to the pro-
portions of ammonia, and the phosphates likewise, yet their
action is greater and immediate, having been passed through
the bodies of birds and digested. Thus we have found
the following succeed admirably : — Superphosphate of
lime, 2 cwt., South American guano, containing 50 to 60
per cent, of phosphate of lime, 2 cwt., and this can either
be drilled with ashes, or by means of the water drill."

105. The land i$ prepared for the reception of the seed
in one- of two modes — "drilling" or "on the flat." The
former method is almost universally used in the northern

THE TURNIP CROP. 303

parts of England, throughout Scotland, and Ireland; the lat-
ter in the southern parts of England where the soil and cli-
mate are dry, although the practice is even being introduced
in districts where the drilling system has hitherto been almost
universally adopted. The operation of "drilling" is one
difficult to be described in writing, even with the aid of
diagrams. Suffice it to say— for the benefit of the unin-
itiated— that the soil, by means of a double mould-board
plough, is thrown up in a series of angular or rounded
ridges ; on the apices of which the seed is deposited. A
very usual distance between the ridges is 27 inches, which,
however, is frequently increased to 32 inches. The manure
is spread in the spaces or hollows between the ridges, and
the ridges, by the double mould-board plough, are " split "
and thrown over on each side, covering up the manure and
forming a new series of ridges, in the centre of which the
manure is placed. The seed is sown, as above stated, on
the top of the ridges. When artificial manure is applied
in addition to the farm-yard dung, it may either be ap-
plied mixed up with the manure, as described in the last
paragraph, or sown on the ridges along with the seed by a
seed and manure "drill." Another mode is to sow or
throw the manure by hand on the top of a light covering
of soil which is given to the farm-yard dung lying between
the ridges, by a light harrow passing over the tops of the
ridges; the ridges are then "split," covering up both farm-
yard dung and artificial manure, and forming a new series
of ridges as before described.

106. When turnips are sown on the " flat," the land is
prepared, manured, and well harrowed and cleaned from
weeds, and the seed sown by the drill. Bat this method
has its disadvantages as well as advantages when adopted
in dry soils, as those of the "marine formations" of jfehe
South of England. The following remarks on this point
and description of a new method of preparing land and
sowing turnips on soils of this description, we take from
an article by a well-known writer in the pages of " The
Mark Lane Express." After stating that the ridging or

304 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

drilling system, as described in last paragraph, although
well adapted to the different climates and soils met with in
the North of England, most "signally fails" in South
Britain, the writer proceeds thus : — " The frequent ex-
posure of the soil by the many ploughings, and more
especially the twice drilling of it, dissipates every moisture,
and leaves the soil in a condition of parched aridity. The
chalky and sandy soils are weak in the cohesion, give off
moisture very freely, and radiate caloric very quickly ; and
without these two agents no vegetable life can be generated
or promoted. On the modified soils of a clayey mixture
the frequent workings of the soil convert the tilth into
small clods, which resist any mechanical reduction, admit
drought between the interstices, by which all moisture is
evaporated. If this land be twice drilled, the covering
over the dung is wholly composed of dried clods, among
which the turnip seed .never vegetates, or so feebly as to
fail in future growth. Sowing the seed in rows on the
flat grounds by means of machinery with lengthened coul-
ters, which make ruts to receive the artificial manures and
seed in mixture, has been used with success. It is an im-
provement on double ridging, but liable to the objection
of depositing the seed among the dry parched dirt that lies
on the top of the ground, from which all moisture has been
evaporated by the workings of the land and exposure to the
atmosphere. The intervals between the rows of turnips
being on the level with the roots, do not afford such a
convenient room for scuffling as in the hollows of the
ridglets ; when the weeds are numerous the destruction is
less easily performed. The climate of South Britain is
much less humid than of Scotland, the rains are few and
distant, and the dews are none. Not a very large degree
of heat prevails, but a dry aridity of temperature, that is
very parching, and evaporating of moisture. The quantity
of moisture is deficient, which being abundantly supplied
to dry bodies/ produces the damp and sultry exhalations
that are known to constitute one chief cause of fertility.
The rains of the summer and spring are planetary in their

THE TURNIP CROP. 305

nature, sudden in the fall, and quick in passing away : the
earth is not penetrated with moisture as by slow falling
rains and heavy dews, which descend leisurely into every
opening ard supply every orifice with liquid fluid. The parch-
ing aridity of climate, and the great deficiency of rain and
dews, operate in the total abstraction of moisture from the
weak soils of chalks and sands, and also from the clayey
modifications of land that retain some degree of the marine
viscous nature. The damage is so very great as to render
necessary an entirely different mode of raising turnips fron)
any method yet practised. In the most favourable situa-
tions of turnip-farming, it is held as a maxim, in the pre-
paration of the land, that all the operations &fe done with
the utmost despatch, and that the ground be laid into a
level condition as quickly as possible, for the purpose of
preserving the moisture. This very great advantage is
enjoyed by extensive farms — that the workings of the land
are done at once and simultaneously, in the processes of
ploughing, harrowing, rolling, and second harrowing ; the
weeds are hand-gathered, and the land lies in a flat quies-
cent state till the next working is commenced. This pre-
caution of preserving moisture being reckoned so very
essential in the most favoured districts of turnip-farming,
the husbanding of the winter moisture for the use of the
future crop becomes infinitely more necessary in South
Britain, where the deficiency is so large of the great nutri-
ment and of vegetable life. The double-ridging system of
Scotland is wholly useless on any soils, light or heavy.
The objection has been stated against sowing on the flat
ground, and it now remains to detail a method that seems
to be clear of the faults of both the above-mentioned modes.
In the early winter, and soon after harvest, the stubble
ground intended for next year's turnips is ploughed with
the strength of four horses, as deeply as the staple will
allow ; not less than 7 or 8 inches, if that depth can be
obtained. In the spring, at the usual dry season of work-
ing the lands, Finlayson's harrow is employed across the
ploughing of winter, and moves the soil in the depth of

306 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

the ploughing ; the weeds are loosened and dragged to the
surface, the roller and the harrows being employed to crush
the clods and collect the weeds. The grubber is next used
lengthwise, when the harrows and roller are used as before,
the processes being repeated at due intervals till the ground
is sufficiently prepared for being sown with the crop.
Drills are opened with one furrow of the common plough ;
the dung is spread in the intervals and covered by one
furrow, as in opening the drills, and the turnip seed sown
on the fresh tilth. When artificial manures are used,
ridglets are made by one furrow of the common plough,
and Hornsby's drop drill splits the ridglets deeply with a
long coulter,: and deposits from a funnel the manure and
seeds mixed in bulbs at the distance of nine inches where
the plants stand in crop. This process being quickly
done, and as soon as the drills are made, prevents eva-
poration, and secures fresh tilth to the seeds. By sowing
the flat ground the seed is deposited among a dry dust on
the surface of the ground. In this way it is deposited
deeply among newly-moved earth, which is rolled imme-
diately, and the moisture locked in the soil. The soil
being entirely wrought by the grubber, is not turned up as
by the plough to the exposure of drought ; the weeds are
dragged to the surface by the round tines of the grubber,
in place of being cut by the sharp coulter of the plough.
The moisture is retained in the earth, and kept under-
ground, and, when exposed to the air by one furrow of
drilling, is ready to exert those agencies that result from
the exposure of concealed substances to the contact of at-
mospheric influence. The whole success of turnip farming,
under any external circumstances, depends entirely on the
presence of moisture. Water has been artificially applied
for the use of young turnips, but most unsuccessfully ; lands
wholly finished with, being dunged and sown with turnip
seeds, have been watered from the pipe and holes of a water-
cart, but very injuriously for the intended purpose. When
water or moisture is applied in any way or quantity to soils
or earthy matters, a clotted concretion is formed, which is

THE TURNIP CROP. 307

detrimental to vegetable life, and which must be again dis-
solved before any availment is made of the contents. This
objection may be urged in the case of liquid-manure drills ;
the application will be much inferior to the effect of the
moisture in the soil by the above-mentioned mode of pre-
paring the land, which has been filtered into the earth by
Nature's process, and retained in its menstruum."

107. We now come to the "selection" and the "sow-
ing" of the seed. As to the seed, it is scarcely necessary
to repeat here what we have in previous Chapters of this
series so insisted upon — that it is of the utmost importance
to procure it of good quality and true to kind. It is
painful to think of the system of adulteration which is
regularly carried on by many dishonest tradesmen throughout
the country. The dangers arising from this source can
only be avoided by either dealing with w ell-known and
honest houses, or by growing and sowing seed for direct
use on the farm. The following, by Mr. Dixon, on th«*
subject of growing seed for direct farm purposes will be
useful. Nothing is so important, he says, as " good seed.
No other agricultural seed has such a tendency to degen-
erate ; every precaution must be taken to secure good and
pure seed, by selecting the most finely formed bulbs to
transplant for seed ; the very largest roots need not be se-
lected, but perfectly sound, handsome inform, whether purple
top, green top, or red top, for these are the three colours.

108. "A calcareous soil, if in other respects properly
manured, may be planted or sown with Swede turnips that
is repeated every eight or ten years. A ferruginous soil
requires a longer time, unless liberally dressed with lime
or marl. The nature of the soil, the altitude of land on
which turnips are grown^ or manure used ; or whether the
seed be sown comparatively late, or the contrary, are cir-
cumstances which influence the growth and colour of the
bulbs. In low altitudes turnips are generally more sound,
and keep sound much longer, if sown from the first week
to the end of the third week in June. I sowed some seed
last year about the 20th of June ; the seed was two years

308 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

old, and taken by a practical friend, whose crop I weighed
in 1856, (42 tons to the acre,) and I never weighed a
crop for this farmer less than 34 tons, and the last year
he had the greatest weight of any year in his practice.

109. "Swede turnips may be cultivated with success in
high altitudes, even at 400 feet above the sea, in the north
and northwestern counties. I weighed 6 roots grown at
an altitude of 550 feet which weighed 105 Ibs. ; all the
6 were remarkably handsome and sound. The seed should
be sown in bleak or high districts by the end of April, and
good seed may be obtained under all the circumstances
named as to altitude, by due care and attention.

110. " Let the bulbs intended for seed be taken up be-
fore being damaged by frost; select those bulbs which
have one good tap root, break the branch or haulm off
with the hand — not cut it off- — lay them together in a
little sand or soil, not thick or bulky in the pye or hog,
and well protected from frost. The bulbs may be planted
out about the middle of April ; keep a look-out for frosty
nights, and protect with straw. The bulbs for seed should
be planted on a tolerably strong soil containing considerable
quantities of carbonaceous earth; if this is not naturally in
the soil, a dressing of quick lime may be put on the land in-
tended to raise seed a month or six weeks before the bulbs
are put down. The seed should be raised on a soil which
has not been cultivated for the same crop for many years
— if a virgin soil, so far as regards turnips the better.
Never raise turnip seed on a ferruginous sandy soil, or on
a clayey soil, containing much ferruginous matter, unless
the same has been well dressed with quick lime or strong
carbonaceous marl. The bulbs should not be planted on
the same soil, or any soil in the vicinity of cabbage, rape,
or any other of the brassica tribe of plants. A person, to
grow good turnip seed, must not think of growing tons of
it in one year, and it is quite worth the time and little
trouble for farmers residing in different localities who have
confidence in each other's care and attention to this subject,
to exchange seed frequently. One cause, and in my

THE TURNIP CROP. 309

opinion a serious cause, of disappointment in turnip cul-
tivation, is the attempt to raise turnip seed to sell at a low
figure. I have seen large fields of turnip seed growing
from the turnip crop of the previous year, a number of the
bulbs having been left in the ridges for seed, and covering
them for the winter with soil by the plough ; thus, there
has been little or no selection of the bulbs, and, what is
still worse, the seed raised from a crop more or less dis-
eased, or supposing there was no disease, the seed so raised
will be tainted from the fact of its being raised on the very
soil where the bulbs grew ; no root we grow shows such a
loathing of its own nature as the turnip. I have seen the
experiment made of raising turnips where a hog or pye has
been the previous year ; the experiment was tried both Avith
seed and with strong plants — the result was not one moder-
ately good root, the few that did live were all diseased."

111. Loudon, in the Encyclopedia of Agriculture,
states that the Norfolk farmers — most successful growers
of turnips — have peculiar views; a "sort of theory on
the subject of transplanting turnips for seed, which it
may be worth while to attend to. According to that theory,
where turnip seed is collected from such turnips as have
been sown three or four years in succession, the roots are
liable to be numerous and long, and the necks, or parts
between the bulbs and leaves, coarse and thick ; and when
taken from such as have been transplanted every year,
these parts are liable to become too fine, and the tap roots
to be diminished in too great a proportion. Of course the
most certain plan is to procure seed from turnips that are
transplanted one year and sown the next ; or, if they be
transplanted once in three years, it is supposed that the
stock may be preserved in a proper state of perfection. It
is stated that the method of performing this business in
the best way is to select such turnips as are of the best
kinds and of the most perfect forms from the field crops,
and after cutting their tops off, to transplant them about
the month of November, or following month, into a piece
of ground that has been put into a fine state of tillage, by

310 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

repeated ploughing or digging over, which should be
situated as near the house as can be, in order that birds
may be better kept from it. Other cultivators, however,
advise that the seed collected from a few turnips thus
transplanted, should be preserved and sown in drills, in
order to raise plants for seed for the general crop, drawing
out all such as are weak and improper, leaving only those
that are strong, and which take the lead ; and that when
these shall have formed bulbs, such as do not appear good
and perfect should be taken out, as by this means turnip
seed may be procured, not only of a more vigorous nature,
but capable of vegetating with less moisture, and producing
stronger and more hardy plants. The practice of trans-
planting the whole of the turnips for seed for the main
crops, they contend, is not only highly expensive, but in-
jurious, by diminishing the strength of the plants from
the destruction of their tap roots. Very good seed may,
however, be raised in either of the methods that have been
here described.

112. "The best Norfolk turnip seed growers are of
opinion that unless the seed be always saved from trans-
planted roots, the stock will infallibly degenerate in the
manner here described. The statement that transplanting
once in three years is sufficient, was a mere pretence with
some of the growers to enable them to save two-thirds of
the heavy expense, which attends transplanting turnips,
and to get the same price for their seed as if it had been
properly sowed."

113. Sowing of the Seed. — The period of sowing the
seed varies according to the climate and other peculiarities
of the district, from the first fortnight of May up to the
first week of June ; in the turnip-growing districts of the
north of England and of Scotland, the middle of May, or
thereabouts, according to the condition of the weather, is
the usual period for the sowing of the swedes. The sow-
ing is done with the turnip drill, and rollers following the
coulters which deposit the seed, compress slightly the tops
of the ridges.

THE TURNIP CROP. 311

114. Thinning and after Culture of the Turnip. — On
the supposition that the young plants have rapidly got
into and past that state of development which is the best
security against the ravages of the "fly" — (see par. 116 on
the enemies and diseases of the turnip) — and that regular
well filled rows of healthy vigorous plants delight the eye
of the farmer and fill his mind with a pleasant forecast of
heavy crops ; his first care is the " singling " or thinning.
To judge from the way in which the thinning of turnip
crops is performed by some, it might be supposed to be
one of no great importance, so marked is the careless
" happy-go-lucky " style in which the whole work is gone
through. Yet those of our readers who know what the
operation really is, what are its aims and objects, those
who have watched it being carried out in the field, or better
still, who have taken hoe in hand, or stooped with pains-
taking care over the drills, do not need anything we can
say to convince them of the practical gain there is to the
crop if this " singling " is well done. It is indeed no ex-
aggeration to say that, upon the proper thinning of the
turnips in the drills depends their goodness at the close of
the season. Let any one set aside the plants growing on
any part of a drill, and allow them to grow up, and on to
the end of the season just as they can, and compare the
roots with those of carefully thinned plants, and they will
be surprised at the wonderful difference there is between
them. Each plant — and it seems almost absurd to state
such a self-evident truth, were it not that many do un-
doubtedly ignore, or at least overlook it and the important
practical truth which it inrolves — each plant, we repeat,
requires a certain amount of soil in which to develope it-
self, it is not possible in practice, of course, to say what
will be the maximum stage of development of any parti-
cular plant or plants, but it is obvious enough, that if a
minimum space of soil be given to it, the maximum growth
of the plant will never be obtained. We thus find in
practice, that where thinning is carelessly and imperfectly
— because carelessly — performed, we can trace with great

312 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

ease a gradation in the size of the ultimate roots exactly
proportionate to the space of soil which has been given to
them ; this, of course, being more or less modified by other
circumstances, as the mechanical condition of the soil in
which the root is growing, or the state and quality of the
manure with which that is supplied. Still more marked
in the later stages of root development, is the influence
exerted by one plant upon another, where two or more
have been allowed to grow in close jaxtaposition ; the
practical result in nearly all of such cases being that the
crop is lost — to a large extent — so far as their roots are
concerned. For, so far as our own experience goes, it
leads us to believe that it is not a question — as for in-
stance, in the case of two plants close together having been
allowed to grow — of the loss of one only, but it is the loss
of both ; that is, that both of the plants have been stopped
in their proper development, and the evil influence of
jaxtaposition has acted and reacted upon both, the result
being that both were poor. No doubt it is often found
that one will take the lead, and keeping it, will ultimately
be a larger root than its neighbour, but this is, we incline
to think, exceptional ; but be this as it may, of this there
can be no doubt, that the largest of the two would have
been larger, had it not been encumbered with the close proxi-
mity of its neighbour. ISTor is it a less suggestive circum-
stance that the growth of plants allowed to grow in close
juxtaposition is in almost every case abnormal ; all root
plants have what we may call a normal form or shape, this
will be more or less modified in a great many of a large crop,
but in all the normal shape will easily be traced ; now, where
abnormal growth is permitted we may safely predicate as
to the result, practically. And it is curious to observe the
singular vagaries of growth which plants will take when
growing in positions where the healthy development of
both is prevented. We have taken out of drills, both of
turnips and of mangolds, some of the most singular
vegetable curiosities that could be imagined, so far as con-
tortion and interlacing together of rootlets and fibres are

THE TURNIP CROP. 313

concerned, We have before us drawings of roots which
were taken from our own fields, the shapes of which are of
the most grotesque character ; and one point has struck
us, that in roots of abnormal growth, the healthy nutritious
character of the root seems greatly changed for the worse.
A contorted root is almost always hard, woody, and knotty.
We have alluded to the fact that in. root-plants, some are
more vigorous than others, in all cases this is marked ; in
some districts the biggest and most vigorous is called the
" king " plant, and is that which if left in the ground, all
others being thinned away from it, will prove to be the
largest and the finest root. The above are not here
given as new facts, nor are they for the first time
published; but they nevertheless are worth remembering,
and assuredly they are sometimes forgot, if one is to judge
by the way which in practice the singling of root-plants is
carried out ; and their statement is here justified, seeing
that they exercise a close — nay, the closest — influence upon
the practice of singling, and also upon that question which
has been discussed of late, and is still being discussed —
namely,. the application of mechanism to it. We have no
hesitation whatever in endorsing the opinion of the most
eminent practical authority now living, which is to the
effect that turnip or root singling, is not a process to which
mechanism can be applied. For if there is any truth in
the statements we have put forward, and it will be difficult,
we opine, to say they are incorrect, it must be abundantly
evident that a large exercise of mental care is demanded
on the part of the workman, if he or she does the work of
thinning as it ought to be done. For three points at least
demand attention — the strongest plant, if possible, ought
to be left, while the weakest should be cleared away ;
secondly, each plant should have the maximum space of
soil to develope its bulb in ; and thirdly, no two plants
should be left together to interfere with the individual
growth of each. Now we do not say that this standard of
perfection in root-crop thinning can be obtained in practice,
but we insist that it is a true standard, and further, that

x

314 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

if it cannot be perfectly attained, it is worth while aiming
to attain it. But it is, we think, abundantly evident that
however near it can be approached by the exercise of care
on the part of human labour, it never can be approached
by the work of mechanism. True, it may by mechanism
be approached, nay, may be positively attained, but then
it will only be by chance, and we maintain that it is
axiomatic in the philosophy of agriculture that it is unwise
to trust to chance if it can be avoided. Selection is there-
fore to be made, and care exercised in the thinning of the
root crops of the farm ; mechanism to perform this thinning
as it ought to be done is therefore put out of court ; for
mechanism can neither select, nor can it exercise care.
Hand thinning, we venture to say, will be the rule with
intelligent farmers who know what an important influence
upon the future of the root crop the proper thinning of it
has. That machines may be had which will facilitate the
process of singling by previously thinning out a portion of
the crop, we are by no means disposed to deny. That
they will thin we believe, but then they may do more than
that ; if they may do good, they may also do evil, and
they are just as likely to do the one as the other ; for being
machines, they can neither exercise care nor judgment, so
that the very plants which a good intelligent human worker
would leave in, may be those which the machine may
ruthlessly root out. For it must not be forgot, that it is
rarely — at all events in such a season as this — that the
rows or drills are uniformly filled with good plants. Much
might still be said, as has indeed been already said, in
favour of machine thinning, that it does, for example, the
work more quickly and cheaply than it can be done by
hand; we dismiss this, however, at once, by saying that
neither quickness nor cheapness are the points to be aimed
at; the point to be aimed at is to have the work well done ;
the better it is done, the cheaper — in the true sense of
the term — it is done. One word as to the hoeing and
weeding of the crop after thinning has been done. Not
always is this after culture of the crop attended to as it

THE TURNIP CROP. 315

ought to be attended to, if we judge by the aspect of some
fields, in which it is difficult to say which has the mastery,
the crop or the weeds. Direct and decided is the evidence
which his fields present in this respect, as to the ability of
the farmer. To say that we have been ashamed when we
have seen, as we have too often seen, weeds abundant and
rampant, is to put it in the mildest way possible for us.
Weeds exhaust the soil, and draw away the food of the
crop, which it is the aim of the farmer to produce in such
perfection as he can secure, and it is obvious that this per-
fection will be far from being arrived at, if the food in the
soil be given in great measure to the weeds in place of to
the crop. All such remarks are commonplace enough, but we
are not sure but more practical results are obtained by giving
force to the statement of such commonplace remarks, which
being so, are too often neglected and entirely overlooked.

115. In conclusion, the briefest of paragraphs may be
devoted with some degree of value to the subject of filling
up the blanks in our root crop drills with plants taken
from seed beds. This is now being done by many amongst
us ; and it has for a long time been an established practice
in some districts of the Continent. Although opposed to
the opinion of some, nay, we may say of many, the ex-
perience of a well-known Continental authority goes to
prove that the roots produced from transplanted plants
are better and heavier than those grown in the ordinary
way. But be this as it may, it is clear enough that
where blanks do exist in drills, it certainly is worth while
to fill them up with plants of some kind or another ; all
the more that the process of transplanting is very quickly
done, and no excuse on the score of loss or waste of time
is thus open. We have known the system practised with
most advantageous results, and, indeed, when we see such
spaces of land doing nothing, or worse than nothing — as
growing weeds — we always think of what Sir Watyer Scott
said about trees as being exceedingly suggestive —

" Aye be sticking in a tree here and there,
It'll be growing while you are sleeping. "

316 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

Not the less true is this if applied to root culture ;
many and many a plant has the writer stuck in blank
spaces in drills, and with what degree of after satisfaction
the reader may judge. There are, by the way, some points
connected with this same subject of transplanting, to which
we shall direct the attention of the reader at the conclu-
sion of the chapter on mangold and beet-root culture.

116. Enemies and Diseases of the Turnip. — The reader
who has perused our remarks upon the enemies and the
diseases of the wheat crop, in the volume in this series,
entitled Wheat, its Culture, Diseases, and Preservation,
may fancy in looking over the long list, that few crops are
so afflicted, so to say. Numerous, however, as are the enemies
and diseases of the wheat crop, they are scarcely to be
compared to those which afflict the turnip crop. There is
probably no crop which has so many as this ; no fewer
than forty insects, together with a number of slugs and
snails, are said by a distinguished naturalist to prey upon
the turnip ; and independently of these we have the scourge
of the finger and toe, and of the anbury. " The ants,"
says the Rev. Mr. Houghton, in the " Popular Science
Review," " the ants run off with the seed as soon as it is
sown ; that which is spared by the ants is attacked the
moment the tender leaves appear above the surface by one
of the most formidable, albeit diminutive, enemies of all,
namely, the little flea-beetle, popularly known throughout
England as ' the fly.' Should the crop weather this
storm, another blasting influence occasionally attacks it in
the shape of the 'nigger' caterpillars of the turnip saw-
fly (Athalia spinarum), and the larvse of the white butter-
flies; these soon make skeletons of the leaves, and defile
them by their excrements. Beneath the cuticles of the
leaves the larvse of different kinds of two- winged flies ex-
cavate their winding tunnels ; other dipterous larvse riddle
the turnip bulbs with innumerable mines, while the smother-
fly, in two or three of its species (Aphis'), entirely destroys
the leaves. Fat grubs — bad luck to them ! — the larvse of
certain moths, bite off the young root, and sever it from

THE TURNIP CROP. 317

the green portion j wire- worms — ?'. e., the larvse of various
click beetles (Elateridce) [all vermiform creeping things of
the earth are wireworms^ in the farmer's zoology J], centi-
pedes, and weevil beetles must be added to the long cata-
logue of turnip enemies.

117. " When we reflect on this formidable list of destruc-
tive agents in the form of insects, and add to its various
fungi, which live parasitieally upon the leaves (such as Pero-
nospora parasitica, a species allied to the potato mould,
and a kind of Oidium [Erysiphe], which covers the leaves
with its innumerable interlacements, looking like delicate
threads of frosted silver, under the microscope), it would
seem almost to be a matter of wonder that turnips ever
come to perfection at all in this country."

118. (a) Of the insect enemies of the crop, the turnip-fly,
as it is generally called, is the most to be dreaded. Al-
though so called, it is not a fly, but a beetle of the size of
a flea, and known to naturalists by the name of Haltica
nemorum. According to the entomologist, there are, says
Mr. Thomas Morris — who read a paper on the subject be-
fore the Loughborough Agricultural Society — there are " at
least two species of the turnip beetle, viz., the Striped, and
Brassy or Tooth-legged : the latter is not so common as
the former, and it appears that scarcely anything is known
of the economy of this insect ; but it is the striped beetle
with which we, as farmers, are so familiar, and upon which
I desire more particularly to claim your attention. It has
various names in this country, such as the beetle, fly, black-
jack, flea, &c., but upon close examination there can be no
doubt that it is a beetle, for it has two sets of wings — the
outer ones, like all other beetles — being of a horny nature ;
and to distinguish it from others of its order, I may observe
that its colour is a bright-black, with a light-yellow coloured
stripe down each outer wing. Mr. Curtis, who has so ably
contributed to the Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society
of England, in his observations on the natural history of
insects affecting the turnip crop, informs us that this beetle
belongs to the order Coleoptera, from its wings being folded

31 5 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

beneath two horny capes; it is included in the family
Chrysomelidae or golden beetles, for certain scientific reasons
in conformity with its structure, and is one of about one
hundred species forming the genus Altica, so called from
the great powers they have of leaping ; it is readily known
by the thickness of its thighs, which give it the power of
leaping, like fleas, to a prodigious distance, considering its
small size. Eighteen inches is about the greatest extent
of its leap, which, in a straight line, would be, averaging
its stature, two hundred and sixteen times its own length;
and, when it is remembered that this leap is performed in
a curved line, it must be admitted that a considerably
greater distance is achieved. Mr. Le Keux states that
' the female, which is larger than the male beetle, lays but
few eggs, compared with other insects ; and that it requires
a period of about thirty days to carry the animal through
its various stages up to the time when it becomes a perfect
beetle again — viz. : It remains an egg ten days, a maggot six,
and a chrysalis thirteen days. The eggs are deposited on
the under-side of the turnip-leaf; and when they become
maggots, they immediately begin to eat through the lower
skin of the leaf, and form winding burrows — by feeding on
the pulp. They are full fed in about sixteen days, when they
desert these burrows, and bury themselves not quite two
inches below the surface of the earth, where they become
immovable chrysalides, which are brought to maturity in
about a fortnight, when the beetle — or fly, as it is called —
emerges from its tomb again, to fulfil the laws of Nature.'
One pair of these insects produces five or six broods in a
season. They are rather long lived, and are found, during
the inclement months of winter, under the bark of trees,
and similar sheltered places, in a torpid state. It is a
perfect wonder, to the naked eye, how this pest can, in a
short space of time, commit such destruction on the turnips,
because its dimensions are so small; but when highly
magnified, this idea is at once dispelled, for it is then seen
that Nature has provided it with formidable weapons,
whereby it is enabled to obtain its sustenance. We are

THE TURNIP CROP. 319

told that it is found in most parts of the United Kingdom,
and in many countries on the Continent ; indeed, I have
been informed that it has been known to destroy turnips
in North America. The general habits of this beetle ap-
pear to me to be most remarkable and eccentric ; for when
the weather is excessively hot, with a bright sun, it is then
in a very lively and active state ; and it is at this time
that it commits such fearful ravages upon the young turnip-
plant. Again, if the weather should change, and become
cold, cloudy, or stormy, its activity ceases, it then sheltering
itself either under the leaf of the plant, or in the crevices
in the ground, where it is found in almost a torpid state ;
but, upon a burst of sunshine, it quickly returns to its
work of destruction. The voracity of this insect is in-
credible; for in some seasons it has visited the turnip-
fields in such countless numbers, that it has been known
to entirely destroy a crop of turnips in a few hours. There
is a very strong odour proceeds from the young turnip-
plant ; and, the olfactory members of these beetles being
very acute, they quickly discover the field where they are
growing, frequently against the wind. To corroborate this,
I will repeat what is recorded by Mr. Le Keux, who states
that 'in May 1836, when the thermometer was at 75
degrees in the shade, during a south wind, great numbers
were on the wing, and all proceeding southward; and,
again, that eight acres, forming the summit of a hill in
Devonshire, were sown with turnips, and when the young
plants were just rising above the ground, the wind being
for more than a week at south-east, wafting the scent to
the north-west, they were so destroyed on this side that
nearly an acre was bare, whilst the south-east side was not
touched until the plants had attained a size to render the
attacks of the beetle of little consequence.' This extra-
ordinary insect attacks the turnip plant from the earliest
stage of growth, continuing its ravages until the two first
leaves are destroyed, leaving only the bare stem ; and it
is an undisputed fact that when the first-sown turnips are
taken, those sown afterwards scarcely ever thrive so well,

320 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

unless the ground undergoes the usual system of plough-
ing, &c., which in most instances would be impracticable,
for it would become so late in the season as to render a
crop of swede turnips very uncertain."

119. The same authority gave the following resume of
the various plans which had been introduced to protect
the plants from its ravages. " Some of my friends have
steeped the seed, a few hours prior to drilling, in a mixture
of the tincture of assafoetida and urine, believing that the
plant will be impregnated with the abominable odour pro-
ceeding therefrom ; but although this has appeared to
succeed in some instances, yet I know that there have
been seasons when the beetles have entirely destroyed the
crop. For my part, I cannot conceive this plan to answer,
for if you drill the seed after saturation it will no doubt
vegetate ; but if the weather should prove dry and the soil
likewise — which frequently occurs at this period of the
year — it would then cease to grow. I have heard of farmers
mixing the turnips with radish seed, expecting the beetle
would prefer the latter, and whilst feeding upon it the
former slips by into rough leaf and escapes. My opinion
is that there is no plant in creation which the beetle would
prefer to the turnip, and as this wary insect is found in
most parts of this country, how is it that we do not hear
of the radishes being destroyed by them in the gardens,
&c. 1 Some farmers drill every alternate row of swedes
with common or white-top turnips, believing the beetle to
prefer the common turnip, and, whilst feeding upon them
the former would grow out of their way. In advocating
this plan it would add expense and trouble, and in my
opinion, no beneficial expense would ensue. Again, others
adopt the following : after the plants are up they apply
either soot, lime, or chalk ; this I do not consider a prac-
ticable remedy, for when a heavy thunder-storm comes,
these applications would be washed off the plants and the
effect forthwith destroyed ; and, moreover, either of the
before-mentioned, on being sown broad-cast, and alighting
upon the leaves of the plants, checks the growth of them

THE TtTENIP CROP. 321

materially, and we are instructed by Mr. Le Keux " that
if the upper portion of the leaves could be poisoned, the
beetle would feed on the under side of the same with im-
punity." In many parts of the country, farmers drill a
double, and in some instances a treble quantity of seed ;
these advocates say " Sow plenty of seed, and you are sure
of a crop." I have permission to mention that last season
Mr. Thos. Dickens, a very practical farmer, residing at
High Oakham, near Mansfield, drilled 4 Ibs. of seed per
acre, and his crop was entirely destroyed by the beetle. I
have been informed that last season also, an eminent agri-
culturist in the neighbourhood of East Eetford, whose gen-
eral practice is of drilling 6 Ibs. of seed per acre, had his
crop destroyed by this insect. The quantity of swede
turnip-seed generally sown per acre is about 2J Ibs., but
1 Ib. of clean, good, new seed is ample to produce a fair
crop, providing it can be preserved from the enemies which
affect that plant. Practical farmers well know the disad-
vantages attending drilling too much seed ; first, the plants
always grow weaker, and, being so very thick, it renders
the operation of singling them out much more expensive ;
and secondly, the tap-roots entwining round each other, it
is very difficult to cross them properly with the hoe. I
will allude to another remedy which is spoken of by Mr.
Curtis : he states "that if a field sown with turnips is sur-
rounded by a bed of mangold -wurtzel, the beetles would
not fly near the field." I presume that it is supposed by
the entomologist that this plant is offensive to the beetle.
In reply to this I will give you an illustration of what
occurred upon my farm last season. I planted a field with
mangold- wurtzel, and found many places where the seed
did not vegetate ; these I filled up with swede turnip-seed,
and when they came up they were as eagerly devoured by
the beetles as though the field altogether had been turnips.
Scientific and theoretical men cannot be so well acquainted
with the practical bearings of agricultural operations as
farmers themselves ; yet I do not desire to speak dispar-
agingly of theory, but on the contrary wish to award its

322 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

full value ; for in studying that branch of science and ap-
plying the information derived therefrom to practice, we
are enabled to produce such results as will prove beneficial,
not only to ourselves, but to the country at large ; for it is
science combined with practice that has placed England so
prominent amongst the nations of the earth."

120. Mr. Morris then proceeds to describe his method of
dealing with the beetle, which, we believe, has been suc-
cessful in all cases where tried. " The suggestion which I
propose to introduce to your notice is one which I have
the greatest confidence in believing will prevent the beetle
from destroying the young turnip plant, and will undertake
to say that it shall never fail in having the desired effect
if used at a proper time. The operation consists in pro-
pelling a machine — a model of which I have before me —
over the turnips as soon as the beetles are discovered, and
persevering for a few days, when immense numbers of them
would be caught, and th6 remainder so disturbed that it
would be impossible for them to injure the plants. I have
used it with great success upon my turnip crops, when
many farmers in the neighbourhood were compelled to sow
a second time. It is simple in construction ; light, yet
durable, and effective in operation. It consists of a frame
for the most part made of tubular iron, which may be
elevated or depressed by the action of the lever on the
centre bar, so as to adapt it to work in turnip fields, either
ridged, drilled upon the flat, or sown broadcast. The
front part of it is covered with canvas, the under side of
which is smeared over with a very adhesive chemical pre-
paration, and by passing the machine over the plants at a
proper elevation, upon a bright sunny day myriads of them
would be caught, the beetles springing from the turnips
and adhering to the preparation, from which it would be
impossible for them to extricate themselves. In leaping
they jump horizontally, but the height they spring from
the plants varies according to the weather. When first I
used this machine I had the canvas placed over the whole
frame, but where one insect was caught on the hinder part,

THE TURNIP CROP. 323

hundreds were found on the front. The slots and screws
at each end of the side bars are for the purpose of keep-
ing the canvas constantly tight ; for when the sun is ex-
cessively hot, it is apt to expand, when it would come in
contact with the soil, thereby at once destroying the effect
of the preparation. By passing the machine over the
plants nearly all the beetles jump from the turnips ; but
there are a few, which, being so eager at work, will not stir
upon the approach of an enemy. In order to remove the
latter and entirely cleanse the plants of them, there is a
succession of curtains which waft or brush them off the
turnips. I had thought of introducing a revolving cylin-
der, with flappers, but upon reflection found it would not
be so effective as the curtains. The cost of manual labour
would not exceed 3s. per acre, presuming that the turnips
from the first attack of the beetle would get into the rough
leaf in six days. The turnips, as soon as they appear,
should be carefully watched, and when the beetles are first
discovered, at once apply the machine ; but many farmers
being engaged at this time of the year in the hay field ne-
glect this important consideration. These machines are
made of various widths, suitable for ridges from 20 to 30
inches."

121. In his endeavours to escape the ravages of the fly,
the great object of the farmer is to have the plants forced
as rapidly as possible into the state of " rough leaf," in
which the fly is comparatively harmless. To aid this, the
action of good stimulating manure is of great importance,
but much, as we have already seen, depends upon the state
of the weather.

122. (b) Finger and toe. This disease which affects the
turnip causes it to have an abnormal growth, in which, in
place of the usual round spherical or cylindrical form, a
number of long finger-like roots spring out from its lower
surface and its sides, hence the name. The disease is often
confounded with that known as " anbury," but wre conceive
it to be different. Various theories have been brought
forward to account for this disease in turnips or in root

324 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

crops, but it appears to us that, in a large majority of in-
stances, the malformation of the root is caused by the me-
chanical condition of the soil, its inequality being her,e
and there caused by portions of unequal solidity or
degree of pulverization. It may be accepted as a truth
that, in the growth of a root, there is a certain tendency
which is the rule, that tendency being to assume a certain
form, and that that form will be assumed if it is grown
under circumstances which do not introduce any conditions
antagonistic to the normal growth of the root. The chances
are then that if roots are grown in perfectly homogenous
soil of equal condition throughout — the root being per-
mitted to grow as easily in one direction as another — that
they will naturally assume their normal shape. But if a
root is surrounded by soil of unequal character, if for in-
stance, one side is pressed up against a piece of hard im-
penetrable soil, or say a stone, it is obvious that in trying
to avoid this the root will assume some abnormal form.
This power of plants to choose position of growth is indeed
remarkable, and has been much overlooked in considerations
affecting the culture of some of our farm crops. If then
our opinion is correct as regards the cause, or at all events
one of the causes, of finger and toe — or what we may call
abnormal root development — it will follow that the more
completely the soil is prepared, and the more uniform the
condition of that soil, the fewer will be the examples met
with of roots displaying this abnormal development. And
here practice comes in to corroborate this. We have also
further evidence in the results of various experiments
directly instituted to test the point. So direct has been
the evidence of some of those that we could, knowing the
condition — the mechanical condition — of the soil, predicate
with some degree of certainty as to whether the roots grown
would have "finger or toe." "We do not say that the
chemical condition of the soil has no influence upon the
tendency of roots to have "finger and toe;" but on this
point, so far as we can judge, only conjecture is left us.
We may guess certainly, but it cannot be said that we

THE TURNIP CROP. 325

know. Much of the evidence in favour of the view that
finger and toe is caused by the chemical condition of the
soil, either originally in the soil or communicated by the
manurial constituents which may be put into it, very singu-
larly enough has been brought forward in connection with
the disease known as " anbury." But in ignorance of the
fact that this disease and finger and toe are not the same
thing, the evidence applicable to the one only has been
taken as applicable to the other ; whereas they have no
connection. Not but what a root may have finger and toe
and anbury at the same time, but because this is so, it no
more follows that they are identical in nature, than it fol-
lows that, because a man has consumption and a broken
leg" at the same time, that both are of the same character.
When one reads then of anbury or finger and toe, the " or "
should be made into "and," and each disease considered
from its own point of view.

123. Anbury. — This disease causes the turnips to be
covered to a greater or less degree with excrescences of a
wart-like character, which, when broken, yield a softish or
juicy matter, and sometimes grubs are found in them.
Lime is said to be a specific for this disease. As has been
already stated, the finger and toe and the anbury are very
frequently, if not generally, considered to be one and the
same disease ; and in this view the remedy for the one is
supposed to be applicable to the other. "We venture to
hold a different view, and that which we have already
explained in the preceding paragraph. An authority
upon the cultivation of turnips proposes the following
remedial measures for the prevention of the diseases to
which the crop has been so remarkably of late the subject
of attack : — first, he recommends the avoidance of the too
frequent repetition of the swedes and common turnips upon
the same land, interpolating between them a crop of man-
golds or carrots, giving the preference to the mangolds;
secondly, to adopt the autumn culture and cleaning of the
land, avoiding spring ploughing as much as possible, using,

326 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

in place of the plough at this season, the grubber or scari-
fier; third, to discontinue the taking of vetches or tares
as a preceding crop to the turnips ; fourth, to chalk or lime
soils which are non-calcareous previous to taking the tur-
nip crop ; fifth, to avoid stolen crops, such as stubble or
summer turnips, as these encourage very much the increase
of the enemies of the crop ; and lastly, to obtain, by liberal
manuring and high cultivation of the land, as heavy a crop
as possible.

124. On the subject of the cultivation of the turnip,
the following remarks, by a writer in one of our leading
Agricultural Journals, will be suggestive ; they refer to one
or two points too frequently overlooked.

125. The turnip is "by nature a biennial, requiring one
season to perfect its bulb, and another to perfect its seed.
Well, how have we of late been managing ft1? Why, I
will tell you. So long as the turnip was but partially
grown, great care was taken in selecting full matured bulbs,
and saving the seed from those. So long as this was done,
no talk of finger and toe and every other disease now com-
mon to that root was known ; but when the turnip was
found to be so useful and profitable a root in the feeding
of stock, and its cultivation became so general that a greater
supply of seed was required than what could be grown in
the ordinary way (unless at a considerable expense), then
the cry of seedsmen for farmers to commence and raise
turnip-seed on a large scale was so prevalent that very many
who had a good soil and climate began its culture. Not
content with bringing the bulb to maturity, and letting it
take two full seasons to mature and perfect both its bulbs
and seeds ; no ! avarice again steps in ; a crop of hay is
grown. The land is then prepared for turnip seed, and
sown in the autumn, when the bulb is grown to not
more than probably a root the size of one's finger ; no mat-
ter, it will produce seed as good to appearance as that grown
from the full matured bulb, and fully a greater quantity
per acre, as the plants can be grown much closer on the

THE TUKNIP CROP. 327

drill. This mode of culture enables growers to sell at
a much lower price, and seedsmen, of course, encourage
this system, as their profits are larger, the demand being
great. * * * There is male and female in the
vegetable as well as in the animal creation; in the for-
mer the pollen of the male flower is wafted over the field
by the wind of summer, the female flower being open to
receive it ; hence, impregnation is carried on, and both man
and beast reap the benefit of the fruit of the earth. No
doubt all our plants or fine flowers are merely weeds in
their native land. It is by cultivation we have brought
everything to the perfection they have come to. This is
like the manufacturer by art. But we have a twofold duty
to perform, we have also nature to study. So long as we
consider this, high cultivation brings the plant to the greater
perfection. But try it contrary to that law of nature, and
disease will creep in. Stop cultivation, and, provided the
plant be a native of our soil, she will soon get into the or-
iginal, a common weed. It is by cultivation that the com-
mon gowan of our pasture fields has been brought to be the
daisy of our gardens. Stop cultivation for a few years, and
the daisy will turn to what it was again. The art of man
has gone a great length. By hybridizing he has succeeded
in many things. He may infringe on the law of nature
for once, but try it again, and all his ingenuity won't do.
He may get a mule for once, but try that cross again ; he
is put a stop to. The great law of nature says, Hitherto
may thou go and no further. Now, such is the case with
our turnip. Try to cultivate roots with seed saved from
plants which have never .. been brought to maturity year
after year, and I will bet any odds he does not succeed.
Some say saving from fully matured bulbs is all nonsense ;
others, less prejudiced, begin to see it, and are now culti-
vating in the right way, but like the potato it may be too
late — the seeds of disease are already engendered, and are
now hard to eradicate. No doubt the disease in turnip
termed finger- and -toe is from the larvae of some insect hav-

328 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

ing deposited its eggs under the skin of the plant, but it is
the plant being in a diseased state, which is the cause of
this. I will conclude by saying again, that high cultiva-
tion, with stimulating manures, &c., do render the plant
more tender; therefore we ought to be more careful with
the seed we sow. Let it be borne in mind, as said before,
we have a twofold branch to study — along with art, we
have the law of nature to consider. We may improve on
nature by doing the right way, but if our love of lucre
causes us to do otherwise, depend upon it we will ulti-
mately suffer."

126. Mangold Wurtzel. — This of the root crops is the
next in importance to the turnip, and large quantities are
now grown in this country for feeding purposes. The bo-
tanical name is beta vulgaris; it is adapted to a wide
variety of soils ; those, however, of a medium quality are
best suited for heavy crops. There are two principal
varieties of the crop — the long and the globe, of which
the latter is best adapted to the heavy or comparatively
heavy soils, the former to the light. The land for the crop
is prepared in the same way as for turnips — the seed being
drilled by machine, or dibbled by hand or machine on the
tops of the ridges. If dibbled, the distances between the
"stools" should be from 12 to 15 inches, according to the
variety — long or globe, — the depth to which the seed is
to be deposited being from ^ to 1 inch. The period of
sowing the seed is earlier than that for turnips, namely,
from the 1st to the 15th of April — the quantity of seed
required being 7 Ibs. per acre. The seed should be steeped
in water some twenty -four or thirty hours before sowing, if
sown as late as the end of April or beginning of May. The
crop will repay a heavy dressing of farm-yard manure, with
a good dose of superphosphate. The plant being a littoral
or sea- shore one, common salt should be applied in the
manure to the crop ; from two to three cwt. per acre will be
a fair amount to use.

127. Beet-Root. — This crop, which closely resembles the

BEET-ROOT. 329

mangold in many particulars, is more cultivated on the
continent than in this country, being there largely used for
sugar-making purposes, the refuse of the manufacture of
which is highly esteemed for cattle-feeding purposes. The
root, indeed, for these is more highly thought of by .Con-
tinental Agriculturists than mangold wurtzel. They have
long been famed, especially the farmers of Belgium, for the
splendid crops of the root ; and as much of their practice
is worthy of adoption in this country, and as it is peculi-
arly adapted to the mangold crop which we have noticed
in last paragraph, we deem that the following description
of the peculiarities of the Belgian mode of cultivating the
beet-root will be useful here.

128. Numerous advantages follow the cultivation of beet-
root. "Necessitating," to translate freely the words of a con-
tinental authority, " the alternation of crops which have for
aim, in the rotation, the conservation in the soil of those prin-
ciples necessary to ensure a rich and certain crop of the
cereals, beet-root offers also greater chances of success than
other plants, by its comparative insensibility to the vari-
ations of the atmosphere, and by maintaining the soil in
that high condition which repeated hoeing and weeding can
so well secure. Its leaves serve also as manure, or may
be taken as green food for the stock at a period of the year
when green food is so rare and valuable. Finally, the
beet-root gives the possibility of augmenting the richness of
the upper by drawing in the fertilizing materials of the
lower soil. We know, in fact, that it is by means of the
long shoots which the plants send down into well-prepared
soil that they — by processes of capillary attraction and of eii-
desmose — draw the nourishment from the soil. The fila-
ments which form the continuation of the roots come neces-
sarily to appropriate to themselves the most part of the salts
which contribute to their formation, and which are in the
subsoil. Thus, these salts not taken up by the roots of
other plants are appropriated by the deep-reaching roots of
the beet-root ; and they possess, moreover, the capability to

Y

330 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

appropriate — by means of their leaves — the gases which
constitute the organic materials. Hence the utility of the
beet-root in preparing the land for the cultivation of our
cereals. It is not, then, without reason that an immense
importance is attached to the cultivation of the beet-root,
as destined to exercise a grand influence upon the increase,
and the value of other products of the soil."

129. The soil in which the beet-root succeeds best is a
clayey one, deeply cultivated and moderately tenacious. Ex-
cellent crops are reared on the black loamy soils in the neigh-
bourhood of Dunkirk. In light, sandy, and cold soils the
roots rarely attain a great size. It is of essential impor-
tance that the land be well prepared, and thoroughly freed
and cleaned from weeds. When it can be done, the land
should be prepared in autumn, ploughed deeply, and well
worked in early spring. The great aim in all cases is to
secure a clean and deeply-pulverized soil, in which the roots
will grow of a perfect shape, without those numerous side
and root filaments which characterize roots grown in badly-
prepared soils. If grown for sugar- making purposes, the
object generally is to have roots of middling size, as those
contain, or are said to contain — for it is yet a disputed
point — a larger percentage of sugar than those of gross
dimensions. Hence, as an application of manure imme-
diately preceding the planting of the crop tends to increase
the size, and give a peculiar flavour, moreover, to the roots,
good authorities recommend that the beet-root should follow
a crop well manured the preceding year. This brings us
to the question of its place in the rotation, on which point
the following is given as an authoritative rule: — "Never
place the beet root upon a soil containing roots not yet
decomposed." This excludes it from following the clover,
lucern, or sainfoin. There are many varieties of beet-root ;
but the two principally cultivated are the white Silesian
(la better ave blanche de Silesie), and a red variety with
white flesh (rose a chair blanche).

130. There are two ways of cultivating beet-root — either

BEET-ROOT. 331

by sowing the seed in seed-bed and transplanting the plants,
or by sowing the seed in the field from which the crop
is to be taken. The latter is that generally adopted.
Broadcast sowing is rarely practised in high-class farms,
drilling with machine or dibbling by hand being the rule.
The distance between the lines or drills is 18 to 20 inches
where the horse-hoe is used; 15 to 18 for hand-
hoeing alone. The quantity of seed used is about 8 to
1 1 Ibs. the acre. As soon as the plants show leaves
about two inches long, they are singled out, and left at
distances of one foot apart. In dibbling the seed, three or
four seeds are placed in each hole, at distances of about a
foot apart. The period of sowing is usually from the
middle of April to the end of May. During the growth of
the plant repeated hoeings are given, and no pains are
spared to keep the land clean and free from weeds. One,
indeed, must spend some time in the rural districts of
Flanders before any correct notion can be formed of the
painstaking character of the cultivation adopted.

131. Where transplanting is carried out the seed is sown
very thickly in a well-prepared seed-bed towards the end
of March or beginning of April. If sown in drills, weed-
ing can be more easily done. The proportion of land re-
quired for a seed-bed is about one- twelfth to one-fifteenth
of the land which is to bear the main crop. As soon as
the plants show three or four leaves, they are thinned out
to a distance of one to one inch and a-half apart; the soil
between the rows being hoed. At the end of fifteen*days
a second hoeing is given. Towards the end of May,
when the plants are about as thick as the little finger,
they are taken up, care being taken to keep the long roots
unbroken, and, in transplanting, to see that these are not
doubled up, but fully extended. The transplanting is done
either by the dibbler, the spade, or by the plough. In
planting by the spade, the workman inserts the blade
along the line, and pressing it on the side forms an
opening, into which a second workman places the plant,

332 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

pressing the soil closely round it by the foot, In
planting by the plough, two ploughs are used against the
side of the previously turned-over soil; the plants are
placed at proper distances, the second plough returning the
earth upon and enclosing them. Care is required to place
the plants at such a depth that they will not be com-
pletely covered by the second plough.

132. When the beet-root is transplanted a more equal and
uniform crop is obtained; and less weeding and clearing
is required than when sown " in place," as it is termed.

133. When the lower leaves become yellow, and the tops
begin to droop, the plants have reached their proper de-
velopment, and are ready to be taken up. This is done
either by the fork or by the plough.

134. The Kold Rabi. — This plant is one of the cabbage
tribe, belonging to the order cruciferse, genus brassica, and
the species is brassica caulo rapse. As a substitute for the
swede it has of late years become a somewhat important
crop, being singularly free from disease and not nearly so
liable to the attacks of insects as that root. It is also very
hardy, can stand severe frosts, is easily cultivated, is well
adapted for transplanting, and its feeding value is superior
to swedes. As seen in the plate attached to this volume,
the edible part of the root is in the middle portion between
the root and the leaves. There are two varieties of kohl
rabi cultivated, the " green " and the " purple ; " and of these
two sorts, the " oblong " and the "o-ound." Of these the
<c purple " is said to be the one best calculated to resist the
attacks of disease and of hard frost ; and the oblong shape
is the best. Some, however, have found the green and
round variety to give the best results; much, however,
will be found to depend upon the soil and other peculi-
arities. The land for the crop requires to be of good qua-
lity ; the best being that which is strong and heavy, even
approaching the condition of stiffish clay, although excel-
lent crops will be obtained from what is known as good
turnip soil. From the above it will be seen that the crop

THE KOHL RABI. 333

may be got from land where good swedes could not be
grown. Although, however, the kohl rabi will grow in heavy
soils, it is essential that they should be well cultivated;
the crop requires heavy manuring, as much as 25 to 30
tons of farm-yard dung to the acre, while an addition of
6 or 8 cwt. of good superphosphate will be an improvement.
Common salt is an essential manure to the crop, and of
this 2 cwt. per acre should be used. Like all the brassiea
tribe, ashes will be found an excellent manure ; these may
be added to the salt, well mixed up. Where superphos-
phate is not used, guano may be substituted, phospho
guano will give excellent results ; in some soils it will be
found to surpass Peruvian guano.

135. The kohl rabi may be cultivated in one of two
ways, transplanting from plants grown in a seed-bed, or
by drilling, the same as in the turnip crop. Mr. Bennett,
a successful grower of the crop, finds drilling to be the
best. He drills " on the fallows in ridges — towards the mid-
dle of the month — and at the rate of two pounds of seed
per acre. The drills are 27 inches apart, and the plants
are thinned out to distances of 16 inches." In cleaning the
ridges and hoeing the thinned plants, care should be taken
to have dry weather. Messrs. Lawson recommend the
system of transplanting as the best, and experience cer-
tainly seems to be in favour of it. Eight ounces of seed
sown in a well-prepared highly-manured seed-bed, will
grow sufficient plants to do an acre, the drills of which are
27 inches apart, and the plants placed in the drills at dis-
tances of 15 inches. In place of broadcasting the seed in
the seed-bed, it will be found by far the best plan to drill
it in drills 9 inches wide ; this will enable the small hoe
to be used to stir up the soil and clean it between the
drills, and thus secure a superior lot of plants for trans-
planting. The time for sowing the seed in seed-bed is the
first week of March ; this will give plants ready for trans-
planting early in May, by which time the general land
should be prepared for the reception of the plants. As
many of the plants may fail in transplanting, it will be

334 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

advisable to have a surplus supply, which may be secured
by having an extra seed-bed. If the plants of this extra bed
be not all used, they will be found most valuable for filling
up blanks in the swede or mangold fields. If a succession
of crops is required, the second set of plants should be
dibbled in drills by themselves, and at a less distance
apart, so that the largest number of plants may be grown
on a given plot of ground. The seed should be sown at
intervals for successioiial crops, so that the plants may not
be too far advanced for the later transplantings. Tile first
sowing should be made early in March, the second during
the first or second week in April, with a third, the first
week of June. These sowings may be transplanted re-
spectively, the first in May, at 18 inches apart; the second
in June, at 1 6 inches ; and the third at the end of July or
beginning of August, at from 12 to 14 inches, according
to soil and climate. The following may be taken as a
summary of the principal points connected with the cul-
tivation of this important root.

136. Quantity of Manure to be applied to the Land.
— Ten loads of farmyard manure to the acre; 4 or 5 cwt.
of good artificial manure (such as blood manure, super-
phosphate, rapecake, or the like), to be drilled down the
ridge, or scattered on the manure. — (Mr. Bennett of Cam-
bridge, vol. 20, p. 469, Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society.) Not less than 25 tons of farmyard manure, with
6 cwt. of good superphosphate, and 2 cwt. of common salt ;
4 cwt. of Phospho-peruvian guano may be added with ad-
vantage in place of the superphosphate. To insure equal
distribution of the guano in the soil, mix it with sand or
fine ashes. — (Lawson and Son, vol. 20, p. 518, Journal of
the Royal Agricultural Society.)

137. Fifteen loads of farmyard manure, and 2 cwt. of
Proctar and Eyland's turnip manure per acre. — (Mr. Innes,
Colonel North's Wraxton Abbey.)

138. Quantity of Seed to le Soivn. — When raised in a seed-
bed for transplantation, a plot of 6 yards square' raising
sufficient plants for an acre, eight ounces of ~$eed will be

THE CARROT AND PARSNIP ROOTS.

335

required. When sown at once in drills, 4 Ib. to the acre,
according to Messrs. Lawson, 2 Ib. according to Mr. Bennett.

139. Distances apart at which to set the Plants. — When
transplanted, 16 to 18 inches. When sown in drills, the
plants to be thinned out to some distance. The distance
between the drills, when transplanting is adopted, 24
inches; when sown in drills, 27 inches.

140. Average Weight of Roots. — Oblong variety, 7 Ib.,
round ditto, 6 Ib.

141. Amount of Produce Per acre. — In England, 26
to 30 tons; in Scotland, 20 to 25 tons; Ireland, from 30
to 35 tons. Mr. Bennett states that his crop yielded,
when sown in drills, 25 to 30 tons, and 5 to 7 tons less
when transplanted. Professor Wilson, in Our Farm Crops,
p. 346, gives the following as the results of one crop : —

" Purple variety,

25 tons. 15 cwt. 3 qrs. 6 Ib. of bulbs.

1

11

1

26 , leaves

27

7

0

26

, grass produce.

Green variety,

23

1

1

20

, bulbs.

8

15

2

24

, leaves.

31

17

0

16

, grass produce. "

142. The Carrot and Parsnip Roof s. — (a.) The Carrot. —
This root is cultivated in some districts as a root crop for
farm feeding purposes with great success; for horse feed-
ing it is very valuable, and cows also are fond of it, although
too much in their food is apt to give the milk a slight
flavour. The order to which the root belongs is the
" umbelliferse " — the same to which the hemlock belongs —
the genus is "daucus" and the species is "daucus carota."
The soil best adapted for the carrot is a light sandy one,
highly manured; in the heavier class of soils the roots get
clubbed and contorted, and do not grow to a full size.
The root is unfortunately subject to the attacks of insects
which rapidly injure the crop ; a top dressing of hen and
pigeon dung with ashes is said to prevent the ravages of
the insects. Great care is required in the preparation of
the soil, the more uniform and the finer the condition of
the tilth, the better will be the results. From two to four

336 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

pounds of seed per acre are required; this is drilled, the
seed being previously mixed with some moist sand or finely
pulverised soil to prevent the seeds — which are exceedingly
light— being blown away during the process of drilling.
Care must be taken to have the seed new ; the Altrincham
variety is a favourite one; other varieties are the Belgian
(white and red), the long red and the " Horn " or short
red. The period for sowing is the beginning or middle of
March, according to the season. The distance between
the drills should be from 15 to 18 inches; the plants
being thinned out to distances of from 6 to 9 inches.
The root is usually made to follow wheat or some other
straw crop.

143. (b.) Parsnips. — These roots are becoming more
used for farm feeding purposes, cows being fond of
them; too much should not, however, be given them, for
the reason stated while treating of the carrot crop. The
order to which the parsnip belongs is the the same as
the carrot, the species being Pastinaca sativa : the varieties
chiefly cultivated being the " Jersey " and the " common
long-rooted carrot." The cultivation of the parsnip is the
same as that of the carrot.

144. The Cabbage "Crop. — This is one of the crops which
are cultivated for forage or feeding purposes, the leaves of
which are the principal feeding portion ; it is every year
becoming of greater importance, especialty for the feeding
of cows, for which it is specially valuable. The order is
the "cruciferse," the genus "brassica," and the species
" brassica oleracea." The usual variety sown in the farm
being the drum head or " cow cabbage ; " the Jersey or tree
cabbage is, however, fast getting into repute, as it yields
a large amount of feeding material. A rich, well-prepared
and manured loam is the best adapted for the crop, but it
may be grown successfully on almost any soil if it is well
stirred and highly manured; the crop being specially a
gross feeder, salt should never be omitted in the manure,
nor ashes if obtainable. The following on the culture of
the crop is from the pen of a successful grower — in a ine-

THE CABBAGE CROP. 337

tropolitan journal — who says tliat no arable farm should
be without the cabbage : — " The early varieties should be
prepared for early planting in the spring, or a portion of
the crop intended for early spring use might be planted in
the autumn. This, however, is rather hazardous as a field
crop, owing to the ravages from game, to say nothing of
the winter's vicissitudes. The better and more usual
course is to sow the seed in July or August, or early enough
to produce a strong plant for transplanting in the autumn,
when they are planted out thickly in beds, in some shel-
tered situation, there to remain till required for field plant-
ing; or the seed may be sown thinly in beds, and the
plants to remain undisturbed till field planting commences.
The former, however, is the better way to secure strong
healthy plants. The land for early cabbage should be pre-
pared in the autumn. On good land little is requisite
beyond ploughing it up after wheat or other crop, and
cleansing it by harrowing, picking, &c. It should then be
ploughed into lands or stetches as for winter ploughing.
In the early spring it should be manured with from twelve
to fourteen loads of good rotten dung, to be immediately
ploughed in, and the planting to follow without delay.
Perhaps the middle of March is the most suitable time, if
the season is altogether favourable ; if not, it is better to
wait till such time presents itself; by all means get them
well planted.

" The later varieties are more readily provided for. The
seed should be sown in March or April, in beds; and the
beds ought to be slightly covered with straw, to prevent the
attacks of birds. As soon as the plants attain a strong
broad leaf, the straw must be carefully removed, when they
will grow freely. Nothing further is required till the time
of planting, in June or July, for which, indeed, everything
should be prepared, so that advantage may be at once
taken of a favourable rain, which, in fact, it would be wise
to wait for, however long in coming, even at the hazard of
losing the season. The land simply requires the manage-
ment of all ordinary fallowing lands, and freely manuring

338 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

previous to planting. When a suitable season offers then,
get all the force of the farm into requisition, and have them
planted at once. If the seed-beds have become hard, they
will either require a profuse watering, or the plants must
be loosened by a fork, so as to prevent injury to the roots
when drawing.

" The mode of planting should be something like this :
The land should be ridged and manured the same as for
swedes or mangels, and rolled down. The plants should be
puddled — i. e., a small hole, or hollow, should be made near
to the planting ; a puddle of the consistency of " hasty pud-
ding" or thick treacle should be made therein, into which the
roots of the plants should be all set or dipped, and fetched
therefrom as wanted. The readiest way of planting is by
the common spade. The workmen have each a lad to put
in the plant as a hole is made with the spade. With one
foot he presses the earth to the plant; and, advancing the
other, a fresh hole is made by striking in the spade. In
this way, at a somewhat irregular walk, a clever workman
•will set several thousands in a day — i. e., at every step a
hole is made, and a plant secured. It is true, good may be
done by watering plants in dry season? ; but it is far better
to be prepared early, and get them in as judgment dictates.
It is rare to secure a good crop in dry seasons by watering."

145. Rape is another of the crops grown for its leaves,
and is specially valuable for sheep feeding, although cows
are very fond of it, and it adds largely to their yield of
milk. The plant is best adapted for cultivation in districts
where light sandy soils are met with, although, with care
in their preparation, it may be grown in a wide variety of
soils. The plant belongs to the same order and genus as
the cabbage, the species being two, the smooth-leaved sum-
mer rape, brassica campestris, and the rough-leaved winter
rape, or brassica napus ; the last-named species is that best
adapted for heavy, the first for light soils.

146. Rape, like the kohl rabi, may be cultivated in two
ways — sown at once in the drill or flat, or in a seed-bed,
and transplanted; the latter is the usual method, and that

RAPE. 339

which is generally, indeed, we may say almost universally,
adopted in Belgium, where the cultivation of the oleaginous
plants has reached a high point of perfection. In sowing
on the drill, the land is prepared in the same way as for tur-
nips, the quantity of seed being from 3 to 5 Ibs. per acre, and
of manure from 10 to 15 tons of short or well rotted, or 20
to 30 tons long farmyard manure. The distance between
the ridges 1 5 to 18 inches. When sowing on a seed-bed and
transplanting is adopted — a plan more particularly adapted
for small holders — the plot selected for the seed-bed should
be, if possible, a good loamy soil, trenched with the spade, and
abundantly manured with well rotted dung. This should
be spread evenly over it, and dug into a depth of 6 inches.
The extent of land devoted to the seed-bed may be one-tenth
of the land intended to be cropped. The best way is to
sow the seed in the plot in drills, although it is often sown
broadcast, the time of sowing being at the end of June or
beginning of July. It is a good plan to sow at three dif-
ferent periods — say at intervals of ten days or a fortnight
each. By this means any unfavourable growth of the
plants may be corrected, and a good selection of plants for
transplanting obtained. The seed should be sown thinly,
so that the stems may be strong ; and as soon as the leaves
are formed, they should be thinned out in the rows to
distances between 4 or 5 inches. Sowing, however, may
be risked as late as the beginning of September. The
plants, however, will come later into use. The crop may
succeed a cereal or early potatoes, the transplanting being
effected as soon after these crops are taken off the ground
as possible. The stubble should be ploughed two or three
times and harrowed, a good supply of rotten dung applied,
and the land finished the same as for turnips — the plants
being dibbled on the crown of the ridges at distances of
12 inches apart. Where the rape is to succeed early po-
tatoes, the land requires no new ploughing, the plants
being dibbled in at once.

147. Care should be observed in selecting the plants for
transplanting, those being neither too large nor too small, and

310 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

as nearly of an equal size as possible, being taken, and with
roots and stems short. As many plants as will suffice for half
a day's work should only be taken up at a time, and tied up
in small bundles. In taking up the plants, the roots should
be kept whole. In place of tying them in bundles, they
may be placed gently in shallow. baskets. The holes for
the reception of the plants should be made wide, so as to
admit of the plants being put in without doubling up or
breaking off the roots. The earth should be pressed up care-
fully to the root.

148. On the Transplanting of Root and Forage Crops. —
In a preceding paragraph we adverted to the important
purposes to which the process of transplanting might be
made subservient in the culture of various crops of the
farm, a few remarks, therefore, in connexion with it will
here serve a useful purpose. Transplanting, in the usual
economy of the farm, is only thought of in connexion with
•the filling up of the blanks in the drills of the root crops,
and not often, we regret to say, even for this purpose, use-
ful as it is. Transplanting has, however, a much wider
utility than this, and in view of the growing importance of
the cabbage, and in some districts the kohl rabi crop, we
may here very usefully devote a few paragraphs to the
consideration of its more important points. And here, be-
fore dismissing the subject of filling up blanks in root crops
with plants of a corresponding character grown in seed-beds,
we would allude to the fallacy, — we may call it a popular
one, — that transplanted turnips or mangolds or beets will
not grow. All will grow, and grow well, if the transplant--
ing has been properly done, although it is doubtless true
that beet or mangold transplanted will grow better than
swedes. To ensure the swedes doing well, we have found
it essential that the bulb should be fairly formed, however
small that may be. But if any doubt exists as' to trans-
planting of swedes to fill up blanks in swede drills, the
difficulty can be got over by putting in beet or mangold,
kohl rabi or cabbage plants in place of them. And here
we would allude for a brief space to the subject of mal-

TRANSPLANTING OF EOOT AND FORAGE CROPS. 341

formation of roots brought about by the mechanical con-
dition of the soil in which they are grown; a condition
which exercises a much more important and powerful
influence upon the growth than is generally imagined or
conceded. The diseases of turnips, for instance, known as
" finger and toe,'' which, as we have already pointed out,
must not be confounded with the disease known as
" anbury," — too often done, — and which is a mere mal-
formation or abnormal state in which the root, in place of
growing in its usual form, sends out all kinds of shoots,
forks, and contorted roots. There are two points upon
which considerable difference of opinion exists, — first,
whether the tap root or extreme end of the root should be
nipped off before the plant is transplanted, — and second,
whether the transplanting is better done in wet or damp
than in dry weather, or, in other words, with a wet damp, or
with a dry condition of soil. There is no doubt that there
is a practical difficulty in transplanting when the root is
very long, for if the root is doubled or twisted up so as to
admit of the plant being transplanted without a deep dibble
hole being made, there is a great chance of abnormal
development of the root being the result. It can scarcely
be said that the tap root is a useless appendage, or it would
not be there if it was, its office in the plant is an im-
portant one, and must not be overlooked. Indeed we
have a notion that this plan of nipping or taking off,
of the long root before the plant is dibbled in, arises
from a desire to save time in making a deep enough
dibble hole. Not seldom do we find that a method
of working is done primarily and specially to save
time or trouble, and thereafter a theory or opinion is
brought up to prove that the practice is a good one.
There is no doubt that it would be a much better plan to
cut off or nip off a long root than to insert that root in too
short a dibble hole, and thereby double it up. As to the
second point, whether it is tetter to transplant in dry or
in damp soil, there is, as we said, much diversity of
opinion. Cobbett was a great advocate for the transplant-

342 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

ing being done in dry weather with a dry soil ; maintain-
ing that the dews and the natural dampness of the under
soil kept up the vitality of the plant, although it might not
apparently be growing, or, at all events, growing favourably,
but that as soon as rain came it came to a plant prepared to
receive it, and the root of which had some hold of the soil.
On the other hand he maintained that the plan of transplant-
ing in wet or damp weather with a wet or damp soil was
essentially vicious; that at first the plants did look un-
doubtedly healthy, but that as soon as the rain ceased and dry
weather succeeded, then the soil hardened and baked, as it
were, round the roots, preventing their healthy and pro-
moting their abnormal growth. It is scarcely necessary
here to say that this view of Cobbett's is not the one
generally held. We have tried pretty extensively the two
modes, and have no hesitation in saying that, judging from
the experience of these trials, as well indeed as from the ex-
perience of others with which we are acquainted, that the
best results are to be obtained from transplanting during
wet or immediately after wet weather ; nor if a shower or
two happen after the transplanting has been done, will the
plants be the worse but much the better. The state of the
soil and that of the weather are. however, not the only
points which affect the future condition of the plants which
have been transplanted. Another point to be considered
in deciding which is the best of the two modes of trans-
planting which we have above noticed, is the great
difficulty encountered in making good dibble holes in
a dry soil; as soon as the dibble is withdrawn, the dry
soil runs back into and fills the hole to a greater or less
degree, making it a difficult point to get the plant properly
in. Still another point remains to be considered, — in dry
weather it is not easy to get the plants out of the seed-bed
without destroying more or less the fine fibrous rootlets
which, are so valuable to the health of the plant. The
way in which the putting in of the plants into the soil is
done exercises a most important influence upon the future
character of the crop. There are in transplanting, as in all

TRANSPLANTING OF ROOT AND FORAGE CROPS. 343

other things, two ways of doing it, the right and the wrong
way. The wrong way is that which is too often done, and
consists in dibbling the hole and inserting the plant, and
thereafter giving the soil at or near the plant a slight
pressure, leaving the plant loose. Now the great point to
be attended to, is that the soil shall be in close contact
with the plant, and this can only be done by a certain
mode of operation, which may be classed amongst those
more easily done than described. The dibble hole is first
made, the plant inserted, and the dibble again inserted in
the soil about an inch or so from the plant ; the dibble, still
remaining in the soil, is then pressed inwards towards the
plant, which brings the soil in close contact with the root,
so close that the plant will resist a considerable pull in
endeavouring to extract it from its hole; if it resists this
the operation of transplanting may be considered well done.
We may say that, so far as our own experience goes, it
takes as litjje time to transplant properly as improperly.
It may be said, certainly, that this transplanting is not by
any means adapted for farming on the large scale ; true, it
may be, and perhaps is not, but that transplanting to fill
up occasional vacancies is worth the labour involved, we
have no hesitation in declaring to be true; it is not a
question of a reduced crop, but it is a question of crop or
no crop on those places where the original seed has failed.
And we certainly know that very little time indeed is taken
up in transplanting plants, the value of which time is far,
very far, below that of the crop resulting from the labour
of so transplanting. But we may go further and say that
transplanting for some crops gives better results than where
the seed is originally sown, and the plants thinned out on
the ground. Kohl rabi, in our experience, invariably
yielded the largest crop when the plants were transplanted
from a seed-bed; and the poorest were those which were
grown upon the drill, sown turnip fashion, and then thinned
out. And every gardener knows the advantage of "prick-
ing out " of cabbage plants from the seed-bed before putting
them into the final place for growth.

344 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

•149. Onthe Weeding of Root Groins. — Eoot crops are often
termed " fallow " crops, from the fact that grown as they are
in drills they afford vacant spaces, the soil of which can be
stirred up and cleaned from weeds, so that the land may be
having many of the advantages of a "fallow," while it may
at the same time be growing a crop. If, however, advan-
tage is not taken of the peculiarities of the mode of culti-
vating root crops, in stirring the soil between the rows and
effectually cleaning them of the encumbering weeds; it is
evident that many of the advantages are lost. That much
of the indifference which we see around us on the subject
of cleaning of land arises from ignorance of the subject of
weeds and weeding, we have deemed it likely that a para-
graph or two on it might be very useful to many who have not
hitherto paid much attention to it.

150. " One year's seeding," says the proverb, "is seven
years' weeding." Those, therefore, if this is true, know
what they have to expect if they allow the seeding
— a labour which their worst wishers may well wish them
to have, so difficult is it to perform. There is, indeed,
nothing perhaps so unmistakably suggestive than the fact,
too well known to farmers, that while crops will be poor
with all the pains which patient care bestows upon them,
weeds will revel in abundance despite all attempts to get
rid of them. In view of this it has been said, and there
is something very suggestive in the statement, that weeds
have been sent as a beneficent arrangement in order to make
men industrious ; and to exercise a reflex influence of a
positively beneficial kind, inasmuch that the more the weeds
are eradicated, the finer will be the crops, which otherwise
they would destroy. For it is worthy of note, that the
mere getting rid of weeds exercises a most healthy influence
upon the plants near which they grow, as the soil is stirred
about them, and the atmospheric influences are allowed to
act upon the crops. We have spoken of the evils arising from
one year's seeding ; but there are some weeds which pro-
pagate chiefly by their roots, others again by their seeds.
We shall consider the latter kind first. The seeds of

OX THE WEEDING OF ROOT CEOPS. 345

weeds are distributed generally in one of three ways; first,
by the seeds being naturally distributed, either dropping
from the plants, or being scattered abroad by the winds ;
secondly, by being mixed up with the seeds of crops ; and,
thirdly, by the plants with ripe seeds having been put into the
manure heap, and spread on the land along with the manure
in autumn or spring. As to the first of these, some notion
may be had as to the rapidity with which weeds may be
propagated, if we state briefly here the number of seeds
which each plant of our best known weeds bear. Thus
the corn cockle (agrostemma githago) bears on an average 7
flowers, and each flower 370 seeds, or 2,599 seeds in all.
The chickweed (stellaria media) has 50 flowers, each flower
10 seeds, or 500 seeds in all. The charlock (sinapis ar-
vensis) has 400 flowers, and each flower 10 seeds, or 4,000
seeds in each plant. The groundsel (senecw vulgaris) has
130 flowers, and 50 seeds in each plant, or 6,500 seeds in
all. But there are weeds which bear still more largely
than even those named, bad as they are. Thus the corn
seed thistle (sonchus arvensis) has 190 flowers, and each
190 seeds, or giving a product of 19,000 seeds for each
plant. But this is far exceeded by the red poppy (the
" rose-a-ruby " of our forefathers), that scourge of many a
field, so abundant indeed in some that the flowers far ex-
ceed apparently the plants, and give a fiery red to the
whole surface. Each plant of this terrible weed (papaver
rhoeus) bears 100 flowers, and each flower 500 seeds, or
in the whole 50,000 seeds. Enough has been given to
show the paramount importance of preventing weeds from
seeding. Bad farming, indeed, is it that will allow of the
weeds to grow so long without disturbance, as to approach,
even remotely, the seeding stage; but if, by neglect, they
have been allowed to approach it, we would strongly coun-
sel the farmer to save no trouble nor expense to have the
weeds pulled up ; and when pulled up and collected, let
him be by no means satisfied with an attempt to kill them
by placing them in the dung heap. Some may have seeded,

346 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

and the process of pulling up may have been so retarded,
that all, or the majority of them, may have seeded ; and vain
indeed is the hope that the seeds, by being mixed up with
the manure, will have been killed. Even when apparently
well rotted — often, indeed, when lime is mixed in the heap
— the vitality of the seeds remains unimpaired; and hence,
when the manure is spread over the land in the autumn or
spring, the seeds germinate, and of that field in which it is
placed it may be said that the latter end is worse than the
beginning. We remember once having bought a lot of
well-rotted dung, so well rotted that all in it was appar-
ently dead; yet the growth of that same pest, the poppy,
which we have alluded to, was in the following spring
what the Yankees call a " caution " to see. If before this
we had any doubts as to the policy of burning all
weeds so as to get their value in the form of ashes, we
certainly had none ever after. We should, therefore, un-
hesitatingly, counsel all weeds to be burnt : that is the
only true way to deal with them : every other mode is but
a compromise with principle, and, like all compromises of
this kind, will only be a source of annoyance to him who
adopts it. By collecting and burning weeds we turn the
curse — which Scripture declares them to be — into a blessing.
151. We have thus glanced at the first and the third
of the ways in which weed-seeds are disseminated; we
have as briefly to point out the second of these, namely,
the mixing of these seeds with the seeds of crops. Shame
it is to say that in some cases this mixing is purposely and
systematically done by fraudulent seedsmen. The only
way, therefore, to meet this dastardly evil is to deal with
only first-class men; and, further, if seed purchased from
others than of this stamp is doubtful in value, to have it.
examined by an expert, and if weed-seeds in quantity are
detected, to expose the seller. But in many cases the
seeds of weeds get mixed up with those of the crop, not
with design, but through carelessness. The only way to
prevent this is carefully — in harvesting — to keep back all

ON THE WEEDING OF ROOT CROPS. 347

weeds, and not to allow them to be mixed up with the
crop. This, of course, may be, as it has often been,
objected to as involving labour. All that need be said in
reply to this is, that if labour is grudged to gain a good
end, the business — nay, any business — had better never
be entered into; nevertheless, there is another way of
looking at it — the cost of carefully keeping out seeds of
weeds from crop seeds may be set against the loss sustained
in after seasons by the number of weeds : we know pretty
well how the balance will be in some cases. On the other
hand, however, it may be said that farmers generally pur-
chase their seed, and do not save it. It must be saved,
however, somewhere; and where saved it is worth while
to save it, and not the seeds of weeds in addition. But
where seed is purchased for crops, it is no less true that
purchased along with it are the seeds of weeds ; and very
careless indeed are many farmers as to the condition of the
seed they purchase — so careless that they act as premium-
givers to those criminally disposed, by their carelessness
actually inducing fraudulent seedsmen to mix seeds of a
bad kind with them. All seed should be examined if pos-
sible. The following is the result of one or two examina-
tions of this kind, from a paper by Professor Buckman, who
has devoted much time to the subject of weeds : — In a pint
of clover seed the Professor discovered 7,600 weed-seeds ;
in a pint of cow-grass seed, 12,000; in a pint of brand
clover, 39,440; and 2 pints of Dutch clover yielded
severally 25,560 and 70,400 weed-seeds. Here, then, are
three sources of the spread of those weeds which are pro-
pagated by their seeds, all of them more or less directly
within the control of the farmer. He can prevent, if he
likes, the seeds of weeds being scattered abroad by the
winds, by simply cutting the weeds down before they seed ;
he can keep the seeds of weeds out of his dung-heap by
burning them ; and he can, in large measure, prevent his
crop-seeds being mixed with the seeds of weeds. But
there is another class of weeds which are mainly propagated.

348 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

by roots. The majority of farmers farming heavy wheat
land are but too well acquainted with the " couch grass "
(triticum repens), which so overruns some fields, which is
propagated so easily, and which is eradicated with such dif-
ficulty. The root of this pest is jointed, and each joint
sends out av fresh rootlet, so that by cutting up, as some
implements do, the weed merely — that is, dividing it into
parts — we only add to the mischief by giving existence to
new plants. Salt given in liberal doses is said to be an
excellent mode of getting rid of such grass. Docks are
another pest to the farmer : they are best got rid of by ex-
tracting the roots in wet weather, or when the ground is
damp, by means of what is called a " dock spade." This
or any other implement which may be used will require to
be used with care, so that the roots are extracted wholly :
for if any part of the root is left in it is the parent of a
vigorous plant. The more direct the pull in the direction
of its length, the more likely is the root to be wholly ex-
tracted ; any lateral strain thrown upon it is almost sure to
result in the root being broken short off. Such a mode of
getting rid of root-propagated weeds is, however, so slow
and tedious, arid not always so certain a process, that other
means have been looked for for the purpose of getting rid
of them. In pasture land and in meadow land — in the
latter at certain periods of the year only — the best plan is
to keep mowing the leaves down : let them in fact never
be allowed to develop their leaves to any extent, never so
far as to exceed 2 or 3 inches above the ground. Profes-
sor Buckman says — "As the leaves are the lungs of a
plant," bear in mind never to allow in such " cases the
lungs to develop themselves." This mode of meeting the
enemy is of course not available in lands, under arable
crops, nor, indeed, as we have pointed out, in meadow
land, at all seasons of the year. In land under crops, if
the crop is a grain one, many an opportunity will be
afforded the vigilant farmer to get rid of weeds which
show themselves above ground; and, generally speaking,

THE POTATO CROP. 349

the previous cultivation has so made the soil in that pul-
verised state that the weeds are pulled up with compara-
tive ease. It is a fortunate circumstance that the very act
of getting rid of weeds in fallow crops helps to insure
heavier crops. As soon as other crops are off the field,
the weeds should be taken in hand, either by forking the
patches covered with weeds, or by the use of the plough,
the grubber, or the cultivator. In the case of meadow
land, and in pasture, the effect of certain artificial manures
has not yet been fairly and fully tried. We have rea-
son to believe that there is much to be done in
this direction. We had occasion once to take occu-
pation of a large meadow a short time pnevious to
the hay crop being ready; but such was the condition
of one part of it, as regards weeds, that it was diffi-
cult to say which was the best crop, the grass or the
weeds. This part of the field was literally red with the
seeds of the dock, which was the prevalent seed. In mak-
ing the hay we had all the weeds carefully separated from
the hay, and the whole burnt; and as soon as the hay was
housed and the field cleared, we top-dressed the whole of it
with a mixture of nitrate of soda and salt in about equal
proportions, and at the rate of 2^ cwts. to the acre, taking
care to give to the weed-infested part a much heavier dress-
ing. To the great delight of the writer, the weeds were
fairly mastered, and no longer did they show in anything
like the rampant style they did in his first occupation of
the field. The hint thus afforded was taken, and the plan
adopted in other parts, and with the like success. In his
locality, and with his soil (a pretty heavy one), he has had
such a success in the treatment of perennial or root-propa-
gating weeds with nitrate of soda and salt, that he has a
good deal of confidence in the belief that if not a prevent-
ive it is a cure.

152. The Potato Crop. — The potato belongs to the order
"solanae," the genus is "solanum," and the species is
" solanum tuberosum." The varieties cultivated are very
numerous, over two hundred, — of these there are two

350 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

classes cultivated in the farm, the " large field potato," and
the "late large potato." The following are a few of the
varieties most esteemed, as stated by Mr. Appleyard, a
successful grower of the crop. " The early sorts first demand
attention. The best and earliest is the ' old ashtop ' or
' ashleaf kidney,' which may be had fit for use in a south
aspect by the middle of June. The next earliest, and con-
sidered by many more prolific, is called the 'improved
ashtop,' which is about two weeks later than the former
kind. Afterwards, and last of the earlies, are ' Hague
Seedlings/ which are ready generally about a fortnight be-
fore round potatoes. The earliest of the rounds are called
' ten weeks,' and are supposed to be fit for the table in that
time, though they are in reality often twelve or thirteen
weeks. There are two other kinds of this class, called
'early Mays' or 'early men,' and ' Dalmahoys,' which
several growers prefer to ' ten weeks.' For general use,
and for storing, though not early, I would recommend
Regents. Great care should be taken in selecting this
kind of seed, as there are many sorts very similar, but not
the true kind, and they are so much alike in appearance
that you might be very easily deceived. The advantages of
cultivating this kind are many, as it is a good cropper, pro-
ducing several tons per acre more than the earlies. It is
also a good user, being white, mealy, and good flavoured;
and by careful attention it will keep in good condition
until the beginning of April, and use well till the end of
May. There is another kind of round potato which I
must not pass over, as they are very prolific, though not
always of good quality : I allude to Rocks. I do not grow
many of this kind myself, as they exhaust the soil more
than any other sort, and are not so good for the table as
Regents; but any one requiring potatoes for cattle will
grow these in preference. Flukes are the best for spring
use, but as they are delicate and not very prolific, they are
not grown so extensively as some of the other kinds.
There are several varieties which I have passed over, the
most of them being inferior in quality, and not desirable to

THE POTATO CROP. 351

be grown." Lawson, in his work on Agricultural Produce,
gives a very complete list of the different varieties to which
we refer. The reader will also find them fully detailed in
Wilson's " Farm Crops," (Blackie & Sons). Of all soils,
that reclaimed from rivers, or what is called " warp land,"
is the best adapted for the potato ; it can be cultivated in
this soil for long periods without much, if any, deteriora-
tion in quality. The next best soil is a free loamy one;
sandy soils also, if well manured, are adapted for the crop;
as indeed may be said of almost all soils met with on farms
which are well drained, carefully worked, and well manured,
— the good drainage of the land is essential. A good crop
can be got from old ley or sward ; as a rotation crop it is
placed between two grain crops. As soon as the grain
crop is off the land the plough should be set to work, or,
what is better, the scarifier or grubber, to get it properly
cleaned from all weeds. When this is done the land should
be ploughed with a pretty deep furrow and left to stand
exposed to the winter's frost, &c. In the preparation of
the soil for potatoes the great point to be aimed at is a free
and porous condition, in which the tubers can have liberty
to grow. As already stated, the crop is one which requires
the soil to be well manured; opinion is divided as to the
period at which the manure should be applied to the land,
some holding that it is best to apply it in the autumn or
winter, others that the proper time is to apply it just im-
mediately before the planting; the latter is the method
generally in use; although it may be reasonably doubted,
as has been suggested, whether the fresh applied manure
has not an injurious effect upon the potatoes, inducing the
much-dreaded disease. Potatoes are always grown in drills
or ridges ; these should be at widths of thirty inches. The
manure, farm-yard dung at the rate of 15 to 20, and even
in some instances as high as 30 tons to the acre, is placed
between the ridges, spread evenly out between them with
the fork, the " sets " placed at the proper intervals apart 1 2
to 15 inches, and the ridges split by the double mould
broad plough to cover the manure and the sets. Great

352 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

care should be taken to prepare the land, and to free it
from weeds ; good weather should be chosen, avoiding going
on the land when wet ; otherwise the soil will be lumpy
and not in the finely pulverized condition which the tubers
demand. On the modes of planting and the preparation
of the sets, the following remarks by a practical farmer in
the " Mark Lane Express " are so good that we do our
readers a service by giving them here. The modes of plant-
ing are various. "The most common mode is to plant
every third furrow. Another mode is to open the soil,
plant along the open, and close the soil again, as in ridging.
Another is to plant along the prepared soil by spade,
making crevices at proper intervals, into which the plant or
set is dropped. Another is to form beds, or plant along
the surface, leaving a space, which is dug out, and thrown
over the top : this is called the ' lazy-bed ' system.
Another is to make a trench with the spade, plant the sets,
and hoe the trench in. This is the general garden practice.
For ordinary field practice the third furrow system is the
best. Two furrows are opened the whole length of the
field, so that the planters are planting the two furrows on
the one space while the other is preparing, and so on
throughout the field. The distance from set to set is of
great importance. If too near, the potatoes are small arid
numerous, but not marketable. The experience of a great
many extensive growers, farming in the district from which
I write, proves much in favour of wide intervals; none
planting at a less distance than ten inches apart, while
many prefer fifteen inches as the minimum interval, pro-
viding the sets are large and sound. My own practice,
derived from long experience, has settled down to planting
from eleven to thirteen inches as the intervals from set to
set, not including the set itself; depending, Nho we ver, much
upon the variety planted, early potatoes being planted
nearest, and large haulmy varieties the further distance.
It is a great point to have them so planted as to produce
the greatest quantity of marketable potato, i. e., the greatest
weight or number that will not pass through the meshes of

THE POTATO CROP. 353

an inch and quarter riddle. If the object is merely to
grow seed potatoes from a new or approved variety, by all
means plant them at narrow intervals, and from sets with
plenty of eyes; but if the object is to grow a marketable
crop, by all means plant them at wide intervals in the
rows, at the same time having a wide space between the
rows. This will be found the best practice in planting.
The size and preparation of the sets is another matter of
great consequence, and is not well understood by ordinary
planters. Every perfect eye in the set will produce a shoot
or stalk, which will require room and nourishment, and will
produce fruit or tubers. These being so close and crowded
will of course be stinted or restricted in their growth;
hence the whole crop will be small and unsaleable as food.
To obviate this the set should all be looked over, and any
superabundance of eyes must be cut away, so as to leave
not more than two or three good eyes at the most. The
cutting away of 'the rose' is often sufficient, as that part
of the potato contains the most eyes. "When this depart-
ment of the business is carefully attended to, the potato
set will only throw out one, two, or three strong healthy
shoots, which rapidly get away into a fine full growing
potato plant, vigorous and promising ; but with many eyes
we have many shoots, all weak and tender, and their pro-
duce not exceeding a walnut in size; here, in a great
measure, is the clue to the fact of the stinted growth of so
many of our potato crops. The size of the set is not of
such importance as many are led to believe; it ought,
however, to possess full vitality, and perhaps the larger the
set the better. The planting of eye-sets, of course, adds
much to the cost ; a good-sized potato should make at least
two sets, and in many tubers three. No set ought to be
smaller than a walnut, nor need it be much larger. I do
not think it good practice to plant small potatoes whole,
except they are carefully looked over in reference to the
number of eyes. If they are found to be right, then their
being whole, is unimportant. As to the operation of de-
positing or placing the set, it is desirable that the most

354 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

vigorous eye should be uppermost, so that no hindrance
to its quick growth takes place ; a little care on the part
of the setter will suffice for this." The best month in
which to plant the potato is April, as there are fewer
chances of frost injuring the young plants. The after
culture of the crop is one demanding considerable care on
the part of the farmer, the great point being to keep the
soil loose so as to enable the plants to send their root
fibres into it as deeply as possible. When the plants are
fairly up, the intervals between the drills should be well
scuffled and hoed ; care being taken not to disturb the sides
of the drills too much, as the fibres will be found to have
extended pretty widely. ~No pains should be spared to
keep the weeds down. The earthing up of the plants may
be done either by the common or double-breasted plough ;
the former is preferred by some, as it throws the soil better
up towards the plants, the double «plough pressing it too
much to the sides ; the earthing up is the last process of the
culture-proper of the potato, the plants being left to them-
selves till ready for taking up, the best month for which is
October.

153. The Potato Disease. — It would take a goodly-sized
volume to give even a resume of all that has been advanced
in connection with the potato disease ; it is, therefore, quite
impossible that we can glance even in the briefest possible
fashion at the different phases of the question, and it is
questionable if any real purpose of utility could be served
by doing so if our space permitted ; for, in spite of all that
has been written on the subject, we are as far as ever from
a real knowledge of the disease, how it is caused, how it
may be cured, and, what would be of greater importance to
the farmer, how it can be prevented. Amidst the variety
of plans proposed either for preparing the soil, adding
manures or special substances to it, or for treating the po-
tatoes proposed to be used as seed, the two which appear
to us to be the best are connected with the soil and the
manure — the first is to have the land well worked and
well drained. Damp and wet soils are undoubtedly bad for

THE POTATO DISEASE. 355

the crop ; and the second is that to which we have already
alluded, namely, not to apply the fresh manure to the land
immediately before the planting, but to apply it in the
autumn, allowing it to lie in the soil all the winter. Of
the plans proposed for treating the potato itself, the best
seems to be that in which it is subjected to a high tem-
perature. Another plan to prevent the disease appears to
be worthy of notice here ; it has been proposed by Mr. Pa-
terson of Dundee, who, during the last twenty years, has
paid great attention to the disease — his theory is that "the
only practicable method of combating the disease is to
propagate new varieties of plants from the apple." " Mr.
Paterson," says a writer in an agricultural paper, "maintains
that the potato, as in the case of certain domestic animals,
requires cross-breeding, so to speak, in order to fortify its
constitution against the influence of the disease : that there
is a natural tendency in the plant to degenerate when it is
repeatedly grown in the same soil and under like conditions,
year after year, without variation ; and that a constant suc-
cession of new and healthy varieties should be kept up

by a judicious selection of roots raised from the apple.
*****

Believing his theory for the prevention of the potato
disease to be the correct one, Mr. Paterson has laboured
during the last 17 years to put it to a practical test by
raising numerous varieties of plants from the apples. The
process has necessarily been a slow one, involving consi-
derable labour and expense, but the results obtained are
such as must ultimately compensate him for his expendi-
ture of trouble and money in carrying out his experiments.
He has succeeded in raising a great many varieties of seed-
ling potatoes, some of which are so prolific, and of such.
excellence in form and quality of tuber, as to warrant the
belief that they are destined, when more widely known, to
supersede most other varieties now in existence. At pre-
sent the kinds most extensively cultivated for commercial
purposes are 'Regents' and 'Rocks' (the latter having
been introduced several years ago, mainly, we believe,

356 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

through Mr. Paterson's instrumentality); but these varie-
ties, sharing the fate of the old 'Buffs' and 'Blue Dons,'
that were swept away by the disease of 1846, will, no
doubt, begin to degenerate in a few years, and ultimately
fall out of cultivation altogether. In view of such a
possible contingency, however, the farmer need not feel in
the least degree alarmed, for among Mr. Paterson's seed-
lings there are new Eegents and new Rocks, as superior to
the old ones in regard to size, vigour, quality, and fecun-
dity, as is ' a Triton to a minnow.'

" About a year ago we had an opportunity of examining
several remarkable specimens of Mr. Paterson's seedlings,
but, as we did not then see them growing, \?e were, of course,
unable to form an idea as to their productiveness. We
saw enough of them, however, to convince us that Mr.
Paterson's experiments had been successful in so far as size
and form of tuber were concerned. It only remained that
we should see them ' unearthed,' so as to be able to esti-
mate their productiveness, and that we should 'taste them
and try them,' so as to be in a condition to pronounce on
their quality. Both of these ' missing links ' in the chain
of evidence have now been supplied, and we are bound to
say that the general results have far exceeded our most
sanguine anticipations."

154. Taking-up and Storing of the Root Crops. — The
following notes on this important department of farm la-
bour will usefully conclude the present chapter. We com-
mence these by Mr. Spooner's directions as to the Swede : —

155. (a.) Swedes. — "Five men are employed to pull up the
roots; each man takes two rows; standing between them
he takes with his left hand a root from the row on his
left side, and pulling with his right hand a root from the
row on his right side, and pulling both up at the same
time, places them side by side across the row where he
pulled up the roots with his right hand, so as to have,
the tops lying in the space between the two rows he has
pulled up ; the next man takes the two rows at the right
hand of the last two rows we have just described, and he,

TAKING-TIP OF THE ROOT CROPS. 357

with each of his hands pulls up roots and places them on
the line at the row which he has pulled up with his left
hand, with the root end lying towards the root end of the
first row, so that we have now four rows of roots lying
close together in two rows side by side, with their leaves
on the outside of each of these rows, and the roots of each
row now nearly touching each other; and every four rows
when growing, are thus, when pulled, laid in two rows,
root to root, occupying not more than 27 inches. .Now
as the next four rows are lifted in the same way, and
placed in like manner, we have a space unoccupied of three
times 27 inches, or 6 feet 9 inches between each double
row of roots, for the cart to go between them to carry off
the bulbs. After the five men pulling the roots there fol-
low women or boys with knives made of pieces of old scythes,
who, by repeated blows, cut off the leaves and roots with-
out moving one of them with their hands. This is con-
stant work, and requires 10 active women to keep up with
the five men pulling.

"Immediately on the heels of the cutters follow the carts,
between the two double rows of bulbs as they lie, having
their leaves and roots cut off, and one of the contractors and
nine active boys and girls throw up the bulbs as far as they
can into the cart, the man speaking to the horse to move
forward or stop, as they clear the ground. When one cart
is full, an empty one has been brought by one of the boys
who drive the carts, and placed immediately behind the
full one, so that as the boy moves off with the full cart, the
man calls the horse with the empty cart to move forward,
and they proceed to throw the roots into the cart as fast
as they did into the one that is just gone off the field.

"The pulling of the roots and the filling of the carts
being the principal work, one of the contractors is in each
of these departments, and the work proceeds with the ut-
most regularity and despatch; 20 cart-loads have been
filled hourly in the field and delivered in the store; 182
loads, of a ton weight each, have been pulled in a day of nine
hours by 6 men, 10 womeri, and 9 boys and girls.

I
358 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

" The stores are made of posts and rails enclosing a space
9 feet apart, 4-J- feet high, and of any length the space
will admit, and as near to where they are to be consumed
as possible. The posts are 5 feet apart, let in to the ground
18 inches, with five rails 5 inches wide nailed to the
inside of the posts, and each of these stores is three feet
apart. I have 14 of these 70 feet long, which is sufficient
to store from 1,000 to 1,200 tons of bulbs.

" In placing the roots in the store we put straw inside
the rails, of some thickness, to keep out the frost and wet
from the side. As the store is being filled, the end of the
store being railed off as the sides are, straw is placed against
it and against the sides for 8 or 10 feet from the end;
the carts are backed to the end, the tail board of the cart
being taken out, the load is tipped and the horse walks
out of the store, when a boy, who by this time has brought
another loaded cart, walks off with the empty one to the
field; two stores are being filled at the same time, so that
each gets the alternate loads. There is one man who places
the straw and thatches the stores as they are filled, one
man to back the carts and empty them in the store, and
two men, two boys, and two women throwing up the roots
level with the other rails, and raising them in the middle,
so as to form them into such an angle as will do for
thatching.''

156. (b.) Potatoes. — The following is the method
adopted by the author we have already quoted : — " If
they are not intended for market immediately, the po-
tatoes should be thoroughly ripe, and, if possible, pied in
dry weather. When the leaves and stems are quite dead,
you may then judge they are fit to be taken up for sowing
purposes. The best month for this is October. If they are
neglected until November, you have probably to contend
with wet weather, which, with days much shorter, will
considerably alter the expense of labour. The first thing
to be done is to have them ploughed up or thrown out
with the digger, and a sufficient number of women em-
ployed to keep the man and horse constantly at work with

TAKING-UP OF THE ROOT CROPS. 359

the plough. The work of the women is to take each one
row, and put the potatoes into baskets, having two or
three men to empty them into the cart ready for taking
them to the place of storing, generally called a pie or a pit.
Formerly most potatoes were put in a hole a foot deep,
hence I suppose the reason they are called pits. But I do
not approve of that plan, as the potatoes at the bottom
often rot, caused by the wet. The best way is to have
them made into a pie in the shape of a roof, on a piece of
dry level ground, and covered with straight wheat straw,
and about 3 in. thick of soil, except on the top, which
should be left a few weeks without any. If the pies are
made in warm dry weather, and covered with 4 or 5 in.
of soil all over, they would probably heat and many of
them rot. This was the case in many places this year.
Potatoes were ripe in September, and growers were anxious
to have them stored during the fine weather, which, it will
be remembered, was very hot; consequently those potatoes
which had too much soil put on them, before the heat had
got out of the pies, were in some instances completely
spoiled. The best way of getting the potatoes taken up
is to let them to people to get out of the rows and put
into the cart, which will cost from 12s. to 15s. per acre,
including harrowings and pickings twice over. After they
are got out of the rows, the land should be harrowed, and
the tops taken away to the compost heap, and afterwards
I would have it harrowed across, so that all those potatoes
which are near the surface may be gathered and saved
from injury by the frost. There will be a few left which
may be picked when the land is ploughed. When the po-
tatoes have been in the pies three or four weeks, I would
have another covering of soil put on all over, to protect
them from the weather; or, if there were any diseased, it
would be wise to turn them over, and sort out all bad ones
to be used for cattle and pigs, and pie the good ones down
again to remain until they were sent to market."

156. The following on the same subject from another
authority will be useful : — " Before the appearance of the

360 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

disease in 1845, it was quite common to store potatoes in
large masses in houses. The roots would often keep quite
sound in this state through the greater part of the winter.
No fermentation was induced, and any little heat generated
had the effect of causing the roots to sprout. Since that
time, however, things have been entirely changed. In
1845 the larger portion of the crop was taken up to all
appearance quite sound; but wherever it was stored in
large pits or in houses a destructive fermentation was in-
duced, which speedily reduced the roots to a rotten mass.
As is well known, the warm and rainy weather of 1846
gave rise to the most virulent form which the disease has
ever assumed in this country. It was only a small por-
tion of the crop that was worth the lifting. The drier
seasons that followed seemed to have the effect of warding
off the disease to a greater or less extent in certain districts.
In Scotland, too, as a general rule, the malady has not been
anything so severe as it has been in England. This may
be mostly ascribed to the lower temperature and to the less
frequent electric explosions in the north. It has been long
observed that thunderstorms seem to stimulate the latent
seeds of the disease, and promote first the destruction of
the haulm and then that of the tubers. Thunder-
storms have been pretty general over Scotland, but
it may - be remarked that those localities which escaped
them are at present far from free from the ravages
of the disease. It has been found that putting together
potatoes in large quantities has often had the effect of
spreading the taint through the whole. For this reason it
is seldom that they are now stored in houses. The smaller
the quantities that can be put together the better, as it will
diminish the risk of their spoiling. The narrower, there-
fore, that the pits are made, so much the more chance is
there of the roots keeping through the winter, and not
sprouting prematurely in spring. It is far from advisable
to begin to store before the weather becomes somewhat
cool, as heat is very apt to spread the destructive taint.
The mere handling of the potatoes, too, before the crop is

TAKING-UP OF THE ROOT CROPS. 361

ripened, and especially in the condition it is at present,
excites the dormant or undeveloped stages of the disease ;
and hence the rapid course which we already read of its
running in roots that have been recently lifted. A good
many, seeing the stems totally destroyed, imagine that the
crop is fully ripe, and may be stored when the weather is
favourable. This, however, is a highly dangerous practice,
and it is better to wait till the bracing weather of October
shall have so far dried the soil and ripened or hardened
the roots. Dry weather in the latter part of October is
much to be desired ; for unless the crop is stored free from
wet, there will be more or less decay in the pits. The
sound and the diseased roots can never be better separated
than when the crop is ploughed up. They are far more
easily distinguished at that time, and the unsound roots
can be consumed on the farm or sent to the farina mills.
Turning over and picking out the diseased in the pits is
both an expensive and unsatisfactory process, as it rather
encourages the progress of decay among those roots that are
sound."

157. (c.^ Mangold Wurtzel. — The <end of October is the
usual time for taking up this crop. The roots are care-
fully pulled up, and the tops and roof fibres cut off by
a sharp-sickle or knife, the roots being laid on one side of
the ridge, the leaves and rootlets on the other. If the
weather is fine, the roots may be left exposed to be dried
by the sun and air. If the weather is doubtful, the best
way is to lay the roots in heaps ; and if rain comes on, to
cover them up with the leaves, which are usually placed in
heaps in the ridges. When the roots are ready to be
stored they are carried to the yard — or to those parts of the
field where they are intended to be stored; — a layer of straw
is placed, of considerable thickness, in the bottom of a shal-
low trench, or what is better, upon a layer of stones or
broken bricks, and upon this bottom the roots are placed,
and gradually built up, the roots being placed with their
thick ends outwards — the whole heap assuming a sloping
or roof-like form at top — and well covered with straw,
2 A

362 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

and properly secured. If house-room is abundant in the
barn, the roots will keep well in a dry place, straw being
used to cover the heap. The same mode of taking-up and
storing will do for beet-root, kohl rabi, carrots and parsnips.
If the quantity of the two latter crops be small, and house-
room can be spared, they will keep best in dry sand.

158. (d.} Cabbages. — The cabbage crop is ready for taking
up in the end of October or beginning of November. The
stem is cut off by a sharp knife — the outer leaves are taken off
which are decayed or are likely to decay — and the heads are
stored up in pits much like turnips, or may be housed and
covered with straw. Like kohl rabi, cabbages are a hardy
crop, and may be left out in the field all winter, being
taken up for use when required.

DIVISION FIFTH.

GRASSES AND OTHER FORAGE CROPS, AS CLOVER

LUCERN SAINFOIN VETCHES.

159. The supply of grass as a feeding material for the
stock of our farms is provided for in three ways ; first, by
"pasture land;" second, by " meadows ;" and third, by
" artificial grasses." The two first belong to what are called
" permanent grass fields " — the third forms part of the rota-
tion of the farm in what is called "alternate husbandry.".
In pasture lands, the cattle or other stock are put in to
feed from off the field, — in meadows the grass is allowed
to grow, and is cut down when matured, and made into
hay, — in artificial grasses, the produce is either eaten off
the land directly by the stock put on to it, or it is cut green
to be consumed by the stock in the house, or it is cut when
matured and made into hay. We shall consider the two
classes of " permanent grass " and " artificial " grass lands.

1 60. Of the one hundred and nineteen species of grasses,
which Professor Buckman says make up the British grasses,

GRASSES. 363

twenty-four are found in our meadows and pastures. This,
" the first group " — and we quote from an excellent series of
papers in the " Mark Lane Express " by the above eminent
authority — " is somewhat remarkable, as it shows that in a
pre-eminently pastoral country, where grasses grow so re-
markably well, only a little more than one-fourth of the
species of grasses belong to the meadow, and even these, if
we carefully examine them in the following allocation, may
be very considerably lessened.

LIST OF THE USUAL SPECIES OF GRASSES OF THE MEADOW.

1. Anthoxantlmm odoratum — Sweet vernal.

2. Alopecurus pratensis — Meadow foxtail.

3. Phleum pratense — Timothy or catstail.

4. Phleum Boehmeri — Boehmer's catstail.

5. Agrostis alba vars — White bent.

6. Agrostis canina — Common bent.

7. Aira flexuosa — Wavy Hair-grass.

8. Aira cristata (Koeleria) — Crested hair-grass.

9. Holcus lanatus — Soft grass.

10. Arrhenatherum avenaceum — Oat-like grass.

11. Cynosurus cristatus — Crested dogstail.

12. Hordeum pratensis — Meadow barley.

13. Lolium perenne — Perennial rye.

14. Poa pratensis — Smooth meadow grass.

15. Poa trivialis — Rough meadow grass.

16. Briza media — Quaking grass.

17. Dactyl is glomerata — Cocksfoot.

18. Festuca pratensis— Meadow fescue.

19. Festuca loliacea — Rye fescue.

20. Festuca ovina — Sheep's fescue.

21. Festuca duriuscula — Hard fescue.

22. Bromus erectus — Upright brome.

23. Avena pubescens — Hairy oat-grass.

24. Avena flavescens — Yellow oat-grass.

161. Now, if we dissect even this limited list, we shall
find that one-third only belong to what may be termed
useful grasses : the rest mark not the best conditions for
a meadow. They may be arranged according to their
numbers, as follow : —

1. Good deep Meadow soils,

2, 3, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19 8

2. Thin Meadow,

1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, 20, 21, 22 9

364 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

3. Poor Clays,

9, 11, 16 3

4. Uplands,

7, 10, 23, 24 4

Total, 24

162. From these data it follows that only about eight
species of grasses are really of the best ; all the others are
inferior, or not so good ; and if we look carefully to the
examples which may come before us of the four kinds of
meadow just tabulated, we shall most certainly find that if
the grasses are more mixed than stated — and it will be
next to impossible to define their limits with absolute ex-
actitude— yet they will prevail upon the plan stated ; any
admixture, for example, of 2 with 1 , or 3 or 4 with 2, will
be exceptional cases, and the interloping specimens will
ever be starved, and grow in bad condition ; as thus, the
Aira flexuosa, even if sown, would die the first year in a
rich meadow ; whilst Alopecurus pratensis could not live in
a poor upland."

163. We now proceed to discuss the subject of perma-
nent pasture under the two heads of "how to pro-
duce a new," and second, "how to improve an old
pasture." In commencing to form a new pasture, the
first point to be considered is the nature of the soil,
which naturally dictates the kinds of grasses to be grown
upon it. Some soils are so remarkably well adapted to
the production of rich grasses, that with the simple appli-
cation of manure which it receives from the droppings of
the stock fed upon it, its value will be maintained for a
long series of years. In other soils the elements of fertility
are so few that the produce is exceedingly poor, unless the
deficiency is made up by the application of manures. "We
have said above that the nature of the soil defines the kind
of grasses to be sown. Professor Coleman, in describing —
in an excellent paper on " the Management of Grass Land,"
read before the Central Farmers' Club — the mode of produc-
ing a pasture, states, that there should be a mixture of grar

GRASSES. W5

minaceous and leguminous (grasses and clovers) plants ; this
mixture depending upon the soil. In good loams, where
sand and clay are well proportioned, grasses may be grown
of a highly nutritious character, such as Alopecurus praten-
sis (Meadow foxtail) — Phleum pratensis (Timothy or cats-
tail) — Dactylis glonierata (cocksfoot). These are grasses
which produce liberally, and to them we may add Anthox-
anthum odoratum (sweet-smelling vernal grass), which will
give flavour to the hay — Poa pratensis (meadow grass)
Perennial rye grass — and Common Red and Dutch clovers.
For lands varying from rich loams as above to poor stiff
clays, the quantities of the grasses we have named may be
increased rather than the addition of new kinds ; if these
are supplied, Poa trivialis (rough meadow grass), and Fes-
tuca loliacea (lolium fescue) will be useful ; the quantity of
the rye grass and the common clover being increased, and
that of the more nutritive grasses diminished. Where thin
soils or limestone are met with — not well suited for or de-
sirable to be made into permanent pasture — Festuca ovina
(sheep's fescue) may be introduced, as also a small quantity
of Avena flavescens (yellow oat grass), and Avena pubescens
(soft or downy oat grass); and ki addition to the common
and the Dutch clover, Achillea millifolia (yarrow) and the
common vetchling may be sown. For sandy soils, which
are seldom adapted for permanent pastures, the rich nutri-
tive grasses may be left out altogether, large quantities of
common rye grass, smooth meadow, and hard fescue grass
being used, together with smaller quantities of sweet vernal
and soft oat grasses — clovers in greater variety than named
above should be used, the " zig-zag " being chiefly used —
this being natural to sandy soils, and bird's foot, trefoil, and
yarrow. In producing permanent pastures, the next point
for consideration is, whether they are to be found with or
without a crop, that is, grown in conjunction with some
crop used in arable husbandry, as oats, or grown without a
crop. Much will depend upon the locality, soil, and cli-
mate, for, as Professor Coleman well points out, in some
districts the young seeds if sown alone would be scorched

366 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

up with the hot sun, whereas in other humid localities,
and in freer soils, the seeds would do much better without
than with a crop. The same authority quotes, as an instance
of capital management, the case of production of a perma-
nent pasture out of a naturally rough land, on Mr. H.
Howard's property at Greystoke, Cumberland, which we
here give ; forty or fifty acres were broken up at a time, one
or two crops being taken just to clean the surface and allow
the vegetable matter to rot. The process of formation
is thus described by Mr. Barker, Mr. Howard's agent.

164. " 1. The Soil. — Soils of various qualities have been
treated, — sandy clay, and moorish soils on a clay, and sandy
clay subsoil; red loam on limestone, and red loam on free-
stone, soft spongy clays and hard gravels.

165. 2. The mode of breaking up the old Sward. — Paring
and burning were resorted to on some rough heathy land at
first; but lately, the first operation has been simply ploughing
out with two horses abreast, excepting the land was very
rough with ling or rushes, and then these were mown off
before ploughing. The land so ploughed begun in October
and carried on to be finished by January if possible — was
sown with oats, generally black Tartarian, and manured with
from 2 to 3 cwt. of Peruvian guano.

166. 3. Course of Crops. — Oats, as above, the first year.
Second year — Turnips, with a mixture of lime and guano,
the turnips chiefly eaten on the ground. Third year — If
the land appeared insufficiently enriched or unbroken,
another crop of turnips as before; if considered in a proper
state, then the land well scarified and worked, and about
the latter end of May or beginning of June, sown with
rape and grass seeds, and a little guano. In the spring of
the year, either preceding the turnip crop or before sowing
down, the land received a good liming, say 150 or 160
bushels to the acre. I have never in practice foun^ any pre-
judicial effect or loss from applying lime and guano in the
same year, but rather the contrary. If the ammonia is set
tire by the lime, I think the soil catches it.

167. 4. The mixture of Seeds — The following may be

GRASSES. 367

taken as an average, but different soils had different quan-
tities— 5 Ibs. rape, 5 Ibs. cow grass, 5 Ibs. white clover,
2 Ibs. red clover, 2 Ibs. alsike clover, 2 Ibs. meadow foxtail,
1 Ib. crested dogstail, 2 quarts meadow fescue, 8 quarts
Italian rye grass, 8 quarts Pacey's rye grass, 8 quarts
Steckney's rye grass, 2 quarts cocksfoot.

168. 5. Period at which First Fed, generally in August.
The field sown is always divided by hurdles into three or
four divisions, and these are fed in rotation, not allowing
them to get too bare. The stock in the first year, always
sheep, which fatten with surprising rapidity. The rape
affords shelter to the young seeds, and the additional feed
gives increased droppings on the land and increased fer-
tility.

1 69. 6. Future Management, and Manures, if any. —
The second year, a part is generally cut for hay, mown
early about 4th to 8th of June, and a luxuriant fog
follows. The part pastured is fed by a mixed stock of
horses, cattle, and sheep, and so on, from year to year. If
judiciously stocked and attended to, the pasture becomes,
in the second or third year, like old good pasture land, and
will continue so. Land managed as above twenty years
ago, is now still fine pasture. You will observe that all
wet land is first drained, either before the first plougher
out, or in the stubble. As to improvement in value, the
land has been advanced from 100 to 500 per cent. We
took into our hands about 100 acres from a farm that had
been ploughed and mismanaged ; the farmer was glad to
get quit of it at 3s. 6d. per acre. After undergoing the
above course of treatment, and after we had three years of
the first grass, the farmer was pleased to have it again at
25s. per acre, and it is now far cheaper to him than when
he paid 3s. 6d."

170. The second point to be considered is the "im-
provement of worn-out old pastures." Bad pastures arise
not only from the defective quality of the grasses grown,
but also from the defective nature of the drainage. A sine
qua non is therefore the complete draining of the land.

£08 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

Drainage has been more than once attributed as the cause
of failure in pasture lands, but this notion arises altogether
from a misapprehension of what drainage is, and what its
effects are if properly carried out. Professor Coleman has
the following very suggestive remarks o-n this and other
points : —

171. "I do not say in all cases, but in the majority of
cases where grass land is unhealthy for stock, it is either be-
cause an excess of moisture impoverishes the herbage, pre-
vents a steady growth in early spring, and causes a too rapid
and luxuriant herbage in summer, or else that the soil is de-
ficient in alkalis, lime, and bone earth. This latter we can
ascertain by an examination of the natural herbage. When-
ever we find clover, lupin, &c., we may doubt the advantage
of using bones ; and if we further find the soil rich in lime,
we may feel satisfied that our money will be thrown away on
bones or lime. We tried a series of experiments at Cirences-
ter on grass land, on the oolite, and could never see the
least benefit from bones, superphosphate, or lime, and this
experience will, I am sure, be corroborated by all who
farm upon .limestone formations. When, however, we
have to do with pastures on the sandstone or ironclay for-
mations, bones and lime tell marvellously, because these
materials are deficient in the soil naturally, and we have
been removing what little there was in the shape of hay,
milk, and meat, &e. Artificials (manures) are very costly, and
a mistake in using an article that is not needed will be a
great loss. I would, therefore, recommend every one to try
an experiment for himself, using bones, superphosphate,
and ammoniacal manures. Where bones are found to pro-
duce no effect, ammoniacal manures will tell; but as Mr.
Lawes has ably shown, well made farm-yard manure, which
contains all the mineral food of plants, in addition to am-
monia, is the best dressing for grass land, especially when
it is worked up into a compost with soil, lime, &e. It is
a great question as to whether we can best improve a pas-
ture, or break it up and re-sow ; some are so hidebound,
so overrun with couch grass and other weeds, that it seems

GRASSES. 369

at first hopeless to try and develop good grasses and de-
stroy the rubhish. Still, I have seen very remarkable improve-
ments effected by care and attention ; and, as a general rule,
I should recommend improvement rather than reconstruc-
tion, which is usually a tedious process. There are soils
and situations so favourable to grass, that if we leave land
at rest for three or four years it becomes covered without
any seeds having been sown, and in such cases, it will
answer best to break up, take a crop or two, and relay; but
this is exceptional, and we must remember that we thus
destroy, to a great extent, that mass of vegetable mould in
which the roots of grasses delight, and which is so difficult
to reform. The surface of rough land should be well har-
rowed over and over again until the couch grass, moss, &c.,
are pulled out and the air let in. In a work on agricul-
ture,'published in 1807, and which abounds in good prac-
tical matter, I find a scarifier with two sets of teeth, in-
vented by Mr. M'Dougall of Oxford Street, recommended
for this .purpose ; and when harrows are not heavy enough,
I would recommend the use of an ordinary scarifier to tear
out the moss and weeds. Constant rolling is also beneficial,
tending to produce an even, firm surface; good grass only
grows on a firm surface ; every one must have noticed the
superior quality of the herbage wherever a footpath crosses
a field. Levelling any irregularities, and sowing a few
seeds to replace the couch, &c., harrowed up, knocking off
nettles, and salting the ground, spudding up thistles, and
generally looking after the surface, and, above all, apply-
ing bulky dressings of soil, farm-yard manure, lime, &c.,
almost anything bulky, as food for grass — thus, road scrap-
ings from granite, or flint from clay, and from limestone ma-
terials on sandy land or land deficient in lime — will do
much good."

172. The application of manurial substances to grass
lands under improvement is, as might be expected, a mat-
ter of the greatest importance; this department, however,
requires to be exercised with the greatest care. To apply
some manures is merely throwing away money; it is diffi-

370 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

cult to give details as to the mode to be pursued, inasmuch
as the practice varies, or should vary, with the soil, climate,
&c. For instance, bones and lime, especially the former,
have been used in some districts with such marked benefit
that they have been deemed likely to be as advantageous
in others to which they have been applied, whereas the
result proved that they were worthless, or next to worth-
less, the land being, in fact, well provided with the very
materials which the bones and lime, &c., were applied to
supply. Professor Coleman points out that the best way
to improve grass land is by folding sheep upon it which
are fed upon oil-cake. The following remarks by the
eminent authority, Dr. Voelcher, on this point of manuring
will be read with interest : —

173. "It was quite true that there was land which
had a natural aptitude for producing grass, just as there
was a great deal of land in England which had a natural
aptitude for producing — almost without any kind of manure,
but simply through deep ploughing — a very heavy produce
of corn. But the question was whether there was any
grass land which would not repay careful attention, and
yield a large increase of the produce. He believed that
if the same degree of attention which had been bestowed
on arable land were given to pasture, they would see the
produce very materially increased, and in some cases find
the character of the herbage greatly improved. Having
seen a good deal of the pasture land in Cheshire, he knew
what excellent effects were produced there by a judicious
application of manures adapted to the soil. He had seen
great changes effected through the application of bones,
both in the quantity and quality of the herbage. At the
same time, he felt bound to say that he had seen the same
bone manures tried in Gloucestershire, and he had tried
them himself, without producing the slightest benefit.
There could be no doubt as to the fact that there was
grass land to which it was a waste of money to apply any
artificial manure at all. It was better to apply the manure
to the arable portions of the farm than to spend money on

GRASSES. 371

the manuring of such grass land. In short, the character
of the soil must be carefully studied and watched by those
who had the land in their occupation. Still he believed
that, by the judicious application of proper manures, they
might very materially increase the produce of their pastures.
The character of the manure which was applied to the land
would materially influence the result ; indeed the experi-
ments which had been tried by Mr. Laws and others
showed that the farmer could, to a great extent, regulate
his produce, and that he could grow a much larger quantity
of produce than those who had not tried or read the results
of the experiments might think possible, through the ap-
plication of particular kinds of manure. Thus, by the ap-
plication of ammoniacal manures, farmers could almost
treble their produce, though, he was sorry to add, at the
expense of quality. On the other hand, by the application
of phosphatic manures, they could materially change the
quality of the natural grasses, for the application of bones
and superphosphate would greatly increase their clover and
leguminous produce. Thus, by the careful study of the
effects of different manures on particular soils, they might,
in a great degree, regulate what they intended to produce."

174. Mr. Jacob Wilson, an excellent authority in theo-
retical and practical agriculture, gives the following list of
manures for grasses for a variety of soils, as first,

" Sandy Soils. — Grasses, both in permanent and artificial
pastures, may receive 1 cwt. each of guano and nitrate of
soda towards the end of February, and a similar quantity
in April. Calcareous Soils. — Sulphate of ammonia 1 cwt.
or nitrate of soda 1 cwt., with 3 cwt. salt, will be an excel-
lent dressing ; or, instead of this, 2 cwt. guano and 2 cwt.
salt, will produce a beneficial effect. It would be still bet-
ter if this application could take place at two separate times,
instead of the entire quantity at once. Clay soils. — For
artificial grasses I would apply 3 cwt. guano, or 2 cwt.
guano and 1 cwt. sulphate of ammonia, either all at once
towards the end of March, or at two different times previous
to and after that period, as the season permits. For per-
manent pasture, the general management during preceding

372 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

years would, in a great measure, guide me. If I knew it
to have been grazed by cattle for a number of years, and
the produce of the farm sold off in the shape of beef, or
more especially as milk or butter, without an equivalent
being supplied by an allowance of cake, I would, without
hesitation, give it a dressing of bone dust, as a most ef-
fectual means of restoring the loss incurred ; twenty bushels
per acre applied early in winter would be enough. For
land regularly mown, a compost of lime, soil, and salt,
applied during the winter, is an excellent manure; or 2
cwt. guano and 1 cwt. superphosphate, given in March,
would produce a luxuriant crop. Except on grass land
which has been thoroughly exhausted the effects of bones
will not be so visible, but on such land they produce a
marvellous effect, as the exhausted pastures of Cheshire
have demonstrated. Vegetable Moulds. — Coarse grass is
the natural and universal produce of such land; conse
quently, in an arable state, Italian rye-grass grows most
luxuriantly, and often to the exclusion of clover and the
finer grasses. Where required, 2 cwt. each of nitrate of
soda and common salt would produce a capital bite. A
bone manure, partially soluble, with a slight admixture of
a saline substance, will invariably produce good effects ;
but perhaps the best results on permanent pasture on these
soils have been obtained from a compound dressing of
lime, soil, and salt, the wonderful effects of which, on land
recently enclosed, and usually of a peaty nature, are fami-
liar to most of you. Loamy soils. — For artificial grasses,
2 to 3 cwt. guano, or 2 cwt. nitrate of soda will be enough
if applied early in April. For permanent pasture, 2 cwt.
superphosphate, 1 cwt. guano, and 1 cwt. nitrate of soda
may be recommended."

175. Meadows. — Much of what has been said with
reference to pastures applies also to meadows where the
grasses are grown for the purpose of making hay. Mea-
dows may either be permanent, or made with what are
called artificial grasses, these artificial grasses coming under
the course of cropping in alternate husbandry. Where the
kinds of grasses are good and suited for the soil — the points

MEADOWS. . 373

to which, of course, the farmer must give his best atten-
tion, and on which we have already, under the head of
permanent pasture, given remarks which will be of service
in this department — the chief labour in the management
of meadows consists in applying manures, and in freeing
the surface from stones and rolling it. When it is consi-
dered that the hay crop removes more fertilizing ingredi-
ents from the land than any of the other crops of the farm,
the importance of restoring these by means of appropriate
manures judiciously applied will not be disputed. Thus,
while we find that wheat takes per acre 1 0 Ibs. of nitrogen
from the soil, hay takes 14 Ibs. The manure used chiefly
for meadow land is farm yard, which is often supplemented
by artificial manures. The time for applying the farm-
yard manure to the land, which is done by casting it on
and spreading it over the surface by the fork, is a disputed
point amongst farmers, some recommending its application
early in the autumn, or, at least, early in the winter ; others
deeming this bad, or, at least, unsafe practice, recom-
mend its application in spring. In place of farm-yard
manure, a compost may be used with good effect, if richly
composed and properly made. As regards the use of arti-
ficial manures, the following is from the celebrated authority,
Mr. Lawes: —

176. " The application of bones is not recommended for
general adoption; they appear to be chiefly adapted to the
exhausted pastures of certain localities, and not to be
generally applicable to meadow land which is mown for
hay. The hay crop is a great exhauster of the mineral
constituents of the soil; and these, owing to the higlu
price of salts of potash, cannot, with profit, be restored in
artificial manures. The return of the mineral constituents
is better accomplished by means of farm-yard manure,
stable dung, night-soil, and the like, which, at the same
time, bring on to the land a more or less considerable
quantity of available nitrogen. The best artificial manures
for grass land are Peruvian guano, which is rich in phos-
phates as well as nitrogen; and nitrate of soda, and sul-
hate of ammonia, which are rich in nitrogen, but contain,

374

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

of course, no phosphates." For other details as to manur-
ing, the reader is referred to the preceding paragraph.

177. Artificial Grasses. — The artificial grasses are much
fewer in number than those found in permanent grass land ;
they are divided under the head of graminous (grasses) and
leguminous plants (clovers). The grasses are (lolium
perenne) perennial rye-grass, (lolium Italicum) and (phleum
pratense) Timothy grass. The clovers are (trifolium pra-
tense) common red or broad leaved clover, (trifolium medium)
cow grass or zig-zag clover, (trifolium repens) Dutch or
white clover, (trifolium pratense perenne) perennial red
clover, (trifolium hybrid) hybrid or alsike clover, (trifolium
procumbens) hop trefoil — to which may be added a clover
more extensively grown on the continent than with us,
namely, (trifolium Incarnatum) Italian or scarlet clover.

178. Mixtures of Grasses for various soils, permanent
Pastures and Meadows. — Messrs. Wheeler and Sons, seeds-
men, of Gloucester, have given much attention to this
department of farming, and have published, in their "Little
Book on Grasses," a series of mixtures of seeds which they
recommend and supply on application, suited for various
soils — in the formation of permanent pastures and in the
renovation of old. From the tables giving these we select
the following. The weights given of each kind are per
imperial acre.

No. I. adapted to chalk upper cretaceous soils.

Description of Grasses.

Perennial Rye, Lolium perenne,
Pacey's Rye, LoUum Paceyanum, .
Meadow Fescue, Festuca pratensis,
Sheep's Fescue, Festuca ovina,
Hard Fescue, Festuca duriuscula, .
Smooth Meadow Grass, Poa pratensis,
Golden Oat Grass, Avenaflavescens,
Downy Oat Grass, Avena pubescens,
Sweet Vernal, Anthoxanthum odoratum,
Crested Dogstail, Gynosurus cristatus,
Sainfoin, Onobrychis sativa, .
Birdsfoot Trefoil, Lotus comiculatus,
Alsike Clover, Trifolium hybridum,
Perennial Cow Grass, Tri. pratense perenne,
White Honeysuckle, Trifolium repens, .

Description of Soil.

LIGHT.

Ibs. oz.

MEDIUM.

Ibs. oz.

HEAVY.

Ibs. oz.

5

0

6

0

7

0

4

8

4

8

5

8

1

8

1

12

2

0

2

0

2

0

2

12

1

0

1

4

1

0

2

8

2

0

2

0

2

8

3

0

2

(1

2

8

3

0

2

0

0

8

0

8

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

8

1

8

1

8

0

8

0

8

0

8

0

8

1

0

1

0

3

0

4

0

5

0

5

0

6

0

6

0

MIXTURES OF GRASSES FOR VARIOUS SOILS. 375

No. II. is a mixture adapted for the London clay.

Description of Grasses.

Cow Grass, true, Trifolium, perenne,
Perennial White Clover, Trifolium repens
Red Clover, Trifolium pratense,
Yellow Trefoil, Medicago lupulina,
Birdsfoot Trefoil, Lotus corniculatus,
Lady's Finger, Anthyllis Vulneraria,
Yarrow, Achillea millefolia,
Sheep's Parsley, Petroselinum sativum,
Sheep's Fescue, Festuca ovina,
Hard Fescue, Festuca duriuscula, .
Meadow Fescue, Festuca pratensis.
Smooth Meadow Grass, Poapratemis,
Sweet Vernal, Anthoxanthum odoratum,
Meadow Foxtail, Alojjecurus pratensis,
Timothy, Phleum pratense,
Golden Oat Grass, Arena flavescens,
Evergreen Rye, Lolium sempervirens,
Pucey's Rye-grass, Lolium Paceyanum,

Description of Soil.

LIGHT.

Ibs. oz.

MEDIUM.

Ibs. oz.

HEAVY.

Ibs. oz.

2

8

3

0

3

8

,s,

4

0

4

0

4

0

2

0

2

0

2

0

2

8

3

0

3

8

0

8

0

8

0

8

0

8

0

8

0

8

0

8

1

0

1

0

1

0

2

0

1

8

2

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

2

4

2

12

3

4

2

0

2

8

3

0

1

0

1

0

1

8

1

0

1

0

1

0

2

0

3

0

3

0

0

8

1

0

5

0

5

8

5

8

4

0

4

0

4

8

No. III. for the new red sandstone.

Description of Grasses.

Description of Soil.

LIGHT.

Ibs. oz.

MEDHJM.

Ibs. oz.

HEAVY.

Ibs. oz.

Sweet Vernal, Anthoxanthum odoratum,

1

0

1

0

1

0

Meadow Foxtail, Alopecurus pratensis, .

1

0

1

0

2

0

Timothy, Phleum pratense, ....

—

1

8

2

0

Smooth Meadow Grass, Poa pratensis, .

2

8

2

8

3

0

Cocksfoot, Dactylis glomerata,

—

2

0

3

0

Meadow Fescue, Festuca pratensis,

2

0

2

0

1

8

Hard Fescue, Festuca duriuscula, .

2

0

1

12

1

0

Sheep's Parsley, Petroselinum sativum, .

1

0

1

8

1

8

Evergreen Rye, extra fine, Lolium sempervirens,

8

0

8

8

8

0

Pacey's Rye, Lolium Paceyanum, .

4

8

4

0

4

0

Alsike, Trifolium hybridum, ....

1

0

1

0

1

0

Perennial Cow Grass, Trifo. pratense perenne,

4

0

3

8

4

0

White Honeysuckle, Trifolium repens, .

3

0

4

0

4

0

Yellow Trefoil, Medicago lupulina,

2

0

3

0

3

0

1

0

1

8

Birdsfoot Trefoil, Lotus corniculatus,

0

8

Yarrow, Achillea millefolia, ....

0

8

0

8

0

4

376

CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

No. IV. for the carboniferous limestone and shale.
Description of Grasses.

Pacey's Rye-grass, Lolium Paceyanum,
Perennial Rye-grass, Lolium perenne,
Meadow Fescue, Festuca pratensis,
Hard Fescue, Festuca duriuscula,
Sheep's Fescue, Festuca ovina,
Smooth Meadow Grass, Poa pratensis,
Crested Dogstail, Cynosurus cristatus,
Yarrow, Achillea millefolium, .
Lady's Finger, Anthyllis vulneraria,
Sheep's Parsley, Petroselinum sativum,
Alsike Clover, Trifolium hybridum,
Perennial Cow Grass, Trifo. pratense pe:
Perennial White, Trifolium repens,
Zigzag Clover, Trifolium medium,
Trefoil, Medicago lupulina, .

179. Mixtures of artificial Grasses for alternate Hus-
bandry.—

No. I. for one year's grasses, for forage or hay.

Ibs.

1 Timothy, Phleum pratense.
7 Red Clover, Tri. pratense.
7 Trefoil, Medicago lupulina.

Description of Soil.

LIG

ST.

ME]

3IUM

HEJ

LVY.

Ibs.

OZ.

Ibs

OZ.

Ibs.

OZ.

4

8

5

8

7

0

6

8

6

8

5

8

1

0

1

12

2

4

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

4

1

4

1

0

2

8

2

8

3

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

8

0

8

0

s

0

8

0

8

0

8

1

0

1

8

2

0

0

8

1

0

1

0

3

0

4

0

4

0

3

0

3

0

4

0

1

8

2

8

3

0

3

8

2

8

1

0

Ibs.

3 Italian rye-grass, Lolium Italicum.
1 Cotksfoot, Dactylis glomerata.

4 Evergreen rye-g., L. sempervirens.

No. II. for two years' grasses.

Ibs.

4 Evergreen rye-grass, L. perenne.
4 Italian rye-grass, Lolium Italicum.
2 Cocksfoot, Dactylis glomerata.
1 Tim'othy, Phleum pratense.

3 Red clover, Trifo. pratense..
3 Cow gr. T. pratense perenne.
3 White Dutch, T. repens.
1 Alsike, Trifolium hybridum.

4 Ibs. Trefoil, Medicago lupulina.
No. III. for three or four years' grasses.

Ibs.

4 Evergreen rye-grass, Lolium sem-
pervirens.
4 Pacey's perennial rye-grass, Lolium

Paceyanum.

3 Italian rye -grass, Lolium Italicum.
30 Cpcksf oot-gr. , Dactylis glomerata.
2 Timothy -grass, Phleum pratense.

Ibs.

3 Red clover, Trifo. pratense.
3 Cow grass clover, Trifolium
pratense perenne.

3 Dutch clover, or white honey-

suckle, Trifolium repens.
1 Alsike clover, Tri. hybridum.

4 Trefoil, Medicago lupulina.

180. Italian Eye-grass. — This grass is now much culti-
vated as a separate crop ; it is the only grass, properly so
called, which is cultivated alone. It affords large crops, and

CLOVERS. 377

is admirably adapted for the application of liquid manures.
The crop succeeds best in rich loamy soils, although it is
adapted to almost any class of soil which is richly manured.
The land requires to be well drained, free from weeds, and
carefully worked to a fine tilth. Its place in the rotation
or course of cropping is after a grain or white crop ; although
in practice it has been found well adapted to follow a well-
manured green crop, as turnips, potatoes, cabbage, or the
like. It may be sown at two seasons, the autumn or the
spring. If sown in the autumn, a cutting may be obtained
before the hard frost of winter sets in ; but if sown in the
spring alone, the first cutting may be obtained in June :
when sown in spring, it is usually, however, sown down
with a grain crop, and the first cutting is not obtained till
some weeks after the grain crop has been removed. The
quantity of seed required varies from 2| to 4 bushels per
acre, and is sown either broadcast by hand or by machine.
The crop is greedy of manure; and although it is not the
usual practice to manure the land previous to sowing, it
repays with interest the manures applied after it is well up.
As stated above, liquid manure of all kinds is peculiarly
fitted for the crop — indeed it is somewhat difficult to be-
lieve statements given as to the enormous yield obtained
by the lavish use of this manure, if they were not made
by the first authorities in agricultural matters. The crop is
usually cut green and given to the cattle as fresh forage,
either as fatting cattle or dairy cows. "When cut for hay,
the best time to cut it is just before the seed is formed.

181. Clovers. — The culture of clover forms an important
part of alternate husbandry. The soil in which it is grown
requires to be well supplied with lime. It is rarely or
never sown alone — although matured as a separate crop —
but is sown down with a white crop, generally the barley —
although it is put down also with the wheat and oat crops.
When these are removed from the land, the clover, which
was thus kept down, takes a fresh start, and remains all
winter and the succeeding season. It is either cut green
as a forage plant for stock, or cut and made into hay. If

2 B

378 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

the season is a good one, this may be done so early as to
admit of a " stolen crop " being taken from the land before
the regular crop is put down. In place, however, of plough-
ing up the clover lay after it has occupied the land for one
year only, it may be allowed to remain for two years'
growth — in which case it should be well manured with
farm-yard manure, compost, or artificial manures. Of late
years the clover crop has been subjected to the attacks of
disease known as the clover sickness. Much has been
written about the cause of this and the means to be adopted
for its prevention; opinion, however, is by no means de-
cided on the question. The following, on it, is from the
paper by Professor Buckman, from which we have already
quoted : —

" If we look at both artificial grasses and clovers,
we shall find that this term applies to them in another
sense from the one usually understood, namely, in being
derivative plants. The Lolium perenne has been grown
into many varieties, as " Whitneyworths, Stickneys, Rus-
sells, and Pacey's Kay," and in all probability even the L.
Italicum is but a variety of the L. pcrenne, and, as its
variorum forms, are the result of external circumstances,
and only more or less permanent, so that its permanency
in any one position depends wholly upon the suitability
of these conditions, so that what will hold to the soil in
one position will not do so in another, for, being wholly
cultivated plants, they can only exist as they are under
suitable cultivative impressions, and are, as a consequence
of this, daily becoming less suitable for a milder kind of
life, and so less permanency is to be expected.

" These remarks apply with still greater force to clovers
accustomed to seed on the soil in their wild state. We
collect the seed and keep it all the winter, in itself a culti-
vative process ; and then it is sown with other plants in a
prepared soil. And though by these means it increases in
size, yet it has also a changed constitution, and so the
variety that will be permanent in one place will not in
another; and thus, when we cannot secure a crop, we call

CLOVERS. 37D

the land where it has been tried and failed clover- sick,
We know that various conditions contribute to this, such
as — /

Too often growing clover in the same field.

An absence of lime in the soil.

Want of proper care in preparing the land, and the like.

These are conditions relating to the soil; but there are
other causes that are not sufficiently thought about, such as —

1. A pampered form of seed, resulting from high culti-
vation and a warm and humid climate, being suddenly put
in cold land in a cold district.

2. The admixture of weed seeds in clovers, which take
possession of the soil, and so smother out the more deli-
cate plant.

3. The weakened constitution of individual clover
plants, from being smothered up with the grain crops just
as its constitution should • be strengthened ; and these
weakened plants having to withstand the rigours of an
uncertain winter, no wonder they sometimes die out after
a plant has appeared.

" But if these attenuated clovers do get on and yield a
crop, we may expect that when it is seeded the seed is
that of a weakened plant.

" Now, we maintain that clovers, grasses, or any plants,
to be permanent, must have their seeds grown in as na-
tural conditions as possible ; and so with regard to seeds
for artificial pasture, we maintain that we should not trust
to those grown from an exhausted plant of a vigorously
grown race, but should plant specially for seed ; and thus
our seed crop should be sown thinly broadcast in the land
by itself, and not put thickly in rows to ' pull each other
up.' Here, then, the seeding plants would become strong,
or, as the florist calls it, ' stocky ; ' and these are the speci-
mens to seed from. Now, however, if a patch of seeds be
more dirty than usual, it is left for seed, as the best thing
to do with it; and hence the dirt that smothers out the
clover, and too often gives rise to the notion that the land
is clover-sick.

380 CULTURE OF FARM CROPS.

" But we should recollect, with regard to weeds in clover,
that they mostly grow rampant while as yet the clover is
tender, and all the more so from being smothered, quite
enough, and indeed all too much, with the grain crop.
They seed, too, the first year ; and if they were enough to
smother out the clover when as yet they were few, how
will it be when they are legion? as we should say, where
there was one weed plant when the clover plant was young,
there will be an average of 200 in its second year."

182. Miscellaneous crops Grown as Forage Plants. —
Under this head we class a few crops grown for the pur-
pose of stock feeding, which do not properly come under
the head of any of the preceding divisions. Those we name
here are (1.) Vetches; (2.) Lucerne; (3.) Sainfoin. (1.)
Vetches. — This is a leguminous crop, of which the genus is
Vicia, and species very numerous; that cultivated is the
Vicia sativa, of which there are two varieties, the summer
and winter. The proper place in the course of cropping
for vetches is between two white crops; — the crop is very
frequently taken as a stolen one. By a judicious choice
in the time of sowing, a succession of crops may be
obtained for forage purposes over a large portion of the
year; the quantity of seed required is about two bushels
per acre ; it is often mixed with rye, which, growing tall
and strong, enables the vetch to keep off the soil and grow
more freely. (2.) Lucerne, (medicago sativa). — This is a
perennial plant, and, when judiciously cultivated, will pro-
vide a succession of cuttings of food highly esteemed by
cattle. It is best adapted for a warm district and a dry
deep soil. The time of sowing is April ; it is usually sown
in drills, and if so sown with intervals of 15 to 20 inches
between the drills, ten to twelve pounds of seed per acre
will suffice. (3.) Sainfoin (onobrycliis sativa), is, like the
lucerne and vetch, a leguminous plant, and is cultivated
much in the same way as the first named of these two
plants, and like that, is highly esteemed by cattle.

INDEX.

Page
Alternate Husbandry, mixture

of Grasses for, . . 376
Anbury in Turnips, . . 325
Artificial Grasses, for alternate

Husbandry, mixtures of, 376

Barley, culture of, in the Lin-
colnshire and York-
shireWolds, 200-204
„ Botanical characteris-
tics of, . . 186
„ change of seed, 191, 192
,, conditions of growth of, 197
„ exhaustive properties of , 206
,, historical notices of, 185
„ influence of the weather

in the sowing of, . 205
„ modes of sowing of, 207, 208
,, period for sowing, 193, 194
,, place of, in the Ro-
tation, . 194—198
,, preparation of the land

for, Keary on, 198—200
,, preparation of the soil

for, . . 196—198
„ quantity of seed to be

sown, . . . 207
„ seeds, ... 188
,, six-rowed, . . 189
„ soil best fitted for, 195, 196
,, two-rowed, . . 190
„ varieties of, . . 186
Bean, botanical characteristics

of the, ... 242
„ crop, the, choice of seed for, 253
,, crop, diseases of the, 264 — 269
,, crop, dunging land for, 248
„ crop, historical notices con-
nected with the, . 241
,, crop, management of the

various soils, . 259—264
,, crop, period for sowing

the, . . 253, 254

crop, preparation of the
land for,

248—252

Page

Bean crop, soil for the, 245, 246
„ modes of sowing

the, . 246, 255, 259
,, varieties cultivated, 243—245
Beans, place of, in the Rotation, 247
Beet-root, .... 328
,, Continental culture of, 329
Botanical characteristics of Bar-
ley, . . 186
„ characteristics of the

Bean, . . 242
,, characteristics of Flax, 279
„ characteristics of the

Oat crop, . 213
„ characteristics of the

Pea, . . 270
,, characteristics of the

Turnip, . 287—289

Cabbage, cultivation of the, 336 — 338
Cabbages, taking up and stor-
ing of , .... 362
Canadian oats, . . . 216
Carrot, cultivation of, . 335
Characteristics, cultural, of va-
rious kinds of oats, . 216 — 219
Classification of soils adapted

for the oat crop, . . 226
Climate, influence of, upon the

oat crop, . . . 221
Clover disease, . . . 378
Clovers, cultivation of, . 377
Continental culture of Beet-root, 329
Cultivation of Barley on the York-
shire and Lincolnshire
wolds, . . . 200—204

Disease of Clover, . . 378
„ of the Potato, . 354
Diseases of the Bean crop, 264—269
„ of the Pea crop, . 276
„ and enemies of the Tur-
nip crop, . 316—328
Dunging of land for the Bean
crop, .... 248

382

INDEX

Page I
Enemies and diseases of the

Turnip^ crop, . . 316—328
Exhaustive properties of Barley, 20€

Finger and Toe in Turnip, . 323
Flax, botanical characteristics of, 279
crop, historical notes on the, 279
place in the rotation of, 283
preparation of the land for, 282
pulling of the, . . 284
soil best adapted for, . 280
, sowing of, . . 281, 282
Fly, the turnip, ... 317
„ the turnip, remedies
for,. . . . 320—323
Forage and Root crops, trans-
planting of, ... 340

Grasses, artificial, . . 374
„ cultivated on the

farm, . 362—377

,, mixtures of artificial,
for alternate hus-
bandry, . . 376
,, mixture of various, for
permanent pastures
and meadow land, 374
,, usual, of the meadow, 363
Grass lands, application of man-

nuresto, . . _ 369
,, lands, manures for various

qualities of, . . 371

,, seeds, mixture of, . 366

Growth, conditions of, of Barley, 197

„ habits of the Turnip*, 292

Haxton on the soils adapted for

the growth of oats, . 121—138
Historical notes on Barley, 185
notes on the Turnip, 286
notices connected with

the Bean crop, 241
notes on the flax crop, 279
notices on the oat crop, 212
notes on the Pea crop, 270

Insect enemies of the Turnip

crop, . . . 316—323
Insects which attack the pea, 277

Keary on the preparation of the

land for Barley, . 198—200
KohlRabi, . . 332—335

Page
Land, pasture, permanent, new

formation of, . 364
,, preparation of, for the

Bean crop, . 248—252
,, preparation of the, for

Flax, ... 272
„ preparation of the, for

the oat crop, . 229
„ preparation of, for the

pea crop, . 273, 274
,, preparation of, for the

turnip crop, 300, 301

„ preparation of, for the
sowing of the Turnip
crop, . . 302—307
Lands, application of manures

to grass, . . 369
, , manures for various qua-
lities of grass, . 371
Lucerne, .... 380

Mangold Wurtzel, . . 328
„ „ taking up and

storing of the, . 361
Manure, application of, to grass

lands, . . . .p 369
Manures, for grass lands, various

qualities of soil, . . 371
Manuring of the land for the

Turnip crop, . . . 304
Meadow grasses, . . 368
„ land, mixture of grasses

for, . . . 374
Meadows, management of, 372

Moisture in the soil for Turnip
sowing, value of, or other-
wise, . . . 296—300

Oat, botanical characteristics

of the, . . . 213
„ the Canadian, . . 216
,, crop, choice of seed for, 234
,, crop, classification of the

soils adapted for, . 226
„ crop, influence of climate

upon the, . . 221
„ crop, management of, after

sowing, . . . 233
„ crop, mechanical condition

of the soil for. 230—232
,, crop, mixture of seed for

the, . . 234,235
„ crop, modes of sowing the, 239

INDEX.

383

Oat crop, preparation of the

land for, . . 229
,, crop, sowing of the, . 232
„ crop, soils for the, Haxton

on, . . . 221—228
, , crop, historical notesonthe,212
„ the Tartarian, . . 215
Oats, cultural characteristics of

various kinds, 216—219
„ grown in Scotland, . 219
„ place of, in the rotation, 224
„ soils adapted for the varie-
ties grown in Scotland, 220
„ thick and thin sowing of, 237
,, varieties of, grown, . 213

Parsnip, the, ... 386
Pasture land, new formation of

permanent, . . . 364
Pastures, improvement of worn

out, .... 367
Pea, botanical characteristics

of the, ... 270
,, crop, diseases of, . 276
, , crop, historical notes on the, 270
,, crop, insects which attack

the, . . 277—279
,, crop not a rotation one, 272
„ crop, preparation of the

land for the, . 273, 274

„ soil best adapted for the, 272

„ crop, sowing of the, . 275

„ varieties of, cultivated, 270

Period or time for sowing the

Bean crop, . . 253, 254
Permanent pasture land, forma-
tion of new, . . . 364
Permanent pasture, mixture of

grasses for, . . . 374
Planting of the potato, modes

of, . . . . 352

Potato crop, . . 349

culture of the, . 354

disease, the, . 354

planting, modes of,
soils adapted for the 351
taking-up and storing of

the, ... 358
Potatoes, varieties of, cultivated, 350

Rape, cultivation of, . . 338
Remedies for the attacks of the
Turnip fly, . . 320—323

Root crops, taking-up and stor-
ing of the, . 356—362
„ crop, weeding of, . 344
„ and forage crops, trans-
planting of, . . 340
Rotation crop, pease not a, 272
, place of Barley in 194—198
„ place of Beans in the, 247
„ place in, of flax, . 283
„ place of oats in the, 228
„ place of the turnip in

the, ... 344-

Sainfoin, .... 380
Scotland, oats grown in, . 219
Seed, change of Barley, 191, 192
„ choice of, for the Bean

crop, . . . 253
„ choice of, for the Oat crop, 234
„ mixture of, for the Oat

crop, . . 234, 235
,, selection of Turnip, 307—310
,, to be sown of Barley, 207
Seeds, Barley, . . . 187
,, of crops, weeds in the, 346
„ grass, mixture of, . 366
„ of weeds, how dissemi-
nated, . . 345, 346
Six-rowed Barley, . . 189
Soil best fitted for Barley, 195, 196
„ Soil for the Bean crop, 245, 246
„ Soil best adapted for the Pea, 272
,, mechanical condition of, for

the oat crop, . 230—232
,, mechanical condition of, for

the turnip, 295, 296

,, moisture in the, for Turnip
sowing, value of, or other-
wise, . . 296—300
„ preparation of, for Bar-
ley, . . 196—198
„ best adapted for the flax, 280
Soils adapted for the varieties of

oats grown in Scotland, 220
„ adapted to the Potato, 351
„ best adapted for the Tur-
nip, ... 295
„ management of the Bean

crop on various, 259 — 264
„ classification of, adapted

for the oat crop, . 226
„ for the oat crop, Haxton

on, . . . 221—228

384

INDEX.

Page

Soils, mixture of grasses for per-
manent pasture and mea-
dow land for varieties
of, . . . . 374
Sowing of Barley, modes of, 207, 208
„ of Barley, period for, 193
„ of Flax, . . 271, 272
„ modes of, for the Bean

crop, . 246, 255, 259
, , of the Pea crop, . 275
„ thick and thin, of Bar-
ley, . . 208, 209
„ thick and thin, of oats, 237
, , of the oat crop, . 232
„ of the oat crop, modes

of, . . . 239
,, of the Turnip seed, pe-
riod for, . . 310
,, of Turnips on the drill

system, . . 302
,, of Turnips on the flat

system, . . 303
Storing and taking-up of the
Root-crops, . . 356—362

Taking-up and storing of the

Root-crops, . . 356—362
Tartarian Oat, . . . 215
Thick and thin sowing of Bar-
ley, . . . 208, 209
Thinning, and after-culture of

the Turnip crop, . 311—315
Transplanting of Root and For-
age crops, . . . 340
Turnip, botanical characteris-
tics of the, 287—289
,, crop* enemies and dis-
eases of the, 316—328
,, crop, filling up blanks in

the, . . . 315
„ crop, historical notes

on, . . . 286
,, crop, insect enemies of

the, . . 316—323
,, crop, manuring the land

for, . . • . 302
,, crop, preparation of the

land for, . 300, 301
„ crop, preparation of the
land for the sowing of
the seed of the, 302—307
, , crop, thin ning, weeding,

Page

and after-culture of
the, . . 311—315
Turnip, finger and toe in, 323
„ fly, the, ... 317
„ ,, remedies for, 320—323
„ habits of growth of the, 292
„ mechanical condition of
the soil suited
for, . . 295, 296
,, place of, in the Rotation, 294
„ seed, period for sowing, 310
„ seed, selection of, 307 — 310
„ soils best adapted for, 295
,, sowing on the drill sys-
tem, ... 302
„ sowing on the flat sys-
tem, ... 303
, , sowing, value of moisture
in the soil or other-
wise, for the, 296—300
,, varieties of the, culti-
vated, . 290—292
Turnips, anbury in, . . 325
„ taking-up and storing

of, . . 356-362
Two-rowed Barley, . . 190

Varieties of Barley, . . 186
Varieties of the Bean culti-
vated, . 243—245
„ of Oats grown, . 213
,, of the Pea culti-
vated, . 270, 271
,, of the Turnip culti-
vated, . 290— 292
Vetches, . . . .380

Weather, influence of the, upon
the sowing of Barley, . 205

Weeding of Root crops, . 344
,, and thinning of the

Turnip crop, 311, 315

Weeds, characteristics of, . 345
„ in the seeds of crops, 346

Weed-seeds, how dissemi-
nated, . . . 345, 346

Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincoln-
shire, cultivation of Barley
on the, . . . 200—204

Worn-out pastures, improvement
of, 367

Wurtzel, Mangold, . . 328

I

I