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ALBERT R. MANN
LIBRARY

New YorK STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND HoME ECONOMICS

AT

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

Cornell Loiversiy Library

' QL 696.L7S45 1

“Taina

mann

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000181366

THE

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

OF THE FAMILY

CHARADRIID A,

OR THE

PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPES,

AND THEIR ALLIES.

BY
HENRY SEEBOHM,
AUTHOR OF “ SIBERIA IN EUROPE,” “‘ SIBERIA IN ASIA,” “‘ CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM ” (VOL. Y.),

‘4 HISTORY OF BRITISH BIRDS, WITH COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS OF ‘THEIR EGGS,” ETC.

LONDON:

HENRY SOTHERAN & CO,,

186, STRAND, W.C. anno 386, PICCADILLY, W.;
MANCHESTER: 49, CROSS STREET.

“Concerning the names of Birds we did not much trouble ourselves, there having been disputing enough about
them long ago; but have for the most part followed Gesner and Aldrovandus, being unwilling to disturb what is
settled, or dispossess Names that may for their use now plead prescription. For to what purpose is it eternally to
wrangle about things, which certainly to determine is either absolutely impossible, or next door to it? Especially
seeing if by immense labour it might at last be found out, by what Names every Species was known to the Ancients,
the advantage that would thence accrue would not countervail the pains.”

Joun Ray, in the Preface to the Ornithology
of Francis Willughby.
1678.

“Tn the difficult matters of synonymy and the orthography of generic names, I have been guided rather by general
utility than by any fixed rules, When I have taken a whole family group from a modern author of repute, I have
generally followed his nomenclature throughout. In other cases I use the names which are to be found in a majority
of modern authors, rather than follow the strict rule of priority in adopting some newly discovered appellation of

early date.”
ALFRED RussrL WALLACE, t2 the Preface to

the ‘ Geographical Distribution of Animals.
1876.

“So far as regards specific names, I have throughout this work set the Rules of the British Association at defiance,
being convinced that, so far as ornithology is concerned, they have done infinitely more harm than good.
I have adopted a scheme which appears to me to be the most practical of any which have been suggested. It may not
satisfy the requirements of poetical justice ; but it is at least consistent with common sense. I adopt the specific
name which has been most used by previous writers. It is not necessary for me to encumber my nomenclature with a
third name, either to denote the species to which it refers, or to flatter the vanity of the author who described it; all

my names are auctorum plurimorum.”
Henry SEEBOuM, tn the Introduction to

‘A History of British Birds,
1883.

PREFACE,

Azout twenty years ago Mr. J. E. Harting began to collect information relating to the
group of birds commonly called the Limicole, with the intention of publishing a monograph
of them. In the course of his studies he contributed from time to time articles on
this group of birds to ‘ The Ibis’ and to the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Zoological Society ; but
subsequently his attention drifted into other channels, until in 1884 he abandoned the
idea of writing a monograph, and offered his collection of birds for sale.

I was then writing on the British species belonging to the group, which had always
been an especial favourite of mine, and was glad of the opportunity of making my collection
more complete. I therefore bought the Harting collection, which, with the Swinhoe
collection, already in my Museum, and the Shelley collection of African Limicole since
acquired, provided me with ample material for study as soon as the last part of the
‘ History of British Birds’ had gone to press.

The result of this study is the present volume. Acting in accordance with the old
proverb “ dis dat qui cito dat,” I determined not to write a monograph. What I had to
say on the habits of these birds I had already said in the work referred to: on the other
hand, I found that the study of all the species contained in the group threw quite a different
light upon their geographical distribution, and enabled me to correct what appeared to be
errors in their classification—their mutual relationship, in fact; so I determined to make
these two subjects the theme of the book.

To reduce the cost I limited the Plates to those of birds which had either been badly
figured or not figured at all, and limited the descriptions to little more than diagnoses.
Only those who have tried to write a diagnosis of a species, to put down briefly but clearly
the characters that apply to it, at all ages and seasons, and apply only to it, can appreciate
the difficulties that have to be overcome. ‘These difficulties are multiplied ten-fold when
the diagnosis of a genus has to be written. The diagnosis must apply to every species in
the genus and must be inapplicable to any species outside the genus. I cannot hope that
all my diagnoses are perfect ; I can only say that I have done my best to make them so.

The earlier writers on Ornithology, of whom we may accept Brisson and Linneus as
typical examples, attempted to diagnose the genera of birds. To the best of their ability

Iv PREFACE.

they endeavoured to enumerate the characters which were sufficient to determine the genus,
leaving out of the diagnosis other characters, which may be very interesting and very
important, but are not absolutely necessary. Modern ornithologists belong to two schools ;
those belonging to the old school (than whom no better example can be found than Yarrell)
simply cnumerate the so-called structural characters, leaving the reader to find out for
himself, if he can, which of them are diagnostic. No great fault can be found with this
mode of procedure, except perhaps that it may be regarded as an attempt to “ play for
safety,” which not unfrequently proves a great incentive to the use of strong language on
the part of the bewildered but irascible student, who tries in vain to determine the
genus of a strange bird.

Dresser, in his ‘ Birds of Europe,’ has adopted a most original course: he has simply
catalogued the structural characters of the type of each genus, without pointing out which
of them are common to all the species, and which of them are exceptional; and, of the
former, without a hint as to whether they are common to allied genera, or are diagnostic
of the genus the type of which he is describing.

The new school of modern ornithologists (of whom Ridgway and Sharpe may be
accepted as typical examples) boldly take the bull by the horns, and attempt to construct
diagnostic keys to the genera. ‘They may or may not be successful,—unfortunately many
of these keys are lamentable failures, and will not turn in the lock ; but all honour to the
men who at least try to give definiteness to our knowledge.

My thanks are due to many ornithologists for much valuable assistance. Firstly, to
Mr. Harting, for allowing me free access to his notes, and for permitting me to undertake,
with his help, a work upon a group of birds with which his name has been so long
associated ; secondly, to Mr. Sharpe and the other officials of the British Museum, for
giving me access to the National Collections, even during the interregnum and semi-chaos
of the incorporation of the Hume collection; thirdly, to Messrs. Salvin and Godman, for
the loan of rare birds from South America ; and, fourthly, to the Smithsonian Institution
in Washington, for the loan of equally rare birds from the Pacific Islands.

It only remains for me to explain the use which I have endeavoured to make of these
and other materials to which I had access—to give, in short, a résumé of the points of view
from which the Geographical Distribution of these birds may be studied.

After having written a book, to add a preface in order to tell the reader the conclusion
at which it was intended to arrive, looks very much like the action of the legendary little
boy who made a picture of a quadruped with long ears, and then wrote under it “ This is a
donkey.” The little boy was not quite sure that a stranger would recognize his pictorial
efforts—not that he had any doubt as to the intelligence of the stranger, but because he
mistrusted his own powers of representation.

The object which I set before me was to try and discover the origin of the various

PREFACE. v

species of Plovers, Sandpipers, and Snipes. The first difficulty to be overcome was the
determination of the species.

Most English ornithologists regard species as fixed quantities to be accepted or
rejected according to circumstances. The hereditary conservatism of Englishmen has for
the most part prevented them from realizing the important fact, that if the theory of
evolution be true there must always be species in process of being evolved or differ-
entiated. ‘They have accepted the theory of evolution without accepting its inevitable
consequences.

The hereditary progressive tendency of American thought has prevented the ornitho-
logists of that country from committing the same blunder, and with them the recognition
of subspecies is as much a matter of course as the admission that many species, even
amongst those whose range of geographical distribution is very wide, show no tendency to
split up into local races.

In this case no reasonable man can doubt that the Americans are perfectly right, and
the majority of Englishmen hopelessly wrong.

The imperative necessity of recognizing subspecies immediately started the difficulty
of their definition. To define the indefinite is no easy task, but the imperfection of the
systems of nomenclature makes it absolutely necessary. I flatter myself that I have hit
the happy medium by defining the difference between two forms to be specific in all cases
where they do not intergrade, without making unnecessary inquiries as to the reasons why
they do not do so; and to be only sudspecific in all cases where they do intergrade, without
making unnecessary inquiries as to how the intergradation is accomplished.

Having thus satisfactorily settled one boundary of subspecies, I decided to define the
other boundary geographically. Whatever individual variation be found within the range
of a species, if it be not also capable of being defined geographically I do not regard it of
subspecific value.

My next difficulty was the definition and limitation of genera. The prae-Darwinian
ornithologists supposed that species differed in colour, and genera in what they were
pleased to call structural characters, such as the shape of the bill, feet, wings, tail, &.
Here it seems to me that both English and American ornithologists are for the most part
wrong.

The post-Darwinian ornithologist must approach the subject from an entirely different
standpoint. No @ priori theories as to the respective generic value of colour and structure
can be tolerated fora moment. It may be a matter of opinion as to how far a genus should
be permitted to extend, but it is an inexorable law that xo species can be admitted into a
genus unless it be nearer related to some one species in that genus than it is to any or
every species outside. Modern genera must be genetic, they must indicate affinity ; but
genera founded upon the shape of the bill or the number of the toes often associate birds
together whose similarity is only one of analogy, where like causes have produced like

vi PREFACE.

effects, in very distinct genealogical lines. I have found that in many cases the colour or
the pattern of the colour of such parts of the plumage as are unaffected by age, sex, or
season, and which is therefore presumably of ancient origin, is apparently of much greater
value in ascertaining the relationship of many birds than the so-called structural characters,
which are compelled by the laws of evolution to change with the changing habits or
environment of the species.

In order to split up a species it must be dispersed. The chief causes of the dispersal
of the ancestors of the Charadriide have probably been two Glacial Epochs. The Pre-
Pliocene Glacial Epoch compelled the ancestral species to emigrate from its old home in the
Polar Basin. It emigrated in various directions, and a score of parties were thus isolated
in a score of localities, where they met with difficulties of various kinds. Emigration
produced Isolation, and Isolation in more or less different environments caused Evolution
to proceed on different lines, the final result being Differentiation.

Half the species thus differentiated remained in their new homes ; but the other half
followed the retreating cold to the old home in the Polar Basin, where most of them lived
long enough to become again circumpolar. ‘The Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch again dis-
persed them with similar results, until finally many of them returned again to the Polar
Basin, which, for the third time, became the great breeding-ground of the Charadriide.

The habits of Migration, originally formed for the purpose of seeking light, and
strengthened by the experience of emigration, became an annual necessity when a semi-
arctic condition of the Polar Basin again ensued, and culminated in the catastrophe which
exterminated the Rhinoceros, the Hippopotamus, the Elephant, the Mammoth, and Paleo-
lithic Man in the Palearctic Region. This catastrophe I believe to have been the floods
caused by the sudden melting of vast accumulations of snow, which must have begun when
the climate became cold enough to allow the excessive rainfall of the later Pleistocene Age
to accumulate in winter in the form of snow on the mountains, and which must have
periodically occurred so long as the excessive rainfall continued. In Chapter VI. I have
described the great annual catastrophe which, even with the present reduced rainfall, takes
place in Siberia, and to a lesser extent in the valleys of the Nile and the Danube. This
semi-arctic condition of the Polar Basin still exists, and the partial isolation thus produced
has caused and is causing the production of subspecies.

To each of these great factors in the Differentiation of the species and subspecies of
the Charadriide I have endeavoured to devote as much space as the limits of the work
would allow. A large part of the book is occupied with details respecting each species
or subspecies, the various names by which it has been called, the characters by which
it may be recognized, its summer and winter range, and the probable course of the
emigration of its ancestors. ‘

In discussing the Glacial Epoch I have endeavoured to place before the reader a
clear idea of the main features of Croll’s theory, which appears on the whole to be more
plausible than any other that has hitherto been advanced. Croll lays great stress upon

PREFACE. vil

the effect of changes in the elevation of land and in the direction of oceanic currents ;
and it seems very probable that the apparently simple action of the changes of the
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit has been greatly complicated by these and other causes.

It must, however, be left to competent Geologists to decide in what way the Glacial
Epochs were caused. All that the ornithologist requires is a knowledge of the existence
of two long-continued breaks in the continuity of bird-life in the Polar Basin, during which
the birds were dispersed and isolated for a sufficient length of time to give them an
opportunity of being modified to suit the various conditions of their temporary homes ; so
that the one species which lived on the shores of the Arctic Ocean before the Prae-Pliocene
Glacial Epoch became differentiated into nearly two hundred species after the Post-

Pliocene Glacial Epoch had passed away, and for at least the third time opened the gates
of Paradise to the Charadriide.

There seems to be a tendency amongst modern Biologists to modify the theory of
Evolution as propounded by Darwin in two directions. One party, headed by Weismann,
desires to eliminate the effects of Use and Disuse; and another, of whom Romanes is the
exponent, wishes to minimize the importance of Isolation. In each case it is thought that
too much importance was attached by Darwin to the point under consideration. I think
exactly the opposite. I think that the relative importance of the hereditary effects of Use
or Disuse, and the necessary part which Isolation plays in the Differentiation of species,
appear to be much underestimated by Darwin, and I have endeavoured to bring some
evidence to show that this is the case.

Finally, I beg to commend my book with all its faults, which I am sure are many, and
with all its blunders, which I hope are few, to the careful consideration of ornithologists.
It possesses at least the merit of originality, and (if an author may be permitted to pass
sentence on his own work) it does not quite deserve the critical remarks once made to a
writer: “Your book is both good and new; but that part which is good is not new, and
that part which is new is not good.”

s+ 7 OP DOK 0s

Under view of the skull of the Lapwing (Vanellus eristatus).

Me. The Maxilla. 10. The Vomer. Pl. The Palatine bone. Qu. The Quadrate bone.

CONTENTS,

TITLEPAGE
PREFACE .
ConTENTS
Systematic INDEX
List or Pratrs

CHAPTER I.
Classification of Birds.

Position of the Charadriidz.—Anseriformes.—Cuculiformes.—Passeriformes.—Charadri-
formes.—Struthioformes.—Principles of Classification

CHAPTER II.
The Evolution of Birds.

Natural Selection the guide, not the cause of Evolution.—Fortuitous variations.—Use
and Disuse.—Inherited habits.—Definite variations.—Isolation.—Evolution the result of a
force

CHAPTER III.
The Differentiation of Species.

Geographical Isolation —Romanes’s theory of Physiological Isolation —Causes of Varia-
tion.—Summary of the facts of Evolution.—Laws of Evolution only apply to organic matter .

CHAPTER IV.
The Glacial Epoch,

Croll’s Theory.—Eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit.—Fossil Birds.—Pre-Pliocene Glacial
Epoch.—Return of Birds to the Polar Basin.—Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch.—Post-Glacial
modification

b

16

25

x CONTENTS,

CHAPTER V.

Migration.

Hibernation of Birds.—Origin of Migration.—Gipsy migrants——Regular migrants.—
Swallows. — Migration in the Southern Hemisphere. —Double-breeding a myth. — Local
migration—Heligoland.—Chart of migration.—Instances of great migrations.—Sky-Larks.—
Order of migration.—Palmén’s fly-lines —Emigration —Woodcocks.—Arctic Tern .

CHAPTER VI.
The Paradise of the Charadriide.

Arctic breeding-grounds.—Arrival of migratory birds—Sudden arrival of sammer.—
Break-up of the ice——Appearance of flowers.—Arrival of Sandpipers.—Coast migrants.—
Breeding.—Moulting.—Return of winter— Winter range of Birds

CHAPTER VII.
Zoological Regions.

Zoological Regions of the Charadriidee.—Isothermal lines.—Arctic Genera.—Temperate
Genera.—Tropical Genera

CHAPTER VIII.
On Subspecific Forms.

Importance of recognizing subspecies.—Practical difference between species and sub-
species.— Vague use of trinomials

CHAPTER IX.
Charadriide.

Key to the Subfamilies.—Charadriine.—kKey to the Genera .

CHAPTER X.

Genus Cdicnemus.

European Stone-Curlew.—Indian Stone-Curlew.—Swainson’s Stone-Curlew.—Vermicu-
lated Stone-Curlew.—South-African Stone-Curlew.—Riippell’s Stone-Curlew.—East-Austra-
lian Stone-Curlew.—Central-American Stone-Curlew.—St.-Domingo Stone-Curlew.—Peru-
vian Stone-Curlew.—Great Indian Stone-Curlew.—Austro-Malayan Stone-Curlew .

CHAPTER XI.

Genus Charadrius.
Golden Plover.—Asiatic Golden Plover.—American Golden Plover.—Grey Plover.—
Falkland-Island Dotterel.—Chilian Dotterel—Magellanic Plover.—Australian Four-toed
Dottere]l. — Australian. Dotterel. — Slender-billed Dotterel. — Common Dotterel, — Oriental

Page

33

51

63

66

69

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XI. (continued).

Genus Charadrius (continued).

Dotterel. — Killdeer Plover. — American Piping-Plover.—Western Piping-Plover. — Semi-
palmated Ringed Plover—Common Ringed Plover.—British Ringed Plover.—Hooded Ringed
Plover.—New-Zealand Plover.—Little Ringed Plover.—Jerdon’s Ringed Plover.—Hodgson’s
Ringed Plover.—Temminck’s Three-banded Plover.—Forhbes’s Three-banded Plover.—Mada-
gascar Three-banded Plover.—Black-fronted Plover.—Caspian Sand-Plover.—Greater Sand-
Plover.—Mongolian Sand-Plover.—Chestnut-banded Plover.—New-Zealand Dotterel—Wry-
billed Plover—Rocky-Mountain Plover, —Wilson’s Plover.— Patagonian Plover.—Kittlitz’s
Plover.—St.-Helena Plover —White-breasted Plover.—Tropical White-breasted Plover—Red-
capped Plover—Malay Sand-Plover—Kentish Plover.—Tropical Kentish Plover.—Chinese
Kentish Plover.—American Kentish Plover.—Azara’s Sand-Plover.—Cabanis’s Sand-Plover .

CHAPTER XII.

Genus Lobivanellus.

Grey-headed Wattled Lapwing.—Bronze-winged Wattled Lapwing.—Blyth’s Wattled
Lapwing.—Black-thighed Wattled Lapwing.—Gould’s Wattled Lapwing. —Latham’s Wattled
Lapwing.—Grey-flanked Wattled Lapwing. — Dark-flanked Wattled Lapwing.— Riippell’s
Wattled Lapwing. — Black-shouldered Wattled Lapwing. —Crested Wattled Lapwing. —
Buffon’s Wattled Lapwing.—Black-breasted Wattled Lapwing.— Boéhm’s Wattled Lapwing

CHAPTER XIII.
Genus Vanellus.

Common Lapwing.—Sociable Lapwing.— White-tailed Lapwing.—Long-toed Lapwing.—
Cayenne Lapwing.—Patagonian Lapwing.—Egyptian Spur-winged Lapwing.—Black-backed
Lapwing.—Crowned Lapwing.—Riippell’s Lapwing—Swainson’s Lapwing.—Indian Spur-
winged Lapwing.—Peruvian Lapwing.—Little White-winged Lapwing .

CHAPTER XIV.
Genus Cursorius.

Cream-coloured Courser.—Somali Courser.—Burchell’s Courser.—Lichtenstein’s Courser,
—Indian Courser.—Levaillant’s Courser.—Hartlaub’s Courser.—Fischer’s Courser.—Heuglia’s
Courser.—Bronze-winged Courser.—Jerdon’s Courser.—Black-backed Courser

CHAPTER XV.

Genus Glareola.

Common Pratincole. — Oriental Pratincoie. — Madagascar Pratincole. — Nordmann’s
Pratincole-—Long-legged Pratincole.—Little Indian Pratincole-—White-winged Pratincole.
—White-naped Pratincole.—Biittikofer’s Pratincole——Emin’s Pratincole . . . .

62

xl

Pago

91

. 203

. 231

« 252

xii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVI.

Page
Subfamily Totanine.
Diagnosis.—Climatic Distribution —Key to the Genera . . . . . » «© - « ~ « 270
CHAPTER XVII.
Genus Himantopus.
Common Stilt.—North-American Stilt—Sandwich-Island Stilt —Chilian Stilt—Austra-
lian Stilt—New-Zealand Pied Stilt—Black Stilt—Peruvian Stilt—Banded Avocet.—
Common Avocet.—North-American Avocet.—Australian Avocet. . . . . . . . . . 272

CHAPTER XVIII.

Genus Hematopus.

European Oystercatcher.—Japanese Pied Oystercatcher.—Australian Pied Oystercatcher.—
North-American Pied Oystercatcher.—Falkland-Island Pied Oystercatcher.—Galapagos Pied
Oystercatcher.—Australian Black Oystercatcher—African Black Oystercatcher.—North-
American Black Oystercatcher.—South-American Black Oystercatcher . . . . . . . . 294

CHAPTER XIX.
Genus Ibidorhynchus.
Tiig-billed. Oyeterentelers. 5) a. Oe eo aca OS ge Ow we we a eS ea we

CHAPTER XX.

Genus Numenius,

Common Curlew.—Oriental Curlew.—Mediterranean Curlew.—Australian Curlew.—
American Curlew.—-Common Whimbrel.—Oriental Whimbrel.—Hudsonian Whimbrel.—
Pacific-Island Whimbrel.—Eskimo Whimbrel.—Least Whimbrel. . . ..... . . 316

CHAPTER XXI.
Genus Phalaropus.

Grey Phalarope.— Red-necked Phalarope.—Wilson’s Phalarope. . . . . . . . . 336

CHAPTER XXII.

Genus Totanus.

Dusky Redshank.—Common Redshank.—Erman’s Sandpiper.—Greenshank.—Marsh-
Sandpiper.—Willet.— Western Willet.—American Wandering Tatler.—Asiatic Wandering
Tatler.—Greater Yellowshank.—Yellow-legged Sandpiper.— Wood-Sandpiper.—Solitary Sand-
piper.—Green Sandpiper.—Terek Sandpiper—Common Sandpiper.—Spotted Sandpiper.—
Ruil——Barteami's Sandpipers 3 4 6 2 ew aw Nk ee Re ee . . 344,

CONTENTS. xill

CHAPTER XXIII.

Page
Genus Limosa.

Bar-tailed Godwit.—Siberian Bar-tailed Godwit.—American Bar-tailed Godwit.—Black-
tailed Godwit.—Siberian Black-tailed Godwit.—American Black-tailed Godwit . . . . . 379

CHAPTER XXIV.

Genus Ereunetes.

Canadian Snipe-billed Sandpiper.—Alaskan Snipe-billed Sandpiper.—Siberian Snipe-billed
Sandpiper.—Stilt-Sandpiper.—Canadian Semipalmated Stint.+Alaskan Semipalmated Stint . 394

CHAPTER XXV.

Subfamily Scolopacine.
Diagnosis—Key tothe Genera. 2. 2 1 we ee ee ee 405

CHAPTER XXVI.

Genus Sfrepsilas.

Common Turnstone.—Black Turnstone.—Plover-billed Turnstone. . . . . . . . 407

CHAPTER XXVIII.
Genus Tringa.
Curlew Sandpiper.—Japanese Knot.—Common Knot.—Dunlin.— Pacific Dunlin.—Purple
Sandpiper.—Aleutian Purple Sandpiper—Prybilof Purple Sandpiper.—Sanderling.—Broad-
billed Sandpiper.—Temminck’s Stint.—Little Stint.—Red-throated Stint.—Middendorff’s

Stint.—American Stint.—Spoon-billed Sandpiper.—Siberian Pectoral Sandpiper.—American
Pectoral Sandpiper.—Baird’s Sandpiper.—Bonaparte’s Sandpiper.—Buff-breasted Sandpiper . 414

CHAPTER XXVIII.

Genus Phegornis.

Chilian Sandpiper.—Peale’s Sandpiper.—Forster’s Sandpiper. . . . . . . . . 448

CHAPTER XXIX.

Genus Rhynchea.
Painted Snipe —Australian Painted Snipe—South-American Painted Snipe . . . . 454

xiv CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXX.

Genus Scolopaz.

Auckland Snipe.-—Latham’s Snipe.-—Wood-Snipe.—Himalayan Solitary Snipe.—Japanese
Solitary Snipe.—Pintail Snipe.—Swinhoe’s Snipe-—Jack Snipe—Great Snipe.—Common
Snipe.—North-American Snipe.—Strickland’s Snipe.—Jameson’s Snipe.—Imperial Snipe.—
Cayenne Giant Snipe —Brazilian Giant Snipe.——Brazilian Snipe.—Falkland-Island Snipe.—
Chilian Snipe-—Peruvian Snipe—Noble Snipe.—Madagascar Snipe.—Ethiopian Snipe.—
Woodcock.—American Woodcock.—Moluccan Woodcock.—Horsfield’s Woodcock .

InpDEx

Page

. 461

. 507

SYSTEMATIC INDEX AND DIAGNOSES.

Family CHARADRIID &.

Page
Subfamily CHARADRIINA, digito externo cum medio ad basin membrana connexo :
narium apertura ultra partem quartam rostri a basiextensi. . . . . . . . 66

Genus (2DICNEMUS, tarso omnino reticulato: rectricibus mediis quam rectrices
laterales valdé longioribus (25 millim. aut plus). . . . 2... . . «(69

Subgenus A, pectore valdé striato.

CEpicnemus creEpitans, fascia pallida, fascidque brunned inter tectrices minores et majores :

tectricibus majoribus albo termimatis. ©. 2. 1. 1 1 ee ee ee ee ee
CEdicnemus crepitans indicus, alis brevioribus, et primariis magis albo notatis . . . 77
CEDICNEMUS SENEGALENSIS, strigd pallidd inter tectrices minores et majores absente: tectricibus
mediis cinereis brunneo striatis. 2... 1... eee ee ee ee 78
CEpICcNEMUS VERMICULATUS, dorso transversim vermiculato . . . . . .. . . . . . 80
(picnemus capensis, tectricibus omnibus et scapularibus brunneo fasciatis . . . . . . 81
Cidicnemus capensis affinis, tarso breviore (minus quam 90 millim.). . . . . . . 82

CEpICNEMUS GRALLARIUS, remigibus exterioribus quatuor versus apicem plagd albé magna
TOPALIS) ae sh, a Sa ES aa ge Se a a Se? ee am A ee Se we 8S

Subgenus B, pectore vix striato.

(Epicnemus BistR1aTus, dorso striato sed non fasciato: regionibus paroticis pallescentibus . 85

(Edicnemus bistriatus dominicensis, magnitudine minima. . . .... .. . . 86
CEpICNEMUS SUPERCILIARIS, dorso vermiculato sive angusté fasclato . . . . . 1... . 87
(Epicnemvs recurvirostris, maxilla recurvata. . 2. 1. 1 ew ee we ee ee 88

Cipicnemus MaGnirnostTRis, lorisnigyis. . 2. 2 1 ee ee ww ee ee ee ee 8D

XVl SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Page

Genus CHARADRIUS, sulco nasali obvio: alis haud calcaratis: rectricibus mediis

feré omnind brunneis et quam rectrices laterales non valdé longioribus (nun-
quam 25 millim.) . 6 1 6 ww ee 91

Subgenus A, aut axillaribus haud albis: aut halluce parvo: aut cauda
fasciata: aut abdomine magn maculé nigré ornato. . . . . . 94
CHARADRIUS PLUVIALIs, caudé fasciatd, axillaribus albis © 2 6 6 6 we ee ee ee
CHaraprivs ruvus, cauda fasciata, axillaribus fumosis . . . . . 1 + ee ee ee 99
Charadrius fulvus americanus, maguitudine majore : tertiariis brevioribus. . . . . 100
CHARADRIUS HELVETICUS, axillaribus nigris . . . 1 ee ee eee ee ee ee LOR

Craraprivs Mopsstus, halluce parvo: axillaribus albis : secundariis fer omnino brunneis . 105

Charadrius modestus rubecola, magnitudine minore: colore obscuriore. . . . . . 106
Craraprivs socraBiuis, halluce parvo: tarso quam digitus medius cum ungue breviore . . 107
CuarapRivs RUFIVvENTRIS, halluce parvo: primariis interioribus et secundariis omnibus laté

albo terminatis. . 6 0.0.0. 02. ee ee ee ee ewe eee wl we . 108
CHARADRIUS AUSTRALIS, axillaribus fulvis. 2... 6 1 ee ee ee ee ew we LTO

CHARADRIUS TOTANIROSTRIS, abdomine macula nigra magna ornato: axillaribus albis: cauda

strigd nigr& prope apicem fasciata 2 1. we ee ee ee ee ee ee rT
CHARADRIUS MORINELLUS, axillaribus fuscis: rostro quam digitus medius breviore . . . . 118
CHARADRIUS VEREDUS, axillaribus fuscis: digito medio quam rostrum breviore . . . . . 115

Subgenus B, axillaribus albis: halluce nullo : abdomine albo : cauda fascia

obscura prope apicem ornaté . . . . ww we. «dz

CHARADRIUS VOCIFERUS, uropygio et supracaudalibus rufs . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
CHARADRIUS MELODUS, dorso et supracaudalibus centralibus pallidé griseis . 2. 2. . . . . 12]
Charadrius melodus circumcinctus, collari nigro pectoraliintegro. . . . . . . . 122

CHARADRIUS SEMIPALMATUS, digitorum ron solum externo cum medio, sed etiam medio cum
interno membran4 connexo.. . . . 1 ee ee kk 123

CuHARADRIUS HIATICULA, dorso et supracaudalibus fusco-griseis, digitis internis ad basin liberis:

pectore et rectricibus lateralibus non nisi fascid und obscuré ornatis . . . - . 125
Charadrius hiaticula major, magnitudine majore . . . . . . . ee ee. «126
CHARADRIUS MONACHUS, supracaudalibus centralibus feré nigris: dorso pallidé griseo . . . 127
CHARADRIUS NOVE-ZELANDIA, rostri tarsique longitudine equali . . . . . 128
CHARADRIUS MINOR, rectricibus lateralibus quam rectrices mediz vix brevioribus (haud 7
millim.): scapularibus dorso concoloribus . . . . . . . . ew eee 180
Charadrius minor jerdoni, magnitudine minore. . . oho ine SPL Aa av ae 182)
CHARADRIUS PLACIDUS, pectore non nisi fascié und obscura ornato: rectricibus lateralibus
quam rectrices mediz valdé brevioribus (circa 138 millim.). . . . de a @ 18S

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. xvii

Page
CHARADRIUS TRICOLLARIS, pectore fasciis duabus obscuris ornato: fronte usque ad rostrum albé 134

CHARADRIUS FORBESI, rectricum lateralium pogoniis internis fasciis tribus nigris ornatis . . 136

CuanapRIUs BIFRONTATUS, pectore fasciis duabus obscuris ornato: fronte albé ad basin brunneda:
rectricibus lateralibus non nisi fascid und obscurd ornatis . . . . 1... eee «187

Crarabnivs NicRIFRONS, scapularibus rufis . Of us cdle Srelg.awe oe) “Stedinia “f00'S'. ee care doo

Subgenus C, cauda non fascid nigrescente prope apicem ornaté: prima-
riarum * interiorum pogoniis externis ad basin albis. . . . . . 139

Section A, aut alis longioribus (120 ad 180 millim.): aut maxille arcu
longiore (10 ad 13 millim.): specie pedibus nigris cum loris albis,
et specie primariarum tectricibus quam secundarie valdé brevi-
oribus (circa 18 millim.) exceptis. . . . . . . 2... . 142

CuHARADRIUS astaticus, pedibus pallidis: lorisalbis . 2. . 2. 1. 1. . 2 1 ee. 144

CHARADRIUS GEOFFROYI, maxille arcu longiore (circa 13 millim.): rostro recto: pedibus nigris,
parvis (digit. med. com ungue circa 22 millim.) . . . 2 2 + 4 2 we wee we » 146

CHaRaDRIUs MoNGOLICUS, pedibus nigris: rostro brevi (maxille areu 7} millim. aut minore) :
pectore fasciis obscuris nunquam ornato: cauda brevi (minus quam 50 millim. in juv.) :
supracaudalibua pallidig : s « wo. «+ # # © 6 8 * 4 % & ee © # » » « TAY

CHarapRivs BicrNncTIS, pedibus nigris: maxillee arcu brevi (circa 8 millim.): pectore aut nigro
albo et castaneo fasciato (in adult.) aut vix fasciato (in juv.): supracaudalibus non albo

terminates <<. aoe we Oe) Oe ela a OE a ce Oe ae es ae a we
CHARADRIUS oBscURUS, pedibus majoribus (digito medio cum ungue circa 30 millim.) . . . 151
CHARADRIUS FRONTALIS, rostro dextrorso curvato 2. 6 6 ee ee ee ee ee ER

CHarapRivs MonTanvs, pedibus pallidis: loris aut nigris (in adult.) aut brunneis (in juv.) :
caudé longé (58 ad 65 millim.) 2 6 6 6 ee ee ee ee we ee ee . 1

Cuaraprivs witsont, pedibus pallidis: maxille arcu longiore (circa 11$ millim.) . . . . 154

CHARADRIUS FALKLANDICUS, pectore fasciis duabus, aut nigris (in adult.) aut griseis (in juv.)
ornato: caudé equali, non cuneat€@ . 2 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 155

Section B, aut alis brevioribus (90 ad 115 millim.), cum maxille arcu
brevi (6 ad 10 millim.): aut pedibus nigris, cum loris albis: aut
primariarum tectricibus quam secundariz valdé brevioribus (circa
TS gn 9 es GR Che a ee RE ae oe

Cuaraprrus Pecuarius, pedibus nigris: primariz tertiz rhachide omnind fusca : primariarum
tectricorum et sccundariarum longitudine equali. . 2. . 2. ee ee ee ee 158

CHARADRIUS SANCTH-HELEN®, primariarum tectricibus quam secundaria valdé brevioribus
(cites WSmillim.) 2. 4 6 2 we eR wR eee we ee we we ee oe EGO

1 I have followed Sundevall in making “ remex ” feminine (vide Sundev. Meth. Nat. Av. Tent. p. xxxvi).
C

XVill SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

CHaRapRIUs MARGINATUS, pedibus pallidis: pectoris lateribus pallidis vix brunneo lavatis:

nuche collari albo obscurissimo . . . . . . . ee

Charadrius marginatus tenellus, magnitudine minore: colore pallidiore, vix fulvo lavato :

secundariis interioribus haud omnind albis . . . . . 2. ee ee

CHARADRIUS RUFICAPILLUS, pedibus nigris: nuché nec collari nigro nec collari albo ornata :

loris aut nigris (im adult.), aut brunneis (in juv.)

CuaRapRivus PERoNI, pedibus pallidis: infra nuche collare album fascia aut nigrA (in adult.)

aut ferrugine’ (in juv.), sepe pectore conjuncté . . 2. . 2 ee ee

Cuaraprivs cantianus, nuché non collari nigro sed collari albo ornata: pectore utrinque

macula fusci: primarii tertiz rhachide pro majore parte alba

Charadrius cantianus minutus, magnitudine minore . . . . . . . . .
Charadrius cantianus dealbatus, loris fuscis: pedibus pallidis . .

Charadrius cantianus nivosus, loris albis: pedibus pallidis . . . ..

CHARADRIUS COLLARIS, pedibus pallidis: nuchd nec collari nigro nec collari albo ornata:

pectore fascid nigra notato 2. 2... wwe et

CHARADRIUS OCCIDENTALIS, pedibus nigris: lorisalbis. . . . . .

Genus LOBIVANELULUS, loris carunculis ornatis

Subgenus A, halluce parvo.

LosivanELLus cINEREUs, secundariis albis . . . . ....24.~«

LosivaNneELivs inpicus, rectricum fascia alba terminali lata (circa 15 ad 20 millim.) .
Lobivanellus indicus atronuchalis, nuchi nigra. . . .

LosrvaNneLius cucuLLatus, abdomine nuchdque nigris: tectricibus haud albo terminatis
LoBIvANELLUS PERSONATUS, cervice et corpore subttis omnind albis.

LosivaNnELLus Losatus, corpore subtis omnind albo: occipite nuchique nigris

Page

161

163

164

166

168

169
170
171

173

. 174

LosivaNELLus SENEGALENSIS, secundariarum exteriorum duabus partibus (terminalibus) nigris,

tertid parte (basali) alba. . . . . . .

LosivaNELLUs LaTERaLis, secundariarum exteriorum partibus duabus (basalibus) albis, tertia

parte (terminali) nigrAé . 2. . . . .

LoBIVANELLUS MELANOCEPHALUS, rectricum fascié nigra’ subterminali angusta (haud 25 millim.)

Subgenus B, halluce nullo.

LoBIVANELLUS ALBicrps, calcaribus magnis

. . . . . . . . .

LosivaNELLvs TECTUS, primariarum tectricibus albis: remigibus omnibus ad_ basin albis, ad

terminum nigris . .

. . . . . . . . . ‘ . .

176

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XIX

Page
Oil a, ee Boer 4 198

LosivaNELius PECTORALIs, rectricibus omnibus nigro fasciatis : primariarum omnium pogoniis
CRLCMIIS TGTIS 2c oe. let Get es Gee: a Se Cel at Se OR. ee Ee ee Se BOT

LosivaNELLUS MALABARICUS, rectricibus lateralis albis : pedibus flavis

LoBivanELuus stPERcILIosvs, rectricibus lateralibus albis: pedibus rubris. . . . . . . 201

Genus VANELLUS, caud& vix rotundati: sulco nasali obvio: lobis carunculd

carentibus: alis seepe calcaratis: rectricibus centralibus ad basin pro parte
BRCAVASARINE 5" Bt Gas <a. Bl chs Hee (ae Bergin CH Me Bin Fe Heath Che ee. pc ge BUS

Subgenus A, halluce parvo.

VANELLUS CRISTATUS, Supracaudalibus et subcaudalibus rufis: subalaribus nigris . . . . 210

VANELLUS GREGARIUS, primariarum interiorum pogoniis internis albis vel albo marginatis,
pogoniis externis nigris . 6... ee ee eee ee RII

VANELLUS LEUCURUS, caud&4 omnind alba... ie SO). Pil ae 2 ae ah BES oe, A Gat ee ES

VANELLUS CRASSIROSTRIS, remigibus omnibus (primA, secundé et tertid exceptis) omnino albis. 214

VANELLUS CAYENNENSIS, subalaribus albis: tectricibus splendidé iridescentibus . . . . . 216
Vanellus cayennensis chilensis, colli lateribus cerulescentibus . . . . . . . . . 218
Subgenus B, halluce nullo.

VANELLUS sPinosus, calcaribus magnis: pedibus nigris: tectricibus minoribus brunneis,
majoribus albis <0 oy 3 oe Bw ew ee ee @ oe AID

VANELLUS SPECIOSUS, calcaribus magnis: tarso rostroque nigris: tectricibus omnibus cinereis. 221

VANELLUS CORONATUS, Calcari nullo: primariarum tectricibus pro majore parte albis. . . . 222
VANELLUS MELANOPTERUS, Calcari nullo: pedibus rufis: primariarum tectricibus nigris. . . 224
VANELLUS INoRNATUS, Subalaribus brunneis: secundariis pro majore parte albis . . . . . 225
VANELLUS VENTRALIS, bumerorum tectricibus nigris . . . 1 ee eee ee RR
VANELLUS RESPLENDENS, tectricibus splendidé iridescentibus. . . . . . . 2. 2 1. . 228
VANELLUS CAYANUS, pedibus pallidis: secundariis fere omnind albis . . . . 1. 1 1 1. 229

Genus CURSORIUS, caudié exquali: tarso scutellato: halluce nullo: naribus vix

in sulcis positis. ©. 2 2. 1. 1 ee eee . 231

Subgenus A, pectore haud fasciato,
Cursorius GaLicus, axillaribus subalaribusque nigris 2... 1 ee we wee we 285
CurRsoRius SOMALENSIS, axillaribus supracaudalibusque isabellinis . . . . . . . 1). . 287
Cursorivs RUFUS, secundarie mediz dimidio terminalialbo. . . . . . . 1. es . « 288

e2

XX SYSTEMATIC INDEX,

Page
iS 3

CuRsoRIUs SENEGALENSIS, axillaribus fumosis: uropygio et supracaudalibus concoloribus:
secundariarum pogoniis internis brunneo marginatis. . . . . . «© - «© + « + . 289
Cursorius coROMANDELICUS, axillaribus fumosis: supracaudalibus albis. . . . . . . . 241

+

Subgenus B, pectore fasciato.

CuRsorivs BICINCTUS, primariis interioribus secundariisque omnibus pro majore parte castaneis 242

eo @ w= & 4 248

Cursorius bicinctus gracilis, colore isabellino: magnitudine minore: guld vix striata . 244

Cursorius bicinctus bisignatus, colore pallidiore. . . . . .

Cursorivs cincrtus, axillaribus supracaudalibusque albis: secundariis feré omnind brunneis . 245

CuRsoRIUs cHaLCOPTERUS, supracaudalibus albis: secundariarum parte basali alba, parte
terminali nigré: primariis haud albo subterminali maculatis: (in adult.) remigum

nigrarum terminis iridescentibus . . . . . . o> Zeta Gh. thea rio AS ee 1G 4
Cursorius BrToRQuatus, primaria prima macula alba subterminali ornata . . . . . . . 247
Cursornius £eyptius, dorso scapularibusque nigris. . . . . . Bath Be Be Gentes ho AS

Genus GLAREOLA, cauda bifurcata vel emarginata: halluce parvo: naribus vix
in sulcis positis. 2. 2. 2. 1.

Subgenus A, axillaribus castaneis.
GLaREOLA PRATINCOLA, cauda valdé furcata (juvenum etiam plus quam 30 millim.) . . . . 256
GLAREOLA ORIENTALIS, rectricum pogoniorum externorum parte basali omnind alb&: cauda
non valdé furcaté (adultorum etiam minus quam 30 millim.). . . . . . , . 258
GuaREOLA OcULARIS, rectricum lateralium pogoniis externis nigro marginatis . . . . . . 260
Subgenus B, axillaribus nigris.
GLaREOLA MELANoPTERA, caud4 valdé furcata (juvenum etiam plus quam 25 millim.) . . 261
GLaReoLa GRaLLaria, tarso longo (40 ad 50 millim.): secundariis omnind brunneis: cauda
vix furcata . F Sn ne Se ae ee 263
GLAREOLA LacTEA, secundariis pro majore parte albis 6 ieee tee a a 264
Subgenus C, axillaribus albis.
GLAREOLA CINEREA, subalaribus nigris. . . . . ave Hae ee wy ey 265
Subgenus D, axillaribus griseis.
GraREOLA NUCHALIS, secundariarum pogoniis externis pro parte basali albis. - 2 . . 266
GarEoLa MEGaAropA, nucha collarirufoornata. . . . . . . 267

al Fs4 A * ae
GLAREOLA EMINI, nuché collari albo ornata, secundariarum pogoniis externis omnind griseis . 269

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Xxl

Page
Subfamily TOTANINA, digito externo cura medio ad basin membrand connexo:
naribus ultra partem quartam rostri ab basi non extensis. . . . . . . « . 270

Genus HIMANTOPUS, tarso omniné reticulato et longissimo (quam digitus medius
duiple lonieiere)) 2 ee a ee ee eR a a we

Subgenus A, interscapulio nigro: halluce nullo.

HIMANTOPUS MELANOPTERUS, aut capite colloque omnino albis (in adult.), aut pileo et collo
postico nigris (in adolesc.) vel brunneis (in juv.), sed inter collum posticum et dorsum

semper collar alba ig. 2. poe. be ow oe. Ge we es Se ee ee a Oe a ee a BT
Himanrorus MEXIcANUS, axillaribus lorisque albis: haud inter collum posticum et dorsum

@ollarr albo i. wife. ae es eR a ke RS Se So, ea SS RG
HIManrorus KNUDSEN], loris parte anteriore alba, parte posteriore nigra. . . - . . . 280

HIMANTOPUS BRASILIENSIS, colli postici colore nigro super regionem paroticam, sed haud
super pileum extenso . 2. 5 6 6 6 6 6 8 ee ee ee ee we 2B

HIMANTOPUS LEUCOCEPHALUS, colli postici colore nigro nec ad caput nec ad dorsum extenso . 283

Himantopus leucocephalus picatus, collari albo inter collum posticum et dorsum nigro
Striato: 20 ae ae a es we Se Se ee Re a Se ee SE

Himantorus MELAS, axillaribus nigris . 2... 1 ee eee ee ee. 285
Subgenus B, interscapulio nigro: halluce parvo.

HIMANTOPUS ANDINUS, secundariis omninod nigris . . . . . . ee ee ee eee 286
Subgenus C, interscapulio albo: halluce nullo.

Himanropus pecroRatis, scapularibus brunneis . . 1. ee ee ee ee ee ee 88

Subgenus D, interscapulio albo: halluce parvo.

Hrmanrorus avocerra, remigibus tertiariis aut albis (in adult.) aut brunneis albo fasciatis

(in juv.) sos « « + 289
HiManTorus AMERICANUS, secundariarum pogoniis externis pro majore parte brunneis . . . 291
Himantorvs RUBRICOLLIS, secundariarum pogoniis ambobus albis: scapularibus albo ornatis :

remigibus tertiariis haud albo ornatis . 6 1. ee ee ee ee ee ee + ROR
Genus HEMATOPUS, rostro recto: tarso omnind reticulato, quam rostrum

breviore. 2. ee et eee ee aes oS Gee DA

Hm MaTorus OsTRALEGUS, primariz quartz quinteque pogoniis externis macula alba notatis . 301
HeMarorus oscuLans, primariz sextz (nec tertie, nec quartz, nec quinte) pogonio externo

Vaasa AlbaWORRbO: eG wae ck He CR ER ee, ae eR re ae i Ge ae eg a

. 304

ELemarorus LoNGIRosTRIS, uropygio albo: primariis haud albo maculatis . . . .

XxX SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Page
Hartopus pauuiatus, dorso uropygioque brunneis . - - e+ ee th tt ts 305
Hemarorus Leucopus, uropygio nigro: abdomine albo . «© - ee + ee tot tt 306
Hematopus leucopus galapagensis, tavso rostroque majoribus - - + + + + + + 307
HaMarorus UNICOLOR, corpore omnind nigro: pedibus rubris. . 0. ee ee ee 808
Hematopus unicolor capensis, vostro breviore: pedum rubro colore potiis purpurascente
QWand WMI wR ee Bw eR . 309
Hamartorus NIGER, corpore omnind nigro: pedibus pallidé carneis «~~ + + et es 310
Hematopus niger ater, rostro breviore sed altiore «© - . 6 1 ee ee es 311
Genus IBIDORHYNCHUS, rostro valdé arcuato, tarso omnino reticulato . . . 313
[B1DORHYNCHUS STRUTHERSI, rostro pedibusque rubris . . . 1. 6 + + ee ee OLS

Genus NUMENIUS, rostro satis arcuato ut linea recta descripta ab rictu ad apicem
infra lineam inferam mandibul transeat: acrotarsi dimidio infero scutellato . 316

Subgenus A, pileo brunneo, zqualiter striato.
Numenrus arquatus, dorso postico uropygioque quam dorsum superius valde pallidioribus :
tarso longiore (plus quam 75 millim.) 2 2. 6 ee ee ee ee ee we. BRR
Numenius arquatus lineatus, dorso postico uropygicque albis, vix brunneo striatis . . 324
NuMENIvs TENUIROSTRIS, tarso breviore (minus quam 75 millim.). . . . . . . . . . 825

Numenivus cyanopus, interscapulio et dorso postico concoloribus: axillaribus albescentibus
brunneo fasciatis «ow woe we wk RB OR OR me we we we ww ee 4 BRE

NuMENIUS LonGiRosTRis, axillaribus pallidé castaneis . 2. 6. we eee we ee. B27

Subgenus B, pileo brunneo, strig4 pallidd centraliter notato.

NuMEnius PH&opvus, dorso postico uropygioque quam interscapulium valdé pallidioribus . . 328

Numenius pheopus variegatus, dorso postico uropygioque valdé brunneo striatis . . . 330
NuMENIUS HUDSONICUS, axillaribus castaneis brunneo fasciatis : primariarum pogoniis internis
brunneis albo fasciatis: abdomine albo. . . . . 1 we ee ee ee 81
Numenivs tanirrensis, plumarum tibie rhachidibus valdé prolongatis . . . . . . . . 882
NuMENIUS BOREALIS, primariis haud fasciatis. tarso postice reticulato, antice seutcllato. . . 333

NeMENIUs MINUTUS, primariis haud fasciatis : tarso postice anticeque scutellato . . . . . 335

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XXIi1

Page '
Genus PHALAROPUS, digitislobatis . 2. 2. 2. 2. 1. 1 1... . . 836
Puararopus FruLicartus, rostro lato: caudé vald cuneatd (rectricibus centralibus quam
rectrices laterales 10 ad 16 millim. longioribus) . . 2. 2. 2 2... ww... 838
PHALAROPUS HYPERBOREUS, rostro tenui, breviore (minus quam 25 millim.). . . . . . . 340
PHALAROPUS WILSONI, rostro tenui, longo (plus quam 25 millim.) . . . . . . . . 842

Genus TOTANUS, frontis pennis ante fissuram extensis: rostro aut recto, aut pauld
recurvato, aut perpaululum decurvato . . . 2... 1. 1 ww. BSE

Subgenus A, dorso postico albo.

Toranus Fuscus, secundarlis albis, fusco fasciatis . . . . . . . . 2 ee ee BS]
ToTaNnus CALIDRIS, secundariis fert omniné albis . . . . . . . we ee ee. 858
ToTaNUS GUTTIFERUS, axillaribus albis: digito medio basi utrinque palmatis . . . . . . 354

Toranus GLorris, secundariis canis, non fasciatis: alis longis (circa 180 millim.) : palama inter
digitum medium et digitum internum carente. . . 2... 2... ™. 1... B85

ToTANUS STAGNATILIS, Secundariis canis, non fasciatis: magnitudine parva, (ale circa 140 millim.) 357

Subgenus B, axillaribus omnino nigricantibus.

ToTANUS SEMIPALMATUS, primariis pro majore parte albis . . . . . 1. 2... 858
Totanus semipalmatus speculiferus, magnitudine majore . . . . . . . . . . . 839
ToTanus INCANUs, remigibus haud albo notatis. . ©. 2. 2. 2... we ew we. 860

Totanus incanus brevipes, tarso postico scutellato : narium sulcis non nisi rostri dimidio
@xtendentibus 2 io Be eR oe Se ee BEL

Subgenus C, axillaribus albis brunneo notatis: dorso postico et inter-
scapulio fer concoloribus.

ToraNUS MELANOLEUCUS, supracaudalibus pro majore parte albis: magnitudine media (ale

185 ad 200 millim.) . 6 2 2 ew ee we we ee ee ew ee ee we 2 BEB
ToTANUS FLAVIPES, supracaudalibus pro majore parte albis: axillaribus albis parce brunneo
notatis: magnitudine media (ale 150 ad 175 millim.). . . . . . . 1. 1... 864

ToraNUS GLAREULA, supracaudalibus axillaribusque pro majore parte albis . magnitudine parva
(alee 116 ad ISOCAM) gs a we ow A ea SG 2 eS ee oe BOD

ToTANUS SOLITARIUS, axillaribus invicem albo brunneoque fasciatis : supracaudalibus centralibus
‘branneis: ‘primaries haud faseiatis . 2 «© 6 4 e woe 8 ay @ @ 8 5 4 © » BOF

ToraNus ocHRoPUS, supracaudalibus albis: axillaribus brunneis, angusté albo fasciatis . . . 368

ToraNUS BARTRAMI, primariarum pogoniis internis valdé fasciatis . . . . . . . . . . 376

XXIV SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Page
Subgenus D, axillaribus omnind albis: dorso postico et interscapulio
fere concoloribus.

ToTaNUS TEREKIUS, primariis haud albo notatis: secundariis pro majore parte albis . . . . 369
ToTaNUS HYPOLEUCUS, secundariarum octavd nondque pro majore parte albis: primariarum
plurimis albo notatis : supracaudalibus haud albo notatis ... 2. . 2. 2 1 1 871
ToTaNnus MACULARIUS, secundariarum octavA nonaque pogoniis ambobus strigé brunned lata
notatis: supracaudalibus haud albo notatis . . 2... 1. we we ewe . B72
Toranvs PUGNAX, primariis, secundariis et supracaudalibus centralibus haud albo notatis . . 373

Genus LIMOSA, tarso omnind scutellato: digitis haud lobatis: frontis pennis

non ultra fissuram extensis: rostri apice duro, vix dilatato . . . . . . . 879

Limosa rura, dorso postico, uropygio, axillaribus subalaribusque albis brunneo notatis. . . 384
Limosa rufa uropygialis, dorso postico vix albo notato . . . . . . . . e887
Lriosa repos, axillaribus subalaribusque castaneis . 3... . eee eee ee. 888
Limosa MELANURA, rectricibus nigris, ad basin albis: axillaribus albis brunneo notatis . . . 389
Limosa melunura melanuroides, magnitudine minore. . . . .. . . .. . . 891
Liosa uupsonica, axillaribus subalaribusque nigricantibus. . . . . . . . . . . . 892

Genus EREUNETES, rostro omnind ut in Scolopace formato, apice tumidulo,

GEE se ke a Sie. cle ge Ry RS He le BS Svs - . 394
Subgenus A, dorso postico quam interscapulium valdé pallidiore.

Ergunetes criseus, palamé nulla inter digitum medium et digitum interiorem . . . . . 396

Ereunetes griseus scolopaceus, magnitudine majore ee ee a « BOB

EREUNETES TACZANOWSKII, digito medio ad basin utrinque palmatis . . . . . . . . . 899

Subgenus B, dorso postico et interscapulio feré concoloribus.
ER£UNETES BIMANTOPUS, tarso longiore (38 ad 46 millim.) . . . . . . - . + ~ 400
ERgUNETES PUSILLUS, tarso breviore (minus quam 26 millim.) . . . . ... . . . . 402

Ereunetes pusillus occidentalis, magnitude majore: habitu nuptiali partibus superioribus
valdé castaneo ornatis delet: Mere CRE Ge Gu aed lg ae OB

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XXV

Page

Subfamily SCOLOPACINA, digitis omnibus ad basin liberis. . . . . . . . 405

Genus STREPSILAS, narium apertura ultra partem quartam rostri a basi extensA. 407

STREPSILAS INTERPRES, mento et medio gule albo immaculato. . . . . . . . 410

STREPSILAS MELANOCEPHALUS, mento gulAque aut nigris (wst.), aut albis fusco striatis (hiem.) ;
HONS POSMOO BIDE 4. a a ta ke sw. Se ee RL SO ke we 41]

STREPSILAS VIRGATUS, dorso postico brunneo ww ww ww 4D

Genus TRINGA, narium apertura’ ultra partem quartam rostri a basi haud
extens{ : primariarum prim& quam quarta valdé longiore : longitudinis
differentia inter primariam longissimam et primariam brevissimam quam
rostri longitudo valdé maxima... « . . 2 4 2 «© 4 4 bw we we ew oh

Subgenus A, supracaudalibus centralibus pro majore parte albis.

TRINGA BONAPARTI, rostro quam 26 millim. breviore . . . . . 1. 2 ee ee eee 445
TRINGA SUBARQUATA, rostro valdé decurvato . . . 1... ee ee ee ee 4G
TRINGA CRassIROSTRIS, rostro recto, longo (40 ad 46 millim.) . . . . . . . . 1.) . 421
TRINGA CANUTUS, rostro recto, quam 40 millim. breviore. . . . . .. .. .. . . 422

Subgenus B, secundariis internis (septima, octavé nondque) pro majore
parte albis.

TRINGA ALPINA, supracaudalibus centralibus vix albo notatis: halluce parvo: pedibus nigris . 423

Tringa alpina pacifica, rostro longiore . . 2 1 ee ee ee eee RF
TRINGA MARITIMA, supracaudalibus uropygioque feré nigris: pedibus pallidis . . . . . . 428
Tringa maritima couesi, in ptil. zest. dorso valdé castaneo ornato, pectore fulvo suffuso :
in ptil. hiem. vix distinguenda: magnitudine minore . . . . wis ena . 430
Tringa maritima ptilocnemis, primariarum interiorum pogoniis externis sad basin albis
dad rhachidem, 2 4 @ << © 5 8 woo % © &@ we oe 8 a we a we 4 ABT
Trinea ARENARIA, halluce nullo. . . . . 2. 1 ee ee eee ee ee ee SBI

Subgenus C, supracaudalibus et secundariis pro minore parte albis:

pedibus pallidis.

TRINGA ACUMINATA, Magnitudine majore (ale plus quam 120 millim.) . . . . . . . . 441
Tringa acuminata pectoralis, rectricibus centralibus quam contigui sunt paulo (circa
6G millim.) longiovibus . 4. © © » * & © 8 4 Ww &@ ew we es we w ASB

TRINGA SUBMINUTA, magnitudine parv4 (ale quam 100 millim. breviores) : rectricibus latera-

libus‘fuseis 2. . «# «© « 4 «© 4 * . 438

Tringa subminuta minutilla, pedibus parvis (digitus medius cum ungue 203 ad 21} millim.) 439

d

XXV1 SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Page
TRINGA TEMMINCKI, rectricibus lateralibus albis. . . . . - + + + + + ee + + 404
TRINGA RUFESCENS, primariarum pogoniis internis nigro maculatis . . . . . . « + . 446
Subgenus D, supracaudalibus et secundariis pro minore parte albis:
pedibus nigris.
TRINGA MINUTA, magnitudine parva (ale quam 100 millim. breviores): rostro ad basin
TESST <i ek eR a ER Re a ee a ee we!) oe
Tringa minuta ruficollis, in ptil. estiv. gutture castaneo: in ptil. hiem. haud a Tringa
minuta typica distmguenda «wk ew ee eee 487
TRinca PyemMa@a, rostro prope apicem quam ad basin valdéJatiore . . . ... =. =. . 440
TRINGA PLATYRHYNCHA, rostro quam tarsus vel quam ale pars quarta longiore. . . . . . 433
TRINGA BAIRDI, magnitudine majore (ale 115 ad 1380 millim.). . . 2. 2... ww. bd
Genus PHEGORNIS, primariarum quatuor exterioribus subequalibus: differentia
inter longitudinem primariarum exteriorum et interiorum majore quam rostri
longitudo. 2. 2. . By he FA -Gi ewe ae BD. elec. SE oe ce oe AB
PHEGORNIS MITCHELLI, corpore subtis fasciato: hallucenullo . . .. .. =... +. 450
PHEGORNIS CANCELLATUS, corpore subtls fasciato: halluce parvo ee ow we we AGL
PHEGORNIS LEUCOPTERUS, Corpore subtus non fasciato. . . . . 1. ee we ee 45D
Genus RHYNCH AA, rostri, digiti medii (cum ungue) et tarsi longitudine feré
eequali: differentia inter longitudinem primarie longissime et longitudinem
primariz brevissime quam rostri longitudo valdé minore 2. we . 454
RwYNCH#A CAPENSIS, magnitudine magna (ale circa 125 millim.): caudi feré integra:
primariz octave pogonio externo quatuor maculis fulvis ornato. . . . . . . . . 456
RuYNCH&A AUSTRALIS, magnitudine magna (ale circa 125 millim.): cauda feré integra:
primariz octave pogonio externo non nisi duabus maculis fulvis ornato . 458

RuyNCH#A SEMICOLLARIS, magnitudine parva (ale circa 100 millim.), caudé valdé cuneata. . 459

Genus SCOLOPAX, rostro longissimo (quam tarsus duplo longiore) . . . . . 461

Subgenus A, pileo striato non fasciato: tibie parte extrem& denudata:
rectricibus 12 ad 16: primariarum pogoniis internis haud fasciatis.

ScoLopax GALLINULA, dorso purpureo: scapularibus viridi-iridescente ornatis . . . . . . 480

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XXVIl

Page
ScoLopax £QUATORIALIS, rectricibus quatuor externis pro majore parte albis: tectricibus mediis

anguste fulvo terminetis. © 4. « « & 8 «8 @ 6 e We we ee ey ww w « BOO

ScoLopax masor, rectricibus lateralibus quatuor pro majore parte albis: tectricibus mediis
latéalbo terminatis «©. 1... we ee . . 482

.

ScoLopaxX GALLINAGO, rectricibus quatuordecim aut sedecim, quarum externz vix attenuate
(lat. 8 ad 10 millim.) et vix albo notate sunt: rostro medio (long. 60 ad 75 millim.) :
tibiarum parte extremé (circ. 10 millim.) denudata . . 2. 2. 2. 1. ww 484

Scolopax gallinago wilsoni, rectricibus sedecim, quarum externe pauld attenuate (circ.
7 muhim, latstmt . 6 « e 6 63 ow A we Be Se Ye we we 4 ABE

ScoLopax FRENATA, rectricibus sedecim, quarum laterales angustee (minus quam 5 millim.) et
valdé brunneo fasciate sunt: rostro breviore (minus quam 75 millim.) . . . . . . 494

Scolopax frenata magellanica, magnitudine majore (circa 50 millim.) : colore pallidiore :

secundariis brevioribus. 2... 1. ee ee ee ee ee ew. AE
Scolopax frenata chilensis, magnitudine majore (alis 130 ad 145 millim.) . . . . . 496
Scolopax frenata andina, rostro breviore. ©. 6 ee ee ee ew ew 497

ScoLopax NoBILis, rostro longo (80 ad 115 millim.): primariis non fasciatis: rectricibus
sedecim, quarum extern anguste (circ. 5 millim.) et fulvescentes pogoniis ambobus
brunneo fasciatee sunt. 2 6 6 ee ee ee ee we 498

Scolopux nobilis macrodactyla, macrodactyla (tarsus et digitus medius cum ungue 86°
BOO WAM, ca ee a bo tats OS a He Ta De Ke GE a owls CR ah otto et e 2 AOD
Subgenus B, pileo haud fasciato: rectricibus 18 ad 26.

ScoLopax STENURA, rectricibus viginti-sex, quarum sedecim angustissime sunt (2ad4millim.) 477
Sconopax MEGALA, rectricibus viginti, quarum duodecim anguste sunt (4ad 8 millim.) . . 479

ScoLoPax AUSTRALIS, rectricibus duodeviginti, quarum non nisi quatuor angustz sunt (minus

quam Swill.) « 4 4 @ 6 W426 8 ew Ye a ee SS ee ew & Ee
ScoLoPax sOLiTaria, scapularibus albo non fulvo striatis. ©. 2. 2. 1. ww ee ee 495
Scolopax solitaria japonica, dorsi strigis pallidis angustioribus . . . . . . . . 476

ScoLopax NEMORICOLA, secundariis valdé (circa 16 millim.) ultra primariarum tectrices extensis. 474

Subgenus C, pileo striato non fasciato: rectricibus 14 ad 16: aut tibiis
feré omnino vestitis, aut primariarum pogoniis internis fasciatis.

Section A, vectricibus omnibus fasciatis.

ScoLoPAX UNDULATA, primariarum pogoniis internis fasciatis . . . 2. 1... 1 . . AR
Scolopax undulata gigantea, maguitudine majore (ale plus quam 160 millim.) . . . 493
ScoLoPAX STRICKLAND, pectore et abdomiune fulvis vix brunneo notatis . . . . . . . . 488

ScoLOPAX JAMESONI, pectore et abdomine albescenti-brunneo fasciatis : primariarum pogoniis
internis haud fasciatis =. 6 ee ee eee we ABO

XXVlil SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Page

Section B, rectricum tribus lateralibus non fasciatis.
ScoLopax IMPERIALIS, Magnitudine magné (ale circa 150 millim.) . . . . . «1. . . 49)
ScoLopax AUCKLANDICA, magnitudine parva (ale circa 100 millim.) . . . . . . . . . 472

Subgenus D, pileo fasciato non striato: rectricibus duodecim quarum
apices subtus colore argenteo sunt.

ScoLopax RUSTICOLA, primariarum pogoniis internis fasciatis : pectoris pennis omnibus fasciatis 502

ScoLopax MINOR, primariarum primis tribus valdé attenuatis . 2. 2. 2. 1. 1. ww. 504
ScoLoPax ROCHUSSENI, primariarum pogoniis internis fasciatis: pectore non fasciato. . . . 505
ScoLoPax SATURATA, primariarum pogoniis internis non fasciatis: primariis non attenuatis . 506

Sternum of Cursorius gallicus.

Lisl OF (PLATES:

CHARADRIUS RUBECOLA
CHARADRIUS SOCIABILIS .

CHARADRIUS RUFIVENTER

CHARADRIUS TOTANIROSTRIS .

CHARADRIUS MONACHUS .
CHARADRIUS OBSCURUS
CHARADRIUS TENELLUS

LoBIVANELLUS ALBICEPS .

LoBIVANELLUS SUPERCILIOSUS .

VANELLUS CAYANUS
CURSORIUS SOMALENSIS

CuRSOoRIUS CINCTUS

CURSORIUS BITORQUATUS .

HIMANTOPUS PECTORALIS
TRINGA RUFICOLLIS
PHEGORNIS MITCHELLI
PHEGORNIS CANCELLATUS
PHEGORNIS LEUCOPTERUS
RHYNCH#A SEMICOLLARIS
ScoLOPAX ROCHUSSENI

ScoLoPpaxX SATURATA .

Chilian Dotterel.

Magellanic Plover.

Australian Four-toed Dotterel.
Slender-billed Dotterel.
Hooded Ringed Plover.
New-Zealand Dotterel.
Madagascar Ringed Plover.
Black-shouldered Wattled Lapwing.
Boéhm’s Wattled Lapwing.

Little White-winged Lapwing.
Somali Courser.

Heuglin’s Courser.

Jerdon’s Courser.

Banded Stilt.

Red-throated Stint.

Chilian Short-winged Sandpiper.
Peale’s Short-winged Sandpiper.
Forster’s Short-winged Sandpiper.
South-American Painted Snipe.
Moluccan Woodcock.

Horsfield’s Woodcock.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

OF

THE CHARADRITD

CHAPTER I.

CLASSTFICATION OF BIRDS.

Tue Plovers, the Sandpipers, and the Snipes form three groups of birds which are very
nearly allied, and may be conveniently classed together in a family, to which the name of
Charadriide has been given.

The precise position of this family in the Avian System is difficult to determine, for
the sufficient reason that ornithologists are not yet agreed upon a classification of birds ;
but the following rude attempt may enable the student to form some idea of the groups to
which they are nearest related.

The Classification of Birds, in its progress from the artificial system of the last century
to the natural system, which may possibly be discovered in the next, is passing through an
intermediate stage to which the word chaos is not altogether inapplicable. Cuvier’s
modification of the division of birds into six Orders, adopted by Linneus, and founded for
the most part on the structure of the feet, is acknowledged by every ornithologist to be
wrong ; but it would be difficult to find two ornithologists who had studied this branch of
the subject and who agreed as to the number, to say nothing of the names, of the Orders
which are to take the place of the Cuvierian ones. The latest contribution to the legion of
new systems which have appeared is that of Mr. Sclater, published in the ‘Ibis’ for 1880.
In this scheme no fewer than twenty-six Orders are recognized. That these groups may
approximately represent a natural arrangement I am not prepared to deny, but for all
practical purposes a primary division into so large a number as a score or more units is of
little value. It is impossible that these twenty-six mountains in the ornithological range
can be exactly equidistant from each other; and surely some ornithologist can be found with

B

Position of
the Chara-
driide.

Unsatisfac-
tory state of
the Classifi-
cation of
Birds.

Sclater’s
System.

Huxley’s
System.

Provisional
classification
founded on
Husley’s
and Sunde-
vall’s
systems.

Anseri-
formes.

Cuculi-
formes.

2 CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

a range of vision wide enough, and a faculty of generalization acute enough, to see the haif-
dozen or so groups of collateral ranges or outlying spurs, which lead up to, and culminate
in, the great central plateau of the Passeres.

It seems probable that the ornithological Orders of the future will be based upon, or
slightly modified from, the four or five great groups which Huxley proposed after his
elaborate study of the palatine bones of birds. Of these groups the Schizognathe contain
the birds with which I propose to deal in the present volume. It seems to form a homo-
geneous assemblage, and would perhaps do so still more if the Pigeons were expelled from
it, on the ground that their young are born helpless and naked. The two characters, the
arrangement of the palatine bones and the condition of the new-born young, seem to offer
a basis for a very simple classification of birds; and though the latter character may not
deserve to be made of so much importance, it will probably be found to be correlated with
many other minor characters, the aggregate of which may justify its adoption.

Birds might then be divided into five Orders, which may be compared to a group of
mountains like the Himalayas. The Passeres and their allies represent the great central
plateau, around which the other four Orders are grouped, hike collateral chains leading down
to the plains in various directions.

These Orders may be briefly summarized as follows :—

Order I. ANSERIFORMES.

Owns, Eacies, Herons, Fuamincors, Ducks, Cormorants, and their allies.

This group of birds may be roughly defined as Desmognathous Dasypeedes—though
many of the Owls are in some respects Schizognathous, and there may be some difficulty
in describing the difference in the condition of the young of the Herons and that of some
of the Picarian birds.

Order II. CUCULIFORMES.

Goatsuckrrs, Cuckoos, Wooprrckers, Parrots, Kinerisurrs, Hornsit1s,
Rotiers, Toucans, JacAMars, Prezons, and their allies.

This group of birds contains the Saurognathe (Woodpeckers), the Schizognathous
Gymnopzedes (Goatsuckers and Pigeons), and the Desmognathous Gymnopzdes (the rest).
It is very closely connected with the preceding Order by the Storks and Cormorants,
which are Desmognathous, and have young born blind and helpless, though covered
with down. The Pigeons, being Schizognathous, are nearly allied to the Charadriformes,

especially to the Sand-Grouse; and the Goatsuckers are said to be nearly allied to
the Owls.

CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. 3

Order III. PASSERIFORMES.

PassERINE Birps, Hommine-Birps, Swirts, and their allies.

This group of birds may be defined as Mgithognathous Gymnopades. They may be
regarded as the great central or dominant group of birds at the present time, by far
the most numerous in species, the most highly and the most recently differentiated,
and consequently so intimately connected, that the genera are very difficult to define.
The Humming-Birds and the Swifts are the most aberrant families, the former being more
or less Schizognathous.

Order IV. CHARADRIFORMES.

Pencuins, Divers, Greses!, Auks, GuLis, Perreis, PLovers, Snrpus, Crangs,
Ratts, Poeasants, Trnamous, and their allies.

This group of birds may be defined as Schizognathous Dasypzdes, to which may be
added the Carinate Dromeognathous birds. The latter (the Tinamous) are an intermediate
link between the Charadriformes and the Struthioformes, but appear on the whole to be
nearest related to the Phasianide than to any of the Struthious birds. The Penguins are
very aberrant, but do not belong to any other Order.

Order V. STRUTHIOFORMES.
OstrRicHEs, Cassowanies, APTERYX, and their allies.

This group of birds may be defined as Noncarinate Dromeognathous Dasypedes.
It represents the Ratitae of most authors, a small survival of a once numerously represented
Order, now rapidly approaching extinction. It may be regarded as the least changed
group of birds, dating very far back in its origin, and consequently showing wide gaps
between the genera.

Some ornithologists have created Orders to include fossil birds. This seems to me
to be absurd.. The consistent evolutionist must believe that a perfect series of intermediate
forms exists, or has existed, between every species of bird now known and the original
species (half bird, half reptile) from which all birds and many reptiles are descended. What

1 It is impossible for a field naturalist to regard the Grebes as nearly related to the Divers. Their habits
under water are entirely different ; they never use their wings under water as the Divors and Auks do, but,
like Ducks, keep them pressed tight to their bodies. They cover their eggs, as is usual amongst Ducks,
but absolutely unknown amongst Divers and Auks. Finally, Charadriform birds lay smooth, coloured and
spotted eggs, or, like the Petrels, show that they have only recently ceased to do so. Grebes, on the other
hand, lay rough eggs without a trace of a spot, and exactly resembling eggs of the Cormorant, Pelican, and
other near allies of the Duck. The arrangement of their palatine bones notwithstanding, there can be little
doubt that Grebes are modified Ducks. Possibly a future biologist may discover some character by which the
Grebes may be removed from the Charadriformes to a more natural position.

B2

Passeri-
formes.

Charadri-
formes.

Struthio-
formes.

Fossil birds.

4 CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

is the use of attempting to classify such an infinite series, from a few bones, belonging to

half a dozen broken links of the endless chain ?
The total number of species of birds known to ornithologists may be roughly estimated

at 10,000, which are distributed amongst these Orders approximately as follows :—

Anseriformes ee! | 00)

Total num- :
ber of spe- Cuculiformes oe Se ee a ae, ee cee TEOOO
cies of birds. Passeriformes . . . . .. . . « 5980
Charadriformes . . . . . . . . . +1100
Struthicformes . . . .. . .. . 20
Species of Birds . . . 10,000

The birds treated of in this volume belong to the Order Charadriformes, which may
be divided into seven Suborders without much difficulty :—

Crypturi, or Timamous . . . . . . «40
Galline, or Game Birds. . . . . . . 3810
ee. Gralle, or Cranes and Rails . . . . . 150
formes. Limicole, or Plovers and Snipes . . . . 280
Gavie, or Gulls and Auks . . . . . . 200
Procellaride, or Petrels. . . . . . . 100
Impennes, or Penguins . . . . . . . 20
Species of Charadriformes . . 1100

Of these seven Suborders, the one to which our attention must be directed is the Limi-

cole, which appears to consist. of one large family, surrounded by seven small ones :—

Pteroclide 1, or Sand-Grouse . . . . . 16
Families of Turnicide?, or Hemipodes. . . . . . 25
Limicolee. Thinocoride ®, or Quail-Plovers . . . . 6
Dromadide 4, or Crab-Plovers. . . . . ]
Charadriide, or Plovers and Snipes . . . 192
Otidide 5, or Bustards . . . . . . ) .)) 28
Parride®, or Jacanas. . . . .. .. «210
Chionide *, or Sheathbills . . 2... 2
Species of Limicole . . 280

1 «The Sand-Grouse are borderers, and although lower than the Grouse in many respects, being
but little removed from the struthious type, yet are related, and that intimately, to the Plovers and the
Pigeons.” (Parker, Trans. Zool. Soc. v. p. 237.)

CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. 5

Neither the exact limits of the Limicole, nor the precise number of Families into
which this Suborder may be most conveniently divided, can be regarded as in any degree
definitely settled ; but the foregoing families may be provisionally included in it.

Following up the simile of a great mountain-range like the Himalayas, we find that
the outlying range of Limicole is a miniature model of the grand whole. It, too, has a
great plateau, surrounded by little peaks or spurs, but some lead down to lower ranges
whilst others lead up to higher mountains. Thus, to drop the metaphor, the Pteroclide
form a stepping-stone to the Pigeons, the Turnicide and Thinocoride to the Game Birds,
the Dromadidee to both the Gulls and the more distant Herons, whilst the Chionide form a
second link to the Gulls, the Parride to the Rails, and the Otidide to the Cranes. To go
back to the simile of the mountain-range, we find that they all lead up to the great central
plateau, blending with it so naturally that it is impossible to draw an artificial hard-and-fast
line where one begins and the other ends, and leaving here and there a few isolated peaks
so exactly between two outlying spurs that it is a toss-up to which they belong. But
in spite of this impossibility of determining the precise limits of each Family or Order,
or to lay down with mathematical accuracy the line where two may march together, the
broad features of the landscape are unmistakable. It is not necessary that classification
be always absolutely definite to be scientific, which is another word for natural. Nature
has drawn a sufficient number of definite lines to enable us to map out the great
divisions; but it must often happen that these lines cross a species, and then it is a
matter of perfect indifference to which side of the line it is referred. The worst thing
that we can do is to act as modern ornithologists are too apt to do, to split the line
which Nature has drawn, and to give undue importance to the doubtful species or groups,
and allow them to set up a genus, or a family, or an order of their own, so that our
hard-and-fast lme may pass between them. A line which never passes over a species
or a higher group is sure to be an artificial one. If there is no mystery in the land-
scape it cannot be true to Nature, for Nature abhors a hard-and-fast line more than she

2 «The chief relations of Hemipodius are on one side with Tinamus, on another with Syrrhaptes, and on
a third with the Plovers.” (Huxley, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868, p. 304.)

® «Tn their myology these genera,” Cursorius and Glareola, “do not differ in any essential points
from Thinocorus and Attagis; and it is with these that I cannot help thinking that they are most allied.”
(Garrod, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1877, p. 418.)

4 «The Limicoline genera Dromas and Chionis have many points of resemblance to the Larids.”
(Newton, ‘ Ornithology,’ p. 45.)

» «Tt has just been proposed” (by the writer) “ to re-transfer to the Limicole one of the families, Otidide,
kept in it” (the Alectorides) “ by Mr. Sclater.” (Newton, ‘ Ornithology,’ p. 45.)

“The Bustards are gigantic Plovers.” (Parker, ‘ Shoulder-girdle and Sternum,’ p. 158.)

® « As regards the position of the Parride in the group Pluviales, it appears to me that they form
a well-marked family, with no very obvious relationships to any of the other families of that group, approaching,
however, perhaps most nearly to the Charadriidew.” (Forbes, Proc, Zool. Soc. 1881, p. 647.)

Nearest
allies of the
Limicole.

Principles of
classifica-
tion.

6 CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

abhors a vacuum. But for our purpose of classification we are obliged to draw definite
lines ; all that is necessary is to state our characters with absolute precision, and where
they are necessarily more or less artificial, candidly to admit that they are so.

I presume it would be possible to write a diagnosis of the Family Charadriide founded
upon external characters, but it would probably be very complicated and for the most part
artificial. To write one founded upon internal characters is beyond my power.

CHAPTER II.

THE EVOLUTION OF BIRDS.

Tue geographical distribution of the Charadriida appears to indicate that the family

"originated on the shores of the Arctic Ocean and the adjoining steppes and prairies. The

chief factor in their subsequent dispersal and differentiation must have been Glacial Epochs ;
but before entering upon the cause of differentiation, it is necessary to say a few words on
the process itself.

I propose to take for granted the truth of the statement, that the species of Charadriidze
existing at the present time are the modified descendants of a common ancestral species ;
that they were not specially created in the various localities where they are now found, but
have emigrated thither from a common centre.

This theory, the theory of Evolution, was started as an hypothesis by Buffon, and defended
and modified by Lamarck and others, but was regarded by most scientific men as a wild
dream, until Darwin and Wallace, after years of patient accumulation of materials, over-
whelmed the learned world with such a vast array of facts, that with scarcely an exception
scientific men acknowledged their defeat, and the hypothesis of Evolution was raised to the
rank of a theory, as firmly based on facts as Newton’s theory of Gravitation, or the undulatory
theory of Light.

But when we admit that the exhaustive arguments in favour of the theory of Evolution,
propounded by Darwin in his remarkable book on the ‘ Origin of Species, prove its truth,
so far as speculation on such remote events are capable of proof, we may at the same time
doubt whether Natural Selection be, in any sense, the cause of the Origin of Species. It
has probably played a very important part in the history of Evolution, but its é/e has been
that of increasing the rapidity with which the process of development has proceeded.

Of itself it has probably been absolutely powerless to originate a species: the machinery
by which species have been evolved has been completely independent of Natural Selection,
and could have produced all the results which we call the evolution of species without its
aid, though the process would have been slow, had there been no struggle for life to increase
its pace.

The great charm of Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection is its simplicity. The theory
of Evolution by descent with modification had a great deal to recommend it; but the
difficulty always presented itself, by what possible machinery could it be worked? ‘To

Truth of the
theory of
Evolution
assumed.

Demon-
strated by
Darwin and
Wallace.

Natural
Selection,
the guide,
not the cause
of Evolu-
tion.

Its sim-
plicity the
great charm
of Darwin’s
theory.

Fortuitous
variations
its weak
point.

Simul-

taneous ap-
pearance of
a Variation,

Doubted by
Romanes.

Admitted by

Wallace.

Cannot be
accidental.

8 THE EVOLUTION OF BIRDS.

suppose a special creation of every species was bad enough and looked weak, as if the
clock always wanted mending or altering to make it go right. But to suppose, not precisely
a special creation, but a special interference, in a given direction with the law of lke
producing like, at every generation, was a thousand times worse; and, consequently, of two
evils scientific men chose the least, and the theory of Evolution was laid on the shelf until
Charles Darwin and Wallace took it down again. The fact of the survival of the fittest in
the struggle for existence is such a simple theory that a child can understand it; and not
only the scientific world, but almost every educated man, accepted the new theory of
Evolution as soon as they saw, or thought they saw, the simplicity of the machinery by
which it is produced.

That like produces like is an axiom which, taken broadly, is proved not by thousands,
but by millions of facts. That nevertheless children always vary slightly from their parents
is equally self-evident. That these variations are accidental is a conclusion easily arrived
at by an unscientific mind, and even men of science, one might say even the greatest men
of science, have been content to call variations produced by undiscoverable or undiscovered
causes, fortuitous variations. That individuals possessing a useful variation should live long
and leave many descendants, whilst those possessing a harmful variation should die early
and leave few descendants, seems to be a truism. That variations are hereditary is a fact,
which, if not of universal application, is almost so; and the preservation and gradual
extension of useful variations in the course of millions of generations is a corollary which
most scientific minds have easily accepted. The whole argument is perfectly fascinating in
its simplicity, and having been accepted so universally, it is difficult to imagine that there
can be a hitch in it.

That there is a hitch in it can scarcely be doubted by any unbiassed mind who reads
the literature relating to the “swamping effects,’ as Romanes calls it, of interbreeding.
To remove the hitch it is necessary to assume that the same beneficial variation should arise
simultaneously in a sufficient number of individuals to prevent its being swamped by the
interbreeding of the individuals who possess it with those that do not. This Romanes calls
“a very large assumption” (Journ. Linn. Soc., Zoology, xix. p. 343); but Wallace replies
(Fortnightly Review, 1886, Sept., p. 307) “that which Mr. Romanes regards as a very
large assumption is, I maintain, a very general fact, and, at the present time, one of the best
established facts in natural history.”

If it be so, and I see no reason to doubt the statement, it seems to me that the
following corollaries are inevitable.

The simultaneous appearance, and its repetition in successive generations, of a beneficial
variation in a large number of individuals, in the same locality, cannot possibly be ascribed
to chance.

The admission that such coincidences might occur once in a thousand years is perhaps
not a very large assumption, but the suggestion that rare accidents of this kind are an
important part of the machinery of Evolution is simply puerile—so much so, in fact, that no
writer has ever hinted at the possibility of its truth.

THE EVOLUTION OF BIRDS. 9

Whatever may be the cause of coincident variations, our ignorance of them cannot
blind our eyes to the effects. They exist, and must have existed from time immemorial.
The unknown causes may be few or many, and may even have changed, but the effects are
there, and must always have been there, otherwise the whole theory of Evolution falls to
the ground.

The fact that variations do simultaneously appear in a large number of individuals in
the same locality, and are repeated for many successive generations, is the only foundation
upon which a theory of Evolution can be built, and, when once admitted, is all-sufficient.

The basis of the theory of Evolution is the principle of descent with modification. To
take existing species of birds as an example, it assumes that every bird is a blood-relation
of all other birds. The Blackbird is a near relation of the Thrush, and it would not be
necessary to trace their genealogy very far back to arrive at their common ancestor. ‘To
find the common ancestor of the Blackbird and the Swallow, it would be necessary to search
the records much further back ; and to find that of the Blackbird and the Snipe, it would be
necessary to go further back still; whilst to find that of the Blackbird and the Ostrich, it
would be necessary to go back almost to the original species of bird from which all existing
species are descended. To produce these multitudinous modifications in the descendants of
ancient species, it is obvious that the apparent law that like produces like, that children
resemble their parents, must be modified in some way. The fact that children differ slightly
from their parents is as self-evident as that they bear a strong resemblance to them. ‘The
variation of children from their parents is not accidental. Science does not admit the
existence of accident. So far as we know, children would exactly resemble their parents, if
they were subjected to precisely the same influence during the process of growth to puberty,
but this is impossible.
same; climates change; and the relation between a species and its supply of food varies
alternately with good or bad seasons, and is permanently affected by the natural increase of

The external influences of their surroundings are never precisely the

population.
habits, or inherited memory, explain it as you will, call it what you like, are cumulative, so
that in this respect also every child stands on a slightly different platform from its parents.
The consequence is that no individual is precisely in the same position, when it produces
children, as its parents were, when it was produced. If the condition be a higher one, it is
obvious that if the process goes on long enough the accumulated slight variations of a great
number of generations must tend to an important advance in the species. The machinery
of Evolution is there; the object of inquiry must be to discover the laws which govern the
direction of variation, which are consequently the laws which govern the origin of species.
One cause of variation in an organ is the amount of use or disuse to which it is
subjected during the period of growth, whilst it is im a more or less plastic state. Practice
makes perfect. This law applies not only to accomplishments, such as riding, skating,
tight-rope dancing, or violin playing, but also to the organs required in the accomplishment,
provided that the practice begins early enough, before the organs have arrived at maturity.
c

The internal influences must also differ; the transmitted experience, inherited

Coincident
variations
necessary to
Evolution.

And all-
sufficient.

Descent
from com-
mon ances-
tors.

Modifica-
tion often
the result of
external
influences.

Sometimes
of internal
influences.

Causes of
variation.

Use or
disuse.

Limbs of
animals,

Of the
human race.

Natural
Selection
not a cause
of variation.

Degradation
of the wings
of the Great
Auk,

10 THE EVOLUTION OF BIRDS.

Thousands of facts can be adduced in support of this theory ; many are given by Darwin in
his wonderful book on the ‘ Origin of Species,’ and others present themselves to the reader.
No better illustration of the effects of constant use in the development of the human frame
can be found than that of the extraordinary strength of muscle, and suppleness of limb,
which are acquired by acrobats trained from early childhood. Darwin gives an excellent
example of the double effect of use and disuse in his comparison of the domestic and the
wild Ducks. The Duck, when it has been domesticated for many generations, waiks much
more, and flies much less than it did in a wild state. The consequence is that the wings of
the domestic Duck have grown less, and its feet larger. Darwin ascertained that the
difference was not confined to the flesh or the muscles, but that it extended even to the
bones. He found that the bones of the wings of the wild Duck weighed more than those
of the domestic bird, whilst exactly the contrary was the case in the bones of the legs and
feet. I once heard a well-known hatter say that high-priced hats were, on an average,
larger than low-priced hats, the only possible explanation being, that the men who wore
high-priced hats, and for the most part lived by their brains, had on an average larger
heads than those who wore low-priced hats, and for the most part lived by manual labour.
The statistics of the glove-maker, and the boot-makers, would doubtless be more striking,
though in the opposite direction, especially in the case of women’s hands and feet, where
the difference of use and disuse is greater. In none of these cases can Natural or Artificial
Selection have taken place. Darwin fully recognized the importance of the accumulated
results of use and disuse during many generations in modifying an organ ; but his reputation
is based upon the fact that he was the first writer who clearly showed the important part
which natural selection plays in increasing the rapidity with which these infinitesimally
small modifications may be accumulated, by the constant weeding out, in the struggle for
existence; of those individuals which lagged behind in the race. It must, however, always
be remembered that protective selection, or sexual selection, or selection of any kind is only
selection. It is not a cause of variation, it can only select from the variations that present
themselves such as are beneficial, and, by causing the possessors of the beneficial variation
to survive in the struggle for existence, transmit it to the next generation.

The ultimate causes of variation are very subtle and difficult to trace. Why does an
organ grow larger or more perfect with use, and smaller or less perfect with disuse? Is
it because the act of use sends blood and vital energy to the part used? Did the wings
of each individual Great Auk fail to reach the dimensions attained by its ancestor because
it neglected the use of them during its minority? And, if so, why did generation after
generation of Great Auks neglect to use their wingsP Was it because there was no
struggle for existence ? Was food so plentiful that the assistance of its wings in diving
was unnecessary ? And was the Great Auk so powerful that it did not require to escape by
fhght from its enemies until man arrived upon the scene? It seems as if the ultimate
cause of the variation in the wings of the Great Auk, which finally caused the extinction of
the species, must be found in the inherited habits of the bird. It is difficult to imagine
how selection of any kind could have effected the modification. It can scarcely be sup-

THE EVOLUTION OF BIRDS. 11

posed to be a case of the survival of the fittest. In the first place, one cannot imagine
any purpose for which the diminished size of the wing could render the species more fit ;
and, in the second place, the species did not survive.

That protective and sexual selection have played an important part in hastening the
evolution of species is all but universally admitted; but their influence has probably been
spasmodic, and, when dealing with so-called fortuitous variation, even if we admit the
possibility of its surviving the swamping effects of interbreeding, comparatively slow—
spasmodic, because it could only operate during periods when there was a struggle for
existence ; slow, because the variations from which selection could be made might be in
any direction, and only those in a favourable direction could be used. On the other hand,
the modification of species caused by use or disuse would be constantly in operation (as
long as the inherited habit continued), and always in a definite direction, whether the
conditions of existence were such as to warrant the application to them of the term struggle
or not.

If we admit that the inherited habit, which impels a bird or other animal to use or
disuse any organ, is the most important factor in the modification of mdividuals—one
which, if it is continued for a sufficient number of generations, produces a modification
of the species—we have only shifted the difficulty one stage backwards. What is the
cause of the difference in the habits of one species from another? In other words,
assuming the various species to have had a common ancestor, what is the cause of the
change in the habits of birds or other animals? If men and birds be descended from
a common vertebrate ancestor, it is probable that the causes of the change of habits in the
one are more or Jess similar to those which have operated in the case of the other. Why
are the French a thrifty race ? and why are the English and the Russians spendthrifts? Is
it because the former nation is more intelligent than the two latter, and has seen the great
advantage to be derived from thrift; and has practised this. virtue, and left as a legacy to
its children the priceless gift of a hereditary habit of thrift? Or is it because the superior
intelligence possessed by the Englishman, and the command of abundance of food enjoyed
by the Russian, have rendered the acquisition of the habit of thrift unnecessary ; whilst
the poor Frenchman has been literally starved into his thrifty habits in the bitter struggle
for existence, aggravated by centuries of cruel misgovernment ?- If the hereditary habits of
the most highly developed animals are derived less from intelligent choice than from the
inexorable law of the survival of the fittest in the struggle for existence, we may fairly
agree with Darwin that Natural Selection is after all a very potent factor in the modification
of the descendants of most species. |

When Darwin uses the expressions accidental, fortuitous, or spontaneous variation,
he does not mean that the variations are due to chance or accident. Science does not
admit the existence of chance!. Every apparently accidental variation is due to a definite

1 « T have hitherto sometimes spoken as if the variations * * * had been due to chance. This of course
is a wholly incorrect expression, but it serves to acknowledge plainly our ignorance of the cause of each
particular variation.” (Darwin, ‘ Origin of Species,’ 5th edition, p. 165.)

c2

Action of
Natural Se-
lection.

Inherited
habit.

Change of
habits.

Importance
of Natural
Selection in
modifying
habits.

Definite
variations.

Darwin’s
use of the
word for-
tuitous.

Artificial
selection.

Evolution
solely teleo-
logical.

Beneficial
variation.

12 THE EVOLUTION OF BIRDS.

cause. The term accidental is used in a relative, not in an absolute, sense. When
he speaks of fortuitous variation, he does not mean that the variation occurred without a
sufficient cause; but that having been produced by an unknown cause, the fact of its
being a beneficial or a harmful variation, or neither one nor the other (neutral in fact), is an
accident.

Those naturalists who believe in the “swamping effects of interbreeding ” hold that
the modification of a species by the careful selection of a special variation for many
generations can only be produced artificially, by preventing the interbreeding of individuals
possessing the variation with those that do not, and by picking out two or more indi-
viduals who possess a similar variation, and isolating them, so that they may interbreed
only with those that do.

A consequence of this assumption is that, in order to modify a species without artificial
means, there must be special variation arising simultaneously amongst a number of
individuals in the same locality for many generations. Variations of this kind could not
in any sense be accidental, and must be produced either by the peculiar environment of
the species during its continuance, or proceed from an innate tendency in the species
itself.

To say that Plants and Animals “have an innate tendency towards perfection or pro-
gressive development,” is to prove too much. Evolution, apparently, takes place only
when it is required. Some of the simplest forms of animal life appear to have lived on
unchanged for countless ages, showing no tendency towards progressive development. It
is fair to assume that they are exactly adapted to their environment, and that any change
in the direction of progressive development would be to their disadvantage. That they
remain unchanged may be explained in two ways. One theory assumes that, although
there have been during the lifetime of the least complex species a practically infinite series
of slight modifications, none of them have been beneficial to the species, and therefore
none of them have survived. The other theory admits that a variety of causes must have
produced a variety of isolated variations from time to time, which, being isolated, therefore
did not survive.

Animals appear to have an innate tendency towards development, if the modifications
so caused are for the immediate or even ultimate benefit of the species. Expressed in
other words, the fact appears to be that this innate tendency lies dormant until aroused
by a sense of need or by a state of need. Instead therefore of using the term accidental
variation, the terms beneficial variation or teleological variation must be used.

The theory of Teleological or Beneficial Variation is apparently open to two objections.
In the first place, it only covers part of the ground; and in the second place, it can
scarcely be regarded as less miraculous than special creation. That it only covers part of
the ground is self-evident, if we admit that many, we might almost say most, specific
differences are of so trivial a nature that we cannot conceive them to be of any use. In
point of fact, the theory of Beneficial Variation can only be applicable to the variations that

THE EVOLUTION OF BIRDS. 13

are beneficial, and is confessedly inapplicable to variations that are not so. But the question
arises, Do variations survive that are not beneficial ? Upon this point authorities differ.
Wallace argues that the fact of the survival of a variation is proof positive that it was the
fittest variation offered to the choice of Natural Selection at the time ; and that, if we fail to
perceive that such variation was beneficial, the fault is not in the variation but in our imperfect
powers of perception. This is a very plausible theory, so plausible, indeed, that it may be
regarded as a probable hypothesis ; but unfortunately its acceptance does not remove the great
difficulty of the swamping effects of interbreeding, by which isolated variations, however
beneficial, must inevitably disappear after a few generations. To this Wallace replies,
that variations are not isolated, that no fact in natural history is better established than the
fact that variations occur simultaneously, in a great number of individuals, in the same
area. I have not the least doubt that Wallace is perfectly right. If it were not so, the
theory of Evolution must inevitably fall to the ground. But it seems to me that, by the
admission of this fact, Wallace has dethroned his theory of Natural Selection from its
proud position as the main factor im the Origin of Species. Variations which occur
simultaneously, in the same area, in a great number of individuals, and for a great
number of generations, cannot possibly be fortuitous; but if they be definite, they are
quite capable of accounting for all the facts of Evolution, in districts where there is no
struggle for existence, without the aid of selection of any kind. If once we admit that
variation is not fortuitous, Natural Selection can no longer be regarded as the cause of
Evolution, but only its guede.

Natural Selection cannot produce Evolution ; it only quickens its pace, and prevents it
from going astray. The differentiation of species can only take place in Isolation, either
of time or space. The causes of Evolution are the causes of Variation, some of which we
know, but the most important of which we have not yet discovered. It is, however,

It will
scarcely be denied that, as an exponent of Evolution, Darwin stands head and shoulders

above all his rivals. Darwin disposed of the difficulty of apparently useless variations in
two ways: many characters are confined to the male, many are only assumed when the
male becomes adult, and many are only temporarily assumed, being laid aside when the
breeding-season is over, to be reassumed the following spring.

These characters are ascribed by Darwin to the influence of Sexual Selection.

Other characters, common to both sexes, are ascribed to correlation, the apparently
useless character being, for some inexplicable reason, generally associated with an obviously
useful character, the frequency of the coincidence leading to the conclusion that the two
characters are really, and not only apparently, connected.

The law of correlation adds nothing to our knowledge, unless the discovery that a
cause exists, of which we are ignorant, may be regarded as such.

If Wallace be right in his theory that all variation which survives must of necessity
be beneficial, irrespective of our ability to discover the benefit, then of course the theory of

necessary that the question should be studied from the Darwinian point of view.

All survi-
ving varia-
tions bene-
ficial,

Variations
seldom iso-
lated.

Therefore
not acci-
dental.

Tsolation
necessary.

Sexual
selection.

Correlation :
a term used
to express
ignorance of
the true
cause.

Mysterious
nature of
definite
variation.

Climatic va-
riation ap-
parently less
mysterious,

Effects of
use and dis-
use, in re-
ality mys-
terlous.

Mysterious
nature of

other laws
of Nature.

The force
which pro~
duces Evolu-
tion pro-
bably analo-
gous to the
forces which
operate on
inorganic
matter.

14 THE EVOLUTION OF BIRDS.

beneficial variation does cover all the ground. If Romanes be right in his estimate of the
swamping effects of interbreeding, it follows that all variations which survive must be
definite; and the term definite variation, as opposed to fortuitous variation, must be used
in place of beneficial variation, in order to cover all the ground.

The second objection to Teleological Variation, which applies equally to Definite
Variation, whether it be beneficial or otherwise, that it appears to be scarcely less
miraculous than special creation, is not very easy to dispose of. ‘There are some
causes of variation which we can easily understand, as, for instance, the change from
yellow to red in the colour of a Canary, when it has been fed for some time on Cayenne
pepper.

There are other causes which we readily accept without understanding them, as for
instance the effect of the climate of the north of Siberia, especially that of the peninsula of
Kamtschatka, in exaggerating the white in the plumage of many species of birds, such as
the Nuthatch, the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, the Marsh Tit, the Magpie, &c.

The effects of use and disuse, in lengthening the primaries of migratory birds, and
shortening those of residents, are so obvious that we cannot dissociate cause aud effect,
though, if we were asked to explain the modus operandi, we should be obliged to conceal
our absolute ignorance of it, by the expression that long primaries are generally found
correlated with migratory habits.

Are we using less scientific language when we say that white eggs are generally found
correlated with a nest in a hole, or some equally concealed situation, and coloured eggs
with an exposed position amongst objects somewhat similar to them in colour? Although
we cannot explain either set of facts, it somehow seems more possible that the increased
use of the wings, in consequence of the adoption of migratory habits, should cause a
lengthening of the primaries, than that the greater risk of destruction, in consequence of
the adoption of an exposed breeding-site, should cause colour to be deposited on the eggs
The connection between cause and effect in the latter case appears to be
so remote, so impossible to imagine, that we are tempted to call it miraculous.

in the oviduct.

But are not the operations of other laws of Nature to all appearances equally
miraculous? The egg of a Tortoise, and that of a Cormorant, are very similar in appearance.
The development of the embryo in each is at first very similar, but that of the one is
arrested at an earlier stage than that of the other, and had previously been proceeding on
lines slightly divergent from, though nearly parallel to, that of the other. We explain this
by assuming that each egg was produced by its respective parents with the self-contained
potentiality of developing, under certain physical conditions (of heat &c.), in a definite
direction. If the history of the embryo be an epitome of the history of the species for
almost countless ages, why may not the potentiality of future development be self-contained
within every individual, and only require the aid of its environment to modify within certain
limits its precise direction? ‘The necessity to develop, in a more or less definite and

beneficial direction, which appears to be characteristic of organic matter, may possibly be

THE EVOLUTION OF BIRDS. 15

analogous to the various forces (or energy) which are characteristic of inorganic matter. ’

The one is as mysterious as the other. Both are equally inexplicable, equally unquestionable,
equally subject to inexorable law; so much so indeed that a Wallace can predict the
discovery of a new species of moth in Madagascar as certainly as a Leverrier can foretell
the discovery of a new planet. in the solar system.

The difference between the two theories amounts to this. In the one case we have
accidental variation, in the other teleological variation ; but whereas the former is entirely
dependent upon the aid of protective selection, sexual selection, or some other kind of
selection, to advance a single step in the direction of evolution, the latter is self-sufficient,
and capable of producing unaided all the assumed results of evolution.

But the advocates of accidental variation may reply that, in assuming the existence of
teleological variation, we are begging the question ; what we seek to explain is how variation
can be teleological ; we all know that it 2s teleological ; what the theory of Natural Selection
provides is a mechanical explanation of teleological variation. No doubt it attempts to do
so, but, so far as I am able to judge, an ever-increasing number of biologists are of the
opinion that it fails in the attempt.

It may be objected that teleological variation is too mysterious to be accepted as a
scientific dogma ; but it must not be forgotten that many other accepted dogmas are equally
mysterious, such as chemical affinity or magnetic attraction.

So many modifications are obviously caused by definite variation, as, for example, the
modifications of the wings of birds to suit their migratory habits—so many modifications
must have been caused by definite variation, as, for example, the deposit of colour upon
eggs in the oviduct to suit the habit of building in exposed situations—that it is very easy
to assume that all variation that survives, so as permanently to modify a species, is definite.
The laws which govern Energy (force or condition of inorganic matter) are so absolutely
mysterious that I am unable to see anything unscientific in the theory that organic matter
may also have its peculiar energy (forces or conditions), and that one of these produces the
effects which may be called beneficial or teleological variation.

It is possible that the mystery of Evolution by descent with modification, caused by
teleological variation, may never be unravelled; but the value of the theory of Evolution to
the biologist as a working hypothesis is not thereby lessened. It is impossible to be too
grateful to Darwin for having taught us the truth of Evolution. Many great men before
him said it was true, but it was reserved for Darwin to convince us of its truth. Darwin’s
theory of Natural Selection may be modified, or even disproved and forgotten ; but the fact
will remain that no one man in the nineteenth century has exercised a tithe of the influence
on scientific thought that has been wielded by Darwin. As the Titan who destroyed the
fetish of Special Creation, Darwin stands as the most prominent object in the scientific
landscape of the present century.

Difference
between the
two theories.

Variation
that survives
generally
definite.

Evolution
the result of
a force.

The theory
of Evolution
as a working
hypothesis
unaffected.

Obligation of
naturalists
to Darwin
immeasur-
able.

Evolution

may proceed
without dif-
ferentiation.

Geographi-
cal Isolation.

CHAPTER III.
THE DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIES.

In the preceding chapter we discussed the swamping effects of interbreeding, and assumed
that it must have prevented the perpetuation of isolated instances of new beneficial varia-
tions. In order to accumulate a very great number of very small variations, which appears
to be the only way in which, for example, man can have been produced from the ancestral
ape, it seems as if the slight modifications of each successive generation must have been in
a definite direction, and must have occurred amongst a great number of individuals, at the
same time, in the same place, and for a great number of generations.

The origin of species is, however, still unaccounted for. There is no reason why
Evolution should not go on indefinitely modifying a species from generation to generation
until a preglacial monkey becomes a man, and yet no second contemporary species be
originated. The origination of a second species is prevented by interbreeding. So long as
the area of distribution of the species is continuous and not too large, the constant inter-
marriage which takes place between the males of one family and the females of another
distributes the inherited and transmittable modifications throughout the race or species ;
which may advance or retrograde according to circumstances, but is prevented by inter-
breeding from originating a second species.

Variations of this nature, which for want of a better name we call definite variations,
are amply sufficient to account for all the known facts of Evolution, which may proceed
slowly but surely, and we believe has thus proceeded from time immemorial, the rapidity
of its progress constantly retarded by the swamping effects of interbreeding, and constantly
accelerated by Natural Selection, or the weeding out of the least fit in the struggle for
life.

In order to originate a second species it is necessary to counteract the levelling effects
of interbreeding by isolating some of the individuals comprising the species, so that there
may be two colonies, which are unable to communicate with each other, and consequently
unable to interbreed. It is not necessary to insist upon the importance of Isolation as the
only agent by which contemporary species can be multiplied. It is recognized by Darwin,

THE DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIES. 17

over and over again, though he seems to have underestimated its importance’, and it forms
the keynote of Wallace’s ‘Island Life.’ The more the geographical distribtion of birds is
studied, the more doubtful it seems to be that any species of bird has ever been differentiated
without the aid of geographical isolation.

A theory of isolation has, however, recently been propounded by Mr. Romanes, in a
paper read before the Linnean Society on the 6th of May last year, entitled “ Physiological
Selection ; an Additional Suggestion on the Origin of Species,” which is deserving of special
attention. Mr. Romanes has done great service in calling attention to the ‘“ swamping
effects of free intercrossing ;” but the only conclusion at which I can arrive is that the
theory of Physiological Selection is untenable, though the paper is a very valuable contribu-
tion to the literature of Evolution. It is seldom that the difficulties of Natural Selection
Jrom Fortuitous Variations have been so clearly, so impartially, but so candidly set forth.
If Mr. Romanes has failed to prescribe a remedy, he has accurately diagnosed the disease ;
but, in my opinion, he has attacked the wrong organ. I agree with him that Natural
Selection from Fortuitous Variations will only account to a very limited extent for the
evolution of an existing species, and not at all for the differentiation of a new one. ‘The
pomt on which we differ is as to how the theory is to be amended so as to make it
work. Mr. Romanes proposes to add Physiological Selection to Natural Selection to
make it perfect. I fail to see that the position is thereby improved. I think that the
weak point lies not in the Selection but in the Variation. If the variations be accidental
I cannot see how they can be perpetuated, either by Natural or by Physiological Selection,
except under a combination of coincidences so extraordinary that it can only be regarded
as phenomenal. If the variations be not accidental then no kind of Selection is required
to cause Evolution; its only function is to increase the pace at which Evolution proceeds.
It is impossible to avoid coming to the conelusion that Variation is not accidental, that
there is no such thing as Fortuitous Variation, and that Spontaneous Variation, like
Spontaneous Generation, is a myth.

The theory of Physiological Isolation propounded by Mr. Romanes is an attempt to
account for the sudden creation of a species without going through the preliminary
stages of subspecies, incipient species, imperfectly segregated species, inosculating species,
morphological species, or by whatever name a species in the process of formation may be
called. It assumes that the number of species is so great that geographical isolation cannot
account for their existence, an argument very analogous to that of a naturalist who should
say that the number of men in this country is so great that they cannot all have been
children, and should thereupon invent a theory to account for the production of adults

1 « Tsolation also is animportant element in the changes effected through Natural Selection. * * * Moritz
Wagner has lately published an interesting essay on this subject, and has shown that the service rendered by
isolation in preventing crosses between newly formed varieties is probably greater even than I have supposed.”
(Darwin, ‘ Origin of Species,’ 5th ed. p. 120.)

D

Physiologi-
eal Isolation
as pro-
pounded by
Romanes.

Morpho-
logical
species,

Steinheim
fossils.

Transmuta-
tion of
species.

Siberian
species of
Willow-
Wren.

18 THE DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIES.

without the necessity of passing through the intermediate stages of childhood. There is
no hard-and-fast line between so-called (one might say pedantically so-called) morphological
species and physiological species. The degree of sterility between species varies indefinitely
from absolute sterility to nearly absolute fertility. There are cases in which the fertility
increases for some stages of the differentiation, as if Nature was making a desperate struggle
to prevent the formation of the inevitable new species. There is not a shred of evidence in
support of the theory that any physiological species exists that has not passed through a
series of stages in which it was, to use the scientific cant of the day, only a morphological
species.

The history of the Steinheim fossil shells (Planorbis multiformis) is a wost convincing
proof that differentiation cannot take place without isolation, though evolution may go on
to an indefinite extent. It also proves that variation is not fortuitous, but only occurs to
an extent sufficient to produce evolution when some adequate cause presents itself, and on
such occasions affects a large proportion of individuals, so that it is the exceptional indi-
viduals which do not vary that are swamped by interbreeding. For anything we know to
the contrary, the “ variation-periods ” may have been glacial epochs ; but, be that as it may,
we may be absolutely certain that they had a cause, and cannot possibly be ascribed to
accident. In this little lake-basin we have the most interesting record of, Ist, a species
remaining constant until the need of variation arose ; 2nd, variation occurring simultaneously
in a majority of the individuals composing it; 3rd, the “swamping effects”’ of interbreeding
upon the minority; 4th, the evolution of a new species, which remained constant as before,
until a fresh need of variation arose ; and, 5th, the impossibility of differentiating a species
into two species without the aid of isolation.

Transmutation may go on to any extent without geographical isolation ; for example,
a preglacial species may differ specifically from its postglacial descendants. But even
transmutation cannot take place without isolation of some kind. The specific differences
which are produced by the accumulation of a long series of successive slight variations
protected by isolation of space, we call the result of differentiation ; those produced in the
same way by isolation of ézme, we call the result of transmutation.

If we could see the preglacial ancestors of tle Willow-Wrens which breed in the
Yenesay valley and winter in India, we should probably find that they were specifically
distinct from all their descendants. But there are four other species of Willow-Wren
brecding in the same valley. How can we account for their differentiation? Where were
they isolated? And when? ‘The answer appears to be easy enough. They were isolated
during the last glacial epoch in their present winter-quarters, where they were compelled
for the time being to breed in a climate which was made, for the time being, suitable for
their purpose, by the same causes which made their present breeding-grounds for the time
being unsuitable. Phylloscopus trochilus was possibly isolated in the valley of the Nile;
P. tristis in Turkestan and Baloochistan ; P. fuscatus in India ; P. superciliosus in Burma;
and P. dorealis in the Malay Archipelago.

THE DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIES. 19

In Mr. Romanes’s paper the subject is treated at considerable length. In the preamble
three great difficulties are set forth, which the writer regards as inexplicable by the theory
of Natural Selection, and an “ additional theory” is propounded in order to explain them.

The first difficulty is stated to be “the difference between natural species and
domesticated varicties in respect of fertility.” Stated thus briefly, the difficulty is scarcely
apparent. It would be a matter of surprise if any two species were as fertile when crossed
as any two varieties when paired together, whether those varieties be natural or domesticated.
What Mr. Romanes really means is this:—-What is the explanation of the fact that, as a
gencral rule, two forms can be, to all appearance, differentiated from each other under
domestication to a greater extent than has been the case in a state of nature, without
producing sterility when crossed? Mr. Romanes asserts that Darwin realized the force of
this difficulty and failed to explain it away. It may be rash to attempt anything which so
acute an observer and so accurate a reasoner as Darwin did not succeed in performing; but
there is surely an obvious explanation of this curious fact. The animals which have been
domesticated by man are a few species, which, for some unknown reason, are able to adapt
themselves to new or strange environments with more ease than usual. That is the reason
why their domestication has been possible. Surely this facility to cope with the unfamiliar
would stand them in good stead, even in their embryonic condition. It seems reasonable
to expect that if the male spermatozoa be placed in a female element to which the species is
not accustomed, the ease with which it is able to adapt itself to a somewhat new environ-
ment should vary precisely in accordance with the ease with which the species is able to
adapt itself to new environments in later stages than that of the embryo. Amongst birds
fertile hybrids occur most frequently amongst the species which form the families of the
Phasianidee and Anatide, the very families to which most of our domestic birds belong.
It may be an inexplicable fact that species differ so remarkably in their capacity to thrive
under the changed conditions of domestication ; but I cannot see any difficulty in the fact
that the embryo of a species which cannot be domesticated should perish very early, as is
often the case, or grow up with imperfect reproductive organs when nourished in the body
of an animal belonging to a different species from itself.

Another difficulty is stated to be “that the features which serve to distinguish allicd
species are frequently, if not usually, of a kind with which Natural Selection cau have had
nothing whatever to do.” I fully admit the truth of the statement, and I presume that
few naturalists would be prepared to deny tliat “distinctions of specific value- frequently
have reference to structures which are without any utilitarian significance.” Syllogistically

put, the argument stands as follows :—
Natural Selection can only perpetuate those accidental variations which are beneficial

to the species; consequently variations that arise which are not beneficial are not
perpetuated ; specific differences are frequently, if not usually, without any utilitarian
significance ; therefore they cannot have’ been produced by Natural Selection. ‘lo my mind

the false premise in this argument is the assumption that variation is accidental. Variation
D2

Fertility of
species and
varieties.

Fertile
hybrids.

Trivial
nature of
specilic
ditferences.

The law of
“like pro-
duces like.”

Swamping
effects of
inter-
breeding.

Physiologi-
cal Selection
defined by
Romanes.

Definition of
the Author.

20 THE DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIES.

is not accidental. Variation is, to a large extent, the result of the difference in the forces
which are brought to bear upon the individual, or upon the organ, between conception and
puberty. Like produces like, and under like circumstances offspring would doubtless resemble
their parents. But the circumstances never are alike. The state of health of the parents, the
quality and quantity of the food, the variations of climate, the amount of use or disuse of each
organ that circumstances may demand : these and a hundred other influences determine the
points in which the offspring shall exceed or fall short of, in fact shall vary from, their parents.
The result is that every generation starts from a slightly different platform to the last. Itis
this variation which to a large extent produces Evolution, or descent with modification.
The variation is perpetuated because it occurs in many; perhaps, one might say, more or
less in all the individuals in one district at the same time, for like causes produce like
effects. There can be no doubt that the effects of this variation are hastened by Natural
Sclection ; the unfit are continually being weeded out in the struggle for existence; but
descent with modification can proceed without any struggle for existence, though the
modification is not so rapid. But neither variation nor natural selection can originate a
new species alone. Zhe ancestral ape might have become modified into man in the course of
ages without a second species having been produced. To understand the differentiation of
species, we must discuss Mr. Romanes’s other difficulty. This “consists in the swamping
influence upon an incipient variety of free imtercrossing.”’ ‘This is unquestionably a very
grave difficulty, to my mind an absolutely fatal one, to the theory of accidental variation.
The force of the difficulty is admirably illustrated by Mr. Romanes by a quotation from the
‘North British Review,’ in which a white man is supposed to be stranded on an island
inhabited by negroes, with whom he would intermarry, and where the result is fairly
assumed to be, not the gradual whitening of the negroes on that island, nor the origination
of a white species or variety, but the gradual swamping of the white strain by intermarrying,
until, after a sufficient number of generations, it disappeared altogether.

Mr. Romanes proposes to modify the theory of Natural Selection so as to remove
these three difficulties, by adding to it a theory, to which he gives the name of “ Physiological
Selection.” The new theory is described as follows :—“ Wherever, among all the possible
variations of the highly variable reproductive system, there arises towards any parent form
any degree of sterility which does not extend to the varietal form, there a new species must
necessarily take its origin.” This proposition is true, if for the word must be substituted
may, under certain circumstances. ‘To make the theory of “ Physiological Selection ” tenable
it must be stated as follows :—

Amongst the innumerable accidental variations which are constantly being produced
by unknown causes, and which are invariably swamped by interbreeding, there sometimes
arises a variation in the reproductive organs, preventing the possessor of it from bemg
fertile with the rest of the species. Of the innumerable variations of which the reproductive
organs are capable, a similar, or rather a corresponding, variation sometimes occurs
simultaneously in another individual of the opposite sex, and sometimes these two individuals

THE DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIES. 21

discover each other, and, being mutually fertile, they intermarry and begin a family, which,
being fertile éxéer se, but barren in relation to the rest of the species, is practically isolated
from its fellows, so that any slight peculiarity which its members may simultaneously
develop, or which both parents happened to possess, is not swamped by interbreeding, but
goes on developing, until in process of time a new species is produced in the midst of the
old one.

It is needless to state that Mr. Romanes does not present his theory in such an
improbable form, which most readers will regard as self-condemned and needing no
refutation. It seems to me, however, that the theory would break down if any one of the
improbabilities should be absent. To make it work we must presuppose :—Ist, the special
variation of the reproductive organs must occur in two individuals, otherwise the possible
ancestor of the new species would leave no descendants; 2nd, it must occur at the same
time in both; 3rd, it must occur at the same place; 4th, the two individuals must be of
opposite sexes ; 5th, they must cach of them possess some other variation, or their progeny
would not differ from that of the rest of the species ; and, 6th, the variation must be the
same in both, or appear simultaneously in the majority of their children, otherwise it would
be swamped by interbreeding within the physiologically isolated family.

Is it possible to conceive that, in an island inhabited by negroes, the birth of a negro
with a reproductive system so modified as to render its possessor sterile with the rest of the
negroes, but fertile with a correspondingly modified negro of the opposite sex—even
supposing such an extraordinary coincidence as their simultaneous appearance to occur on
the island—‘ must necessarily ’ cause a new race, to say nothing of species, to take its
origin ?

The theory of Mr. Romanes, ingenious as it is, and plausible as it appears to be when
stated as an abstract proposition, is found, when practically applied, not only to demand an
impossible number of coincidences, but coincidences of such a character, that, once granted,
the additional coincidence of fertility zx¢er se, but sterility outside the family, is almost, if
not quite, an unnecessary incumbrance to it. Under any circumstances it amounts to
nothing more than Physiological Isolation, and is as inadequate to produce Evolution as
Geographical Isolation is. It might perhaps be admitted as an additional form of Isolation
were it required. ‘he ornithologist at any rate does not require any such aid to
differentiation. Amongst birds there does not seem to be a shred of evidence in favour of
the theory. So far as is known, no species has ever been differentiated without the aid of
Geographical Isolation, though Evolution may have gone on to an unknown extent; and, so
far as we can judge, Geographical Isolation must always, sooner or later, be followed by
differentiation.

It is a remarkable circumstance that only once in the seventy-five pages of Mr.
Romanes’s paper does the word Isolation occur, and then in a footnote. In a paper
relating to the origin of species it is like the play of Hamlet with the part of Hamlet
omitted. Evolution may go on from age to age, but without Isolation no new species can

Improbable
coinci-
dences.

Reductio ad
absurdum.

Remarkable
absence of
the term
Isolation in
Romanes’s

paper.

Effects of
Geographi-
cal Isola-
tions.

Operations
of Evolu-
tion.

22 THE DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIES,

be produced. However much a species can be changed by Evolution, “the swamping
effects of intercrossing”’ prevent there being at any given time more than one species. The
fact of Isolation is, however, repeatedly implied, as, for example, in the phrase “ when the
barrier to intercrossing, instead of being physiological, is geographical.” Isolation forms
such a very important part of the theory of Natural Selection as propounded by Darwin,
notably so in Wallace’s vindication of the theory in ‘Island Life,’ that the absence of the
term strikes the reader as unusual. It seems as if Mr. Romanes regarded Isolation and
Selection as interchangeable terms. He is continually comparing “ geographical barriers ”
with “physiological barriers,’ but he never speaks of Geographical Selection, though
constantly using the term Physiological Selection. It seems to me that the part which
Geographical Isolation plays in the differentiation of species is to the minutest detail strictly
analogous to the part which is ascribed by Mr. Romanes to Physiological Selection. If it
exists at all, it is neither more nor less than an additional mode of Isolation; and if it be
necessary to give it a name, that name certainly ought not to be Physiological Selection,
but might appropriately be Physiological Isolation. Now we know that Geographical
Tsolation does form a barrier to intercrossing, and that by means of this barrier Evolution
is able, not only to further the development of a species, but to split it in two races, which
develop in different directions, and in process of time become so widely differentiated that
they no longer interbreed, even when the geographical barrier is broken down and the
areas of their distribution overlap. If, however, variation were accidental, the effect of
Isolation, whether geographical or physiological, would only be temporary. Under a
regime of accidental variation Evolution has to begin de novo at every generation, and after
two or three generations the swamping effects of intercrossing would surely be apparent,
even within the isolated family. It would be necessary for Physiological Selection to step
in again. The six conditions must again coincide; but even then the progress would not
be in the same direction as before, unless we assume a seventh coincidence, namely, that the
variation protected by the new Isolation was of the same kind as that which had been
protected by the old one. It seems to me that no selection of any kind is able to perpetuate
a variation, however important to the welfare of the species it may be, except when a
variation occurs simultaneously in a number of individuals inhabiting the same arca. The
modus operandi of Evolution is probably as follows :—

In every species there is a tendency to vary in definite directions: the variations are
hereditary and cumulative, so that evolution goes on steadily, though slowly, from genera-
tion to generation, but without partial or complete isolation no second species can be
evolved. Variation may change a species ; but so long as free interbreeding is possible a
species may advance or retrograde, but it cannot split into two. If, however, a part of the
species be isolated from the rest differentiation commences, the evolution of the two colonies
does not proceed exactly in the same direction, and the rapidity with which differentiation
takes place is exactly in proportion to the difference in the circumstances in which the two
colonies are placed. Wherever there is a struggle for existence (and it can only be in very

THE DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIES. 23

exceptional cases that there is none), the weeding out of those individuals who, from some
cause or other, have neglected to adapt themselves to inexorable circumstances, materially
increases the rapidity at which evolution progresses.

So far everything is plain sailing, but a difficulty presents itself. What is the cause
of variation? If a Canary be fed exclusively on Cayenne pepper it becomes scarlet; if a
Bullfinch be fed exclusively on hempseed it becomes black. It can be no advantage to the
Canary to become red, or to the Bullfinch to become black. This is the direct action of
food. Ifa wild Duck be tamed, in a few generations its wings decrease in size and its legs
become larger. The housewife, in choosing her Ducks for the pot, does not select the
longest-winged or the weakest-legged birds. This is the result of use and disuse. One
great cause of variation is unquestionably the action of surrounding circumstances; but
there are variations which appear to be independent of surrounding circumstances. How
is it possible for any voluntary action on the part of a bird to cause spots to appear on its
eggs, or how can surrounding circumstances modify the deposit of colour from the glands
in the oviduct of a bird? The only possible answer to this question is, that organisms
have the power of adapting themselves, or of being adapted by outward circumstances within
certain liniits, to altered conditions. But what appears much more remarkable is that they
evidently have also the power of varying or of being varied in a direction which, to all
appearances, is not of any present advantage, but which the accumulated results of several
generations make eventually of great advantage. It is impossible to imagine that selection
of any kind can operate in these cases ; and whether the mysterious power lie in the embryo,
or in the individual cells or protoplasm, which collectively are the embryo—or whether the
wishes of the mother have power to affect the development in her womb, as Sir Kenelm
Digby and the old school of astrologers and alchemists believed—it is probably a force or
a power as absolutely inherent in organic life as the attraction of gravitation is in inorganic
matter. We can no more explain the one than we can the other. Facts like these have
to be accepted as axioms. We prove their truth by observation; we cannot prove their
truth by the aid of our reasoning powers ; they are the premisses upon which we reason.

The fact that offspring do vary from their parents in points which appear to be in-
capable of being affected by external surroundings, but so simultaneously’ that the variations
are not swamped by interbreeding, and therefore cannot be ascribed to accident, seems to be
incontrovertible. That many of these variations are of a distinctly utilitarian character is
equally obvious. To suppose that the wishes of the mother have power to affect the
development of the embryo would only be to shift the difficulty a stage backward. It
would be as impossible to explain the influence of the mother as the fact of the variation
of the embryo. Perhaps some day embryologists will be able to explain this mystery,

1 Mr. Romanes (‘ Nineteenth Century,’ No. 119, p. 71) says that I am “sublimely ignorant” of this fact.
The only alteration I have made in the text of my paper read at the British Association is to emphasize the
statement by means of italics,

Causes of
variation.

Their mys-
terious cha-
racter.

Absurd ex-
planations,

24 THE DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIES.

which seems to be the only possible key to the explanation of the theory of EVOLUTION BY
DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION, and DIFFERENTIATION BY MODIFICATION IN ISOLATION.

We may sum up the known facts of Evolution as follows :—All birds are descended
from semireptilian ancestors, most probably from one species of semireptile. ach genera-
tion slightly varied from the preceding one until the species became exactly adapted to its

Samay ae environment. The variation was most rapid where the need of variation was greatest, and
the facts of _ trivial or imperceptible where no need for it existed. The variations were not accidental,
Evolution. — hecause they occurred simultaneously, in a number of individuals, in the same locality and
continued for many generations. The rapidity with which the modifications accumulated
was constantly increased by the greater longevity and consequent prolificness of the
individuals which had acquired them, and constantly retarded by their interbreeding with
those which had not, the two causes combined preventing differentiation. The causes of
variation appear to be both subjective and objective; birds appear to have modified their
organs by use or disuse, or to have had them modified in some unknown way by surrounding
circumstances. The causes of differentiation are Isolation either of time or space: of time,
causing the birds of an island to differ specifically from their ancestors of a hundred
thousand years ago; of space, causing the birds of one island to differ specifically from
those of another. The principal cause of geographical isolation has been emigration, and
the principal necessity to emigrate has been overcrowding of population, frequently produced
by the contraction of the area of distribution by a glacial epoch.

It seems probable that not only all animals, but also all plants, had a common origin,
and that the original monad developed, and its descendants became differentiated, in the
course of ages according to the laws of Evolution into the multitudinous species which now
represent organic hfe on our world. There is not, however, a shred of evidence to be found
The laws of . : : F j
Evolution | 1 favour of the theory that the laws of Evolution apply in the least degree to inorganic
oe oat matter. On the contrary, there is every reason to believe that the species of inorganic
amatter: matter, or, as they are usually called, the elements of matter, have always been differentiated

and will always continue so without a shadow of modification, crossbreeding and inter-
breeding in every possible combination notwithstanding. We may temporarily modify
them by heat or by some other force, but they inevitably revert back to their original
condition, if placed in similar circumstances. Every known fact bearing upon the question
supports the theory that the laws of Evolution apply to all organic life, and have nothing
whatever to do with inorganic matter. The gradual development of the solar system, from
a widely diffused nebulous matter to its present condition, may have presented a series of
changes somewhat similar to those which have taken place in the development of organic
life ; but if we apply the term Evolution to the latter process, it would be a great. mistake
to apply it also to the former, which has proceeded on divergent lines, governed by different
laws, and probably tending to quite other ends.

CHAPTER IV.

THE GLACIAL EPOCH.

Or the 222 species and subspecies of Charadriide, we may regard 64 as. Arctic in. their
distribution during the breeding-season. 95 breed in the Temperate Regions, 51 in the
Northern Hemisphere, and 44 in the Southern, whilst in the Tropics between them 63
species breed.

Of the 19 genera to which these species are referable, no fewer than 14 are represented
in the New World as well as in the Old. Four are confined to the Old World and only
one to the New.

When we consider, further, that about half the species are shore birds, and that of the
other half most are steppe or prairie birds, leaving a small minority who frequent forests
or the banks of rivers, it does not seem unreasonable to assume that the Polar Basin was
the centre of their distribution.

If we could drive them out from this centre, and isolate them in. nineteen different
localities further south, and keep them there long enough to differentiate them into 19
species, the origin of their present genera would be satisfactorily accounted for.

The machinery required by the ornithologist to account for the present differentiation
of species in this family is as follows :—First, a mild chmate at the North Pole, where the
ancestral species might increase and multiply until it became circumpolar. Second, a
glacial period to drive them south in every direction, and isolate them in various distant
regions, where there could be no interbreeding between one party and another, where the
conditions of life (climate, food, enemies, &c.) should vary in the different regions, and where
any resultant variations in the species should be rapidly seized upon by natural selection in
consequence of a greatly intensified struggle for existence, caused by unusual overcrowding
of the bird population, so that the modification of one party should proceed on different
lines to those of another party for a sufficient length of time to differentiate the one
ancestral species of the family into nineteen species, the ancestors of the present genera.

Third, a mild period at the North Pole to allow 5 species to go back as far as the
Siberian steppes, leaving one species in the southern hemisphere of the New World and
one in the tropics of the Old World, whilst the remaining 12 out of the 19 species returned

to their old home, where, the tension of overpopulation being removed, they might each
E

The Polar
basin the
centre of
distribution
of the Cha-
radriide:

Past changes
required to
account for
present dis-
tribution.

Croll’s
theory of
the Glacial
Epoch.

Arctic eli-
mate.

26 THE GLACIAL EPOCH.

increase and extend their area of distribution until, instead of one circumpolar species
inhabiting the shores of the Polar Sea, a dozen circumpolar species should do so.

Fourth, a second glacial period to disperse each of these 17 species, and isolate parties
of each of them in various southern regions of various climates, as parties of their common
ancestor were isolated, so that the 17 species may become a couple of hundred.

Fifth, a mild climate at the North Pole, again to allow about 60 of these species once
more to return to the family home, and to become in a few instances circumpolar again.

Sixth, and last, a partial return of the glacial condition of the Polar Sea, so that free
intercourse across it should be discontinued, and interbreeding confined to the birds living
near Behring Straits, so that Canadian species should in some cases be only subspecifically
distinct from their Siberian allies.

If Geologists can supply us with these six conditions, we ought to be grateful to
them for such valuable aid in the explanation of such an interesting problem as that of
the geographical distribution of the Charadriidz, whilst at the same time we ask them to
acknowledge the value even of such feeble support as is implied in the harmony between
their theories and our hypothesis.

To ascertain whether this harmony exists, it is necessary to examine briefly the latest
theory of the Glacial Epoch.

Croll’s theory appears to me to account for the occasional occurrence of a glacial
epoch very satisfactorily.

The inclination of the axis of the earth to the plane of the ecliptic causes the annual
alternation of continuous day during summer and continuous night during winter at the
Poles. At the South Pole, which is at the present time in the middle of a mild glacial
period, the heat of summer is insufficient to melt the snow on the land which has accumu-
lated during winter ; but at the North Pole the heat of summer melts all the snow which
has accumulated during winter on the land near the sea-level, and some portion of that on
the Greenland mountains, besides a considerable thickness of the ice on the sea near the
Pole. So far as I have been able to learn from my three visits to the Arctic Regions, and
from information obtained from the narrations of Arctic travellers, the condition of affairs
at and near the North Pole is as follows :—During summer and winter there is very little
wind. Nearly all the snow which falls during the year falls in late autumn, and nearly all
the rain which falls descends in late spring. The normal condition of the weather in
winter is perpetual starlight, and that of summer continuous sunshine. In May and
October gales are common, probably having the same origin as the equinoctial gales of our
latitudes. At the North Pole every wind is a south wind, and any disturbance of the
atmosphere of importance must bring air laden with moisture from the tropics, in October
to fall im snow, in May to fall in rain to melt the snow. The question is, How cana glacial
epoch be produced? I think we may at once dismiss the idea that the length or severity
of the winter is an important factor. No amount of cold in winter can produce a glacial
epoch, unless there is a great mass of snow or ice in which the cold may be stored ; nor, on

THE GLACIAL EPOCH. a7

the other hand, can it be supposed that any amount of sunshine will melt the snow in a
dry air without wind. Any one who has spent a spring in the Arctic Regions, or has
visited the southern regions of perpetual snow in summer, must have noticed that, although
the sun’s rays are hot enough to blister the skin, they seem to glance harmless from the
white snow. Dry air is incapable of absorbing heat. Even in windy weather, on some of
the highest passes of the Himalayas, the thermometer may stand at freezing-point in the
shade, although the sun is so hot that the blackened bulb of a thermometer may register
more than two hundred degrees.

To produce a Glacial Epoch it is necessary either to increase the moisture of the autumn
gales, or to decrease that of the spring gales, or, better still, to do both. If the autumn gales
are dry, they may blow as hard as they like, but they will deposit little snow ; and if the
spring gales are dry they will also be cold, and will melt it very slowly.

The earth does not revolve round the sun in a circle but in an ellipse, in one of the
foci of which the sun is placed. This eccentricity of the earth’s orbit varies in amount,
according to the relative position of the rest of the planets. When the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit is great, the difference in the amount of heat received by the earth from the
sun, when the former is in perihelion, and that received when it is in aphelion, is
probably sufficient to make an important difference in the amount of moisture held in

suspension by the earth’s atmosphere at the two periods. When the eccentricity of

the earth’s orbit is great during the four months or so of perihelion, the hot though
short summer produces abundance of vapour, which in autumn is carried by the
equinoctial gales towards the Pole entering winter in aphelion, and produces great
quantities of snow, whilst at the Pole emerging from winter in perihelion the extra heat
and moisture of the air melts the snow rapidly. Six months later the opposite state of
things produces the same result. During the half of the earth’s progress round the
sun, in which it is furthest from that body, the atmosphere is cooler and less charged
with moisture. The snow at the Pole emerging from winter in aphelion is much longer
in melting in consequence of the dryness and coolness of the south wind; whilst at
the Pole entering winter in perihelion the less amount of moisture in the air causes a
smaller deposit of snow. In both cases the same result must be produced, a glacial
epoch at the Pole which has its winter im aphelion, and a tropical epoch at the Pole
which has its winter in perihelion. If this be the cause of the Glacial Epoch, it follows
that the intensity of these periods must increase as the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit
increases, and they must disappear altogether when the orbit of the earth is circular. The
precession of the equinox, which takes 21,000 years to complete, reverses the condition of
either Pole ; so that a Glacial Epoch at each Pole lasts for 10,500 years, followed by a tropical
epoch of the same duration, and this must be repeated as long as the unusual eccentricity
of the earth’s orbit continues.

Wallace, in his ‘Island Life,’ argues at considerable length against the theory of
tropical interglacial periods extending to the Pole during the Glacial Epoch. He appears

E2

Changes re-
quisite to
produce a
Glacial
Epoch.

Eccentricity
of the
earth’s
orbit.

Effect of the
earth in
aphelion and
in perihe-
lion,

Dependent
on the
amount of
the eccen-
tricity.

Interglacial
periods not
affecting the
Poles.

Fossil re-
mains of
birds.

Causes of
their rarity,

Probability
of an Eocene
Glacial
Epoch.

28 THE GLACIAL EPOCH.

to believe that the ice never left the Polar Basin during the last Glacial Epoch, though its
southern range ebbed and flowed with the precession of the equinox, causing great altera-
tions of climate in subarctic regions. This theory is supported, as far as it goes, by the
evidence derived from a study of the geographical distribution of the Charadriide.

The facts to be learned by a study of fossil birds are very few. Fossil birds are rare
and very fragmentary. The fossil remains of mammals are often found in caves, where
they had taken refuge, and where they were drowned during floods, and their bones
preserved in the mud and sand washed in by the water. Other fossil remains of mammals
have been deposited in the mud at the mouths of rivers. It is obvious, however, that
neither of these accidents, if we may so call them, can often happen to birds. Very few
species would be likely to seek refuge in a cave, nor would their dead bodies be likely to
sink in the bed of a river. The air-cavities in the bones of a bird make it so light that it
must float on the surface of the water and eventually be washed ashore, when it naturally
falls a prey to one of the carrion-eating beasts or birds, which are the scavengers of the
coast. The fossilization of a bird is a comparatively rare event, and their remains few and
fragmentary. It seems probable that traces of birds are found in the Triassic formation ;
no actual remains of birds have been found, but footprints, which appear to be those of
birds, occur. The celebrated Archeopteryx was found in Bavaria in a limestone-formation
belonging to the Jurassic period. Like the majority of the birds of the Cretaceous fauna,
the Archeopteryx shows its affinity to its semireptile ancestors by its teeth. These toothed
birds appear to have become extinct before the beginning of the Tertiary Period; but
Milne-Edwards, in his treatise on the Miocene fossils of France, comes to the conclusion
that some of the fragments of fossil skeletons of birds must be referred to existing Limico-
line genera, such as Mumenius, Tringa, Totanus, and Himantopus. We must therefore look
to a period which may be the Glacial Epoch, of which there appears to be some geological
evidence in Eocene times’, and which may possibly have been caused by the remarkable
increase in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, which Croll shows as having occurred from
eight to nine hundred thousand years ago, as the time when the ancestors of the present
Charadriine genera were differentiated, and previous to which they formed one species, living
on the shores of the Polar Basin.

It is probably impossible to form anything more than a wild guess at the date of these
wonderful phenomena, but we may be reasonably allowed to believe that they occurred, and
that the effect of their occurrence was the differentiation of Charadriime birds, first into
genera, and secondly into species: so that, in this family at least, the genera are not
absolutely artificial, but are to a large extent the impress upon this group of birds of great
geological events.

In order to make the narrative intelligible, I propose to call the last Glacial Epoch,

* “With respect to more ancient Glacial periods, several geologists are convinced from direct evidence
that such occurred during the Miocene and Eocene formations.” (Darwin, ‘ Origin of Species,’ 5th ed. p- 452.)

THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 29

during which it seems to me that many of the present species of Charadriidz were
differentiated, the Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch, which, according to Croll, occurred during
the last period of great eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. Speaking in round figures, we
may say that it is 200 thousand years since the Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch began, and
that it lasted rather more than 100 thousand years, so that it is rather less than 100
thousand years since it came to an end.

The Glacial Epoch which differentiated the genera of Charadriide may have been
Miocene or even Eocene, but if the palzontologic evidence be of any value, it must at least
have been Pra-Pliocene ; and it is not beyond the bounds of possibility that this Prae-Pliocene
Glacial Epoch was caused by the period of great eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, which
occurred from 800 to 900 thousand years ago. ;

It would, however, be a great mistake to attach any importance to these dates, which
may after all be wildly wrong. The point to which I desire to call especial attention is the
nature and sequence of those great events, which appear to me to have left indelible traces
upon the existing species of Charadriide, which no one can fail to see who carefully studies
the geographical distribution of this interesting family.

Accepting these data as all the evidence that we can at present obtain on the subject,
we may proceed to fill in the details of this hypothetical history of the family Charadriide.

Some time before the Pliocene Age, the ancestors of the two hundred species, which
are now classed in the family of Charadriidze, consisted of only one species, which lived
during nine months of the year on the shores of the Polar Basin. How long it had lived
there, or whence it came, it is impossible to say. It may have emigrated to the
land of the midnight sun any time before the Prae-Phocene Glacial Epoch, which
must have banished all bird-life from the Arctic Regions. At any rate it had been
there long enough to have become circumpolar, and possibly long enough to have
acquired the habit of feeding by night, as well as by day, so as to reduce the risk of long |
migrations in search of light, during the three months’ winter darkness, to a minimum. |
The wandering habits, acquired by the necessity of making a short trip southwards every |
winter, and the old custom, so conspicuous amongst most birds, of driving away their young |
to find breeding-grounds at a distance from their parents, no doubt kept them well mixed
together ; so that modification was slow, and whatever change gradually took place, was
shared by the whole species, being continually distributed by constant interbreeding. The
comparatively small area of the Polar Basin, with its archipelagos of islands, offered’ every
facility for constant intermarriages between individuals from various districts, who crossed
and recrossed the Arctic Ocean at will in search of an unoccupied breeding-ground or an
unmarried mate. ‘he conditions of life remained much the same year after year, and
neither isolation, nor its usual concomitant differentiation, took place.
of a glacial period changed all this.

Ice began to form at the North Pole: perpetual snow covered the mountain-ranges of
Greenland : glaciers crept down to the sea; and in spite of the short hot summer, the

But the coming on

Post-Plio-
cene Glacial
Epoch.

Pree-Plio-
cene Glacial
Epoch.

Fact impor-
tant, exact
date unim-
portant.

Original
home of the
ancestral
species.

The species
kept homo-
geneous by
inter-
breeding.

Emigration
caused by
the first
Glacial
Epoch.

Differentia-
tion when
isolated in
different
localities.

Return to
the Polar
Basin.

30 THE GLACIAL EPOCH.

winters became longer and longer, until they met, and banished bird-life from the Arctic
Ocean for perhaps 100 thousand years. Fortunately the ancestors of the Charadriide had
already acquired migratory habits, and were doubtless familiar with the four coast-les
leading south ; but every year their summer breeding-grounds were pushed further south,
and their winter range had to be extended. In the struggle for existence some parties left
the shores altogether and established themselves on the banks of rivers and lakes, whilst
others even abandoned their aquatic habits and became residents of the prairies. It would
be carrying hypothesis too far to try and discover where the ancestors of each genus were
isolated and differentiated, though in many cases strong circumstantial evidence is not
wanting ; but when the glacial period passed away, and was followed by a warm period, we
may be sure that the long residence in various isolated localities, differing in climate, in
food, in the kind of protections against enemies, and in the character of the enemies
themselves, produced a variety of modifications, the accumulation of which was greatly
accelerated by the increased struggle for existence, caused by the emigration of the Arctic
birds to the already overcrowded districts further south ; the final result being that the one
species which left the Polar Basin at the beginning of the Pra-Pliocene glacial period,
returned when it was over, not one, but ten species, leaving at least ten others which never
returned at all.

The disappearance of apparently perpetual winter at the North Pole, the melting away
of the ice in the Arctic Ocean, and the retreat of the glaciers almost to the tops of the

_ highest mountains, lessened for a time the fierceness of the struggle for existence, by opening

up once more the finest breeding-ground in the world for shore-feeding birds. The ten
species met in the Polar Basin, where their common ancestors had lived about half a million
years previously, and probably found its coasts and its islands as desirable a place of
residence as their ancestors had done—so much so, indeed, that only one out of the ten
failed to become circumpolar.

During the Miocene Period the conditions of life were probably so easy, that few of the
ten species were greatly modified, but what modification did take place became by constant
interbreeding the common property of the species. But whilst ¢vterbreeding was the
universal rule, those birds which neglected it and adopted the system of in and in breeding
producing degenerate offspring, which were soon stamped out in the struggle for existence,
cross breeding between any two of the ten species never occurred, or, if it did happen in
exceptional cases, produced no permanent result, the offspring being barren hybrids which
died out of themselves.

But this paradise of waders was not eternal; the same fate befell the ten species as
had befallen the one species (their common ancestor) five hundred thousand years or more
previously. Another glacial period came on; the Arctic Ocean again became a sea of ice,
and the glaciers crept down again from their mountain homes and almost covered the land.

The first important break in the continuity of the area of distribution of each species
was doubtless a barrier of ice, extending from the sea of ice at the North Pole, and coming

THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 31

down in a wedge along the mountains of Greenland. The area of distribution was Emigration
originally a disk ; the accumulation of ice round the pole made it a ring, and the glaciers of ine see
Greenland cut the ring in two, so that the birds of Scandinavia could no longer interbreed ree
with those of Labrador. ‘his partial discontinuity of the area of distribution allowed
Evolution to modify the species at each end of the horseshoe in different directions ; but the
differentiations could only be subspecific, as interbreeding must have taken place along the
whole line, the birds of each bay intermarrying with those in the next, so that the result
was probably a Scandinavian species, which appeared to be quite distinct from its ally in
Labrador, until it was found that the two species were connected together by a complete
series of intermediate forms, the Kamtschatkan form being perhaps midway between the
two extremes.

As the severity of the Glacial Period increased, the cracked ring must have been broken
into two pieces by glaciers, one coming down from the Rocky Mountains, and the other from
Nova Zembla or the mountains of Eastern Siberia. The shore birds were thus isolated in
three colonies—one on the Atlantic coast of America, one on the Atlantic coast of Europe,
and the third on the Pacific coast of Alaska and Hast Siberia.

Later on, when the Arctic ice filled the Polar basin, the birds retreating before it on
the shores of the Pacific must also have been isolated in two parties, one being compelled
to follow the coast of Asia, and the other that of America.

During the Pree-Pliocene glacial period the Charadriidz were differentiated into genera,
during the Post-Pliocene into species. To try and find out the locality where each genus
was differentiated is too hazardous a task, but to attempt the discovery of the locality where
each species was isolated and differentiated is seldom entirely hopeless. It seems probable
that the habits of migration, formed originally when the birds extended their range beyond
the Arctic Circle, and were compelled to wander in search of light during the three months’
night, and developed to a much greater degree when they were compelled, by the increasing
severity of the winters, to absent themselves from their breeding-grounds for six months in
search of food, became so deeply impressed upon the species, that they were never wholly
abandoned, even during the warm climate which followed the last glacial epoch. It seems ieGhie
to be a reasonable hypothesis that the locality where a species is now most abundant in! where each
winter was its winter home during the glacial period, where it was isolated and differentiated, \ baie ya
and whence it has migrated to its breeding-grounds every spring for the last hundred ae
thousand years. ‘The pertinacity with which ancient routes of migration are retained is .
exemplified in the history of many species of Charadriide. The Common Dotterel
(Charadrius morinellus) appears to have gradually extended its range during the breeding-
seasons from the Atlantic to the Pacific, but its ancient winter-quarters of North Africa are
still, so far as we know, the only winter-quarters of the species. On the other hand, the
Curlew Sandpiper (Zringa subarquata) winters in South Africa, India, and Australia. As
no difference can be found in the Curlew Sandpipers wintering in these three localities, we
must infer one of two hypotheses, either that India and South Africa have only recently

Post-Glacial
modifica-
tion.

Glacial
theory of
dispersal.

32 THE GLACIAL EPOCH.

been discovered by this species, or that the birds wintering in these three isolated localities
meet in summer on a common breeding-ground.

Modification is probably proceeding very slowly with these species at the present time ;
they are all migratory birds; at their breeding-grounds they have an unlimited supply of
food and very few enemies ; their great struggle for existence is the necessity for braving
the perils of migration twice a year, and the survivors are those who are fittest to run the
gauntlet of storms. But there is evidence of considerable post-glacial modification.

The Curlew (Numenius arquatus), which winters in Africa, is slightly different from its
oriental representative (Mumenius arquatus lineatus), which winters in Australia, and the
European Dunlin (Zringa alpina) is said to differ from its representative in America. It is
impossible to say to what extent post-glacial modification may have taken place, because in
the absence of isolation it has not produced differentiation. In what manner and to what
extent isolation has permitted (not caused) differentiation to take place in the family of
Charadriide is the object of the present book. How far I have succeeded in the task I
must leave my readers to decide. I hope they will agree with me that the circumstantial
evidence which I have collected on the subject is sufficient to warrant my giving it the title
of the Glacial Theory of Dispersal. At all events J trust they will neither hastily condemn
my ideas as “ unverified hypotheses of speculative philosophy,” nor rush into the opposite
extreme, and jump to the conclusion that the Glacial Epochs have been an important factor
in the differentiation of tropical and subtropical genera and species.

CHAPTER V.

MIGRATION.

Ir is a very remarkable fact that the evidence of the most trustworthy witnesses cannot Hibernation
always be relied upon. The old superstitions that Bernicle Geese were hatched from the woo
mollusk whose name they bear, that Cuckoos turned into Sparrow-Hawks in autumn, and

that Swallows spent the winter buried in the mud at the bottom of rivers, are too absurd

to be worthy of refutation; but there are still a few creduious ornithologists who are not

yet convinced that birds have not occasionally been found in a state of Hibernation. There

cannot, however, be the shadow of a doubt that the well-authenticated stories of Swallows

having been found in a torpid state in hollow trees, or in holes of walls or rocks, are pure

myths. There is not a shred of truth in these narratives, any more than there is in the

equally impossible stories of live toads being found in solid rocks; and it is most curious

that, now science has proved these alleged facts to be impossible, no further evidence of

their truth is forthcoming. It only shows how cautiously evidence apparently the most
trustworthy should be received.

The Hibernation of birds is a ¢heory, the evidence in support of which has completely
broken down. The Migration of birds is a fact, as completely authenticated as the fact of
their existence. Not only is the disappearance of a species from its breeding-grounds the
signal for its appearance at its winter-quarters, but there are numerous halfway houses, so
to speak, where any observer may, at the proper season of the year, see birds by the
thousand in the act of migration.

All birds do not migrate, neither is migration confined to any family or genus of Migration
birds; nor does it invariably extend to all the individuals which collectively represent a mig
species. The habit of migration is to a large extent climatic. The Robin is a resident in
England, where the winters are comparatively mild; it is a migrant in Germany, where
frost is much more frequent and severe. Birds breeding in the tropics are always resident,
except when they breed on mountains, where a subtropical, or even an arctic climate,
causes them to descend into the valleys for the winter.

To old-fashioned ornithologists who still believe that each species of bird was separately
created in the locality where it now breeds, migration appears to be an exceptional factor

in the life of birds, whilst they regard any theory of the emigration of birds as a myth.
F

Emigration
of Birds,

Distance
covered by
migrants.

Origin of the
Charadriidx.

Origin of
Migration.

34 MIGRATION.

The modern ornithologist has discovered that migration is the rule and not the
exception, and, holding the theory that all birds are descended from common ancestors, he
is obliged to admit that the only possible way in which they could have become practically
cosmopolitan was by emigration, and that, too, on no insignificant scale. The emigrations
of birds have been as widespread and as complicated as those of the human race, though
they have been unchronicled by historians, and have left but few traces behind them,
except the present areas of the distribution of nearly allied species, which are most suggestive
of the past history of the genus.

The Charadriide may be regarded as the most migratory family of birds. In no
group of birds is the percentage of migratory species greater, nor do any migratory birds
undertake journeys of such extraordinary length. The Sanderling (Zringa arenaria) breeds
on the shores of the Arctic Ocean; I have shot it in the lagoon of the Petchora in lat. 70°
north, in the middle of the breeding-season, and have watched it in our winter feeding on
the coast of South Africa, about eight thousand miles further south. The Knot (Zringa
canutus) has even a wider range, breeding further north, and sometimes wintering further
south ; there can be little doubt that some of its “ fly-lines” measure ten thousand miles.
It is not remarkable that birds that perform such extraordinary feats of migration require
new sets of flight-feathers before each journey. As soon as the duties of incubation are
over most Waders may be seen in full moult, with perhaps a primary and a secondary in
each wing only half-grown, all the quills being gradually renewed during the month of
September. Precisely the same state of things may be seen in South Africa during the
month of March.

Emigration, being doubtless an older habit than migration, ought perhaps to be
discussed first, but it is undoubtedly wiser to begin with the subject with which we are
best acquainted—to proceed from the known to the unknown.

The Charadriide are unquestionably an arctic family. Of 190 species which it
comprises 70 breed within the Arctic Circle; and of 19 genera only 9 are unrepresented in
the Arctic Region. They probably originated on the shores of the Polar Basin; and it
is not an improbable assumption that their habits of migration were acquired in the Arctic
Regions in pre-Eocene times, when the conditions of life near the Pole were very different
to what they are now. The first migrations of the ancestors of the Charadriide were
probably not in search of warmth, for the climate of the Polar Basin was in those remote
ages mild enough ; nor in search of food, which was probably abundant all the year round ;
but in search of “ght, during the two or three months when the sun never rose above the
horizon.

The habit of migration thus formed became deeply rooted in the species, in accordance
with the law of heredity; and doubtless acquired additional force when the terrors of a
Glacial Epoch exterminated the conservative party amongst the Charadriide (if any of
them were foolish enough to neglect to adapt themselves to the changed circumstances), and

MIGRATION. 35

compelled the survivors to extend their migrations far and wide, until the shores of nearly
all the rest of the world were visited on passage or included in the winter range of some
species of the family.

The British ornithologist naturally classifies migratory birds into three groups—birds
which, like the Swallow and the Cuckoo, come to our shores in spring to breed, and, having
bred, leave them again in autumn to winter elsewhere ; birds which, like the Fieldfare and
the Widgeon, come to our islands in autumn and spend the winter with us, but leave again
in spring in search of better breeding-grounds ; and birds which, like the Little Stint and
the Dusky Redshank, are migratory birds par excellence, being only seen on our shores fora
month in spring, and again for a month in autumn, in the act of migrating to and from
breeding-grounds far away to our north, and winter-quarters far away to our south. An
examination of the geographical ranges of these various birds will, however, show that they
only differ in their relation to our islands. They all represent birds which breed in the
north and winter in the south. Every migratory bird wintering in England goes north to
breed, and every migratory bird breeding in England goes south to winter. It is a rule
without exception in the northern hemisphere that each bird breeds in the extreme north
point of its migrations. To make the rule apply to the southern hemisphere as well it
must be modified as follows :—Each bird breeds in the coldest climate which it visits on
its migrations.

Auvy ornithologist who visits the Sussex Downs on a fine day in autumn—no
better place could be selected than those between Brighton and Shoreham—may see small
parties of birds passing up and down the coast, many of them unfortunately falling victims
to the bird-catchers, who lure them down to their destruction by miserable call-birds
pinioned within the flap-nets. If he be a novice he will scarcely be likely to regard their
apparent flitting to and fro as in any way connected with migration. But by-and-by he
will probably discover that the birds which are moving in the direction of Dover are soft-
billed insect-eating species, who are migrating east to cross the Straits on their way to
warmer winter-quarters down south; whilst those who are migrating towards the Land’s
End are hard-billed seed-eating species, who are migrating west, having crossed over the
German Ocean from Scandinavia, possibly by way of Heligoland, and are now following
the English coast-line, continually sending small parties inland to winter mm our mild
climate.

The former birds are migrating out of England, the latter are migrating into it in
autumn; and these two parties represent two more or less distinct classes of migrants.
The hard-billed seed-eating birds may be called Gipsy migrants. Their home is wherever
they can find food. In winter they are perpetually hovering on the outskirts of the frost,
perpetually being driven southwards by snowstorms, but continually trying to force a
passage to their breeding-grounds. The consequence is that their movements depend

largely upon the weather ; in some seasons they are very abundant, in others very rare.
F2

Classifica-
tion of
migrants.

Relation oft
climate to
Migration.

Migration
on the south
coast of
England.

Gipsy
migrants.

Regular
migrants.

Relation of
Summer to
Winter
range.

Migration of
Barn-Swal-
lows.

Moulting of
Barn-Swal-
lows.

36 MIGRATION.

Sometimes, during a mild series of winters further north, they are absent for several years,
whilst an unusually severe winter in the north often causes unexpected migration, sometimes
in large numbers, of rare birds to our islands.

The soft-billed insect-eating birds may be called Regular migrants ; their migrations
are remarkably constant, and their appearance in their breeding-grounds may be confidently
looked for almost to a day. Each species has its fixed time of migration, which appears to
be very slightly affected by the condition of the weather. Good weather does not seem to
hasten the arrival of these birds at their breeding-grounds, nor does bad weather retard
their movements. In their winter-quarters they are almost as punctual ; and though many
of these are reached by somewhat circuitous routes, it is remarkable how few birds lose
their way on migration.

As a general rule, amongst regular migrants the further north a bird goes to breed, the
further south it goes to winter. As regards species this is very easy to prove, but as
regards individuals the statement has often been questioned. The Barn-Swallow is one of
those conspicuous birds which is easily identified, and which is so numerous that its
absence is quickly detected. Unfortunately we have no reliable records of the departure of
Swallows from Central Africa; but when I was in Natal during the last week in March
Barn-Swallows were swarming in countless thousands on the coarse marine herbage on the
sand-hills between the sea and the lagoons at the mouth of the Umgeni River. Most of
the adults were in splendid glossy blue plumage, having just completed their moult ; but
most of the birds of the year had only moulted about half their quills, and would probably
not be in a condition to migrate for at least a fortnight.

Barn-Swallows arrive in North Africa very early during the last half of February, in
Southern Europe during the first half of March, but in Central Europe not until the last
half of that month. It is perfectly certain that the Natal Swallows if they leave during the
first half of April, even allowing them only a few days in which to accomplish a journey of
five or six thousand miles, must go to some part of North Europe or to North-west Asi¢,
since the Swallows which breed further south have arrived at their breeding-grounds before
the South-African birds have left their winter-quarters. So far as it goes, this evidence is
conclusive that, in the case of the Barn-Swallow, the individuals which go furthest north to
breed go furthest south to winter.

The Barn-Swallow, and probably every other species of Hirundine, only moults once in
the year. After having migrated six or seven thousand miles to their breeding-grounds,
spent nearly six months in the stormy summer of Northern Europe, again migrated six or
seven thousand miles back to their winter-quarters, and spent another six months during
the rainy season of Natal, it is a wonder that the poor birds have any feathers left. Some
of those which I shot had been in a lamentable condition ; the old feathers that still
remained had faded to a rusty brown and were worn to shreds. The plumage of the
young birds, though they had only run the gauntlet of one Journey and of one summer, is

MIGRATION. 37

so much more tender than that of adults, that they were in the worst condition; the old
feathers were no better than rusty rags.

The most interesting fact in connection with this single moult of the Swallow is that
it takes place in March instead of September. The natural inference to be drawn from
such a circumstance is, that the Swallows belong to the southern hemisphere, and have only
comparatively recently (probably in post-glacial times) emigrated to the Palearctic or
Nearctic Regions. This theory is confirmed by a glance at their geographical distribution.
The genus irundo, as restricted by Sharpe in the ‘Catalogue of Birds,’ contains 27
species, of which 16 breed only in the Ethiopian Region, 2 both in the Ethiopian and
Oriental Regions, 2 only in the Oriental Region, 1 both in the Oriental and Palearctic
Regions, 1 both in the Oriental and Australian Regions, 2 only in the Australian Region,
2 only in the Neotropical Region, and the remaining 1 both in the Nearctic, Palaarctic,
and Ethiopian Regions. Of the 11 genera recognized by the same author, Hirundo is the
only one which is cosmopolitan in its range; 2 are confined to the Ethiopian, and 1 each to
the Australian and Neotropical Regions, whilst no genus is confined to the Palearctic or
Nearctic Regions. ‘The evidence that the Swallow had an Antarctic origin seems to be
conclusive.

It not unfrequently happens that the breeding-range of a species overlaps its winter

range. Under these circumstances it is probably a rule, with scarcely an exception, that

the birds breeding in the overlapping part are residents who never migrate at all. The
habit of migration is not a whim. If, on an average of seasons, it is possible for the birds
to find food in their breeding-grounds during the winter, they doubtless remain there. It

is scarcely conceivable that birds would brave the perils of migration without an adequate
cause. ‘The mortality of birds on migration is very great; many are caught in storms
whilst crossing the Ocean, as the dead bodies which are washed upon the beach often prove.
It is not an uncommon thing to find birds newly arrived at their destination—at Spern
Head, for example—so fatigued as to be readily caught by the hand.

Little or nothing has been written of the migration of birds in the southern hemi-
sphere, but it is almost as important a fact in the history of the birds of Natal as in that of
British birds, though the difference in the geographic relations of the two countries modifies
the details in many ways. It is a remarkable fact that whilst there are very many birds
breeding in the northern hemisphere and wintering in the southern, it is not known that
any land-bird breeds in the southern hemisphere and habitually winters in the northern.
It seems probable that most of the accidental visits of southern species of land-birds to the
northern hemisphere which have been from time to time recorded are of doubtful
authenticity ; and amongst sea-birds this practice is confined to one or two species of Petrel,
of which it is not unlikely that undiscovered breeding-grounds exist in the northern hemi-
sphere. One cause of this apparent anomaly may be the difference in the distribution of
the land. North of the British Islands, and a similar latitude on the continent of Europe

Emigration
of Swallows.

Hirundo an
Antarctic
genus.

Birds resi-
dent where
summer and
winter
quarters
overlap.

Migration in
the southern
hemisphere.

Few or no
winter
migrants
from the
southern
hemisphere

Winter
visitors to
the southern
hemisphere,

Double
breeding a
myth.

Alleged
double
breeding
of Barn-
Swallows.

Of Nord-
mann’s
Pratincole.

38 MIGRATION.

and Asia, is an Arctic region, which is the breeding-ground of great numbers of migratory
birds. Many of these winter in our islands, whilst others are regular spring and autumn
visitors, passing along our coasts on migration, from their Arctic breeding-grounds to their
winter-quarters in Southern Europe or Africa. In the southern hemisphere there are no
Antarctic breeding-grounds, whence similar migrants could visit Natal. No part of South
Africa is cold enough to be a breeding-ground of Arctic birds, and the land at the Antarctic
pole is too cold for them. The natural consequence of this state of things is, that in South
Africa there are no migrants from the Antarctic Region, either in winter, or passing
through in spring and autumn to winter further north. ‘To compensate for the absence of
such an important section of migratory birds, Natal and other parts of South Africa are
visited every year by an equally important section of migratory birds, a migration which
has no parallel in the northern hemisphere.

The fact that in the Antarctic Region there is no land suitable for the breeding of
birds, except a few species of Penguin and Petrel, is the cause of the apparently anomalous
circumstance that the northern hemisphere is only accidentally visited by migratory birds
whose breeding-grounds are in the southern hemisphere. South Africa is, however, visited
by numerous regular migrants from the northern hemisphere—birds who spend half the
year, from September to March, in the summer of the southern hemisphere surrounded by
other species, some of them congeneric, busily engaged in the duties of incubation, but they
themselves looking on with absolute indifference. In addition to the Plovers and Sandpipers,
and the Barn-Swallows which have already been mentioned, many other species, such as the
Swift (Cypselus apus), the Willow-Wren (Phylloscopus trochilus), the Sedge-Warbler (Acro-
cephalus phragmitis), the Great Sedge-Warbler (Acrocephalus turdoides), which breed in
Northern Europe and North-western Asia, cross the tropics and enjoy a second summer in
the Transvaal, Natal, and other parts of South Africa. The fact that these birds, which
spend the summer in Europe, are found in South Africa during the South-African breeding-
season, has given rise to the legend that some birds breed twice in the year—in June in
Europe, and in December in South Africa. It is very difficult to prove a negative, but
when the evidence of these alleged cases of double breeding is carefully examined, it always
proves to be unsatisfactory. Andersson, in his ‘ Birds of Damara-Land,’ remarks of the
Barn-Swallow that it breeds in that country; but there can be little doubt that the Swallow
which he mistook for the Barn-Swallow was the White-throated Swallow (Hirwndo albigu-
laris), a species which he does not mention, and which he probably mistook for the female
of our bird. His further remark that, in consequence of the scarcity of houses, it breeds in
rocks and ¢rees, adds still more doubt to the accuracy of his observations. I have seen the
Barn-Swallow breeding under overhanging cliffs in the Dobrudscha, but I never heard of
its having been found nesting in a tree. Nordmann’s Pratincole (@lareola melanoptera) is
also stated, on the authority of Mrs. Barber, to breed in South Africa; but as this bird and
the Wattled Starling (Dilaphus carunculatus) are both known in that country as the Small

MIGRATION. 39

Locust-bird, it seems very probable that the two species have been confused together either
by Mrs. Barber or by Mr. Layard. It is a significant fact that the Layard collection of
eggs in the Museum at Cape Town, which is a very good one, reflecting great credit on the
energy of the collector, does not profess to contain an African egg of the Pratincole. ‘The
Quail (Cotwrnix communis) certainly does breed in South Africa; but this bird is a partial
resident in Natal and the Cape Colony, its numbers being probably increased by migratory,
but non-breeding, birds in spring. There is no reason to suppose that the breeding-area
of its distribution is discontinuous ; and, in the absence of any evidence to the contrary, it is
fair to assume that it breeds throughout Africa, as the Heron, several species of Egret, the
Black- winged Stilt, and the Avocet are known to do. It is possible that there may be
species of birds breeding both in Europe and in South Africa, but wintering only in Central
Africa; in which case we should find the curious anomaly of a species of bird found all the
year round in Tropical Africa, but not breeding there, half the individuals being absent
from March to September, in order to breed in the northern hemisphere, and the other half
being absent from September to March, in order to breed in the southern hemisphere. But
before such a theory could be accepted, it must be supported by facts which are not open
to suspicion.

The winters of South Africa are much milder than those of England; they approach
much nearer in climate to those of the Riviera; snow is almost unknown, but in many
places the nights are cold, and as in South Europe, so in Natal, many birds, for the most
part insect-feeding species, leave in autumn for warmer climes. Amongst these, several
species of Swallow (Hirundo albigularis, H. semirufa, H. cucullata), most of the Cuckoos,
and some of the Warblers are conspicuous examples.

It is rather remarkable that the delicate-looking Sun-birds, which vie with the
Humming-birds in the brilliancy and metallic lustre of their plumage, are able to brave the
winters of Natal without migrating. The representative of our Sand-Martin, Cotyle paludi-
cola, and that of the South-European Rock-Martin, Cotyle cincta, must also be included
amongst the residents.

There is in the British Islands a great deal of local wandering amongst birds, and in
Natal this internal migration is even more conspicuous. ‘The climate of South Africa varies
in different localities. The rainy season is, as a rule, during the summer, but there is a
slip of country near the coast, extending from Cape Town to Knysna, where the rain falls in
winter, and between the two districts is a belt of country of uncertain rainfall, where in
some years it rains every month, and in others little or no rain falls for a whole year.
These changes of climate necessitate great changes of residence amongst the bird-population.
Some birds feed principally on grasshoppers, and migrate far and wide in search of large
erratic flights of these insects. Man has been described as a cooking animal, but Nord-
mann’s Pratincole very much prefers to eat its locusts cooked. It may be said to spend its
time in migrating in enormous flocks in search of roasted grasshoppers. The grass in

Quail not
an example
of double
breeding.

Summer
migrants to
the southern
hemisphere.

Local
migration
in South
Africa.

Migrants

in search

of roasted
grasshop-
pers.

Eastern
Red-legged
Falcon.

Local
migration
of Snipe.

Alleged
double
breeding of
Stork.

Heligoland.

40 MIGRATION.

Natal is of such rank growth that large patches of veldt are burnt off every year to clear
the ground. The Pratincole (Glareola melanoptera), the Lapwing (Vanellus melanopterus),
and the Courser (Cursorius rufus) are always on the look-out for these grass-fires, and feed
eagerly upon the scorched insects left in their wake. For days together flights of Pratincoles
pass over the veldt, perhaps not to be seen again for weeks or even months. The flights of
ants are also a source of great attraction to some birds. For about a week early in March
a flock of perhaps three hundred Eastern Red-legged Faleons (Fulco amurensis) frequented.
the farm in Natal where I was stopping. They spent the day hawking like Swallows at a
great height in the air, and at night they roosted all together on the naked branches of some
tall trees in the bush. It is remarkable that these birds are not known to breed west of
Irkutsk, their summer-quarters being apparently confined to the valley of the Amoor in

South-eastern Siberia, though their winter-range extends from the eastern provinces of the

Cape Colony, through India, to China.

The South-African Snipe (Scolopax equatorialis) is only known from South Africa,
where it is a resident, breeding all over the country in the vleys or marshes. In exceptionally
dry seasons many of these vleys dry up, and the ground becomes too hard to be probed by
the soft bills of the Snipe in search of food. The Snipe are consequently obliged to migrate
for a season to vleys where there is still abundance of moisture ; and thus it often happens
that large bags are obtained where a week before only a few scattered pairs could be found.

One of the most conspicuous birds in Natal during the month that I spent in the
country was the White Stork (Ciconia alba). In riding across the veldt it was seldom that
one or two pairs were not visible, and sometimes large flocks collected together to roost
on the bare branches of some venerable tree in the bush. No bird could be better known
to the colonists, amongst whom it is familiar as the Great Locust-bird. But the only
instance that I heard of (and I made many inquiries) of the breeding of this bird in Natal,
was that of a pair which once bred on the ground nearly twenty years ago. Even
supposing the identification of the species to have been correct, the fact of the nest being
on the ground in a country where houses, rocks, and trees abound is presumptive evidence
that the bird which made the nest was unable to fly, and persuaded its mate to remain with
it in their winter-quarters.

There are many places where migration may be easily studied. The fly-lines of a
great many species pass through Malta, and of perhaps still more through Gibraltar, but
in no place has more migration been seen and recorded than on the island of Heligoland.
This comparatively bare rock, which rises perpendicularly from the sea about 150 feet,
scarcely measures 200 acres in extent, and contains perhaps 2000 inhabitants. In
conjunction with Sandy Island, about a mile away, exposing say 50 acres of uninhabited
sand-hills and beach at low water, reduced to scarcely half that extent at high tide, it has
been visited by more species of birds than have been recorded from any country of Europe.
The fact is that Heligoland is the only part of the world of which the ornithology has

MIGRATION, ; 4]

been properly worked. Every boy on the island is a born and bred ornithologist. The
fisherman steers with a gun by his side, the peasant digs his potatoes with a gun on the
turf and a heap of birds on his coat. Every unfortunate bird that visits the island has to
run the gauntlet of forty or more guns, to say nothing of scores of catapults and blowpipes.
Every bird which appears is whistled within range with marvellous skill. Long before
sunrise the island is bristling with guns, and after dark the netters are busy at their
throstle-bushes ; whilst at midnight the birds commit suicide against the lighthouse. The
common birds are eaten, the rare ones are sold to the bird-stuffer, and the unknown ones
are taken to the celebrated ornithologist Giitke.

Although the island is about twenty miles from the coast there is not a month in the
year during which migration cannot be observed. One of the most valuable contributions
to our knowledge of ornithology that has ever been published is a digest of Gatke’s
observations for the year 1885. The following extracts relating to some of the birds
which comprise the family Charadriide are taken from the seventh Annual Report on the
Migration of Birds, published by the Committee of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. ‘These observations show in a most forcible manner to what extent
migration takes place, even in midwinter. It can scarcely be supposed that Curlew and
Golden Plover fly twenty miles out to sea for the sake of feeding on the beach of Sandy
Island, which does not measure a couple of miles, even at ebb-tide. Probably these flocks
which visit Heligoland in winter breed in Yorkshire and Scotland, migrating from shore
to shore in winter (as the Snipes and the Coursers do from coast to coast in South Africa) in

search of new feeding-grounds. The Curlews, on the other hand, who spend a quiet winter
G

Destruction
of birds.

42 MIGRATION.

enjoying the summer sun on the mud-flats of Durban Bay, probably migrate to breed on
the tundras around Archangel.

WOODCOCK. | GOLDEN PLOVER. CURLEW. DOTTEREL.
x x
B j] many. ] many. a
i—m any.
‘ 2
a
] few.
stragglers. Le maineay ]very many.
E —eight killed. ] very many. E
Bs y Bs
: 250 killed. —stragglers. :
Be —50 killed. —very many. b
} stragglers. } few. 8
stragglers.
—stragglers.
= —some. =
= ] some. a
= J
4 —one. a
a a
5 many, all young. 5
{ many young, a few
b> ] few, all young. old. leone bss
Q y- a
: ] many, all young. many. ;
|] few. —some,
ie ] some. a
5 } many. 5
\ few. —few.
@ |2. ees ro)
8 [5 250 killea. io ec 8
stragglers.
z
a few, —few, é
=]
| ] many. S
nana of It must not be supposed that the greater proportion of birds migrating across Heli-
erine : : : ;
birds. goland are water-birds ; on the contrary, the species which appear in the greatest numbers

are small Passerine birds who, presumably possessing weaker powers of flight, are most
anxious to find a temporary rest on such adventurous journeys. The following notes from
Gitke’s diary are most interesting :—

MIGRATION, 43

Oct. 1870. Thousands of Great Tits.
Feb. 1876. Tens of thousands of Sky-Larks.
Jan. 1878. Countless numbers of Fieldfares.
Dec. 1879. Millions of Red-throated Divers.
Sept. 1880. Thousands of Siskins.
Nov. 1880. Thousands of Shore-Larks.
Sept. 1881. Immense flights of Common Buzzard.
Oct. 1881. Thousands of Snow-Buntings.
Countless numbers of Hedge-Sparrows.
Oct. 1882.) Thousands of Jays.
Myriads of Goldcrests.
Sept. 1883. Enormous number of Redstarts.

The casual visitor to Heligoland, who frequents the Restaurant to enjoy the oysters
and the lobsters, or rows across to Sandy Island to bathe on the shore and take a con-
stitutional on the dunes, seldom sees much migration. Now and then a flock of Waders ‘iuration
may be detected hurrying past; flocks of Pipits or Wheatears occasionally land on the on Heligo-
island, feed for an hour or two, and then pass on ; and sometimes a scattered and straggling lass
stream of Hooded Crows, of heavy and laborious flight, will continue all day long. Most
birds migrate by night; very few come within sight of the island, and of those that do, not
one in ten thousand stops to rest. Every flock which passes over probably drops a few
tired or hungry birds, and after a migration-night a walk through the potatoe-fields in the
early morning is most curious and interesting. The variety of species, and the incongruous
way in which they are mixed, is quite startling. The potatoe-fields are practically the only
cover on the island; and all sorts of birds seek this shelter in which to feed, to rest, or to
hide. Perhaps the first bird you flush is a Sky-Lark ; the report of your gun may start a
Golden Plover or a Jack Snipe; then, may be, you see some small birds picking insects off
the potatoe-leaves, and you presently secure a Little Bunting, an Aquatic Warbler, and a
Shore-Lark. Your next shot may be a Corncrake, followed by a Ring-Ouzel, a Richard’s
Pipit, or a Teal. Then perhaps a Great Spotted Woodpecker or a Short-eared Owl
attracts your attention. You can scarcely take a step without putting up a bird of some
species. But every night is not a migration-night. Sometimes day after day, for a week
or more, you may diligently tramp the potatoes without finding a single bird. Migration
is a question of wind and weather. By long experience the Heligolanders know when to
expect an arrival of birds ; and on favourable nights they watch by their “ throstle-bushes ”
to secure their game. ‘There are scarcely any trees on the island, so the peasants make
artificial bushes, with a net on one side, into which the poor Thrushes are driven
with sticks and lanterns as soon as they alight. Some hundreds are thus frequently
caught in one night. The islanders describe with great gusto the impetuous arrival
of the birds. On a sudden, without a moment’s warning, a rush and whirl of wings
is heard, and the throstle-bush swarms with Blackbirds and Thrushes, not dropped, but

G2

Migration of
Sky-Larks.

44 ‘ MIGRATION.

apparently shot like an arrow from a bow, perpendicularly down from the invisible heights
of mid-air.

The migration of Sky-Larks as observed on Heligoland is even more remarkable. On
the 6th of November, 1868, fifteen thousand of these birds were caught by the islanders.
On the 12th of October, 1876, I had the good fortune to witness one of these great
migrations of Sky-Larks. For a week previously, whilst I was on the island, the weather
was unfavourable; there were scarcely half a dozen birds on the island. On the 11th
I shot three Shore-Larks, and was informed that the appearance of this Arctic species was
a very hopeful sign. On the following day the west winds, which had been blowing hard
for some days, slackened a little; in the afternoon it was calm with a rising barometer ;
and in the evening a breeze sprang up from the south-east. Gétke advised me to retire
early, and to be up before sunrise in the morning, when, in all probability, I should find
the island swarming with
birds. Soon after midnight
I was awakened with the news
that the migrants had arrived.
Hastily dressing, I at once
made for the lighthouse.
The night was almost pitch
dark, but the town was all
astir. In every street men
with large lanterns and nets,
like an angler’s landing-net,
were walking towards the
lighthouse. As I crossed the
potatoe-fields birds continually got up at my feet,
and when I reached the hghthouse an intensely

interesting sight presented itself. The whole of the
zone of light within range of the mirrors was alive with birds coming and going. Nothing
else was visible in the darkness of the night but the lantern of the lighthouse vignetted in
a drifting sea of birds. From the darkness in the east, clouds of birds were continually
emerging in an uninterrupted stream; a few swerved from their course, fluttered for a
moment as if dazzled by the light, and then gradually vanished with the rest in the western
gloom. Occasionally a bird wheeled round the lighthouse and then passed on, and
occasionally one fluttered against the glass, like a moth against a lamp, tried to perch on
the wire-netting, and was caught by the lighthouse man. TI should be afraid to hazard a
guess as to the hundreds of thousands that must have passed in a couple of hours; but the
stray birds which the lighthouse man succeeded in securing amounted to nearly three
hundred. The scene from the balcony of the lighthouse was equally interesting; in every

MIGRATION. 45

direction the birds were flying like a swarm of bees, and every few seconds one flew against
the glass. All the birds seemed to be flying up wind, and it was only on the lee-side of
the light that any birds were caught. They were nearly all Sky-Larks, but in the heap
captured I saw one Redstart and one Reed-Bunting. The air was filled with the warbling
cry of the Larks; now and then a Thrush was heard, and once a Heron screamed as it
passed by. The night was starless and the town was invisible ; but the island looked like
the outskirts of a gas-lighted city, being sprinkled over with lanterns. Many of the Larks
alighted on the ground to rest, and allowed the Heligolanders to pass their nets over thein.
About three o’clock in the morning a heavy thunderstorm came on with deluges of rain,
and a few breaks in the clouds revealed the stars. The migration came to an end, or
continued above the range of our vision, and, we will hope, above the reach of the
tempest.

There are one or two curious and interesting facts connected with the order in which
birds migrate. The migration of each species lasts about a month, but in autumn it is not an
uncommon thing to see astraggler or two arrive before the regular period of migration is due.
These avant-couriéres arrive in various stages of plumage, loaf about on ow shores in a
desultory manner for a few days, and then disappear. Some of them are in summer
plumage, some in winter dress, whilst others are in a transition stage, moulting as they
migrate. They are supposed to consist of barren birds, odd birds who have been unable
to find a mate, or birds whose nests have been destroyed too late m the season to allow a
second nest to be made. Having nothing else to do, the hereditary instinct to migrate
not being checked by the parental instinct, they yield to its first impulses and drift
southwards before the main body of the species. ‘This apparently premature migration has,
however, its uses. When the period of migration of any species really begins, astounding
as the fact is, it is nevertheless true that the birds of the year are the first to migrate, birds
which of course have never migrated before. These birds have inherited from their parents
an irresistible impulse to migrate, but there is no reason to suppose that they have also
inherited an infallible knowledge of the road. It may take them years to learn the various
landmarks necessary to keep them from straying from the route; but they are doubtless
led by some of the avant-couriéres, of which mention has been made. By the time that
the birds of the year have left, which may roughly be stated at a week, the males have
finished their autumnal moult ; and the second week of the migration of any species generally
marks the passage of the males ; most of the females migrate during the third week ; whilst
the fourth week is devoted to the cripples, which come straggling in as best they may, im an
almost ludicrous manner—birds which have lost a leg or some of their toes, birds with halt
a tail, or a great hole in one wing, birds with one mandible abnormally long, or with some
other defect. In spring the order is slightly varied, the adult males come first, then the adult
females, who are followed by the birds of the year, though many of these, presumably those
which are hatched late, or from some other cause, are less precocious than the rest, stop

Order of

migration.

Young mi-
grate before
their
parents.

Order of
migration i
spring.

Accidental
visitors.

More nume-

rous than
supposed,

Palmén’s
tly-lines.

Each species
has its own
fly-lines,

46 MIGRATION.

short before the journey is completed’, or never migrate at all, remaining the whole year in
their winter-quarters?, As in autumn, the cripples bring up the rear.

It is not an uncommon thing for birds to lose their way on migration. The list of
British birds contains a long catalogue of accidental visitors, most of which are migratory
birds which now and then take the wrong turning, get into the wrong stream of migration,
and make their appearance in our islands as strangers from far distant lands—some from
Siberia, others from Southern Europe, and not unfrequently, especially amongst the group
of birds of which this volume treats, from North America. Of these unexpected visitors
who have lost their way, by far the greater number are birds of the year on their first
journey to unknown winter-quarters. It is not to be wondered at that little birds so
absolutely inexperienced should often lose their way and find themselves in strange winter-
quarters.

The wonder is that so few birds do go astray, but probably many more than we have
any idea of take the wrong turning. No doubt most of them winter with us or pass on
further south without being discovered. Very few accidental visitors to our shores are
caught. It is only on the island of Heligoland that an approximate estimate can be formed
of the number of accidental visitors that occur on migration ; and even there a comparatively
small proportion of the strangers are caught or even seen. In the opinion of the veteran
ornithologist who has kept watch on this lonely island for nearly half a century, and
chronicled the visits of such extraordinary and unlikely guests, that for some years ornitho-
logists suspected that they were the victims of a hoax—in Mr. Gatke’s opinion the birds
which have passed over the island of Heligoland without being identified are even more
extraordinary and interesting than those which adorn the walls of his studio.

There has been much disputing amongst ornithologists as to the routes, or “ fly-lines ”
as the Americans aptly call them, of migratory birds. Dr. Palmén wrote a very interesting
work on the “ Zugstrassen der Vogel,” in which he attempted to map out the fly-lines of a
score of birds breeding in the high north and wintering in the far south. He further
attempted to classify their routes; but as his researches only apply to so small a proportion
of migrants, his classification has little or no practical value. It is impossible to lay down
any system of routes that can be applied to migratory birds as a whole. Each species has
its own system of fly-lines, which continually cross those of other species, sometimes at
right angles ; and it not unfrequently happens that two species use the same route for some
distance ; but whilst one species may be travelling from east to west, the other may be
migrating from west to east at the same season of the year. The Sedge-Warblers (Acro-
cephalus phragmitis) and the Willow-Wrens (Phylloscopus trochilus), which breed in the
valley of the Yenesay, probably all winter in South Africa; whilst the Black-headed Buntings
(Lnberiza melanocephala) and the Rose-coloured Starlings (Pastor roseus), which breed
from Italy to the Crimea, all winter in India.

* Seebohm, ‘ Ibis,’ 1879, p. 162.
* Seebohm, ‘ British Birds,’ iii. p. 97.

MIGRATION. 47

The fact is that the routes of migration are practically innumerable, but very important
lessons are to be learnt from their study. In most cases the present route of migration
may be regarded as an index to the past lines of emigration of the species.

The periodical change which many birds are in the habit of making from northern
breeding-grounds to southern winter-quarters is called migration. Other changes have
taken place in the residence of birds of perhaps greater magnitude, but of an abnormal
rather than of a periodical character, which are more correctly regarded as emigration.
The most remarkable instance of the emigration of birds which has been observed during
the last century was the emigration of many hundreds, if not of thousands, of Sand-Grouse
into Europe in 1863. Pallas’s Sand-Grouse (Syrrhaptes paradoaus) is a resident in the
treeless steppes and deserts of the centre of Asia north of the Himalayas, from Lake Balkash
in North-eastern ‘Turkistan to Lob-Nor in North-eastern Mongolia. North of this district
it is a summer migrant to South Siberia, migrating in autumn to winter in the east in
South-east Mongolia and North China, and in the west to the Kirghiz steppes. This
curious bird was discovered rather more than a century ago by Pallas, the celebrated
Russian naturalist, who may be regarded as the pioneer of Siberian ornithology. Orni-
thologists are not agreed as to the place in the system of birds which the Sand-Grouse
occupy. Pallas thought they were Grouse, other ornithologists regard them as nearest
allied to the Pigeons ; but there are valid reasons for supposing them to be near relations of
the Plovers, especially of the Pratincoles and Coursers. Although a few examples were
procured by the Moravians at the extreme western limits of their western winter range on
the Kirghiz steppes, near Sarepta, on the Volga, in 1853, very little further information
respecting Pallas’s Sand-Grouse was obtained until Radde, another Russian naturalist,
visited their breeding-ground in Dauria in 1856. In 1859 a few stragglers wandered into
Western Europe, and were obtained at Wilna in Poland, near Hobro in Jutland, near
Zandvoort in Holland, at Walpole St. Peter’s, in Norfolk, New Romney in Kent, and
Tremadoc in North Wales, and were justly regarded as very rare and very interesting
wanderers from Central Asia. In 1863, however, the ornithologists of Europe were startled
by a most extraordinary phenomenon: about the middle of May many hundreds, if not
thousands, of these interesting birds appeared suddenly in Europe and were shot as far
south as the valley of the Danube, North Italy, and the Pyrenees, and as far north as
Denmark and Scandinavia, a few even reaching Archangel. Great numbers passed Heli-
goland and arrived on almost every part of the east coast of the British Islands, whence
they spread inland to nearly every county of Great Britain, a few reaching the Scilly
Islands, North-west Ireland, the Shetlands, and the Faroes. In many places they attempted
to breed, and several clutches of their eggs were obtained, especially on the sandy coasts of
Denmark and Holland; but, as might have been expected, they were soon exterminated by
sportsmen, gamekeepers, and collectors of rare birds. This remarkable instance of
emigration remains almost unique in the history of Ornithology; but there can be little

Emigration
of Pallas’s
Sand-Grouse.

Attempt to
breed in
Europe.

Emigration
of Wood-
rocks,

Range of
Common

Woodcock.

American
Woodcock.

Other Wood-
cocks.

48 MIGRATION.

doubt that it is only one of many others, by means of which the present geographical
distribution of birds can alone be explained.

As a typical example of emigration we may take the journeys which the ancestors of
the nearest allies of the Woodcock (Scolopaa rusticola) must have made in order to have
become distributed as they now are. This bird is very closely allied to three other species.
These four Snipes differ from all other species of the genus in having the under surface of
the tail-feathers tipped with silvery white, and in having the dark bands on the crown
transverse instead of longitudinal. It is not known that they differ structurally from the
other species of Scolopax in any way; but two peculiarities of colour so marked are a
coincidence too extraordinary to have been separately acquired by each of the four species,
and may be accepted as a proof of a comparatively recent common origin. The
Common Woodcock, being the most numerous species, having the widest range and
occupying the central position geographically, may fairly be regarded as representing the
least changed descendants of the common ancestors, and as inhabiting the original area of
distribution. This may be described as a belt of land extending across Europe and Asia,
from England to Japan, only reaching the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia, and only
extending to the southern parts of the Palearctic Region, where high elevations on the
Alps, the Caucasus, or the Himalayas reduce the mean temperature during the breeding-
season to a moderate figure.

The American Woodeock (Scolopax minor) breeds in a somewhat similar temperature
on the American continent. ‘The ancestors of this species must either have crossed the
Atlantic or reached America by way of Behring Straits. As the present range of the
American Woodcock only extends about halfway across the continent, and is confined to
the Atlantic half, we may dismiss the Behring-Sea route as inadmissible ; and we may
regard the theory that the emigrants crossed the Atlantic as placed beyond doubt, since
we learn that the Common Woodcock is stil] found on the Azores, and accidentally wanders
to America, where it has been recorded from Newfoundland, New Jersey, and Virginia. The
distance from the Azores to the nearest point of Europe is at least a thousand miles, and from
those islands to Newfoundland considerably more. The fact that Woodcocks occasionally
make these journeys proves that the feat is by no means impossible. The other two species
so nearly allied to our Woodcock are probably the descendants of emigrants from Japan.
The Moluccan Woodcock (Scolopaz rochusseni) is a resident in the Molucca Islands; and
Horsfield’s Woodcock (Scolopar saturata) is only known from Java and Western New
Guinea. These localities are easily reached without any difficulty.

It is not necessary to give further details of the emigration of other Limicolinc birds,
as the subject will be more fully treated of in the following chapters, and an attempt
will be made to show the chief lines of emigration followed by the ancestors of each
genus.

Hitherto we have spoken of emigration as an exceptional event, occurring at a long
interval of time from a similar exodus, and produced by exceptional causes, such as a glacial

MIGRATION. 49

epoch ; there is, however, in many species a constant widening of the area of distribution,
in consequence of the gradual increase in the number of the individuals which compose the
species, which is in its results the equivalent of emigration, and might be called “ constant ”
as opposed to “spasmodic” emigration. The evidence of this past emigration must be
sought for in the route of the present migration. As a typical example of a species whose
present distribution shows indelible traces of a gradual, but ultimately a very great, extension
of its original range, we cannot select. a better bird than the Arctic Tern (Sterna arctica).

“The geographical distribution and the migrations of the Arctic Tern are perhaps
more curious and interesting than those of any other British bird; but no ornithologist
appears to have understood their peculiarities or attempted to explain them. The Arctic
Tern appears to have been originally an oceanic species, visiting in summer the North
Atlantic, and breeding in Spitzbergen, the coast of Norway, the basin of the Baltic, the
Faroes, Iceland, Greenland, the shores of Baffin’s and Hudson Bays, and the east coasts
of Canada and the United States as far south as Massachusetts. In winter its range was
confined, as it now is, to the Atlantic. It visits the Azores, the Canaries, and the west
coast of Africa down to the Cape. It enters the Mediterranean as far east as the Adriatic,
and has been known to round the Cape and wander as far as Madagascar. On the
American side it ranges as far south as the coasts of Brazil, occasionally crossing the
isthmus of Panama to the coasts of Northern Peru. This winter range appears to have
always been extensive enough; but as their numbers increased, the Arctic Terns appear
to have extended their breeding-range east and west. The eastern line of migration
apparently extends across country from the Gulf of Finland to the lower valleys of the
Petchora, the Obb, the Yenesay, and the Lena, down which some of the birds migrate to
the Arctic Ocean, following the break-up of the ice on these great rivers. The western line
of migration extends along the shores and lakes of Arctic America, the two streams of
migrants meeting at Behring’s Straits, where the Arctic Tern breeds in great numbers,
although it apparently is unknown in the North Pacific. This geographical distribution, if
I have understood it rightly, is a most interesting case of the breeding-range having
been extended until it has become circumpolar ; but, in consequence of the old routes of
migration having been strictly observed, the winter-quarters remain unchanged. In point
of fact, the Arctic Tern has not yet discovered the existence of the Pacific Ocean, and
evidently regards Behring’s Sea and the Bay of Panama as a couple of lakes!” }.

Other equally interesting examples of recent important extensions of range may be
found amongst European birds. The Petchora Pipit (Anthus gustavc) and the Arctic
Willow-Wren (Piylloscopus borealis) both winter in the islands of the Malay Archipelago.
The natural breeding-grounds of Arctic birds wintering in this locality is North-east
Siberia, to which it is almost certain they were once restricted. Both species have now
extended their breeding-grounds until they include North-eastern Europe, where they
nest in company with other migratory birds belonging to the same genera; but instead of

1 Seebohm, ‘ British Birds,’ iii. p. 285.
H

Gradual
extension
of range.

Range of
Arctic Tern.

Fly-lines of
Arctic birds.

50 MIGRATION.

accompanying them on their annual journeys up the valley of the Petchora, and down that /
of the Kama into the valley of the Volga, and thence by way of the Red Sea or the Nile to
South Africa, the natural winter-quarters of birds breeding in Arctic Europe, they retrace
the steps of their gradual emigration across half a dozen Arctic valleys, to follow their old
fly-line down the Pacific coast of Asia.

There are many other facts connected with emigration and migration that are of great
interest, but which would require a large volume to do them justice. The assemblage
of migratory birds in large flocks, which in many cases wait for a favourable wind
(they prefer a beam-wind) before they venture to cross wide stretches of sea, and conse-
quently start all together as soon as the weather is suitable, and arrive on the other
coast in enormous numbers or “rushes”; the keen sight of birds and their extraordinary
memory for locality; the great variety of routes chosen, and the pertinacity with
which each species keeps to its own route—these and many other facts all point in
one direction. The desire to migrate is a hereditary impulse, to which the descendants of
migratory birds are subject in spring and autumn, which has during the lapse of ages
acquired a force almost, if not quite, as irresistible as the hereditary impulse to breed in
the spring. On the other hand, the routes of migration have to be learned by individual
experience. The theory that the knowledge of when and where to migrate is a mysterious
gift of nature, the miraculous quality of which is attempted to be concealed under the

So-called semi-scientific term of zzstinct, is no longer tenable. Birds may not have such highly

ell developed reasoning-powers as we have, but their memories and power of perception must
exceed those of the cleverest Zulu, probably as much as the almost miraculous development
of these qualities in the African exceeds the coarse and blunted faculties of the European.

The conclusion to which all these interesting facts point is that emigration has played
a most important part in the distribution of birds, and that in many cases the present
routes of migratory birds furnish a key to the direction which it must have taken in ages so
remote that we can scarcely realize the lapse of time since it occurred.

CHAPTER VI.

THE PARADISE OF THE CHARADRIIDZ.

Tus work is not a monograph of the group of birds which comprises the Plovers, the
Sandpipers, the Snipes, and their nearest allies ; it treats only of the classification of the
family Charadriidee into subfamilies, genera, subgenera, species, and subspecies. I propose
for the most part to confine the description of each of these groups of individuals to those
characters which are diagnostic,
and to make the geographical
distribution of each species the
piéce de résistance of my bill
of fare. In the preliminary
chapters I have endeavoured
to show the general character
of the laws of evolution by
which these various groups
have become differentiated, and
I have tried to point out the
main events in the past history
“ of each species which must
~ have happened in order to explain its present geographical
distribution.

In so doing I am perfectly well aware that I have left out
the most interesting branch of my subject. I have said little or nothing about the habits
of the birds of which I treat; but what little I could add on this, to all true lovers of
Nature profoundly interesting, J might say intensely fascinating, subject, [ have already
written in ‘Siberia in Europe’ and ‘ Siberia in Asia,’ or in the ‘ History of British Birds.’
There is, however, one branch of the local distribution of the Charadriide to which it
may be well to devote a chapter, and gather into a focus the scattered allusions to
the locality whence, in my opinion, the ancestors of the family originally emigrated, and
whither so many of their descendants annually migrate to breed.

H2

Habits of
Charadriidee
already
described.

Arctic
breeding-
grounds.

Their
appearance
in winter.

Continuous
day in
midwinter.

52 THE PARADISE OF THE CHARADRIIDZA.

The feldts of Lapland, the tundras of Siberia, and the barren grounds of Canada, in
fact the fur-countries of the two hemispheres, are the paradise of the Charadriide, and as
such require some description. They may roughly be characterized as the shores of the
Polar Basin, bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, and on the south by the northern
limit of forest-growth. I have endeavoured to point out the vicissitudes to which
these districts have been subjected during the last million years, which may be regarded as
typical of the changes which they now annually undergo, and which I propose briefly to
describe in this chapter.

I have called this district a paradise, and so it is for two or three months of the year.
Nowhere else in the whole world can you find such an abundance of animal and vegetable
life, brilliant flowers, birds both gay of plumage and melodious of song, where perpetual
day smiles on sea and river and lake. For the rest of the year I admit that it is dreary,
almost, but not quite, as depressing as a South-African karroo. For eight months or more
(according to the latitude) every trace of vegetable life is completely hidden under a thick
blanket, which absolutely covers every plant and bush: far as the eye can reach in
every direction nothing is to be seen but an interminable undulating plain of white snow.
During six months of this time
animal life is only traceable by
the footprints of a reindeer or
a fox in the snow, or by the
rare visit of a raven or of a
snowy owl which may have
wandered beyond the limit of
forest-growth whither it had
retired for the winter. For a
couple of months in midwinter
the sun never rises above the horizon, and the white snow looks
grey in the fitful light of the moon, the stars, or the aurora
borealis. Early in February the sun just peeps upon the scene for
a few minutes at noon and then retires. Day by day he prolongs
his visit, until February, March, April, and May have passed, and continuous night has
become continuous day. At midday the sun’s rays are hot enough to blister the skin, but
they glance harmless from the white snow, and for a few days the extraordinary anomaly
presents itself of continuous day in midwinter.

But if it were possible to obtain a bird’s-eye view of the Arctic ice and snow from the
North Pole, a still more extraordinary phenomenon would be visible. The disk of snow
surrounding the North Pole at the end of May extends for about two thousand miles in
every direction where land exists, and is melting away on its circumference at the rate of
about four miles an hour. The snow is six feet deep, and as it takes a week or more to
melt, it is in process of being melted for a belt of several hundred miles round the

THE PARADISE OF THE CHARADRIIDA. 53

circumference. This belt is crowded with migratory birds eager to push forward to their
breeding-grounds—hurrying on over the melting snow so long as the south wind makes the
bare places soft enough to feed on, but perpetually being driven back by the north wind,
which locks up their food in its ice-chest. The great majority of migratory birds follow
the river-courses—partly because they are landmarks which guide them on their long and
venturesome journeys, and partly because the rapid rising of the rivers and the steepness of
their banks causes open water and bare ground to be a hundred miles ahead of similar
feeding-places elsewhere.

It is impossible to overestimate the important rdé/e which the wind plays in the melting
of the snow on the tundras, the breaking up of the ice on the rivers, and consequently in
controlling the migration of birds. In watching the sudden arrival of summer on the
Arctic Circle, both in the valley of the Petchora in East Russia, and in the valley of the
Yenesay in Central Siberia,
I was impressed with the
fact that the influence of the
sun was nearly nothing,
whilst that of the south
wind was almost everything.
The great annual battle
between summer and winter
in these regions is the one
event of the year, like the
rising of the Nile in Egypt ;
it only lasts a fortmght,
during which a cold winter

is transformed into a hot summer. ‘Ten years ago,
when I was waiting for the arrival of summer on a
tributary of the Yenesay in lat. 664°, a few hundred
miles south of the limit of forest-growth, the only sign of approaching summer, before the
end of the first week of May, was the arrival of a few species of migratory birds, of which
Snow-Buntings and Redpoles were the commonest. On the 5th of May a solitary Swan
was seen, and on the 9th we had the first attempt at rain for more than six months, which
brought a solitary Goose in its train ; the following day half a dozen Geese were seen,
and on the 16th we actually saw a Barn-Swallow. But we soon discovered that one
Swallow does not make a summer, though several flocks of Geese seemed to think it did.
The last half of May was stormy; there were signs of rapid thawing further south as the
level of the river rose considerably ; many flocks of Geese and Swans passed us; but even
as late as the 30th of May it was midwinter, both where we were and further north, for all
the flocks of Geese were flying south, having evidently been unable to find any open water.
On the Ist of June the crash came. Summer, in league with the sun, had been fighting

Crowds of
migratory
birds.

Comparative
influence of
sun and
wind.

Earliest
arrivals of
migratory
birds.

Sudden
arrival of
summer,

Desperate
resistance
of winter.

Retreat and
advance of
winter,

Calving of
icebergs.

54 THE PARADISE OF THE CHARADRIIDA.

winter and the north wind, and had been hopelessly beaten; but on the Ist of June an
alliance with the south wind was ratified. The sun retired in dudgeon behind the clouds,
leaving the battle in the hands of his ally, before whose blast the armies of winter vanished
into thin water and retreated to the pole; the ice on the river, three or four miles wide
and six feet thick, was broken into a thousand pieces like fine crockery, and the snow
melted like butter on hot toast. Although the onward march of triumphant summer was
at the average rate of four miles an hour, the beaten forces of winter made many desperate
stands which sometimes lasted for twelve hours. Many obstacles caused a temporary
stoppage in the break up of the ice, such as a sudden bend in the river ora group of islands.
When this occurred, the river rose so rapidly that it began to flow up all its tributaries in
the north. During one day I calculated that at least 50,000 acres of pack-ice and ice-floes
had been marched up-stream past the place where we were watching this gigantic convulsion
of nature. But the next day the river fell again and a great part of the ice was marched
back again, though much of it was left stranded high and dry in the forests where the river-
banks were low and the country flooded. These sudden falls in the level of the water
were caused by the breaking up of the ice lower down the great river which dammed it up,
until the accumulated pressure from behind became irresistible and forced everything
before it—icebergs twenty to thirty feet high sometimes driving down the river at a speed
of from ten to twenty miles an hour, the constant roar of the crashing ice being audible for
miles.

Although the river alternately rose and fell, it was constantly rising on an average,
and in ten days, although it was three or four miles wide, the total rise was seventy feet,
It was a wonderful sight to watch the armies of winter alternately advancing and retreating :
sometimes the pack-ice and ice-floes were so tightly jammed together that it seemed
possible to scramble across them to the opposite shore. At other times there was
much open water, and the icebergs “calved” as they went along with much commotion
and splashing that might be heard half a mile off. No doubt it is the grounding of the
icebergs which causes this operation to take place. The icebergs are formed, in the first
instance, by large ice-floes, perhaps half a mile long and very broad, which move down the
river at the rate of four miles an hour, rush headlong against some promontory in
consequence of a bend in the river, and being unable to stop on account of their great
weight, pile themselves up on the bank in ranges of ice-mountains, which soon freeze
together into nearly solid masses, and become icebergs when the river rises high enough to
float them off. The layers of ice piled one on the top of the other are imperfectly frozen
together, and in floating along, whenever the iceberg grounds, the velocity of the enormous
mass will not allow it to stop, so it passes on, leaving part of the bottom layer of ice
behind. The moment it has passed, the piece left behind rises to the surface, like a whale
coming up to breathe. Some of the “calves,” as the natives call them, rise from a con-

siderable depth; they come up with a huge splash and rock about for some time before
they settle down to their floating-level.

THE PARADISE OF THE CHARADRIIDA. 55

The grand battle between summer and winter only lasts a fortnight, when the final
march past of the beaten winter forces begins, and for seven days more the ragtag and
bobtail of the great Arctic army comes straggling down the river—worn and weather-
beaten little icebergs, dirty ice-floes that look like floating mud-banks, and scattered pack-
ice in the last stages of consumption. Winter is finally vanquished for the year, and the
fragments of his beaten army are compelled to retreat to the triumphant music of thousands
of song-birds, amidst the waving of green leaves and the illumination of gay flowers of
every hue. The transformation-scene is perfect. In a fortnight the endless waves of
monotonous white snow have vanished, and between the northern limit of forest-growth
and the shores of the Polar Basin smiles a fairy-land full of the most delightful little lakes

and tarns, where Phalaropes swim about amongst Ducks and Geese and Swans, and upon
whose margins Stints and Sandpipers trip over the moss and the stranded potamogetons,
feeding upon the larve of mosquitoes or on the fermenting frozen fruit of last year’s

autumn.
It is incredible how rapidly the transformation was completed. Twelve hours

after the snow had melted the wood-anemone was in flower, and twenty-four hours
afterwards the yellow flowers of the marsh-marigold opened. In a short time the country
looked like an English garden run wild. On the Arctic Circle wild onions, wild rhubarb,
pansies, Jacob’s-ladder, purple anemones, dwarf roses, and a hundred other flowers made
the country quite gay; whilst on the tundras wild fruits of various kinds—crowberry, cran-
berry, cloudberry, arctic strawberry—were blended with reindeer-moss and other lichens,
together with the most characteristic flowers of an Alpine flora—gentians, saxifrages, forget-
me-nots, pinks, monkshoods, both blue and yellow, and sheets of the Stlene acaulis with

Final march
past.

Midsummer
on the
tundra.

Sudden
appearance
of flowers.

Sudden
arrival of
birds.

Arrival of
Plovers,
Snipes, and
Sandpipers.

56 THE PARADISE OF THE CHARADRIIDA.

its deep red flowers. The Alpine rhododendron was replaced by a somewhat similar
shrub, Ledum palustre; but the flora, on the whole, was that of the Engadine, brought
down to the level of the sea.

Although the first rush of migratory birds across the Arctic Circle was almost
bewildering, every piece of open water and every patch of bare ground swarming with
them, a new species on an average arriving every two hours for several days, the period of
migration lasted more than a month. Very little migration was observable until about the
22nd of May, although a few stragglers arrived earlier, but during the next fortnight the
migration was prodigious. In addition to enormous numbers of Passerine birds, countless

flocks of Geese, Swans, and Ducks arrived, together with a great many Gulls and Terns
and Birds of Prey. During the next fortnight, from the 5th to the 19th of June, fresh
species of Passerine birds continued to arrive, and the main migration of the species
belonging to the family Charadriide took place. The Common and Pintailed Snipes
(Scolopax gallinago and stenura) were the first to arrive, in company with the Asiatic
Golden Plover (Charadrius fulvus), on the 5th. The Wood-Sandpiper (Zotanus glareola)
and Temminck’s Stint (Zringa temmincki) arrived on the 6th. The Golden Plover
(Charadrius pluvialis) arrived on the 7th, and the Ringed Plover (Charadrius hiuticula)
with the Terek Sandpiper (Zotanus terek) on the 8th. The Ruff (Zotanus pugnax) and the
Dotterel (Charadrius morinellus) arrived on the 9th, the Great Snipe (Scolopax major) on
the 11th, and the Common Sandpiper (Zbtanus hypoleucus) on the 12th. On the 15th the
Green Sandpiper (Zotanus ochropus), the Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus hyperboreus),
and a solitary Curlew Sandpiper (Zringa subarquata) arrived. Although migration continued
until the end of the month, during which many new species of Passerine birds arrived, I

THE PARADISE OF THE CHARADRIIDA. 57

did not add a new species of Charadriine bird to my list until we reached the tundra beyond
the limit of forest-growth.

Some species of Charadriine birds reach their breeding-grounds in the Arctic Regions
without making a journey across country ; their hereditary attachment to the sea-shore is so
great that even on migration they prefer to follow the coast. Neither in East Russia nor in
Central Siberia did we see anything either of the Dunlin (Zringa alpina) or the Little Stint
(Tringa minuta) until we reached their breeding-grounds ; and the Grey Plover (Charadrius
helveticus) evidently belongs to the same class. Having arrived at their breeding-grounds,
however, all these species retire inland to breed, and all of them arrive in breeding-dress
the mud-colour and white, which characterize their plumage as they feed, almost invisible
to the prying eyes of enemies, on the mud-flats at low tide, being exchanged for a more or

less gay livery, in which golden yellow, or the richest chestnut-red, or even a velvety black,
harmonizes equally with the deep colours of their summer home. On the other hand, the
Snipes and the Lapwings, that frequent the marshes and swamps both in their summer
and winter homes, scarcely differ in the colour of their plumage with the seasons.

Summer in the Arctic Regions is so short that it is entirely devoted to breeding, and
in most species to moulting. ‘The Dunlin and the Red-necked Phalarope moult their quills
whilst the young are still in down. The Common Sandpiper, on the other hand, appears
to find the summer too short for both operations: in spring he moults before he migrates,
as I have had ample opportunities of proving in South Africa; in autumn he migrates
before he moults, as any one may prove by shooting examples before they leave our
shores.

Coast
migrants.

Breeding-
dress protec-
tive.

Geese moult-
ing as they
migrate.

Protective
colours of

eggs.

Hatching of
the young.

Return of
winter.

Enormous
winter
range.

58 THE PARADISE OF THE CHARADRIID.

Not only are the colours of the birds belonging to the Charadriide which breed in the
Arctic Regions protective, but those of their eggs are still more so; they almost exactly
resemble the ground upon which they are placed. None of these birds make nests; they
merely scratch a hollow or slight depression in the ground—sand, earth, moss, bog, grass,
or whatever it may be which they select, and where their eggs, generally four (in a few
species only two or three), are placed. The eggs are consequently extremely difficult to
find. No species of the Charadriide lays white eggs, and every species lays eggs with two
sets of spots upon them, the first set being very much duller in colour than the second in
consequence of a layer of ground-colour which passes over it and haif conceals it. If the
ground-colour on the pale spots be carefully scratched away with a knife, they will soon
appear as dark as the others.

Very few eggs are laid on the tundra before the last week of June. At the end of
July young in down are running about, and at the end of Augnst the return migration has
begun. Early in the latter month the sun begins to dip for a few moments below the
horizon, and every succeeding midnight sees him hide longer and longer, until in September
the nights are cold, the frost kills vegetation, and early in October winter sets in ;
all this wonderful abundance of bird-life vanishes, snow falls not to melt again for
eight months; the nights get longer and longer until, towards the end of November, the
sun ceases to take his midday peep at the endless fields of snow, and for the next two
months night and silence reign supreme. The Ice-angel has closed the gates of the
paradise of the Charadriide ; and the birds are banished to the coasts of the temperate and
tropical regions of the world, where they may be found everywhere.

It is very remarkable to what enormous distances some of the birds belonging to this
group wander in winter. Many of them which breed in the Arctic Regions cross the
tropics to winter in the summer of the southern hemisphere; some even occasionally go
as far as New Zealand, as the Asiatic Golden Plover (Charadrius fulvus), the Turnstone
(Strepsilas interpres), the Asiatic form of the Pectoral Sandpiper (Zringa acuminata), the
Asiatic form of the Bar-tailed Godwit (Zimosa rufa uropygialis), the Australian Curlew
(Numenius cyanopus), the Oriental Whimbrel (Numenius pheopus variegatus), and the Knot
(Zringa canuius). ‘The number of birds breeding in the Arctic Region and belonging to
the Charadriid which visit Australia in winter is much greater. In addition to the seven
species which visit New Zealand, thirteen other species visit the larger island, making the
number of Arctic Charadriidee which visit Australia at least twenty. Quite as many visit
South Africa, and a considerable number stray as far as South America; but so little is
known of the ornithology of the latter region that it would be difficult to say how many
species of Charadriide winter in the temperate regions of that continent, in addition to the
species which are residents there.

CHAPTER VIL.
ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS.

To write upon the Geographical distribution of the Charadriidze and to omit all mention of
the Zoological Regions of Sclater and others would be unpardonable ; but these Zoological
| Regions have nothing whatever to do with the group of birds under consideration.

In making these remarks I am only stating a fact, and not in any the least degree
suggesting that the importance of these Zoological Regions has been over-valued.

No one appreciates their value more than I do, but the fact remains that they have
apparently not even a remote connection with the geographical distribution of the Chara-
driide. These birds only recognize three Regions :—

First, an Arctic Region, whence they originally sprung, and whither more than a quarter
of them still migrate every spring to breed. We may take the month of July as the height
of the breeding-season—a period when in these regions there is everywhere an unlimited
supply of food, perpetual daylight, and a mean temperature for the month varying from
60° in the lower latitudes to 40° in the higher ones.

Second, a Tropical Region, where about the same number of species (rather more than
a fourth of the whole) breed and reside all the year round. Here also there appears to be
an ample if not unlimited supply of food; but the duration of daylight is lessened by one
half, and the mean temperature of July, north of the equator, and of January, south of the
line, varies according to locality from 90° to 77°.

The third Region has a mean temperature during the breeding-season varying from
77° to 60°, and may consequently be called the Temperate Region. Geographically it is
split into two subregions by the Tropical Region, the limit of the north Temperate Region
being decided by the isothermals of July, and those of the south Temperate Region by the
isothermals of January.

The boundaries of these Regions are deflected from the longitudinal parallels by
oceanic currents and other causes. The Gulf-stream, which raises the January isothermal
of 32° from the Black Sea almost to the latitude of the North Cape in the Atlantic, has
exactly the contrary effect in summer, depressing the July isothermal of 60° from the White

12

Zoological

Regions of
the Chara-
driide.

Arctic
Region.

Tropical
Region.

Temperate
Region.

60 ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS.

Sea to the latitude of Edinburgh in the British Islands. On the Pacific coast of Asia the
July isothermal of 60° is depressed still further south, almost to the latitude of the Pyrenees,
apparently by the cold stored in the nearly land-locked Sea of Okhotsk.

In South Africa the isothermal of 77° is raised towards the equator on the west coast

te o
Aazator HR an

Tropte of Capricorn

co oOo. Antarctic Circle c4 a
~~ ie oea sad =

by a cold current from the Antarctic Ocean, but is depressed down to the tropic of Capricorn
on the east coast by the warm Mozambique current, though the effect of the latter is
diminished inland by the rapid rise of the Drakenberg Range.

In South America somewhat similar causes produce the same effect. Humboldt’s

current raises the isothermals on the coasts of Chili and Peru, its effects being increased
inland by the rapid rise of the Andes.

ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 61

The result of these causes is that the locality on the west coasts of South Africa and
South America where the mean temperature of July is 77° is more than a thousand miles
further north than it is on the east coasts of the two continents.

In the annexed map the upper dotted line represents the isothermal of 60° for the
month of July ; the white space above it consequently represents the Arctic Region of the
Charadriidee, where the mean temperature of the month of July is 60° or less.

The dark space below this line represents the North Temperate Region of these birds,
where the mean temperature of the month of July ranges from 60° to 77°.

The middle dotted line represents the isothermal of 77° for the month of July, and the
lower dotted line the same isothermal for the month of January. Between these two lines
is a white space which represents the Tropical Region of the Charadriide, where the mean
temperature of the month of July north of the Equator, and that of the month of January
south of the Equator, ranges from 77° to 90°. The dark spaces below the lower dotted
line represent the South 'l'emperate Region of the Charadriidee, where the mean temperature
of the month of January ranges from 77° to 60° at the Cape, but down to 45° at Cape
Horn and Kerguelen Island. ‘The latter locality is not visited by any species belonging to
the Charadriide ; but it contains a Chionis, which also belongs to the Limicole, and is
represented by allied species in the Crozets and the Falkland Islands. Possibly a
more logical way of treating the subject would be to regard Kerguelen Island, the
South Island of New Zealand, Patagonia, the Falkland Islands, I'ristan d’Acunha, and
the Crozets, where the mean temperature of the month of January is below 60°, as an
Antarctic Region. My reason for not doing so is that the Antarctic Region is only
visited for breeding-purposes by half a dozen species of Charadriide, belonging to genera
essentially temperate in their range.

If, however, we were to extend our range to the whole of the suborder Limicole, we
should be compelled to recognize an Antarctic Region, having characteristic genera
apparently so distinct from those comprising the Charadriide as to warrant their being
placed in separate families, Chionide and Thinocoride. The Antarctic Region appears to
be also the centre of dispersal of two suborders—the Procellaride and the Impennes ; so that
it must be regarded as a very important Region when the distribution of the whole order
Charadriformes is considered.

If I am right in supposing that the post-pliocene glacial epoch was the main factor in
the dispersal and consequent isolation which resulted in the differentiation of the present
species of Charadriide, and that to find the common ancestors of the species now
belonging to different genera it is necessary to go beyond the pre-pliocene glacial epoch,
it is only fair to assume that as the Antarctic Region is characterized by Limicoline
forms belonging to different families, the few species of Charadriide which encroach
on its limits are stragglers from the north polar basin, and that their ancestors were
isolated from the ancestors of the Antarctic Limicole possibly so long ago as Eocene

times.

Antarctic
Region.

Arctic
genera,

Temperate
genera.

Tropic
genera.

Relations of
Charadriine
genera to
the Scla-
terian
Regions.

62 ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS.

The distribution of the genera of the Charadriide during the breeding-season is as
follows :—

Three genera—Zringa, Ereunetes, and Strepsilas—containing together 28 species, may
be regarded as entirely arctic; four other genera—TZotanus, Limosa, Numenius, and
Phalaropus—may also be regarded as arctic. ‘They contain together 38 species, of which
21 may be said to be entirely arctic, 8 arctic and temperate, and 9 entirely temperate.
Five genera—Charadrius, Himantopus, Hamatopus, Ibidorhynchus, and Scolopaz—may be
looked upon as belonging to the Temperate Regions, inasmuch as out of 92 species 56 breed
in these climates, about half of them in the northern hemisphere and half in the southern.
Of the remaining 36 species belonging to these five genera, 15 are arctic and 21 tropic.
The remaining seven genera may be regarded as tropic. (dicnemus, Cursorius, Vanellus,
Lobivanellus, Glareola, Phegornis, and Rhynchea together consist of 66 species, of which
44 may be regarded as tropical and 22 as temperate. Regarded from the Sclaterian
point of view, 1 genus only, Jé¢dorhynchus, can be regarded as Palearctic, but as it only
contains 1 species its evidence is not very conclusive. The Ethiopian Region can only lay
claim to 1 genus, Cursorius ; but out of the 12 species which it contains, 1 is Palearctic and
2 Oriental. The Oriental Region can scarcely lay claim to any genus. The Australian
Region might possibly claim Himantopus ; but out of 8 species, 4 do not breed within its
limits, but are scattered over all the other regions. The Neotropical Region might perhaps
be allowed to claim half a genus, Scolopa, in partnership with the Palearctic Region:
this genus contains 27 species, of which 10 are Neotropical and 9 Palearctic, the
remaining 8 being distributed over the other regions. The Nearctic Region can fairly
claim 1 genus, Hreunetes, 5 out of the 6 species breeding within its limits. The Nearctic
and Palearctic Regions might claim 6 genera as partners, viz., Numenius, Phalaropus,
Limosa, Totanus, Tringa, and Strepsilas. Of the 61 species which these genera contain,
30 breed only in the Palzarctic and 24 only in the Nearctic Regions, whilst 7 breed in
both. The remaining 8 genera—Cidicnemus, Charadrius, Vanellus, Lobivanellus, Glareola,
Hamatopus, Phegornis, and Rhynchea—contain 108 species, of which 23 may be regarded
as Palearctic, 24 as Ethiopian, 13 as Oriental, 2] as Australian, 19 as Neotropical, and
8 as Nearctic, so that they cannot be said to belong to any one or two regions.

The mevitable conclusion is that the Charadriidze do pay considerable attention to the
Climatic or Isothermal Regions, but appear practically to ignore the Sclaterian Regions.

Finally, it may be wise again to point out that the climatic regions cannot be applied
to all animals, or even to birds as a whole, but that they do apply in a remarkable manner
to the family of birds under consideration.

CHAPTER VIII.

ON SUBSPECIFIC FORMS.

Iv is a very remarkable fact, one not very creditable to the intelligence of ornithologists,
that a chapter on the importance of a due recognition of the existence of imperfectly
segregated species should be necessary at the present time. Nearly thirty years have
elapsed since Darwin and Wallace laid before scientific men such an array of facts to prove
the truth of the theory of Evolution that every student of Biology accessible to reason has
adopted it. Nevertheless most ornithologists still speak and write of species on the old
lines, and whilst admitting the truth of Darwin’s theory of Evolution, ignore its existence
as a working hypothesis.

It cannot be too strongly impressed upon ornithologists that if the theory of Evolution
be true there must always be, at any one moment in the history of birds, a number of
species in the process of disintegration. ‘There may be differences of opinion as to the
name by which they should be called, or the best way of recognizing them in ornithological
nomenclature, but there cannot be any difference of opinion as to the necessity of giving
due importance to the fact of their existence. We may call them subspecies, conspecies,
morphological species, inosculating species, intergrading species, imperfectly segregated
species, species in process of differentiation, varieties, local forms, geographical races,
climatic forms, or by any other name; but there are two things that we may xo? do, we
may neither elevate them to the rank of species nor ignore their existence.

The great stumbling-block which has prevented so many ornithologists from practically
accepting the Darwinian view of species is the want of a hard-and-fast line between species
and subspecies. A moment’s consideration must convince everyone who accepts the theory
of Evolution that between absolutely segregated species and species which are only
beginning to segregate there must be species which are in various states of segregation.
Some species are so completely differentiated from their nearest relations that they may
inhabit the same area without any cross-breeding between them. Others not quite so
absolutely differentiated may be made to cross in confinement, the produce being barren
hybrids. A third stage towards imperfect differentiation may be represented by two
nearly allied species, which occasionally cross in a state of nature, but the produce being
barren the hybrids die off without leaving any descendants. The last stage of cross-

Theory of
Evolution
practically ]
ignored by
ornitholo-
gists.

Importance
of recogniz-
ing sub-
species.

Classifica-
tion of
species.

Practical
difference
between
species and
subspecies,

Clearheaded-
ness of
American
ornitholo-
gists on this
point.

64 ON SUBSPECIFIC FORMS.

breeding is reached in species which, when artificially crossed in confinement, produce a
more or less fertile hybrid, but which do not do so in a wild state, either because the
inclination to cross is absent, or because the opportunity of doing so is prevented by the
isolation of their respective geographical areas. The first stage of interbreeding, as
distinguished from intercrossing, is represented by two subspecifically distinct forms,
having isolated areas of distribution, but where the difference between them is so slight
that the ranges of their respective variations overlap; so that in the case, for example,
of a large continental form and a small island form, the smallest continental examples
are indistinguishable from the largest insular examples, and which would presumably
interbreed if they had an opportunity of doing so. ‘The final stages of subspecific forms
are represented by species so closely allied that they habitually interbreed whenever the
areas of their distribution overlap, and habitually produce offspring of various degrees of
fertility—a condition of things which, if the fertility continue for a sufficient number of
generations, must inevitably produce an unbroken series of intermediate forms.

Where the area of distribution is small, the interbreeding which consequently takes
place must soon produce a homogeneous but intermediate species. It is probable, however,
that the formation of a new species from the blending of two forms which have
emigrated to the same locality has not been of very frequent occurrence. Intermediate
forms generally occur in the middle of the area of distribution of a species which has a
very wide range, and which has been modified in different directions at each extremity of
its range, sometimes to such an extent that the individuals at the two extremes have become
specifically distinct from each other, though remaining only subspecifically distinct from the
intermediate forms which connect them.

In practice it will be found that the most convenient line that can be drawn between
| species and a subspecies is to regard two forms as specifically distinct, however near they
may be to each other, whenever they are zo¢ connected by intermediate forms; and to
_ regard two forms as only subspecifically distinct, however wide may be the distance between
the extremes, whenever they are connected by a series of intermediate forms—without
-yeference in the one case to ow the intermediate forms are produced, or in the other to

why they are not produced.

It is only doing scant justice to American ornithologists to admit that to them
belongs the credit of having for the first time formed a clear conception of the difference
between a species and a subspecies, and of having at once recognized the fact in a scientific
manner in their nomenclature. It may be a moot point whether the use of trinomials or
polynomials be the best mode of expressing the recognition of subspecies. ‘That is a
matter of detail which is only of secondary importance. The primary truth, the recognition
of which in some way or other is of vital importance to a clear understanding of the facts
of Zoology, is that species in the process of differentiation do exist in considerable
numbers.

The American ornithologists were not the first writers on birds who used a trinomial

ON SUBSPECIFIC FORMS. 65

nomenclature, but they were the first to use it in a strictly scientific manner. Schlegel,
in his ‘ Revue Critique des Oiseaux d’Europe,’ made use of many trinomial names of birds.
On the very first page we find Falco candicans distinguished from Falco candicans islandicus.
The same idea may be traced up to Linnzus, who distinguishes, in his ‘Systema Nature ’
(on page 125 of the lst volume of the 12th edition), between Fulco fulvus and Falco
Julous B. canadensis ; and down to Sharpe, who discriminates, in his ‘Catalogue of Birds
in the British Museum’ (on page 6 of the 1st volume), between Gyps fulvus and sub-
species a. Gyps hispaniolensis. But none of these writers seem to have had any definite idea
of what they meant by a subspecies, they appear to use the term in an absolutely arbitrary
manner; and we may safely say that they did not use it in the Darwinian sense of an
imperfectly differentiated species, which was still fertile with the parent form, and was
consequently connected with it by a potentially infinite series of intermediate forms. The
fact of the existence of species which consist of two or more typical forms which are
connected together by an unbroken series of intermediate forms between the geographically
separated extremes—for example, the fact that such apparently distinct species as Svtta
europea and Sitta cesia are thus connected, and are consequently only subspecifically
distinct—is the most important ornithological fact which has been discovered during the last
half-century. It is a fact which has been clearly recognized by American ornithologists,
and its tardy or doubtful recognition by British writers on birds is one of those psycho-
logical puzzles that are very difficult to believe, much less to explain. Some ornithologists
are apparently so obtuse that they are unable to understand the problem ; others are
prepared to admit the truth of the theory of Evolution as an abstract proposition, but are
prevented by an overruling hereditary conservatism from practically applying it to ornitho-
logy ; whilst a third class are unable to reconcile the facts of Evolution with their theories
of the origin of species, and, consequently, are afraid to acknowledge any truth which
appears to be inconsistent with their inherited superstitions.

It is, however, only fair to remember that much allowance must be made for the
narrow, because insular, views of British ornithologists. The collections at Washington
contain magnificent series of Nearctic birds from the Atlantic to the Pacific; whereas the
British-Museum collection, in spite of its wealth of Oriental species, is very poor in Palee-
arctic series. ‘Ten years ago it scarcely possessed a workable series of any Palearctic
species, though a few of the localities between Western Europe and North-eastern Asia are

now represented in some of the commoner species.

Vague use
of trino-
mials.

Conservative
views of
British orni-
thologists.

CHAPTER IX.

CHARADRIID.

Diagnosis of Tux diagnosis of the family of which this work treats can only be written by some

family.

Subfamilies.

Diagnosis.

Characters
of sub-
family.

Genera.

ornithologist who possesses an accurate knowledge of the external and internal characters
of all birds, an ideal naturalist who does not yet exist.

The birds comprised in the family may be separated into three groups or subfamilies.
The diagnosis of these three subfamilies is a very easy matter, but they are so intimately
connected with each other that the subdivision must be regarded as very probably artificial
to a considerable extent.

KEY TO THE SUBFAMILIES.

a. Middle and outer toes connected by a web at the base.
a1, Nasal aperture extending beyond the basal fourth of the bill. . CHARADRIINA.
6‘, Nasal aperture not extending beyond the basal fourth of the bill TOTANINA.

6. Toes all cleft to the base. 2. 2. 2. 2. 1. 1. 1...) )~6SCOLOPACINA.

Subfamily CHARADRIIN GE.

CuaRavriip# digito externo cum medio ad basin membrand4 connexo: narium apertura ultra
partem quartam rostri a basi extensa.

The Charadriize may be diagnosed as follows :—

Charadriide having the outer and middle toes united by a web at the base; and
having the nasal aperture extending beyond the basal fourth of the bill.

About a hundred birds belonging to this family possess both these characters, and
appear to be more nearly related to each other than they are to the remaining species.

They may be divided into six well-marked genera, most of which are founded upon
so-called structural characters, but some are dependent upon characters of comparatively
small importance, though in most cases it will be found that these apparently insignificant

CHARADRIIDZA. 67

characters are correlated with others of much greater importance, which are only omitted
in consequence of a difficulty in clearly defining them.

Although there cannot be much doubt that the group of species which form the
subfamily Charadriincze had an Arctic origin, only 6 species can now be regarded as
Arctic. No fewer than 50 species or subspecies breed in the Temperate Regions, in
climates of which the mean temperature of July in the northern hemisphere and that of
January in the southern hemisphere (dates which may be regarded as the height of the
breeding-season in each) varies from 60° to 77°. It is quite possible that during the
Pliocene age this temperature may have been the normal degree of heat in the Arctic
Regions, though the mean temperature of July now varies in that district according to
latitude from only 40° to 60°. The remaining 48 species or subspecies of the Charadriinze
have succeeded in adapting themselves to a tropical climate, where the mean temperature
of the two months selected varies from 77° to 90°. It must, however, be borne in mind
that im the tropics the date of the breeding-season of these birds varies locally to a
remarkable degree, and frequently extends over a much longer period than a month’.

None of the Charadriinz are forest-birds, and many of them still retam what appears
to me to have been their habit so long ago as the Pliocene Age—the habit of frequenting
the sea-shore, where they find abundance of food on the sandy beach or on the mud-flats
left exposed at low tide. A few seem to have slightly modified this habit so far as to seek
their food on the banks of rivers and lakes rather than on the sea-shore. Some find most.
of their food on marshy swamps; but the greater number of species belonging to this
subfamily appear to have been forced, in the struggle for existence, to adapt themselves to
a life on dry arid plains. A still greater divergence from their original habits must have
been achieved by the Pratincoles, who actually obtain most of their food on the wing like
Swallows.

The fact that out of 104 species or subspecies only 19 are found in the New World,
and that out of 6 genera 3 are entirely unrepresented on the American continent, is a
strong argument for coming to the conclusion that this subfamily represents a natural
group, the common ancestors of which had already been isolated and differentiated from
their allies who lived on the shores of the Polar Basin in the Pliocene Age. We may
perhaps follow the argument a step further, and suggest the probability that the great
Asiatic steppes was the locality where the subfamily Charadriine was isolated and
differentiated, where its members changed their habits, and that the descendants of some
of them, who are now shore-feeding birds, have not so much retained their ancestral habits
as reverted back to them.

The species contained in this subfamily have been distributed amongst no fewer than

1 Of the breeding of the Cream-coloured Courser (Cursorius gallicus) Hume writes (‘ Nests and Eggs of
Indian Birds,’ p. 564) :—“ July was the month in which I found them” (the eggs), * and it is in this month
generally that the great bulk are found; but the Khan has taken them from the middle of March to the
middle of August, and the laying-season varies a good deal according to the rains.”

K 2

Climatic dis-
tribution.

Habits.

Ancient
home.

Pseudo-
genera.

Key to the
Genera.

68 CHARADRIIDA,

forty genera, in addition to which twenty more generic names have been invented, raising
the whole number of generic names in this subfamily to sixty. These I propose to reduce
to six, which may be diagnosed as follows :-—

a. Outer tail-feathers an inch or more shorter than the central ones . . CEDICNEMUS.
b. Central tail-feathers never an inch longer than the outer ones.
a. Bill like that of a Bustard, with no nasal groove.

a’, A hind toe; tail more or less forked . . - - + © © ¢ > GLAREOLA.
8. No hind toe; tail nearlyeven ©. - - ee ee 8 es Cursorivs.
6. Nasal aperture placed in a conspicuous groove.
ce. A lobe or wattle between the eye and the bill . . . . . - LoBIVANELLUS.

d?. No lobe on the side of the head.
a. Basal third or more of central tail-feathers white. With or

without aspuronthewmg . . - - + + + + + + VANELLUS.
b°. Little or no white at the base of the central tail-feathers. No
spuron the wing . . « © * » 4» # a 4 HY # 8 CHARADRIUS.

Of these characters the only one respecting which the student is likely to have any
doubt is the presence or absence of a nasal groove. Fortunately this character appears
generally to be correlated with other differences in the shape of the bill. Wherever there
is a distinct nasal groove there is also a marked depression at or near the centre of the
outline of the culmen. ‘The terminal half, more or less, of the profile of the culmen forms
an arch, called the vault of the culmen, and the basal half is a nearly straight line forming
an angle at its junction with the vault, and parallel to the chord of the arc. In those species
where there is no nasal groove there is usually no depression in the curve of the profile of
the culmen, which is convex throughout its whole length, the amount of curvature being
very small at the base, but very rapid at the apex. The difference in the shape of the two
kinds of bill is seen at a glance by comparing Plate X. with Plate XI.

It is believed that these six genera are natural, or, in otber words, represent relationship
or genetic affinity. So far as it is possible to know, each of these genera fulfils the con-
ditions of a true genus; it contains no species which is not more closely related to some
other species within its limits than to azy other species outside. Nevertheless it must be
admitted that the characters by which these genera are diagnosed are anything but satis-
factory. ‘The rounded tail of @dicvemus is reproduced in some species of Charadrius ; the
nasal groove appears to be in a transition state in Gdicnemus ; the fork of the tail almost
disappears in some species of Glareola ; the wattle on the face is very rudimentary in some
species of Lodivanellus ; and the white bases of the central tail-feathers, which characterize
the genera Vanellus and Lobivanellus, appear in two species of Cursorius, C. bitorquatus
and C. chalcopterus, which are also aberrant in having a depression in the culmen. The
spur on the wing is only found in Vavel/us and Lodivanellus, but is not present in all
the species of either genera; and the hind toe, though always present in G/arcola and
never in Gidicnemus or Cursorius, is of no generic value in the other three genera.

CHAPTER X.

Tail of Gdicnemus crepitans; half natural size.

Genus GDICNEMUS.

CuarapniINn# tarso omnind reticulato : rectricibus mediis quam rectrices externi valdé longioribus D; :
1agnosis.

(25 millim. aut plus).

Tue Stone-Curlews form a remarkably compact genus of birds, very closely related to
each other, and well defined from all surrounding genera. They may be briefly diagnosed

as follows :—

Charadriinee having the tarsus reticulated; and the central feathers of the tail more Generic
characters.

than an inch longer than the outer ones.
The latter character is a very artificial one. The tails of Charadrius vociferus,

C. tricollaris, and the two allies of the latter are proportionately as much graduated,
though their much smaller size reduces the amount of graduation to less than an inch.

Other ge-
neric cha-
racters,

How dis-
tinguished
from the
Bustards.

Subgenus
Esacus.

Determina-
tion of the

type.

70 C@DICNEMUS.

The most distinctive character of the genus Edicnemus—one that is unaffected by difference
of age, sex, or season, and is common to every species and subspecies of the group—is
to be found in the distribution of the black markings on the tail-feathers. This is
apparently one of the oldest characters of the genus, inherited from the ancestral species
of Stone-Curlew, and handed down unchanged during the many centuries required to
differentiate it into a dozen Stone-Curlews (a period which, there is reason to suppose,
was not less than a hundred thousand years). The distribution of the white patches on
the quills is equally characteristic.

The Stone-Curlews appear to be very closely allied to the Bustards; but the middle
toe is united to both the others by a very distinct web at the base, which is not the
case with the Bustards.

Two species are generally placed in a different genus (sacus)1, chiefly on account
of their aberrant habits—one frequenting the banks of rivers, and the other living for the
most part on the sea-shore ; but they possess no characters to warrant such a separation,
nor are these two species the only members of the genus which prefer mud-banks to dry
plains as feeding-grounds. ‘There is no reason to suppose that the dispersal, isolation, and
differentiation of the Stone-Curlews, which are steppe species, happened after the sepa-
ration of the river-bank or sea-shore species. |

Synonymy of the Genus CEDICNEMUS.

Cidicnemus, Temminck, Man. d’Orn. p. 322 (1815) Ce. ela
Burhinus, Illiger, apud Lesson, Traité d’Orn. p. 547 (1831) . (EH. magnirostris.
Carvanaca, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. v. p. 775 (1836) (&. recurvirostris.
Esacus, Lesson, apud Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 585 (1844) . Ck. magnirostris.
Orthorhamphus, Salvadori, Cat. Ucc. Borneo, p. 312 (187-4) . (&. magnirostris.

The Stone-Curlew was placed by Linneus in his genus Charadrius, which also
included the three-toed species of the genera Vanellus and Lobivanellus, together with the
three-toed section of the genus Limantopus.

Brisson retained the Stone-Curlew in his synonymous genus; but turned out the
species belonging to Himantopus, and changed the name of the original genus to Pluvialis.

Latham placed the Stone-Curlew in the genus O¢is; but in 1815 Temminck provided
the genus Edicnemus for its reception.

Temminck having adopted the specific name given to the European Stone-Curlew by
Linneus for his new genus, that species must of necessity be regarded as the type.

+ It is remarkable that the genus Esacus should have been so universally adopted. There never was a

' worse genus, or one the recognition of which is more mischievous. To break up a well-defined genus like

Cidienemus destroys the value of all reasoning based upon the geographical distribution of genera. The alleged

differences in the sternum of the two groups (Blasius, Journ. f. Orn. 1884, p. 229) are probably exaggerated, or
are of little taxonomic value.

CEDICNEMUS. 71

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Paumarctic Region.

CE. cREPITANS . . . . South-west.

OrientaL ReGion.

CE. inpicus . India and Burma. . . . . QK, RECURVIROSTRIS.

Indo-Malayan 8.R. |

AUSTRALIAN Recion. } . . . Qs Maenrrostris.

Austro-Malayan S.R.
Gi. GRaLLARIUS.. . . . East Australia.

Erxiop1an RuGion.

CE. CAPENSIS 5 ky kw South Africa.
West Africa.
Upper Nile. . . . . GH, aFFINis.

CH. VERMICULATUS.
CE. SENEGALENSIS . . . .

Neotropical REGIon.

St. Domingo. (Eh, DOMINICENSIS.
Tropical part. CE. BISTRIATUS.
Peru. (i. sUPERCILIARIS.

The genus @dicnemus does not contain many species, and must be regarded as a Distribution
tropical one at the present time. The species are distributed during the breeding-season iia
as follows :—

Temperate Eurasia ga elk Ga ob
BOULN AIGA: 2S B- ey Be Be ee Bh RE
Southern Australia if

Temperate species . . . . — A
Tropical America er ee ee ee ee
Tropical ATNGG ac eo ae wee aR
Tropics) ASI a. 6. g 2 Sa we SS
Tropical species . . . . « — 8
Species and subspecies of Gidicnemus . . — 12

Distribution
The geographical distribution of the Stone-Curlews is somewhat peculiar, and bears as regards

. . : Wallace’
little or no relation to the zoological regions of Sclater and Wallace. In the New World Reviong,

Loeal distri-
bution.

Ancient |
migrations,

|

72 CEDICNEMUS.

the Stone-Curlews are confined to the tropics. In Europe they are only found in the west
and south, where the winters are mild; in Africa they appear to be universally distri-
buted; whilst in Asia they appear in every region, but are universally distributed over
none. In the Asiatic Palearctic Region they are confined to the south-west ; in the
Oriental Region to the western half, and in the Australian Region to the eastern half.

Of the nine species of Stone-Curlews five are almost as much steppe birds as the
Bustards ; whilst the other four frequent the mud-flats on the banks of rivers or the sea-
shore. They possess, however, one peculiarity in common: they are all very nocturnal in

their habits, feeding principally at night, and hiding as much as possible by day. This
fact suggests the theory that they were formerly residents on the Arctic tundras, where the
annual recurrence of three months’ night compelled them to acquire nocturnal habits
during the period before they were finally driven south by the constantly increasing cold
of the post-pliocene glacial epoch. The absence of any species of the genus from the

steppes of Mongolia and China and the prairies of North America suggests the theory

that they were formerly more of coast-birds than they are now; and that when they were
obliged to leave the Arctic tundras, instead of emigrating across country to the steppes of
Asia or the prairies of America, they joined the host of emigrants which followed the four
coast-lines leading southwards from the Polar Basin. It seems probable that their early
adoption of nocturnal habits prevented the necessity for the acquisition of migratory habits,
so that we may assume that they retired southwards as soon as the winters became too
cold to give them the necessary supply of food; and having found suitable homes in the
south, they became permanent residents there, and did not return northwards when the
glacial epoch was over.

@. recurvirostris and Gi. magnirostris, and possibly @. grallarius, are descendants of
the party which followed the Asiatic shores of the Pacific, and eventually found homes on
the rivers of India, the coasts of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, and the plains of
Eastern Australia—in which three localities they were isolated from each other, and
eventually differentiated into the three species at present existing in these three districts.
These three species agree in being of large size and in possessing nearly black ear-coverts.
(L. superciliaris probably represents the party which followed the American shores of the
Pacific, and is now only known from the coast-regions of Peru. Its nearest ally (@. di-
striatus) must have followed the American shores of the Atlantic, and found a home in
Mexico and Tropical America, whence a post-glacial emigration led to the isolation of the
ancestors of @. dominicensis on the island of St. Domingo. The remaining four species
are the descendants of the party which followed the European shores of the Atlantic.
(2. crepitans was probably isolated on the shores of the Mediterranean, whence it spread in
post-glacial times to Western Asia and India; having in the meantime despatched a party
of emigrants up the valley of the Nile, where they became differentiated into @. senega-
lensis, which gradually spread into West Africa. A second party followed the coast of
West Africa, and became differentiated there into @ vermiculatus, which gradually spread

CEDICNEMUS. 73

into South Africa. Both these last-mentioned species remained shore or river-bank birds ;
but a third party (the ancestors of @. capensis) was isolated on the high plateaus from
Abyssinia to South Africa, where, in post-glacial times, the descendants of the birds
inhabiting the northern plateaus were isolated and partially differentiated from those
inhabiting the southern plateaus, the former being now recognized as a subspecies under
the name of @. capensis affnis.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

bistriatus.
superciliaris.
Upper parts vermiculated
en aS vermiculatus . . )
Median wing-coverts grey,
with dark shaft-streak senegalensis
crepitans . Breast conspicuously streaked.

No dark eye-stripe.
Upper parts broadly barred. capensis

grallarius .. .J
Ear-coverts nearly black. . magnirostris.

( recurvirostris . . Line of gape recurved.

These characters apply to birds of both sexes, in all stages of plumage. Five of these
species have the breast very conspicuously marked with broad dark streaks, which are
either entirely absent in the other four species, or are represented by very indistinct shaft-
lines. The four plain-breasted species have conspicuous dark superciliary stripes, which
are not found in the five striped-breasted species. The fact that in this genus these two
characters appear to be always correlated, can scarcely be regarded as a mere coincidence,
and may be a sufficient reason for dividing the genera into two sections—the five species
with dark stripes on the breast being regarded as Typical Stone-Curlews, and the four
species with a dark stripe over each eye as Aberrant Stone-Curlews.

74 (Z2DICNEMUS.

** Typical Stone-Curlews, without black eye-stripes ; but with breasts conspicuously
streaked.

Longest tertials of
G. capensis. GE. crepitans. G. vermiculatus.

GE DICNEMUS CREPITANS.
EUROPEAN STONE-CURLEW.

Diagnosis. | (ipicneMus pectore striato : fascia pallida, fasciaque brunned inter tectrices minores et majores:
tectricibus majoribus albo terminatis.

Variations. T1s species varies in size, and in the number of primaries which have white spots on

CEDICNEMUS, 15

them. The variations being more or less geographical, the extremes are regarded as sub-
specifically distinct.

Charadrius cedicnemus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p.151 (1758); Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 255 (1766).
Pluvialis major, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 76 (1760).
Charadrius scolopax, Gmelin, Reise Russi. iii. p. 87 (1774).
Charadrius illyricus, Piller, It. Poseg. Sclav. p. 26 (1783).
Otis cedicnemus (Linn.), Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl. i. p. 290 (1787).
' Cidicnemus crepitans, Temminck, Man. d’ Orn. p. 322 (1815).
Fedoa cedicnemus (Linn.), Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 28 (1816).
Oedicnemus griseus, Koch, Syst. baier. Zool. i. p. 266 (1816).
Cidicnemus europeus, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxiii. p. 230 (1818).
Oidicnemus bellonii, Fleming, Brit. Anim. p. 114 (1828).

Puates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 919; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 85; Dresser, Birds of Europe,
vii. pl. 512 (immature) 1.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, ii. p. 596.

Eecs.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 21. figs. 6, 7.

The European Stone-Curlew requires several characters to diagnose it from its eight
congeners. ‘The first character, breast conspicuously streaked, disposes of four of them.
Two more are at once rejected by the second character, a distinct pale narrow band, outside
which is a dark band, across the wing between the lesser and greater coverts. The two
remaining species may be excluded by the character greater wing-coverts tipped with white.
G. vermiculatus is also excluded by the absence of the transverse vermiculations on the
mantle, scapulars, and tertials ? which characterize the African bird. @. grallarius is also

1 Dresser (‘ Birds of Europe,’ vii. p. 402) states that the young are larger than the adults, and have the
central tail-feathers less boldly marked. There cannot be any doubt that he is wrong on both points.
Young in first plumage are smaller than adults, and have the central tail-feathers beaten to the base, besides
having traces of bars on the scapulars and tertials; these bars disappear with age, until only two are left at
the end of the central tail-feathers. Dresser’s alleged figure of the adult bird is obviously that of a young
bird in first plumage, with the pale buff bar across the wing-coverts concealed in a mysterious manner by the
scapulars.

2 The quills are divisible into three groups—primaries, secondaries, and tertials—which often differ from
each other in pattern of colour to a remarkable extent. The old ornithologists appear Bo have assumed that
the primaries were attached to the phalanges or digits (hence sometimes called digital quills), the secondaries
to the cubitus (hence the term cubital quills), and the tertials to the humerus (hence the term humeral
quills). Some modern ornithologists assume that the primaries are always attached to on cas the
secondaries and tertials to the pinion, and therefore that there are no such things as tertiola, whieh they
call innermost secondaries. It seems to me that these ornithologists are wrong both in their eppelnsien and
in their facts. Even supposing that their assumptions were true, it would be no reason whatever for ignoring
the differences between the secondaries and tertials, which is quite as great as that between the primaries

and secondaries. But I have the best authority for denying the truth of these saa It appears
L

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

76 CEDICNEMUS.

a much larger bird (tarsus more than 4 inches), and is further excluded by the absence of
white on the fourth primary, the Australian bird having a white patch across the first four
primaries. It has also a barred tail from tip to base, a character only found in young in
first plumage of the European species.

Except in England the Stone-Curlew does not breed north of the Baltic. It is a
resident throughout the basin of the Mediterranean; but to France, Holland, Belgium,
Germany, and South Russia it is a summer migrant. It has only occurred twice in
Denmark, and is not found in the Baltic provinces. Its northern range in South Russia
has not been accurately determined ; but it is common at Sarepta, and may range up to

X
itl,

ey
hl \
{i

\

a

——

lat. 50°. It is a resident in the Canary Islands, and an occasional strageler to Madeira.
It is said to be a resident throughout North Africa ; but its numbers are largely increased
during winter. It is also a resident in Palestine, Asia Minor, and Persia. It is a summer
visitor to Russian Turkestan, and probably also to West Siberia south of lat. 48°, as Finsch
records it from the steppes north of Lake Saisan. These birds doubtless winter in India
and in the basin of the Red Sea.

(Nitzsch, ‘ Pterylography,’ p. 112) that the first secondary ‘is sometimes the last on the pinion (Phasianus),
sometimes the first on the ulna (Zetrao) ;” whilst the tertials are often placed partly on the cubitus and
partly on the humerus (Sundevall, ‘ Ibis,’ 1886, p. 404).

It is quite evident that the quills must be classed on their merits, and not with regard to the accident of
their positions. An additional reason of a very practical kind why the term innermost secondaries is a bad

one is vat in describing a bird it is often necessary to mention the outermost secondaries and the innermost
secondaries, in addition to the tertials.

CEDICNEMUS. 17

~ ae
ee >
WSS

(Half natural size.)

G@DICNEMUS CREPITANS INDICUS.
INDIAN STONE.CURLEW.

(picnemus creritans alis brevioribus, et primariis magis albo notatis.

Tat Indian Stone-Curlew and the European Stone-Curlew are connected together by a
series of intermediate forms.

CEdicnemus indicus, Salvadori, Atti Soc. Ital. Sc. Nat. viii. pt. iv. p. 375 (1865).

Prates.—Unfigured.
Hasits.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 969.
Eees.—Hume, Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, p. 581. Average size much less than those of

the European form.

The resident Stone-Curlews of India and Ceylon may fairly be regarded as sub-
specifically distinct from their European allies. In consequence of their migratory habits,
the latter birds have acquired longer wings, and are larger birds altogether. European
Stone-Curlews vary in length of wing from 10 inches to 9 inches, whilst those which are
residents in India vary from 9 inches to 8 inches. In European examples the white patches
on the primaries are rarely seen on the third, whilst in Indian examples they are rarely if
ever absent from it. The white on the outer web of the seventh primary is also much
greater in Indian than in European examples.

The Indian Stone-Curlew is a resident in Baluchistan, India, Ceylon, and Burma, and
might claim to be regarded as specifically distinct were it not that intermediate forms
reside in North Africa, from Morocco to Egypt, and in Asia Minor and Persia.

Diagnosis,

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

English
name.

78 CDICNEMUS.

(Half natural size.)

GEDICNEMUS SENEGALENSIS.
SWAINSON’S STONE-CURLEW.

(picnemvus pectore striato: strigA pallida inter tectrices minores et majores absente : tectricibus
mediis cinereis brunneo striatis.

I nave been unable to detect any difference between examples from East and West
Africa.

(Edicnemus senegalensis, Swainson, Birds West Africa, ii. p. 228 (1837).
(Edicnemus inornatus, Salvadori, Atti Soc. Ital. Sc. Nat. viii. p. 381 (1865).
Cidicnemus assimilis, Brehm, fide Bideker, Journ. Orn. 1853, Suppl. p. 117.

Prares.—Unfigured.
Hasrrs.—Hereinafter described.

fces.—Bideker, Journ. Orn. 1853, pl. v. fig. 8. Indistinguishable from those of CE. crepitans
indicus, but smaller than those of typical Gi. crepitans.

‘Swainson’s Stone-Curlew was named by its discoverer the Senegal Thick-knee, but as
it has since been found to range across the continent to Abyssinia the name is no longer
appropriate. It is perfectly distinct from all its allies, though it was confused with the
European Stone-Curlew by Blanford (Geol. & Zool. Abyss. p. 428) and by Finsch (Trans.
Zool. Soc. vii. p. 294). It belongs to the same section as the European species, having its
breast conspicuously streaked, but differs from our bird in many ways: there is no trace of

CEDICNEMUS. 79

a pale bar across the wing except on each side of the black band across the greater wing-
coverts; the median wing-coverts are uniform grey with dark shaft-lines, exactly as in
@. vermaculatus, and quite different from our bird, which has dark bases as well as shaft-
lines to these feathers, causing a second dark band across the wing, the white band being
between them. The median wing-coverts are consequently quite different also from those
of @. capensis, which are all broadly barred with dark brown.

It ranges across the African continent from Senegambia and the Niger (Hartlaub,
Journ. Orn. 1854, p. 213) to Nubia, Abyssinia (Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. p. 990), and
the adjoining Shoa District (Salvadori, Joc. cit.). It has been erroneously recorded from
Natal (Gurney, Ibis, 1873, p- 259) and the Zambesi (Kirk, Ibis, 1864, p. 331).

It is very nearly related to the Indian form of @. crepitans, but in both forms of that
species the dark bar across the shoulder is emphasized by a pale margin (white in adults
and buff in birds of the year).

It appears to be still nearer related to @. vermiculatus, if we may accept the similarity
of the markings on the wing-coverts as evidence of consanguinity. It appears also to
resemble that species in frequenting the banks of rivers rather than dry plains.

I have been unable to find any description of the habits of this species, but am
fortunately able to supply the deficiency from notes furnished me by Capt. Verner, who
met with it during the last expedition to the Soudan in 1885.

“In April, near Ambukol, I found many of these birds nesting. I was unaware at
the time that there was such a distinct species as @. senegalensts, but I remarked that
some I shot had greyish wing-coverts, and did not present the barred appearance of these
parts, conspicuous in our species. The eggs of @. senegalensis are very similar to those
of @. crepitans, but are decidedly smaller in size, and, generally speaking, much bolder
in colouring ; and of three clutches taken by me, the average size is from 1:9 to 1°95 inch
in length, and 1:4 to 1°5 inch in breadth. In colour they are of a warm stone tint,
blotched, spotted, and streaked with two shades of dark brown, with faint lilac spots
here and there showing under the surface. I found this species nesting all along the Nile
as far down as the 83rd Cataract. I saw others all the way down the river, but cannot
say for certain whether they were @. crepitans or G. senegalensis. ‘The call of the latter
species is peculiarly melodious and mournful, beginning with two or three piping cries of
the same pitch, and continuing in a descending scale. I have the most vivid recollection
of hearing it for the first time on the night of January 19th, when we were bivouacked
on the bank of the river at Abu Kru, above Metemneh, having fought our way down
there just before sunset. It was bitterly cold, and sleep for more than a few minutes
was almost impossible, and all night long the Stone-Curlews kept flitting along the
shore with their mournful call. The only other sound was that of our poor fellows who
were wounded, and the occasional clanging call of the Egyptian Wild Goose.”

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

Habits.

80 CDICNEMUS.

(Half natural size.)

EDICNEMUS VERMICULATUS.
VERMICULATED STONE-CURLEW.

Diagnosis. | Cipicnemus pectore striato: dorso transversim vermiculato.

Variations. Ir is not known that examples of the Vermiculated Stone-Curlew from West Africa differ
in any respect from examples from South Africa.

Synonymy. Cidicnemus natalensis, Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iil. p. 59 (1844, descript. null.).
(Edicnemus vermiculatus, Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1868, p. 418.
Literature. Puates.—Cabanis, Decken’s Reisen Ost-Africa, iii. pl. xvi.
Hasits.—Gurney, Ibis, 1873, p. 259 (erroneously called . senegalensis).
Eees.— Unknown.
Specific The Vermiculated Stone-Curlew is a very distinct species, and is easily diagnosed from
characters.

its congeners. No other species belonging to that section of the genus in which the
breast is conspicuously streaked has the feathers of the upper parts not only longitudinally

streaked with dark brown, but also finely vermiculated with transverse brown zigzag
markings.

C2DICNEMUS, 8]

It was discovered by Dr. Krauss in Natal (British Museum), and has since been
obtained in that colony by Ayres (Gumey, Ibis, 1873, p. 259), An example in the
Stuttgard Museum from the Orange River may possibly have been collected by Krauss in
Basuto-Land. I have a skin in my collection sent by Kirk from the Zambesi, and it was
obtained in Masai-Land by Von der Decken. It is probably found throughout the valley of
the Orange River, as Verreaux received it from Namaqua-Land. Bocage describes it
accurately from Angola, but it is not known to have occurred in Damara-Land. Its range
extends into West Africa; there are several fine examples in the Leyden Museum collected
by Biittikofer in Liberia.

This species is somewhat intermediate between @. crepitans and @. senegalensis,
though perfectly distinct from either. In the former species the wing-coverts are crossed
by six more or less distinct bands—brown, white, brown, white, brown, white; in the
latter the second, third, and fourth are merged in a broad grey band; in @. vermiculatus
the third and fourth only are merged in a broad grey band.

When Graham Hutchinson and I were shooting at the mouth of the Umgeni River
in Natal, we came upon a party of these birds feeding on the mud-flats left by the receding
tide on.the shores of the lagoon. Hutchinson told me that in the Transvaal he only found
it on the river-banks, never on the veldt where @. capensis breeds.

EDICNEMUS CAPENSIS.
SOUTH-AFRICAN STONE-CURLEW.

(picwemvs tectricibus omnibus et scapularibus brunneo fasciatis.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

Habits.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Synonymy.

Literature.

82 (EDICNEMUS.

It is not known whether the area of distribution of this species is interrupted, but examples
collected north of the Equator have shorter legs than those obtained south of the line, and
may fairly be regarded as subspecifically distinct.

CEdicnemus capensis, Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. Mus. Berol. p. 69 (1823).
CEdicnemus maculosus, Temminck, Planches Col. no. 292 (1824).
(Edicnemus macronemus, Lichtenstein, Vers. Vig. Kaffernl. p. 19 (1842).

Prates.—Temm. Pl. Col. no. 292.

Hasits.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds South Africa, p. 645.

Eeces.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 457; Thienemann, Vogeleiern, pl. lvii. figs. 3a, 3d.
Indistinguishable from small and handsome varieties of eggs of @. crepitans.

The South-African Stone-Curlew may at once be recognized by the bold spots, or
rather blotches, on the upper parts, which take the form of broad bars across the tertials
and wing-coverts.

It inhabits Angola (Bocage, Orn. d’Angola, p. 424), Benguela, Damara-Land, and
Great Namaqua-Land, the Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, and the Matabele Country
(Buckley, Ibis, 1874, p. 388), and has occurred as far north as Masai-Land (Fischer,
Journ. Orn. 1885, p. 116).

GDICNEMUS CAPENSIS AFFINIS.
RUPPELL’S STONE-CURLEW.

CEpicNEMUs CaPENsiIs tarso breviore (minus quam 90 millim.).
Cidicnemus affinis, Riippell, Mus. Senck. ii. p. 210 (1837).

Puates.—Riuppell, Syst. Ueb. Vog. N.O.-Afrik. pl. 42.
Hasits.—Heuglin, Orn, N.O.-Afrik. p. 990.
Eecs.—Unknown.

CQDICNEMUS. 83

Riippell’s Stone-Curlew only differs from its southern ally in having a shorter ¢arsus, Subspecific
which varies in length from 8:0 to 32 inch. The tarsus of the South-African Stone- eee
Curlew (@. capensis) varies in adult birds from 3-7 to 4°2 inch. An example of young
in first plumage of the latter species in the British Museum, collected by Dr. Smith at
the Cape, measures 3°35 inch in length of tarsus.

Riippell’s Stone-Curlew is a local race of the South-African Stone-Curlew, and is a Geographi-
resident in the Bogos Country, Kordofan, the south-western shores of the Red Sea pee
(Heuglin, Ibis, 1859, p. 344), Abyssinia, and Somali-Land (Speke, Ibis, 1860, p. 248).

It is described as frequenting the coast and the sandy plains, not ascending the mountains
quite as far as 3000 feet.

(Half natural size.)

C(EDICNEMUS GRALLARIUS.
BAST-AUSTRALIAN STONE-CURLEW.

(Epicnemvs remigibus exterioribus quatuor versus apicem plagd alba magné notatis. Diagnosis.

m2

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

84 (EDICNEMUS.

Govip (Handbook to the Birds of Australia, ii. p. 212) remarks that on the north coast of
Australia the Stone-Curlews have longer tarsi and shorter wings, but the few examples
which I have been able to examine do not confirm this idea.

Charadrius grallarius, : Latham, Index Orn. Suppl. pp. \xvi, lxvii (1801).
Charadrius frenatus,

(Edicnemus longipes, Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, fide Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxiii. p. 232 (1818).

Charadrius giganteus (Licht.), } fide Wagler, Isis, 1829, p. 647.
Cidicnemus giganteus, Licht., aw :

Cidicnemus grallarius (Lath.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 535 (1844).
Burhinus grallarius (Lath.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 416 (1856).

Puates.—Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 386; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 5.

Hasits.—Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 210. Described as almost exactly resembling
those of the European Stone-Curlew. Gould says that it frequents the same description of
country, dry sandy or grassy plains, especially those which are rocky; but Ramsay says
that it is also found on the sea-coast.

Eces.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p.459; Ramsay, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1877, p. 335 ; Thiene-
mann, Vogeleiern, pl. lvii. fig. 2. Typical eggs are indistinguishable from those of @.
recurvirostris.

The East-Australian Stone-Curlew may be distinguished from all its congeners by the
large white spot across both webs of the fourth primary, as well as of the first, second, and
third. It is the only large Stone-Curlew with conspicuous stripes on the breast.

It is only known from the eastern half of the Australian continent, from the Gulf of
Carpentaria in the north to Queensland, South Australia, and New South Wales. It may
possibly be only a winter visitor to the tropical portion of its range. In all these species,
which are remarkable for their long legs, the tarsi of young birds are shorter than those of
adults ; and with many species which are partial migrants, the residents are adults and the
migrants the younger birds. The North-Australian birds may be migrants, more or less
immature, and consequently ought to have, on an average, shorter legs than the older birds,
instead of longer ones as Gould imagined.

(EDICNEMUS. 85

** Aberrant Stone-Curlews, with conspicuous black eye-stripes; but with scarcely
perceptible streaks on the breast.

(Half natural size.)

GDICNEMUS BISTRIATUS.
CENTRAL-AMERICAN STONE-CURLEW.

(Epicnemvs pectore vix striato: dorso striato sed non fasciato: regionibus paroticis pallescentibus. Diagnosis.

Ir is not known that this species is subject to any variations (except those attributable to Variations.
age and season) on the American continent ; but examples from the island of St. Domingo
are regarded as subspecifically distinct on account of their smaller size.

Charadrius bistriatus, Wagler, Isis, 1829, p. 648. Synonymy.
(Edicnemus vocifer, L’Herminier, Mag. de Zool. 1837, pl. 84.
(Edicnemus americanus, Swainson, Anim. Menag. p. 349 (1838).
Cdicnemus bistriatus (Wagler), Gray, Genera of Birds, iti. p. 535 (1844).
C2dicnemus mexicanus, Licht. fide Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, iv. p. 19 (1865).
Literature.

Pratrs.—L’Herminier, Mag. de Zool. 1837, pl. 84.
Hasits.—Taylor, Ibis, 1860, p. 314. Described as similar to those of the European Stone-

Curlew. The bird lives on the prairies.
Eees.—Owen, Ibis, 1861, p. 68. Are exactly like finely-marked eggs of G!. crepitans, but

larger (2'3 x 16 inch).

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Difference
between Old
and New
WorldStone-
Curlews.

Diagnosis.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecitie
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

86 CEDICNEMUS.

The Central-American Stone-Curlew belongs to that section of the genus in which
there is a conspicuous black band over each eye, and in which the breast is scarcely streaked.
From two of the three other species belonging to this section it may be distinguished by
its comparatively pale ear-coverts, which are almost black in @. magnirostris and @. re-
curvirostris. From its nearest ally, @. superciliaris, it may be distinguished either
by its larger size (wing from carpal joint more than 9 inches) or by the markings on the
back, which are all longitudinal.

It is a resident in Central America (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 397), ranging
northwards into Mexico and southwards into tropical South America, where it has occurred
in Colombia, Venezuela, and Northern Brazil (Sclater and Salvin, Ex. Orn. p. 60).

The American Stone-Curlews differ from their Old-World allies in the distribution of
the white on the primaries. Instead of a subterminal bar across both webs of the first and
second, and sometimes the third and fourth primaries, the white is confined to the inner
web and extends almost to the base of the feather.

EDICNEMUS BISTRIATUS DOMINICENSIS.
ST.-DOMINGO STONE-CURLEW.

CEDICNEMUS BISTRIATUS magnitudine minima.

CEdicnemus dominicensis, Cory, Journ. Boston Zool. Soc. ii. p. 46 (1883).

Prares.— Unfigured.
Hasirs.—Undescribed.
Eees.— Unknown.

The St.-Domingo Stone-Curlew appears to be, from the description, only a dwarf race
or island form of @. distriatus. The dimensions of the two forms are as follows :—

G. bistriatus. G. dominicensis.
Witte? 2.0 «6 ~ 10 inches. 82 inches.
rr rr 43 ,, 32,
Tarsus . . . . 43, 32 ,,

BUD) i, cla oie ew |

39 14 od

It is only known from the island of St. Domingo.

(EDICNEMUS. 87

es
gee

(Half natural size.)

GEDICNEMUS SUPERCILIARIS.
PERUVIAN STONE-CURLEW.

(picnemus dorso vermiculato sive angusté fasciato ; strigé nigra lata supra oculum utrumque,

Scrater and Salvin figure an undoubtedly immature bird with the wing-coverts, scapulars,
and tertials vermiculated, but with a very conspicuous black stripe on the side of
the neck below as well as above the white eye-stripe. ‘Two other examples in their
collection, one immature and the other apparently adult, show no trace of the second
black stripe. Taczanowski, who examined the skins, ignores the differences, probably
thinking that it was impossible that a second species could occur in Western Peru. The
subject requires further investigation ; but the only conclusion that can be drawn from the
evidence available at present is that the black band below the white eye-stripe is confined

to the young in first plumage.

(Edicnemus superciliaris, Tschudi, Wiegm. Arch. 1843, p. 388.

Prares.—Sclater and Salvin, Exotic Orn. pl. xxx. (young in first plumage).
Hapirs.—Stolzmann, Tacz. Orn. Pérou, iii. p. 334.

Eces.—Unknown.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

88 (EDICNEMUS.

The Peruvian Stone-Curlew is one of the aberrant species which possess the
conspicuous character of having a broad black stripe over each eye, a feature which in this
genus appears to be always correlated with the absence of conspicuous streaks on the
breast. From the other (three) species belonging to this section it may be distinguished
either by its smaller size (wing from carpal joint less than 9 inches) or by the markings on
the feathers of the back, which have not only a dark shaft-streak, but are also ¢ransversely
barred or vermiculated. It has also no trace of a white bar across the wing-coverts, a
feature found in all other species of the genus except in @. bistriatus, @. senegalensis, and

@. capensis.
It is only known from the coast-region of Peru.

(Half natural size.)

CDICNEMUS RECURVIROSTRIS.
GREAT INDIAN STONE-CURLEW.

Cpicnemvus maxilla recurvata.

THERE seems to be no difference between Indian and Ceylonese examples.

(Edicnemus recurvirostris, Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 500 (1829).
Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier), Lesson, Traité d’Orn. p. 547 (1831).
Carvanaca griseus, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. v. p. 776 (1836).

(EDICNEMUS. 89

Pratrs.—Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. pl. exlii.
Hasits.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 974.

Heas.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 455; Hume, Nests and Eggs Ind. Birds, iii. p. 579.
Indistinguishable from eggs of GE. grallarius.

Literature.

The Great Indian Stone-Curlew may always be recognized by its upturned bill; the Specific

line of the gape is recurved, so that the upper profile of the bill is nearly straight. Cee
It is a resident in India, Burma, and Ceylon, breeding in March and April on sand- Geographi-

banks and rocky islets in the beds of rivers, and in Ceylon on the sea-shore. gad
It is nearest related to @. magnirostris, which, like it, has a short tarsus (not an inch Nearest

longer than the bill) and no pale edges to the feathers of the upper parts. sales.

(Half natural size.)

CEDICNEMUS MAGNIROSTRIS.
AUSTRO-MALAYAN STONE-CURLEW.

(Epicnemvs loris nigris.

Diagnosis.

Ir is not known that the Austro-Malayan Stone-Curlew is subject to any variation Variations.
notwithstanding its wide range.

90 (EDICNEMUS.

Synonymy. Cdicnemus magnirostris, Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, fide Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxiii. p. 231
(1818).
Burhinus magnirostris (Vieill.), Lesson, Traité d’ Orn. p. 547 (1831).
Esacus magnirostris (Vieill.), Gray, List Gen. & Subgen. Birds, p. 83 (1841).
Orthorhamphus magnirostris (Vieill.), Salvadori, Cat. Uce. Borneo, p. 312 (1874).
Charadrius magnirostris, Lath.,

apud auctores multos.
Burhinus magnirostris (Lath.), ; :

Literature, Pratrs.—Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 887 ; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 6.
Haszirs.—Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 213. It is described as preferring the low flat

shores of the sea.
Eees.—Thienemann, Vogeleiern, pl. lvii. fig. 1 (incorrectly named Esacus recurvirostris) ; Hume,

Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, iii. p. 581. Resemble eggs of @. crepitans, but are much
larger (2°6 x 1°75 inch).

Pee The Austro-Malayan Stone-Curlew may be easily recognized either by its black lores
or by its great 67//, which is more than 3 inch deep at the nostrils. Its ear-coverts are
nearly black, and it further resembles @. recurvirostris 1m having nearly uniform upper
parts, and a great deal of white on the innermost primaries.

epee It is a resident on the coasts of the islands of the Malay Archipelago (Wallace, Proc.

tion. Zool. Soc. 1862, p. 346), ranging westwards beyond Sumatra to the Andaman Islands
(Hume, Stray Feathers, 1874, p. 290), northwards to the Philippine Islands (Walden,
Trans. Zool. Soc. ix. p. 227), and southwards and eastwards along the north coast of
Australia to New Caledonia (Layard, Ibis, 1882, p. 532).

CHAPTER Xl

Genus CHARADRIUS

Cuarapriin& sulco nasali obvio: alis haud calcaratis: rectricibus mediis feré omnind brunneis Diagnosis of
et quam rectrices laterales non valdé longioribus (nunquam 25 millim.). eee

Tue Plovers differ from the Stone-Curlews in never having the central feathers of the tail Generic
nearly as much as an inch longer than the outer ones. The nasal aperture beng placed in a eae
distinct groove, prevents them from being confounded with the Coursers or the Pratincoles.
Finally, the adsence of white at the base of the central tail- feathers, which are uniform brown
for more than two thirds of their length, excludes the Lapwings, most of which are further
excluded by the absence of lobes on the lores or spurs on the wings.

The synonymy of the genus Charadrius is another appalling instance of the “ furor
genericus,” especially on the part of the arch genus-splitter Bonaparte. A genus has been

provided for about every two species !

Synonymy of the Genus CHARADRIUS.
Type.
Charadrius, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 150 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. 1. p. 253

(1766). . . . ppiee es Gra eh ay

Pluvialis, Brisson, bas Vv. p. 42 (1760) pluvialis.
Squatarola, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 29 1816) . helveticus.
se . biaticula.

AXgialitis, Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 558 .

Eudromias, Brehm, Vég. Deutschl. p. 545 (1831) . . morimellus.

Anarhynchus, Quoy and Gaimard, Voy. Astrol., Zool. i. p. 252 ( (1833). . frontalis.
Oreophilus, Jardine and Selby, Ill. Orn. ui. pl. 151 (1835) . . totanirostris.
Erythrogonys, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 185 . . rufiventris.

. hiaticula.

Hiaticula, Gray, List Gen. Birds, p. 85 (1840) .
Thinornis, Gray, Zool. Voy. Ereb. & Terr. p. 11 (1846) .
Pluvianellus, Hombron and Jacquinot, fide Gray, Gen. Birds, ii. p. 549 ( (1846)

. novee-zealandiz.

ennoonqces 6

. sociabilis.

N22

Determina-
tion of the
type.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Climatic
distribution.

92 CHARADRIUS.

Oxyechus, C. vociferus.
Octthoroms, EReiohedae, fide Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 418 (1856) | C. wilsoni.
Zonibyx, C. modestus.
Morinellus, C. morinellus.
a Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 417 (1856) . Lear
Leucopolius, C. marginatus.
Agialophilus, Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 234 (1865) C. cantianus.
C. montanus.

Podasocys, Coues, Proc. Philad. Ac. Nat. Sc. 1866, p. 96

The characters upon which these genera are founded are mostly unimportant differences
in the shape of the bill, which are probably of little or no taxonomic value.

It is quite impossible to guess which species Linneus would have regarded as the type
of the genus Charadrius, had the idea of the necessity of providing each genus with a
so-called typical species (which may or may not be an aberrant species according to
circumstances) ever occurred to the great Swedish naturalist. In the tenth edition of his
great work the first species on the list is C. cristatus, which unquestionably refers to
Vanellus spinosus, a fact which he discovered before the twelfth edition, where the first
species on the list is C. Aiaticula. The Golden Plover (C. pluvialis) has by common
consent been accepted as the type of the restricted genus Charadrius, probably on the
ground that Brisson (who evidently recognized the importance of a type, though he
omitted to point it out in his usual manner in this genus) regarded it as so emphatically
the typical Plover that he changed the name of the genus from Charadrius to Pluvialis.

The range of the genus Charadrius is almost cosmopolitan, but two thirds of the
species breed in the temperate zones of both hemispheres. It is rather remarkable that the
genus is almost unrepresented in the Pacific Islands, the only species known to visit them

being C. fulvus.
During the breeding-season the species are distributed as follows :—

Arctic America. . . . . . OQ
Arctic Eurasia. . . . . OO
ree pees. eg et pe SG

Temperate North America 6
Temperate South America ig! Sage
Southern Australia and New Zealand. . 9
South Africa 1
Temperate Eurasia . 9

Temperate species . . . . . . —29
Tropical America « 6 <« s 2 « « » 1
Tropical Asia Bs Ua IW a. AS ae
Tropical Afties. ..s ¢ « = « + « 6

Tropical species . . . . . . « —10

Species and subspecies of Charadrius . . — 45

CHARADRIUS. 93

Many of the Plovers are shore-birds ; some of them frequent the banks of rivers and
lakes, whilst others resemble the Coursers and the Lapwings in living on the plains,
especially during the breeding-season.

The species belonging to the genus Charadrius may be conveniently arranged in three
subgeneric groups :—

Pluviales, or typical Plovers and Dotterels.

Hiaticule, or Ringed Plovers.
Aigialophili, or Sand-Plovers.

In dividing the genus Charadrius into subgeneric groups, it is important to ascertain
which characters are old, and which have been more recently acquired. The oldest
characters are presumably those which are common to both seasons, to both sexes, and to
young as well as to adult birds}.

The black subterminal bar across the tail-feathers, and the white at the base of the
outer web of the innermost primaries, appear to be very old characters, common to some
allied genera, and wherever found always constant.

The subgenus Piuviais must be diagnosed as follows :—

Cuarapril having any one or two of the following characters: coloured axillaries ; a
hind toe ; a barred tail; or a dark patch on the belly.

The subgenus Hraricuta must be diagnosed as :—

Cuarapril having a// the following characters: white axillaries; no hind toe; white
belly ; and a dark subterminal band across the tail.

* When young birds differ in the colour of their plumage from adults, it is generally supposed that they
more closely resemble some remote ancestor; and in popular parlance they are said to “hark back to their
ancestors.” Darwin (Origin of Species, 5th ed. p. 529) says that “from the many slight successive variations
having supervened in the several species at a not early age, and having been inherited at a corresponding age,
the young will be left but little modified and will resemble each other much more closely than do the adults—
just as we have seen with the breeds of the Pigeon. We may extend this view to widely distinct structures
and to whole classes.” Thus it is supposed that the ancestral Spotted Woodpecker had a red crown, because
the young in first plumage of all the species of the genus Picus have red crowns, though this feature is retained
in the adult of only three or four of the species. It consequently happens that the young of nearly allied
species differ less from each other than the adults of the same species do, inasmuch as the young of each
species hark back to the common ancestors of both. There are, however, some startling exceptions to this
tule. When I described Picus japonicus I had no idea how good a species it was. Now that the young in
first plumage have been received from Japan, it is found that they differ far more from the young of P. major
than the adults of the two species do. The young of our birds have nearly uniform buffish-white underparts,
whilst those of the Japanese species are profusely streaked with black on the flanks, and more or less so on
the throat and breast. The young of P. numidicus and of P. major also differ more from each other than the
adults of the two species do, those of the former having much darker foreheads than those of the latter (this
difference is, however, grossly exaggerated in the plates of Dresser’s ‘ Birds of Europe,’ one being coloured much
too white and the other much too black). The young of P. syriacus and of P. major also differ more from
each other than the adults do, the former being profusely marked with crimson on the upper breast, a
character of which traces only are found in rare instances in the latter, or in adult birds of either species.

Local
distribution.

Subgeneric
groups.

Trust-
worthy
characters.

Diagnosis of
subgenera.

Diagnosis of
subgenus.

True
Plovers.

Dotterels.

Subgeneric
characters.

94 CHARADRIUS.

The subgenus AuctaLopaHitus must be diagnosed as :—
Cuaraprit having a// the following characters : white axillaries; no hind toe; white
belly ; but no dark subterminal band across the tail.

Subgenus PLUVIALIS.

Cuaraprit aut axillaribus haud albis ; aut halluce parvo; aut cauda fasciaté ; aut abdomine magna
macula nigra ornato.

Tue Plovers and Dotterels form a subgeneric group of birds belonging to the genus
Charadrius, which are easily diagnosed from their congeners. It would, kowever, be
unwise to place them in a separate genus, as it is very probable that some of the characters
of the group denote analogy rather than affinity.

The true Plovers are characterized by their barred tails, though in the young in first
plumage the bars are only indicated by spots on the margin. They also present a slight
structural difference from their allies ; the hexagonal scales on the tarsus are reticulated
more minutely and in a slightly different way, but the great variations in the scutellations
of the tarsus in this genus suggest that it is not a character of much importance. The
fact that in breeding-dress the underparts are black may be of more significance, though
this is more or less the case with many of the Dotterels.

The Dotterels form a somewhat heterogencous assemblage, but have so many characters
in common with the true Plovers, that it is most convenient to class them together.

The group so constituted forms a subgenus Pluvialis, containing 10 species. Of these
five differ from all other species of the genus Charadrius in having coloured axillaries. One
of the five has a hind toe, a character also found in three other species which are included in
this subgenus on that account, but have white axillaries. ‘Two others of the five species
which have coloured axillaries have also barred tails, a character shared by a fourth species
with white axillaries. Another of the species having coloured axillaries has also a dark patch
on the belly, which is found at all ages and seasons, and in both sexes, a character shared by
the fifth species with white axillaries, and in the breeding-season by four other species.

When we consider that none of these characters are possessed by any species
belonging to the other two subgenera into which we have divided the genus Charadrius,
and that the fowr sections are linked together by other characters, the Dotterels and
Plovers regarded as one subgenus do not seem quite so heterogeneous as they at first sight
appear.

CHARADRIUS. 95

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season),

Three toes. Arctic Rzeion. Four toes.
C. vinginicus . ..... American. C
C. MORINELLUS . . . . Eurasian. } Poe A Ree
C.rutvus. . ..... East Asian.
C. pLUVIALIS. . . 1. West Eurasian,
Pauzarctic Rzeion.
C. VEREDUS . . .. 1... Mongolia.
AUSTRALIAN REGION.
C. AUSTRALIS. . «©... South. . oe. we) edhe 6 C, RUPIVENTRIS.
Negorropicat ReEcion.
Falkland Islands. . . « . « « C. MODESTUS.
Tierra del Fuego. soe + + « « CO. SOCIABILIS.
C. TOTANIROSTRIS . . . Patagonia.

If we regard the true Plovers as congeneric with the rest of the group (and it is very rie as
difficult to imagine that C. odscurus can belong to a different genus from that which ;
contains C. helveticus), it seems most probable that they emigrated along the Pacific coast
of America until they came to the Aleutian Islands, where the ancestors of C. fulvus and
C. pluvialis crossed over to Asia, the former becoming isolated in India, and the latter in
Africa, whilst the ancestors of C. helveticus followed the coast to South America. During
the warm post-glacial period all three returned to the polar basin, and one of them, although
very imperfectly isolated east and west of Behring Straits, has through the lapse of time
become imperfectly differentiated into two subspecies, which are distinguished as C. fulvus
and C. virginicus.

There seems to be some plausibility about this theory of the distribution of the true
Plovers ; but if we regard them as post-glacial species, a still more probable theory of
distribution presents itself.

If we assume that their ancestors were a circumpolar species during the post-glacial
period, and that the first interruption in the continuity of the area of their distribution was
caused by the glaciers of Greenland, it is reasonable to suppose that the consequence of
this semi-isolation was the differentiation of the Hudson’s Bay Plovers into Grey Plovers
with black axillaries from the Lapland Plovers which became Golden Plovers with white
axillaries, the two being connected together by a series of intermediate forms producing
a Plover with grey axillaries at Behring Straits, which was partially split in two when

96 CHARADRIUS.

the birds were forced to leave the Polar Basin, but were able to keep up some communication
by way of the Aleutian Islands.

The Dotterels probably came down from the Polar regions by way of the European
coast and emigrated eastwards. C. morinellus was probably isolated in the basin of the
Mediterranean ; C. veredus in the islands of the Malay Archipelago; C. rufiventris in North
Australia; C. australis in South Australia; C. sociadbilis in Patagonia; and C. modestus in
the Falkland Islands ; whilst C. ¢otantrostris emigrating westwards probably reached South
America across the Atlantic.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

| Innermost primaries and secon-

, rufiventris daries broadly tipped with

white.
ducati Middle toe and claw longer
Ahindtoe. . . . 2. < than tarsus.
modestus.
. helveticus. . . . 5
Underparts more or less pluvialis . . . . + Barred tail.
black in summer, white <
m winter. fulvus .... . <

\ morinellus > Grey axillaries.

Middle toe without the claw veredus .... uy
less than half length of |
tarsus. totanirostris.
australis... . Buff-chestnut axillaries.

The species belonging to the subgeneric group of Pluviales are very easy to diagnose.
There is no difficulty in finding well-marked characters, which are unaffected by age,
sex, or season. The colour of the underparts, which varies with the seasons, is only intro-
duced to link the species more closely together: the key is complete without this character.
Other more important characters, such as the black axillaries of C. helveticus, are omitted
because the key is complete without them.

CHARADRIUS. 97

The characters which appear to be of importance in the division of the other subgenera Other cha-
of Charadrius do not help us much in the classification of the subgenus Pluvialis ; but it —
may be interesting to know how they are distributed.

The black subterminal band across the tail appears in C. morinellus and C. totanirostris,
and to some extent in C. veredus and C. australis.

The absence of the white at or near the base of the outer webs of the innermost
primaries is absolute in C. rvjiventris, C. modestus, C. fulvus, C. morinellus, and C. veredus ;
but in C. fulvus virginicus the brown of this part is more or less mottled with white, and
in C. australis the white is replaced by buff.

The nearly black central upper tail-coverts are more or less developed in C. modestus
and in C. rufiventris.

* * Subgeneric group Pluviales.

+ Zypical Plovers.

CHARADRIUS PLUVIALIS.
GOLDEN PLOVER.

Diagnosis,
Cuaraprivs cauda fasciaté, axillaribus albis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific cha-
racters,

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

98 CHARADRIUS.

Aurnouen Brehm subdivided the Golden Plover into four species, there seems to be no
evidence of the existence of any local races of this bird. Few species vary so little.

Charadrius apricarius, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 150 (1758); Bechstein, Naturg. Deutschl. iii.
p. 203 (1793).

Pluvialis aurea, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 43 (1760); Macgillivray, Hist. Brit. B. iv. p. 94 (1852).

Charadrius pluvialis, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 254 (1766).

Charadrius aureus (Briss.), Miiller, Natursyst. Suppl. p. 118 (1776).

Charadrius auratus, Suckow, Naturg. der Thiere, ii. p. 1592 (1801).

Pluvialis apricarius (Linn.), Bonap. Cat. Met. Ucc. Eur. p. 57 (1842).

Prares.—Gould, Birds of Great Brit. iv. pls. 38, 39; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 515. fig. 1,
and pl. 518. fig. 1.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iti. p. 35.

Eaces.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 25. figs. 1, 2, 3.

The Golden Plover is easily diagnosed by two characters: all the tai-feathers barred,
aawllaries white.

The Golden Plover is very local in
England during the breeding-season,
south of Derbyshire. It is said to breed
in the extreme south-west of England
and in several localities in Wales, but its
true home is on the moors and mountains
of the north. From the Grouse-moors
of Derbyshire northwards to the Orkney
and Shetland Islands it is more or less
abundant during summer. In winter it

is more widely dispersed, frequenting all
the coasts and many of the inland dis-
tricts. In Ireland it is generally distri-
buted, breeding on the moors and high lands.

The chief breeding-places of the Golden Plover are the fjelds of Norway and the
tundras of Russia and Siberia as far east as the valley of the Yenesay. It also breeds
sparingly on similar ground as far south as the moors of Holland, Belgium, and North
Germany. In the rest of Central and Southern Europe it is principally known as passing
through on migration, a few remaining over the winter. Its principal winter-quarters are
the basin of the Mediterranean, whence it occasionally straggles to Madeira, and as far

CHARADRIUS, 99

south as Natal and the Cape. The Siberian birds appear to pass through Turkestan on
migration, a few remaining to winter in Baluchistan; but the greater number probably
migrate as far as Africa. It is a common summer visitor to Iceland and the Faroes,
but has been erroneously recorded from Greenland (Reinhardt, Ibis, 1861, p. 9).
Its nearest ally is the Asiatic Golden Plover (C. fulvus).
Although the Golden Plover breeds on the mountains and moors, it is a coast bird in Seasonal

winter, and to enable it to feed in such an exposed situation with impunity it loses its black ee
breast in autumn.
CHARADRIUS FULVUS.
ASTATIC GOLDEN PLOVER.
Cuaraprivs caudé fasciaté, axillaribus fumosis. Diagnosis.

American Golden Plovers differ slightly from most Asiatic examples, and may be regarded Variations.
as subspecifically distinct.

Charadrius fulvus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 687 (1788). Synonymy.
Charadrius xanthocheilus, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 68 (1827).

Charadrius taitensis, Lesson, Man. d’ Orn. ii. p. 321 (1828).

Charadrius glaucopus, Lichtenstein, Forster’s Descr. Anim. It. Mar. Austr. p. 176 (1844).

Charadrius pluvialis orientalis, Temminck et Schlegel, Faun. Japon. p. 104 (1847).

Pluvialis longipes, Temm., fide
Pluvialis xanthocheilus (Wagl.),
Pluvialis taitensis (Less.),

Pluvialis fulvus (Gmel.),
Charadrius dominicus fulvus, Ridgway, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. iii. p. 198 (1880).

Bonap. Compt. Rend. xiii. p. 417 (1856).

Prares.—Jardine & Selby, Ill. Orn. ii. pl. 1xxxv.; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 13; Dresser, Literature.

Birds of Europe, vii. pls. 516, 517.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 40.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 25. fig. 5.

The Asiatic Golden Plover may easily be distinguished from all its congeners (except Specific

: ag haracters.
from its nearest ally in America) by its darred tail and grey aaillaries. ss
02

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Seasonal
changes.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

100 CHARADRIUS.

The Asiatic Golden Plover breeds! on the tundras of Eastern Siberia, from the valley
of the Yenesay to the Pacific. It passes through Japan, South Siberia, and Mongolia on
migration, and winters in India, the Burma peninsula, China, the islands of the Malay
Archipelago, Australia, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. It has been known to stray
as far as New Zealand in the east, and to the Mekran coast, Maita, Algeria, Poland, and
Heligoland in the west.

Like most species which breed inland and feed chiefly on the coast during winter, its
summer plumage (especially its black belly) is changed in autumn for a less conspicuous

garb.

CHARADRIUS FULVUS AMERICANUS.
AMERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs FULVUs magnitudine majore, tertiariis brevioribus.

Tuis species completely intergrades with the preceding, and must therefore be regarded
as only subspecifically distinct.

Pluvialis dominicensis aurea, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 48 (1760).

Charadrius dominicus, Miiller, Syst. Nat. p. 116 (1776).

Charadrius virginicus, Bechstein, fide Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 70 (1823).
Charadrius marmoratus, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 71 (1827).

Pluvialis virginicus (Licht.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xlii. p. 417 (1856).
Pluvialis fulvus americanus*, Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 53 (1865).

1 The alleged instances of this species breeding in New Caledonia (Layard, Ibis, 1879, p. 107), on the island
of Formosa (Swinhoe, Ibis, 1863, p. 404), and in New Zealand (Robson, Trans. N.-Z. Inst. 1883, p. 308) are
either myths or refer to wounded birds, who being unable to migrate, persuaded their mates to remain with
them and breed in their winter-quarters. As might be expected, in every case the evidence breaks down.
In the first the bird was only seen, not obtained, in the second the alleged eggs are obviously those of a much
smaller bird, and in the third the bird alleged to have been breeding was obviously in winter plumage.

2 Of the three names, americanus, dominicus, and virginicus, the first is the most expressive, the second
is the oldest, and the third has been most used. I adopt the first, on the ground that in accepting a trinomial
nomenclature as a necessary evil an ornithologist has a perfect right to dictate the terms on which he accepts
it. The only way to prevent the indefinite multiplication of trinomials is to make them temporary. ‘The
best name of the American Golden Plover is “The American form of Charadrius fulvus,” and any ornithologist
who likes to abbreviate this into Charadrius fulous americanus is at liberty to do so. In very few cases in a
variable species can a sentence be avoided. On describing a skin of this species from Japan it is generally
necessary to say ‘‘ an intermediate form between the typical and American forms of Charadrius fulvus, but
more nearly approaching the former than the latter.” I know of no system of nomenclature that is capable
of expressing this, and less definite information than this is scarcely worth having.

CHARADRIUS, 101

Charadrius fulvus, var. virginicus (Licht.), Cowes, Key N.-Amer. Birds, p. 243 (1872).
Charadrius pluvialis, var. virginicus (Licht.), Ridgway, Ann. Lyc. x. p. 883 (1874).

Pxates.—Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 50. fig. 5; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 316.
Hasirs.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 139.
Eees.—Absolutely indistinguishable from those of the Asiatic Golden Plover.

The Eastern Golden Plover is represented on the American continent by a species so
nearly allied to the Asiatic bird that there can be little doubt that it is conspecific with it.
The American Golden Plover (Charadrius americanus) is a slightly larger bird, varying in
length of wing from 6-8 to 7:5 inch; the wing of the Asiatic species varying from 6-0 to
6-7 inch. The innermost secondaries of the American bird are supposed to be relatively
shorter, the distance from their tips to the tip of the wing varying from 13 to 2 inches,
whilst in the Asiatic species it usually measures only from 0:5 to 0°8 inch. What appear
to be intermediate forms occur on the Pacific coast of Asia. Examples from Japan, China,
Formosa, Hainan, Borneo, and Cape York vary in Jength of wing from 6:2 to 6:9 inch,
and in distance from the tips of the innermost secondaries to the tip of the wing from
1:2 to 2°3 inch.

The American Golden Plover is an exclusively arctic bird, in summer breeding on the
moors above the limit of forest-growth (Blakiston, Ibis, 1863, p. 129), from Alaska to
Greenland (Reinhardt, Ibis, 1861, p. 9). In autumn it migrates southwards (Newton,
Ibis, 1859, p. 255), to winter in South America. On migration it passes the Bermudas in
large flocks (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 474), and has once occurred on Heligoland (Seebohm,
Ibis, 1877, p. 165), and once on the European continent (Gurney, Ibis, 1883, p. 198).
It appears for the most part to winter south of the tropics (Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc.
1874, p. 559), and has occurred as far south as Chili on the west coast (Bridges, Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 118), and Buenos Ayres on the east (Durnford, Ibis, 1877, p. 197).

It does not differ in its habits or in the changes of its plumage from its Asiatic ally,
from which it can only be separated with great difficulty.

Literature.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

102 CHARADRIUS.

CHARADRIUS HELVETICUS.
GREY PLOVER.

Diagnosis. | CHaraprius axillaribus nigris.

Variations. [7 is not known that any differences exist between examples from the Old World and those
from the American continent.

Synonymy. Tringa squatarola, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 149 (1758); Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 252 (1766).
Vanellus griseus,

Vanellus varius, | vison, Orn. v. pp. 100, 103, 106 (1760).
Vanellus helveticus,

Tringa helvetica (Briss.),y _, :

flinen, erin Crea, 1 Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. pp. 250, 252 (1766).

Charadrius hypomelus, Pallas, Reise Russ. Reichs, iii. p. 699 (1778).

Charadrius nevius, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 692 (1788).

Vanellus melanogaster, Bechstein, Naturg. Deutschl. iv. p. 856 (1809).

Squatarola grisea (Briss.), Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 29 (1816).
Squatarola squatarola (Linn.), Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 467 (1817).

Squatarola varia (Briss.), Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 558.

Charadrius helveticus (Briss.), Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. Zool. Mus. Berlin, p. 70 (1828).
Charadrius pardela, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 142 (1826).

Squatarola cinerea, Fleming, Brit. An. p. 111 (1828).

CHARADRIUS. 103

Charadrius squatarola (Linn.), Naumann, Vég. Deutschl. vii. p. 249 (1834).
Squatarola melanogaster (Bechst.), Malherbe, Faun. Orn. Sicil. p. 166 (1840).
Squatarola helvetica (Briss.), Keyserling & Blasius, Wirb. Eur. p. 207 (1843).
Vanellus squatarola (Briss.), Schlegel, Rev. Crit. p. Ixxxiv (1844).

Pluvialis squatarola (Linn.), Macgillivray, Hist. Brit. B. iv. p. 86 (1852).
Squatarola wilsoni, Lichtenstein, Numencl. Av. p. 95 (1854).

Squatarola rhynchomega, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. Pp 416 (1856).

Pluvialis varius (Briss.), Degland & Gerbe, Orn. Eur. p. 127 (1867).
Charadrius varius (Briss.), Finsch & Hartlaub, Vig. Ost-Afr. p. 644 (1870).

Prates.—Gould, Birds Great Britain, iv. pls. 36,37; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pls. 517,
518, 519.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 44.

Eecs.—Seebohm & Harvie-Brown, Ibis, 1876, pl. v.; Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 25. figs. 7, 8, 9.

The Grey Plover is easily diagnosed by its Slack aaillaries.

The Grey Plover is found more or less commonly on the coasts of the British Islands,
chiefly during autumn migration, but occa-
sionally in winter and spring. It is far less
numerous on the west coasts than on the east.
It frequents in small numbers the inner islands
on the west coast of Scotland, but only occurs
sparingly in the Outer Hebrides. In Ireland
it is still less common, although it appears
regularly every season.

The Grey Plover is a circumpolar bird,
but has only been known to breed on the
tundras above the limit of forest-growth. It
appears to be very local in its distribution
during the breeding-season. It is not known
with certainty to breed anywhere except in the
lower valley of the Petchora, on the Taimyr
peninsula, and the delta of the Lena, in the north of Siberia, in Alaska, on the
banks of the Anderson river, and on Melville peninsula. It passes through Central
and Southern Europe on migration, and winters in the basin of the Mediterranean
and in South Africa. The eastern birds pass through South Siberia, ‘Turkestan,
Mongolia, and Japan on migration, and winter in India, South China, Australia, and
the islands of the Malay archipelago, including New Guinea, the Salomon Islands, &e.
In the New World its range has not been so accurately determined, but it is known to

Literature.

Specific
characters.
Geographi-
cal distribu -
tion.

104 CHARADRIUS.

pass the Bermudas on migration (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 474), to winter in the West
Indies and in several parts of South America as far south as Peru and Brazil.

f: ot \
Close aftnity In its habits and seasonal changes of plumage the Grey Plover scarcely differs from
tothe Gol- the Golden Plovers, and the yellow colour of its young in down, as well a

sien S young in first
CP Se OWerss plumage, proves its near relationship to those birds.

CHARADRIUS. 108

+t Dotterels.

CHARADRIUS MODESTUS.
FALKLAND-ISLAND DOTTEREL.

Craraprivs halluce parvo: axillaribus albis: secundariis feré omnind brunneis. Diagnosis,

ixampPLes from Tierra del Fuego are certainly subspecifically, and possibly specifically, Variations.

distinct.

Charadrius modestus, Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 71 (1828). Synonymy.
Tringa urvillii, Garnot, Ann. Sc. Nat. vii. p. 46 (1826).

Vanellus cinctus, Lesson, Voyage Coquille, Zool. i. p. 720 (1826).

Squatarola cincta (Lesson), r ‘

Sinatarola Zueua, * ceoutd, Zool. Voyage ‘Beagle, p. 126 (1841).

Zonibyx modesta (Licht.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 417 (1856).

Eudromias urvillii (Garnot), Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 386.

Vanellus modesta (Licht.), Burmeister, Syst. Uebers. Thier. Bras. pt. iil. p. 362 (1856).
Eudromias modestus (Licht.), Harting, Ibis, 1870, p. 202.

Morinellus modestus (Licht.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 48 (1873).

106 CHARADRIUS.

Literature. Prates.— Lesson & Garnot, Voy. Coquille, Atlas, Zool. pl. 43.
Hasits.— Abbott, Ibis, 1861, p. 155.
Eeoes.—Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1859, p. 95. Examples in the British Museum exactly resemble
typical eggs of C. morinellus in colour, but measure 1:8 by 1:2 inch.

Specific The Falkland-Island Dotterel possesses a hind toe; has white awillaries; and its

characters. secondaries are uniform brown, with a little white principally at the tip of the four or five
innermost. In breeding-plumage it is a very handsome bird; the sexes are alike, but
young in first plumage and adults in winter have the whole of the underparts white, with
a broad band of brown across the breast.

Geographi- It is not known to breed anywhere except, upon the Falkland Islands; but upon Tierra

oes del Fuego it is represented by a nearly allied local race, the distinction between which and
the typical form is hereafter described. The Falkland-Island Dotterel migrates northwards
in autumn, and has occurred in various localities on the east coast of Patagonia, and as far
north as Buenos Ayres (Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868, p. 144) and Uraguay,
where Darwin procured it during the voyage of the ‘ Beagle.’ I have an example collected
by Capt. Harrison at Santa Lucia, Rio de la Plate, which is unquestionably the Falkland-
Island form.

Senaanial It arrives on the Falkland Islands early in September and leaves during April. It is

distribution. an inland bird during the breeding-season, but on migration and during winter it becomes
a shore bird, as might be inferred from the fact of its plain winter dress.

CHARADRIUS MODESTUS RUBECOLA.
CHILIAN DOTTEREL. (Puare I.)

Diagnosis. | CHARADRIUS MODESTUS magnitudine minore: colore obscuriore.
Variations. THE Chilian and Falkland-Island Dotterels appear to intergrade.

Synonymy. Charadrius rubecola, Vigors, Zool. Journ. iv. p. 96 (1829).
Squatarola urvillii (Garnot), apud Bridges, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 118.
Hiaticula fusca (Gould), apud Cassin, U.S. Expl. Exp., Mamm. & Orn. p. 828 (1858).

CHARADRIUS. 107

Prates.—Jardine & Selby, Ill. Orn. ii. pl. 110.
Hasits.—Darwin, Gould’s Zool. Voy. ‘ Beagle,’ p. 126.
Eees.— Unknown.

The Chilian Dotterel is so closely allied to the Falkland-Island Dotterel that it
can scarcely be regarded as more than subspecifically distinct. Gould, who seldom
described a bad species, or allowed a good one to escape his notice, discovered the difference
between the two races, but unfortunately gave a new name to the wrong one. Gay (Hist-
Chile, Zool. p. 401) also pointed out the fact, and it is also recognized by Cassin (U.S.
Expl. Exp. Mamm. & Orn. p. 328); but recent writers on Neotropical Ornithology appear
to have ignored it.

The Chilian Dotterel is a smaller bird than its ally, with a proportionately shorter
tarsus. The wing from the carpal joint measures 5:4 to 5°6 inch, instead of 5:8 to 5:9 inch ;
and the tarsus 1-1 to 1:2 inch instead of 1:4 to 1°5 inch. The contrast in colour is also
very marked. The wpper parts of the Chilian birds are dlackish brown instead of greyish
brown. The chin, throat, and sides of the neck are uniform slate-grey, whilst in the allied
form the sides and front of the neck are pale slate-grey, shading into nearly white on the
upper throat and chin. Even in winter plumage the darker upper parts are conspicuous.

The Chilian Dotterel breeds on Tierra del Fuego, and probably on the opposite shores
of the Straits of Magellan, migrating northwards to winter on the coasts of Chili, where it
is common as far north as Valparaiso (Bridges, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 118), and on the
coast of Patagonia, where it has recently been obtained by Mr. Young in Tova Harbour
(lat. 45° south), in full breeding plumage, on the 26th of August.

CHARADRIUS SOCIABILIS.
MAGELLANIC PLOVER. (Puare II.)

Cuaraprivs halluce parvo: tarso quam digitus medius cum ungue breviore.

Onty three examples of this species are known.

Pluvianellus socialis, Hombron & Jacquinot, fide Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 549 (1846).
Pluvianellus sociabilis, Hombron & Jacquinot, Voy. au Péle Sud &c. iii. p. 125 (18538).
Strepsilas sociabilis (Homé. & Jacq.), Giebel, Thes. Orn. iii. p. 541 (1877).

PQ

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

108 CHARADRIUS.

Literature, Prates.—Homb. & Jacq. Voy. au Pole Sud &e. pl. 30.
Hasits.—Described by Mr. Young as closely resembling those of the Ringed Plover.
Eeos.—Unknown.

es The Magellanic Plover may be at once distinguished from those of its congeners
a a which, like it, are furnished with a /ind toe, by its short tarsus, which is not so long as the
middle toe and claw.

eae It was originally discovered nearly fifty years ago in the Straits of Magellan; but the
cal - 5 . .
dion. eo type in the Paris Museum, and a second example obtained at the same time and now in

the British Museum, remained unique until last year, when Mr. John Young shot one bird
out of a flock of five or six which frequented a rocky point in Tova Harbour on the coast of
Patagonia, in lat. 45° south.

The irides and the legs and feet of this bird are described by Mr. Young as pink,
exactly the ordinary tint of red tape, a colour with which he must be very familiar at the
War Office. The secondaries are grey, gradually becoming whiter as they approach the
tertials, which suddenly become very grey.

CHARADRIUS RUFIVENTRIS.

AUSTRALIAN FOUR-TOED DOTTEREL. (Puate IIT.)

Diagnosis. | Cuaraprtus halluce parvo : primariis interioribus et secundariis omnibus laté albo terminatis.

Variations. Iv is not known that this species is subject to any local variation.

CHARADRIUS. 109

Erythrogonys cinctus, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 155.
Vanellus rufiventer, Lesson, L’ Echo du Monde Savant, 1844, p. 207.
Vanellus cinctus (Gould), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 59 (1865).

Piates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 21.
Hasrrs.—Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii, p. 240.
Eecs.—Campbell, Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, p. 54.

The Australian Four-toed Dotterel was originally described by Temminck (Cat. Syst.
Cab. d’Orn. pp. 172, 259) in 1807, as Le Vanneau Nain de la Nouvelle Galle Meéridionale,
but it did not receive a Latin name until it was rediscovered by Gould, who called it the
Red-kneed Dotterel, and gave it the scientific name of Arythrogonys cinctus. Lesson
afterwards discovered that the genus was a hopelessly bad one, and that the new Australian
species belonged to the same genus as the South-American Dotterel, to which he had given
the same specific name. The Vanellus cinctus of Lesson, dating from 1826, though
superseded by Charadrius modestus of Lichtenstein, dating from 1823, nevertheless
supersedes Lrythrogonys cinctus of Gould, dating only from 1837, so that Lesson was
obliged to rename Gould’s species.

It may always be recognized by the droad white tips of its secondaries and innermost
primaries.

It is a summer visitor to South Australia, New South Wales, and Victoria, wintering
in Queensland. It is said to frequent the banks of lakes and rivers, and rarely if ever
to visit the coast, even in winter ; consequently it wears its conspicuous summer dress all
the year round.

The broad white tips of the innermost primaries and of all the secondaries of this bird
are very remarkable. It is a common occurrence to find the pattern of the colour of the
primaries different from that of the secondaries, but the rule is that it suddenly changes at
the first secondary—in other words, the pattern of the colour is correlated with the structure.
The Australian Four-toed Dotterel is one of the comparatively few exceptions to this rule.
The white tips of the secondaries are continued on the five innermost primaries, but (as if
to protest against the apparent violation of the law) a slight change in the distribution of
the colours is made; on the few outermost secondaries the amount of white is about the
same on both webs, but on the few innermost primaries which adjoin them there is more
white on the inner web than on the outer, so that after all the rule is not violated—pattern
of colour is correlated with structure. This law, which bears some analogy to the golden
rule in architecture that you may ornament construction but must not construct ornament,
is scarcely reconcilable with the theory of natural selection from fortuitous variations. As
Butler would say, if the quills got their white tips from the mere toss up of the dice, surely
the secondaries must have cheated a little!

Synonymy.

Literature.

Nomencla-
ture.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Correlation
of colour
with struc-
ture.

Diagnosis,

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific

characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Plumage of
young,

110 CHARADRIUS.

CHARADRIUS AUSTRALIS.
AUSTRALIAN DOTTEREL.

Cuaraprivs axillaribus fulvis.

Tue only variation known in this species is due to age.

Eudromias australis, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1840, p. 174.
Morinellus australis, Gould, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xiiii. p. 417 (1856).

Pratres.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 15.
Hasirs.—Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 227.
Eoeos.—Campbell, Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, p. 53.

The Australian Dotterel may always be recognized by its dark buff azillaries, or by
the chestnut-buff on the outer webs of the innermost primaries.

It appears to be confined to the southern half of Australia, where it inhabits the sandy
plains of the interior. It has not been recorded either from West Australia or Tasmania.

It is difficult to say which it most resembles, Charadrius hiaticula, Charadrius mort-
nellus, or Cursorius bicinctus, but its resemblance to the latter is probably an example
of analogy rather than of affinity.

Young in first plumage have the chestnut on the belly, but are without the black on
the head, neck, and breast. It is not known that the colour of the plumage of adult birds
varies either with sex or season.

CHARADRIUS. 111

CHARADRIUS TOTANIROSTRIS.
SLENDER-BILLED DOTTEREL. (Ptatz IV.)

Cuaraprivs abdomine macula. nigré magna ornato: axillaribus albis: cauda strigA nigrA prope Diagnosis.
apicem fasciata.

No local forms of this species are known. Variations.

Charadrius ruficollis!, Licht. fide Wagler, Isis, 1829, p. 653. Synonymy,
Oreopholus totanirostris, Jardine & Selby, Ill. Orn. iii. pl. 151 (1835).
Hoplopterus ruficollis (Wagler), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 542 (1847).
Dromiceius lessoni, Lesson, fide oe
. . xiii. p. 597 (1856).
Oreophilus ruficollis (Wagler), } Bonap » Compt, Heng, S101, Pp ( )
Morinellus totanirostris (Jard. & Selb.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 47 (1865).

" The name of Charadrius ruficollis is a very objectionable one, as it has been applied to other species of
Plovers. There is an apparently mythical C. ruficollis of Cuvier, which frequently crops up in the synonymy.
In 1844 Schlegel (Rev. Crit. Ois, Eur. p. 95) quotes it as a MS. name in the Paris Museum, and refers it to
C. mongolicus. Pucheran in his paper on Cuvier’s types in the Paris Museum (Rev. et Mag. Zool. 1851,
p- 282) suggests that it may be Temminck’s Pluvier 4 poitrine rousse (Cat. Syst. Cab. d’Orn. pp. 173, 262),
a Plover from Namaqua Land, which was doubtless an example of Charadrius asiaticus. Hartlaub doubtfully
refers the C. ruficollis of Cuvier to C. mongolicus (Journ. Orn. 1855, p. 420); but in 1873 Heuglin adds it
without a query to the synonyms of that species (Orn. Nordost Afric. ii. p. 1023). Wagler quotes it as a
MS. name of Lichtenstein in the Berlin Museum. Under any circumstances the wisest plan is to allow the

name to vanish in the limbo of synonyms.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Young.

Nearly
allied to the
Common
Dotterel.

Habits.

112 CHARADRIUS.

Puates.—Jardine & Selby, Ill. Orn. ii. pl. 151.
Hastts.—Durnford, Ibis, 1877, p. 42.
Eees.— Unknown.

The Slender-billed Dotterel has many claims to be regarded as subgenerically distinct
from its allies, though its slender bill is not one of them. It may be recognized by its
combination of three characters—a large black patch on the belly, white axillaries, and a
black subterminal band across the tail-feathers.

The Slender-billed Dotterel is generally distributed throughout temperate South
America, as far south as the Straits of Magellan (Cunningham, Ibis, 1870, p. 499); but it
is probably only a summer visitor to that district, as it is only a partial resident in Central
Patagonia (Durnford, Ibis, 1878, p. 402), great numbers migrating southwards in spring.
On the east coast it occurs as far north as Buenos Ayres (Durnford, Ibis, 1877, p. 197;
confirmed by Capt. Harrison); and on the west it is found in Chili (Bridges, Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1843, p. 117), and on the mountain plateaux of Bolivia (d’Orbigny, in the Leyden
Museum) and Peru (Whitely, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 989).

Durnford found young in down in Patagonia on the 30th of December, but its eggs
appear to be unknown. I have an example of the young in first plumage from the
neighbourhood of Santa Elena in Patagonia; the black patch on the belly is well
developed. The black patch does not disappear in winter, and is equally conspicuous
in examples procured in March, June, August, and December.

It resembles C. morinellus in the shape and colour of its tail, in the pattern of the
colour on its head and neck, but differs from it in having white axillaries, and white on the
outer web of the innermost primaries.

I am indebted to Mr. H. B. James for an interesting account of the habits of this bird
in Chili :—“ The first time I saw this bird was in the province of Tarapaca, on the plains
which are destitute of all moisture, about 3500 feet above sea-level. It was in September ;
they were generally in small flocks of perhaps a dozen, but sometimes I saw a single bird.
I imagine these must have been stragglers on migration, as both further north and sonth
they appear in immense numbers. Near Coquimbo they arrive about the middle of April,
aud show excellent sport; moreover they are very good indeed to eat. ‘They do not
frequent the low marshy grounds, but keep to the higher plains, which have at that time
of the year some little moisture on them. To the south of Valparaiso they arrive a little
later in still larger flocks, and remain there until the middle of September ; there the
ground is fairly wet all winter. There is no cover except grass on the plains where they
congregate, so it is difficult to approach within shot. I have often followed them up two
or three hundred yards without getting a chance, they keeping up a run just out of range.
Good bags may be made by four or five guns stationed half a mile apart round the plain,
and with a dog to put them up; they usually circle round, and give overhead shots. I
have known fifty couple killed in one day on the plains about Talca in the above manner.
Landbeck says they go up to the Cordillera to breed.”

CHARADRIUS. 113

CHARADRIUS MORINELLUS.
DOTTEREL.

Cmarapnivs axillaribus fuscis : rostro quam digitus medius breviore. Diagnosis.

Brexm divides the Dotterel into three species, founded upon the relative heights of the Variations.
forehead and crown, probably individual variations of no geographical significance.

Charadrius morinellus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 150 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 254 (1766). Synonymy.
Pluvialis minor, sive morinellus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 54 (1760).

Charadrius tartaricus, Pallas, Reise Russ. Reichs, ii. p. 715 (1778).

Charadrius sibiricus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 690 (1788).

Eudromias morinella (Linn.), Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 545 (1831).

Pluvialis morinellus (Linn.), Macyillivray, Man. Brit. Birds, ii. p. 50 (1842).

Morinellus sibiricus (Gmel.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 417 (1856).

Priates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 822; Gould, Birds Gr. Brit. iv. pl. 43; Dresser, Birds of Europe, Literature.
vii. pl. 526.

Hasirs.—Seebohn, British Birds, iii. p. 30.

Eces.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 26. figs. 1, 2, 3. Z

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest ally.

114 CHARADRIUS.

The Dotterel has grey awillaries. In breeding-plumage it is easily distinguished by
its black belly and chestnut lower breast and flanks; and at all seasons its short bill is
remarkable; its 2/7 from the frontal
feathers is shorter than the middle toe
without the claw.

The Dotterel, like the Ringed
Plover, is a Western Palearctic bird,
which has probably only recently ex-
tended its breeding-range into Asia- It
breeds on the tundras above the limits
of forest-growth from the Atlantic to
the Pacific, and winters in Africa north
of the equator. It passes through West
Siberia, Turkestan, and Central Europe
on migration, a few remaining to breed
on the Alps, the mountains of Great
Britain, and Scandinavia, and a few re-
maining to winter on the northern shores
of the Mediterranean. The Dotterel has never been known to occur in the Oriental
Region or in South-east Siberia, and its alleged occurrence in Japan (Cassin, Proc. Ac.
Nat. Sc. Philad. 1858, p. 195) is probably based on a case of mistaken identity.

It has no very near relation, but is probably less distantly allied to C. veredus than to
any other species.

The Common Dotterel has been generically separated from the Common Ringed
Plover on the ground that the former “has a very peculiar and characteristic sternum,”
which is said to “differ greatly ” from that of the latter (Dresser, Birds of Europe, vu.
p. 481). It is a gross abuse of anatomical characters to separate the subgenus Ludromias
from the subgenus Zyialitis on the ground that they differ in the shape of the sternum.
The alleged differences, if they exist at all, of which I can find no evidence after a careful
examination of several examples of each, are supposed to be in the shape of the posterior
extremity of the sternum. This is a character which varies greatly with age, and appears
to be of very little generic value in the Charadriide. As Messrs. A. & E. Newton very
cautiously remark (Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. 1869, p. 337), “the characters afforded by the

posterior extremity of the sternum are certainly not so constant in birds generally as those
to be deduced from the anterior end.”

CHARADRIUS. 115

CHARADRIUS VEREDUS.
ORIENTAL DOTTEREL.

Cuarapnrivs axillaribus fuscis: digito medio quam rostrum breviore. Diagnosis.
Tr is not known that this species is subject to any local variation. Variations.
Charadrius veredus, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1848, p. 38. Synonymy.

Agialites veredus (Guuld), Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870, p. 141.
Eudromias veredus (Gould), Harting, Ibis, 1870, p. 209.

Prates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 14; Harting, Ibis, 1870, pl. vi.; David & Oust. Ois. Literature.
Chine, pl. 120.

Hasits.—Prijevalski, Rowley’s Orn. Mise. ii. p. 434.

Eees.—Unknown.

The Oriental Dotterel has grey avillaries like the Common Dotterel, C. morinellus, and Specitic
the Oriental Golden Plover, C. fulvus, and its American ally. Its white belly distinguishes characters.
it from either of these species in summer plumage, but at all ages and seasons its small

Q2

116 CHARADRIUS.

Courser-like foot is the best character: the middle toe without the claw is shorter than the
bill, and less than half the length of the tarsus.

ae The Oriental Dotterel breeds in Mongolia, and winters from Java to Australia. I have
U=
tion. an example from Samarcand.

It is nearest allied to the Common Dotterel, with which it agrees in the important
character of having no white on the outer web of the innermost primaries.

Tail of Charadrius hiaticula.

Subgenus HIATICULA.

Diagnosis of CHARapri1 axillaribus albis: halluce nullo: abdomine albo: caud& fascié obscura prope apicem
subgenus. ornata.

ethene Tas characteristic feature of the Ringed Plovers is the dark subterminal band across the
‘ tail-feathers, a character which separates them from the Sand-Plovers, the Typical Plovers,

and the Four-toed Dotterels. In order to separate them from the four Three-toed Dotterels,

which have a more or less developed black subterminal band across the tail, it is necessary

CHARADRIUS. 117

to add two more characters. Avillaries white, effectually excludes C. morinellus, C. veredus,
and C. australis ; whilst belly white, excludes C. totanirostris at all ages and seasons.

The Ringed Plovers appear to be a well-characterized group, though their characters
are all dependent upon colour or pattern of colour, and cannot be regarded as structural,
at least so far as they are known. These birds may be described as follows :—

A dark ring passes round the neck—black in males in breeding-dress ; brown in males
in winter-dress, in females at all seasons, and in birds of the year of both sexes. Above
this dark ring is generally a white ring, but this is in one species confined to a white
collar at the back of the neck, and in another species both collars are absent. he legs
and feet are always pale, and the base of the bill is generally pale. The hind toe is always
absent. The two centre tail-feathers are brown at the base, nearly black towards the end,
with a spot of white at the extreme tip; each succeeding feather has a longer white tip,
and is paler at the base, until the outer web of the outer feather is pure white, but otherwise
the black subterminal band is very conspicuous. The axillaries are always white, as is also
the belly.

They may be subdivided into two groups, one of which has white at the base of the
outer webs of the innermost primaries, whilst the other has no white on the outer webs of
the primaries. The former may be diagnosed as follows :— .

Subgeneric group JZiaticule typice, primariorum interiorum pogonis externis pro
magna parte albis.

The latter may be diagnosed as :—

Subgeneric group Miaticule minores, primariorum interiorum pogoniis externis
omnino brunneis.

Of the first group C. diaticula may be regarded as the type. They seem to have
escaped from the Polar Basin along the Atlantic coast of America. C. semipalwatus returned
to the north when the Glacial Period was over, and subsequently spread westwards to
Alaska, having been isolated in Central America, whilst C. me/odus was probably isolated
in the West Indies. C. Aiaticula seems to have crossed over by way of Iceland from
Greenland, and to have subsequently spread eastwards as far as the valley of the Yenesay.
It was probably isolated in Africa, where it still winters, and whence emigrating parties
crossed over to Australia and subsequently to New Zealand, becoming respectively
C. monachus and C. nove-zelandia, their greatly changed conditions of life favouring rapid
differentiation. C. vociferus may have been differentiated in the valley of the Amazon,
whence a colony crossed over to West Africa and intermarried with some of the ancestors
of C. minor, as hereinafter suggested.

Of the second group C. minor may be regarded as the type. They appear to represent
the Plovers which escaped from the Polar Basin up the great Asiatic rivers, and they are
for the most part river and lake Plovers rather than shore birds.

During the Glacial Period they seem to have been differentiated into four species :
C. tricollaris and its post-glacial allies C. forbesi and C. bifrontatus were isolated in

Other
characters.

Hiaticule
typicee.

Hiaticule
minores.

Emigra-
tions.

118 CHARADRIUS.

Africa, C. minor and its post-glacial ally C. jerdoni in India, C. placidus in China, and
C. nigrifrons in Australia.

It seems probable that the ancestors of C. ¢ricollaris met with a party of emigrants
from Brazil, part of the ancestors of C. vociferus, at such an early stage of their differentia-
tion that they coalesced, and founded a species intermediate between the two, an instance
of the extinction of subspecies by interbreeding, according to the theory of Menzbier. In
post-glacial times the three-banded Plovers of West Africa appear to have become
completely differentiated from those of South Africa, the former becoming C. fordesi and
the latter C. tricol/aris; some of which afterwards emigrated to Madagascar and became
C. bifrontatus.

In a slightly different way C. jerdoni may have become partially differentiated in
Ceylon and Southern India, the resident birds probably breeding earlier than those which
migrate northwards to breed, an example of physiological isolation (miscalled by Romanes
physiological selection).

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Hiaticule typice. PaLzarctic Rreion. Hiaticule minores.
C.HIATICULA . . .... North-west.
South. - 2. . « . CO. Minor.
South-east. oe. . . . C. PLACIDUS.

Erurop1an Recton.

West Africa. - . . . . C, FORBESI.
South and East Africa. - + « . « C, PRICOLLARIS.
Madagascar. - . . . . C, BIFRONTATUS.

OrrentaL Region.

India and Burma. - . . + . C, JERDONT.

AUSTRALIAN RecIon.

East Australia. - . «. . . C, NIGRIFRONS,

C. MONACHUS
C. NOV#-ZELANDIE

» SEMIPALMATUS .
» VOCIFERUS
- MELODUS .

ON GQaie

- CIRCUMCINCTUS.

South Australia.
New Zealand.

Nearctic Region.

North.
South.
East.
Central.

CHARADRIUS. 119

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

So far as I have been able to ascertain all the following characters are found in both
Sexes, In young as well as adults, and at all seasons. Where the dark bands across the
breast are black in adult birds they are brown in young in first plumage. The chestnut-
red scapulars of the adult of C. wigrifrons are represented in the young by chestnut-red on
some of the wing-coverts.

Sof Scapulars or wing - coverts
nigrifrons . chestnut-red.

minor.
¢ placidus.

bifrontatus the white forehead and the

A broad brown band between
base of the bill.

Outer tail-feather 4 shorter < tricollaris .. .
than longest. . Two dark bands across the

: breast.
Outer tail-feather crossed f forbesi .

by three bars on ae

inner web. _ vociferus . 4
hiaticula .
Outer and middle $08 \ ¢ emip almatus
webbed to second joint White at base of outer web of
melodus ... . innermost primaries.
Mantle pale grey. . . .
monachus .
Central upper tail-coverts
: nearly black.
nove-zelandie. . )

There can be no doubt that all these birds are very nearly related to each other. Of
the twelve species only two have been made the types of new genera, C. vociferus and
C. nove-zelandie. The former is probably more nearly related to C. Adaticula than it is to
its admitted congener C. ¢ricol/aris; and the latter is probably more nearly allied to
C. monachus than to any other bird.

120 CHARADRIUS.

*.* Subgeneric group Typical Laticule.
t New-World Species.

CHARADRIUS VOCIFERUS.
KILLDEER PLOVER.

Diagnosis, | CHARADRIUS uropygio et supracaudalibus rufis.
Variations. THs species is not known to vary throughout its wide range.

Synonymy. Charadrius vociferus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 150 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 253 (1766).
Pluvialis virginiana torquata,
Pluvialis dominicensis torquata, tion Orn. v. pp. 68, 70, 75 (1760).
Pluvialis jamaicensis torquata,
Charadrius torquatus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 255 (1766).
Charadrius jamaicensis, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 685 (1788).
ffigialites vociferus (Linn.), Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 45 (1838).
Hiaticula vocifera (Linn.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 71 (1844).
Oxyechus vociferus (Linn.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 417 (1856).

Literature, Prates._— Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 59. fig. 6; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 317.
Hanits.——Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 148.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 26. fig. 4.

CHARADRIUS. 121

The Killdeer Plover may always be recognized by its chestnut-buff lower back, rump,
and upper tail-coverts. Young in first plumage only differ from adults in having every
feather of the upper parts margined with buff.

It breeds throughout the United States of America and in Southern Canada. In the
Southern States it is a resident, but to the Northern States and to Canada it is only a
summer visitor, migrating in autumn to Mexico, the West Indies, Central America, and
various portions of South America, Colombia (Salmon, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1879, p. 547),
Peru (Whitely, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868, p. 176), and possibly some other localities. It is
said that a few remain to breed in Mexico and Jamaica. The fact that it passes the
Bermuda Islands regularly on migration in small flocks makes it not improbable that it
may occasionally visit the British Islands. Two occurrences are on record.

The Killdeer Plover is an inland species and is seldom seen near the coast, except on
migration ; consequently the variations attributable to differences of sex or season are very
slight.

CHARADRIUS MELODUS.
AMERICAN PIPING-PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. Hiaticule typice, dorso et supracaudalibus centralibus pallidis griseis.
INLAND birds differ from examples from the coast as hereinafter described.

Charadrius melodus, Ord, Wilson’s Am. Orn. vii. p. 71 (1824).

Charadrius okeni, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 63 (1827).

gialites melodus (Ord), Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 45 (1838).
Hiaticula meloda (Ord), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 69 (1844).

Piates.—Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 37. fig. 2; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 321.
Hasirs.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 160.
Eces.—Described by Brewer in the same volume, p. 163.

The Piping-Plover may be distinguished from the adults of most of its allies by its

white lores; but since immature birds of many of the Plovers also have nearly white
R

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Local
distribution.

Diagnosis,

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Synonymy.

122 CHARADRIUS.

lores, it is necessary to add another diagnosis: mantle and central upper tail-coverts pale
grey.

It is said to be almost exclusively a sea-shore bird, breeding on the Atlantic coasts of
Canada and the more northerly of the States. It is a winter visitor to the coasts of the
Southern States, but is said to be a resident in Florida and some of the West Indies. It
occasionally appears on the Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 475).

It appears to be nearest allied to C. Aiaticula, though it has become considerably
differentiated from that species.

According to the American ornithologists, a colony of Piping-Plovers breed inland in
the valley of the Missouri, and are said to have developed a complete black pectoral band ;
whilst the coast birds, probably finding it too conspicuous in such an exposed situation,
have only acquired it on the sides of the breast.

CHARADRIUS MELODUS CIRCUMCINCTUS.

WESTERN PIPING-PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs MELopUvs collari nigro pectorali integro.

Agialitis melodus, var, circumcinctus, Coues, Check-list N. Amer. B. p- 138 (1878).

CHARADRIUS. 123

Prates.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 161 (figure of head). Literature.
Hasirs.

Ecos | Deseribed in the same volume, p. 163, as similar to those of C. melodus.

The Western Piping-Plover only differs from the eastern form in having the black Subspecific
: : characters.
ring round the neck meeting on the breast.
It is said to inhabit (presumably as a summer visitor only) the basin of the Missouri, Geographi-
breeding on the banks of the rivers and the shores of the lakes. maa
In both forms of this species the black ring round the neck and the black band across
the forehead are wanting in young in first plumage, but in adult birds they vary in intensity

very slightly in consequence of sex, and not at all in relation to season.

C. semipalmatus. C. hiaticula.

CHARADRIUS SEMIPALMATUS.

SEMIPALMATED RINGED PLOVER.

. . . . A . .
CuarapRivs digitorum non solum externo cum medio, sed etiam medio cum interno membrana Diagnosis.

connexo.

; ; Variations.
No local races of this species are known.

RQ

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

124 CHARADRIUS.

Charadrius semipalmatus, Kaup, Isis, 1825, p. 1376.

Charadrius brevirostris, Wied, Beitr. Nat. Bras. iv. p. 769 (1833).

Hiaticula semipalmata (Kaup), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 70 (1844).
ffigialeus semipalmatus (Kaup), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 417 (1856).
ffigialitis semipalmatus (Kaup), Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1856, p. 425.

Puates.—Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 59. fig. 3.
Hasirs.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 154.
Eees.—Thienemann, Abbild. Vogeleiern, pl. lix. fig. 5.

The Semipalmated Ringed Plover possesses all the characters of the Ringed Plover
(C. hiaticula), except that the wed between the outer and middle toes reaches to the second
joint, and that between the inner and middle toes is well developed.

It breeds in the Arctic and Sub-arctic Regions of North America from Alaska to
Greenland. On migration it passes along both coasts as well as in the interior, and occurs
annually in the Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 475); and in winter it is found in
the tropical regions of both continents, on all the West-India Islands, and on the Galapagos
Archipelago (Salvin, Trans. Zool. Soc. ix. p. 501). In South America Reeve procured it
from the coast of Ecuador (Tacz. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1885, p. 119); and Capt. Markham
obtained it on the coasts of Peru and in Coquimbo Bay in Chili, about lat. 30° south
(Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1883, p. 428). East of the Andes, Jelski obtained it in Central
Peru (‘Tacz. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 560); Wallace found it at the mouth of the Amazons
(Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 591); and I have examples collected by
Capt. Harrison at Santa Catharina, in lat. 28° south, and at Port Desire, in lat. 48° south.

It is authoritatively stated (Nelson, ‘ Cruise of the Corwin,’ p. 84) that the Semipal-
mated Plover is found “on both shores of Behring Sea, extending on the Alaskan coast
from the peninsula of Alaska north to Point Barrow, and along the entire north-eastern
Asiatic coast.” As this species has never been found wintering on any of the Asiatic
shores of the Pacific, we may reasonably conclude that the Asiatic birds have only recently
extended their range so far west, and migrate eastwards in autumn. This fact (considered
in relation with the range of the European ally of this species, which breeds from the
American shores of Davis Straits across Greenland and Iceland to the Taimyr peninsula in
Siberia) strongly supports the theory that the ancestors of this little group of birds, which
I have called Hiaticule majores, did not escape from the Polar Basin along either shore of
the Pacific Ocean.

Like its European representative, its favourite feeding-grounds are the sandy shores of
islands and the mud-flats exposed at low water in the lagoons and estuaries of rivers. At
its breeding-grounds in the Arctic Regions and during migration it is much less of a
coast-bird, and often frequents the banks of rivers and lakes, and is sometimes found on
sandy flats at some distance from water.

CHARADRIUS. 125

The extraordinary similarity between this species and its Palearctic ally, at all ages
and seasons, is a remarkable proof of the greater importance in some instances of colour
and pattern of colour than of what are called structural characters. The Palearctic species Small
has a slightly longer bill, and the white spot behind the eye is very distinct. In the Sino of
Nearctic species the postocular patch is either entirely absent or so small as to escape structural
notice ; otherwise the only difference discoverable between the two species is the exceptional aera

development of the web between the outer and middle toes of C. semipalmatus.

*.* Subgeneric group'Typical Miaticule.
+? Old-World Species.

CHARADRIUS HIATICULA.
RINGED PLOVER.

hati q i -griseis : digitis internis ad Diagnosis.
Cuaraprivs, subgen. Hiaticule typice, dorso et supracaudalibus nee gr : g' g
basin liberis: pectore et rectricibus lateralibus non nisi fascid und obscura ornatis.

Tu Ringed Plovers breeding in the British Islands are on an average larger birds than Variations.
those breeding on the continent, and may therefore claim to be regarded as subspecifically

distinct.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

126 CHARADRIUS.

Charadrius hiaticula, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 150 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 253 (1766).
Pluvialis torquata minor, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 63 (1760).

Mgialitis hiaticula (Linn.), Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 558.

Hiaticula annulata, Gray, List Gen. B. p. 65 (1840).

Hiaticula hiaticula (Linn.), Lichtenstein, Nomencl. Av. p. 94 (1854).

Agialites auritus, Heuglin, Syst. Uebers. Vog. N.O.-Afr. p. 56 (1856).

Prares.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 920; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 525.
Haxirs.—Seebohm, British Birds, iti. p. 20.
Eces.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 26. fig. 6.

The Ringed Plover has the whole of the underparts pure white, with the exception of
the lores and a single broad breast-band, both of which are black in adult male, brown in
female and young. Nearly the central half of the outer webs of the innermost primaries is
white; and the web between the outer and middle toes only reaches to the first joint.

It breeds in Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen,
and Nova Zembla. It is a regular summer visitor
to the whole of Europe north of the Alps, and to
Asia at least as far east as the Taimyr peninsula.
In South Siberia it is not known to have occurred
east of Lake Baikal, but it breeds regularly in
Western Siberia and sparingly in Turkestan. It
probably passes through Persia on migration, and

winters in the basin of the Mediterranean and in
Africa, where it has been found in almost every
part of the continent. There seems to be little doubt that it breeds in Cumberland Bay,
on the American side of Davis Strait; and it has been recorded as an accidental straggler
in India and Australia, but on very unsatisfactory evidence. Heuglin suggests that some
remain on the shores of the Red Sea to breed, but the evidence is not at all conclusive.

Its nearest ally is unquestionably C. semzpalmatus.

CHARADRIUS HIATICULA MAJOR.
BRITISH RINGED PLOVER.

CHARADRIUS HIATICULA Magnitudine majore.

‘Tus British Ringed Plover completely intergrades with its continental ally.

Pluvialis torquata, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 60 (1760).
Charadrius torquata (Briss.), Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 28 (1816, nec Linn.).

CHARADRIUS. 127

Hiaticula torquata (Briss.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 68 (1844, nec Linn.).
Charadrius major, Tristram, fide Gray, Hand-l, B. iii. p. 15 (1871).

Prarrs.—Gould, Birds of Gt. Britain, iv. pl. 41; Brisson, Orn. v. pl. v. fig. 1. Literature.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 20.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 26. fig. 5.

A large race of the Ringed Plover (wing 5°5 ¢o 5:0 instead of 5:2 to 48 inch) is a Subspecific
resident in the British Islands. The upper parts are paler in colour, and the legs and feet ae
are stouter than in the smaller race, which passes our islands on migration. It is difficult
to determine the precise range of this large race ; but it probably extends to the coasts of
France, as I have examples from Havre which unquestionably belong to it. The eggs of
the large race are conspicuously larger than those of the smaller form.

CHARADRIUS MONACHUS.
HOODED RINGED PLOVER. (Puatz V.)

Cuarapnrivs, subgen. Hiaticule typice, supracaudalibus centralibus feré nigris : dorso pallidé griseo. Diagnosis.

No local races of this species are known. Variations.

Charadrius cucullatus, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. xxvii. p. 136 (1818). Synonymy.
Charadrius monachus, Geoffr. fide Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 60 (1827).

Agialitis monachus (Wagler), Gould, Syn. Birds Austr. pl. 32. fig. 2 (1837).

Hiaticula monacha (Wagler), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 70 (1844).

128 CHARADRIUS.

Literature. Prates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 18.
Hasits.—Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 281.
Eces.—Campbell, Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, p. 54.

oe The Hooded Ringed Plover is the only species of typical Hiaticule which combines the
characters, . :
two characters of a pale grey back and nearly black central upper tail-coverts. It is a
Geographi-

cal distriba. 2CSident on the coasts of the southern half of Australia, and is especially common on

tion. Tasmania and the adjacent islands in Bass’s Straits. Sexual selection appears to have
given this species a black head, but protective selection seems to have restricted it to the
male sex and the breeding-season, in consequence of the exposed character of its haunts.

CHARADRIUS NOVA-ZELANDIE.
NEW-ZEALAND PLOVER.

Diagnosis. Cuaraprius rostri tarsique longitudine aquali.

Variations, Exampues from Auckland Island, presumably young birds, have been described as distinct
from the New-Zealand species, but this is generally admitted to be an error.

CHARADRIUS. 129

Charadrius nove-seelandie, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 684 (1788).

Charadrius dudoroa, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 60 (1827).

Hiaticula nove-seelandiz (Gmel.), Gray, Dieff. Trav. ii. p. 195 (1843).

Charadrius torquatula, Lichtenstein, Forster’s Descr. Anim. It. Mar. Austr. p. 108 (1844).
Thinornis novee-seelandiz (Gmel.),
Thinornis rossii,

Strepsilas novee-zeelandiz (Gmel.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 45 (1865).

} Gray, Zool. Voy. Ereb. & Terr., Birds, p. 12 (1846).

Prates.—Buller, Birds of New Zealand, pl. 23.
Hasits.—Potts, Zoologist, 1875, p. 4485.
Eees.— Potts, Zoologist, 1885, p. 422.

The New-Zealand Plover when adult may be recognized by its combination of two
characters—a black throat and a band of white across the crown, but neither of these
characters are found in females or young birds. The diagnosis, 42/7 as long as the tarsus,
applies to all ages.

The New-Zealand Plover is a resident on the coasts of the island whose name it bears,
and has occurred on some of the neighbouring islands, Auckland Island, Pitt’s Island, &c.

There can be no reason for placing this bird in a genus of its own. It is very closely
related to C. monachus ; both species have black throats and foreheads, and a great deal of
white on the outer web of the innermost primaries, and still more on both webs of the
innermost true secondaries. Both species have the legs and feet and the basal portions
of the bill yellow. There can scarcely be any doubt that both species are slightly modified
forms of C. hiaticula, and so far from either of them being generically distinct they obviously
belong to the same subsection of the same subgenus. The true relationship of these birds is
best seen by a comparison of the young in first plumage of C. xove-zelandi@ and of C. hiati-
cula. Both have white foreheads, white throats, and a white spot behind the eye, besides
agreeing in the colour of their bills, legs, feet, wings, and tail.

Being a shore bird, it is probable that the male assumes the duller plumage of the
female in autumn. Buller’s ‘Birds of New Zealand’ unfortunately throws no light on
the subject ; but as we are promised a new edition of this mteresting and valuable work, it
is to be hoped that this information and many other important omissions will be supplied.
It is not necessary to enter into elaborate details of the changes of plumage or the habits of
birds which only migrate to New Zealand when the breeding-season is over, as is the case
with some of the Charadriide ; but it is necessary to do so when the species is peculiar to
the district. Where else can we expect to find such information ?

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

The pseudo-
genus
Thinornis.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

130 CHARADRIUS.

«* Subgeneric group Hiaticule minores

+ Old-World Species.

CHARADRIUS MINOR.

LITTLE RINGED PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. Hiaticule minores, rectricibus lateralibus quam rectrices medie vix brevi-
oribus (haud 7 millim.) : scapularibus dorso concoloribus.

Tue Little Ringed Plovers breeding in the tropics are regarded as subspecifically distinct
on account of their smaller size.

Charadrius dubius, Scopoli, Del. Flor. et Faun. Insubr. p. 96 (1786, ex Sonnerat).
Charadrius erythropus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 684 (1788, ex Sunnerat).
Charadrius curonicus, Gmelin, Syst, Nat. i. p. 692 (1788, ex Beseke).
Charadrius philippinus, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 745 (1790, ex Sonnerat).
Charadrius minor, Wolf & Meyer, Vig. Deutschl. i. p. 182 (1805).
Charadrius fluviatilis, Bechstein, Naturg. Deutsch. iv. p. 422 (1809).
Charadrius pusillus, Hersfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. xii. p. 187 (1822).
Adgialitis minor (Wolf & Meyer), Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 558.

Charadrius minutus, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 144 (1826).
Charadrius hiaticuloides, Franklin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1831, p. 125.
Charadrius intermedius, Ménétries, Cat. Rais. Cauc. p. 58 (1832).

CHARADRIUS. 131

Charadrius zonatus, Swainson, B. of W. Afr. ii. p- 235 (1837).

Agialitis curonicus (Gmel.), Keyserling u. Blasius, Wirb. Eur. p- Ixxi (1840).
Hiaticula philippina (Lath.),
Hiaticula pusilla (Horsf),
Hiaticula curonica (Gmel.), Lichtenstein, Nomencl. Av. p. 94 (1854).
Mgialites zonatus (Swains.), Hartlaub, Orn. W.-Afr. p. 216 (1857).
Aigialites pusillus (Hors/.), Swinhoe, Ibis, 1860, p. 63.

Agialites philippinus (Lath.), Swinhoe, Ibis, 1861, p. 842.

Aigialitis minutus (Pall.), Jerdon, B. India, ii. p. 641 (1864).
Pluvialis fluviatilis (Bechst.), Droste, Vog. Borkum, p. 153 (1869).
Agialitis microrhynchus, Ridgway, Am. Nat. viii. p. 109 (1874).

} Blyth, Cat. B. Mus. As. Soc. pp. 263, 264 (1849).

Puates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 921; Gould, Birds of Gt. Brit. iv. pl.42; Dresser, Birds of Europe, Literature.
vii. pl. 524,

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 16.

Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 26. fig. 8.

The Little Ringed Plover has all the characters of Hodgson’s Ringed Plover except icc oe
that the outer tail-feathers are less than a quarter of an inch shorter than the central ones.

It is a smaller bird, with a wing about 43 instead of 54 inches long from the carpal joint.
The additional character, scapulars the same colour as the back, is sufficient to distinguish
it from the only species belonging to the same group which is not excluded by the
shape of the tail. :

The Little Ringed Plover is a summer visitor to the whole of Europe north of the i Gell
basin of the Mediterranean and south of about lat. 60°, between which and the Arctic Circle jij,
it can only be regarded as an accidental straggler. It is a resident in the basin of the
Mediterranean. South of the Great Desert it is only known as a winter visitor, extending
on the west coast of Africa as far south as the equator; but on the east coast its winter
range appears to be much greater, extending to Mozambique and the Mauritius. On the

$2

132 CHARADRIUS.

Asiatic continent it is a summer visitor throughout the Palearctic Region as far north as
lat. 60°, and a winter visitor throughout
the greater part of the Oriental Region,
wandering into the Australian Region as
far as Celebes and New Guinea.

ere Young in first plumage have the

changes. black on the head and neck replaced by
brown; but little or no difference can be
traced to the effects of sex or season, as
might be expected of inland species, which
seldom frequent the sea-shore even in
winter, and consequently do not require
to assume for protective purposes the
colour of the mud-flats.

CHARADRIUS MINOR JERDONI.
JERDON’S RINGED PLOVER.

Diagnosis. CHARADRIUS MINOR magnitude minore.

Variations. TRopicaL examples completely intergrade with those from Temperate Regions.

Synonymy. fKgialitis jerdoni, Legge, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1880, p. 39.

Literature. Prates.—None.
Hasirs.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 956.

Eees.—Hume, Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, p.572. On an average slightly smaller than
those of the typical form.

Geographi- A small race of the Little Ringed Plover is a resident in India, Ceylon, Burma, and
cal asta Cochin China.

It is said to differ from its Palzarctic ally in being smaller (wing 3-9 to 4°25 instead
Specific of 4°3 to 4°7 inch), in having the edges of the eyelids swollen and protuberant, and in

characters. having the basal half of the lower mandible yellow. It is possible that it may be entitled
to rank as a subspecies.

CHARADRIUS. 133

CHARADRIUS PLACIDUS.
HODGSON’S RINGED PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. Hiaticule minores, pectore non nisi fascié und obscura ornato : rectricibus
lateralibus quam rectrices mediz valdé brevioribus (circa 13 millim.).

No local races of this species are known.

Charadrius placidus, Gray, Cat. Mamm. &c. Nepal &c. Hodgson, p. 70 (1863).
Charadrius longipes, David, Bull. Nouvelles Archives, 1867, p. 88.

Megialitis hartingi, Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870, p. 136.

Eudromias tenuirostris, Hume, Stray Feathers, 1872, p. 17.

Agialites placidus (Gray), Swinhoe, Ibis, 1874, p. 162.

Prates.—Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870, pl. xii.
Hasirs.—Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870, p. 186.
Eecs.— Unknown.

Hodgson’s Ringed Plover has a dlack subterminal band across the four outer tail-
feathers on each side, and the outer feathers are half an inch shorter than the central ones.
It has xo white on the outer webs of the primaries, but the forehead and the whole of the
underparts (except a single dark band across the breast) are white.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Young in
first plu-
mage,

Diagnosis.

134 CHARADRIUS.

It was first discovered in Nepal, and probably ranges through the Eastern Himalayas
to the valley of the Yang-tze-kiang, whence it extends to all the Japanese islands.

It appears to be nearest allied to C. minor, from which it differs only in being larger,
in having a more graduated tail, and when adult in having the shafts of all the primaries
brown. Young in first plumage, which may be recognized by the buff margins of the
feathers of the upper parts, have the shaft of the first primary white, as in C. minor.

Like the Little Ringed Piover, it is more partial to the banks of rivers and Jakes than
to the sea-shore, and, like that species, the variation in colour attributable to differences of
sex or season are very slight. The fact that in young in first plumage the black is replaced
by brown probably denotes that its ancestors were shore birds.

C. bifrontatus. C. tricollaris.

CHARADRIUS TRICOLLARIS.
TEMMINCK’S THREE-BANDED PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. Hiaticule minores, pectore fasciis duabus obscuris ornato: fronte usque ad
rostrum alba.

CHARADRIUS. 135

Ir is not improbable that future researches may discover intermediate forms between this
species and its two very close allies.

Charadrius tricollaris, Vieillot', N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxvii. p. 147 (1818).
Charadrius bitorquatus, Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 71 (1823).

Hiaticula tricollaris (Vieill.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 69 (1844).
Aigialites cinereicollis, Heuglin, Syst. Ueb. Vig. N.O.-Afr. p. 582 (1855).
ffigialitis tricollaris (Vieill.), Hartlaub, Orn. Westafr. p. 216 (1857).
Aigialitis bitorquatus (Licht.), Heuglin, Peterm. Geogr. Mitth. 1869, p. 417.

Puarrs.—Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. pl. xxxiv. fig. 5.
Hasits.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds South Africa, p. 662.

Eces.—Thienemann, Abbild. Vogeleiern, pl. lix. fig. 7; Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. lx.
fig. 5.

The Three-banded Plover, as it has hitherto been called, is not the only Three-banded
Plover,,as its name seems to imply, but is only one of several Plovers which have two
black bands across the breast, separated from each other by a third band, which is white,
like the rest of the underparts. In immature plumage these bands are brown. From the
other Three-banded Plovers it may be diagnosed by the colour of its forehead, which is
white to the bill, and by the outer tail-feather on each side, which is white, with one
subterminal dark band across the inner web.

It is a resident throughout South Africa, as far north as Abyssinia in the east, and
Loango (Bocage, Orn. d’Angola, p. 433) and the Gaboon (Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr.
p- 1027) in the west.

It appears to be a modified form of C. mnor, very nearly allied to C. fordesi, and still
nearer to C. difrontatus.

There is scarcely any difference between the male and female, and the characteristic
markings appear in young in first plumage, but the black is replaced by brown. Although
it frequents the sea-shore, as well as the banks of inland rivers and lakes, the winter
plumage scarcely differs from that of summer. Heuglin found it in Abyssinia up to
7000 feet above the level of the sea. I found it common on the banks of the rivers far
inland in Natal, and sparingly on the sand-banks in Durban Bay. It can scarcely be
regarded as a coast-bird, but it is especially fond of inland tidal flats. It was extremely
abundant on the salt-swamps a short distance up the Salt River in Table Bay, and was
very tame. On one occasion I saw eight within a square yard. ‘They called to each other
weet, weet, wit, wit, wit, and when alarmed flew off with a scream.

2 Temminck described the Three-banded Plover in 1807 (Cat. Syst. Cab. d’Orn. pp. 173, 262), from one
of Levaillant’s examples, as “ Le petit plovier 4 double collier d’Afrique,” but omitted to give it a Latin name.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specitic
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tiun.

Habits.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific

characters.

136 CHARADRIUS.

ie .

:

Outer tail-feather of OC. tricollaris.

ite iil sims it |

Outer tail-feather : C. forbesi.

CHARADRIUS FORBESI.
FORBES’S THREE-BANDED PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. Hiaticule minores, rectricum lateralium pogoniis internis fasciis tribus nigris
ornatis.

Ir is not known that this species is subject to any variation, but it is not improbable that
it may hereafter be found to intergrade with C. ¢ricollaris.

Egialitis forbesi, Shelley, Ibis, 1883, p. 560.
Agialitis nigris, Harting, Zoologist, 1883, p. 418.
Agialitis indicus (Lath.)*, apud auctores multos.

Prates.—Shelley, Ibis, 1883, pl. xiv.
Hasits.— Undescribed.
Ecos.—Unknown.

Forbes’s Three-banded Plover is the only species in the genus which combines the two
characters of inner web of outer tail-feathers crossed by three dark bars and outer web of
innermost primaries uniform brown. It is not only without the white on these feathers
which is characteristic of the typical Hzaticule, but has also no white on the forehead.

' Charadrius indicus of Latham (Ind. Orn. ii. p. 750) is founded on the Pluvialis minima indica of
Brisson (Ornithologia, ii. p. 234, 1763 edition), described from a bird said to have come from the East Indies.

It was probably an example of Charadrius tricollaris from East Africa, but as the colour of the forehead is
not mentioned it is impossible to say.

CHARADRIUS. 137

It is a resident in West Africa. It is unquestionably most nearly allied to C. tricollaris petite
and, like that species, is principally an inland bird, differing very slightly in the colours of ine

its plumage in consequence of age, sex, or season.

CHARADRIUS BIFRONTATUS.
MADAGASCAR THREE-BANDED PLOVER.

Cuaraprius, subgen. Hiaticule minores, pectore fasciis duabus obscuris ornato: fronte alb& ad Diagnosis.
basin brunnea: rectricibus lateralibus non nisi fascia’ und obscura ornatis.

It is not known that this species varies. Variations.

Charadrius bifrontatus, Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1882, p. 112. Synonymy.

Puares.—Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1885, pl. vi. fig. 5.
Hazits.—Grandidier, Ois. de Madagascar, p. 510.
Eees.— Unknown.

Literature.

The Madagascar Three-banded Plover is somewhat intermediate between its West- Specific
African and South-African allies. It agrees with them in having the dreast crossed by two eee
dark bands, and with the latter in having the outer tail-feathers crossed by only one dark
bar, and in having the white eye-stripe meeting across the forehead; but it differs from it
in two points, also found in the former species. The grey on the lores and ear-coverts
extends downwards over the chin and throat as far as the upper black band, and upwards
across the lower forehead.

It is supposed to be confined to the island of Madagascar. It is found inland, and Geographi-
probably occasionally on the coast. It is not known to differ from its nearest allies in its ee
variations of plumage.

It appears to be a perfectly good species, and it is very remarkable that it should have
escaped detection so long. Milne-Edwards and Grandidier, in their magnificent work on
the birds of Madagascar, describe it correctly; they remark: “les joues et la gorge sont,
ainsi que la front, d’un gris cendre ;” and in their synonymy they refer to Heuglin’s piate
of the head of the allied species in Hast and South Africa, in which the forehead and throat

are pure white !

138 CHARADRIUS.

CHARADRIUS NIGRIFRONS.
BLACK-FRONTED PLOVER.

Diagnosis. | CHaraprivs scapularibus rufis.

Variations. No geographical races of this species are known.

Synonymy. Charadrius melanops, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxvii. p. 189 (1818).
Charadrius nigrifrons, Cuvier, fide Temm. Pl. Col. no. 47. fig. 1 (1828).
Aigialitis nigrifrons (Temm.), Boie, Isis, 1826, p. 978.
Charadrius russatus, Jerdon, Madras Journ. 1840, p. 213.
Hiaticula nigrifrons (Temm.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 71 (1844).

Literature. Piates.—Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 47; Gould, Syn. Birds Austr. pl. 32. fig. 1; Gould, Birds
Austr. vi. pl. 20.

Hasits.—Gould, Handb. Birds of Australia, ii, p. 232.
Eees.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. lx. fig. 9.

Specific The Black-fronted Plover may be recognized by its chestuut-red scapulars. In young

characters. in first plumage the chestnut is paler, and is distributed over the wing-coverts as well as the
scapulars.

CHARADRIUS. 139

It is a resident in southern and eastern Australia, frequenting the rivers rather than
the coast. It is not seen north of Port Denison, nor in Western Australia, nor in
Tasmania, but has occurred once in India (near Madras).

It appears to be a considerably modified C. minor, and, like that species, to vary very
slightly with sex or season.

Subgenus AUGIALOPHILUS.

Craraprii caudd non fascid nigrescente prope apicem ornata: primariarum interiorum pogoniis
externis ad basin albis.

Tue Sand-Plovers form a well-defined subgeneric group, of which the Kentish Plover
(C. cantianus) may be regarded as the type. They may be briefly diagnosed as having the
base of the outer web of the innermost primaries white (which forms a white wing-patch,
somewhat similar to, though more basal than, that of C. Acaticula and its allies), but having
no black subterminal band across the tail. The latter is either entirely absent or is so
rudimentary as to consist of only a darker shade across some of the feathers, whilst the
broad white tips are only represented by a narrow pale margin.

All the Sand-Plovers have white axillaries and white bellies, but none of them have
a hind toe.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Majores. PaL#arctic Rzecion. Minores.
South. . . . « + C, CANTIANUS.
C. astaTICUS «we ee et Caspian Basin.
C. MoNGoLIcUS . . eee Mongolia.

EraiopiaAn Reeion.

St. Helena. . C. SANCTH-HELENA.

Inland plains. . C. PECUARIUS.
West Africa to Madagascar. . C, TENELLUS.

South Africa. . C. MARGINATUS.

Tt2

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis of
subgenus.

Subgeneric
characters.

Emigra-
tions.

140 CHARADRIUS.

Majores. OrientTAL Reaion. Minores.
C.ceorrRoyr . . . . . . Coasts of China and Japan.
South China. . . . ©, DEALBATUS.
Malay Archipelago. . . . C, PERONI.

AUSTRALIAN REGION.

Coast of Australia. . . . C, RUPICAPILLUS.
C. BicincTUS

Coast of New Zealand.
.FRONTALIS . 2. 1 ee Plains of New Zealand.
.OBSCURUS . . . . . | Mountains of New Zealand.

Qa

Nearcric Recion.

C.MonTANUS . 2. ee United States Prairies.
Atlantic coast of Southern Half.
Pacific coast of Southern Half,

C.wi~sonNI. ..... §
Neotropicat Recton.

Pacific coast of Northern Half.
Atlantic coast of Northern Half.
Northern Half. . . . C, coLiaris.
Chili. . . « C, occiwEenTALis.
C. FALKLANDICUS . . . . . Patagonia.

|
. . . C. nivosus.
)

The Sand-Plovers appear to bave escaped from the Polar Basin along the Asiatic coast
and to have found temporary residence in localities where the conformation of the land
favoured their isolation in many districts, and their consequent differentiation into many
species.

C frontalis appears to have been isolated, and rapidly and greatly differentiated, in
New Zealand.

C. mongolicus chose Australia for its winter-quarters, where some of them became
residents, and, changing their time of breeding to suit the changed seasons, were soon
physiologically isolated from the rest, and became consequently differentiated into C. d7-
cinclus, a species which in post-glacial times sent a colony to Patagonia, which has since
become C. falklandicus.

C. geoffroyt was isolated on the coasts of Burma and the Malay Peninsula, and during
the struggle for existence caused by the crowding of such small winter-quarters at the
height of the glacial period sent off colonies to America and New Zealand, which became
respectively C. wilsont and C. obscurus.

C. cantianus was isolated in India, where it multiplied to such an extent on the coasts

CHARADRIUS. 141

that repeated colonies were obliged to seek fresh homes. One of these became a resident
in South China, and is now known as C. dealdatus, which in its turn crossed over to California
and is now C. nivosus. These were probably post-glacial emigrants which have not yet
become completely differentiated. C. peroni probably represents a second case of the
extinction of a species by interbreeding, as explained by Menzbier, and appears to be the
result of the fusion of a party of the ancestors of C. cantianus with one of those of
C. hiaticula before they were sufficiently differentiated to make interbreeding impossible.

C. ruficapillus represents a colony of C. cantianus which emigrated to Australia ;
C. marginatus and C. tenellus others which crossed over to South Africa, whilst the
ancestors of C. collaris crossed the Pacific to South America.

C. asiaticus appears to have foresworn the sea-coast and to have become differentiated
in Central Africa, whence it migrated to the basin of the Caspian, and during the warm
post-glacial period it sent a colony across the Polar Basin to America, where it retained its
inland habits and became slightly differentiated into C. montanus.

C. pecuarius appears to have been isolated in West Africa, whence it colonized
St. Helena at a comparatively recent date, C. sancte-helene being probably a post-glacial
form.

There are about a score of species and subspecies of Sand-Plovers, all very closely
related to each other, so closely indeed that only four out of the twenty have been removed
by the genus-splitters on the ground that their bills differed in shape from the others.
The form of the bill is frequently an important character, but in the genus Charadrius the
variations are so slight that it is impossible to believe that they have any taxonomic value ;
they are obviously the result of pure accident, such, for example, as the nature of the food
and the facilities for obtaining it in the various localities where the species have been
dispersed. To unite C. geoffroyi with C. wilsoni is reasonable; but at the same time to
separate C. geoffroyi from C. mongolicus is a reductio ad absurdum which goes far to prove
that in this group of birds the slight differences in the shape of the bill are of very recent
origin, and are of no value whatever in determining relationship.

For convenience of diagnosis it is advisable to divide the species comprised in the
subgenus Ayialophilus into two or more groups,

The presence or absence of a white collar might be chosen as a character were it not
for the inconvenient fact that out of the eight species which possess that feature, in three
of them (C. wilsoni, C. nivosus, and C. tenellus) it is frequently so obscure as to be practically
useless.

The colour of the feet is equally uncertain as a character; regarding some species
ornithologists differ in opinion: the colour of the feet of C. nivosus and of C. montanus is
doubtful; whilst in other species it would divide such forms as C. cantianus and C. dealbatus,
which are evidently conspecific.

All the larger species have the central upper tail-coverts nearly the same colour as the
rest of the upper parts, but in all the small species they are very much darker, almost black.

Division of
the sub-
genus.

Incon-
venient
characters.

Size the
most easy
character.

Soctions of
the sub-
genus,

142 CHARADRIUS.

There is one notable exception to this rule in C. falklandicus, which is one of the larger
species, but has nearly black central upper tail-coverts. In some examples of C. mivosus
and C. collaris the difference of colour between the central upper tail-coverts and the rest
of the upper parts is not very striking.

The most obvious character by which the Sand-Plovers may be divided into two
groups is that of size, but here again it is difficult to find a hard-and-fast line. Three
species appear to be intermediate—C. wilsoni, C. sancte-helene, and C. occidentalis. They
vary in length of wing from 4:5 to 4°8 inch. All the other species fall naturally into two
groups—one containing the small species, in which the wing from the carpal joint measures
4°5 inch or less; and the other containing the large species, in which the wing measures
4’8 inch or more. he relationship of the three species which are intermediate in size is
not very easy to determine, but that of the two latter is with the group of small-sized
species, and that of the former probably with the larger species. In order to place them
there the definitions of the two sections of the subgenus must stand as follows :—

ARGIALOPHILI Masores.—Length of wing from carpal joint 42 inches or more. In
order to exclude the two species which occasionally reach this size, but obviously belong
to the next group, and to include the one which occasionally falls short of it, no species
can be admitted (1) with black legs if the lores be white, (2) nor with the primary-coverts
much (about 4 inch) shorter than the outermost secondaries ; (3) nor under any circumstances
can a species be excluded if the terminal vault of the bill measure as much as °4 inch.

ARGIALOPHILI MiNoRES.—Length of wing from carpal joint 43 inches or less. In
order to include two species which occasionally slightly exceed these dimensions, and to
exclude one which occasionally comes within them, Aya/ophili possessing either of the
two following characters must also be included: (1) black legs associated with white lores,
(2) primary-coverts much (about 4 inch) shorter than the secondaries ; and (3) no species
can be admitted with a bill the terminal vault of which measures as much as ‘4 inch.

The two groups thus defined appear to be natural ones, though it has been necessary
to resort to artificial and somewhat complicated characters to make them so. It is worthy
of note that with one exception, C. cantianus, all the small species breed in the Tropical
Region; and with only one exception, C. wilsoni, all the large species breed in the
Temperate Region.

4EGTALOPHILI MAJORES.
AfetaLopuizi aut alis longioribus (120 ad 180 millim.) ; aut maxille arcu longiore (10 ad 13 millim.) :
specie pedibus nigris cum loris albis, et specie primariarum tectricibus quam secundarie

valdé brevioribus (circa 13 millim.) exceptis.

I have found it absolutely impossible to construct a perfectly satisfactory key to the
species of this group, for the reasons hereinafter stated.

CHARADRIUS. 143

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

The following key is imperfect, because it does not enable the student to discriminate
between the young in first plumage of C. mongolicus and C. bicinctus, neither of which
show any trace of one or more dark bands across the breast.

Lores pure white. . 2... asiaticus ... )
montanus . . . > Legs and feet pale.
( wilsoni . . . . J
Terminal vault of bill +5 (adult) to -4 3 geotfroyi.
(juv.) inch long. obseurus _ f Middle toe and claw 14
inches long.
. frontalis. . . . Bill bent sideways.
mongolicus.
Breast of adult ( Black and chestnut . _— bicinctus.
crossed — by : Upper tail-coverts nearly
two bands: (Both black . . . falklandicus fbik

Young in first plumage of C. mongolicus and C. bicinctus are very difficult to ve
guish, and it is not absolutely certain that they can in all cases be distinguished. The bi
of C. mongolicus is generally, but not always in young birds, stouter than that of pa
The length of tail is a better character, though it also is not always reliable in the Ba :
young birds; but if it exceed two inches the bird may be referred to C. bieinctus, : : .
fall short of that dimension it probably belongs to a young bird of C. mongolicus. In bo

species adults have longer tails.

Diagnosis,

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

144 CHARADRIUS.

*,* Subgeneric group Aigialophili majores.
+ Old-World Species.

CHARADRIUS ASIATICUS.
CASPIAN SAND-PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. Aigialophili majores, pedibus pallidis: loris albis.
No local races of this species are known.

Charadrius asiaticus, Pallas, Reise Russ. Reichs, ii. p. 715 (1773).
Charadrius caspius, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 1386 (1826).

Charadrius jugularis, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 69 (1827).

Eudromias asiaticus (Pall.), Keyserling u. Blasius, Wirb. Eur. p. lxx (1840).
Charadrius damarensis, Strickland, Contrib. Orn. 1852, p. 158.

Morinellus caspius (Pall.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 417 (1856).
Morinellus asiaticus (Pall.), Degland & Gerbe, Orn, Eur. ii. p. 182 (1867).

Pratrs.—Harting, Ibis, 1870, pl. v. (legs wrongly coloured) ; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii.
pl. 522.

Haxzits.— Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. p. 479.
Eeos.—Middendorff, Sib. Reise, ii. pl. xix. fig. 4.

The Caspian Sand-Plover is one of the larger species of the subgenus Ayialophilus,
the wing from the carpal joint varying from 6-1 to 5:4 inch. It may be distinguished from
its allies by its pure white lores and pale legs and feet. It is also exceptional in never
having any black marks on the head or neck, even in most adult plumage.

CHARADRIUS. 145

Its similarity to the Oriental Dotterel (C. veredus) is very remarkable. The adult
males of both species agree in most details of their plumage. They both have white lores,
a white throat, a chestnut breast shading into black where it joins the white belly, a
slender bill, pale legs, and small feet, and neither of them ever have any black on the
forehead ; but the Dotterel differs from the Plover in having grey axillaries, and no white
bases to the outer webs of the innermost primaries, two characters which are unaffected by
age, SEX, or season.

The Caspian Sand-Plover breeds in the basins of the Caspian and Aral Seas, and
winters throughout South Africa, It appears to prefer sandy plains sparsely covered with
vegetation, but when these become parched for want of rain it frequents the banks of
rivers or inland seas. Thus it is found on the shores of the Caspian (Radde, Ornis
Caucasica, p. 416), and possibly on those of the Red Sea (Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii.
p- 1019). Its occurrence in Egypt is, however, very doubtful. Jts line of migration
appears to be across Arabia to the valley of the Upper Nile (I have a skin shot by Blanford
on August 15th at Rairo in Habab), and it winters in Africa south of the line. I have
skins from Damara-Land, Cape Colony, and Natal; it has occurred as far north as Angola
(Bocage, Orn. d’Angola, p. 430) in the west, and the Transvaal (Ayres, Ibis, 1871, p. 263)
in the east. Its alleged occurrence in Java (Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 187)
probably refers to C. geoffroyi.

Females are less brilliantly coloured than males, the chestnut on the breast is replaced
by brown suffused with chestnut, and the black band below it is absent. Males in winter
plumage are supposed to resemble females; but I have a skin collected by Andersson on
February 13th in full breeding-dress, and another on December 27th in nearly full breeding-
dress, both from Objimbinque, and a third in November not quite so mature. I have also
two skins from Natal: one, shot by Major Feilden in November (Zoologist, 1882, p. 460),
is a young female; but the other, obtained by Capt. Reid (Zoologist, 1882, p. 342) on
December 26th, is a young: male, and has almost assumed the chestnut breast and the
black band below it. Radde implies that this black band is only found in very old birds,
but this must be an error. It seems to me that all the supposed adult males in winter
plumage are birds of the year, and that the plumage of adult birds does not vary with the
seasons.

If we regard the pale colour of the legs and feet as denoting affinity, the nearest allies
of the Caspian Sand-Plover are two American species—C. montanus inhabiting the inland
temperate regions, and C. wi/soni living on the tropical coasts. On the other hand, if we
accept the verdict of the American ornithologists, who found their genera in this group on
the shape of the bill, we may regard C. asiaticus as nearest allied to C. montanus, but must

look upon C. wilsoni as nearest related to C. geofroyi. I have accepted this conclusion °

provisionally, though I feel confident that future writers will discover its fallacy.

Remarkable
resemblance
to C. vere-
dus.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Seasonal
and other
variations.

Nearest
allies.

146 CHARADRIUS.

‘

Zyfre 7 fs
MEGS
1 Lit

CHARADRIUS GEOFFROYI.

GREATER SAND-PLOVER.

Oy

Diagnosis. Cyaraprivs, subgen. Agialophili majores, maxille arcu longiore (circa 13 millim.) : rostro recto:
pedibus nigris, parvis (digit. med. cum ungue circa 22 millim.).

Variations. Ir is not known that this species is subject to any geographical variations.

Synonymy. Charadrius geoffroyi, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 61 (1827).
Charadrius leschenaulti, Lesson, Man. d@’Orn. ii. p. 822 (1828).
Charadrius columbinus, Hemprich u. Ehrenberg, fide Wagler, Isis, 1829, p. 650.
Charadrius griseus, Lesson, Traité d’Orn. p. 554 (1881).
Charadrius rufinus, Blyth, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xii. p. 169 (1843).
Hiaticula geoffroyi (Wagl.), Riippell, Vig. N.O.-Afr. p. 118 (1845).
Hiaticula columbina (Wagl.), Lichtenstein, Nom. Av. p. 94 (1854).
Cirrepidesmus geoffroyi (Wagl.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 417 (1856).
Aigialites geoffroyi (Wagl.), Heuglin, Syst. Uebers. Vig. N.O.-Afr. p. 56 (1856).
Agialites leschenaulti (Less.), Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1863, p. 309.
Eudromias geoffroyi (Wagl.), Meyer, Journ. Orn, 1873, p. 405.
Eudromias crassirostris, Severtzow, Turkest. Jevotnie, p. 146 (1878).

Literature, Prates.—Harting, Ibis, 1870, pl. xi.; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 521.
Hasirs.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 939.
Eees.—Hereinafter mentioned.

Specific The Greater Sand-Plover is one of the larger allies of the Kentish Plover (C. cantianus),
characters. : : <7 .
which belongs to the group of yialophili majores. Its long straight thick did/, varying in

CHARADRIUS. 147

length from ‘8 to 95 inch from the frontal feathers, of which the terminal vault occupies about
half, distinguishes it from all its allies except from C. odscwrus. From this species it is
most easily distinguished by its smaller size (wing from carpal joint varying from 54 to 52
inches) and much smaller foot (middle toe and claw about ‘9 inch). The adult male in
summer has a chestnut upper breast.

Although the Greater Sand-Plover has a very wide range in winter (extending from
South Africa through India, Burma, South China, Japan, to the Malay Archipelago and
Australia), its summer-quarters are somewhat doubtful. As it is not known to have
occurred in Turkestan or Siberia, and was not detected by Prijevalski in Mongolia, but
occurs throughout the summer, apparently in full breeding-plumage, on the coasts of Japan,
Formosa, and Hainan, I think we may fairly assume that it breeds in the latter localities,
and that the larger series of eggs obtained by Swinhoe (Seebohm, Ibis, 1879, p. 154) are
eggs of this species, whilst the two smaller ones are those of Rhynchea capensis.

Heuglin (Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 1022) says that it occurs on the coasts of the Red
Sea from June to November, and must consequently breed there, but the conclusion seems
to me more than doubtful.

The Greater Sand-Plover appears to be exclusively a sea-coast species. The chestnut
on the breast is duller in the female, but the very conspicuous black markings on the
forehead, lores, and ear-coverts appear to be entirely confined to the adult male in breeding-
dress, being replaced by greyish brown in all other plumages.

CHARADRIUS MONGOLICUS.

MONGOLIAN SAND-PLOVER.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Seasonal
changes.

Cuarapnrivs, subgen. Agialophili majores, pedibus nigris: rostro brevi (maxille arcu 7} millim. Diagnosis.

aut minore): pectore fasciis duabus obscuris nunquam ornato: caud& brevi (minus
quam 50 millim. in juv.) : supracaudalibus pallidis.

v2

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

148 CHARADRIUS.

No local races of this species are known.

Charadrius mongolus, Pallas, Reise Russ. Reichs, iii. p. 700 (1778).
Charadrius mongolicus, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 186 (1826).

Charadrius pa
D)
Chanativius. guilavis, Wagler, Syst. Av. pp. 61, 69 (1827).

Charadrius sanguineus, Lesson, Man. d’ Orn. ii. p. 330 (1828).

Charadrius pyrrhothorax, Temminck, fide Gould, Birds Eur. iv. pl. 299 (1837).
Aigialites pyrrhothorax (Temm.), Keyserling u. Blasius, Wirb, Eur. p. 1xx (1840).
Charadrius rufinellus, Blyth, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xii. p. 169 (1843).
Charadrius ruficollis, Cuvier, fide Schlegel, Rev. Crit. Ois. Eur. p. 95 (18-44).
Charadrius subrufinus, Hodgson, Gray’s Zool. Misc. 1844, p. 86.

Hiaticula inornata, Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 19 (1848).

Hiaticula inconspicua, Lichtenstein, Nom. Av. p. 94 (1854).

Pluviorhynchus mongolus (Pail/.), oh
Bonap. ; ; . p. 417 (1856).
Cirrepidesmus pyrrhothorax (Temm.), eS ee eee) )

Charadrius inornatus (Gould), Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858, p. 187.
Ochthodromus inornatus (Gould), Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 237 (1865).
Afigialitis mongolicus (Pall.), Swinhoe, {bis, 1870, p. 360.

Cirrepidesmus mongolicus (Pall.), Hume, Stray Feathers, 1873, p. 230.
fEgialitis mastersi, Ramsay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, i. p. 1385 (1876).
Eudromias mongolicus (Pall.), Severtzow, Ibis, 1876, p. 327.

Puates.—Middendorff, Sib. Reise, ii. pl. xix. figs. 2, 3; Gould, Birds of Europe, pl. 29); Gould,

Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 19.
Hasirs.—Radde, Reisen im Siiden von Ost-Sibirien, ii. p. 324.

Eecs.— Unknown.

The Mongolian Sand-Plover in the breeding-dress of the adult male is distinguished
by having a white throat and a chestnut breast ; but as the chestnut breast disappears in
autumn, a more elaborate diagnosis is necessary. It belongs to the group of Zyialophili
majores, the wing from carpal joint varying in length from 5°4 to 4°9 inch; and may be
distinguished from C. asiaticus and C. montanus by its black legs; from C. wilsoni, C. 0b-
scurus, C. geoffroyi, and C. frontalis by its short bill with a terminal vault of ‘3 inch or less;
and from C. falklandicus and C. bicinctus in adult plumage by never having the breast
crossed by two bands. Young in first plumage of C. falklandicus, C. bicinctus, and C.
mongolicus are very difficult to determine, but the latter have the upper tail-coverts paler
than the rump, and the tail short (under two inches).

The Mongolian Sand-Plover breeds in Asia from Eastern Turkestan to the valley of
the Amoor, and winters on the coasts from the mouth of the Red Sea to the islands of the
Malay Archipelago and Australia.

CHARADRIUS. 149

It is an inland bird during the breeding-season, but in winter it is almost entirely
confined to the sea-coast. The female differs from the male in having the chestnut on the
breast less brilliant than in the male; the chestnut eye-stripe and nape are almost obsolete,
and the conspicuous black markings on the forehead, lores, and ear-coverts are replaced by
brown. Both the chestnut on the breast and the black markings on the head are
replaced by brown in the winter dress of both sexes, and in young in first plumage.

The Mongolian Sand-Plover is nearest related to C. geoffroyi', but it is also very
nearly allied to C. dicinctus, so closely indeed that it is sometimes very difficult to determine
the young in first plumage.

CHARADRIUS BICINCTUS.
CHESTNUT-BANDED PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. Zgialophili majores, pedibus nigris: maxilla arcu brevi (circa 8 millim.) :
pectore aut (in adult.) nigro albo et castaneo fasciato, aut (in juv.) vix fasciato : supra~

caudalibus non albo terminatis.

No local races of this species are known.

Charadrius bicinctus, Jardine § Selby, Ill. Orn. i. pl. 28 (1825).

Aigialitis bicinctus (Jard. & Selby), Gould, Syn. Birds Austr. pl. 32. fig. 3 (1837).
Hiaticula bicincta (Jard. § Selby), Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 16 (1848).
Ochthodromus bicinctus (Jard. & Selby), Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. li. p. 238 (1865).

1 Dresser’s remark (Birds of Europe, vii. p. 476) that Charadrius mongolicus and C. geoffroyt are ~ only
just specifically separable” is very extraordinary. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, who appear to me to place an
exaggerated value on the shape of the bill (Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 168), evidently regard these two
birds as generically distinct! Though I have placed them in the same subsection of the same subgenus, I look
upon them as perfectly good species, never to be confounded at any age or in any plumage. Of the two
opposite errors it is difficult to say which is the more mistaken view.

Variations
due to age,
sex, and
season.

Nearest
allies.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters
of adults.

Specific
characters
of young.

150 CHARADRIUS.

Prates.—Jard. & Selby, Il. Orn. i. pl. 28; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 16.
Hasirs.—Potts, Trans. New Zealand Inst. ii. p. 67.
Eees.—Buller, Birds of New Zealand, p. 211.

The Chestnut-banded Plover in breeding-plumage is easily recognized by the bands
across its breast, the upper narrow and black, separated by a narrow white band from the
lower one, which is broad and chestnut. These two bands are acquired in the first autumn,
before the feathers of the upper parts have lost their rusty margins. When once acquired
they are never entirely lost, though they become very obscure in winter, as might be
expected of birds which principally frequent the shore. There is no difference between the
plumage of the male and that of the female, but young birds before their first autumn
moult are difficult to diagnose. From the young of C. asiaticus and C. montanus they are
at once distinguished by their dlack legs ; from those of C. wilsoni, C. obscurus, C. geoffroyt,
and C. frontalis by the smallness of the terminal arch of the bill, which measures °3 inch or
Jess instead of ‘4 inch or more. From the young of C. falklandicus they may be dis-
tinguished by not having the upper tail-coverts conspicuously darker than the rump ; but
with the young of C. mongolicus they are often confounded. ‘The usually longer tarsus
and more slender bill are variable characters which cannot be relied upon, and there is no
difference in length of wing. The only available characters appear to be that the young of
C. bicinctus has the tail slightly more than two inches long, with the central upper tail-
coverts of the same colour as the rest of the upper parts ; whilst the young of C. mongolicus
has the tail slightly less than two inches long, the central upper tail-coverts having
white margins.

The latter character is as conspicuous in adult birds (except in abraded plumage), and
is strongly marked in C. geoffroyi, but less distinctly in C. asiaticus, C. obscurus, and
C. montanus.

This species belongs to the group of Ayialophili majores, the length of wing varying
from 5°3 to 4°9 inch,

The Chestnut-banded Plover is principally a shore bird, and frequents the entire
coast of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and Lord Howe’s Island. After the breeding-
season it associates in flocks, which occasionally visit the grassy plains inland. Travers
found it on the Chatham Islands (Hutton, Ibis, 1872, p- 246), nearly 500 miles east of
New Zealand; but its alleged occurrence in Hainan and in Calcutta are obviously cases
of mistaken identity. Both skins are in my collection ; the first mentioned is an example of
C. mongolicus, and the last of C. dealbatus.

It is nearest allied to C. falklandicus, and very closely so to C. mongolicus ; from the
parent stock of which both species must be regarded as post-glacial offshoots.

CHARADRIUS. 151

CHARADRIUS OBSCURUS.
NEW-ZEALAND DOTTEREL. (Puate V1.)

Cuarapnivs, subgen. Zgialophili majores, pedibus majoribus (dig. med. cum ung. circa 30 millim.) :
nec rectricibus nec scapularibus transversim striatis.

No local races of this species are known.

Charadrius obscurus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 686 (1788).
Charadrius glareola, Lichtenstein, Forster’s Descr. Anim. It. Mar. Austr. p. 109 (1844).
Pluviorhynchus obscurus (Gmel.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xiii. p. 417 (1856).

Piates.—Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus & Terror, pl. ix.
Hasits.—Buller, Birds of New Zealand, p. 208.
Eaes.—Potts, Trans. New Zealand Institute, ii. p. 68.

The New-Zealand Dotterel is apparently an overgrown Sand-Plover, and may be
diagnosed from all its congeners (except those which have barred tails) by its great feet,
the middle toe and claw measuring 13 inch. The tail-feathers are uniform grey or brown,
with narrow pale margins.

Like all other species of Charadriide the New-Zealand Dotterel moults twice in the
year. Ihave an example collected by Dr. Haast at Saltwater Creek, Canterbury, in May
in winter plumage, with no chestnut margins to the feathers of the upper parts, and with
the underparts white, obscurely marked with grey on the upper breast and upper flanks.
Another example, collected by Mr. Travers in the Province of Nelson in June, is moulting
its primaries, and has changed half its white feathers on the breast to chestnut. Two
examples collected by Dr. Haast on the Waimakariri River, in September and October, are
in full breeding-plumage, with the whole of the underparts chestnut except the chin,
axillaries, and under wing and tail-coverts, which are white. ‘Two other examples, collected
by Baron von Hiigel at Riverton, Southland, in December, are both moulting their
primaries ; one is in nearly full winter plumage, but the other still retains many of the
chestnut feathers of the summer plumage on the breast.

It breeds in the mountains of New Zealand, descending to the coast in winter.

It appears to be nearest allied to C. geoffroyi, and is the largest species of the
subgenus, the wing from carpal joint varying in length from 6'8 to 5:9 inch.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

152 CHARADRIUS.

CHARADRIUS FRONTALIS.
WRY-BILLED PLOVER.

Diagnosis. CuHaARADRIUS rostro dextrorso curvato.

Variations. Tux alleged variations of this species are supposed to be myths.

Synonymy. Anarhynchus frontalis, Quoy & Gaimard, Voy. Astrol., Zool. i. p. 252 (1883).
Thinornis frontalis (Quoy & Gaim.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iti. p. 545 (1848).
Anarhynchus albifrons, Schlegel, Handleid, i. p. 485 (1857).
Charadrius frontalis (Quoy & Gaim.), Gray, Ibis, 1862, p. 234.
Hematopus frontalis (Quoy & Gaim.), Finsch, Journ. Orn. 1867, p. 346.

Literature. Pratzs.—Harting, Ibis, 1869, pl. vill.
Hasits.—Buller, Birds of New Zealand, p. 216°.
Eees.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. lx. fig. 11.

* The account of the Wry-billed Plover is full of blunders and omissions. Gray’s misstatement that the
wry bill was accidental is corrected (it is quite perceptible in the young in down, Newton, Proc. Zool. Soc.
1870, p. 673); but a story that the pectoral band is broader on the right than on the left side of the breast is
attempted to be explained by the laws of protective selection! The fact that the male has a black band over
the white forehead is not mentioned, nor does it appear to have occurred to the writer that there may or
may not be any difference between summer and winter plumage. The black pectoral band is said to be
duller in the female than in the male, an assertion contradicted by sexed skins from Haast, Wilson Saunders,
&e. in my collection. Young are said to have no pectoral band, but in a young bird in my collection the
pectoral band is represented by a grey patch on each side of the breast.

CHARADRIUS. 153

The Wry-billed Plover may be always recognized by the remarkable peculiarity of its Specific
bill, which curves considerably towards the right. It belongs to the group of Zgialophili Snerhiete:
majores, the wing from carpal joint varying in length from 5:1 to 4:7 inch. Geman

It is an inland species confined to New Zealand. cal distribu-
tion.

*,.* Subgeneric group Agialophili majores.
tt New-World Species.

CHARADRIUS MONTANUS.
ROCKY-MOUNTA4IN PLOVER.

CHaraprivs, subgen. Agialophili majores, pedibus pallidis: loris nigris aut brunneis: caud& longa Diagnosis.
(58 ad 65 millim.).

Even the lynx eyes of American ornithologists have not been able to subdivide this species Variations.
into geographical races.

Charadrius montanus, Townshend, Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. vii. p. 192 (1837). Synonymy.
figialitis montanus (Townsh.), Baird, Cassin, & Lawrence, Birds N. Amer. p. 693 (1858).

Podasocys montanus (Townsh.), Coues, Pr. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1866, p. 96.

Adgialitis asiaticus, var. montanus (Townsh.), Cowes, Key N. Amer. Birds, p. 245 (1872).

Eudromias montanus (Townsh.), Coues, Check-list N. Amer. Birds, p. 135 (1878).

Puates.—Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 318. Literature.
Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 172.
Eecs.—Described by Brewer on p. 175 of the above-mentioned volume.

The Rocky-Mountain Plover is the American representative of C. asiaticus, and eae
principally differs from the winter plumage of that species in having the rudiments of a
dark subterminal band across the tail, but it has no trace of either black or white nuchal
collar. It belongs to the group of Zyialophili majores, the wing from carpal joint varying
x

Local dis-
tribution.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

154 CHARADRIUS.

from 6°2 to 5°7 inch. Its pale legs and feet) distinguish it from all its allies, except from
C. asiuticus. Yn breeding-dress the two species are very different, the latter having white
lores, no black on the head, but a black band below the chestnut breast ; whilst the American
species has black lores, a great deal of black on the crown adjoining the white forehead,
but no black band across the underparts. In winter plumage the comparative length of
the ‘ail is the best distinction, that of the Asiatic bird measuring 2°0 to 2°1 inch, and
that of the American species 2°3 do 2°6 inch.

The Rocky-Mountain Plover is not specially a mountain species. It lives on the dry
grassy prairies of North America, throughout the United States, and is probably only a
summer visitor to the northernmost part of its range.

Although it is not a shore bird it loses the black markings on the head in autumn,
but it is not known that the sexes differ in colour.

CHARADRIUS WILSONI.
WILSON’S PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. Aigialophili majores, pedibus pallidis: maxillz arcu longiore (circa 11} millim.).

Somz American ornithologists recognize a tropical form of this species, which is supposed
to be more rusty on the nape, darker on the back, and in the female on the lores.

Charadrius wilsonius, Ord, Wilson, Am. Orn. ix. p. 77 (1825).

Charadrius crassirostris, Spiv, Av. Bras. ii. p. 77 (1825).

ZEgialites wilsonius (Ord), Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 45 (1838).

Hiaticula wilsoni (Ord), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 70 (1844).

Ochthodromus wilsonius (Ord), Reichenb. fide Bonaparte, Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 418 (1856).

ffigialitis wilsonius, var. rufinuchus, Ridgway, Amer. Nat. viii. p. 109 (1874).

Ochthodromus wilsonius rufinuchus (Ridgw.), Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds of N.
Amer. i. p. 168 (1884).

? The legs and feet of C. montanus certainly look pale enough in the dried skin, but authorities differ.
“Legs yellow” (Baird, Cassin, & Lawrence, Birds N, Amer. p. 693); ‘Feet light dull brownish yellow”
(Audubon, Orn. Biogr. iv. p. 363); “legs pale” (Coues, Key N.-Amer. Birds, p. 604); legs greenish grey”
(Dresser, Ibis, 1866, p. 34); “legs and feet leaden blue” (Coues, Ibis, 1866, p. 267). Baird, Brewer, and

Ridgway, to whom we naturally look to find an explanation of these conflicting statements, preserve a
discreet silence on the subject,

CHARADRIUS. 155

Prates.—Wilson, Am, Orn. pl. 73. fig. 5; Audubon, Birds Am. vy. pl. 319.
Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 168.
Eces.—Described by Brewer on p. 171 of the above-mentioned volume.

Wilson’s Plover is one of the connecting links between the Myialophili majores and
the Ayialophili minores, but on account of its large d7ll with the terminal vault measuring
nearly half an inch, is perhaps better classed amongst the larger than amongst the smaller
species. It is the only species of the group which combines the character of a large bill
with pale legs and feet. The fact that its central upper tail-coverts are of almost the same
colour as the rest of the upper parts is an argument against placing it in the group of
smaller species, all of which have very dark central upper tail-coverts.

The adult male has a black band across the breast. In the female and bird of the
year it is brown. In young in first plumage it may possibly be absent.

Wilson’s Sand-Plover is essentially a shore bird, breeding, and probably resident, on
the coasts of tropical and subtropical America, as far north as California and New York,
and as far south as Peru and Brazil.

It breeds on the Belize coast of British Honduras (Salvin, Ibis, 1864, p. 387), but is
said to be only an autumn visitor to the island of Trinidad. On the west coast of South
America it has occurred as far south as the southern shores of the Bay of Guayaquil in the
extreme north of Peru (Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1877, p. 330). On the east coast
Goering obtained it in Venezuela (Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868, p. 169); I have
an example from Cape Orange, between French Guiana and Brazil, and one obtained by
Capt. Harrison at Camamu, a hundred miles south of Bahia.

It appears to be most nearly allied to C. geoffroy and C. collaris ; from the latter it
scarcely differs except in its larger size and paler central upper tail-coverts. Its length of
wing from carpal joint varies from 4°8 to 4°5 inch.

CHARADRIUS FALKLANDICUS.
PATAGONIAN PLOVER.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Sexual
variations.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. gialophili majores, pectore fasciis duabus, aut nigris (in adult.), aut Diagnosis.

griseis (in juv.), ornato: cauda zquali, non cuneata.

No local races of this species are known.

x2

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific

characters.

Analogous
colour of C.
bifrontatus.

Plumage of
young.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

156 CHARADRIUS.

Charadrius falklandicus, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 747 (1790).

Charadrius trifasciatus, Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 71 (1828).

Charadrius annuligerus, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 59 (1827).

Charadrius pyrrhocephalus, Lesson, Voyage Coquille, Zool. p. 719 (1826).
Hiaticula bifasciata, Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 118.

Hiaticula falklandica (Lath.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 71 (1844).

Puatzes.—Portlock’s Voyage, p. 36.
Hasirs.—Abbott, Ibis, 1861, p. 155; Gibson, Ibis, 1880, p. 163.
Eees.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. lx. fig. 6.

The Patagonian Plover has two dark bands across the breast (which are black in adult,
brown in birds of the year, and almost obsolete in young in first plumage); the four
outer tail-feathers are nearly equal in length, and show scarcely a trace of a dark
subterminal bar. It is very closely related to C. dzcznctus, which principally differs from
it in having, when adult, the lower bar across the breast chestnut instead of black.

It is very remarkable that the upper half of the forehead is white, whilst the lower
half is brownish grey. The only other species of the genus which has this peculiar
coloration is C. bifrontatus from Madagascar. It is perhaps only a singular coincidence
that both species should have the breast crossed by two dark bands. As the forehead
of the young in first plumage is white to the base of the bill in the Falkland-Island
species, it is probable that this character has been only recently acquired. Young birds
(Durnford, Ibis, 1878, p. 402) further differ from adults in having no black band above
the white forehead, and in having the two pectoral bands brown instead of black, and
sometimes very obscure. Portlock states that the female differs from the male in having
no rusty nuchal collar. It is not known that summer plumage differs from that of winter,
but it is probable that the rusty nuchal collar is confined to the male in breeding-plumage.
It belongs to the group of Ayialophili majores, the wing from carpal joint varying in
length from 5°2 to 4°9 inch ; but it is the only species in the group which has the central
upper tail-coverts nearly black, a character very useful in distinguishing very young birds,
in which the two dark pectoral bands are sometimes very obscure.

It is described as a summer visitor to the Falkland Islands, breeding in September
and October on the banks near the beach. In Patagonia it appears to be more of an
inland bird and a resident, as is also the case near Buenos Ayres, which is probably the
northern limit of its range on the Atlantic coast. On the Pacific coast it naturally ranges
further north. I have an example from Coquimbo, and it has occurred in many other
localities in Chili.

CH ARADRIUS.

157

*,* Genus Charadrius ; subgenus Aigialophilus ; section of subgenus

-EGIALOPHILI MINORES.

AigIALOPHILI aut alis brevibus (90 ad 115 millim.), cum maxille arcu brevi (10 ad 6 millim.) ; aut
pedibus nigris cum loris albis; aut primariarum tectricibus quam secundarie valdé

brevioribus (circa 13 millim.).

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Shaft of third primary

¢ pecuarius.
dark from end to end.

sancte-helene .
Legs nearly black. < cantianus.

ruficapillus .

Differs from rvjficapillus in |

having white lores. . occidentalis -

collaris

neck, or other traces of

No dark patches on sides of tenellus
dark pectoral band.

marginatus .
nivosus

dealbatus.

peroni -

half an inch beyond the
primary-coverts.

Shortest primary projecting

Nape brown or rusty, without
traces of a white collar.

Tenth and eleventh secondaries
pure white.

Differs from dealbatus in having
white lores.
Below the white collar either a
| black or rusty collar, some-
times meeting across the
breast.

All these characters are found in both sexes, in young as well as in adult, and at all
seasons. C. occidentalis and C. nivosus are the only species in this group which have

white lores.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

158 CHARADRIUS.

* * Subgeneric group diyialophili minores.

+ Lthiopian Species.

CHARADRIUS PECUARIUS.
KITTLIIZS PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. Agialophili minores, pedibus nigris: primarie tertie rhachi omnino fusco :
primariarum tectricorum et secundariarum longitudine eequali.

Tere are no variations due to season, and scarcely any due to sex-in this species. Those
due to age are hereinafter described. In spite of its wide range and sedentary habits, no
local variations are known.

Charadrius varius, Vieillot, N. Dict. @Hist. Nat. xxvii. p. 143 (1818, nec Brisson, Linneus,
Nitzsch, &c.).

Charadrius pecuarius, Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 183 (1828).

Charadrius pastor, Cuvier, fide Lesson, Man. d’ Orn. ii. p. 8319 (1828).

Hiaticula pecuaria (Temm.), Riippell, Syst. Ueb. Veg. N.O.-Afr. p. 118 (1845).

Mgialitis pecuarius kittlitzii, Reichenbach, Handb. Spec. Orn. pl. ev. fig. 1063 (1851).

Charadrius isabellinus, Miller, Nawmannia, 1851, p. 29.

Aigialites longipes, Heuglin, Syst. Ueb. Vog. N.O.-Afr. p. 56 (1856).

Leucopolius pecuarius (Temm.),

Leucopolius kittlitzi (Reichend.),

Agialites pecuarius (Temm.), Hartlaub, Orn, Westafr. p. 215 (1857).

Charadrius kittlitzi (Reich.), Layard, Birds S. Africa, p. 297 (1867).

\ Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 417 (1856).

CHARADRIUS. 159

Prates.—Temm. Pl, Col. no. 183; Harting, Ibis, 1873, pl. viii.
Haxirs.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds of 8. Africa, p. 661.
Eees.— Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. Ix. fig. 4 (measure 1°22 x ‘88 inch).

Kittlitz’s Plover and its close ally in St. Helena differ, when adult, from the other
Plovers in having the dark line from the lores passing underneath the eye and meeting on
the nape, thus isolating the pale collar from the pale throat. Young in first plumage may
generally be recognized by their long tarsi, which measure 14 inches ; but a safer diagnosis
of this species and its close ally in St. Helena is shaft of the third primary dark from end
to end. It is rather smaller than its island representative, the d2// 7s less than 3 inch from
the frontal feathers, and it has a less rounded wing ; the secondaries are much shorter, not
reaching beyond the primary-coverts. The length of wing from carpal joint varies from
4:4, to 3°9 inch.

It is described as an inland species, occasionally visiting the sea-shore, and appears to
be pretty generally distributed over the Ethiopian Region.

I have examples from the Cape Verd Islands, Fantee (Ussher), Angola (Monteiro),
Damara-Land (Andersson), Cape Colony (Layard), the Transvaal (Ayres), and Egypt
(Shelley). Hartlaub records it from Madagascar (Vég. Madag. p. 291); Heuglin says
that it is not uncommon on the banks of the Blue and White Niles (Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii.
p. 1035); and Jesse found it on the shores of the Red Sea (Finsch, Trans. Zool. Soc.
Vil. p. 297).

In young in first plumage the outer web of the sixth primary (as well as of the
seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth) is white towards the base, there is no black on the head
or neck, very little buff on the breast, but the nape is so much suffused with buff that the
pale collar is scarcely traceable. It is not known that the winter plumage differs from that
of summer ; but the female has less black above the forehead than the male.

The wings of this species are less rounded than those of C. sancte-helene, but more
so than those of C. cantianus. It is not, strictly speaking, a migratory bird like the latter
species, but during the dry season it has to wander far and wide in search of food. It is
difficult to imagine how more rounded wings could be advantageous to the island species,
or in what way they could have been altered by Natural Selection, but it is open to the
advocates of that theory to argue that they have not altered. It is possible to assume that
since the isolation of the three species the wings of C. sancte-helene (which does not
migrate at all) have altered very little, but that those of C. pecuarius (which migrates
locally to a considerable extent) have become rather Jess rounded, whilst those of C cantianus
(which has to cross the sea in its migrations) have altered most. But whether these
differences have been produced by degradation by disuse on the part of the island species,
or by development on that of the continental forms, the correlation between long narrow
wings and migratory habits, and that between shorter broader wings and sedentary habits

is very interesting.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Young
plumage.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific

characters.

160 CHARADRIUS.

CHARADRIUS SANCTA-HELENA.
ST.-HELENA PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. Aigialophili minores, primariarum tectricibus quam secundarie valdé bre-
vioribus (circa 13 millim.).

Tue restricted area of distribution of this species prevents local races from forming.

Aigialitis sanctz-helenz, Harting, Ibis, 1873, p. 260.

Piates.— Harting, Ibis, 1873, pl. ix.
Hasits.—Layard, Ibis, 1867, p. 250.

Kees, in the British Museum, exactly resemble those of C. pecuarius in colour and markings,
but are slightly larger, measuring 1-4 by -9 inch.

The St.-Helena Plover is perfectly distinct from its continental ally. The length of
wing from carpal joint varying from 4°6 to 4:3 inch, cannot always be relied upon, nor
does it differ in colour (nor in the variations of colour depending upon age, sex, or season),
except that the white bases of the innermost primaries are so suffused with brown as to be
easily overlooked. The diagnoses of C. sancte-helene and C. pecuarius agree, therefore, in
the first two characters of lack legs and feet, and shaft of third primary nearly black, but
the shape of the wing in the two species is quite different. The wing of the St.-Helena

bird is much broader than that of its ally, so much so that the secondaries extend about
half an inch beyond the primary-coverts.

CHARADRIUS. 161

It is described as an inland bird, but confined to the island of St. Helena. Island
species are generally smaller than their continental allies ; for example, the Merule of
Ceylon and the Fiji Islands are smaller than their very close allies in the Himalayas and
China, and the Little Ringed and Kentish Plovers of Ceylon are both small races of
Palzarctic species. The cause of all these variations of size is probably a climatic one, and
has no relation to the insular or continental locality. MMZerula and Charadrius are both
arctic genera, and the smaller species are small not because they live on islands, but
because they are somewhat out of their element in tropical climates. The mean
temperature of Ceylon and the Fiji Islands is 78°, at least 10° higher than that of the
Himalayas or South China, The mean temperature of St. Helena is about 10° lower than
that of West Africa, so that C. pecuarius, when it emigrated to St. Helena, found a more
congenial climate, and did not decrease in size as the descendants of the birds which
remained in the tropics were obliged to do.

The much more rounded wings of the St.-Helena species may be accounted for by the
comparatively equable climate of the island making it unnecessary for its bird population
to wander far in search of food, or periodically to change their residence.

CHARADRIUS MARGINATUS.
WHITE-BREASTED PLOVER.

Cuarapnivs, subgen. Agialophili minores, pedibus pallidis : pectoris lateribus pallidis vix brunneo
lavatis : nuche collari albo obscurissimo.

Tropican forms of this species are smailer and have much less white on the inner
secondaries, and may consequently be regarded as subspecifically distinct.

Charadrius marginatus, Vieillot, N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xxvil. p. 138 (1818).
Charadrius leucopolius, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 65 (1827).

Charadrius nivifrons, Cuvier, fide Lesson, Traité d’ Orn. p. 544 (1881).
Hiaticula marginata (Vieill.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iil. p. 69 (1844).
Hiaticula leucopolia (Wagl.), Lichtenstein, Nom. Av. p. 94 (1854).
Leucopolius nivifrons (Less.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 417 (1856).
Agialitis marginatus (Vieill.), Hartlaub, Orn. Westafr. p. 216 (1857).

Geographi-
cal distribu -
tion.

Insular
forms.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters,

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

162 CHARADRIUS.

Moeialites niveifrons (Lesson), Cabanis, Decken’s Reisen in Ost- Afrika, iii. pt. 1. p. 46 (1869).
/Egialitis albidipectus, Ridgway’, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. v. p. 526 (1883).

Prates.—Unfigured.
Hasrrs.—Sharpe, Birds of South Africa, p. 659.
Eces.—Layard, Birds of South Africa, p. 298.

The White-breasted Plover is an Ethiopian form of the Kentish Plover. Besides the
characters which it shares with all the Zyialophili minores, it agrees with the Kentish
Plover and its nearest allies in having the white or rusty collar not cut off from the white
throat by the black stripe from the eyes, as is the case with C. pecuarius and C. sancte-
helene when adult. Both these species are, however, excluded, together with C. ruficapillus,
C. cantianus, and C. occidentalis, by the character pale legs and feet. From C. collaris and
from adult males in breeding-plumage of C. xivosus, C. dealbatus, and C. peroni, it may he
distinguished by the absence of black on the sides of the breast. In winter plumage it is
almost impossible to distinguish it from the three last-named species, but its nuchal collar
is never so clearly defined as it is in C. peroni, the lores are seldom so white as they are in
C. nivosus; the dark patch under the shoulder is paler and smaller than it is either in
C. nivosus or in C. dealbatus ; and the tarsus is longer than it is in C. xivosus, but not so
long as it is in C. peroni or in C. dealbatus.

It is probably specifically distinct from all its allies except from C. ¢enellus, which
may have originated in a cross between C. ruficapillus and C. cantianus, before they
had become quite so much differentiated as they now appear to be.

It is subject to the same variation of size as its Palwarctic ally, the length of wing
from the carpal joint varying from 4°5 inch in large examples from South Africa to 3°7 in
small examples from West Africa.

There seems to be no reliable evidence of the occurrence of the White-breasted Plover
in East Africa north of the Line. Heuglin obtained a single very bleached example on the
Arabian coast of the Red Sea, which was probably a diseased example of C. cantianus
that was unable to moult in spring, and consequently did not migrate. Blanford records
it as common at Zulla on the Abyssinian coast in June; but the only example in the British
Museum is one from Massowa, which belongs to the dwarf form of C. cantianus. Jesse
brought home no examples of C. marginatus, but found C. pecwarius in small flocks at
Zoulla on the Red Sea in June, which was probably the species which Blanford mistook for
C. marginatus (Finsch, Trans. Zool. Soc. vii. p. 297). Fischer obtained examples in

’ This bird is described from an example in the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, labelled “ Chili

S. Abri.” There is no history attached to it, and the locality may fairly be assumed to be some obscure town
in 8. Africa,

CHARADRIUS. 163

Masai-Land (Journ. Orn. 1884, p. 178), which appear to be the same species as examples in

the British Museum from Lake Nyassa and Tete. Examples from West Africa from the

Gold Coast are very similar. Examples from the Cape Colony, where it is found both on

the coast and on “ any extensive inland picces of water,” are somewhat different ; they are

rather larger in size, paler in colour, less suffused with rusty red, both on the upper and

under parts, have darker and thicker legs, and have the nuchal collar white instead of rusty,

which makes it much more conspicuous, and have the last three! secondaries (next the
tertials) pure white. Examples from Angola and the coast of Damara-Land on the one

side, and from the coast of Natal and Madagascar on the other, are, however, so com-
pletely intermediate that under no circumstances can the tropical form be regarded as

more than subspecifically distinct.

It is difficult to say when this species breeds ; Andersson says April in Damara-Land ; _Breeding-

Layard says November at the Cape. I have examples in breeding-dress from the Gold eee
Coast dated February and April ; from Natal in January and April; and from Madagascar

in October; and in the British Museum are examples in breeding-dress from the Cape
Colony dated 4th April and 22nd June.

CHARADRIUS MARGINATUS TENELLUS.

TROPICAL WHITE-BREASTED PLOVER.

CHARADRIUS MARGINATUS magnitudine minore: colore pallidiore, vix fulvo lavato: secundariis Diagnosis,
interioribus haud omnin6 albis.

Tus race appears completely to integrade with the typical form. Variations.

1 The ninth, tenth, and eleventh,
x2

Synonymy.

Literature.

Geographi-

cal distribu-

tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

164 CHARADRIUS.

Charadrius pallidus, Strickland, Jardine’s Contr. Orn. 1852, p. 158.
Hiaticula heywoodi, Thomas, fide Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 417 (1856).
Charadrius tenellus, Hartlaub, Orn. Beitr. Faun. Madag. p. 72 (1861).
Charadrius venustus, Fischer & Reichenow, Journ. Orn. 1884, p. 178.
Aigialitis venusta (Fisch. & Reich.), Cab. Journ. Orn. 1884, p. 437.
Agialitis mechowi, Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1884, p. 437.

Prates.—Previously unfigured.
Hasirs.—Not known to differ from those of its conspecific ally.
Eces.—Milne-Edwards & Grandidier, Hist. Nat. Ois. Madag., Atlas, iii. pl. 305. fig. 5.

The differences between the tropical form of the White-breasted Plover and the
typical or South-African form have been already pointed out, and their respective ranges,
so far as they are known, described.

The tropical form ranges from West Africa (probably across the continent) to Lake
Nyassa and Madagascar. Examples from Natal approach the typical form slightly, whilst
those from Damara-Land scarcely differ from it. This distribution, which shows that the
typical form extends nearly a thousand miles further north on the west than on the east
coast, looks rather remarkable, but it corresponds almost exactly with the isothermal lines
for January, which is probably the breeding-season of most birds in the southern hemisphere.

*,* Subgeneric group Agialophili minores.

tt Australian, Oriental, and Palearctic Species.

CHARADRIUS RUFICAPILLUS.

RED-CAPPED PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. gialophili minores, pedibus nigris: nuch4 nec collari nigro nec collari albo
ornata: loris aut (in adult.) nigris, aut (in juv.) brunneis.

No local races of this species are known.

CHARADRIUS. 165

Charadrius ruficapillus, Temm. Pl. Col. no. 47. fig. 2 (1828).

Agialitis canus, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 154.

Hiaticula ruficapilla (Temm.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 71 (1844).
/Egialophilus ruficapillus (Temm.), Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 235 (1865).

Puates.—Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 47; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 17.
Hasits.—Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 235.
Eees.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. lx. fig. 8.

The Red-capped Plover is the Australian representative of the Kentish Plover, and
therefore belongs to the section of the genus distinguished as Zyialophili minores. In this
section there are five species, of which it is one, which have zearly black legs and feet. Of
the other four three may be disposed of because they have white nuchal collars, emphasized
in the adult birds of two species by black collars below them. The Red-capped Plover has
neither black nor white nuchal collar, but the rusty red on the head and neck is sometimes
confined to the nape, and forms a rusty-red nuchal collar. The fourth dark-legged species
may be disposed of by the smaller size of the Australian species, and by the fact that when
adult it has Black lores, and when young drown lores. The lores of its Chilian ally are
always white. The latter is a small species, as might be expected of a Charadrius whose
range is for the most part tropical. The length of wing from carpal joint varies from 4:2
to 3°8 inch.

The female scarcely differs from the male in colour, nor is it known that winter
plumage differs from that of summer; but in young in first plumage, and apparently in
birds of the year, the black on the head, neck, and sides of the breast is replaced by brown,
and the rusty red of the head and nape is scarcely perceptible.

It is a resident on almost every part of the Australian and Tasmanian coasts, frequently
ascending the creeks and rivers for some distance into the interior. It has once occurred
in New Zealand (Kirk, Trans. New Zealand Inst. xu: p. 246).

It is rather remarkable that the nearest ally of this Australian species should be
C. occidentalis, on the Pacific side of the Andes, and that its next nearest ally should be
C. collaris, on the Atlantic side of that range. If the absence of a white nuchal collar be
an important character, which seems probable, we may assume its next nearest relation to
be GC. tenellus, from Madagascar, which in South Africa may have intermarried with
C. cantianus to produce C. marginatus. It is, however, not unlikely that the fact that the
partial differentiation of C. marginatus from the older and tropical form, C. ¢tenellus, should

have been in the direction of C. cantianus is only a coincidence.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Plumage of
young.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

166 CHARADRIUS.

CHARADRIUS PERONI.
MALAY SAND-PLOVER.

Cuaraprius, subgen. Aigialophili minores, pedibus pallidis: infra nuche collare album fascia aut
nigra (in adult.), aut ferruginea (in juv.), sepe pectore conjuncta.

In this species, as in C. melodus, the black nuchal collar sometimes meets across the
breast, but it is not known that this peculiarity has any geographical significance.

Charadrius peroni, S. Miiller, Temm. fide Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 33 (1865).
AMegialites perronii (Temm.), Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870, p. 189.

Prares.— Walden, Trans. Zool. Soc. viii. pl. x. fig. 2.

Hasrrs.—Undescribed.

Eces, in the British Museum, collected by Low on Labuan, measure 1°83 by ‘9 inch; the
markings resemble those of typical eggs of C. cantianus, but on a cream-coloured ground.

The Malay Sand-Plover is perfectly distinct from any of its allies. It belongs to the
section of the genus which I have characterized as yialophili minores, and when adult
may be distinguished from all its allies by its combination of the two characters, dlack
nuchal collar and pale legs and feet. There is no difference between the plumage of winter
and that of summer, nor is it known that adult males differ from adult females; but in
young in first plumage the black on the crown, lores, ear-coverts, breast, and back is all
replaced by rust-colour, causing it to resemble C. nivosus or C. dealbatus. The two latter
species being, however, only resident forms of the migratory C. cantianus, have not yet
acquired the rounded wings of resident birds. In all three forms of C. cantianus the
distance from the carpal joint to the end of the longest primary-coverts is greater than that

CHARADRIUS. 167

to the end of the shortest secondary ; and that from the tip of the shortest primary to the
tip of the longest is equal to or greater than that to the carpal joint. In both cases it is
the reverse in C. peroni, whose comparatively longer secondaries and shorter primaries
prove that it has been a resident species for a much longer period than the two resident
forms of C. cantianus }.

The Malay Sand-Plover is a resident in Java, Borneo, Celebes, the Philippine Islands,
and probably some of the other islands of the Malay Archipelago. There are examples in
the Leyden Museum from Semao, a small island off the west coast of Timor, which appears
to be the eastern limit of its range. I have examples from Borneo and Java. Lord
‘I'weeddale recorded it from the Philippine Islands (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1878, pp. 711, 344),
and also from Celebes (Trans. Zool. Soc. viii. p. 90).

It is rather a smaller bird than the Kentish Plover, the length of wing from carpal
joint varying from 4°1 to 3-6 inch. Its small size is probably not connected with the fact
that it lives upon islands and not upon a continent, but has doubtless some relation to
another fact in its history, that it belongs to a somewhat arctic genus, and has decreased
in size in the uncongenial climate of the tropics. It has several points of resemblance to
C. pecuarius—the black nuchal collar, the mottled appearance produced by the pale margins
of the feathers of the upper parts, and the proportionally long and slender tarsi. In many
respects it is so exactly intermediate between the Common Ringed Plover (Charadrius
Miaticula) and the Kentish Sand-Plover (C. cantianus) that it might almost be mistaken for
a hybrid between the two. It is nevertheless a perfectly distinct species. The colour of
its tail, the three outer feathers on each side unspotted white, shows its affinity to the latter
species ; whilst its pale legs and d/ack as well as white rings round the neck exactly resemble
the former, except that the black ring seldom meets on the breast (a peculiarity also found
in C. melodus).

I have been unable to find any allusion to the habits of this species, which doubtless
resemble those of the Kentish Plover, though they appear never to have been described.
There are few parts of the world from which it is more difficult to obtain skins of birds, or
of which less information respecting the habits of their feathered inhabitants is forthcoming,
than the Dutch colonies ; and this is all the more remarkable because the ornithological
department of the Museum of Leyden is the third, if not the second, in importance of all
the ornithological collections in the world.

’ Harting’s identification of Charadrius peroni with C. dealbatus, cautiously quoted by Legge (Birds of
Ceylon, p. 948), and rashly adopted by me (British Birds, iii. p. 25), is a blunder which neither of us ought to
have committed after the publication of Lord Walden’s excellent plate in the ‘ Transactions of the Zoological
Society,’ and the care which Swinhoe took (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870, p. 189) to point out the difference between
the two species.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Allied
species.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

168 CHARADRIUS.

CHARADRIUS CANTIANUS.
KENTISH PLOVER.

Cuarapnivs, subgen. Zgialophili minores, nucha non collari nigro sed collari albo ornat&: pectore
utrinque macula fusci: primariz tertize rhachide pro majore parte alba.

Tue Kentish Plover might be supposed, from its most inappropriate name, to be confined
to the south-east corner of England. On the contrary its range extends eastwards for
250 degrees of latitude. It is not surprising, therefore, that it may be subdivided into
several races or subspecies.

Charadrius cantianus, Latham, Index Orn. Suppl. p. \xvi (1801).
Charadrius albifrons, Wolf & Meyer, Vog. Deutschi. i. p. 180 (1805).
Charadrius littoralis, Bechstein, Naturg. Deutschl. iv. p. 430 (1809).
Bgialitis cantianus (Lath.), Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 558.

Hiaticula cantiana (Lath.), Blyth, Cat. B. Mus. As. Soc. p. 263 (1849).
Hiaticula elegans, Lichtenstein, Nomencl. Av. p. 94 (1854).

AXgialophilus cantianus (Lath.), Gould, Handb. B. Austr. ii. p. 234 (1865),

Prates.—Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 40; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 523.
Hasirs.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 25.

Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 26. figs. 7, 9.

CHARADRIUS. 169

The Kentish Plover, or Common Sand-Plover, may be regarded as the type of a
subgenus of Charadrius, to which the name of yialophilus was given by Gould. It
belongs to the smaller section of the group, as the wings vary from 4°5 to 4:1 inch in
length from the carpal joint. It may be diagnosed from the other small species of this
subgenus by its white nuchal collar joining the white throat, in which respect it resembles
C. peroni and C. marginatus. From the latter it differs in having a dark patch (black in
adult male in breeding-dress, otherwise brown) ox the side of the breast, but this black
patch does not extend round the base of the neck as in the former species. From immature
examples of C. pecuarius and C. sancte-helene it is easily distinguished by the central
portion of the shafts of the third primaries being white.

It may be subdivided into three or four races, the typical or Paleearctic form being
distinguished by its d/ack legs.

So far as is known, the Kentish Plover only breeds on the margins of salt-lakes or on
the sea-shore, nevertheless its breeding-range extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It
is a regular summer visitor to the coasts of South Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Belgium,
and France. It is a resident on the coasts of Spain, Portugal, the Azores, Canaries,
Madeira, and on both shores of the Mediterranean. To the salt-marshes on the steppes of
Southern Russia, the shores of the Caspian, the margins of the salt-lakes of Turkestan,
South Dauria, and Mongolia it is a summer visitor. The Kentish Plovers which breed in
the northernmost portion of their range in Europe appear to winter on the coasts of Africa,
where they have been said to stray as far south as the Cape Colony, but I have never seen
an example from South Africa. The Asiatic birds winter on the Mekran coast in India,
Ceylon, Burma, the Malay peninsula, China, and Japan.

The black markings on the lores, behind the eyes, above the white forehead, and on
the sides of the breast are confined to the male in breeding-dress, and are replaced by
brown in the other plumages.

CHARADRIUS CANTIANUS MINUTUS.
TROPICAL KENTISH PLOVER.

CHARADRIUS CANTIANUS magnitudine minore.
Ir appears completely to intergrade with the typical form.

So far as I have been able to learn no name has been given to this subspecies, though
it is possible that the Charadrius alecandrinus of Hasselquist (Linneus, Syst. Nat. 1. p. 253)

may refer to it.
Z

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Seasonal
and other
changes.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

170 CHARADRIUS.

Pratses.—Unfigured.
Hasits.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 950.
Ecas.—Described by Legge in the above-mentioned volume as slightly smaller than eggs of the

more northerly race.

The tropical form of the Common Sand-Plover, or Kentish Plover as it has
unfortunately been named, is only a dwarf race of its migratory ally. The length
of the wing from the carpal joint varies from 4°2 to 3-7 inch. The legs are also said to
be somewhat paler than those of the typical form.

So far as is known, the small race of the Common Sand-Plover is a resident on the
southern shores of the Red Sea, where it was obtained by Blanford, who erroneously
identified it as C. niveifrons (Geol. and Zool. Abyss. p. 429), and on the island of Ceylon,
where Legge found it breeding on the margins of the salt-lagoons.

CHARADRIUS CANTIANUS DEALBATUS.
CHINESE KENTISH PLOVER.

CuaAraprivs cantranvs loris fuscis, pedibus pallidis.

Tue Chinese form of this species completely intergrades both with the American and
European forms.

ABgialites dealbatus, Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870, p. 138.

Prates.—None.
Hasits.—Swinhoe, Ibis, 1860, p. 429.
Hees, obtained by Swinhoe, are indistinguishable from those of the typical form.

The Chinese form of the Kentish Plover only differs from its Western ally in being on
an average a slightly larger bird, with pale instead of dark /egs. In the latter respect it
agrees with the American form of the same species, which differs from it only in having no
black on the lores. On the American shore of the Pacific it is said that all three forms
occur together with intermediate examples.

It is a resident on the coasts of South China, Formosa, and Hainan.

CHARADRIUS. 171

*,* Subgeneric group Aigialophili minores.

ttt Nearctic and Neotropical Species.

CHARADRIUS CANTIANUS NIVOSUS.
AMERICAN KENTISH PLOVER.

CHaRabRIUs caNnTIANUS loris albis : pedibus pallidis. Diagnosis.

CHARADRIUS CANTIANUS is very distinct from Charadrius nivosus. The Eurasian species is Variations.
a larger bird, with a longer bill and longer and blacker Jegs, darker lores, and darker
upper parts generally than its American ally. The ranges of the two species do not
approach within seven thousand miles of each other, so that there can scarcely be any
possibility of interbreeding between the two races. Nevertheless it is possible to find
small pale-legged and pale-lored birds in China, which, when compared with large dark-
legged, dark-lored birds from California, would not merely be not distinguishable, but
would be unhesitatingly referred to the wrong species if judged by their merits instead of
their nationality. Under these circumstances it seems to me impossible to regard them as
more than subspecifically distinct, though the areas of their distribution are not only
not continuous, but separated by a chasm nearly eight thousand miles across.

Agialitis nivosa, Baird, Cassin, & Lawrence, Birds N. Amer. p. 696 (1858). Synonymy.
Agialitis cantianus, var. nivosus, Coues, Check-list N. Am. B. p. 135 (1878).
Agialitis alexandrina nivosa (Cassin), Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i.

p. 164 (1884).

Z2

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Seasonaland
other
changes.

172 CHARADRIUS.

Puares.— Baird, Lawrence, & Cassin, Birds N. Amer. pl. xe.
Hasirs.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 164.
Eees.—Described by Brewer on p. 167 of the above-mentioned volume.

The American form of the Kentish Plover is on an average a slightly smaller bird
than its European and Asiatic allies, varying in length of wing from the carpal joint from
4°4 to 4:0 inch. Typical examples have pale legs and feet}, like C. dealbatus, but differ
from both forms in having white lores. It is said that on the American continent inter-
mediate forms in both respects are found, some examples having dark legs and others
black lores.

The American Kentish Plover is a salt-water bird, and is said to be a resident on the
shores of the Pacific from California to Northern Chili. Its range extends eastwards to
the southern shores of the Great Salt Lake in Utah’, in about the same latitude as Cape
Mendocino on the coast, which appears to be its northern limit.

I have examples collected by Whitely (Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868,
p- 176) and by Howard Saunders in Peru, and by Mr. G. F. Mathew near Valparaiso,
which appears to be the southern limit of its range. It is said to be a resident in California,
and there is no evidence that it is a migratory bird in any part of its range.

Another point on which this species appears to be in a transition state is in its
seasonal and sexual changes of plumage. In the Eurasian form the black markings over
the forehead, on the lores, behind the eyes, and on the sides of the breast are replaced by
brown in the female and young, and in the winter plumage of both sexes. In the
American form the black markings vary very much in extent, and are seldom entirely
absent, except in very young birds.

1 Authorities vary as to the colour of the legs of this species. Ten examples in my collection have all
pale enough legs now, whatever they may have had when they were alive. Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence (loc.
cit.) say “legs light”; Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (loc. cit.) say “legs dull slate colour, toes black”; Coues
(Key N. Amer. Birds, rev. ed. p. 603) says “legs black”; but Coues (Ibis, 1866, p. 275) says “legs pale
livid blue, feet blackish.”

* Its alleged occurrence in Guatemala (Salvin, Ibis, 1863, p. 191) is an error, the species referred to
being unquestionably C. collaris. It is doubtful to what species the Agialitis tenuirostris (Lawrence, Ann.
Lyc. N. York, vi. p. 455) from Cuba must be referred, but it is much more likely that the bird described was
an example of Charadrius melodus than of Charadrius nivosus,

CHARADRIUS. 173

CHARADRIUS COLLARIS.
AZARAS SAND-PLOVER.

Cuaraprivs, subgen. Agialophili minores, pedibus pallidis: nucha nec collari nigro, nec collari Diagnosis.
albo ornat&: pectore fascia nigra notato.

No local races of this species are known. Variations.

Charadrius collaris, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxvii. p. 186 (1818). Synonymy.
Charadrius azare, Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 184 (1823).

Charadrius larvatus, Lesson, Man. d’ Orn. ii. p. 318 (1828).

Hiaticula azare (Temm.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 70 (1844).

Hiaticula collaris (Vieill.), Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 290.

Aigialites collaris (Vieill.), Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1869, p. 252.

Aigialitis gracilis, Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1872, p. 158.

Puates.—Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 184. Literature.
Hasits.—Bartlett, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1873, p. 309.
’ Eees.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. lx. fig. 7.

Azara’s Sand-Plover is a tropical form of the Kentish Plover (C. cantianus), but the Specific
black pectoral band is complete in adult birds, and nearly so in young in first plumage. characters,
Otherwise it is difficult to distinguish from some other representatives of the Kentish
Plover (C. marginatus, C. nivosus, and C. dealbatus), all of which, like it, have pale legs.

From C. peront, which also has pale legs, it is easily distinguished by the adsence of either

a white or black nuchal collar.
The plumage of male and female birds, both in summer and winter, presents no

174 CHARADRIUS.

Variations —_-yayjations, but young in first plumage have little or no black above the white forehead, and
due to age,

sex, and the pectoral band is brown and interrupted in the middle.

rpoean It is one of the smallest species in the genus, the length of wing from carpal joint
varying from 4°2 to 3°6 inch. It is a miniature of C. wilsoni, and is a resident in the
tropical portions of Central and South America.

ne I have examples from Peru, and Fraser found it in Ecuador (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc.

tion- 1860, p. 290). I have examples from Colombia and Venezuela. In Brazil it is found
throughout the coast ; Wallace found it at the mouth of the Amazon (Sclater & Salvin,
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 591); and I have examples from Bahia, Rio Grande, and Rio
de la Plata. Salvin obtained an example from Guatemala (Ibis, 1866, p. 196), but it is
not known to have occurred in Chili (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 331).

It appears to be an inland species ; Bartlett found it breeding on the sandy banks of

some of the tributaries of the Amazon in Eastern Peru (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1873, p. 309);
and Durnford met with it in the extreme north-west of the Argentine Republic (Ibis, 1880,
p- 424), and on dry sandy ground in the province of Buenos Ayres (Ibis, 1878, p. 67).
These twe localities represent, so far as is known, the southern limit of its range, which
appears to extend seven hundred miles further south on the Atlantic than on the Pacific
coasts, a boundary of distribution corresponding almost exactly with the isothermal lines
for January, which is probably the breeding-season.

CHARADRIUS OCCIDENTALIS.
CABANIS’S SAND-PLOVER.

Diagnosis. § Cuaraprrus, subgen. Agialophili minores, pedibus nigris: loris albis.

Variations. No local races of this species are known.

CHARADRIUS. 175

ZEigialitis occidentalis, Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1872, p. 158.

Priates.—Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1885, pl. vi. fig. 1 (head only).
Hasits.—Undescribed.
Eees.— Unknown.

Cabanis’s Sand-Plover belongs to the subgeneric group Zyialophili minores, and
appears to be perfectly distinct from any of its allies, having d/ack legs and white lores.

It is only known from the mountain plateaux in the extreme north of Chili. It is
quite distinct from C. xivosus, which is a smaller bird, with paler feet and a white nuchal
collar. It appears to be nearest related to C. ruficapillus, though it is probably a temperate
form of its tropical ally C. collaris. It is a larger bird than any of its tropical allies, the
wing from carpal joint measuring about 42 inches. It is no doubt subject to some
variation in size, but it is only known from the type in the Berlin Museum, which
Herr Reichenow informs me came from Chili, and from the small series obtained from
Tarapaca by Mr. H. B. James (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1886, p. 403).

Males scarcely differ from females, but young in first plumage and adults in winter
plumage are unknown.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

Diagnosis of
genus.

Generic
characters.

Taxonomic
value of
wattles.

CHAPTER XII

PS

cs ‘Ss
iS
S
Ss
N
N
x
N
\
\

Sternum of Lobivanellus pectoralis.

Genus LOBIVANELLUS.

Cuarapkun@ loris carunculis ornatis.

Tus Wattled Lapwings are closely related to the species contained in the genus Vanellus,
but may be distinguished from them, as well as from all the other species belonging to the
family, by the possession of Jobes or wattles attached to the skin between the eyes and the
base of the bill.

It is somewhat doubtful whether the presence or absence of a lobe or wattle on the
side of the head be a generic character of real value, but its appearance in the young in
first plumage suggests an ancient origin. It is quite possible that wattles, as well as
spurs or hind toes, have been independently acquired or lost, and that the Wattled
Lapwings are not more closely related to each other than they are to some of the Lapwings
without wattles. But whether the genus Lodivanellus be a natural or an artificial one (the
determination of which must be left to the decision of the anatomists), it is at least a very

LOBIVANELLUS. 177

convenient one, and some facts of its geographical distribution appear to be in favour of
its validity.

The Lapwings having wattles are almost as numerous as those which are without Geographi-
these peculiar appendages, but the former are distributed over a much smaller area. ee
There are no Wattled Lapwings in the New World, and the only part of the Palearctic :
Region in which they occur is in the valley of the Hoang-Ho and in Southern Japan, a
debatable ground, the ornithological affinities of which are perhaps more Oriental than
Palearctic, and which belong to the Tropical Region of the Charadriide Six species
inhabit the Ethiopian Region and four the Oriental Region, whilst the remaining three
belong to the Australian Region. Of the true Lapwings no less than four breed within
the confines of the Palearctic Region, five are found in the Ethiopian Region, whilst only
one is found during the breeding-season in the Oriental Region and none in the Australian
Region, but no less than three are Neotropical.

A possible explanation of the differences in these distributions may be that the two Emigra-
genera originated during the Pre-Pliocene Glacial Epoch, when the family of Charadriide ™*:
appears to have been dispersed, isolated, and differentiated into the species which became
the ancestors of the present genera. When the Post-Pliocene Glacial Period came on, the
true Lapwings, which had probably been isolated in West Africa and afterwards spread
over the western half of the Palsarctic Region, were again driven south, one detachment
reaching India, but the greater part keeping west, some crossing the line to struggle for
existence with the Wattled Lapwings in the Ethiopian Region, whilst others hung on the
outskirts of the glaciers, and the more adventurous crossed the Atlantic into South
America.

The Wattled Lapwings, on the other hand, were probably isolated in India, and
afterwards spread into Mongolia. When they were driven south again by the Post-
Pliocene Glacial Epoch, they seem to have followed both coasts, or crossed both seas, some
enigrating west into the Ethiopian Region and others east into the Australian Region.

Synonymy of the Genus LoBIvANELLUS.

Type.
Lobivanellus, L. senegalensis.
d F . Soe. . 82, 83 ab. Se
sa icahonns Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1841, pp. 82, { th deckan:
Lobipluvia, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xii. p. 418 (1856) . . . « I. malabaricus.
Xiphidiopterus, L. albiceps.

Sarograms,{Rechon fide Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. pp. 418, 419 (1856) | L. indicus.
Tylibyx, L.melanocephalus.

The Wattled Lapwings have shared no better fate than their cousins in the hands of
the great genus-splitters Reichenbach and Bonaparte.
The only Wattled Lapwing known to Brisson or Linneus was the Grey-flanked
2A

Determina-
tion of the

type.

178 LOBIVANELLUS.

Wattled Lapwing (Lodivanellus senegalensis). The ornithologist placed it in the genus
Vanellus; but the botanist removed it to the genus Parra, in consequence of the lobes on

its face and the spurs on its wings.

When Strickland established the genus Zodcvanellus he omitted to say which of the
various species which he placed in it should be regarded as the type, although, in the
following year, we find his name at the head of the committee who signed the Report
addressed to the British Association, declarmg the importance of so doing. The species
already named being the one which was first discovered, and being furnished not only with
well-developed lobes on its lores, but also with spurs on its wings and hind toes on its feet,
may reasonably be accepted as the type.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Three-toed. Patz#zarcric Region. Four-toed.

Dauria to North China. . . . . SL. cinereus.

ETHIOPIAN REGION.

L. sUPERCILIOSUS .
L. atpiceps . .. ... : Tropical Africa. - « . . UL. SENEGALENSIS.
L. rectus .
East Africa. . . . . L. MELANOCEPHALUS.
South Africa. » . . . DL. vaterats.
ORIENTAL REGION.
S. Persia to India. » . . . L. inbicus.
L. MALABARICUS . . . . India.
Burma and Cochin Chinae . . . . 1. aTRONUCHALIS.
Java to Timor. - . . . UL. cuctriatus.
AUSTRALIAN Rearon.
N. Australia and adjoining L
Islands. F . PERSONATUS.
L. pectoRALIS. . .... . East Australia. . . . . L. vopatus.

The Wattled Lapwings are entirely unrepresented on the American continent, being
found neither in the Nearctic nor in the Neotropical Regions.

LOBIVANELLUS. 179

The genus Lodivanellus contains as many species as its nearest ally Vanellus ; but it is
decidedly more tropic in its distribution, as may be seen from the following résumé :—

Temperate Eurasia Se & a Bah
Routh Afriey i. «ee e 2s « & 1
Temperate Australia 2

Temperate species. . . . 1. — A
Wropieal Agia 6. g: ce & da. ee a de oe 1B

Tropical ATriea sg ap a ow ale op ce SB
Tropical species . . . « . — 10

Species and subspecies of Lobivanellus. . — 14

The Wattled Lapwings, like their cousins the true Lapwings, are not sea-shore but
either river-bank or steppe birds, and consequently we find that the laws of their distribu-
tion are Passerine, except that they show a great tendency to disperse in climatic zones—a
Batrachian or Piscatorial peculiarity.

The most northerly species of this genus, Z. cinereus (a migratory species, breeding on
the Mongolian steppes and wintering in India), is probably the least changed representative
of the ancestors of the genus. It has a small wattle, a hind toe, but only the rudiments of
aspur. The earliest emigrants from Mongolia of the ancestral species appear to have
settled in two colonies, one in India and the other in Cochin China. The latter are still
represented by Z. atronuchalis, which in its turn despatched parties of emigrants to East
Australia (the ancestors of Z. pectoralis) and to India (the ancestors of LZ. indicus), where
the imperfect isolation prevented the differentiation from being complete; whence they
afterwards extended their range into Africa, the ancestors of Z. melanocephalus being
isolated in Abyssinia, those of Z. swperciliosus further south beyond Lake ‘Tanganyika, and
those of Z. fectus more to the west. All these species agree in having black heads and
small wattles, and very small or only rudimentary spurs; and the three species which
respectively breed in India, Cochin China, and Australia, further agree in having bronzed
wing-coverts. ‘The other colony, which originally emigrated to India, is still represented in
that country by L. malabaricus, in Java, Sumatra, and Timor by Z. cucullatus, in North
Australia and some of the adjoining islands by JZ. personatus, and in Kast Australia by
L. lobatus. It also appears to have despatched colonies to Africa, whose descendants
became L. lateralis in South Africa, LZ. senegalensis in West Africa, and L. albiceps in
Central Africa. All these seven species agree in having very large wattles, and, with the
exception of the Indian species, large spurs. The four Asiatic and Australian species have
black heads, and, with the exception of the Indian species, uniform greater wing-coverts
without white tips. ‘The three African species have white foreheads and crowns. ‘The fact

242

Climatic
distribution.

180 LOBIVANELLUS.

that these characters harmonize so well with the geographical distribution of the species
which possess them is strong evidence of their taxonomic value. The presence or absence
of a hind toe, on the other hand, is obviously of less genetic value. In the first place,
because it is easy to assume that the hind toe, which has become rudimentary from disuse,
might become obsolete independently, whilst it is impossible to suppose that the rudimentary
wattle acquired by the ancestral species of Wattled Lapwings should have been independently
developed in a three-toed, as well as in a four-toed, subgenus, to almost precisely the same
model. And in the second place, because the large-wattled species of India is connected
with the large-wattled species of Australia, through a large-wattled species in Sumatra and
Java; and the various small-wattled species form an unbroken line from Mongolia through
China, Cochin China, to East Australia; whilst there is no three-toed species between
India and East Australia.

In constructing a key to the species, I have made what I regard as a natural key for
adult birds, and a more artificial one for young in first plumage.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

A.—With large wattles, almost meeting across the forehead, and hanging down on
each side of the bill.

albiceps - . . -
, senegalensis. . . > Forehead and crown white.
lateralis
Flanks very dark.
dnd fey. aw a a. 4 4 < cucullatus
lobatus . Wing-coverts uniform greyish

brown.

| personatus

Black on forehead and crown
disappearing in a point on
the nape.

os
|
>
|
2.29
|
>
ae

malabaricus .

All these species except the last are furnished with well-developed spurs on the wing.
Some of these characters are not found in young in first plumage.

A white collar on the hind
neck.

No purple-bronze on wing-
coverts.

In all these species the spur on the wing is almost or quite obsolete.

LOBIVANELLUS.
B.—With very small wattles.

} atronuchalis

7)
indicus .
>
, melanocephalus
cinereus . . . . :
superciliosus . f
L tectus.
pectoralis.

181

A hind toe. Pale legs.

Black subterminal band obso-
lete on outer tail-feathers.

Some of these

characters may not be found in young in first plumage ; but in the two following keys it is
believed that no characters are included which are affected by age, sex, or season.

Throat and centre of breast
white.

Greater wing-coverts tipped
with white.

A.—With small hind toe.

cucullatus.
f lobatus -
<
| personatus.

‘ melanocephalus .
indicus. . ae
< senegalensis.

lateralis ... .

Cinereus

Legs and feet reddish purple.

Black band across central tail-
feathers less than an inch.

White terminal band across
tail more than half an inch.

More than basal half of outer
web of first secondary white.

Outer tail-feathers and second-
aries white.

182 LOBIVANELLUS.

I have not seen the young of Z. cucullatus, but probably all the foregoing characters
are found in the young in first plumage as well as in the adult.

B.—No hind toe.
pectoralis.

tectus ; jw nearly all

. white.
Legs pale, greenish yellow f albiceps

or yellowish green. Wat-

tles very large. L malabaricus . . 1 Fier ele
ack subterminal band obso-

superciliosus lete on outer tail-feathers.

So far as is known these characters are constant at all ages, sexes, and seasons.

Perhaps the most interesting fact connected with the specific characters of the Wattled
Lapwings is the correlation of large wattles with well-developed spurs. Out of 14 species
there is only one exception to the rule. All the species which have small wattles have only
rudimentary spurs, and all but one of the species which have large wattles have well-
developed spurs. The natural inference to be drawn from this fact is that the same cause
that produced the wattles also produced the spurs; and that this cause must have been
sexual selection at once suggests itself. It must not be forgotten, however, that both
spurs and wattles appear to be as well-developed in the females as in the males, and that
many of the Lapwings that have no wattles at all are provided with spurs.

There can, however, be no doubt that both spurs and wattles have been independently
developed in many cases. In the family Parride, which is very closely related to the
Charadriide, all the species are furnished with well-developed metacarpal spurs, and some
of them with facial wattles. The genus Lodivanellus may perhaps be regarded as so closely
related to the genus Parra that their spurs and wattles may be inherited from common
ancestors ; but there can be no doubt of the independent origin of the spur in the Spur-

winged Goose (Plectropterus gambensis) or of the wattle in the New-Zealand Wattled
Crows (Glaucopis wilsoni and G. cinerea).

LOBIVANELLUS., 183

*,* Subgeneric group Lobivanelli : with a hind toe.

LOBIVANELLUS CINEREUS.

GREY-HEADED WATTLED LAPWING.

LoBivaNELLUs secundariis albis: halluce parvo. Diagnosis.

Pluvianus cinereus, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xi. p. 587 (1842). Synonymy.
Lobivanellus inornatus, Temminck & Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, Aves, p. 106 (1847).

Lobivanellus cinereus (Blyth), Blyth, Cat. Birds Mus. As. Soc. p. 261 (1849).

Sarcogrammus inornatus (Temm. et Schlegel), Bonaparte, Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 418 (1856).

Chettusia inornata (Temm. et Schlegel), Jerdon, Birds of India, iti. p. 646 (1864).

Chetusia cinerea (Blyth), Blyth, Ibis, 1867, p. 165.

Piates.—Temm. et Schlegel, Fauna Jap., Aves, pl. 63. Teraatn.
Hasits.—Jerdon, Birds of India, iii. p. 646.
Eees.—Unknown (probably taken by Prijevalski).

The Grey-headed Wattled Lapwing has a hind toe, but may be easily distinguished Specific
from those species which are also furnished with this appendage by its pure white secondaries, Cha™acters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

Diagnosis.

Variations,

184 LOBIVANELLUS.

It breeds in South-east Mongolia, North China, and Japan, and winters in North-east
India and the Burma Peninsula.

The Grey-headed Wattled Lapwing can only claim admission to the genus Lodivanellus
by virtue of a small wattle on the lores. It must be regarded as a connecting link between
that genus and Vanellus. It is probably not very distantly related to V. deucurus; and
since it is the only species of Wattled Lapwing which still inhabits the immediate
neighbourhood of the great steppes, where the common ancestors of the two genera appear
to have lived, we may perhaps assume that it is one of their least changed descendants.

LOBIVANELLUS INDICUS.

BRONZE.WINGED WATTLED LAPWING.

LopivaNeELuvs rectricum fascia alb& terminali lata (circa 15 ad 20 millim.),

Tnx Bronze-winged Wattled Lapwings east of the Ganges differ so much from the typical
form that they must certainly be regarded as subspecifically distinct. Legge says that ex-
amples from Ceylon are smaller than those from the mainland, the former varving in length

LOBIVANELLUS. 185

of wing from 8-0 to 8-4 inch, whilst the latter vary from 8°6 to 9°2 inch. My series from
the continent confirms the measurements given by Legge, but my solitary skin from Ceylon

measures 8°6 inch.

Tringa indica, Boddaert, Table Pl. Enl. no. 807, p. 50 (1783).

Parra goensis, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 706 (1788).

Tringa goensis (Gmel.), Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 727 (1790).

Vanellus goensis (Gmel.), Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. xxxv. p. 208 (1819).
Charadrius atrogularis, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 75 (1827).

Lobivanellus goensis (Gmel.), Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1841, p. 33.
Chettusia indica (Bodd.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p.541 (1847).
Sarcogrammus goensis (Gmel.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 418 (1856).
Lobivanellus indicus (Bodd.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 68 (1864).

Puates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 807; Gould, Cent. Him. Birds, pl. 78.

Hasits.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 962.

Eees.—Hume, Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, p. 574; exactly resembling eggs of Charadrius
morinellus in size and colour, but not quite so boldly blotched.

The Bronze-winged Wattled Lapwing is the only species of the genus which has, when
adult, a black throat and upper breast, and no white at the back of the neck. It may be
distinguished at all ages by the width of the white band at the end of the tail, which exceeds
half an inch.

The Bronze-winged Wattled Lapwing is represented in the Burma peninsula by a very
close ally, which principally differs from it in having the black on the breast meeting at the
back of the neck, and separated by a white collar from the brown back. The amount of
black on the hind neck varies so much that it is not always easy to say to which form some

examples belong. .
The typical form is a resident in South Persia, Baloochistan, India, and Ceylon. Blan-

ford obtained it as far west as the neighbourhood of Shiraz (Blanford, Eastern Persia, ii.
p. 281) and in several localities in Baloochistan. To Gilgit (Scully, Ibis, 1881, p. 587),
and possibly to Cashmere, it is only a summer migrant; but in the rest of India and Ceylon
it is for the most part a resident, breeding in great abundance both on the plains and on
the hills, up to three or four thousand feet above the level of the sea. Colonel Swinhoe
obtained it at Kandahar (Ibis, 1882, p. 120), but Severtzow did not meet with it in ‘Tur-
kestan. It frequents similar localities to those chosen by our Common Lapwing, but breeds
in all sorts of places, sometimes even on the flat roofs of houses two stories high.

2B

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Allies.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

186 LOBIVANELLUS.

(Half natural size.)

L. aironuchalis. L. indicus.

LOBIVANELLUS INDICUS ATRONUCHALIS.
BLYTH’S WATTLED LAPWING.

Diagnosis. | LosivaneLLus 1npIcus nucha nigra.

Variations. | INTERMEDIATE forms between the eastern and western races of this species are frequently
met with.

Synonymy. Sarcogramma atrogularis, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xxxi. p. 845 (1862).
Lobivanellus atronuchalis, Jerdon, Birds of India, ili. p. 648 (1864).

Literature. Prares.— Unfigured.
Hasits.—Oates, Birds of British Burmah, ii. p. 374.
Eces.—Hume, Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, p.576. Undistinguishable from eggs of L. indicus.

Specific Blyth’s Wattled Lapwing when adult may be distinguished from the Bronze-winged

characters. Wattled Lapwing by its having the xeck ornamented with a white collar. It is not known
that young in first plumage of the two forms differ.

Geographi- It is a resident in Burmah and Cochin China.

ce ee Blyth’s Wattled Lapwing is very closely related to the Bronze-winged Wattled
Lapwing (L. indicus), and to the Black-breasted Wattled Lapwing (JZ. pectoralis). In all

” three species the wattles on the lores are small, the crown and upper breast are black, and the

ALLIES,

wing-coverts are more or less bronzed with purple, each of the three characters showing
relationship with Vanellus.

LOBIVANELLUS. 187

LOBIVANELLUS CUCULLATUS.

BLACK-THIGHED WATTLED LAPWING.

LosivaneLLus abdomine nuchaque nigris : tectricibus haud albo terminatis. Diagnosis.
No local races of this species are known. Variations.
Vanellus tricolor, Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 186 (1820, nec Vietllot, 1818). Synonymy.

Charadrius macropterus, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 77 (1827).
Vanellus cucullatus, Temminck*, Pl. Col. no. 505 (1880).

tricolor (Horsfield), Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1841, p. 33.
cucullatus (Temm.) ,

Chettusia fomnencete Ee) at Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 541 (1847).
Ucueullatus (Temm.),

Lobivanellus

Prates.—Temm. Pl. Col. no. 505. Literature.
Hasits.— Undescribed.
Eees.— Unknown.

+ It is curious that Temminck did not name this bird until 1830, inasmuch as he accurately described it
in 1807 (Cat. Syst. Cab. d’Orn. pp. 172, 260) under the title of “ Le grand Vanneau armé & lambeaux rouges de
Ternate.”

2B2

188 LOBIVANELLUS.

Bpeciie The Black-thighed Wattled Lapwing, besides being the only species with black thighs,
aon may be diagnosed by its combination of a black belly and a black forehead. I have never
seen the young in first plumage, but probably the characters greater wing-coverts not
terminated with white and underparts mostly dark are diagnostic at all ages.
It is a resident in Java, Sumatra, and Timor.
It is probably the result of an eastern emigration of some of the ancestors of
L. malabaricus.

LOBIVANELLUS PERSONATUS.
GOULD’S WATTLED LAPWING.

Diagnosis. LosrvaneLuus halluce parvo: cervice et corpore subtis omnin6 albis.

Variations. No local races of this species have been discovered; and though it appears to be so
closely related to Z. dodatus, it is not known that intermediate forms occur.

Synonymy. Vanellus ludovicianus armatus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 114 (1760).
Tringa miles, Boddaert, Table Pl. Enl. no. 835, p. 51 (1783).

LOBIVANELLUS. 189

Parra ludoviciana, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 706 (1788),

Tringa ludoviciana (Gmel.), Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 727 (1790).

Vanellus ludovicianus (Gmel.), Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxxv. p. 208 (1819).
Charadrius ludovicianus (Gmel.), Nitzsch, Ersch & Grub. Encycl. xvi. p. 150 (1827).
Charadrius callaeas, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 76 (1827).

Lobivanellus ludovicianus (Gmel.), Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1841, p. 38.
Lobivanellus personatus, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842, p. 113.

personata (Gould),
miles (Boddaert),
Lobivanellus miles (Bodd.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 418 (1856).

Chettusia i Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 541 (1847).

Prates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 835 3 Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 10. Literature.
Hasits.—Gould, Handb. Birds of Australia, ii. p. 220.
Eees.—Campbell, Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, p. 53.

Gould’s Wattled Lapwing has the underparts and nape pure white, and is furnished Specific
both with spurs and hind toes. This diagnosis bars all other species, including its repre- °?*72¢te?S-
sentative in East Australia, Z. Jodatus, which differs from it in having a black collar at the
back of the neck extending to the sides of the breast, and connected with the black crown
by a narrow black band down the nape.

It is a resident in North Australia; I have an example collected by Rosenberg in Geographi-
Arru; and it has occurred in Timor-laut (Forbes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1884, p. 433), New le
Guinea (Ramsay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, iv. p. 101), and some other adjacent
islands.

It is said to be a common bird, living on the borders of lakes, on the seashore at the

mouths of rivers, and on swamps, but also visiting the plains, generally in small flocks.
It breeds in August and September, and is said to lay only two or three eggs, closely
resembling those of Z. indicus. It is a very handsome bird, having, like its close ally
L. lobatus, yellow irides and wattles ; but its legs and feet are much paler than those of its
ally, a character which is very conspicuous even in the dried skins.

The two Australian species appear to be nearest allied to Z. malabaricus, but are much Allies.
closer related to each other. ‘There is, however, no reason to suppose that they intergrade,
as appears to be the case with the two Bronze-winged Wattled Lapwings, which differ from
each other in a very similar manner. L. personatus not only differs from its southern ally
in having no black on the hind neck and in having much paler legs, but it is a slightly
smaller bird, and is said to lay smaller eggs.

190 LOBIVANELLUS.

LOBIVANELLUS LOBATUS.
LATHAM’S WATTLED LAPWING.

Diagnosis. | Loprvanenuus halluce parvo: corpore subtis omnind albo: occipite nuchaque nigris.

Variations. Tax black collar on the hind neck is somewhat variable in size, but appcars never to be
absent.

Synonymy. Tringa lobata, Latham, Index Orn. Suppl. p. lxv (1801).
Vanellus lobatus (Lath.), Vieillot, N. Dict. d Hist. Nat. xxxv. p. 209 (1819).
Vanellus nove-hollandie, Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xi. p. 516 (1819).
Charadrius lobatus (Lath.
Charadrius gallinaceus,
Vanellus gallinaceus (Wagler), Jardine & Selby, Jil. Orn. ii. pl. 84 (1829).
Lobivanellus gallinaceus (Wagler), Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1841, p. 33.
Lobivanellus lobatus (Lath.), Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 9 (1842).
Chettusia lobata (Lath.),
Chettusia gallinacea (Wagler),

a: Wagler, Syst. Av. pp. 75, 76 (1827).

} Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 541 (1847).

Literature. Puatus.—Jardine and Selby, Ill. Orn. ii. pl. 84; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 9.
Hasirs.—Gould, Handb. Birds of Australia, ii. p. 218.

Eecs.—Ramsay, Ibis, 1867, pl. ix. fig. 2. Scarcely distinguishable from eggs of Vanellus
cristatus,

LOBIVANELLUS. 191

a

Latham’s Wattled Lapwing may be distinguished by the possession of spurs, hind toes,
and white underparts from all the other Wattled Lapwings, except from its close ally
L.. personatus. he black collar at the back of the neck prevents any confusion with the
latter species.

Latham’s Wattled Lapwing is a resident in the eastern half of Australia, from
Rockingham Bay to Tasmania. Its alleged occurrence in Celebes (Schlegel, Mus. Pays-
Bas, Cursores, p. 67) requires confirmation.

It is very closely allied to LZ. personatus, and more distantly to LZ. malabaricus.

Young in first plumage, with black markings on the upper parts and the remains of

down on the plumage, have nevertheless the wattles and the black nuchal collar well
developed.

** Subgeneric group Lobivanelli: with a hind toe.

{+ Ethiopian Species.

LOBIVANELLUS SENEGALENSIS.
GREY-FLANKED WATILED LAPWING.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

Plumage of
young.

Losrvanetuus halluce parvo: secundariarum exteriorum duabus partibus (terminalibus) nigris, Diagnosis.

tertid parte (basali) alba.

No local races of this species are known, but examples are often met with without the Variations.

Synonymy,

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Plumage of
young.

192 LOBIVANELLUS.

black on the throat or the white on the crown, though in every other respect they appear
to be adult.

Vanellus senegalensis armatus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 111 (1760).
Parra senegalla, Linneus, Syst. Nat. 1. p. 259 (1766).

Tringa senegalla (Linn.), Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 728 (1790).
Vanellus albicapillus,
Vanellus senegallus (Linn.)
Vanellus senegalensis (Briss.), Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xi. p. 515 (1819).
Charadrius albicapillus (Vieill.), Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 77 (1827).

Vanellus strigilatus, Swainson, Birds W. Africa, ii. p. 241 (1837).
Lobivanellus senegalus (Linn.),
Lobivanellus albicapillus (Vieiil.),
Chettusia albicapilla (Vieidl.),
Chettusia senegalla (Linn.),

} Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. xxxv. pp. 205, 209 (1819).

I Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1841, p. 33.

} Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 541 (1847).

Prates.—Swainson, Birds West Africa, pl. xxvii.; Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 362.
Hasits.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds of South Africa, p. 666.
Eecs.—Unknown.

The Grey-flanked Wattled Lapwing is a northern race of the Dark-flanked Wattled
Lapwing, and belongs to the group of species which are not only furnished with largely
developed wattles, but also with spurs and hind toes. From the other species of the group
its white forehead is, when adult, a sufficient distinction ; and from its southern ally it
may be distinguished either by the absence of the black on the flanks or by the colour of
its outermost secondaries, which are white with the terminal two thirds black.

It inhabits the Ethiopian Region north of the Equator. I have skins from Senegambia,
the Gold Coast (Ussher), Nubia, and Abyssinia ; Hartert obtained it on the Chadda River,
an eastern tributary of the Niger (Journ. Orn. 1886, p. 609); and Heuglin records it
from Kordofan and the valley of the White Nile.

Some ornithologists have supposed it to be the young of Z. /ateralis, but the difference
between the amount of black and white on the secondaries in the two species is conclusive
evidence that this is not the case. The young of LZ. senegalensis differ from the adult in
having no black on the chin and upper throat, and in having neither black nor white on
the forehead and crown.

It is nearest allied to Z. Jateralis, but is quite distinct from that species, though many
ornithologists have erroneously united them.

LOBIVANELLUS. 193

NLA h ie
AW

i

LOBIVANELLUS LATERALIS.
DARK-FLANKED WATTLED LAPWING.

Losivanetius halluce parvo: secundariarum exteriorum partibus duabus (basalibus) albis, tertia Diagnosis.
parte (terminali) nigr4.

No local races of this species are known. Variations.
Vanellus lateralis, Smith, Ill. Zool. S. Africa, Aves, pl. 23 (1889). Synonymy.
Chettusia lateralis (Smith), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 541 (1847).

Lobivanellus lateralis (Smith), Ayres, Ibis, 1873, p. 288.
Lobivanellus senegalus, apud Schlegel, Kirk, Sharpe, &c.
Piates.—Smith, Ill. Zool. 8. Africa, Aves, pl. 23. Literature.

Hasirs.—Andersson, Birds of Damara-Land, p. 267.
Eees.— Unknown.

The Dark-flanked Wattled Lapwing is a southern race of the Grey-flanked Wattled Specific
Lapwing, and principally differs from it when adult in having a black band across the eee
flanks and belly. It has still more white on the secondaries than its near ally, the dasal
two thirds of the outermost being white. ‘This character applies to young birds as well as

to adults.
2c

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

194 LOBIVANELLUS.

Both this species and its northern ally are probably the result of a western emigration
of some of the ancestors of Z. malabaricus.

The Dark-flanked Wattled Lapwing appears to be confined to Africa south of the
Equator. I have an example from Angola collected by Anchieta; Monteiro found it in
Benguela (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 90); I have skins from Damara-Land collected by
Andersson ; in the Cape Colony it is recorded by Layard from Port Elizabeth, and Ayres
met with it in the Transvaal (Ibis, 1873, p. 283). My friend Graham Hutchinson found
it in Swasiland, sometimes in long grass, but more often among the mimosa-thorn bushes
on the sandy plains; he remarked its constant habit of bowing its head when not running
about. Kirk records it from the Zambesi (Ibis, 1864, p. 331), where it has since been
found by Holub (Beitr. Orn. Siidafr. p. 240); and Béhm obtained it at Gonda west of
Zanzibar (Journ. Orn. 1885, p. 39).

LOBIVANELLUS MELANOCEPHALUS.
RUPPELL’S WATTLED LAPWING.

LosivaneLus halluce nullo: rectricum fascia nigra subterminali angusté (haud 25 millim.).

No local races of this species are known.

LOBIVANELLUS, 195

Lobivanellus melanocephalus, Riippell, Syst. Uebers. Vog. N.O.-Afr. p. 115 (1845). Synonymy.
Chettusia melanocephala (Riipp.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 541 (1847)
Tylibyx melanocephalus (Riipp.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xiii. p- 419 (1856)
Vanellus melanocephalus (Rupp.), Giebel, Thes. Orn. iii. p. 745 (1877).

Prates.—Riippell, Vég. N.O.-Afr. pl. 44.

Hasirs.—Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 1003; Blanford, Geol. & Zool. Abyss. p- 480.
Eees.— Unknown.

Literature.

Riippell’s Wattled Lapwing having a hind toe but no spur can only be confused when Specific
adult with three other species, from which it is distinguished by its combination of the °#¢ters-
two characters: sides of neck grey, throat black. I have never seen the young in first
plumage, but probably the character, dark subterminal band across the tail very narrow (less
than an inch), will distinguish them from all their allies.

It is a resident in Nubia, Abyssinia, and the upper valley of the Nile. eG

It resembles Z. cinereus and L. indicus in its small wattle, absence of spur, and _ tion.

presence of hind toe, and being intermediate between them in colour, is probably closely
allied to both.

*,.* Subgeneric group Sarciophori: without a hind toe.

LOBIVANELLUS ALBICEPS.
BLACK-SHOULDERED WATTLED LAPWING. (Puare VIII.)

Losivanetuvs halluce nullo: calcaribus magnis. Diagnosis.
No local races of this species are known. Variatious.
Vanellus albiceps', Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1884, p. 45. Synonymy.

Lobivanellus albiceps (Gould), Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1841, p. 33.
Sarciophorus albiceps (Gould), Fraser, Zvol. Typ. pl. 64 (1849).
Xiphidiopterus albiceps (Gould), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 418 (1356).
Hoplopterus albiceps (Gould), Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 1007 (1873).

* How far this name is barred by the Chapnitrius albiceps of Temminck (Planches Coloriées, No, 526)
published in 1832, and now ranking as a synonym of Vanellus speciosus, it is difficult to determine,

2c 2

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

196 LOBIVANELLUS.

Puiates.—Fraser, Zoologia Typica, pl. 64.
Hasits.—Biittikofer, Notes from the Leyden Museum, 1885, p. 236; Hartert, Journ. Orn.

1886, p. 609.
Eecs.— Unknown.

The Black-shouldered or White-crowned Wattled Lapwing is a very aberrant member
of the genus, and may be diagnosed in many ways. In no other Lapwing does the white
on the forehead extend over the crown and down the nape. It is the only species of the
genus with black wing-coverts. It is also the only Lapwing which possesses wattles and
spurs, but has no hind toe. An equally good diagnosis is primary-coverts and innermost
primaries white. Its legs and feet are yellowish green.

This species is very rare in collections, and was originally described by Gould from
the Niger. Biittikofer obtained several examples in Western Liberia, which are now in the
Leyden Museum ; and it has been found in various localities in Senegambia (Rochebrune,
‘Faune de la Sénégambie,’ p. 283). Du Chaillu obtained it in Lower Guinea on the
Kamma (Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 1007). I have an example obtained by Petit and
Lucan on the Loango Coast, where it was also obtained by Falkenstein (Reichenow, Journ.
Orn. 1877, p. 11). Its alleged occurrence on the island of Fernando Po appears to be a
myth. The examples described by Gould, and obtained by Capt. Allen, were procured on
the Niger (Allen and Thomson, Narr. Exp. River Niger, i. p. 508), and not on the island
of Fernando Po, as erroneously stated by Fraser, though they were exhibited by Gould at
the meeting of the Zoological Society of London on the 10th of June, 1834, accompanied
by some other objects of natural history from Fernando Po, an accident which appears to
have given rise to the error. There can be little doubt that it has occurred as far east as
the river Dender in Sennar (Antinori and Salvadori, Viagg. Bogos &. p. 144), but it
is somewhat doubtfully recorded from the Cape Colony. I have seen examples from the
Transvaal, and it has been procured on the Zambesi and its tributaries in Albert’s Land
(Holub, Beitr. Orn. Siidafr. p. 240).

It is said to frequent the sandy banks of rivers, where it feeds upon insects and
small fish.

Although it has lost its hind toe it is probably nearest allied to Z. senegalensis and
L. lateralis, with both of which it agrees in having a white forehead and crown. Very
little importance can, however, be attached to a character which is not found in the young
as well asin the adult; and the Black-shouldered Wattled Lapwing must be regarded as a
highly differentiated species, whose affinities it is very difficult to determine.

LOBIVANELLUS. 197

LOBIVANELLUS TECTUS.
CRESTED WATTLED LAPWING.

LosivaneLuvus halluce nullo: primariarum tectricibus albis : remigibus omnibus ad basin albis, ad Diagnosis.
terminum nigris.

Exampres from East and West Africa appear to be identical. Variations.

Charadrius tectus, Boddaert, Tabi. Pl. Eni. no. 834, p. 51 (1783). Synonymy.
Charadrius pileatus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 691 (1788).

Sarciophorus pileatus (Gmel.), Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1841, p. 33.

Hoplopterus tectus (Bodd.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 542 (1847).

Hoplopterus pileatus (Gmel.), Reichenbach, Spec. Orn. pl. xcix. fig. 702 (1848).

Lobivanellus pileatus (Gmel.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 65 (1865).

Sarciophorus tectus (Bodd.), Blanford, Geol. & Zool. Abyss. p. 430 (1870).

Chettusia pileata (Gmel.), Finsch, Proc. Ac. Philad. 1872, p. 82.

Sarciophorus latifrons, Reichenow, Journ. Orn. 1881, p. 334.

PiatEes.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 834. ere
Hasits.—Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 1008.
Ecees.— Unknown.

The Crested Wattled Lapwing differs from all its congeners, not only in having a well-

Specific
characters,

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis,

198 LOBIVANELLUS,

developed black crest when adult, but also in having a narrow black band reaching from
the throat down the breast almost to the belly.

At all ages it may be recognized by the amount of white on the innermost primaries
and outermost secondaries. The base of these feathers for about half the length of both
webs is white, the terminal half being nearly black. In this little group of five species the
amount of white on the wing is an important character to distinguish the young in first
plumage. In Z. albiceps the primary-coverts and innermost primaries are white. In
L. tectus the primary-coverts are white, but the terminal half of the outermost secondaries
as black.

The Crested Wattled Lapwing is found in Arabia Petraea, whence I have an example
collected by Mr. Lord in the Wady-el-Arabah in 1869. I have also an example said to
have come from Egypt, and Riippell notes its occasional occurrence in that country (Syst.
Uebers. Vog. N.O.-Afr. p. 118). It is not uncommon in Kordofan, Sennar, the province
of Taka, the coast of Abyssinia, and the Dahlak Archipelago (Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr.
i. p. 1009). It appears to occur as far east as the Gulf of Aden (if the Berdera of
Reichenow be identical with Berbera); and probably ranges across Africa, as it has been
recorded from Senegal (Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 66).

LOBIVANELLUS MALABARICUS.
BUFFON’S WATTLED LAPWING.

Losivanetuvs halluce nullo: rectricibus lateralibus albis: pedibus flavis.

LOBIVANELLUS. 199

Accoxpine to Legge examples from Ceylon are slightly smaller than those from the Variations.

mainland. The former vary in length of wing from 7:7 to 7°8 inch, and the latter from

7°6 to 8-0 inch. Possibly a larger series might prove that the conclusion was an error.

Charadrius malabricus, Boddaert, Tabl. Pl. Enl. no. 880, p. 53 (1788).

Charadrius bilobus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 691 (1788).

Sarciophorus bilobus (Gmel.), Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1841, p. 33,
Sarciophorus fuscus, Hodgson, Gray’s Zool. Misc. 1844, p. 86.

Lobipluvia biloba (Gmel.), Bonaparte, Compt. Rend. xliii. p- 418 (1856).

Chettusia biloba (Gmel.), Finsch, Proc. Ac. Philad. 1872, p. 82.

Sarciophorus malabaricus (Bodd.), Holdsworth, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1872, p. 472.
‘Lobipluvia malabarica (Bodd.), Hume, Nests and Egys Ind. Birds, iii. p. 577 (1875).

Puiates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 880.
Haxits.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 966.
Eees.—Hume, Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, iii. p. 577.

Buffon’s Wattled Lapwing when adult may be distinguished from its two congeners,
which, like it, have zeether spur nor hind toe, by its black chin, and at all ages by its white
outer tail-feathers.

It breeds on most of the dry uplands throughout India and Ceylon, and has once
occurred in Scinde (Le Messurier, Stray Feathers, ii. p. 417), and once in Burma (Blan-
ford, Ibis, 1870, p. 470). Like most birds breeding in tropical climates it lays its eggs
much earlier in some localities than in others. Hume says that in India it lays in April
and May; but Legge states that in Ceylon it breeds in June and July.

It seems both structurally and geographically to be a connecting-link between
L. cinereus in Mongolia and the representatives of that species on the African continent,
L. senegalensis and L. lateralis, especially when immature examples, before they have
acquired the black on the crown and throat, are compared. In general appearance it very
closely resembles its Mongolian ally, but it has lost its hind toe and greatly developed its
facial wattle. It appears to be almost as nearly related to its African allies, which, like
it, have greatly developed their wattles, but, unlike it, they have also developed formidable
metacarpal spurs, and have retained the ancestral hind toe.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

200 LOBIVANELLUS.

LOBIVANELLUS PECTORALIS.

BLACK-BREASTED WATTLED LAPWING.

Diagnosis. | LosivaneLtius halluce nullo: rectricibus omnibus nigro fasciatis: primariarum omnium pogoniis
; externis nigris.

Variations. No local races of this species are known.

Synonymy. Charadrius tricolor, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat, xxvii. p. 147 (1818, nec Horsfield, 1820).
Charadrius pectoralis, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 58 (1827).
Sarciophorus tricolor (Vieill.), Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1841, p. 38.
Hoplopterus tricolor ( Vieill.), Gray, Genera of Birds, ii. p. 542 (1847).
Charadrius vanelloides, Peale, U. States Expl. Exp. p. 240 (1848).
Sarciophorus pectoralis (Wagler), Blyth, Cat. Birds Mus. As. Soc. p. 261 (1849).
Lobivanellus pectoralis (Wagler), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 65 (1865).
Chettusia pectoralis (Wagler), Finsch, Proc. Ac. Philad, 1872, p. 82.

Literature. Puates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, iv. pl. 11.
Hasits.—Gould, Handb. Birds of Australia, ii. p. 222.
Eees.—Ramsay, Ibis, 1867, pl. ix. fig. 3.

LOBIVANELLUS. 201

The Black-breasted Wattled Lapwing is the only species of the genus which combines
the three characters of throat white, hind toe absent, spur none; but as the young in first
plumage of some of its allies have white throats, it is necessary to add a dark subterminal
band across the median and greater wing-coverts.

It inhabits the whole of South-east Australia and Tasmania. It is not known to be
migratory.

It appears to be the Australian representative of the Bronze-winged Wattled Lapwing.

LOBIVANELLUS SUPERCILIOSUS.
BOHM’S WATTLED LAPWING. (Puave IX.)

Losrvanetuvs halluce nullo: rectricibus lateralibus albis ; pedibus rubris.

Onxy three examples of this species are known.

Lobivanellus superciliosus, Reichenow, Journ. Orn. 1886, p. 116.
Sarciophorus superciliosus (Reich.), Shelley, Ibis, 1887, p. 418.

Prates.—Reichenow, Journ. Orn. 1886, pl. iii. fig. 2 (immature).
Hasits.— Undescribed.
Eecs.—Unknown.

Bohm’s Wattled Lapwing was only known from a single immature example from
Central Africa in the Berlin Museum, until what appear to be the fully adult birds were
obtained near the Camaroon Mountains.

In adult plumage it resembles Z. malabaricus very closely. As in that species the
hind toe is absent, and the dark terminal band across the tail is obsolete on the outer feather
on each side. Tt may, however, be at once distinguished from its ally by the colour of its
legs and feet, which are dark red instead of greenish yellow, and by the colour of the
forehead and the pectoral band, which are rusty brown in the young and chestnut-red in
the adult.

zDD

Specific cha-
racters,

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

202 LOBIVANELLUS.

The immature example was obtained in Central Africa by Dr. Bohm and Herr
Reichard in the district of Marungu on the south-west shores of Lake Tanganyika ; and the
adults were shot by Mr. Johnston on the marshes of the Rio de] Rey, opposite the island
of Fernando Po in the Gulf of Guinea.

The black head, dark legs, and the chestnut-red on the pectoral band are characteristic
of Vanellus gregarius, whilst the position of the pectoral band, the absence of the hind toe,
and the presence of a wattle are characteristic of Lobivanellus cinereus, and the black
primaries of both. It seems probable that Bohm’s Wattled Lapwing is the descendant
of a party of the ancestors of the Wattled Lapwing which emigrated into West Africa in
the company of a party of Unwattled Lapwings before these two sections of the family had
become sufficiently differentiated to make interbreeding impossible, and that it is the result
of a blend between the two which has retained some of the characters of each.

CHAPTER XIIL

Sternum of Vanellus cristatus.

Genus VANELLUS.

CHARADRIINE cauda vix rotundaté: sulco nasali obvio: loris caruncula carentibus: alis seepe
calcaratis : rectricibus centralibus ad basin pro parte tertid albis.

Tae Lapwings and the Plovers are very closely allied. Typical examples of Vanellus,
Lobivanellus, and Charadrius are very distinct, but aberrant examples of the three genera
sometimes approach each other very nearly. Nature has not very clearly differentiated
these three genera ; but since they contain more than sixty species, it is necessary for the
practical ornithologist to cease to be a “lumper” and become a “splitter.” There is,
however, no need of any kind to rush into the opposite extreme, and make a score of genera

where three will amply suffice.
2D2

Diagnosis
of genus.

Most con-
venient to
divide the
Lapwings
from the
Plovers.

Characters
of Lap-
wings.

Characters

of Plovers.

Shape of
wings an
unreliable
character.

Colour
of tail
reliable.

204 | VANELLUS.

The typical Lapwing has broad blunt wings, long secondaries, and short primaries,
the first primary shorter than the second and third—characters denoting resident rather
than migratory habits. It is a somewhat large bird, with a wing measuring from the
carpal jomt 7 to LO inches, has a scutellated tarsus, and is furnished with one or other of
various appendages, such as a spur to its wing, a wattle to its face, a crest to its crown,
and a hind toe to its foot, sometimes with all of them—apparently denoting a comparative
security from enemies obtained by living in places where there is plenty of cover.

The typical Plover, on the other hand, has narrow pointed wings, short secondaries
and long primaries, with the first primary the longest—-characters denoting migratory
habits. It is a smaller bird, with a wing measuring only from 4 to 8 inches from the
carpal joint, has a reticulated tarsus, and is furnished with neither spur, wattle, crest, nor
hind toe—apparently denoting life in an exposed situation, where the exhibition of
conspicuous plumage or the display of family quarrels would attract the attention of ever-
watchful enemies.

Characters so obviously affected by the every-day life of a bird can scarcely be
regarded as of much genetic value, and unfortunately the Lapwings intergrade with the
Plovers to such an extent that it is very difficult to deal with the sixty or more species
comprised in the two groups in a perfectly satisfactory manner.

In attempting to diagnose the thirteen species which are here included in the genus
Vanellus, it is admitted that the external characters which distinguish them from their
nearest allies are possibly arbitrary, and that the group may have to be rearranged on
different lines when the anatomical and other internal characters have been investigated.

The thirteen or fourteen species which have lobes or wattles at the base of the bill
may be conveniently disposed of in the genus Lodivanellus.

The five or six species which have spurs and no wattles are as easily determined to
belong to the genus Vanellus.

There still remain forty species or more from which the other species belonging
to the genus Vanellus have to be selected. I know of no so-called structural characters by
which this may be done satisfactorily. To say first primary shorter than the second would
exclude from the genus Vanel/us such undoubted Lapwings as V. leucurus, V. GIT egarius,
and one or two other more or less migratory species ; and to say first primary not longer
than the second would admit such undoubted Plovers as Charadrius sancte-helene, and
one or two other species which have found breeding-grounds where the necessity to migrate
no longer exists.

It is easier to draw a hard-and-fast line between the two groups of Lapwings and
Plovers by selecting the colour of the rump, upper tail-coverts, and especially the central
tail-feathers as the crucial test.

In the typical Plovers these parts are a nearly uniform light or dark shade of grey or
brown. Occasionally, as in Charadrius vociferus and C. melodus, the rump and upper tail-
coverts differ in colour from the central tail-feathers, and occasionally, as in C. cantianus

VANELLUS. 205

and its allies, the upper tail-coverts and central tail-feathers differ somewhat in colour from
the rump.

In the typical Lapwings the rump is some dark shade of brown or grey, suddenly
separated from the pure white upper tail-coverts and basal portion of the central tail-
feathers, which is again suddenly separated from the clearly defined broad black band across
the tips of the central tail-feathers.

If this character be satisfactory it ought, of course, to apply to the nineteen species
which we have already determined to be Lapwings because they have either spurs or
wattles, or both. It applies to all of them; but two of the non-spurred and non-wattled
Lapwings are slightly exceptional, VY. cristatus and V. leucurus. The former has the black
band across the central tail-feathers very sharply defined from the pure white basal half,
but it appears to have lost its upper tail-coverts altogether; the latter has the white upper
tail-coverts well developed and very clearly defined, but it has lost the black band across
the central tail-feathers, which are pure white throughout.

The character central tail-feathers white for nearly the basal half excludes all the
species belonging to the genus Charadrius, and includes all the Lapwings except Vanellus
crassirostris, an aberrant species, in which only a third of the basal portion of the central
tail-feathers is white; but as this species has a small though very sharp spur on its wing
there is no doubt that it is a Lapwing and not a Plover.

The genus Vanellus must therefore be defined as

Caarapriin® having the nasal apertures placed in a well-defined groove, having no Generic
lobes on the sides of the head, but occasionally having spurs on the wings, and having at ce
least the basal third of the central tail-feathers white.

Synonymy of the Genus VANELLUS.

Type.
Vanellus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 94 (1760) : V. cristatus.
Hoplopterus, Bonap. Sagy. Distr. An. Vert. p. 56 (1831) . . . V. spinosus.
Chettusia, Bunap. Icon. Faun. Ital. Uce., Introd. p. 3 (1841) . . . . . . YV. gregarius.
Hoploxypterus wee = ee cayanus.
Poilaacelys, _ Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. pp. 418, 419 (1856)... 6 ayy ee
Belonopterus . ar a V. cayennensis.
Stephanibys, - } Reichend,, fide Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. pp. 418, 419 (1856) aay sean ne,
Defilippia, Salvad. Att. Suc. Ital. Sc. Nat. viii. p. 378 (1865) . . . 2
Limnetes, de Filippi, fide Finsch & Hartlaub, Vog. Ost-Afr. iv. p. 64 (1870) Cae
Hemiparra, de Filippi, fide Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 994 (1873) . . |
Nomusia, Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 994 (1873) ss aw

The synonymy of the genus Vanellus cannot be regarded as a credit to ornitho-
logists, who seem to have shared the superstitious Bonaparte-worship of the day. It is
almost a waste of paper to reprint such useless synonyms; but a line must be drawn

Determina-
tion of the

type.

Climatic dis-
tribution.

206 VANELLUS.

somewhere, and perhaps the wisest course is to admit all synonyms, except the generic
names of Reichenbach and the specific names of Brehm.

Linneus placed the Lapwing in the genus Zringa because it has a hind toe; but
Brisson removed the four-toed Lapwings and Plovers and placed them in a genus of their
own. The Common Lapwing (Vanellus cristatus) has a double claim to be regarded as
the type of the genus, first because it is the Zringa vanellus of Linneus, and secondly
because it is the Vanellus vanellus of Brisson.

The genus Vanellus is not a very large one, and has equal claims to be regarded as
temperate or tropical. The distribution of the species is as follows :—

Temperate Hurisi@ .. 2 «4 «© = « « 8
South Africa a Fe
Temperate South America .

Temperate species . . . . — 7

w a

Tropical Asia . Se iat Se dn Ul
Tropical Afficea 2 2 & « & « +» 2 @
Tropical America . eee ea
Tropical species. . . . 1. — 7
Species and subspecies of Vanellus . . — 14

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Three-toed. Pat#arctic Region. Four-teed.
Britain to Japan. - + . . . . V. ORISTATUS.
S.E. Russia to W. Turkestan. . . . . . . V. GREGARIUS.
W. Turkestan and Persia. - . . . . . V. LEUCURUS.

ORIENTAL Region.

V.vENTRALIS . . . . . India and Burma.

Eruror1an Recion.

V. MELANOPTERUS. . 1... East Africa, - . + « « « VW. CRASSIROSTRIS.
North-east Africa.

V.sPINosuUs . .. . ; West Africa.

V.INORNATUS . 2... | Central Africa.
South-east Africa.

South Africa,

<<

.SPECIOSUS . . ....
. CORONATUS . i

VANELLUS. 207

Three-toed. NeorTropicaL ReEction. Four-toed.
V. RESPLENDENS . . . . Peru.
Brazil, Bi: nidnec Oe (Gy. Teas ENNE 3
V.CAYANUS. . 1... we { aa Vs CeCENNE NS
Chili. . os. . « . . V. CHILENSIS.

The Lapwings are neither birds of the shore nor of the forest, but of the open plain.
The steppes, prairies, downs, cultivated or uncultivated, are their home. Their absence
from North America suggests the idea that they were originally confined to the Old World,
where two large tracts of country are, and probably have been for ages, exactly suited to
their requirements: the great steppes of Western Asia which stretch away from Tomsk to
Bucharest, and the Mongolian steppes which reach from Kashgar to Pekin. ‘The Altai
Mountains and the adjoining ranges separate these large tracts of country from each other,
so that it is not unreasonable to suppose that if the ancestors of Cursorius and Glareola
were isolated and differentiated from each other and from the Lapwings and Plovers
during the Pre-Pliocene Glacial Epoch, the genera Charadrius, Vanellus, and Lobivanellus
were differentiated from each other at a later date, during the succeeding interglacial epoch,
which may account for their apparent closer relationship. During this period we may
imagine that the ancestors of Charadrius were isolated on the shores of the Polar Basin,
those of Vanellus on the steppes of Western Asia, and those of Zodcvanellus on the
Mongolian steppes.

When these large tracts of land and the hundred little plains and marshes which
surround them were rendered uninhabitable by an arctic winter, ever lengthening until
the whole year was merged in a glacial epoch, the only resource of the bird-population
must have been at first migration, and finally emigration. Those parties of birds which
emigrated found suitable homes in various parts of the tropical and subtropical regions,
where their isolation naturally allowed them to be differentiated into many species; whilst
those which only migrated and returned every summer to breed in the vicinity of the glaciers
interbred more with each other and became few species.

The only difficulty in accounting for the geographical distribution of the Lapwings is
their presence in South America. ‘This is, however, more apparent than real. Although
all the South-American Lapwings possess spurs on their wings and one of them has lost
its hind toes, two of them are obviously most nearly related to the Common Lapwing.
This species is a regular winter visitor, sometimes in great numbers, to the Canary Islands,
and is occasionally seen on the Azores. There can be little doubt that one at least of these
migrating parties was forced, in the struggle to find means of existence during the Post-
Pliocene Glacial Epoch, to emigrate from the contracted and crowded winter-quarters and
was fortunate enough to discover a new home in South America.

The fact that nearly half the species of the genus Vanel/us breed in the Ethiopian
Region suggests the theory that the distribution of the Lapwings is the result of successive
emigration from the Kirghiz Steppes to Africa during the Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch.
These successive and successful parties must have reached the African continent at various

Original
home.

Results of
migration
and emigra-
tion con-
trasted.

Emigration
to South
America.

Emigration
to Africa.

Neotropical
species.

Old-World
tropical
species.

208 VANELLUS.

times and in various places, and must have remained isolated from each other for a sufficient
length of time to have enabled them to become differentiated from each other so completely,
that when, from the gradual extension of the area of distribution of each species, some of
these areas impinged or overlapped, the various species had become so distinct that little or
no cross-breeding took place.

The species which has the most arctic distribution is VY. cristatus, which represents the
descendants of those Lapwings which hung on the outskirts of the glaciers, and never
emigrated to the tropics during the glacial epoch until towards its close, when a party
crossed the Atlantic to South America, and gradually spread over the Brazilian and Chilian
subregions. In so wide a range it is not remarkable that a partial differentiation
subsequently took place, the birds in the north becoming V. cayennensis, and those in the
south a larger race known as /. cayennensis chilensis. V. resplendens may be the result of
an eastern emigration across the Pacific to Peru, where it has found a Palearctic climate
on the plateaus ten thousand feet above the sea.

It is impossible to say how early V. gregarius became differentiated from its allies ; but
it seems to represent a more southerly group of species, which may have originated on that
part of the Kirghiz Steppes which lies west of the Ural Mountains, and extends across the
Caspian into Turkestan. During the intense struggle for existence caused by the glacial
epoch, parties from this colony seem to have emigrated into India (the ancestors of
V. ventralis), into Persia (the ancestors of V. /eucurus), to the coast of East Africa (the
ancestors of V. crassirostris), and into Egypt (the ancestors of V. spinosus). The valley
of the Nile seems to have become an Eldorado for the Lapwings, and many parties of
emigrants seem to have ascended it, and to have found congenial homes in different parts
of the continent of Africa—the ancestors of V. inornatus in the West, those of VY. melano-
pterus in the Kast, those of VY. coronatus in the South-west, and those of /. speciosus in
the South-east, whilst an adventurous party seem to have crossed the Atlantic to South
America, and to have become differentiated into /. cayanus.

In order to simplify the Key to the species they are divided into two purely artificial
groups, those with a small hind toe and those without that appendage. There cannot be
any doubt that the presence of a hind toe or of a spur is a character of only secondary
importance in this genus. ‘To subdivide the genus Vanellus on these lines is unscientific in
the extreme, inasmuch as it separates the most closely allied species, associates together
distantly allied species, and consequently makes the study of their geographical distribution
impossible or misleading. For example, nothing can be more certain than the very close
relationship between V. cristatus, V. cayennensis, and V. resplendens. They are unques-
tionably more nearly related to each other than they are to any other species of the genus;
nevertheless the first has a hind toe and no spur, the second both a hind toe anda spur,
whilst the third has a spur but no hind toe. Every species in the family of Charadriide
appears to be gradually losing or to have recently lost its hind toe, probably by the action
of what Darwin has called the law of degradation by disuse, and it appears to be seldom a
feature of much genetic value whether the hind toe has almost or quite disappeared.

VANELLUS, 209

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Secondaries almost entirely
black ; — wing - coverts
bronzed with purple and
green.

.

Nospurs « % « « « 42

L

Primary - coverts —_ mostly ;

white.

No white on wing-coverts .

Black shoulders

Wing-coverts bronzed with
purple.

A.—With small hind toe.

chilensis Sides of neck lavender-grey.
cayennensis.
cristatus . Broad dark band across central
tail-feathers, obsolete or
gregarius . nearly so on outer ones.
leucurus All the tail-feathers white.
crassirostris.
B.—With no hind toe.
coronatus. . . . )
melanopterus > No spurs.
inornatus . ‘
speciosus -
> Dark legs.
ventralis .
spinosus .- . - J
resplendens.
cayanus Outermost secondaries white
with narrow black tips.

All these characters apply to young as well as to adults, except perhaps the spurs.
The key is, however, complete without them.

25

210 VANELLUS.

*.* Subgeneric group Vanelli: with a hind toe but no spur.
¢ Old-World Species.

VANELLUS CRISTATUS.
COMMON LAPWING.

Diagnosis. | VaNneELLUs supracaudalibus et subcaudalibus rufis: subalaribus nigris.

Variations. ArrHoucH the Common Lapwing is subject to considerable individual variation, especially
in the amount of black on the throat and on the tail, it is impossible to distinguish
examples from China and Japan from others obtained in Western Europe.

Synonymy. Tringa vanellus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 148 (1758); Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 248 (1766).
Vanellus vanellus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 94 (1760).
Vanellus capella, Schaeffer, Mus. Orn. p. 49 (1789).
Vanellus vulgaris, Bechstein, Orn. Taschend., ii. p. 313 (1803).
Vanellus cristatus, Wolf et Meyer, Vog. Deutschl, ii. p. 110 (1805).
Vanellus gavia, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 29 (1816).
Charadrius gavia (Leach), Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 70 (1823).
Charadrius vanellus (Linn.), Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 182 (1826).

Literature. Prares.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 242; Gould, Birds of Gr. Brit. iv. pl. 33; Dresser, Birds of
Europe, vii. pl. 531.
Hasits._-Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 57.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 27. figs. 1, 2, 3, 5.

VANELLUS. 211

The Common Lapwing may be distinguished at all ages and seasons by its combination
of two characters—the presence of metallic gloss on most of the feathers of the upper parts,
and the absence of white on the wing-coverts. It is also the only Lapwing which has chestnut-
buff upper and under tail-coverts.

The Common Lapwing has an undoubted right to its name. It is questionable
whether any other species of the genus is as numerous, and it is certain that none has so
wide a range. It is found halfway round the world, breeding from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, and occasionally invading the American continent at each extremity of its range in
Greenland and in Alaska. In Scandinavia it breeds as far north as the Arctic Circle, but
in Siberia not further than lat. 55°. To the colder portion of its range it is only a summer
visitor, but in the British Islands and in Central Europe south of the Baltic it is a resident.
Its winter-quarters are North Africa (including the Canaries, Madeira, and the Azores),
the basin of the Mediterranean, Asia Minor, Persia, North India, China, and Southern
Japan.

Its nearest ally is doubtless /. resplendens, a species inhabiting the Andes of Ecuador
and Peru.

VANELLUS GREGARIUS.
SOCIABLE LAPWING.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest ally.

VANELLUs primariarum interiorum pogoniis internis albis vel albo marginatis, pogontis externis Diagnosis.

nigris.

252

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest ally.

212 VANELLUS.

No local races of this species are known.

Charadrius gregarius, Pallas, Reise Russ. Reichs, i. p. 456 (1771).

Tringa keptuschka, Lepechin, Tageb. Reise Russ. Reichs, i. p. 229 (1774).
Tringa fasciata, S. N. Gmelin, Reis. Russl. ii. p. 194 (1774).

Vanellus gregarius (Pall.), Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxxv. p. 215 (1819).
Charadrius keptuschka (Lepech.), Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 73 (1827).

Chettusia gregaria (Pall.), Bonap. Faun. Ital. Uce., Introd. p. 12 (1832).
Charadrius wagleri, Gray & Hardwicke, Ill. Ind. Orn. pl. 50 (1835).

Vanellus keptuschka (Lepech.), Temminck, Man. d’ Orn. iv. p. 360 (1840).
Vanellus pallidus, Heuglin, Syst. Uebers. Vig. N.O.-Afr. p. 55 (1855).
Chettusia wagleri (Gray & Hardw.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xlii. p. 419 (1856).

Prates.—Gould, Birds of Europe, pl. 292; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 528.

Hasits.—Dresser, Birds of Hurope, vii. p. 527.

Eees.—An example in Mr. Crowley’s collection, from Sarepta, and two examples in my col-
lection, taken by Major Butler on the Mekran coast, are indistinguishable from small pale
eggs of the Avocet.

The Sociable Lapwing, when adult, may be recognized by its black belly and chestnut-
red vent. At all ages it may be recognized by the colour of its shortest primaries, which
are black with the inner web white or margined with white.

It breeds on the steppes of South-east Russia, South-west Siberia, and Russian
‘Turkestan, migrating in autumn to winter in North-east Africa and India. It has doubtfully
been recorded as an accidental visitor to France and Spain, but there are three authentic
records of its occurrence in Italy (Giglioli, Ibis, 1881, p. 208). Its breeding-range extends
from the valley of the Lower Volga (whence I have several examples from Sarepta) as far
east as the basin of Lake Saisan (Finsch, Reise West-Sibir. p. 131). Goebel did not find
it in South-west Russia, nor has it been recorded by any of the travellers in South-east
Siberia.

It seems to be nearest allied to /. /eucurus, but is somewhat intermediate between
that species and /. ventralis, agreeing with the former in its white outer tail-feathers, and
in having more or less chestnut on the belly, and with the latter in having black on the
crown and belly. V. /ewewrus and V. ventralis show their connection by the black on their

wing-coverts, so that it seems probable that the three colonies were isolated about the same
time.

VANELLUS. 213

VANELLUS LEUCURUS.
WHITE-TAILED LAPWING.

VANELLUS caudé omnind alba. Diagnosis.

No local races of this species are known. Variations,

Charadrius leucurus, Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. Mus. Berlin, p. 70 (1823). Synonymy.
Vanellus villotei, Audouin, Expl. Savign. Pl. Ois. Eyypte, p. 297 (1826).

Vanellus flavipes, Savigny, fide Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 503 (1829).

Vanellus grallarius, Lesson, Traité d’ Orn. p. 542 (1831).

Vanellus leucurus (Licht.), Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xiii. p. 387 (1844).

Lobivanellus leucurus (Licht.), Blyth, Cat. B. Mus. As. Soc. p. 261 (1849).

Vanellus aralensis, Eversmann, Bull. Acad. Mosc. 1853, pt. 11. p. 497.

Chettusia leucura (Licht.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 419 (1856).

Chettusia flavipes (Sav.), Gray, Hand-list Birds, ii. p. 11 (1871).

Chettusia villotei (Audouin), Shelley, Birds of Egypt, p. 233 (1872).

Piates.— Wright, Ibis, 1865, pl. x.; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 529. Literature,
Hasits.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. p. 531.
Eces.—Unknown.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-

cal distribu-

tion.

Accidental

occurrences.

Nearest
ally.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

214 VANELLUS.

The White-tailed Lapwing was probably first discovered by Savigny, but the publica-
tion of the results of his discoveries in Egypt was delayed in consequence of his loss of
sight, so that Lichtenstein’s name took precedence and became generally adopted. The
bird was, however, accurately described by Temminck in 1807 (Cat. Syst. Cab. d’Orn.
pp- 172, 261) under the name of “ Le Vanneaux a queue blanche, ou Vanneaux échassier
d’Egypte.” Unfortunately no Latin name was given to the species by Temminck, nor can
I find any authority for the name of Vanellus flavipes, which Cuvier says was given to it by
Savigny.

The White-tailed Lapwing may always be recognized when adult by its pure white
tail; and even young in first plumage only show slight traces of the black band at or near
the tip.

The White-tailed Lapwing breeds in the salt steppes of Western Turkestan (Severtzoff,
Journ. Orn. 1873, p. 366) and winters in North-east Africa and North India. Brehm’s
statement (Journ. Orn. 1866, p. 386) that it undoubtedly breeds in Egypt is denied by
Heuglin, who only observed it during September to April, from Egypt to East Kordofan, and
mentions its occurrence as far south as the Blue Nile. I have several examples from various
localities in North India; Jerdon records it as far east as Calcutta, and it is very common
all the winter in Southern Afghanistan (Col. Swinhoe, Ibis, 1882, p. 120). It is common in
Southern Persia and Baluchistan from March to September (Blanford, Eastern Persia,
ii. p. 280).

On migration it has occurred accidentally in various parts of Europe; at Montpellier
in the south of France (Jaub. et Barth. Richesse Orn. p. 452), Malta (Wright, Ibis, 1865,
p. 459), Sarepta in South Russia (Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1873, p- 80), and it is doubtfully
recorded from Algeria (Loche) and Senegal (Schlegel).

It appears to be nearest allied to V. gregarius.

VANELLUS CRASSIROSTRIS.
LONG-TOED LAPWING.

VANELLUs remigibus omnibus (prima, secunda et tertia exceptis) omnind albis.

Ir is not known that this species varies in any way.

- VANELLUS. 215

Vanellus macrocercus, Heuglin, Syst. Uebers. Vig. N.O.-Afr. p. 55 (1855) (descript. nulla).
Chettusia crassirostris, de Filippi, fide Hartlaub, Journ. Orn. 1855, p. 427.

Chettusia macrocercus (Heuglin), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 419 (1856).

Vanellus crassirostris (Hartlaub), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 60 (1865).
Defilippia crassirostris (Hartlaub), Salvadori, Att. Soc. Ital. Sc. Nat. viii. p. 373 (1865).
Hemiparra crassirostris (de Filippi), Heuglin, Pet. Geogr. Mitth. 1869, p. 415.

Limnetes crassirostris (de Filippi), Finsch & Hartlaub, Vig. Ost-Afr. p- 641 (1870).
Hoplopterus crassirostris (de Filippi), Layard, Ibis, 1871, p. 105.

Chettusia nivifrons, Ogden, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1871, p. 196.

Prates.—Ogden, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad. pl. i.; Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. pl. xxxiii.
Hasits.— Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 994.
Eees.— Unknown,

The Long-toed Lapwing may always be recognized by the great length of its toes, the
middle toe and claw measuring more than one fourth of the length of the wing from the
carpal joint. It may also be recognized by the extraordinary amount of white on the wing,
the first three primaries only being black, in which respect it resembles Lobivanellus albiceps.

The Long-toed Lapwing is a resident in East Africa. Its range extends from Nubia
(Hartlaub, Journ. Orn. 1855, p. 427),
along the valley of the White Nile (Sal-
vadori, Journ. Orn. 1868, p. 67), as far
south as lat. 7° N. (Heuglin, Orn.
N.O.-Afr. i. p. 995), across the line
to Masai-Land (Fischer, Journ. Orn.
1879, pp. 296, 301, 337), the south-
east shores of Lake Victoria Nyanza
(Reichenow, Journ. Orn. 1887, p. 47),
the basin of Lake Tanganyika (Bohm,
Journ. Orn. 1886, p. 435), the valley of
the Zambesi (Kirk, Ibis, 1864, p. 331),
to Zulu-Land, where it is not uncommon
on the shores of the lagoons in St.
Lucia Bay (Layard, Ibis, 1871, p. 106).

The affinities of this very aberrant
Lapwing are difficult to determine, but its resemblance to the Jacanas and the Rails is
probably only a case of analogy. In the struggle for existence the ancestors of this curious
bird appear to have turned their backs upon the steppe (or “veldt” to use a South-
African term), and to have found a suitable feeding-ground on the floating vegetation of
rivers and lakes. Similarity of habits has apparently produced similarity of structure,
but there cannot be much doubt that the real affinities of / crassirostris are with
V. speciosus, V. spinosus, and V. inornatus.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Not allied to
the Rails.

Nearest
allies.

216 VANELLUS.

** Subgeneric group Vanelli: with a hind toe and a spur.

+ South-American Species.

VANELLUS CAYENNENSIS.
CAYENNE LAPWING.

Diagnosis. | Vanetuus halluce parvo: subalaribus albis : tectricibus splendidé iridescentibus.

Variations. SOUTHERN examples are so much greyer on the sides of the neck that they may fairly be
regarded as subspecifically distinct.

Synonymy. Parra cayennensis, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 706 (1788).
Tringa cayennensis (Gmel.), Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 727 (1790).
Vanellus cayennensis (Gmel.), Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. xxxv. p. 206 (1819).
Charadrius cayennensis (Gmel.), Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 70 (1828).
Charadrius lampronotus, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 74 (1827).
Belonopterus cayennensis (Gmel.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 418 (1856).

Literature. Prates,— Unfigured.
Hasits.—Gibson, Ibis, 1880, p. 161.
Eees.—Thienemann, Abbild. Vogeleiern, pl. lviii. fig. 7; Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 457.

VANELLUS. 217

The Cayenne Lapwing has the scapulars and wing-coverts resplendent with metallic
violet, green, and bronze. Three other Lapwings possess this character. Of these the
Cayenne Lapwing is most easily distinguished from /. cristatus by its white under wing-
~ coverts, and from V. resplendens by its having @ small hind toe. It is much more closely
allied to V. chilensis, of which it is a tropical form; but typical examples may always be
distinguished when adult, and probably also when young, by the colour of the sédes of the
neck, which is sandy-brown instead of lavender-grey.

Vanellus cayennensis and V. chilensis are the only two Lapwings which have a spur
on the wing, a hind toe on the foot, but no lobe on the face. They are so closely allied
that it is not always certain to which species some examples belong. One of these
intermediate forms from Dutch Guiana, in the Leyden Museum, probably induced Schlegel
to regard them as one species.

It appears to be distributed throughout tropical South America east of the Andes.
The Leyden Museum possesses examples from Dutch Guiana, Wallace found it at the mouth
of the Amazon, and I have examples from Bahia (Wucherer), Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande,
and Buenos Ayres.

The Cayenne Lapwing has many points in common with its European representative.
Both species have black on the breast and throat, metallic green on the back and wing-
coverts, metallic red on the scapulars, small hind toes, and a well-developed crest; and
there can be little doubt that the former species is the result of an emigration across the
Atlantic of a party of Lapwings from the Old World during the Post-Pliocene Glacial
Epoch. The Peruvian Lapwing may be regarded either as a later emigration from the
modified descendants of these birds, or as an eastern emigration across the Pacific.

The latter hypothesis is, however, very improbable. The ancestors of V. cayennensis
probably emigrated from the basin of the Mediterranean, and landed on the coast of
Brazil, towards the close of the Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch. The ancestors of /. re-
splendens were doubtless isolated from those of the rest of the party long before the latter
was differentiated into an Eastern and a Western form, and we may assume that when they
were compelled to cross the Andes, the easier road round the southern spurs was barred.
There seems to be overwhelming evidence of some great inundation in South America,
which destroyed the greater part of the Mammals of that continent and caused the great
deposits of Pampas mud!. If this catastrophe was caused by the upheaval of the Andes,
the Bronze-winged Lapwings of South America might have been thus isolated in two
groups. If, on the other hand, the Andes are older than the last Glacial Epoch, and the
catastrophe was caused by a temporary depression of the whole of South America (a rather
improbable assumption), the Lapwings would be compelled to take refuge on the mountains
which some of them crossed. When the Pampas were once more made accessible, the
ancestors of V. chilensis gradually spread round the southern spurs and up the western
slopes until their range has almost reached that of /. resplendens.

1 This evidence is collected in Howorth’s ‘Mammoth and the Flood,’ p. 325 to p. 366.
2F

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

Early
emigrations.

Diagnosis,

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

218 VANELLUS.

VANELLUS CAYENNENSIS CHILENSIS.
PATAGONIAN LAPWING.

VANELLUS CAYENNENSIs colli lateribus czrulescentibus.
InvERMEDIATE forms between this race and the typical one occur.

Parra chilensis, Molina, Saggio sulla Stor. Nat. Chil. p. 258 (1782).
Vanellus chiliensis, Yarrell, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 54.
Vanellus occidentalis, Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 451.

Prates.— Unfigured.
Hasits.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 449.
Eooes.—Yarrell, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 54.

The Patagonian Lapwing is a slightly larger bird (wing 104 to 94 inches instead of
9 to 82 inches) than the Cayenne Lapwing. ‘The two forms are undoubtedly very closely
allied, and some examples appear to be intermediate. Like the Cayenne species the
Patagonian Lapwing has a small hiad toe, the scapulars and wing-coverts are bronzed
with orange, violet, and green, and the under wing-coverts are white; but it differs from it
in having the occipital crest less developed, and especially in having the sides of the neck
lavender-grey, instead of isabelline or sandy brown. The grey tint on the sides of the

VANELLUS. 219

neck, as well as the violet-bronze on the wing-coverts, is quite distinct in young in first
plumage. In climatic races of birds it often happens that slate-grey is associated with a dry
climate, and brown with a wet one.

It appears to be common near Santiago in Chili, whence many examples were sent by Geographi-
Read ; but Mr. H. B. James informs me that it has not been obtained north of Coquimbo aoe
Bay. In Peru its place appears to be taken by / resplendens. It is essentially a marsh
bird, and is seldom seen except near swampy ground. It is found in the Falkland Islands,
from which locality there is a specimen in the Leyden Museum. ‘The ‘Challenger ’

expedition procured it on Elizabeth Island in the Strait of Magellan.

** Subgeneric group Hoplopteri: with no hind toe.
ft Old-World Species.

VANELLUS SPINOSUS.
EGYPTIAN SPUR-WINGED LAPWING.

Vanettus halluce nullo: calcaribus magnis: pedibus nigris: tectricibus minoribus brunneis, Diagnosis.

majoribus albis.

No local races of this species are known. Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

220 VANELLUS,

Charadrius cristatus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 150 (1758) ; Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xi.
p. 483 (1819).

Pluvialis persica cristata, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 84 (1760).

Charadrius spinosus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 256 (1766).

Charadrius persicus, Bonnaterre, Enc. Méth. i. p. 21 (1790).

Charadrius senegalensis, Stephens, Shaw’s Gen, Zool. xi. p. 482 (1819).

Vanellus melasomus, Swainson, Birds W. Africa, ii. p. 237 (1837).

Hoplopterus spinosus (Linn.), Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 46 (1838).

Hoplopterus persicus (Bonn.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iil. p. 542 (1847).

Vanellus spinosus (Linn.), Schlegel, Mlus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 60 (1865).

Puates.—Edwards, Nat. Hist. Birds,i. pl. 47; Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 801 ; Dresser, Birds of Europe,
vil. pl. 530.

Hasits.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. p. 539.

Ecos.—Bree, Birds of Europe, iv. pl. i. fig. 2; Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. pl. sli. fig. 10;
Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 456.

The Egyptian Spur-winged Lapwing is the only species of the genus which has, when
adult, the nape, crown, forehead, chin, throat, breast, and flanks black.

It has large spurs, black legs, but no hind toe, characters which it shares with
V. speciosus and V. ventralis, From the former it may be distinguished by its wdzte
greater wing-coverts, and from the latter by its drown lesser wing-coverts.

The Egyptian Spur-winged Lapwing breeds in Senegambia (Hartlaub, Journ. Orn.
1854, p. 216), the valley of the Niger (Hartert, Journ. Orn. 1886, p. 609), and probably
across Central Africa, since it is very common in the marshes of East Kordofan, the lower
valley of the White Nile, and its tributaries the Blue Nile and the Atbara River (Heuglin,
Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 1005). ‘To Palestine it appears to be a spring migrant (‘Iristram,
Ibis, 1868, p. 324), occasionally wandering on migration to Malta (Wright, Ibis, 1869,
p- 246), Dalmatia (Giglio, Ann. Agric. 1881, no. 36, p. 118), Greece and Asia Minor
(Kriiper, Griech. Jahresz. iit. p. 268), and it has occurred in Cyprus (Miller, Journ. Orn.
1879, p. 891). It is said to breed in South Russia, and to have occurred in Persia, but
the evidence is not very satisfactory. It is an extremely common resident in Egypt and
Nubia, and is recorded by many travellers from the highlands of Abyssinia. Its southern
range extends beyond the equator, since it is numerous in Masai-Land (Fischer, Journ.
Orn. 1879, pp. 301, 337), and was obtained by Dr. Fischer on the southern shores of
Lake Victoria Nyanza (Reichenow, Journ. Orn. 1887, p. 47).

It frequents the banks of rivers, lakes, or canals, and is fond of marshes and swamps.

VANELLUS. 921

VANELLUS SPECIOSUS.
BLACK-BACKED LAPWING.

Vanettvs halluce nullo: calcaribus magnis: tarso rostroque nigris: tectricibus omnibus cinereis. Diagnosis.

No local races of this species are known. Variations.

Synonymy.

Charadrius speciosus, Wagler, Isis, 1829, p. 649.

Pluvianus armatus, Jardine & Selby, Ill. Orn. i. pl. 54 (1825).
Charadrius albiceps, Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 526 (1832).
Hoplopterus speciosus (Wagler),
Hoplopterus armatus (Jard. & Selby
Vanellus speciosus (Wagler), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 62 (1865).

’ } Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 542 (1847).
2

Prares.—Jard. & Selby, Il]. Orn. i. pl. 54; Temm. Pl. Col. no. 526. Literature.
Hasits.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds 8. Africa, p. 667.
Eees.—Described in Andersson’s Birds of Damara-Land, p. 268.

The Black-backed Lapwing is the only species of the genus which has, when adult, Specific
both a black mantle and a black throat. A more complicated diagnosis is /arge spurs, no Characters.
hind toe, black legs and bill, wing-coverts bluish grey without white tips. It is doubtful
whether all these characters are to be found in young in first plumage.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
ally.

Diagnosis.

222 VANELLUS.

The Black-backed Lapwing is possibly found throughout South Africa, but I cannot
find any record of its occurrence in the Cape Colony. It is found in Angola and Benguela
(Bocage, Orn. d’Angola, p. 427); I have examples collected by Andersson in Damara-
Land and Great Namaqua-Land; it breeds abundantly in the Transvaal (Barratt, Ibis,
1876, p. 212), and in the Matebele Country (Buckley, Ibis, 1874, p. 387), and was
obtained by Dr. Fischer in Ugogo, 300 miles west of Zanzibar (Reichenow, Journ. Orn.
1887, p.47); but to Natal it appears to be only a winter visitor to the coast (Ayres, Ibis,
1865, p. 271), where it feeds on the mud-flats of the lagoons at the mouths of the rivers
during low water. It breeds on the “vleys”’ or marshes, and frequents the banks of rivers
and lakes.

It is the South-African representative of V. spinosus.

VANELLUS CORONATUS.
CROWNED LAPWING.

Vanexvus halluce nullo: calcari nullo: primariarum tectricibus pro majore parte albis.

VANELLUS. 223

No geographical races of this species are known.

Charadrius coronatus, Boddaert, Tabl. Pl. Enl. no. 800, p. 49 (1783).
Charadrius atricapillus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 686 (1788).

Pluvianus coronatus (Bodd.), Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xi. p. 488 (1819).
Chettusia coronata (Bodd.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 64 (1844).
Hoplopterus coronatus (Bodd.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 542 (1847).
Vanellus coronatus (Bodd.), Riippell, Syst. Ueb. Vog. N.O.-Afr. p. 117 (1845).
Vanellus dinghami, Verreaux, Rev. Zool. 1855, p. 220.

Stephanibyx coronatus (Bodd.),

Stephanibyx dinghami (Perenua Bonap. Compt. Rend. xiii. p. 419 (1856).

Prates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 800.
Hasrts.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds of 8. Africa, p. 670.
Eeces.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 456; Thienemann, Abbild. Vogeleiern, pl. lviii. fig. 6.

The Crowned Lapwing may be distinguished from the other species which, like it, have
neither wattle, spur, nor hind toe, by the crown-like arrangement of the colours of its head.
In the adult bird the crown is black, surrounded by a white ring, which in its turn is again
encircled with black. A more reliable character, which appears to be constant at all ages,
is to be found in the colour of the primary-coverts, which are for the most part white.

The Crowned Lapwing is a resident in most parts of South Africa, but only on the
“veldt ” at a considerable elevation above the level of the sea. It is very common in
Benguela (Bocage, Orn. d’Angola, p. 426); it is widely diffused throughout Damara-Land
and Great Namaqua-Land (Andersson, Birds of Damara-Land, p. 268). Layard records it
from various highlands throughout the Cape Colony ; it is common in the Orange Free
State (Barratt, Ibis, 1876, p. 191), and in the Transvaal (Buckley, Ibis, 1874, p. 387).
I met with it in flocks near Colenso in Natal. Mr. Frank Oates found it in the Matebele
Country, and Dr. Fischer obtained it in Masai-Land (Reichenow, Journ. Orn. 1887, p. 47),
which is the northern limit of its known range.

It is difficult to say which species is most nearly allied to the Crowned Lapwing. The
white primary-coverts are a very curious character, which partially appears in V. Jeucurus
and in V. cayanus. In the former the inner primary-coverts have white bases, and in the
latter the innermost primary-covert is nearly white. Two species of Lodivanellus have
white primary-coverts, LZ. ¢ectus and L. albiceps, so that possibly very great importance
cannot be attached to the character as denoting near affinity.

It is possibly nearest related to V. melanopterus, of which it appears to be the western:

representative in South Africa.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

224 VANELLUS.

VANELLUS MELANOPTERUS.
RUPPELL’S LAPWING.

Diagnosis. | Vanetius halluce nullo: calcari nullo: pedibus rufis: primariarum tectricibus nigris.

Variations. No local races of this species are known.

Synonymy. Charadrius melanopterus, Cretzschmar, Riipp. Atlas, p. 46 (1826).

Charadrius spixii, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 57 (1827).

Charadrius lugubris, Lesson, Man. d’ Orn. 11. p. 328 (1828).

Hoplopterus spixii (Wagl.), Gray, Genera of Birds, ii. p. 542 (1847).

Charadrius frontalis, Sundevall, Gifu. Vet. Handi. 1850, p. 110.

Stephanibyx spixi (Wagl.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xlii. p. 419 (1856).

Vanellus melanopterus (Cretzschm.), Gurney, Ibis, 1860, p. 217.

Vanellus spixii (Wagl.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 63 (1865).

Chettusia melanopterus (Cretzschm.), Finsch & Hartlaub, Vog. Ost-Afr. iv. p. 6388 (1870).
Hoplopterus melanopterus (Cretzschm.), Gray, Hand-l. Birds, iii. p. 13 (1871).

Literature. Puates.—Cretzschm. Riippell’s Atlas, pl. xxxi.
Hasits.—Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. i. p. 1010.
Eces.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds 8. Africa, p. 669.

VANELLUS. 225

Riippell’s Lapwing, its western representative (Swainson’s Lapwing), and its southern Specific
representative (the Crowned Lapwing) stand alone amongst the five-and-twenty species of Cha™cters.
the genera Vane//us and Lobivanellus in having neither wattle, spur, nor hind toe. In this
respect they resemble the genus Cursorius, to which they are unquestionably very closely
allied. Not only do they resemble in many important points of distribution of colour
C. chalcopterus, but that species betrays its strain of Plover blood, probably inherited from
a common ancestor, by the metallic colours on its wings. Rtippell’s Lapwing may aiways
be distinguished from its nearest ally /. ixornatus by its white under wing-coverts, or by its
red legs, and from V’. coronatus by its black primary-coverts.

Riippell’s Lapwing lives on the plateaus of East Africa. Its discoverer described it as Geographi-
frequent in Nubia and Abyssinia, but Heuglin doubted its occurrence in the former country. oe
It is common on the highlands of the latter country (Blanford, Geol. & Zool. Abyss.

p. 429). Riippell found it in Arabia at Djedah, not far from Mecca; it is doubtfully
recorded from Zanzibar and the Zambesi; but Dr. Fischer obtained it at Ugaia, to the east
of Lake Victoria Nyanza (Reichenow, Journ. Orn. 1887, p. 47); and it is a common
species on the high veldt of Natal, and at a lower elevation further south near East London,
Port Elizabeth, and Mossel Bay.
In young in first plumage the white forehead and dark grey crown are replaced by Immature

brown, and the black margin between the brown breast and white belly is absent. ener:
VANELLUS IJNORNATUS.
SWAINSONS LAPWING.
Vanetius subalaribus brunneis: secundariis pro majore parte albis. Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters,

Comparison
with VF. me-
lunopterus,

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

226 VANELLUS.

No intermediate forms between this species and VY. melanopterus have yet been discovered.

Vanellus inornatus, Swainson, Birds of West Africa, ii. p. 239 (1837).
Hoplopterus inornatus (Swains.), Gray, Genera of Birds, ili. p. 542 (1847).
Charadrius melanopteroides, Temminch, fide Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 63 (1865).

Prates.— Unfigured.
Hasits.—Undescribed.
Eees.—Unknown.

Swainson’s Lapwing may perhaps be most easily diagnosed as the only species of the
genus with most of the under wing-coverts grey. In all the other species they are white,
except in the Common Lapwing, which has black under wing-coverts. It may also be
recognized by the white tips of the shortest primaries, and especially of the adjoining
secondaries.

Swainson’s Lapwing appears to be a very good species, though closely allied to
Rippell’s Lapwing, of which it is the West-African representative. ‘The two species differ
in the following important points :—

V. melanopterus. V. inornatus.

Length of wing from carpal joint 8 to Length of wing from carpal joint about
9 in. 7 in.

Primary under wing-coverts white. Primary under wing-coverts grey.

Greater wing-coverts white. Greater wing-coverts grey.

Primaries and outermost secondaries Ninth and tenth primaries and first half-
black. dozen secondaries broadly tipped

with white.

Tail-feathers with a broad black band Two outer tail-feathers on each side

at or near the tip of all of them. white.

This species was originally described from West Africa, where it has been procured in
Senegambia and on the Gold Coast (Hartlaub, Journ. Orn. 1854, p- 217); Falkenstein
procured it on the Loango Coast (Reichenow, Journ. Orn. 1877, p- 11); Fischer
obtained it at Zanzibar (Reichenow, Journ. Orn. 1880, p. 139); and I have an example
collected by Kirk at Melinda a few degrees further north, and another shot by Mr. Harry
Millar near Durban in Natal.

VANELLUS. 227

VANELLUS VENTRALIS.
INDIAN SPUR-WINGED LAPWING.

VanELLuvs halluce nullo: humerorum tectricibus nigris : cristA elongata: calcaribus magnis.

No local races of this species are known.

Pluvialis senegalensis armata, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 86 (1760, locality probably erroneous).
Charadrius ventralis, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 59 (1827).

Charadrius duvaucelii, Lesson, Man. d’ Orn. ii. p. 333 (1828).

Charadrius bicolor, Temminck, Pl. Col., letterpress to no. 526 (1832).

Philomachus ventralis (Wagler), Hodgson, Gray’s Zool. Miscell. 1844, p. 86.
Hoplopterus ventralis (Wagler), Blyth, Cat. Birds Mus. As. Soc. p. 261 (1849).
Vanellus ventralis (Wagler), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 61 (1865).

Puates.—Gray and Hardwicke, Ill. Ind. Orn. pl. 50.
Hazits.—Jerdon, Birds of India, ii. p. 650.
Eees.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. lx. fig. 3.

The Indian Spur-winged Lapwing has a large d/ack patch on the belly, emphasized by
the pure white of the surrounding plumage. It has a similar patch on the lesser wing-
coverts extending to the carpal joint. Hither of these characters is diagnostic, and the
latter is probably found in the young.

It is a resident in North India east of the valley of the Indus, Burma, Cochin China,
and Hainan (Swinhoe, Ibis, 1870, p. 361). It ascends the valleys of the Himalayas into
Sikkim, but is not found in South India or Ceylon. It frequents the banks of rivers.

2G 2

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific

characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

228 VANELLUS.

Nearest It is the Oriental representative of . gregarius and V. leucurus, agreeing with the
nee former in having black on the crown and belly, and with the latter in having black on the

wing-coverts.

* .* Subgeneric group Hoplopteri : with no hind toe.

++ South-American Species.

VANELLUS RESPLENDENS.
PERUVIAN LAPWING.

Diagnosis. | Vanetius halluce nullo: tectricibus splendidé iridescentibus.

Variations. No local race of this species is known.

Synonymy. Charadrius resplendens, Tschudi, Wiegm. Arch. 1843, p. 388.
Vanellus resplendens (Tschudi
Vanellus ptiloscelis,
Ptiloscelys resplendens (Tschudi), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 419 (1856),

By Gray, Genera of Birds, iil. p. 541 (1847).

Literature. Puatrs.—Gray, Gen. Birds, iii. pl. 145.
Hasits.—Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858, p. 556; Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 82.
Eces.— Unknown.

Specific The Peruvian Lapwing is the only dronze-winged Lapwing with no hind toe or without
characters. Jack on the head.

epee 7 It inhabits the Andes of Ecuador (Fraser), Peru (‘Taczanowski, Orn. Pérou, iii. p. 336),
oa and the extreme north of Chili (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1886, p. 408), where it is found

on the plateaus ten thousand feet above the level of the sea.

VANELLUS. 999

It is nearest related to V. cayennensis and V. occidentalis, having, like them, a great Nearest
deal of white on the wing-coverts. It has, however, lost its hind toe, and has acquired a aves
very small spur, which is not visible above the feathers in immature birds.

VANELLUS CAYANUS.
LITTLE WHITE-WINGED LAPWING. (Puate X.)

VaNneELuus alis calcaratis : halluce nullo: secundariis fer omnind albis : pedibus pallidis. Diagnosis.
No local races of this species are known. Variations.
Charadrius cayanus, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 749 (1790). Synonymy.

Charadrius stolatus, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 59 (1827).

Philomachus cayanus (Lath.), Gould, Zool. Voy. Beagle, iii. p. 127 (1841).
Hoplopterus cayanus (Lath.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 542 (1847).
Hoploxypterus cayanus (Lath.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 418 (1856).
Vanellus cayanus (Lath.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 62 (1865).

Prates.—Planches Enl. no. 833. ——— Literature.
Hasits.— Wied, Beitr. Nat. Brasil. iv. p. 764.
Eces.— Unknown.

The Little White-winged Lapwing appears to be found on almost every river-side in Geographi-
South America. Moore obtained it in Honduras (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1859, p. 63); Fraser ge
found it in Ecuador (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 290); Bartlett secured it on a tributary of

Specific
characters.

Nearest
allies.

230 VANELLUS.

the Amazon in Eastern Peru (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1866, p. 199) ; Wallace records it from the
Lower Amazons (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 591) ; Prince Wied found it not uncommon in
every part of Brazil which he visited ; I have a skin from Rio de Janeiro, Azara obtained
a skin from Paraguay, Cunningham found it in the Straits of Magellan (Ibis, 1868, p. 490),
and Abbott shot it on the Falkland Islands (Ibis, 1861, p. 155).

It must be either very rare or very shy, for not one of the travellers named has a word
to say of its habits except Prince Wied.

The Little White-winged Lapwing, or Three-toed Cayenne Lapwing, is the only
species of the genus which, when adult, combines the two characters—forehead black,
scapulars for the most part black.

Young birds may easily be recognized by their small size or by the combination of
the two characters, xo hind toe and secondaries mostly white.

It seems to be nearest related to V. speciosus, and is probably the result of an
emigrating party of the ancestors of that species across the Atlantic from South Africa at a
somewhat later date than the emigration which produced the other South-American
Lapwings.

CHAPTER XIY.,

r

' f i f
2 fi

Sternum of Cursorius bitorquatus.

Genus CURSORIUS.

CuHaRADRIIN#e cauda equali: tarso scutellato: halluce nullo: naribus vix in sulcis positis.

Tne Coursers form a group of birds which are intermediate between the Pratincoles and
the Lapwings, and are probably almost as closely allied to the Bustards and Stone-Curlews
on the one hand, and to the Plovers on the other. The Lapwings and Plovers, like the
Sandpipers, Snipes, and most other birds belonging to the family, have the nasal orifice
placed in a groove or ditch which extends for some distance beyond it; but in Otis,
Cursorius, and Pratincola there is no nasal groove, the nasal orifice being placed in a
depression not more elongated than itself. From Otis, Cursorivs may be distinguished by
its scutellated tarsus, and from Pratincola by its having neither a forked tail nor a
hind toe.

The eggs of the Coursers, like those of the Pratincoles, differ from those of all other

Diagnosis of
genus,

Nearest
allies.

Generic
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Determina-
tion of the
type.

232 CURSORIUS.

species in the family in being very round. To find the breadth it is seldom necessary to
deduct more than one fifth from the length, instead of about a third.

The Coursers are desert birds, and feed upon the insects that are found upon sandy
plains. It is therefore not surprising that most of the species are confined to the Ethiopian
Region. The range of the genus Cursorius extends, however, northwards into Palearctic
Africa, and eastwards through Syria, Arabia, and Persia to India and Ceylon.

Synonymy of the Genus Cursorivus.

Type.
Cursorius, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 751 (1790) C. gallicus.
Tachydromus, Jdliger, Prodromus, p. 250 (1811) C. gallicus.
Pluvianus, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxvii. p. 129 (1818) . C. egyptius.
Cursor, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 79 (1827) . ‘ C. gallicus.
Hyas, Gloger, Froriep’s Notizen, xvi. p. 277 (1834) C. gallicus.
Cheilodromas, Riippell, Mus. Senck. ii. p. 208 (1837). C. egyptius.
Ammoptila, Swainson, Nat. Hist. Class. Birds, ii. p. 864 (1837) C. egyptius.
Macrotarsius, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xvii. pt. i. p. 254 (1848) . C. bitorquatus.
Rhinoptilus, Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 220 C. chalcopterus.
Hemerodromus, Heuglin, Ibis, 1863, p. 31 . C. cinctus.

There is no evidence to prove that Latham understood the modern idea of the
necessity of providing a type to each genus; but the fact that he named the Cream-coloured
Courser Charadrius cursor, and afterwards established the genus Cursorius for its reception,
is a sufficient reason for regarding that species, which the majority of authors call by the
name of Cursorius gallicus, as the type.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

Neither white aaillaries Whate axillaries

nor banded breast. and banded breast.
PaL#arctTic AND OrrEentaL REcions.

C.Gatticus . . . . . . « Canary Isles to Scinde.

OrrentaL REcIon.

C.COROMANDELICUS . . . . India and Ceylon.
Madras District. 9. LD ae, gs ok C. Brrorquatus.

CURSORIUS. 233

Neither white axillaries White azillaries and
nor banded breast. banded breast.
Eruror1an Recon.
C. SENEGALENSIS . . . . . , Throughout. » oo. . « « C, cHALCOPTERUS.
West Africa and Nile. C. meyPrivs.
C. SOMALENSIS. . . . . Somali-Land.
. C. cinctus.
South and East Africa. . . . . {
C. BICINCTUS.
CoRUFUS 6 6 «© © 8 & @ @ South Africa.

The genus Cursorius must be characterized as small and tropical. The species and
subspecies are distributed as follows, but one of the tropical African species ranges east-
wards into Scinde, and several of them encroach upon temperate Africa in the south :—

‘Lempersie Alita sg saw we oe wR

Temperate species . . . . — 2
Dope: Aiea). gig. Sao oe ee
Trepicd, Asi: 4 9. ge & se Bo eR
Tropical species . . . . —I0
Species and subspecies of Cursorius . . —12

It is not surprising that even such a compact interlaced genus as Cursorius should
have had its share of ill-usage at the hands of the “splitters ;’ but it seems to me that the
only natural subdivision is to regard the Coursers with white axillaries and under wing-
coverts and a dark band across the breast as one group, leaving the remainder to form
another group, each containing five species.

The ancestors of the latter of these groups were probably resident in the Mediterranean
subregion during the Interglacial Period. During the cold winters of the Post-Pliocene
Glacial Period one party emigrated to India, and are now represented by C. coroman-
delicus, a second party emigrated to tropical Africa and became C. rufus and C. sene-
galensis, the former in the south and the latter in the west, whence, after the two species
became differentiated, the latter gradually extended its range until it overlapped that of the
former. The third party, instead of emigrating, adopted migratory habits, though not on
a very extensive scale, and C. somalensis is probably the result of a small migratory party
which overshot its mark and finally settled in Somali-Land. ‘The three tropical species (two
Ethiopian and one Oriental) have probably altered least in appearance, as they have altered
least in climate and habits, whilst C. galicus has altered most.

Precisely in the same way the banded Coursers that have the most southerly range
have altered least, whilst the only one (C. egyptius) which ranges almost into the Paleearctic
Region has altered most.

2H

Climatic dis-
tribution.

Ancient
emigrations

234 CURSORIUS.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

The ten species of Coursers are very easily diagnosed. They each possess well-defined
characters both in the adult and in immature plumage. In the following key no attempt
is made to discriminate between the two local races or subspecies of C. dicinctus. One of
these is only a pale form, and the other is little else than a dwarf race of the typical
species.

, gallicus . .- - Axillaries deep black.
Hind head slate-grey. . .< somalensis . - - Axillaries greyish buff.
\ rufus

Axillaries dark grey. Large

}
senegalensis - ; | black patch on belly.

r coromandelicus .

White on secondaries confined
| to a narrow margin. ea-
thers of upper parts with pale

oS margins.

Inner primaries chestnut- rs
P t bicinctus .

buff.

Upper tail-coverts white . < cinctus .

chalcopterus.

\ bitorquatus . .
; White patches near ends of

primaries.

egyptius .

Of the characters in italics the first two are only found in adult birds, and the last is

found in young in first plumage of all the species. The key is, however, complete without
any of these characters.

CURSORIUS., 235
** Subgeneric group Cursorii: with no pectoral bands.

Central Secondary Quills.

C. chaleopterus. C. gallicus.

CURSORIUS GALLICUS.
CREAM-COLOURED COURSER.

Cursortus axillaribus subalaribusque nigris. Diagnosis.

A Russian ornithologist (Zaroudnoi, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Mosc. Ixi. p. 327) describes a Variations.
Courser from Akhal Tekeh, in the basin of the Murgab River on the Persian frontiers of
Turkestan, as Cursorius isabellinus, var. bogolubovi. He says it is larger than our bird, and

differs in the colour of its under wing-coverts ; but he does not say how it differs, nor does

he give any dimensions. Examples from India and Africa present no differences of any

kind.

Pluvialis morinellus flavescens, Gerini, Orn. Meth. Dig. iv. p. 69 (1778). Synonymy.
Charadrius cursor, Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl. i. p. 293 (1787).
Charadrius gallicus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 692 (1788).
Cursorius europeus, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 751 (1790).
2H 2

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

236 CURSORIUS.

Charadrius corrira, Bonnaterre, Tabl. Encycl. p. 23 (1790).

Cursorius isabellinus, Meyer, Taschend. ii. p. 828 (1810).

Tachydromus gallicus (Gmel.), Iiliger, Prodromus, p. 250 (1811).

Tachydromus europens (Lath), Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. viii. p. 293 (1817).
Cursor isabellinus (Meyer), Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 80 (1827).

Cursorius gallicus (Gmel.), Bonap. Faun. Ital., Uce., Introd. (1832).

Cursor europeeus (Lath.), Naumann, Vég. Deutschl. vii. p. 77 (1834).
Tachydromus isabellinus (Meyer), Nitzsch, Syst. Pterylogr. p. 201 (1840).
Cursorius jamesoni, Jerdon, B. India, ii. p. 875 (1868).

Puates.—Gerini, Orn. Meth. Dig. iv. pl. 474; Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 795; Gould, Birds of Gt.
Brit. iv. pl. 44; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 514.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 63; Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 965.

Eces.—Hewitson, Ibis, 1859, pl. ii. fig. 3; Seebohm, British Birds, pl. xx. fig. 9.

The Cream-coloured Courser, when adult, has the hind head a bright slate-grey or
lavender colour. ‘This character is only found in two other Coursers, C. somalensis and
C. rufus. The former may always be distinguished by its buff axillaries and innermost
under wing-coverts, and the latter, when adult, by the large black patch on its belly. To
distinguish the species at all ages this diagnosis must be slightly altered, but the new
character, though less conspicuous, is quite as easy of determination.

The Cream-coloured Courser has the aallaries and under wing-coverts nearly black,
and has the outer web of the secondaries buff. No other Courser fulfils both these conditions.
The nearly black axillaries and under wing-coverts are found even in young in first
plumage, showing the importance of the character; but the slate-grey hind head and the
black belly are characters which only appear after the first moult. The buff outer webs of
the secondaries are, however, found at all ages.

It breeds in the Canary Islands (Bolle, Journ. Orn. 1857, p. 335), and in the whole
of North Africa; but it has not been recorded from Senegambia or any other part of West
Africa, though in East Africa it occurs as far south as Kordofan (Heuglin), and possibly
Abyssinia (Rtippell, Vog. N.O.-Afr. p. 117). Eastwards its range extends to Arabia, Persia,
Beluchistan (Blanford, Eastern Persia, i. p. 281), the Punjaub, Scind, and Rajputana
(Hume, Stray Feathers, i. p. 228). It does not breed north of the Trans-Caucasian
steppes, but occasionally strays into Europe and even to the British Islands.

Its nearest allies appear to be C. rufus and C. somalensis, but it is difficult to determine
which of them is its closest relation.

CURSORIUS. 237

Central Secondary Quills.

C. somalensis.

C. bicinctus.

CURSORIUS SOMALENSIS.
SOMALI COURSER. (Puarts XI.)

Cursorius axillaribus supracaudalibusque isabellinis.

No local races of this species are known.

Cursorius gallicus somalensis, Shelley, Ibis, 1885, p. 415.
Cursorius somalensis, Shelley, Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 116.

Priates.—Unfigured.
Hasirs.—Lort Phillips, Ibis, 1885, p. 416.
Eeos.—Unknown.

The Somali Courser is a good species, which may be diagnosed as having the hind
head slate-grey (like C. gallicus and C. rufus), but the aallaries and innermost under wing-

coverts greyish buff (instead of nearly black).

It further differs from C. gallicus in the

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

238 CURSORIUS.

following particulars :—It is a much smaller bird, the wing measuring 5°3 inch, instead of
from 6-0 to 63 inch ; nevertheless it appears to have longer though more slender legs, the
tarsus measuring 2°3 inch, instead of from 2°1 to 2:3 inch. The colour of the back and
wing-coverts is much darker. The subterminal black bands on the tail-feathers are twice as
broad, and are also traceable on the central ones. Finally, the dark margins of the inner
webs of the secondaries are paler and scarcely occupy a fifth part of the web instead of
more than half, and the colour of the outer webs is grey rather than buff.

It is only known from a single example which was obtained in Somali-Land by
Mr. Lort Phillips, who states that it was fairly common in small flocks throughout the
plateau.

CURSORIUS RUFUS.
BURCHELL’S COURSER.

Cursorivs secundariz mediz dimidio terminali albo.

Ir is not known that this species varies.

Cursorius rufus, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1836, p. 81.

Tachydromus capensis, Swainson, Birds W. Africa, ii. p. 231 (1837).
Tachydromus burchellii, Swainson, Nat. Hist. Class. Birds, ii. p. 364 (1837).
Cursorius burchellii (Swains.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 537 (1844).

Pratzs.—Gould, Icones Avium, pl. 10.

Hasrrs.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds of 8. Africa, p. 653.

Kees, in Mr. Crowley’s collection, taken by Mr. Ayres in the Transvaal, measure 13 x 1 inch,
and are scarcely distinguishable from eggs of C. coromandelicus.

Burchell’s Courser, when adult, combines the two characters of having the hind head
slate-grey and of having dark brown or black on the belly; but as neither of these characters
appear in young in first plumage, it is safer to diagnose the species by the pattern of colour
on the secondaries, which is constant at all ages. The middle secondary is white, with the
basal two thirds of the outer web and the basal third of the inner web brown.

CURSORIUS. 239

Burchell’s Courser is only found in South Africa, where it frequents the Karroo and
the high veldt, but does not descend to the lowlands near the coast. It is not ucommon
in the Cape Colony. I have an example from Bechuana-Land, and it is very abundant up
country in the Transvaal, and near Newcastle, in the extreme north of Natal (Feilden,
Zoologist, 1882, p. 340). It is not found north of the Tropic of Capricorn. Andersson
did not meet with it m Damara-Land, nor is it recorded by Buckley from the Matebele
country.

It is probably nearest related to C. senegalensis and C. coromandelicus, which agree
with it in having, when adult, a nearly black patch on the belly. Fortunately this character
is correlated with grey axillaries, a feature probably of much earlier origin, as it appears in
young in first plumage as well as in the adult.

Central Secondary Quills.

C. coromandelicus. CO. senegalensis.

CURSORIUS SENEGALENSIS.

LICHTENSTEIN’S COURSER.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

illaribus fumosis: uropygio et supracaudalibus concoloribus: secundariarum pogoniis Diagnosis.
Cursorius axillaribus fumo pyg 2

internis brunneo marginatis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

240 CURSORIUS.

Exampues from West Africa do not appear to differ from those collected on the Zambesi.

Cursorius temminckii, Swainson, Zool. Iilustr. ii. pl. 106 (1822).

Tachydromus senegalensis, Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 72 (1823).

Cursor temminckii (Swains.), Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 80 (1827).

Cursorius senegalensis (Licht.), Riippell, Syst. Uebers. Vig. N.O.-Afr. p. 117 (1845).

Prates.—Swainson, Zool. [llustr. ii. pl. 106; Swainson, Birds W. Africa, ii. pl. 24.
Hasits.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds 8. Africa, p. 654.
Eoes.— Unknown.

Lichtenstein’s Courser is the only species of the genus which, when adult, has a d/ack
belly, but neither white upper tail-coverts nor a slate-grey hind head. Uowever, as the first
and last of these characters are only found in adult birds, a second diagnosis is necessary,
which will also apply to the young in first plumage. ‘his is easily found in the unique
pattern of the secondaries. The white is shaped like a thin wedge, the base of which runs
out at the tip, whilst the thin end splits the brown of the inner web almost into halves.

Lichtenstein’s Courser is principally confined to the most tropical parts of Africa, and
is much rarer than Burchell’s Courser further south. Hartlaub records it from West
Africa (Journ. Orn. 1854, p. 213), and I have examples from Senegambia (Bathurst, Quin).
and from the Gold Coast (Accra, J. Smith). Heuglin records it from the Gaboon and
Kordofan (Orn. N.O.-Afr. 11. p. 969). Monteiro found it common in Angola (Ibis,
1862, p. 335) ; Anchieta obtained many examples in Benguela (Bocage, Orn. d’Angola,
p. 419); and I have an example from Ovampo-Land collected by Andersson at Ondonga.
Sharpe says that it is generally distributed throughout the Cape Colony ; but this statement
is not confirmed by Layard, and I can find no evidence of its truth beyond the occurrence
of a single example in the Eastern Province (Layard, Ibis, 1869, p. 875). Holub records
it from the Orange Free State, West Griqua-Land, Bechuana-Land, and the Southern
Transvaal (Beitr. Orn. Siidafr. p. 246). Graham Hutchinson informed me that it was
common, but local, on the open sandy veldt in Natal; and I have an example collected on
Burg Mountain near Durban. I have also examples collected by Bradshaw near the
Zambesi, and by Kirk at Melinda, in Zanzibar.

It appears to be closely related both to C. rufus and C. coromandelicus ; but, if we may

judge from the arrangement of the colour on the secondaries, it appears to be more nearly
allied to the latter than to the former.

CURSORIUS. 241

CURSORIUS COROMANDELICUS.

INDIAN COURSER.

Cursorivs axillaribus fumosis: supracaudalibus albis. Diagnosis.

THERE seems to be no difference between examples from Lahore or Darjeeling and others Variations.
from Ceylon.

Charadrius coromandelicus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 692 (1788). Synonymy.
Cursorius asiaticus, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 751 (1790).

Tachydromus coromandelicus (Gmel.), Illiger, Prodromus, p. 250 (1811).

Cursor frenatus, Wagler, Syst. Av. Gen. p. 80 (1827).

Tachydromus asiaticus (Lath.), Vieillot & Oudart, Gal. des Ois. ii. p. 90 (1834).

Tachydromus orientalis, Swainson, An. Menag. p. 339 (1838).

Cursorius tarayensis, Hodgson, Gray’s Zool. Miscell. p. 85 (1844).

Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmel.), Gray, Cat. Mamm. &c. Nepal coll. Hodgson, p. 131 (1846).

Piates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 892; Gould, Birds of Asia, vii. pl. 65; Vieillot, Gal. des Ois. 11. Literature.

pl. 232.
Hasirs.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 977.
Eces.—Hume, Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, iu. p. 564.

The Indian Courser, at the first glance, looks little more than a large form of Specific
Lichtenstein’s Courser ; but, when carefully examined, it presents many important points of ee
difference besides that of size. It is the only Courser that combines the two characters of
white upper tail-coverts and grey axillaries. As both these characters are found in the
young in first plumage, a second diagnosis is not necessary.

It appears to be generally distributed throughout India and Ceylon; but it is more Geographi-
local in the south, and does not occur in the extreme north-west. It occurs as far west as ia
Eastern Scinde (Hume, Stray Feathers, iv. p. 10), but its range does not extend to the
valley of the Indus. No species of this genus is known from Burma.

It is probably most nearly allied to C. senegalensis and C. rufus.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

The Karroo.

242 CURSORIUS.

* * Subgeneric group Hemerodromi : with pectoral bands.

CURSORIUS BICINCTUS.

LEVAILLANT’S COURSER.

Cursorivs primariis interioribus secundariisque omnibus pro majore parte castaneis.
Tus is a very variable species, becoming very pale in the west and very small in the east.

Cursorius africanus, Temminck, Cat. Syst. Cab. d’ Orn. pp. 175, 263 (1807).
Tachydromus collaris, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. viii. p. 293 (1817).
Cursorius bicinctus, Temminck, Man. d’ Orn. ii, p. 515 (1820).

Cursor bicinctus (Temm.), Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 80 (1822).

Cursorius grallator, Leadbeater, Trans. Linn. Soc. 1825, p. 92.

Tachydromus bicinctus (Temm.), Swainson, Birds West Africa, ii. p. 231 (1837).
Rhinoptilus bicinctus (Temm.), Shelley, Ibis, 1882, p. 363.

Puatres.—J ardine & Selby, Ill. Orn. i. pl. 48.

Hasits.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds 8S. Africa, p. 654.

Eees.—Thienemann, Abbild. Vogeleiern, pl. lviii. fig. 38. Examples in Mr. Crowley’s collection,
taken by Atmore in the Karroo district of Cape Colony, scarcely differ from eggs of C. rufus,
except in being much paler in colour.

Levaillant’s Chestnut-winged Courser may always be recognized by the chestnut colour
of its secondaries and of the terminal portion of some of the adjoining primarics. It is
essentially a Karroo species, and is found wherever these remarkable plateaus occur in
South Africa. From Cradock in the east, up to Kimberley in the north, and then down to
Worcester in the west, the railway passes through a country compared with which a
Siberian tundra is a paradise. I have never seen anything so hopelessly dreary as the
Karroo, Every square yard is indelibly stamped with the two-fold signs of deluge and
drought. It is walled in by naked weird hills, generally table-topped, from which every
trace of vegetation and soil has been washed away by deluges of rain, leaving only a heap of
disintegrating stones, tied together by layers of hard rock. ‘The undulating valleys are bare
mud or earth, thinly sprinkled over with dwarf herbs and bushes, seamed here and there

CURSORIUS. 243

with dry watercourses, and torn up in the valleys with deep torrent-beds, which tell of
floods carrying everything before them. But sometimes months and months pass by
without a drop of rain, and what vegetation has been spared by the torrents of rain is
burnt up by the scorching rays of a burning African sun.

The typical form of this species is a resident of most of the Karroo districts of the
Cape Colony, and in similar country in the Transvaal (Ayres, Ibis, 1871, p. 263) and the
Orange Free State (Barratt, Ibis, 1876, p. 212). It is not uncommon in various parts of
Great Namaqua and Damara-Land (Andersson, Birds of Damara-Land, p. 261), and a
single example is recorded from the valley of the White Nile (Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. i.
p. 975).

Young in first plumage are not quite so dark a buff as adults, but are not nearly so
pale as adults of the Western form of this species.

CURSORIUS BICINCTUS BISIGNATUS.
HARTLAUB’S COURSER.

Cursorivs Bicinctus colore pallidiore.

InTERMEDIATE forms between this and the preceding frequently occur.

Cursorius bisignatus, Hartlaub, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 87.
Cursorius bicinctus bisignatus (Hartl.), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 118.

Prares.— Hartlaub, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1866, pl. vi.
Hasrits.—Undescribed.
Eoes.— Unknown.

Hartlaub’s Chestnut-winged Courser is only a pale form of Levaillant’s Courser, and
is also said to be slightly smaller. The feathers of the upper parts are margined with nearly
white instead of buff, and the ground-colour of the underparts shows the same difference.
It inhabits. Benguela and Ovampo-Land. I have a very characteristic example obtained by
Andersson at Ondongo; but two other examples obtained by the same collector in Great
Namaqua-Land are intermediate.

212

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Plumage of
young.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Subspecifie
characters.

244 CURSORIUS.

CURSORIUS BICINCTUS GRACILIS.
FISCHER'S COURSER.

Cursorivus Bicinctus colore isabellino: magnitudine minore: gula vix striata.

Tuts local race appears completely to intergrade with the typical form, both in size and
colour.

Cursorius gracilis, Fischer & Reichenow, Journ Orn. 1884, p. 178.
Cursorius bicinctus gracilis (Fisch. & Reich.), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 118.

Piares.—Unfigured.
Hasits.—Lort Phillips, Ibis, 1885, p. 416.
Eees.— Unknown.

Fischer’s Chestnut-winged Courser was discovered by the traveller whose name it
bears in Masai-Land in Equatorial East Africa (Fischer, Journ. Orn. 1884, p. 178), and
was afterwards procured by the same intrepid explorer in Usukuma, south of Lake Victoria
Nyanza (Reichenow, Journ. Orn. 1887, p. 46). It has recently been procured to the
north-east by Mr. E. Lort Phillips in Somali-Land (Shelley, Ibis, 1885, p. 416). Like
Hartlaub’s Courser it is slightly smaller than the typical form, but varies from it in colour
in the opposite direction. The buff shade is so rich that it approaches pale chestnut, and
the white of the upper tail-coverts is suffused with buff. On the other hand, it resembles
Hartlaub’s Courser in having the dark shaft-lmes on the throat less distinut, becoming
almost obsolete on the upper throat.

Levaillant’s Courser varies in length of wing from the carpal joint from 6:5 to 5:7 inch,
whilst the same measurements of Fischer’s Courser vary from 5°7 to 5°l inch. The tarsus
of the former race varies from 2°3 to 2°0 inch, and that of the latter from 2-0 to 1°5 inch.

In the colour of the secondaries, which in this genus vary remarkably wherever a
specific difference is to be found, the three forms of Chestnut-winged Courser almost
exactly resemble each other.

CURSORIUS. 245

Central Secondary Quills.

CO. cinctus. C. bitorquatus.

CURSORIUS CINCTUS.

HEUGLIN’S COURSER. (Puate XII.)

Cursorivus axillaribus supracaudalibusque albis: secundariis feré omnind brunneis. Diagnosis.
No local races of this species are known. Variations.
Cursorius cinctus, Heuglin, Syst. Uebers. Vig. N.O.-Afr. p. 54 (1856). Synonymy.

Hemerodromus cinctus (Heuglin), Heuglin, Ibis, 1863, p. 31.
Rhinoptilus cinctus (Heuglin), Shelley, Ibis, 1885, p. 416.

Prates.—Heuglin, Ibis, 1863, pl. i. Gisntme.
Hasits.— Undescribed.
Eces.— Unknown.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest ally.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

246 CURSORIUS.

Heuglin’s Courser may be diagnosed by its xearly uniform brown secondaries.
Levaillant’s Courser has nearly uniform chestnut secondaries; but in all the other species
there is much white and some nearly black on these feathers. As an additional character
it may be useful to add upper tail-coverts white, which excludes five species, and axillaries
white, which rejects a sixth.

Heuglin’s Courser appears to be a very rare bird. It was originally described from
the White Nile about 5° north of the equator (Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 972).
Mr. Lort Phillips met with it near Berbera in Somali-Land about five degrees further north
(Shelley, Ibis, 1885, p. 416); and it has been found in Bari-Land (Pelzeln, Ibis, 1864,
p- 231). It has occurred in Masai-Land (Fischer, Journ. Orn. 1885, p. 115), and I have an
example in my collection from Ovampo-Land (Andersson, Birds of Damara-Land, p. 262).

It appears to be nearest related to C. décinctus. Young in first plumage are unknown,
nor has any description of its habits been published.

CURSORIUS CHALCOPTERUS.

BRONZE-IVINGED COURSER.

Cursorius supracaudalibus albis: secundariarum parte basali alba, parte terminali nigra: primariis
haud albo subterminali maculatis: (in adult.) remigum nigrarum terminis iridescentibus.

NotwiTHstanDING its wide range this species is not known to vary.

Cursorius chalcopterus, Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 298 (1824).

Cursor chalcopterus (Temm.), Wagler, Syst. Av. Gen. p. 81 (1827).

Tachydromus chalcopterus (Temm.), Swainson, Birds W. Africa, ii. p. 233 (1837).
Rhinoptilus chalcopterus (Temm.), Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 220.
Cursorius superciliaris, Heuglin, Journ. Orn. 1865, p. 98.

Piatres.—Temm. Pl. Col. no. 298; Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. pl. exliii.
Hasits.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds 8. Africa, p. 656.
Eees.—Unknown.

CURSORIUS. 247

The Bronze-winged Courser, when adult, may be easily recognized by the tips of its
primaries being bronzed for about half an inch with green and red. The metallic colours
appear on the primaries before the last traces of down have been lost by the young birds,
who must consequently moult their quills in their first autumn. In order to make the
diagnosis cover the young in first plumage, other characters must be employed. Upper
tail-coverts white, excludes five species ; secondaries black with white bases, disposes of three
more; leaving only C. ditorquatus, which is easily excluded by the character xo subterminal
white patches on the primaries.

This species has a wide range from Senegambia (Rochebrune, Faune de la Sénégambie,
p- 281) in the west, almost to the Red Sea (Finsch, Trans. Zool. Soc. vii. p. 294) in the
east, and near both coasts in the south. It is found in Angola (Bocage, Orn. d’Angola,
p. 420), Damara-Land (Andersson, Birds of Damara-Land, p. 263), and several collectors
have obtained it in Natal. I saw examples in the collection of Mr. Harry Millar shot near
Durban, but I can find no record of its recent occurrence in the Cape Colony. It has been
found in Zanzibar (Fischer, Journ. Orn. 1885, p. 115) by more than one collector (Bohm,
Journ. Orn. 1883, p. 340), and probably occurs throughout tropical Africa.

It seems to be nearest allied to C. dztorquatus, whilst the metallic colours on its
primaries probably show its affinity to the Lapwings.

CURSORIUS BITORQUATUS.
JERDON’S COURSER. (Puate XIIL.)

Cursorivs primarid prim4 macula alba subterminali ornata.

No local races of this species are known.

Macrotarsius bitorquatus, Jerdon, fide Blyth, Journ. As. Soc, Beng. xvii. p. 254 (1848).
Rhinoptilus bitorquatus (Jerdon), Strickland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 220.
Cursorius bitorquatus (Jerd.), Giebel, Thes. Orn. i. p. 841 (1872).

Prates.—Previously unfigured.
Haszits.—Jerdon, Birds of India, iii. p. 628.
Ecces.—Unknown.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Allies.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

248 CURSORIUS.

Specific Jerdon’s Courser is the only species of this genus which combines the characters of

characters. : ; ‘ ’ : .
having a plain brown mantle and patches of white near the tips of the first three primaries.

Geographi- It appears to have a very limited range, having only been found in that part of the

aaa Indian peninsula which lies between one hundred miles and three hundred miles due north
of Madras, and, curiously enough, only in open forest country.

Young in first plumage are unknown.
Nearest ally. It is very closely allied to C. chalcopterus, from which it scarcely differs in the

important character of the pattern of the colour of the secondaries.

Central Secondary Quills.

C. cegyptius. C. rufus.

CURSORIUS AGYPTIUS.

BLACK-BACKED COURSER.

Diagnosis. | Cursorius dorso scapularibusque nigris.

Variations. Exampies from West Africa appear to be slightly smaller than those from Egypt, the former
varying in length of wing from 5:0 to 5:1 inch, and the latter from 5-2 to 5°5 inch.

CURSORIUS. 249

Charadrius egyptius, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 150 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 254 (1766).
Charadrius melanocephalus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 692 (1788).

Charadrius africanus, Latham, Index Orn. Suppl. p. \xvii (1801).

Pluvianus melanocephalus (Gmel.
Pluvianus chlorocephalus,

Cursor charadroides, Wagler, Syst. Av. p. 81 (1827).

Ammoptila charadroides (Wagl.), Swainson, Nat. Hist. Class. Birds, ii. p. 364 (1837).
Cheilodromas melanocephalus (Gmel.), Riippell, Mus. Senckenb. ii. p. 208 (1845).
Pluvianus egyptius (Linn.), Strickland, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 348 (1852).

Hyas egyptia (Linn.), Cab. Journ. Orn. 1854, p. 70.

Cursorius egyptius (Linn.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 14 (1865).

a Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxvii. p. 130 (1818).

Prarzs.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 918; Gould, Birds of Asia, vii. pl. 62; Dresser, Birds of Europe,
vii. pl. 527.

Hasitrs.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. p. 521.

Kees '.—Bree, Birds of Europe, iv. pl. i. fig. 1.

The Black-backed Courser, or Black-headed Plover, as it has been illogically called,
may always be recognized by its plain black mantle and scapulars.

It has been placed by most writers in a genus by itself (Pluvianus), probably in
consequence of its frequenting the muddy banks of rivers, like the Ringed Plovers ; but
Schlegel was perfectly justified in allowing it to remain in the genus in which Wagler
placed it. It agrees with C. senegalensis in having a shorter tarsus than usual, and with
C. bttorquatus in having white bands across some of the primaries. It also agrees with the
latter species in not having the claw of the middle toe pectinated; but examples of
C. senegalensis also occasionally show no trace of this peculiarity.

The Black-backed Courser is a common resident in the valley of the Nile from Cairo
to Kartoum. It has been recorded as an accidental visitor from Spain, Algeria, and
Palestine, and somewhat doubtfully from Sweden. It has occurred several times on the
coast of Senegambia, and I have a skin in my collection obtained by Governor Ussher on
the Gold Coast. It is also a resident in the Gaboon, in Angola, in Abyssinia, and
presumably in the intervening country of Central Africa.

The Black-backed Courser is unquestionably the most aberrant species of the genus,
but in the conformation of its bill, which is the most important character in the definition
of the genus, it is quite typical.

So much interest attaches to the habits of this curious bird that I have great pleasure

1 The egg figured by Harting (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. 1x. fig. 2) cannot be that of this species. It is
too.small, too pointed, and too dark-coloured ; the spots are too large, the egg is not heavy enough, and there
were tco many of them in the clutch.

2K

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Habits.

250 CURSORIUS.

in being able to confirm the accounts of Brehm and others of the remarkable way in which
it protects its eggs. The narrative is from the pen of Capt. Verner, who met with this
bird in the Soudan on the Nile Expedition of 1884-85.

“The Black-headed Plover is one of the commonest birds of the Nile, and is to be seen
in pairs all along the course of the river throughout the year. Very often half a dozen or
more pairs may be seen feeding together on the same sandbank. They are very noisy birds,
and have a habit of uttering a shrill chattering cry whenever they take wing. Their
brightly barred wings are very conspicuous as they skim along the surface of the water.
I met with them everywhere during the Nile Expedition, and they were as common
above Metemneh as near Assiout. During the months of March and April it was very
evident that they were breeding; but although I searched diligently for their nests I was
unsuccessful until the 20th April, when I accidentally came across a clutch of three eggs
which were buried in the sand with the exception of a small portion of their tops. At the
time I looked upon this as an accident, and as the eggs had a faded appearance I believed
them to have belonged to a deserted nest over which the sand had drifted. In this
assumption, however, I was mistaken, as I found out some weeks later. On this occa-
sion I noticed a Black-headed Plover very busy with something on a sandbank about
twenty yards from the water, which it left after a time and ran down to the stream ; here,
after wading about for a moment, it ran up the bank again to the same place and crouched
there a minute or so, and then, running for some distance, took wing. Having marked the
latter spot I proceeded to it, and following the bird’s footmarks ‘to heel,’ came to the
place where it had been so much occupied; this was easily identified by the number of
tracks converging to the one point. At this precise spot I turned over the sand, and about
half an inch below the surface discovered three fresh eggs which the artful little bird had
completely buried. These were considerably richer in colouring than the clutch I had
previously discovered (which, by the way, were hard-set), showing that the process of
burying their eggs in the damp sand under the scorching rays of the sun has, as might be
expected, a bleaching effect.

“It is almost unnecessary to say that there was no attempt of any sort at a nest.
Taking into consideration the number of enemies from which these little birds have to
guard their eggs, it is not very difficult to discover the reasons which prompt them to
conceal their eggs in the sand; still I was unable to account in my own mind for the
very energetic movements to and from the water which I had witnessed on this occasion,
until I received an account from a cousin, Lieut. George Verner, of the Borderers, who was
stationed about forty miles further down the river tnan I was, which solved the mystery
as follows: —‘On April 25th I was waiting in a boat alongside of a sandbank, and my
attention was attracted by a pair of Black-headed Plovers which kept flitting about quite
close to me. I noticed that one of them was continually wetting its breast at the water’s
edge about ten yards below our boat and then running up the bank to a spot about the
same distance inshore of us, when it would squat down and remain about two minutes or

CURSORIUS. 251

so, after which it would get up, and, running down to the water’s edge above us, fly round
to the spot where it had dabbled previously. After watching this operation repeated several
times I got out of the boat, and at the spot where the bird had been crouching I found a
clutch of eggs half buried in the sand, their tops only being visible ; the sand immediately
surrounding them was moist, although the bank I was on was an expanse of dry burning
sand. ‘Two days later I visited this nest again, and knowing the exact spot went straight
to it, and at first thought it had been robbed as I could see no eggs; but, noticing the con-
verging marks of the bird’s feet, I removed the top layer of sand and found the eggs right
enough, but completely buried.’

“From these observations, coupled with my own, but made quite independently, I
think it may be taken as an established fact that the Black-headed Plover buries her eggs
in the sand when she leaves them, and also that for some reason she damps the sand with
which she covers them. The temperature of these dry sandbanks on the Nile is very great
indeed during the summer months. It is a noticeable fact that the other three species
which commonly nest on the same sandbanks, viz. the Scissor-billed Tern (Rhynchops flavi-
rostris), the Spur-winged Plover (Vanellus spinosus), and the African Sand-Plover (Chara-
drius pecuarius), do not cover up their eggs in this manner. Without in any way wishing
to detract from the character of the Black-headed Plover, I may remark that it appears
to devote considerably less time to sitting than do other birds; and although it was the
commonest occurrence to see the sandbanks dotted with the Terns and other Plovers
engaged in incubation, I never once saw a Black-headed Plover so employed. Indeed
the latter appeared to spend the whole day running about the water’s edge in pairs, as if
there were no such things as the responsibilities and duties of incubation.

“ All the Black-headed Plover’s eggs which have come into my possession are very
uniform in size and shape, being 1°25 inch in length and ‘95 inch to 1 inch in breadth.
In shape they are unlike any of the Plovers’ eggs, but resemble those of a Red Grouse,
only they are rather more globular; the ground-colouring in freshly laid specimens is
warm yellow stone-colour, and the whole surface of the eggs is thickly sprinkled with
specks and short markings of a rich umber tint ; besides these surface-markings there are
faint obsolete grey spots all over the eggs.”

Qk 2

CHAPTER XV.

Sternum of Glareola orientalis.

Genus GLAREOLA.

Diagnosis of CHarapRiin® cauda bifurcaté vel emarginata: halluce parvo: naribus vix in sulcis positis.
p

genus.

Extraordi-
nary errors.

Generic
characters.

Tue Pratincoles form a small but remarkably isolated group of birds, so completely differ-
entiated from other genera that the earlier ornithologists were in doubt where they ought
to be placed in the system of classification. lLinneus actually included the Pratincole in
his genus Hirundo, to which it undoubtedly bears a superficial resemblance, and Sundevall
placed the genus Glareola in his family Caprimulgine! In spite of its long, pointed wings,
forked tail, short legs, and hind toe, the Pratincole is unquestionably a highly modified
Courser. In Glareola, as well as in Cursorius, the bill differs from that of all other genera
of Charadriide, and resembles that of Otis, in having no nasal groove. This character alone
could scarcely be regarded as of much significance, but conjoined with others its value
is greater. Glareola resembles Cwrsorius in having in so many species black under wing-
coverts, white upper tail-coverts, and a pectinated claw to the middle toe.

GLAREOLA. 253

The genus Glareola may be diagnosed as Charadriide resembling Cursorius in having
no nasal groove, but differing from it in having a more or less forked tail and a hind toe.

Synonymy of the Genus GUAREOLA.

Type.
Glareola, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 141 (1760) . . . 2 2. 2...) OG pratincola.
Trachelia, Scopoli, Ann. I. Hist. Nat. p.110 (1769) . . . . . . 2) .) .) «G. pratincola.
Pratincola, Degland, Orn. Eur. ii. p. 107 (18438) . |. . G. pratincola.
Dromochelidon, Landbeck, Jahresh. Ver. vat. Nat. Wiirttemb. 1846, Pp. 212. . G., pratincola.
Stiltia, Bonaparte, Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 419 (1856) . . . . . . . . . G. grallaria.
Galachrysia, Bonaparte, Compt. Rend. xlii. p. 419 (1856) . . . . . . . G. lactea.

When Linneus wrote the tenth edition of his ‘Systema Nature’ in 1758, he does Determina-
tion of the

not appear to have been acquainted with the Pratincole; and when he wrote his twelfth type.
edition, eight years afterwards, he probably only knew it from Brisson’s plate (which
certainly does look very much like a Swallow), otherwise he would scarcely have committed
the blunder of placing it in the genus Hirundo !

The Common Pratincole (Glareola pratincola) being the Glareola glareola of Brisson,
is therefore the type of the genus.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Large species. Parmarctic Region. Small species.
G. PRATINCOLA. . . . . . South-west.
G. MELANOPTERA . . . . - South Central.

Erniopran Recion.

Liberia and Niger. G. MEGAPODA.
Gold Coast, Niger, and Loango. G. CINEREA.
Loango, Gaboon, and Nubia. G. NUCHALIS.
Lake Albert Nyanza. G. EMINI.
G. ocULARIS . . . + + Madagascar.
OrnientTaL Reaion.
G. onrentatis . . . . . ~ Throughout, and north to Dauria.
India, Burma, and Ceylon. 2. ewe) 6G, LacrEa.

AUSTRALIAN REGION,

G. GRALLARIA . . . + es East Australia.

Climatic

distribution.

Habits.

Emigra-
tions.

254 GLAREOLA.

The genus Glareola is a small one, and two-thirds of the species are tropical, though
one of these extends its range to some distance into the temperate zone. ‘The distribution

of the species is as follows :—

Temperate Eurasia 2
South Australia bl Be a 1
Temperate species . . . . — 8
Tropical Asia 2
Tropical Africa . 5
Tropical species . =
Species of Glareola . . . . . » — 10

The Pratincoles are birds of very powerful flight; like the Coursers they feed almost
entirely upon insects, but, unlike their nearest relations, they catch their prey on the wing.
They rival the Swallows in their power of flight, and in their structural modifications to
attain it—a most interesting case, not of affinity, but of analogy.

The Pratincoles doubtless originally migrated from the steppes of Siberia, one
party (the ancestors of G. pratincola and G. melanoptera) travelling westwards, whilst
another party crossed the Himalayas to the south, became differentiated into @. orien-
talis in India, and sent off offshoots a little later to Madagascar and Australia, which in
process of time were isolated (if one may use such an expressive term) into G. ocularis and
G. grallaria.

When the Pratincoles were driven south by the glacial cold, it is probable that G.
pratincola was isolated and differentiated in the basin of the Mediterranean, and G. melano-
ptera in the valley of the Nile. Though the breeding-range of the latter species now
extends fifty degrees further east in Siberia, it still comes back, presumably, to its old
home every winter.

The small tropical Pratincoles were probably isolated from their larger subtropical
allies before the latter were dispersed by the coming on of the Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch ;
and are probably the result of an early emigration from the Siberian steppes to the Indian
plains. The Little Indian Pratincole, as it has black feet and no nuchal collar, appears to be
more nearly related to the larger group than its allies are, all of whom have pale feet, and
when adult a nuchal collar. As it appears to be the least changed, we may presume that
the ancestors of . /actea were originally isolated in India, whence they spread westwards
into Africa, when the Palearctic birds were crowded down into the Oriental Region, and
the struggle for existence became fast and furious.

The African birds developed a nuchal collar, and their feet and axillaries became
paler. The ancestors of G. nuchalis were probably isolated in Nubia, and those of
G. emini on the shores of the great Equatorial lakes, whence emigrating parties crossed

GLAREOLA. 955

the continent to the west, the ancestors of G. megapoda finding a home on the northern
shores of the Gulf of Guinea, and those of G. cizerea on the eastern shores of that Gulf.
The following key is sufficient to diagnose each species when adult, but it is interest-
ing to know that in this genus chestnut or black axillaries appear to be always correlated
with black legs and the absence of a nuchal collar; whilst white (G. cinerea) or grey axil-
laries (G. megapoda, G. emini, and G. nuchalis) appear to be always correlated with pale

legs and the presence of a nuchal collar, which is chestnut-buff in the two former and white
in the two latter.

KEY TO THE SPECIES,

grallaria .

Axillaries black.
Outer rectrices more than ‘ melanoptera .
half as long again as the

central rectrices. pratincola soe)
orientalis. . - - > Axillaries chestnut.
ocularis ..../

Basal half of outer web of | megapoda.
several rectrices margined <

with black. emini |
j Nape with a white collar.
. nuchalis
cinerea. --- > | Basal half of outer web of
| secondaries white.
Axillaries black . . . lactea - J

With the exception of the white nuchal collar, all these characters are believed to
apply to young in first plumage, as well as to adults of both sexes and at all seasons. ‘The
young of G. emine and G. nuchalis are unknown, and it is possible that, like the young of
G. megapoda, they have no nuchal collar.
Of these species the second, third, fourth, and fifth have the claw of the middle toe Other
pectinated ; the first five are large birds with wings measuring seven inches or more characters.

256 GLAREOLA.

from the carpal joint ; and the second, third, and fourth, when adult, have the throat sur-
rounded with a black line, which is represented by a row of black spots in the first. The
four species which have a nuchal collar have pale legs and feet ; and the six species without
any collar have black legs and feet.

* * Succies with chestnut avillaries and black legs, but without a nuchal collar.

Tail of young in first. plumage.

GLAREOLA PRATINCOLA.
COMMON PRATINCOLE.

Diagnosis. | Grareoxa axillaribus castaneis : caudé valdé furcatd (juvenum etiam plus quam 30 millim.).

Variations. ‘ue statement that intermediate forms between this species and G@. melanoptera occur is
very doubtful.

GLAREOLA. 257

Glareola glareola, 7) p. 141 (1760, adult).
Glareola torquata, Lo. p- 145 (1760, immature).
Glareola senegalensis, Brisson, Orn. p- 148 (1760, immature).
Glareola nevia, : 147 (1760, young).

Hirundo pratincola, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 845 (1766).

Trachelia pratincola (Linn.), Scopoli, Ann. I. Hist. Nat. p. 110 (1769).

Glareola austriaca, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 695 (1788).

Glareola pratincola (Linn.), Leach, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 181 (1820).

Pratincola glareola (Briss.), Degland, Orn. Eur. ii, p. 107 (1848).

Glareola limbata, Riippell, Syst. Uebers. p. 118, pl. 43 (1845, young).

Dromochelidon natrophila, Landbeck, Jahresh. Ver. vat. Nat. Wiirttemb. 1816, p. 228.

Prates.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 513; Gould, Birds of Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 46.
Hasits.—Seebohm, Brit. Birds, iii. p. 69.
Eees.—Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 24.

The Comnion Pratincole may be diagnosed by its chestnut azillaries and deeply forked
tail. No other species of this genus combines both characters; young in first plumage of
G. melanoptera have chestnut tips to their otherwise black axillaries, and young in first
plumage of G. pratincola have the fork of the tail much less deep (sometimes as little as 1°25
inch) than in adults (in which the fork is occasionally as much as 2°7 inch).

The Common Pratincole neither breeds so far north nor winters so far south as its ally
G. melanoptera. It is a salt-water bird, living near the coast, or if inland preferring the
neighbourhood of salt lakes. It is a summer visitor to the basins of the Mediterranean, the
Black and Caspian Seas, and the salt lakes of Russian Turkestan as far east as Ala-kul
(Finsch, Ibis, 1877, p. 52). It breeds in Spain and Algeria in considerable numbers ; but
in the south of France and Italy it is principally known on migration, though it breeds in
Sardinia and Sicily. I found it common on the west coast of Greece at Missolonghi, in the
valley of the Lower Danube, and on the coast of Asia Minor. It is a summer visitor to
Palestine (Tristram, Fauna and Flora of Palestine, p. 128), and, in small numbers, to Persia
(Blanford, Zool. and Geol. of Persia, ii. p. 282); but to Scinde (Butler, Stray Feathers, vii.
p- 186) and to North India it can only be regarded as a rare visitor on migration, as it is
to the British Islands and to North Europe. It passes through Egypt on migration (Shelley,
Ibis, 1871, p. 144), and appears in incredible numbers in Kordofan and Senaar in October,
wintering also in Abyssinia (Heuglin, Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 983) and in West Africa,
where it has been recorded from Senegal, the Gambia (Hartlaub, Journ. Orn. 1854, p. 214),
and the Gold Coast (Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 53). To Angola (Monteiro, Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1869, p. 571), Damara-Land (Andersson, Birds of Damara-Land, p. 265), the
Cape Colony (Layard), and Natal (Ayres, Ibis, 1863, p. 329) it is probably only an
accidental winter visitor.

21

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

258 GLAREOLA.

Nearest The Common Pratincole is most nearly allied to Nordmann’s Pratincole, and Severtzow

an says (Journ. Orn. 1875, p. 188) that intermediate forms between them occur in Turkestan,
but I have never seen anything of the kind. he general direction of migration of the
Common Pratincole leads to the supposition that its ancestors were isolated during the
Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch in North Africa.

GLAREOLA ORIENTALIS.
ORIENTAL PRATINCOLE.

Diagnosis. | Giarzora axillaribus castaneis: rectricum pogoniorum externorum basalibus partibus totis albis:
cauda non valdé furcaté (adultorum etiam minus quam 30 millim.).

Variations. Iv is not known that this species is subject to any local variation.

GLAREOLA. 259

Glareola orientalis, Leach, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 132 (1820).
Glareola thermophila,

Glareola longipes, | Hodgson, Gray’s Zool. Miscell. p. 86 (1844, young).

Pxates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 23.
Hasirs.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 980.
Eees.—Oates, Stray Feathers, vii. p. 49.

The Oriental Pratincole may be diagnosed on three characters :—Avillaries chestnut ;
basal half of outer webs of tail-feathers white ; tail slightly forked, the central Seathers less
than an inch shorter than the outer ones. These characters are found in young as well as
in adult, but no other species of Pratincole combines the three.

Young birds have the tail less forked than old ones: the outer tail-feathers project
beyond the central ones sometimes as much as 1°15 inch in the latter, and sometimes as
little as ‘7 inch in the former.

It is found in India as far west as Scinde (Doig, Stray Feathers, viii. p. 374), Ceylon,
the Burma Peninsula as far south as Singapore (Kelham, Ibis, 1882, p. 6), East Mongolia
(Prjevalsky, Rowley’s Orn. Miscellany, ii, p. 435), extending northwards into Dauria
(Radde, Reisen im Siiden von Ost-Sibirien, ii. p. 307)1, China (there are examples in the
Swinhoe collection from the neighbourhood of Pekin and the island of Formosa), Sumatra,
Java, most of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, and the extreme north of Australia.
Layard procured it on the Philippine Islands (Lord Walden, Ibis, 1872, p. 105); it has
been recorded from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Hume, Stray Feathers, 1874,
p. 284); the Leyden Museum possesses examples from Java, Borneo, and Timor (Schlegel,
Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 17) ; Buxton obtained it on Sumatra (Lord Tweeddale, Ibis,
1877, p. 322); I have examples from North Australia (Cape York) and from Siam; and
Finsch records it from New Guinea, Celebes, and many of the smaller islands of the Malay
Archipelago. It is probably a resident in most parts of its range, shifting its quarters from
time to time during the cool season. In South Siberia, East Mongolia, and North China
it is only found in summer, and to Australia it is probably only a winter visitor.

Its chestnut axillaries point to its close relationship on the one hand to G. ocularis,
which it also resembles in its slightly forked tail, and on the other to G. pratincola, which
has the same black gular line.

* Radde found this species breeding in South-east Dauria, on the salt plains of Nertchinsk, but wrongly
identified it as G. pratincola. He mentions, however, the great amount of white on the tail-feathers of the

Siberian bird when compared with European examples.

212

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Young.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

260 GLAREOLA.

GLAREOLA OCULARIS.
MADAGASCAR PRATINCOLE.

Diagnosis. | Guareora axillaribus castaneis: rectricum pogoniis externis nigro marginatis.
Variations. No local races of this species are known.

Synonymy. Glareola ocularis, Verreaux, S. Afr. Quart. Journ. 1833, p. 80.
Glareola geoffroyi, Pucheran, Rev. Zool. 1845, p. 51.

Literature. Prates.—Grandidier, Ois. Madag. pl. 256.
Hasits.—Roch and Newton, Ibis, 1863, p. 169.
Eees.—Grandidier, Ois. Madag. pl. 306. fig. 7.

Specific The Madagascar Pratincole may be distinguished at all ages by its chestnut avillaries,
characters. and by the black margin of the outer web of most of its tail-feathers. It is the only large
Pratincole possessing the latter character. All the small Pratincoles which possess it
have also a white or buff nuchal collar, of which there is no trace in the Madagascar species.

GLAREOLA. 261

It is a resident in Madagascar, but has once been obtained in the neighbouring island Seographi-
of Mauritius (Grandidier, Ois. Madag. p. 646), and there is an example in the British Museum oe
said to have been obtained on the Zambesi.

Its chestnut axillaries and slightly forked tail proclaim its relationship to G. orientalis; Nearest
so that we may regard it as the result of an emigration from Ceylon during the Post- a
Pliocene Glacial Epoch, when the Oriental Region was overcrowded with birds driven out of

Siberia by the cold.

** Species with black axillaries and black legs, but without a nuchal collar.

GLAREOLA MELANOPTERA.

NORDMANN’S PRATINCOLE.

Guarrota axillaribus nigris: caud4 valdé furcata (juvenum etiam plus quam 26 millim.). Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
ally.

t

262 GLAREOLA.

Tux alleged intermediate forms between this species and G. pratincola are very doubtful.

Glareola melanoptera, Nordmann, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Mosc. xv. pt. ii. p. 314 (1842).
Glareola nordmanni, Fischer, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Mose. xv. pt. ii. p. 814 (1842).
Pratincola pallasi, Bruch, fide Degland, Orn. Eur. ii. p. 112 (1848).

Glareola pallasii, Bruch, fide Schlegel, Rev. Crit. p. lxxxi (1844).

Prates.—Gould, Birds of Asia, vii. pl. 63; Ibis, 1868, pl. vill.
Hasits.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. p. 419.
Eees.—Thienemann, Abbild. Vogeleiern, pl. lvii. fig. 2.

Nordmann’s Pratincole may always be distinguished by its dlack azillaries and deeply
forked tail. hese characters are not quite constant at all ages, but even in young in first
plumage black is the prevailing colour of the axillaries, and the fork of the tail is never less
than an inch.

Nordmann’s Pratincole breeds in the Kirghiz Steppes from the plains of the Don,
where it was first discovered by Nordmann, as far north as Omsk, where I examined
examples in the museum of Professor Slowzotf, and as far east as Ala-kul, on the confines
of Mongolia, where its range was found by Finsch to inosculate with that of the Common
Pratincole. To all these regions it is only a summer visitor; and as it is not known to
have occurred in Afghanistan or India, and only passes through Persia, Trans-Caucasia,
Asia Minor, and ‘Turkey on migration, it is probable that its winter-quarters are confined
to Africa. Heuglin says that it passes through Egypt and Nubia on migration, whence it
spreads over the whole of South Africa in winter. To the west it has been recorded from
Prince’s Island (Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1866, p. 330) and the Gaboon ; in the south it is
seen in large flocks in Damara-Land, the Cape Colony, Natal, and the Transvaal; and in
the east it is recorded from the Zambesi (Kirk, Ibis, 1864, p. 332). Layard quotes
Mrs. Barber as an authority for the breeding of this bird in South Africa; but the
evidence is not at all satisfactory, the ‘“ Locust-bird” referred to being, in all probability,
the Wattled Starling (Dilophus carunculatus).

Nordmann’s Pratincole is so nearly allied to the Common Pratincole that it can
scarcely be regarded as more than a steppe-form of its salt-marsh ally. In young in first
plumage the axillaries are black margined with chestnut, so that we may fairly assume that
the ancestors of Nordmann’s Pratincole bore a close resemblance to the Common Pratincole,
which appears to be the least changed descendant of the ancestral Pratincoles.

GLAREOLA.

GLAREOLA GRALLARIA.
LONG-LEGGED PRATINCOLE.

263

Grareoxa tarso longo (40 ad 50 millim.): axillaribus nigris: secundariis omnind brunneis: caudA

vix furcata.

Ir is not known that this species varies in any way.

Glareola isabella, Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xiii. p. 221 (1817).
Glareola graJlaria, Temminck, Man. d’ Orn. 11. p. 503 (1820).

Glareola australis, Leach, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 182 (1820).

Stiltia grallaria (Temm.), Bonaparte, Compt. Rend. xiii. p. 419 (1856).
Stiltia isabella (Vieill.), Salvadori, Orn. Pap. e Mol. iii. p. 286 (1882).

Prates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 22.
Hasits.—Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 243.
Eaes.—Campbell, Nests and Eggs Austr. Birds, p. 54.

The Long-legged Pratincole is easily distinguished by its chestnut flanks, long tarsi

(1:6 to 1°9 inch), and dong first primary (an inch or more longer than the second).

Each

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

264 GLAREOLA.

of these three characters is diagnostic, but the long legs will probably be found to be the
safest guide to determine the young in first plumage.

ey enn It breeds in the eastern half of Australia, and is probably only a winter visitor to the

tion. islands of the Malay Archipelago, where it has occurred in Java, Borneo, New Guinea,
Celebes, and many of the smaller islands.

Origin. The Long-legged Pratincole is probably the result of an emigration from the Burma

peninsula, which occurred about the same time and from the same cause as that which is
supposed to have proceeded from the adjoining peninsula, and resulted in the differentia-
tion of the Madagascar species.

GLAREOLA LACTEA.
LITILE INDIAN PRATINCOLE.

Diagnosis. | Grarzoua axillaribus nigris : secundariis pro majore parte albis.

Variations. No local races of this species are known.
Synonymy. Glareola lactea, Temminck, Man. d@’ Orn. ii. p. 508 (1820).
Glareola nipalensis,
Glareola cinerascens, | ody, Gray’s Zool. Miscell. p. 86 (1844).
Glareola gangetica,
Galachrysia lactea (Temm.), Bonaparte, Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 419 (1856).

GLAREOLA. 265

Prates.—Temm. PI. Col. no. 399; Gould, Birds of Asia, vii. pl. 64.
Hasirs.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 984.
Eees.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. Ix. fig. 1.

The Little Indian Pratincole is very easily diagnosed from its allies. 4villaries
black, secondaries with white bases to both webs is simple enough ; awillaries black, wing
from carpal joint less than seven inches is equally good: as either diagnosis is applicable
to immature as well as to adult birds.

Its small size and the great amount of white on the primaries and secondaries
apparently indicate its affinity to G. cinerea, though the latter as well as the other two
small African species have acquired a nuchal collar and pale legs.

The Little Indian Pratincole is a resident in India, Burma, and Ceylon, breeding in
colonies on the sandbanks near salt lakes and great rivers from the Indus to the Ganges.
Its habits scarcely differ from those of the larger species. In the daytime it is generally
seen on the ground ; but in the evening it hawks after insects in the air, like a Swallow, and
it is remarkable for the efforts which it makes to wile an intruder from its nest.

** Species with white or grey axillaries, pale legs, and a nuchal collar.

GLAREOLA CINEREA.
WHITE-WINGED PRATINCOLE.

GuaReows axillaribus albis.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Nearest
allies.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis,

266 GLAREOLA.
Variations. No local races of this species are known.

Synonymy. -Glareola cinerea, Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 26.
Galachrysia cinerea, Bonaparte, Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 419 (1856).

Literature. Priates.—Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. pl. exliv.
Hasits.—Forbes, Ibis, 1833, pp. 129, 514.
Eees.—Hartert, Journ. Orn. 1886, p. 610.

aoe The White-winged Pratincole is the only species of the genus which has white
characters. ,

avillaries, a character common to old and young.
on It is only known from West. Africa, where it is a resident in the Fantee Country

eal distribu-
tion,

(Sharpe, Ibis, 1870, p. 487), the valley of the Niger (Forbes, Ibis, 1883, p. 129), the
valley of the Ogowai (Bocage, Orn. d’Angola, p. 422), and the Loango coast (Falkenstein,

Journ. Orn. 1877, p. 11).

GLAREOLA NUCHALIS.
WHITE-NAPED PRATINCOLE.

Diagnosis. | GLARzoLA axillaribus griseis : secundariarum pogouiis externis pro parte basali albis.

GLAREOLA. 267

No local races of this species are known. Variations.

Glareola nuchalis, Gray, Proc. Zool. Suc. 1849, p. 63. Synonymy.
Glareola marchei, Oustalet, Bull. Soc. Philom. sér. 7, i. p. 104 (1877).

Puates.—Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1849, pl. ix. (The wing-coverts are erroneously figured with Literature.
white tips.)

Hasits.—Undescribed.

Eees.— Unknown.

The White-naped Pratincole may be distinguished from all its allies, except from Specific
G. megapoda and G. emini, by its grey avillaries, and from those species by having @ white eee
patch on the outer webs, as well as on the inner webs, of the secondaries at the base.

When adult it may be recognized by its white nuchal collar; but as its ally G. meyapoda
has no collar in young in first plumage, it is probable that the young in first plumage of
G. nuchalis are also without any collar.

The White-naped Pratincole is a very rare bird in collections The type is in the Geographi-
British Museum, and was obtained by Galton in Nubia. In the Paris Museum are pee
examples obtained by Marche in the Gaboon ; and in the Museums of Berlin and Leyden
are others obtained by Falkenstein on the Loango coast “ near the mountains ” (Reichenow,

Journ. Orn. 1877, p. 9).

: spa N if
It is nearest related to G. megapoda. a
GLAREOLA MEGAPODA.
BUTTIKOFER’S PRATINCOLE.
Guarezo1a axillaribus griseis : nuché collari rufo ornata. Diagnosis,

2u2

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

A neglected
species.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,
Nearest
ally.

268 GLAREOLA.

No local races of this species are known.

Glareola megapoda, Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 62 (1844, descript. null.).
Glareola nuchalis liberiz, Schlegel, Notes Leyd. Mus. 1881, p. 58 (descript. exig.).
Glareola megapoda, Biittikofer, Notes Leyd. Mus. 1885, p. 233 (descript. bon.).

Prates.— Unfigured.
Hasrts.—Undescribed.
Eces, in the Leyden Museum, collected by Biittikofer in Liberia, resemble those of G. lactea

in size, but those of G. pratincola in colour.

It is remarkable that Gray appears never to have described this species. In
1844 he evidently regarded it as new; but in 1848, when its discoverers published the
ornithological results of their expedition, he probably persuaded them that it was the young
of G. cinerea (Allen and Thomson, Narr. Exp. Niger, ii. p.507). In 1857 Hartlaub (Orn.
Westafr. p. 211) regarded it as the young of G. zuchalis; but in 1870 Finsch and
Hartlaub (Vég. Ostafr. p. 636), having examined the skins in the British Museum, came
to the conclusion that it was, after all, a good species, though they apparently did not
discover that it was undescribed. For more than ten years it remained in this neglected
condition, although the British Museum possessed a small series of skins, until in 1881 it
was rediscovered by Biittikofer in Liberia, and renamed by Schlegel, who separated it as a
subspecies from 6. nuchalis because the nuchal collar in adult birds was chestnut instead
of white. If this had been the only difference between the two species Schlegel’s course
would probably have been the correct one; but in G. megapoda the outer webs of the three
outer tail-feathers on each side are margined with black down to their bases, a character
which distinguishes it from all other species of the genus except from G. ocularis. To
complete its diagnosis it is only necessary to add awillaries grey. Adult birds of both
sexes have a chestnut nuchal collar, which is very richly coloured in the male, but young in
first plumage have no trace of a collar.

Biittikofer’s Pratincole breeds in Liberia (Biittikofer) and near the mouth of the
Niger (Allen and Thomson).

It is nearest related to G. emini, but has many points in common with G. ocularis,
in spite of its smaller size. Young in first plumage are probably only distinguishable from
young of G. emini by their smaller size, the length of wing from the carpal joint being
54 instead of 6 inches.

GLAREOLA.

GLAREOLA EMINI.

EMIN’S PRATINCOLE.

Grareora nuché collari albo ornata: secundariarum pogoniis externis omnind griseis.

‘THIs species is only known from a single example.

Glareola emini, Shelley, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1887, Nov.

Prares.— Unfigured.
Hasits.— Undescribed.
Ececs.— Unknown.

269

This species appears to be quite distinct from G. auchalis, though it resembles it in

having a white nuchal collar.

It is a larger bird, with the wing measuring more than
(6 inches from the carpal joint, and has zo white on the outer web of the secondaries,

In

the latter character it resembles G. megapoda, which also very nearly approaches it in size ;
but as that species has a rufous nuchal collar it may be regarded as quite distinct, though

it is possible that the young of the two species may resemble each other very closely.
It was discovered by Dr. Emin Bey near Lake Albert Nyanza in Central Africa.

There can be little doubt that it is nearest related to G. megapoda.

|
wk

Nl,
Q Mi ( @Q

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific cha-
racters.

Nearest ally.

Diagnosis.

Characters
of sub-
family,

Climatic dis-
tribution.

CHAPTER XVI.

Subfamily TOTANIN &.

CHARADRIIDA digito externo cum medioad basin membrana connexo : naribus ultra partem quartam
rostri ab basi non extensis.

The Totaninze may be diagnosed as follows :—

Charadriidz having the outer and middle toes united by a web at the base; and
having the nasal aperture situated within the basal fourth of the bill.

About sixty birds belonging to this subfamily possess both these characters; but the
resemblance between one of them, Hreunetes pusillus, and a species in the next subfamily,
Tringa minutilla, is so close that it is difficult to believe that they are not more nearly
related to each other than each of them is to their respective congeners, in which case the
first character of the subfamily must be regarded as denoting analogy rather than affinity.

The subfamily of Totanine is unquestionably both Arctic and Circumpolar. Of the
64 species and subspecies which it contains

27 are exclusively Arctic.

10 are Arctic and ‘temperate.

18 are exclusively Temperate.
9 are Temperate and Tropical.
Q are exclusively Tropical.

C4,

35 are exclusively Old-World.
2 are Circumpolar.
27 are exclusively New-World.

64

Of the 8 genera of which it consists, 7 are represented in both the Old and the New
World, and the remaining genus is of very doubtful validity. There can scarcely be any
doubt that the common ancestors of these 64 species were residents of the Polar Basin
during the breeding-season before the Pre-Pliocene Glacial Epoch.

TOTANINA, 271

The Totanine may be divided into eight genera, the characters of some of which
appear to be rather trivial.

KEY TO THE GENERA.

a. Tarsus scutellated at least for the front lower half.
a\. Bull slightly, if at all, decurved.

a*. A lobe or web on the side of the toes . . . . . . . . Paavarorus.
6. No web on the side of the toes.
a>, Frontal feathers extending in front of the gape. . . . . Toranus.
6°, Frontal feathers not extending beyond the gape.
a‘. Tip of bill slightly expanded, hard and smooth . . . . Limosa.
6*. Tip of bill much expanded, soft and corrugated . . . . Ereuneres.
61, Bill decurved so that a straight line from the gape to the tip passes
below the lower outline of the under mandible . . . . . Nomenius.

6. Tarsus reticulated ail round.
cl. Bill straight or recurved.
c. Tarsus as long or longer than the bil . . . . . . . . Hrmayropus.
d?. Tarsus much shorter than the bil . . . . . . . ~~. +. Hamaropus.
d'. Billmuch decurved . . . . . . ee SCSS~SCO DOR YNCHUS.

Diagnosis.

Nearest
allies.

Generic

characters,

CHAPTER XVII.

Genus HIMANTOPUS.

Totanin« tarsis totis reticulatis et longissimis (digitis mediis duplo longioribus).

Tue genus /imantopus contains eleven species, and embraces the Stilts, the Avocets, and the
Peruvian Stilt and the Banded Avocet, which form the connecting-links between them.

This genus of birds is remarkably homogeneous and well differentiated from all allied
genera, and contains species so closely related to each other, that there can be no possible
reason for subdividing it in the way which has been adopted by most ornithologists.

It is difficult to say to which genera Himantopus is nearest related. ‘The softness of
the plumage resembles that of Phalaropus; but this is probably an evidence of analogy
rather than of affinity. The delicate reticulation of the tarsus is similar to that of the
bar-tailed species of Charadrius, to which, in spite of the dissimilarity of the bill, the genus
may possibly be more nearly allied. The eleven species included in Himantopus may be
diagnosed from all the other species of the family Charadriide by the combination of three
characters. Each of these is found in many other species of the family, but no species
belonging to it combines all three, except the eleven species which constitute the genus
Himantopus. These three characters are a long bill and a long and reticulated tarsus.
The genus may therefore be diagnosed as follows :—

Charadriide having the tarsus covered all over with a network of fine hexagonal
reticulations, having more than three fourths of the bill (measured from the frontal feathers)
beyond the nasal orifice, and having the tarsus at least twice the length of the middle toe.

Synonymy of the Genus Himanvorvs.

Recurvirostra, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 151 (1758); Linn. Syst. Nat. i. ca
p- 256 (1766) : H. avocetta,

Himantopus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 34 (1760) . H. melanopterus.
Avocetta, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 5388 (1760) , H. avocetta.
Macrotarsus, Lacépede, Mém. de I’ Inst. iii. p. 518 (1801) H. melanopterus.
Hypsibates, Nitzsch, Ersch u. Grub. Encycl. xvi. p. 150 (1827) . H. melanopterus.
Leptorhynchus, Dubus, Mag. Zool. v. pl. 45 (1835) . H. pectoralis.
Cladorhynchus, Gray, List Gen. B. p. 69 (1840) . H. pectoralis.

HIMANTOPUS. 273

The Common Stilt (Aimantopus melanopterus), being the Charadrius himantopus of Determina-
Linneus and the Himantopus himantopus of Brisson, has a double claim to be regarded as_ 9» of the
the type of the genus. The name Recurvirostra could scarcely be applied to the Stilts
whose bills do not turn up.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Avocets. Eruropran Racion. Stilts.

Throughout.

H. avocetra
Patmarctic Rrcion.

Southern half. $ . . . H. MELANOPTERUS.

—_-e-ceor~

OrIENTAL ReGIon.
India.

AUSTRALIAN Reaion.

H. pusriconuis . . . . ;
Australia. . . . 4H. Levcocersa us.
H. rectoratis
New Zealand. H. Mexas.
Sandwich Islands. H. KNUDSENI.

Nearctic REeton.

H. AMERICANUS . . . . Southern half.

NeorropicaL RxGIon. g H. MEXICANUS.

Mexico and Central America. |
Peru. . . . HH. anprna.
H

Chilian subregion. . BRASILIENSIS.

The range of the genus is almost cosmopolitan, but it does not extend into the Arctic
Region nor to most of the smaller islands of the Pacific. Five species breed in the
Australian Region, two in the Nearctic, and two in the Neotropical Regions. The
remaining two species breed in the Palearctic Region, but one breeds also in the Oriental
Region, and both in the Ethiopian Region. This information has little interest because
it has little significance, except perhaps that Australia appears to have been the centre of
distribution of the genus, an inference probably false. Ifthe genus be split into three, bad
is made worse, and the key to the geographical distribution is broken.

2N

Climatic

distribution.

Origin of
species.

Commence-
ment of

emigrations.

274 HIMANTOPUS.

The genus Himantopus is neither an Arctic nor a Tropical group of birds. Every
species breeds in the Temperate Regions, but the breeding-range of three of them extends

also to the tropics. They are distributed as follows :—

Temperate North America 1

Temperate South America... ee ee eee 8

New Zealand and Temperate Australia . . . . . . 4
Temperate species.» + + «+ we we em 7

Temperate and Tropical N. America . : 1
Temperate Eurasia and Temperate and Tropical Afr ica. 1
Tropical Africa and Tropical and Temperate Eurasia . 1

Temperate and Tropical species . . . » « — 38
Sandwich Islands. ¢. 6 « 6. « « 9 @ @ 2 a 4 1
Tropital PGCE? 5 gk a D
Species of Himantopus 1. 1s 2 2 eee ew ew = Tl

Let us endeavour to trace the history of the ancestral form from which the eleven
species now forming the genus Himantopus are descended, and let us try to follow its
emigration, from the period when it consisted of only one species living on the shores of
the north polar sea, down to the present time when its descendants have become eleven
species scattered over the greater part of the globe.

Probably the first split in the circle of circumpolar birds was the intervention of a
glacier, stretching from the north pole down the mountains of Greenland. The semi-
isolation caused by the stoppage of interbreeding between the birds of the Atlantic coast of
America and that of Europe must naturally have produced a differentiation between the
birds of Grinnel-Land and Scandinavia, and there is reason to believe that the former
became Stilts and the latter Avocets; but imasmuch as interbreeding could take place
between the birds of each bay and those of the next along the whole line in one direction,
it can scarcely be doubted that at first the Stilts were connected by a series of intermediate
forms with the Avocets. The next cause of isolation (which was probably complete) was
most likely a glacier stretching across the north pole from the Rocky Mountains, either to
Novaya Zemlya or to the mountains of Eastern Siberia. This must soon have been
followed by the evacuation of the Polar Basin, and the emigration of the birds in four
parties along the four shores leading to the south. The causes already enumerated must
have produced an emigration of Stilts along one coast of the Atlantic, an emigration of
Avocets along the other, whilst the emigration along the two coasts of the Pacific must
have consisted on the one side of Avocets with a strong strain of Stilt in them, and on the
other of Stilts with a strong strain of Avocet blood.

The next step to take is to examine the eleven species of the genus, and ascertain if

HIMANTOPUS. 273

all four parties of emigrants have left descendants, and to determine by what characters
they may now be detected. ‘The four groups of which we are in search are Stilts, Semi-
Stilts, Avocets, and Semi-Avocets. The last three species on the list, HH. avocetta,
H., rubricollis, and H. americanus, are unquestionably thorough-bred Avocets, diagnosed as
mantle white, scapulars and secondaries for the most part white; the first six, H. meaicanus,
Hf. knudseni, H. brasiliensis, H. leucocephalus, H. melas, and H. melanopterus, are as
unquestionably thorough-bred Stilts, having all the parts mentioned above black instead
of white. ‘These are the important characters which date farthest back ; but it is worthy
of note that in these two groups the black mantle &c. is correlated with a straight
bill, very slightly webbed feet, and the absence of a hind toe; whilst the white mantle
is correlated with a recurved bill, strongly webbed feet, and the presence of a hind toe.
We have now two species left, A. andinus and H. pectoralis. ‘Yhe former is called an
Avocet, and the latter a Stilt, by the writers who place an extravagant value on structural
characters. In my opinion HZ. andinus is a model representative of a Semi-Stilt. It has
the black mantle and wings of the Stilts, whilst its strain of Avocet blood crops up in the
less important characters of its recurved bill, webbed feet, and hind toe. Z. pectoralis, on
the other hand, is an excellent Semi-Avocet, its white mantle and the white on its wings
proclaiming it an Avocet, whilst its straight bill and the absence of a hind toe show its
relationship to the Stilts.

The third step in the argument is the apportioning of the four groups to the four
routes. The case is a very simple one. The Semi-Stilt and the Semi-Avocet are, by the
terms of the hypothesis, the representatives of the two Pacific-coast emigrations ; and as
the Semi-Stilt inhabits Peru, and the Semi-Avocet Australia, there can be no dispute that
the Semi-Stilts emigrated along the American shores of the Pacific, and the Semi-Avocets
along the Asiatic shores of that ocean. The Avocets consequently represent the Old-World
pair, the true Avocets migrating along the Atlantic coast. ‘The Stilts being the New-World
couple, we must apportion the Atlantic coast of America to the true Stilts.

The ancestors of the true Avocets seem to have left the Polar Basin by way of the
European shores of the Atlantic, and to have occupied Africa and the southern portion of
the Palearctic Region. Finding the Oriental Region already occupied during the breeding-
season by the Stilts, they seem to have sent off a detachment to Australia. Here also
the ground appears to have been partially occupied by congeneric species, so that a second
emigration became necessary, which found a home on the west coast of the United
States. The true Stilts are so closely related to each other that the precise order of
their emigration is not very easy to determine, but we may begin by assuming that
they ‘left the Polar Basin along the Atlantic shores of America; thence they seem to
have crossed the tropics to the Chilian subregion of South America and to the
Sandwich Islands. .A second detachment appears to have crossed the Atlantic to the
Canary Islands and Spain, whence they spread eastwards up the Mediterranean to the
Oriental Region and across the Ethiopian Region. Meanwhile the restricted area of the

2N2

Divide into
four parties.

Routes of
the Semi-
Stilts and
Semi-
Avocets.

Route of the
Avocets.

Route of the
Stilts.

276

HIMANTOPUS.

Chilian subregion seems to have compelled some of the white-crowned Stilts to emigrate a
second time; they seem to have crossed the Pacific to New Zealand and Australia.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

So far as is known, the following key to the species applies to young in first plumage

as well as to adult birds.

Mantle and wings black . 4

(

Innermost primaries and |
secondaries white . )
Tertiaries white in |

barred with white in
young.

brasiliensis
melanopterus
leucocephalus
mexicanus,
knudseni .
melas
andinus
pectoralis .
rubricollis
avocetta

americanus .

Black onneck reaching toear-
=H)

coverts but not to crown.
Black on neck, if present,
separated from back.

_

Black on neck not reaching
to any part of head.

Posterior half of lores black.

Axilaries black.

» > Toes deeply webbed.

White on scapulars.

Of the eleven species contained in this genus the first six may be regarded as typical
Stilts, with a black mantle and no hind toe; the seventh, H. andinus, is an aberrant Stilt,
having a black mantle, but with a small hind toe. The eighth, H. pectoralis, is an
aberrant Avocet, having a white mantle, but no hind toe; whilst the three last may
be regarded as typical Avocets, with a white mantle and a small hind toe.

HIMANTOPUS. 277

** Typical Stilts.

~~ ~
a

HIMANTOPUS MELANOPTERUS.
COMMON STILT.

Himanoprrvs alis omnino nigris: aut capite colloque albis (in adult.), aut pileo et collo postico nigris Diagnosis.
(in adolesc.) vel brunneis (in juv.), semper infra nucham albo.

Immatore birds vary in the extent of black or brown on the head and neck. In nearly Variations.
mature birds the crown only remains black; but the presence or absence of black or brown

on the ear-coverts appears to be accidental, and not to be affected by age or geographical
distribution, though perhaps the dark ear-coverts are most frequent in eastern examples.

Charadrius himantopus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. 1. p. 151 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p.255 (1766). Synonymy.
Himantopus himantopus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 34 (1760).

Himantopus plinii, Gerini, Orn. Meth. Dig. iv. p. 67 (1773).

Himantopus candidus, Bonnaterre, Tabl. Encycl. i. p. 24 (1790).

Himantopus vulgaris, Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb. ii. p. 825 (1803).

Cursorius himantopus (Linn.), Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 62 (1807).

Himantopus rufipes, Bechstein, Naturg. Deutschl. iu. p. 446 (1809).

Himantopus atropterus, Meyer, Taschend. ii. p. 315 (1810).

Himantopus melanopterus, Meyer, Ann. Wetter. Geselisch. iii. p. 177 (1814).

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

278 HIMANTOPUS.

Himantopus albicollis, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. x. p. 41 (1817).

Hypsibates himantopus (Linn.), Nitzsch, Ersch u. Grub. Encycl. xvi. p. 150 (1827).

Himantopus asiaticus, Lesson, Rev. Zool. 1839, p. 44.

Himantopus intermedius, Blyth, Cat. B. Mus. As. Soc. p. 265 (1849).

Himantopus minor, Natterer, fide Hartlaub, Journ Orn. 1860, p. 170.

Himantopus albus, Eliman, Zoologist, 1861, p. 7470.

Himantopus europeus, Sander, fide Gray, Hand-list of Birds, iii. p. 47 (1871).

Himantopus autumnalis (Hasselquist), apud Gray, Holdsworth, Legge, Heuglin, Walden,
Gurney, &c.

Puates.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pls. 535, 536.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, i. p. 79.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 2+. figs. 4, 6.

The Common Stilt, when in fully adult male plumage, may be recognized by its pure
white head und neck. Less mature birds have black on the back of the neck, extending over
the crown, but not reaching the mantle. Young in first plumage have the black replaced
by brown, which is mottled with buff.

The Common Stilt is most abundant during the breeding-season in India and Ceylon,
where its numbers are increased during winter. Further east it is found during the cold

HI, melanopterus. H andinus, HT, avocetta.

season in Burma; and stragglers have occurred in New Zealand, Timor, Borneo, Cochin
China, the Philippine Islands, and North China. West of India it is a regular summer
visitor to Afghanistan, Turkestan, North Persia, Palestine, Asia Minor, to the salt lakes of
the Kalmuk and Kirghis steppes, the lagoons on the shores of the Black Sea, the delta

HIMANTOPUS. 279

of the Rhone, and the marismas of Southern Spain and Portugal. It is an accidental
straggler on migration to the rest of Europe as far north as the Baltic. It is a resident
in many parts of Africa, where its numbers are largely increased during winter, and it
has been found in the Canary Islands. It is said to be common and to breed on the
coast of Madagascar ; and eggs collected by Mr. Kotze on the Berg River are in the
Cape Town Museum.

HIMANTOPUS MEXICANUS.
NORTH-AMERICAN STILT.

Himaytorvus halluce nullo: axillaribus lorisque albis: haud inter collum posticum et dorsum Diagnosis,
collari albo.

IntTERMEDIATE forms between this species and H. drasihensis frequently occur, but may Variations,
possibly prove to be immature examples of the latter.

Himantopus mexicanus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 36 (1760). Synonymy.
Charadrius mexicanus (Briss.), Miiller, Vollst. Natursyst. Suppl. p. 117 (1776).

Himantopus nigricollis, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. x. p. 42 (1817).

Himantopus mexicanus (Briss.), Ord, Wilson’s Amer. Orn. vii. p. 52 (1824).

Hypsibates nigricollis (Vieidl.), Cabanis, Schomb. Guian. iii. p. 758 (1848).

Macrotarsus nigricollis (Vieil.), Gundlach, Journ. Orn. 1856, p. 422.

280 HIMANTOPUS.

Literature. Prates.—Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 58. fig. 2; Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1873, p. 453
(woodcut of head). :
Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 346.
Eces.—Thienemann, Abbild. Vogeleiern, pl. Ixiii. fig. 6.

Specific The North-American Stilt is an intermediate form between the Common Stilt and the
characters. Chitian Stilt. It may be recognized by the distribution of the black on the back of the neck,
which not only passes underneath the eye, but also extends over the crown and joins the
black on the mantle. Young in first plumage resemble adults, except that the black is
replaced by brown.
It breeds in the southern half of North America, and winters in the northern half of
South America, but in the central portion of its range it is said to be a resident.
Geographi- It does not appear to visit Canada, but in the United States it is found in California,
ena and is especially common on the shores of the Great Salt Lake. To the east it is said to
; be common on the coast of New Jersey, and has occurred once on the Bermudas (Reid,
Zoologist, 1877, p. 475). It is a summer visitor to the Southern States, but is probably a
resident in Mexico and the West Indies. It is a winter visitor to Central America (Salvin,
Ibis, 1865, p. 192), Colombia (Wyatt, Ibis, 1871, p. 383), the Lower Amazons (Wallace,
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 591), and the Galapagos Islands (Dr. Habel, Proc. Zool. Soc.
1870, p. 323).

HIMANTOPUS KNUDSENI.
SANDWICH-ISLAND STILT.

Diagnosis. Himantorus haud inter collum posticum et dorsum collari albo: loris parte anteriore alba, parte
posteriore nigra.

Variations. 7 is not known that any local races of this species occur.

Synonymy. Himantopus knudseni, Stejneger, Proc. U. States Nat. Mus. 1887, p. 81.
a The Sandwich-Island Stilt is little more than an island form of ZH. mexicanus, but it
TR. '

appears to have become differentiated from the parent form in several ways. It hasa

HIMANTOPUS., 981

longer bill, a longer tail, and longer tarsi; but these characters are all of secondary
importance, as none of them are likely to be found in the young. A more reliable feature
is, however, to be found in the amount of black on the head and neck, which extends over
the crown and down to the edge of the forehead, covering the posterior half of the lores,
and also extends two thirds round the neck.

It is only known from the Sandwich Islands, where it has been recorded from Honolulu Geographi-
(Pelzeln, Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 1873, p. 159), Mani (Finsch, Ibis, 1880, p. 79), ¢2! (istribu
and Kanai (Stejneger, Joc. cit.).

It is unquestionably most nearly related to H. mewicanus; but in the tendency of the
black at the back of the neck to cover the sides, and even to be sparingly sprinkled over
the front, it resembles ZZ. picatus.

HIMANTOPUS BRASILIENSIS.
CHILIAN STILT.

HimanTopvs colli postici colore nigro super regionem paroticam, sed haud super pileum extenso. Diagnosis.

Ir is not certain that H. drasiliensis is more than subspecifically distinct from H. nigricollis. Variations.
I have several examples of the former species profusely marked with black on the crown,
and one with very few traces of white on the collar. The former, which were collected by
Read in Chili, I provisionally assume to be young birds after their first spring moult ; and
the latter, collected by Bartlett im Eastern Peru, being an isolated example, may possibly
26

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

282 HIMANTOPUS.

be an instance of partial melanism. The subject requires further investigation, which may
prove either that the two supposed species interbreed regularly and produce fertile
offspring, or occasionally cross, producing barren hybrids.

Himantopus brasiliensis, Brehm, Vog. Deutschil. p. 684 (1831).
Himantopus nigricollis, auctorum multorum, nec Vieillot.

Piates.—Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1878, p. 454 (wocdeut of head) ; Baird, Brewer,
and Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 845 (coloured plate of head).

Hasits. ) Durnford, Ibis, 1877, p. 198; Gibson, Ibis, 1880, p. 162; Durnford, Ibis, 1878,

Kegs. } p. 67.

The Chilian Stilt may be recognized by the distribution of the black on the back of the
neck, which extends underneath the eye, but not on the crown, and is separated from the
black mantle by a white collar. Young in first plumage are supposed to differ from the
young of HH. meatcanus only in being duller in colour. At a very early age, long before
the quills are moulted, the back of the neck becomes nearly black, leaving the crown and
the collar at the bottom of the neck grey. Examples which may prove to be birds of the
year when their first spring-moult is completed differ from adults in having the crown and
the collar more or less mottled with black. It is possible, however, that this may be the
result of crossing.

It breeds in the Chilian subregion of South America, many of the more southerly
birds migrating northwards in autumn to winter in South Brazil.

Hudson found it a resident near Buenos Ayres (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868, p. 144); Ihave
examples collected in Chili by Read probably near Valparaiso; Bartlett found it breeding
in Eastern Peru (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1873, p. 310); Natterer obtained it in Western Brazil
(Mus. Salvin and Godman); and it was originally described by Brehm from the latter
country. Durnford confirmed Hudson’s statement that it was, to soine extent, a resident
near Buenos Ayres, but adds that “the greater part leave in the spring and summer,” so
that its breeding-range must extend further south.

The Chilian Stilt appears to be most nearly related to the Australian Stilt, scarcely
differing from it except in having a black band on the side of the head, and less white qn
the collar. It is, however, almost as nearly related to the North-American Stilt, being, in
fact, an intermediate form between the two.

HIMANTOPUS. 283

HIMANTOPUS LEUCOCEPHALUS.
AUSTRALIAN STILT.

Himanropvs colli postici colore nigro nec ad caput nec ad dorsum extenso. Diagnosis.

Intermep1ATE forms between this species and #. melas occur, but it is not known that Variations.
they completely intergrade.

Himantopus leucocephalus, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 26. Synonymy.
Himantopus nove-hollandie, Bonaparte, Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 421 (1856).

Prates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 24. Literature.
Hasits.—Gould, Handb. B. Austr. ii. p. 246.
Eees.—Campbell, Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, p. 55.

The Australian Stilt may be recognized when adult by the distribution of the d/ack on Specific
the back of the neck, which does not eatend to any part of the head, and is separated from eharaghers,
the black mantle by a white collar. Young in first plumage are said to resemble the
young of the Common Stilt.

The Australian Stilt breeds in Australia, and has occurred in Tasmania. It may Geographi-
possibly be only a winter visitor to the Malay Archipelago, but it has been recorded from oe
New Guinea, Celebes, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, the Philippines, and some of the smaller

islands. Its alleged occurrence in New Zealand rests on very unsatisfactory evidence.
202

Nearest
allies.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Probable
origin.

284 HIMANTOPUS.

It is most nearly related to the Black Stilt on the one hand, and on the other to the
South-American Stilt.

HIMANTOPUS LEUCOCEPHALUS PICATUS.

NEW-ZEALAND PIED STILT.

Himanrorus LEUcOcEPHALUS collari albo inter collum posticum et dorsum nigro striato.

Tue New-Zealand Pied Stilt is an intermediate form between the Australian Stilt and the
Black Stilt. It completely intergrades with the former, and probably does so with the
latter ; but this is a question which the New-Zealand ornithologists seem unable to answer.

Himantopus picatus, Ellman, Zoologist, 1861, p. 7470.

Himantopus spicatus, Potts, Trans. New Zealand Institute, v. p. 198 (1872).
Piatrs.—Unfigured.

Hasits.— Potts, Trans. New Zealand Institute, ii. p. 70.

Lees, described by Potts on page 70 of the above-mentioned work as slightly smaller than those
of H. melas.

Pied Stilts with white axillaries are found on both islands of New Zealand, having longer
legs than the Black Stilt, the tarsus varying in adult birds from 8-7 to 4°4 inch. Most of
these birds differ from /Z. leucocephalus, though very slightly. Either there are traces of
black on the axillaries, or on the tail-feathers, or on the sides and front of the neck; and
very often the white collar at the back of the neck is profusely streaked with black. It is,
however, possible to find examples from Australia in which the white collar is slightly
streaked with black, and which are indistinguishable from the whitest examples from New
Zealand.

The New-Zealand Pied Stilt appears to be a colony of ZZ. /ewcocephalus which has
intermarried with the Black Stilt (ZZ melas), and shows a more or less conspicuous strain
of the latter species. An example of the young in first plumage from New Zealand in the
collection of Sir Walter Buller is, however, apparently pure-bred H. deucocephalus with
white axillaries.

Potts remarks that it breeds on the swamps near the borders of pools and lakes in the
South Island of New Zealand.

HIMANTOPUS.

tw)
@
or

L, picatus. H, melas.

HIMANTOPUS MELAS.
BLACK STILT.

Himanrorus axillaribus nigris. Diagnosis.

Ir is not known whether this species completely intergrades with H. leucocephalus. Variations.

Himantopus melas, Hombr. & Jacg. Ann. Sc. Nat. Paris, 2° sér. xvi. Zool. p. 320 (1841). Synonymy.
Himantopus nove-zelandiea, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1841, p. 8 (partim).
Himantopus niger, Ellman, Zoologist, 1861, p. 7470.

Prates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 25. Literature.
Hasirs.—Potts, Trans. New Zealand Inst. ii. p. 70.
Eees.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. Ix. fig. 10.

The Black Stilt in adult summer plumage is d/ack all over, more or less glossed with epee
green on the upper parts. In immature and winter plumage it somewhat resembles i adi
HT. leucocephalus, but may always be distinguished from it by its dark axillaries. The

Black Stilt has on an average shorter legs than its Australian ally.
Length of tarsi.
Hl, leucocephalus, H, melas.
Young in first plumage. . . . . 4°0 in. 3°3 in.
Average of adulis; . « © a w « 4°4 in, 3°4 in.
EREMG <a Ke a So Se ee Ow OY 4°6 in. 3°7 in.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Young.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

286 HIMANTOPUS.

The Black Stilt is a resident of New Zealand; its alleged occurrence in Australia

appears to rest on insufficient evidence.

The approach of its winter plumage towards the adult dress of the Australian Stilt
proves the close relationship of the two species ; and the fact that the young in first plumage
have the swollen joint between the tibia and the tarsus, so conspicuous in the young of

Edicnemus, points to its affinity with the birds of that genus.
Young in first plumage only differ from the same dress of H. leucocephalus in having

dark brown axillaries, and dark outer webs to the tail-feathers.
Potts 1emarks that in the South Island of New Zealand this bird breeds on the sandy

river-beds.

HIMANTOPUS ANDINUS.
PERUVIAN STILT.

Himantorus secundariis omnin6 nigris : halluce parvo.

Tue very limited range of this species precludes the possibility of local races being formed.

HIMANTOPUS. 287

Recurvirostra andina, Philippi & Landbeck, Wiegm. Arch. 1863, pt. i. p. 181.
Himantopus andinus (Phil. & Landb.), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 232.

Prates.—Harting, Ibis, 1874, pl. ix.
Haxzrrs.—Philippi & Landbeck, Joc. cit.
Eees.—Unknown.

The Peruvian Stilt is the only species of the genus having webbed feet and a hind toe
which has no white on the secondaries.

It was for a long time only known from a single example obtained more than thirty
years ago by Dr. Philippi near the salt lake of Atacama, about 16,000 feet above the level
of the Pacific Ocean, on the confines of Peru and Chili. In 1886, however, three examples
were obtained by Mr. Rahmer near Lake Huasco, about 10,000 feet above the sea, and
about 200 miles further north. (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1886, p. 404.)

It is specially interesting as an example of the connexion between the habits of a bird
and the shape of its wings, a connexion doubtless of cause and effect. In the following
table the Peruvian Stilt is compared with its two European representatives :—

Distance from From tip of innermost
carpal joint to tip of primary to tip of
innermost primary. longest primary.
Peruvian Sle. . « « « « © I 34 in.
Common Avocet. . . . . 5 in. 4+ in.
Common Stilt. . . . . . 4}$m. 54 in.

It is remarkable how the primaries are developed, apparently at the expense of the
secondaries, in the two migratory species.

The Peruvian Stilt is the sole representative of the Semi-Stilts which, according to my
hypothesis, emigrated from the Polar Basin along the Pacific coast of America. If the
Stilts be regarded as generically distinct from the Avocets, the Peruvian Stilt has more
right to demand a genus for itself than the Banded Avocet, for which the genus Clado-
rhynchus has been provided. The webbing of its feet is almost as much developed as that
of the Avocets, with which it also agrees in having a recurved bill and a small hind toe.
The black mantle, black scapulars, and black wings are, however, so utterly unlike any
Avocet, and are so highly characteristic of every Stilt, that there can be no doubt that its
affinities are as much or more with the latter than with the former.

Synonymy.

Literature,

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Non-migra-
tory wings.

Nearest
allies.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characteis.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

288 HIMANTOPUS.

** Aberrant Avocet.

HIMANTOPUS PECTORALIS.
BANDED AVOCET. (Puats XIV.)

Himanrorus scapularibus omnind brunneis: interscapulario albo.

No local races of this species are known, but in young in first plumage and in adults in
winter the whole of the underparts are white.

Recurvirostra leucocephala, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. ii. p. 1038 (1816).

Recurvirostra orientalis, Cuvier, Reg. An. i. p. 496 (1817).

Leptorhynchus pectoralis, Dubus, Mag. Zool. v. pl. 45 (1835).

Himantopus palmatus, Gould, Syn. Birds Austr. u. pl. 14 (1837).

Cladorhynchus pectoralis (Dubus), Gray, List Gen. Birds, p. 69 (1840).

Cladorhynchus orientalis (Cuv.), Selys-Longchamps, Bull. d’Ac. Roy. Belg. xvii. pt. i. p. 9
(1851).

Himantopus pectoralis (Dubus), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Scolopaces, p. 108 (1864).

Cladorhynchus leucocephalus (Vieill.), Harting, Ibis, 1874, p. 252.

Prates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 26.
Hasits.—Gould, Handb. B. Austr. ii. p. 248.
Eees.—Campbell, Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, p. 55.

The Banded Avocet may be distinguished at all ages and seasons by its whzle mantle
and drown scapulars, a combination found in no other species of the genus. A second and
equally good diagnosis is webbed feet, but no hind toe. In breeding-plumage the lower
breast is chestnut, shading into a brown ventral band.

Tt is a resident in the southern half of Australia, and has occurred in Tasmania.

The Banded Avocet is the sole representative of the Semi-Avocets, which I have
endeavoured to show probably emigrated from the Polar Basin along the Pacific coast of
Asia. If we regard its white mantle, the great amount of white on its wing, and its deeply
webbed toes as important characters we must unhesitatingly pronounce it to be an Avocet ;
but the straightness of its bill, the absence of any white on its scapulars, and the fact that
it has only three toes are all arguments in favour of enrolling it amongst the Stilts.
Tnasmuch as Nature has not drawn a hard-and-fast line between the Avocets wad the Stilts,
it must surely be unwise for the scientific ornithologist to attempt to do so.

HIMANTOPUS., 289

** Typical Avocets.

“|
|

a
‘ / 7

is Va N\A

Sternum of Himantopus avocetta,

HIMANTOPUS AVOCETTA.
COMMON AVOCET.

Himantorvus remigibus tertii ordinis aut albis (in adult.) aut brunneis albo fasciatis (in juv.). Diagnosis.

Swinuor’s types of Recurvirostra sinensis are slightly suffused with grey on the mantle Variations.
and hind neck ; but other examples from China do not differ from North-European or
African birds.

Recurvirostra avosetta, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 151 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 256 (1766). Synonymy.
Avocetta avocetta, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 538 (1760).

Scolopax avocetta (Linn.), Scopoli, Ann. I. Hist. Nat. p. 92 (1769).

Avocetta europea, Dumont, Dict. Sc. Nat. iii. p. 8339 (1816).

Recurvirostra sinensis, Swinhoe, Ibis, 1867, p. 401.

Himantopus avocetta (Linn.), Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 74 (1885).

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

290 HIMANTOPUS.

Prates.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 584; Gould, Birds of Gt. Britain, iv. pl. 53.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 74.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 24. figs. 2, 5.

The Common Avocet may be distinguished by the colour of its forehead, crown, and
hind neck, which are black in the adult and brown in young in first plumage. Its white
innermost secondaries when adult are also peculiar to the species ; in young in first plumage
they are greyish brown obscurely barred with white.

The increase of population and the drainage of marshes have restricted the breeding-
places of the Avocet in Europe to the islands off the coasts of Denmark and Holland, the
marshes of Southern Spain, the delta of the Rhone, and the lagoons on the shores of the
Black Sea. ‘To Southern Scandinavia and the rest of Central and Southern Europe, with
the exception above mentioned, the Avocet has become, as it is in our islands, only an
accidental visitor ; but further east it is more abundant, breeding in Palestine and Persia,
where it is a resident, and in North Turkestan, the extreme south-west of Siberia, South-east

Mongolia, and South Dauria, where it is a summer visitor, wintering in China, Formosa,
Hainan, India, and occasionally Ceylon. It has been recorded from the main island of
Japan. In Asia Minor it is principally known on passage, though a few are said to remain
during the winter ; and it is said to breed throughout Africa in suitable localities. It is
common on the west coast of Madagascar, and probably breeds there.

HIMANTOPUS.

HIMANTOPUS AMERICANUS.
NORTH-AMERICAN AVOCET.

291

Himantopvus secundariarum pogoniis externis et primariis interioribus pro majore parte brunneis.

No local races of this species are known.

Recurvirostra americana, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 693 (1788).
Recurvirostra occidentalis, Vigors, Zool. Journ. iv. p. 356 (1829).
Himantopus americanus (Gmel.), Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 75 (1885).

Prates.— Wilson, Amer. Orn. pl. 63. fig. 2; Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. pl. 155.
Hasirs.—Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 341.

Eecs.—Thienemann, Abbild. Vogeleiern, pl. Ixvi. fig. 8. Eggs in my collection are indis-

tinguishable from those of the Common Avocet.

The North-American Avocet may be distinguished at all ages by the colour of its

secondaries, which are white, with the greater part of the outer web brown.
plumage the head and neck are pale chestnut.

In breeding-

2P2

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

292 HIMANTOPUS.

pea It breeds in North America, as far north as the Great Slave Lake, and as far south as
cal 8 rl U- . . . ° oo . . .
tion. exas. To the northern portion of its range it is only a summer visitor, wintering in

Central America and the West Indies. Like its congeners it prefers the sandbanks near
the shores of the sea, or the margins of salt lakes.

HIMANTOPUS RUBRICOLLIS,

AUSTRALIAN AVOCET.

Diagnosis. Himanrorus secundariarum pogoniis ambobus albis: scapularibus albo ornatis ; remigibus tertii
ordinis haud albo ornatis.

Variations. No local races of this species are known. Examples from New Zealand do not differ from
those from Australia.

Synonymy. Recurvirostra nove-hollandiz, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. iii. p. 103 (1816).
Recurvirostra rubricollis, Temminck, Man. d’ Orn. ii. p. 592 (1820).
Avocetta nove-zealandiz, Ellman, Zoologist, 1861, p. 7470.
Himantopus nove-hollandiz (Vieill.), Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 75 (1885).
Himantopus rubricollis (Temm.), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 229.

HIMANTOPUS. 293

Puates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 27.

Hasits.—Buller, Birds of New Zealand, p. 201.

Eees.—Campbell, Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, p. 55. Indistinguishable from those of
the Common Avocet.

The Australian Avocet may be diagnosed at all ages by its combination of the following
characters :—secondaries white on both webs, a great deal of white on the scapulars, but
none on the tertials. In breeding-plumage the head and neck are chestnut.

It is found throughout Australia, except in the extreme north, and occasionally occurs
in Tasmania, New Zealand, and Norfolk Island.

The Australian Avocet is an intermediate form between the Common Avocet and the
North-American Avocet ; it has less white on the wing than the former and more than the
latter.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.
of genus.

Generic
characters.

CHAPTER XVIIL

Genuu HHMATOPUS.

CHarapRtin& rostro recto: tarso reticulato, quam rostrum breviore.

Tue Oystercatchers are a small compact group of birds, very closely connected with each
other, and very clearly differentiated from all other groups of birds,

Tn the subfamily of Charadriing the scutellations of the tarsus vary to a remarkable
degree. In some species the tarsus is covered both in front and at the back with
broad scutellations, the front row being connected with the back row by fine reticulations
which cover the side of the tarsus. In other species the front row of scutellated plates
alone is present, the back of the tarsus as well as the sides being covered with fine reticu-
lations ; whilst in a third group the fine reticulations extend all round the tarsus. These
three groups are obviously artificial, and are not separated from each other by a hard-
and-fast line ; but many genera include forms which are intermediate between one and the
other. Nothing of this kind, however, occurs in the Oystercatchers ; they all clearly and
undoubtedly belong to the third category, in which the whole of the tarsus is covered by
a fine network of small hexagonal reticulations. To this group belong also the Ibis-billed
Oystercatcher (Jdidorhynchus), the Stone-Curlews (@idicnemus), the Stilts and Avocets
( Himantopus), and some of the Plovers (Charadrius). ‘To distinguish the genus Hematopus
from these genera it is necessary to take into consideration two other characters. Com-
pared with the Stilts, Stone-Curlews, and Plovers, the Oystercatchers have long bills and
short legs, so that the character of id longer than tarsus effectually excludes these birds.
It does not, however, exclude some of the Avocets, with their slender recurved bills, or the
Ibis-billed Oystercatcher, with a bill decurved like that of a Curlew. The clumsy, nearly
straight bill of the Oystercatchers distinguishes them from these birds. In spite, however,
of the extraordinary fact that it possesses a bill of such a totally different shape from that
of Oystercatchers, there can be no doubt that the Ibis-billed Oystercatcher is their
nearest surviving relative; it is, in fact, nothing but an Oystercatcher with a modified
bill. The bill of the Oystercatchers is very abnormal. Most birds have beautiful bills,

HAEMATOPUS. 295

remarkable for the subtlety of their curves, but the bill of the Oystercatchers can only be
regarded by an artist as “sadly out of drawing.” The diagnosis of the genus /Zematopus
will therefore stand as follows :—

Cuarapriine with a nearly straight bill, longer than the tarsus, which is reticulated
all round. ach of these three characters may be found in other birds of this family, but
no birds belonging to it combine all three characters, except the Oystercatchers.

Synonymy of the Genus HEMATOPUS.

Type.
Heematopus, Linneus, ith Nat. i. p. 152 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 257
(1766) . . . Son ow # a ww « 3 » « « He ostralegns.
Ostralega, Brisson, Orn. v. p. "38 (1760) . ee : . . . H. ostralegus.
Melanibyx, Reichenbach, fide Bonap. Compt. Rend. ne Pp. 420 (1856) . . . H. ater.

The European Oystercatcher (Hematopus ostralegus), being the only Oystercatcher Determina-

f th
which was known to Linneus or Brisson, is of necessity the type. est ‘

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Pied. Patmarctic Recion. Black.
H. ostRaALEGUS. . . .. . West.
H. oscunans ts - fae hes Ses Ss East.
EruHiopian Raion.
Throughout. . . . . . . HH. capensis.
AUSTRALIAN ReGIon.
H. LONGIROSTRIS . . + + | Throughout. . . . « . «. HH. UNnIcozor.
Nearcric REcIon.
H. patutaTuUs . . wee South.
West. . . . . . « HH. NIGER.
Neorrorican Rzaion.
H. pevcopus ...... South. . . . ss Hi ATER.
H. GaALAPAGENSIS . . . . Galapagos Islands.

Climatic dis-
tribution.

Local distri-
bution.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

296 HAMATOPUS.

The distribution of the Oystercatchers is unique, and cannot be made to fit in with
any system of geographical or zoological regions. It is so far independent of climate, that
every species breeds in two climates, but very often on only one coast of them. The
Oystercatchers are distributed as follows :—

Arctic and Temperate America . 1
Arctic and Temperate Eurasia . 2
Arctic and Temperate species. . + + + —
Tropical and North and South Temperate America 1
Subtropical shores of the Galapagos . . . . - + 1
Tropical and South Temperate America . 2
Tropical and Temperate Africa . 1
Tropical and South Temperate Asia 2
Tropical and Temperate species —
Species and subspecies of Hamatopus . . - » . — 10

The most remarkable fact in this unique distribution is the extended range of H.
palliatus. This species is said to breed from Labrador to Patagonia on the Atlantic coast,
and from California to Chili on the Pacific coast. No other bird in the family has a
breeding-range at all equivalent to this.

The Oystercatchers must be regarded as belonging to the Temperate Region, within
which every species breeds—one third of the species or subspecies breeding also in the
Arctic Region, and the breeding-range of the remaining two thirds extending into the
Tropical Region.

The Oystercatchers are almost cosmopolitan in their range. They are strictly shore-
birds, but few of them confine themselves to the sea-shore; they frequent the margins of
lakes, the banks of great rivers, and are occasionally seen in other localities inland during
migration, Some species are migratory, others resident, whilst some are migratory in one
part of their range and sedentary in another part. They are semi-arctic birds, the hmit of
their northern range corresponding to a considerable extent with the isothermal lines of
mean annual temperature. In North-west Europe, where the influence of the Gulf-stream
raises the latitude of suitable climate, Oystercatchers breed as far north as lat. 70°, in East
Russia and West Siberia up to 66°, but in East Siberia and on the American continent
only up to about 60°. In the Southern Hemisphere the southern limit of their breeding-
range is determined by the limitation of the land. No Oystercatcher is known to breed
within the Tropics on the mainland, but they breed on some of the islands within the Tropics
—the Bahamas, the Galapagos Islands, the islands on the north coast of Australia, and
possibly elsewhere ; otherwise Oystercatchers are only winter visitors to the Tropics.

The geographical distribution of the Oystercatchers may be broadly stated as follows :
Entirely absent from both the Arctic and Antarctic Regions; breed in the Temperate Regions

HAMATOPUS. 297

both north and south of the equator, both in the New and Old Worlds; winter visitors to
the tropics of both hemispheres.

There is abundant evidence in support of the hypothesis that the centre of dispersion
of the Charadriide was the North Pole; and that the Oystercatchers were originally
residents on the shore of the Polar Sea, whence they were dispersed and driven southwards
by the arctic ice which formed and reformed during the Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch.
Isolated on various distant shores, the Oystercatchers were differentiated into several
specific and subspecific forms. It is very interesting to trace their wanderings and to note
their specific differences, which agree in a remarkable manner with the hypothesis of their
polar origin and with their present geographical distribution, although the latter bears no
sort of relation to the geographical regions laid duwn by Messrs. Sclater and Wallace,
which refer to Passerine birds, but are seldom recognized by those belonging to other
families.

When the descent of an arctic climate upon the North Polar regions drove the resi-
dents of the Polar Basin into more southern latitudes, coast-birds like the Oystercatchers
could escape by four routes: they could either follow the European or the American
shores of the Atlantic, or the Asiatic or American shores of the Pacific. If they availed
themselves of all four routes, the emigrants must soon have become isolated in four colonies,
which eventually produced four species or groups of species. Behring’s Straits lies 25°
south of the Pole, and the Asiatic coast is connected by a row of islands with the Pacific
coast as far as 40° from the Pole, so that isolation, and consequently differentiation, began
late with the Pacific birds; whilst in the Atlantic the emigrants were probably effectually
isolated for ever by Greenland’s icy mountains at a distance of not more than 5° or 7° from
the Pole. It is consequently reasonable to expect that the Pacific Oystercatchers should be
nearer allied to each other than the Atlantic Oystercatchers are.

The facts that the European Oystercatcher (/Z. osfralegus) is a resident in Iceland,
has been known to visit Greenland, and is a regular summer visitor to the coast of Lapland,
seem to prove that the group to which it belongs left the Polar Basin in two streams or
lines of emigration—one following the eastern shores of Greenland, crossing Iceland, the
Faroes, and the coasts of Great Britain to the coasts of West Europe, where it coalesced
with the other stream of birds which followed the coast of Scandinavia.

‘The West Coast of Africa south of Morocco appears to have been of such a desert
character that the Oystercatchers were afraid to emigrate further in that direction. The
basin of the Mediterranean, on the other hand, provided the necessary outlet for the surplus
population, and the stream of emigration continued to flow eastwards from sea to sea, lake
to lake, and river to river, at least as far as the Obb. The advanced party appear to have
pushed forward still more to the east, and to have reached the valley of the Amoor, whence
they never returned, but, following the course of that viver to its mouth, they established
an independent colony. ‘The cessation of interbreeding between the birds of this colony
and the parent stock soon caused a variation between them, and the eastern birds are

a)

Original
home.

Dispersal.

Emigration
along Atlaun-
tic coast of
Europe.

Emigration
along Atlan-
tic coast of
America.

Emigration
along Pacific
coast of
America.

298 HAEMATOPUS.

now generally regarded as specifically distinct, under the name of Japanese Oystercatcher
(1. osculans), but the difference, though constant, is very slight.

Probably the same catastrophe which drove the Japanese Oystercatcler to the east, an
unusually late cold spring, induced a second party to start from the winter-quarters in
Ceylon, in order to emigrate in a different direction in search of more advantageous
breeding-grounds, which they appear to have found in Australia, where they were in process
of time differentiated into the Australian Pied Oystercatcher (ZZ. longirostris).

These three species represent the group of Oystercatchers which emigrated along the
Atlantic coast of the Old World, and may be characterized as having red legs and a white

rump, as well as white bellies.
Their nearest allies are two or three species inhabiting the New World, which pre-

‘sumably emigrated along its Atlantic coast, a theory confirmed by the fact that their

descendants range at present much further north on the east coast of America than they
do on the west coast *.

Leaving Greenland to the left, the ancestors of the North-American Pied Oyster-
catcher (H. palliatus) probably retreated from the Polar ice down Baffin’s Bay, and
gradually extending their range southwards along the Atlantic coast of North and South
America, rounded Cape Horn, and turning northwards again along the Pacific coast of
South America their descendants have extended their range northwards as far as Lower
California, which appears to be the present limit of the emigration of this party. This
route precisely corresponds (so far as is known) with the present range of the species,
except that it is not now found north of Labrador.

The Falkland-Island Pied Oystercatcher (4. deucopus) is unquestionably an offshoot of
the preceding species, which has become differentiated in consequence of its having become
isolated on the Falkland Islands, whence it probably spread later to the islands off the
Patagonian coast.

On the Galapagos Archipelago a species of Oystercatcher has recently been discovered
which appears to be exactly intermediate been H. palliatus and H. leucopus, heving the
smaller dimensions of bill of the former, but the darker mantle of the latter. As the
dimensions of the bill are a very variable character in this genus, and the colour of the
mantle a very stable one, I have treated H. guapagensis as a subspecies of the latter form.

‘bese two (or three) species represent the Atlantic New-World group of Oystercatchcrs,
which may be characterized as having flesh-coloured legs, white bellies, and dark rumps.

Turning now to the Pacific Ocean, it is obvious that the North-Aimerican Black
Oystercatcher (7. niger) and its southern allied race, which range from Alaska to California,
and from Chili through the Strails of Magellan to the Falkland Islands, emigrated along

* This difference cannot be explained by an equivalent difference in the range of the isothermal lincs.

On the Atlantic coast H. palliatus breeds as far north as the J uly isothermal of 52°, but on the Pacific coast
it only ranges up to the July isothermal of 72°.

HAEMATOPUS. 999

the Pacific coast of the New World. The South-American Black Oystercatcher (H. niger
ater) is evidently the result of an emigration from the range of the preceding species, which
has caused a colony to cross the Tropics and establish themselves as residents on the coasts
of Chili, Patagonia, and the Falkland Islands; but the isolation of the two colonies thus
produced does not appear to have lasted quite long enough for the complete differentiation
of the two forms. |

These two forms represent the Pacific New-World group of Oystercatchers, which
may be characterized as having the whole of the plumage black and the legs flesh-coloured.

There yet remain for consideration two very closely allied Oystercatchers, and we have
yet undisposed of the route by way of the Pacific coast of the Old World. If the con-
nection between them be a historical one, the ancestors of the Australian Black Oyster-
catcher (H. wnicolor) must have followed the mountainous coast of China, and have crossed:
the too tropical Malay Archipelago to settle in Australia and New Zealand.

Instead of retracing their steps to the Behring Sea, the surplus population of the
Australian Black Oystercatchers appear to have emigrated westwards to South Africa,
which has resulted in a nearly allied, and not yet more than subspecifically distinct, race,
the African Black Oystercatcher (H. unicolor capensis).

These two forms represent the Pacific Old-World group of Oystercatchers, which may
be characterized as having the whole of the plumage black and the legs red.

We have now attempted to trace the history of the American detachment of Oyster-
catchers, and we have tried to follow the fortunes of the other portion which retreated along
the shores of the Old World. The two American parties found a comparatively restricted
coast-line at their disposal, and both of them seem to have been glad enough to retrace their
steps, after the glacial climate had passed away, almost to the entrance of the Polar Sea.
The Asiatic party, on the other hand, found a practically unlimited extent of coast-line
suitable to their requirements, They seem to have had room and to spare in Australia,
South Africa, and on some of the numerous islands in the southern half of the Eastern
Hemisphere ; consequently they never had occasion to recross the line to occupy once more
their old route of emigration on the Pacific coast of Asia. But although they wandered
to the other side of the world, the fact that the two Pacific parties travelled in company
for more than two thousand miles further than the two Atlantic parties could have done
has produced precisely the results which we anticipated: the Pacific Old-World Oyster-
catchers scarcely differ from the Pacific New-World Oystercatchers in anything beyond the
colour of their legs.

This completes the list of Oystercatchers, a group of birds whose peculiarities of colour
and whose geographical distribution bear unmistakable evidence of the Glacial Epoch
almost as obvious as the geological evidence. We can trace almost with certainty the
routes which the various parties took on their emigration from the shores of the Polar Basin.
‘The great invasion of Europe by Pallas’s Sand-Grouse in 1863 is almost the only instance

of sudden migration which the present generation of ornithologists have witnessed, but the
2Q2

Emigration
along Pacific
coast of
Asia.

30) HEMATOPUS.

gradual extension of the breeding-areas of many species of birds has been remarked over
and over again. As regards the Oystercatchers, it seems to me that we can almost trace
their history from the origin of the genus in the small area of the Polar Basin, its dispersal
along the four great coast-lines or highways leading southwards, and its subsequent
distribution, sometimes by sudden emigration, sometimes by a gradual extension of its
range, until it has become nearly cosmopolitan.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

There appear to be seven distinct species of Oystercatchers, but three of them may be
again subdivided into local races, which vary slightly in the length and thickness of the
bill, as is hereafter explained. The seven species may be diagnosed as follows :—

f Mantle and rum reyish
palliatus . oe aiid
Legs pale flesh-colour . . leucopus
{ niger... .. > No white on primaries.
Entire plumage nearly
black. ‘
unicolor
, longirostris . . . /
Rump white. . . . osculans.

| White shaft-streak extending
L ostralegus a little on outer web of
4th primary, much on 5th.

This key to the species applies to young in first plumage, as well as to adults. The

young of ZH. ostralegus bears a superficial resemblance to H. palliatus, as does also that of

H. osculans, in both species the black parts of the adult plumage being frequently brown

in the young; but H. palliatus may always be recognized by its brown instead of white

rump, or by the absence of white on its primaries. ‘he differences between thesub specific

allies of ZZ. leucopus, H. niger, and H. unicolor, and their respective parent forms are pointed
out in the pages devoted to each of the latter.

HAMATOPUS. 301

*4* Typical or Pied Oystercatchers.

HAMATOPUS OSTRALEGUS.
EUROPEAN OYSTERCATCHER.

Hamarorvs primarie quarte quinteque pogoniis externis macula alba notatis. Diagnosis.

Bren subdivided the Common Oystercatcher into three species, founded on alleged Variations.
differences in the shape of the skull and feet and the number of quills, but modern
ornithologists are unable to discover any local races of this species.

Hematopus ostralegus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 152 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 257 (1766). Synonymy.
Ostralega ostralega, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 38 (1760).

Scolopax pica, Scopoli, Ann. I. Hist. Nat. p. 95 (1769).

Ostralega pica (Scop.), Bonnaterre, Encycl. Méth. i. p. 26 (1790).

Heimatopus hypoleuca, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 129 (1826).

Ostralega europea, Lesson, Man. d’ Orn. ii. p. 300 (1828).

Ostralegus vulgaris, Lesson, Rev. Zool. 1839, p. 47.

Ostralegus hematopus, Macgillivray, Man. Brit. B. ii. p. 59 (1842).

Hematopus macrorhynchus, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xiv. p. 548 (1845).

Literature,

Specific
characters.

Geographi-

cal distribu-

tion.

302 HEMATOPUS.

Puates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 929; Gould, Birds of Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 44; Dresser, Birds of Europe,
vii. pl. 533.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. +.
_Eces.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 24.

The European Oystercatcher differs from the North-American Pied Oystercatcher in
many important particulars besides the colour of its legs. Like all the Old-World Oyster-
catchers, it has red /egs—perhaps dull crimson expresses the exact shade of red. The
underparts are precisely like those of its ally ; but its Zower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts
are white, whereas in the latter the upper tail-coverts only are white. The predominant
colour of the secondaries, on the other hand, is black in the Pied Oystercatchers of the Old
World, and white in those of the New World.

It may be recognized by having the white on the primaries well marked on the outer
webs of the fourth and fifth, first appearing on the outside web of the third quill, and on
the inside web of the first.

\ yy wf ‘.

The West Palearctic species ranges from the Atlantic to the valley of the Obb. In
the western portion of its distribution it is almost exclusively a sea-shore bird, but east of
the Mediterranean and the White Sea it is only found during the breeding-season on the
shores of lakes and rivers. It is a regular summer visitor to the coasts of North-west
Europe as far north as land extends, and as far east as Archangel. Further east it is no
longer found on the sea-shore, but ascends all the great rivers which empty themselves into
the Black Sea, as well as the Volga and the Kama, crossing over to the Petchora, on the
banks of which river, as also on those of the Obb, it ranges as far north as the Arctic

HAMATOPUS, 303

Circle. It has been recorded from Greenland, and is a resident in Iceland, the Faroes, and
probably St. Kilda. It is a summer visitor to the shores of the Baltic, but on the coasts of
North Germany, Great Britain, and France it is a resident. In the basin of the Mediter-
ranean it is principally known as passing through on spring and autumn migration; but a
few remain to breed in the delta of the Rhone and on the Adriatic coast, where also a few
remain during winter. It winters on both coasts of Africa, on the west as far south as
Senegambia, and on the east as far south as Mozambique. It isa resident inthe Caucasus ;
but to the valleys of the South-Russian rivers, and to the lakes and rivers of Western
Siberia and Turkestan, it is a summer visitor, wintering on the Mekran coast and the west
coasts of India as far south as Ceylon.

HAMATOPUS OSCULANS.
JAPANESE PIED OYSTERCATCHER.

Hamaropus primarie sexte (nec tertie, nec quartz, nec quinte) pogonio externo macula alba
ornato.

No local races of this species are known.

Hematopus osculans, Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 405.

Prates.— Unfigured.

Hasits.—Swinhoe, Ibis, 1861, p. 261 ; Swinhoe, Ibis, 1875, p. 129.

Eges, in the Swinhoe collection, resemble those of the European species, but are much less
spotted than usual.

The Japanese Pied Oystercatcher only differs from the British species, with which we are
familiar, in having on an average a longer bill, in having the upper tail-coverts more
constantly tipped with black, and in having much less white on the wings. Ze white on
the outside web of the primaries does not appear until the sixth quill, and on the inside web
not until the second quill; whereas in the European bird the white on the outside web
appears on the third quill, and that on the inside web on the first.

The range of the Japanese Pied Oystercatcher extends for perhaps a hundred miles up
the Amoor, and northwards to the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, between East Siberia and
Kamtschatka. Southwards it reaches the shores of North China, and in winter. those of

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specitic
characters.

(seographi-
eal distribu-
tion,

304 HEMATOPUS.

South China. They still appear to retain some tradition of their western origin, and
occasionally a bird will attempt to find its way back again across country, and appear as
an unwonted visitor in Burma or Arrakan.

HEMATOPUS LONGIROSTRIS.
AUSTRALIAN PIED OYSTERCATCHER.

Hamarorvs uropygio albo: primariis haud albo maculatis.

No local races of this species are known, but it is said to interbreed with H. wricolor, the
intermediate form thus produced being probably a barren hybrid.

Hzematopus longirostris, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xv. p. 410 (1817).
Hematopus picatus, Vigors, King’s Voy. Austr., Append. p. 420 (1826).
Hematopus australasianus, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 155.

Prates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 7.
Hasirs.—Potts, Trans. New Zealand Inst. ii. p. 69; Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. 11. p. 215.
Eces.—-Campbeil, Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, p. 52.

‘The Australian Pied Oystercatcher may be recognized by its having a white rump, but
no white on the primaries. It differs somewhat more from our birds than its Japanese
ally. Both the eastern birds have light red legs, but the Australian species has lost all
trace of white on its primaries, and the black of the mantle is also more developed,
extending some distance on the lower back.

‘This species is a resident on the coasts of New Zealand, 'l'asmania, and Australia, but
does not range further north than the southern shores of New Guinea and the other islands
immediately to the north of Australia.

Potts remarks that it frequently ascends the rivers, sometimes as far as seventy miles
from the coast, to breed. In this respect it agrees with its two nearest allies, //. ostralegus
and #. osculans, but differs from its more distantly connected relations in the New World,
IT. palliatus and H. leucopus, which are said to be strictly coast-birds.

HAMATOPUS. 305

HAMATOPUS PALLIATUS.
NORTH-AMERICAN PIED OYSTERCATCHER.

Hamarorvs dorso uropygioque brunneis.

Norwirnstanpine the extraordinary breeding-range of this bird, no local races are known,
except that on the Galapagos Archipelago a form occurs which may possibly prove to be an
intermediate link between H. palliatus and H. leucopus, completely connecting them.

Hematopus palliatus, Temminck, Man. d’Orn. ii. p. 582 (1820).
Hematopus brasiliensis, Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 73 (1823).
Ostralega palliata (Temm.), Lesson, Traité d’Orn. p. 548 (1831).
Hematopus arcticus, Jardine, Wilson’s Amer. Orn. ili. p. 35 (1832).

Prates.—Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 64. fig. 2.

Hasirs.—Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 112.

Hees, described by Brewer, on p. 115 of the above-mentioned volume, as similar to those of the
European species, but on an average slightly larger.

The North-American Pied Oystercatcher, like a// the other Oystercatchers, has the
entire head and neck nearly black, and the bill red. It resembles a// the Pied Oyster-
catchers in having the greater wing-coverts, the upper tail-coverts, and the underparts
below the breast white. Further, it agrees with a// the Oystercatchers of the New World
in having pale flesh-coloured legs, and with its Falkland-Island ally in having white the
predominant colour of the secondaries. Its specific character consists in having the rest of
the plumage (i. ¢., the wpper parts below the black neck, with the exception of the greater
wing-coverts and the upper tail-coverts) dark brown, instead of black.

This species is said to be a partial resident on both coasts of Central America, breeding
on many of the adjacent groups of islands, as the Tres Marias Islands in the Pacific, and
Cuba and the Bahama Islands in the Atlantic. ‘To the north of the latter locality it is a
summer visitor to the Atlantic coast of the United States, and according to Audubon to
Labrador. On the Pacific coast of the American continent it has not been recorded quite
so far north as San Francisco. How far south its range extends along the coasts of South

America it is difficult to determine, but it appears to range as far south as the Gulf of
2R

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific

characters.

306 HAEMATOPUS.

St. George. Durnford believed that he met with this species breeding on the Atlantic
coast of Patagonia in lat. 44°, and Mr. John Young has recently brought home an example
from Tova Harbour in lat. 45°. I have examples of both this species and H. leucopus
collected by Read in Chili, probably near Santiago.

It is a remarkable fact that this bird does not appear to ascend any of the large rivers
of America, as the Pied Oystercatchers of the Old World very frequently do, especially
during the breeding-season.

HAMATOPUS LEUCOPUS.
FALKLAND-ISLAND PIED OYSTERCATCHER.

Hematorus uropygio nigro: abdomine albo.

Ir is probable that the Oystercatcher found on the Galapagos may be a cross between
H. leucopus and H. palliatus, but it is possible that the birds described by Ridgway are
birds of the year of the former species.

Hematopus leucopus, Garnot, fide Lesson and Garnot, Voy. Coquille, Zool. i. p. 721 (1826).
Ostralega leucopus, Lesson, fide Lesson and Garnot, Voy. Coquille, Zool. i. p. 721 (1826).
Hematopus luctuosus, Cuvier, Régne Animal, i. p. 504 (1829).

Pratrs.—Jardine and Selby, Ill. Orn. iii. pl. 125 (incorrectly styled H. palliatus).
Hasrrs.—Abbott, Ibis, 1861, p. 156.

Eees, collected by Capt. Abbott, and now in the British Museum, resemble those of H. paliiatus
in size and character of spots, but are much darker in ground-colour.

The Falkland-Island Pied Oystercatcher is very nearly allied to the American Pied
Oystercatcher, from which it principally differs in having the brown parts replaced by
black. It has also on an average a decidedly shorter tarsus and foot, a more slender bill,
much more black on the under wing-coverts, and the black on the breast extends

somewhat lower down. It may always be recognized by its combination of the two
characters black rump and white belly.

HAMATOPUS. 307

It breeds on the Falkland Islands and on the islands in the Straits of Magellan

(Sharpe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1881, p. 15). I have examples collected by Read in Chili;

and Mr. Berkeley James informs me that the Santiago Museum contains examples shot

near Valparaiso.

HAMATOPUS LEUCOPUS GALAPAGENSIS.
GALAPAGOS PIED OYSTERCATCHER.

Hamatoprus Levcopus tarso rostroque majoribus.

Ir is possible that the Oystercatcher found on the Galapagos may prove to be only the
young in first or second plumage of A leucopus, but the fact that it has a stouter bill than
its southern ally is difficult to reconcile with this supposition. It is so exactly intermediate
between H. pailliatus and H. leucopus that there is some reason to suppose that it is a
cross between the two.

Heematopus galapagensis, Ridgway, Auk, 1886, p. 331.

The Galapagos Oystercatcher resembles its Falkland-Island ally in having the back
black like the head and neck, and also in having the black extending over the whole breast
and on most of the under wing-coverts. In these respects it differs from the North-
American Pied Oystercatcher, which has the back brown, contrasting with the black head
and neck; the dark brown on the neck only extends to the upper breast, and nearly all
the under wing-coverts are white.

In the dimensions of its bill, legs, and feet, however, it agrees more closely with
the northern species, as the following measurements prove :—

Length of tarsus. Greatest depth of bill.
H. palliatus . . . 2:0 to 2°3 in. ‘45 to °55 in.
H. galapagensis . . 2°1 to 2:2 in. “oT.
H. leucopus . . . 18 to 20in. ‘4, in.

The only examples known are three skins in the museum of the Smithsonian

Institution, obtained on Chatham Island, one of the Galapagos group, by Dr. Jones.
ZR2

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

308 HEMATOPUS.

The dimensions of the bill and feet of the Oystercatchers vary so much, and the
colour so little, that I have treated the Galapagos form as a variety of H. Jewcopus
rather than of H. palliatus, but a larger series may possibly modify this conclusion.

I have not seen an example of the Galapagos bird.

** berrant or Black Oystercatchers.

HEMATOPUS UNICOLOR.
AUSTRALIAN BLACK OYSTERCATCHER.

Diagnosis. Hamatorus omnind niger: pedibus rubris.

Variations. Sin Waiter Burier informs me that many of the museums in New Zealand possess
hybrids between Hl. wnicolor and Z. longirosiris ; but the rarity of these intermediate forms
is presumptive evidence that they are barren, and that therefore the two species may be
regarded as specifically distinct. It appears, however, completely to intergrade with the
African Black Oystercatcher.

Synonymy. Heematopus unicolor, Wagler, Isis, 1832, p. 1230.
Hzmatopus fuliginosus, Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 8 (1848).
Hematopus ophthalmicus, Ramsay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S, Wales, i. p. 385 (1877).

Literature. Priates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 8; Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, pl. x.
Hasits.—Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. i. p. 217.
Eces.—Buller, Birds New Zealand, p. 225; Campbell, Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds,
p- 52.

HAMATOPUS. 309

The Australian Black Oystercatcher resembles its American cousin in having the gpocitc
whole of its plumage black ; but the basal half of the bill is slightly more elongated, and characters.
the colour of the legs and feet is brick-red, stead of pale flesh-colour. It is a resident
throughout the coasts of New Zealand, Australia, and Tasmania.

HAEMATOPUS UNICOLOR CAPENSIS.
AFRICAN BLACK OYSTERCATCHER.

HMatorus Unicotor rostro breviore: pedum rubro colore potitis purpurascente quam miniato. Diagnosis.

Ir is often very difficult to distinguish some examples of the African form of this species Variations.
from the Australian.

Hematopus capensis, Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 73 (1828). Syreansays
Hematopus moquini, Bonap. fide Hartlaub, Orn. Westafr. p. 218 (1857).
Prates.—Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. pl. exlvi. Titerature,

Hasirs.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds of South Africa, p. 672.
Eces.—Andersson, Birds of Damara-Land, p. 277.

The African Black Oystercatcher is so closely allied to its Australian representative Subspecific
that many ornithologists do not discriminate between them. It may, however, be recognized sin
by its shorter bill, the basal half of which is not exceptionally elongated, and by the colour
of its legs and feet, which are not brick-red, but deep crimson. It can scarcely be regarded
as more than subspecifically distinct from the Australian form, though the respective ranges
of the two do not meet, and therefore no interbreeding can take place. It is probable,

310 HAMATOPUS.

however, that in a large series from each locality the longest-billed examples from Africa
would be indistinguishable from the shortest-billed examples from Australia.
Geographi- It is distributed along the entire coast of South Africa, ranging as far north as the
er Canary Islands in the west, and into the Red Sea in the east. It probably breeds south
of the line, only wandering northwards in the autumn (about March). It is a somewhat
remarkable fact that it has not been recorded from Madagascar.

HAMATOPUS NIGER.
NORTH-AMERICAN BLACK OYSTERCATCHER.

Diagnosis. H#marorus omnino niger: pedibus pallidé carneis.

Variations. Tae North-American and South-American Black Oystercatchers appear completely to
intergrade.

Synonymy. Hematopus niger, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 131 (1826).
Hematopus bachmanni, Audubon, Orn. Biogr. v. p. 245 (1839).

Literature. Prarrs.—Aud. Orn. Biogr. pl. 427 ; Aud, Birds Am. pl. 325.
Hasits.— Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 116.
Eees, described by Brewer on p. 118 of the above-mentioned volume.

Specific The North-American Black Oystercatcher, like all the Oystercatchers of the New

characters: World, has pale flesh-coloured legs, but, like all the Oystercatchers which passed through
the Behring Sea, the whole of its plwmage has become black.

peas ‘his species is a summer visitor to the Aleutian Islands and the southern shores of

tion. Alaska, breeding as far south as the coast of Upper California, where it is probably a

resident, and wintering on the coast of Lower California.

HAEMATOPUS. all

HAMATOPUS NIGER ATER.

SOUTH-AMERICAN BLACK OYSTERCATCHER.

Hezmarorus nicer rostro breviore et altiore. Diagnosis.

Tux North-American and South-American Oystercatchers appear completely to intergrade. Variations.

Ostralega atra, Lesson, Traité d’Orn. ii. p. 548 (1831). Synonymy.
Hematopus ater, Vieillot, Gal. Ois. i. p. 88 (1834).
Hematopus townsendii, Audubon, Orn. Biogr. v. p. 247 (1839).
Hematopus niger ater (Vieill.), Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 109
(1884).

Puates.—Vieill. Gal. Ois. ii. pl. 230; Aud. Orn. Biogr. pl. 427; Aud. Birds Am. pl. 326. Literature.
Hasits.—Abbott, Ibis, 1861, p. 155.
Eaes.—Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1859, p. 96.

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

312 HAMATOPUS.

The South-American Black Oystercatcher only differs from its more northern ally in
having generally a shorter and deeper bill. Examples in my collection of the northern form
have bills 34 inches in length and 0°5 in. in depth, whilst others from Chili have bills
22 in. in length and 0°6 in. in depth. It is said, however, that in a series of each the
dimensions are found to overlap, so that American ornithologists very justly regard the
two forms as only subspecifically distinct.

Like its representative in the Northern Hemisphere, it appears to be confined to the
Pacific coast of the American continent, except that its range extends through the
Straits of Magellan to the Falkland Islands. It is doubtful whether it has ever occurred
north of Chili, nor is there any evidence that it is a migratory bird. Two examples from
Callao and one from Molle in South Peru in my collection appear to be somewhat
intermediate, the bills being long like the North-American form, but deep like the South-
American form. ‘The bill of one of the Callao birds is represented in the upper figure of
the woodcut.

CHAPTER XIX,

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Genus IBIDORHYNCHUS.

Cuarapriip rostro valdé arcuato, tarso omnin6 reticulato.

Tue Ibis-billed Oystercatcher is the sole representative of the genus which has almost
unnecessarily been established for its reception.
The diagnosis of the genus Jdidorhynchus may be slightly altered from that of

Hematopus as follows :—
CHARADRIIDA with a much decurved bill, and with the tarsus reticulated all round.

It probably represents the descendants of a party of Oystercatchers which escaped
from the Polar Basin along none of the four coasts which lead from it, but ascended the
Yenesay to find refuge in Mongolia from the cold of a Glacial Period.

It frequents the banks of mountain-streams, and is not known to have visited the

coast. It is said to be capable of enduring great cold.
28

Diagnosis
of genus.

Generic
characters.

4

Origin of
the genus.

Diagnosis.

Synonymy.

314 IBIDORHYNCHUS.

Synonymy of the Genus IBIDORHYNCHUS.
Type.
Ibidorhyncha, Vigors, Proc. Comm. Sc. and Corr. Zool. Soc. i. p. 174 (1830) . I. struthersi.

Chlorhynchus, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. iv. p. 701 (1835) . . . . . I. struthersi.
Falcirostra, Severtzow, Turkest. Jevotn. p. 146 (1873). . . . . . . . « L.struthersi.

The fact that the Ibis-billed Oystercatcher was independently discovered by three
ornithologists in different regions is the only excuse for the existence of a synonymy of
the genus.

As it only contains one species there can be no dispute as to the type.

The fact that the Ibis-billed Oystercatcher is a resident in Central Asia may be
explained in two ways. It may have been driven into its present quarters by the Pre-Pliocene
Glacial Epoch, and have remained there ever since, in which case it is entitled to full
generic rank ; or it may be the present representative of a party of the ancestors of the
various species of Hematopus which escaped from the Polar Basin during the coming on of
the Post-Pliccene Glacial Epoch, and, being unable to find a sea-shore, was obliged to
modify itself to its novel environment or suffer the penalty of extermination. In the latter
case it ought only to claim subgeneric rank. ‘The fact that it fills up a rather important
gap in the area of distribution of the genus Hematopus is a slight argument in favour of
the latter view. Sundevall’s opinion that it is nearest related to the genera Rhynchea and
Numenius is almost as absurd as the association of the Pratincoles with the Swallows by
Linneus.

The genus Jbédorhynchus also agrees with Hematopus in belonging to the Temperate
Region.

IBIDORHYNCHUS STRUTHERSI.

IBIS-BILLED OYSTERCATCHER.

Iprporuyncuvts rostro pedibusque rubris.

Ibidorhyncha struthersii, Vigors, Proceedings of the Committee of Science and Correspondence of
the Zoological Society, i. p. 174 (1830).
Chlorhynchus strophiatus, Hodyson, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. iv. p. 701 (1835).

Numenius struthersii (Vigors), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Scolopaces, p. 102 (1864).
Falcirostra kaufmanni,

Falcirostra longipes, } Severtzow, Turkest. Jevotn. p. 146 (1873).

IBIDORHYNCHUS. 315

Prates.—Gould, Cent. Birds Himalaya Mountains, pl. Ixxix.; Gould, Birds of Asia, vil. pl. 61; Literature.
David & Oust. Ois. Chine, pl. 118,

Hasits.—Jerdon, Birds of India, iii. p. 685.
Eces.— Unknown.

The Ibis-billed Oystercatcher, somewhat pedantically called by Hodgson the
Red-billed Erolia and the Gorgeted Chlorhynx, and misnamed the Red-billed Curlew by
Jerdon, is an aberrant Oystercatcher, having little affinity with the Curlews, and still less
with the Ibises.

It is a resident in Central Asia from Turkestan, east of the Sea of Aral, to the valley Geographi-

of the Hoang-ho in North China, occasionally wandering in winter to Cashmere, Nepal, ma

and Sikkim. It may possibly breed at high elevations in the Himalayas.

TDiagnosis
of genus.

Generic

characters.

CHAPTER XX.

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Sternum of Numenius phaopus.

Genus NUMENIUS

ToTANIN# rostro satis arcuato ut linea recta descripta ab rictu ad apicem infra lineam inferam
mandibule transeat: acrotarsi dimidio infero scutellato.

‘Tus Curlews belong unmistakably to the Totanine. If the bill from the frontal feathers
to the tip be divided into four equal parts, the whole of the nasal orifice is found to be
situated within the basal fourth part; and the middle toe is united to the inner as well as
to the outer one by a well-developed web at the base.

I find it impossible to construct an entirely satisfactory diagnosis of the genus

NUMENIUS. 317

Numenius. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway place the Curlews in their family Scolopacide ;
an assemblage of birds embracing my subfamilies of Zbfanine and Scolopacine, with the
exception of the genera Hematopus, Himantopus, Phalaropus, and Strepsilas, each of which
is elevated by them to the rank of a family. The diagnosis of the genus Numenius,
according to these authors, is as follows :—

Scotopacip# having a strongly decurved bill, longer than the tarsus and middle toe.

The objection to this diagnosis is that it excludes two species which have always been
admitted to the genus, Nwmenius borealis and N. minor. What have these poor Curlews
done that they should be turned out into the cold? It is rather remarkable that they are
the only Curlews which have neglected to make any attempt to produce pale bars on the
inner webs of their primaries. This neglect may be a specific misdemeanour, but can
scarcely be regarded as a generic crime !

Let us see what Coues can do for us. His diagnosis of the genus Nwmenius may be
tersely expressed as follows :—

ScoLoPactD#& having a very long decurved bill, and having the tarsus scutellated in
front and reticulated behind.

This diagnosis is extremely satisfactory, with one exception. It excludes Numenius
minor from the genus. This species has the whole of the tarsus unmistakably scutellated,
both in front and at the back, and is in every respect a Tofanus, except, perhaps, that no
species of Zofanus has the bill quite so much decurved. ‘The difference in the amount of
curvature of bill between Numenius minor and N. pheopus is, however, greater than that
between V. minor and Totanus bartrami. Those ornithologists who are still wedded to the
rostral system may, if they like, accept the following diagnosis of the genus Numenius :—
Toranin# having the arch of the bill sufficiently great that a straight line drawn from the
gape to the point where the two mandibles meet at the tip will pass below the lower
outline of the under mandible, and having the lower half of the tarsus scutellated in front.

The student may inquire why, if the so-called structural characters are so unsatisfactory,
cannot the matter be settled by appeal to the colour-test? Because colour, and more
particularly pattern of colour, dates much too far back to distinguish such closely-allied
genera as Numenius and Totanus. The only important point in which Numenius borealis,
N. minor, and Totanus bartrami differ in colour, or pattern of colour, is that the latter
species has barred primaries; but unfortunately Z! dartram: is the only Zotanus that has
barred primaries, and WV. dorealis and NV. minor are the only species in the genus Numenius
that have plain primaries.

This is clearly a case for the anatomist to decide, but in the meantime a wise
conservatism may allow the two species to remain in the genera in which the instinct of
ornithologists has already placed them.

The genus Numenius, like Totanus and Charadrius, may be in a transition state as
regards the scutellation of the tarsus. Numenius minor and N. dorealis are so nearly allied
that it is difficult at once to find a perfectly satisfactory character upon which to separate

318 NUMENIUS.

them; but though it is a remarkable fact that the back of the tarsus of the former is
distinctly scutellated, whilst that of the latter is as clearly reticulated, the fact is not an
isolated one. The case is almost an exact parallel to that of Zotanus incanus and T. brevipes ;
and it is worthy of note that in both cases the New-World species is the one which has
what is generally regarded as the older form of tarsus (7. e. reticulated instead of scutellated),
but in the Curlew this character is normal, whilst in the Sandpiper it is exceptional.

Synonymy of the Genus NUMENIUS.

Type.
Numenius, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 811 (1760) . N. arquatus.

Curlirius, Rafinesque, Anal. de la Nature, p.71 (1815). . . . . . «. « .?N. pheeopus.
Pheopus, Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 485 (1817) .

N. phzopus.
Cractiornis, Gray, List Gen. and Subg. Birds, p. 88 (1841)

N. arquatus.

Determina- The Curlews were placed by Linneus in the genus Scolopax on the ground of their
ee ofthe having well-developed hind toes consisting of more than one joint. The Common Curlew
so (Numenius arquatus), being the Numenius numenius of Brisson, must be regarded as the
type of the genus.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
(during the breeding-season).
Curlews. Patzarctic RxrgIon. Whimbrels.
N.arquarus. . . . 1. West. N. pHmorus.
N. TENUIROSTRIs. South-west.
N. LINEATUS N. vaRIEGATus.
} East. ee ee
N. cyanopus i. MINUTUS.
Nearctic Recron.
N. LoNGIROSTRIS. . . 1... East to West. he oe ie el ze 4a Pe
N. porzatis.
West. N, TaHITIENsIs.
Climatic The genus Numenius is decidedly Arctic in its character. It contains 1] species and
distribution.

subspecies, which are distributed as follows :—

Anelio Aimeniehs a. a a a a we 8
Arche Witasia:, 4. one w ww 4. &
Arctic species . = 7
Temperate N. America . . . . . . 1
Temperate Eurasia. . 2. 2. . 2. 1. 8
Temperate species. . . . . — 4

Species and subspecies of Numenius . . — 1]

NUMENIUS. 319

The present geographical distribution of the Curlews can only be accounted for on the
assumption that they were originally inhabitants of the Polar Basin. Of the eleven species
and subspecies which comprise the genus Mumenius, two, VV. dorealis and N. hudsonicus,
are exclusively Arctic during the breeding-season. JV. fenuirostris, breeding in the basin
of the Mediterranean, might be called semi-tropic, but all the others may fairly be regarded
as Arctic or Semi-Arctic.

The species belonging to the genus Mumenius naturally fall into five groups, which
probably escaped from the Polar Basin by five different routes, when the coming on of the
Post-Phocene Glacial Epoch drove them south.

The first group to be considered may be described as Pale-rumped Curlews. They
may be diagnosed as having the lower back white, or white more or less streaked with
brown, but with no mesial line on the crown. ‘They represent the Atlantic-coast Curlews
of the Old World, and consist of two species, one of which is divisible into two subspecies.

The Pale-rumped Curlews, being represented by two species in Europe, one in Asia,
and being entirely absent from America, doubtless escaped from the ice by way of the Kara
Sea, along the European coast, and up some of the great rivers of Western Siberia.

The fact that the range of WV. tenuirostris does not extend further east than the Ural
Mountains confirms the theory that the Pale-ramped Curlews escaped from the Polar Basin
along the Atlantic shores of Europe. At the height of the Glacial Epoch they were
probably isolated in two colonies, one in West Africa and the other in the valley of the
Nile, for a period long enough to make them specifically distinct. When the Glacial
Epoch had passed away, the West-African colony spread over the basin of the Mediterranean,
whilst the East-African colony extended its summer range over the head of its ally east
and west, until it finally extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific, whilst its winter range
covered South Africa, and afterwards reached India, Burma, and the islands of the Malay
Archipelago. The complete isolation of the African and Asian winter colonies of the
Common Curlew produced variation in the species; but the uninterrupted area of their
distribution in summer, combined with the much shorter period during which they have
been isolated, have prevented the birds from these colonies from becoming completely
differentiated.

The second group comprises the Pale-rumped Whimbrels, which may be diagnosed as
having the lower back and rump white, more or less streaked with brown, but always
contrasting with the darker mantle, and the crown plain brown, with a pale mesial line.
‘They represent the birds which left the Polar Basin along the east coast of Greenland, and,
finding the west coast already occupied, crossed over to Europe by Iceland and the Faroes.
From their present arctic habits it seems probable that they never crossed the Mediterranean,
but remained during the Glacial Epoch on the outskirts of the ice, which they followed on
its retreat, until they finally spread over the Arctic Region of the Old World.

The Whimbrel is so common in Iceland and the Faroes that it is natural to suppose
that it emigrated to the Arctic Regions of the Old World by way of those islands along the

Division
into five
groups.

320 NUMENIUS.

east coast of Greenland, where it is still found, and whence it has gradually spread to East
Siberia. In the latter locality its rump is considerably streaked, leading to the supposition
that when its range first touched that of its dark-rumped allies the species had not become
quite so completely differentiated as they appear to be now, and that consequently some
interbreeding took place between them, which has left its permanent mark on the Eastern
form of the Common Whimbrel.

The birds comprised in the third group, the Dark-rumped Barred-winged Whimbrels,
have the rump nearly the same colour as the mantle and lower back, the crown uniform
dark brown, with an obscure pale mesial line, and more or less distinct bars across the

<
Whimbrel (Numenius pheopus).

primaries and secondaries. They appear to represent the birds which emigrated down
Baffin’s Bay and the chains of American lakes. After the retreat of the ice they seem
to have spread westwards to Alaska. Neither of the two species belonging to this group
breed in the Old World, but the Hudsonian Whimbrel has occurred in Greenland and
once in Iceland. The Pacific Island Whimbrel breeds in Alaska, but appears to be
unacquainted with the coasts of China.

The birds comprised in the fourth group may be called Plain-winged Whimbrels, and
are easily distinguished from all their allies by the absence of bars on their primaries and
secondaries. ‘I'hey appear to represent the birds which escaped from the Polar ice through
Behring Straits, and afterwards followed the Siberian coast. Of the two species with dark
rumps and plain primaries, one breeds in East Arctic Siberia and the other in Arctic
America. As the latter is unknown on the Pacific coast, it is most probable that it did
not emigrate along the American shores of the Pacific, but is the result of a Jater emigration
across Behring Straits to Arctic America.

The fifth and last group consists of the Dark-rumped Curlews. They may be
diagnosed as having the rump pale brown, streaked with dark brown, like the mantle and
lower back ; and the crown pale brown, each feather having a dark centre. They appear
to represent the birds which passed through Behring Straits, and followed the American

NUMENIUS. 321

shore of the Pacific. Returning north, after the ice had disappeared, they spread eastward
to the Atlantic, whilst a party crossed the Behring Sea into East Siberia, where they
became differentiated into a closely allied, but now perfectly distinct, species.

Of the two species belonging to this group one breeds in East Siberia and the other in
sub-Arctic America. As the latter is more common on the Pacific coast of that continent
than on the Atlantic, there is every reason to suppose that this group represents the

Curlews which emigrated through Behring Straits along the American shores of the
Pacific.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

( longirostris .

Axillaries pale chestnut without
bars.

Tarsus more than three cyanopus.

inches long.

<

arquatus. .. . )

> lineatus

Lower back and rump un- Lower back much paler than

< tenuirostris. . . 7 : ‘
streaked white. mantle
. phzopus
variegatus . . . /
tahitiensis .. . ) Shafts of feathers on thighs
Crown plain brown with a : prolonged to long hairs.
pale mesial streak. h ;
udsonicus
Axillaries pale chestnut barred
ith brown.
borealis ie
pe any trace of bars on
Tarsus scutellated ia | minutus... . J primaries or secondaries.
back and front.

This key to the species and subspecies is a very satisfactory one, showing their mutual
affinities in a very concise manner. All the characters are found in the young in first
plumage as well as in the adults of both sexes, except one. The character of lower back
and rump unstreaked white only applies to adult thoroughbred examples of WV. déneatus and
NV. pheopus. The young in first plumage of both species, as well as intermediate forms
between the former and WV. arguatus and between the latter and MV. variegatus, have these

parts more or less streaked. pit

322 NUMENIUS.

** Typical Curlews.

NUMENIUS ARQUATUS.
COMMON CURLEW.

Diagnosis. Numenivus dorso postico, uropygioque quam dorsum superius valdé pallidioribus: tarso longiore
(plus quam 75 millim.).

Variations. THe Eastern and Western forms of this species may fairly be regarded as subspecifically
distinct.

Synonymy. Scolopax arquata, Linneus, Syst Nat. 1. p. 145 (1758); Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 242 (1766).
Numenius numenius,

Reece eae er Brisson, Orn. v. pp. 311, 822 (1760).
Scolopax madagascariensis (Briss.), Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 242 (1766).
Numenius arquata (Linn.), Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl. i. p. 291 (1787).
Numenius major, Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xii. pt. i. p. 26 (1824).
Numenius virgatus, Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 521 (1829).

Cracticornis arquatus (Linn.), Gray, List Gen. & Subgen. of Birds, p. 88 (1841).

NUMENIUS. 323

Prates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 818; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 48; Dresser, Birds of Europe,
viii, pl. 578.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 94.

Eces.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 33. figs. 1, 2.

Literature.

The Common Curlew only requires two characters to diagnose it from all its congeners Specific cha-
except from the Oriental Curlew, from which it is only subspecifically distinct. These ee

characters are, /ower back and rump much paler than the mantle, and tarsus more than three
inches long.

Tertiary of young.

Tertiary of adult.

The Common Curlew is a resident in the British Islands, but can only be regarded as ea eee
an accidental visitor on migration to the Faroes and Iceland. It is a summer visitor to the tion.
whole of Scandinavia, but in West Russia its range does not extend north of the delta of
the Dvina, nor in East Russia north of the basin of the Volga. East of the Caspian it is
replaced by the Oriental Curlew. It breeds as far south as Holland, and is said to do so
in the delta of the Rhone, on the Kirghiz Steppes, and those of the Caucasus. It passes
through South Europe, Asia Minor, and Persia on migration, and winters in Africa, occasion-
ally visiting the Azores. I found it very abundant in Durban Bay in March, and was
assured that a few examples, doubtless immature birds, remained in their South-African

winter-quarters, as they are in the habit of doing on the southern coasts of the British
Islands.

272

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

324 NUMENIUS.

NUMENIUS ARQUATUS LINEATUS.
ORIENTAL CURLEW.

Noumentivs arquatus dorso postico uropygioque albis, vix brunneo striatis.

Tue Eastern and Western forms completely intergrade.

Numenius lineatus, Cuvier, Regne Anim. i. p. 521 (1829).

Numenius nasicus, Temminck, Man. d’ Orn, iv. p. 393 (1840).
Numenius arquatula, Hodgson, Gray’s Zool. Miscell. i. p. 86 (1844).
Numenius cassini, Swinhoe, Ibis, 1867, p. 398.

Prares.—Unfigured.

Hasits.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 906.

Eces.—Dybowski, Journ. Orn. 1873, p. 104. (Described as resembling those of the Common
Curlew.)

The Eastern and Western forms of the Common Curlew differ as follows :—

NV. arquatus. NN. lineatus.
Lower back white, streaked with brown. Lower back unspotted white.
Axillaries white, more or less spotted Axillaries unspotted white.
with brown.
Margins of scapulars and feathers on Margins of scapulars and feathers on
the upper back grey. the upper back nearly white.
Length of bill 43 to 7 inches. Length of bill 54 to 8 inches.

None of these characters appear to be constant, and intermediate forms are very
common *,

* This is no excuse whatever for confounding the two forms together, as Dresser and other ornithologists
have done. Although it may sometimes be difficult to determine to which form an individual may belong,
a series of examples from Western Europe are always perfectly distinct from a series from Eastern Asia.
Harting’s theory (quoted by Oates in his ‘Birds of British Burma,’ ii. p. 412) that N. lineatus is the winter
plumage of WV. arquatus is ingenious, but contradicted by facts. Out of 40 dated skins in the Hume Collection
from India and Burma, 6 only have the lower back streaked. Of these 6, 4 are adult females and 2 birds of
the year, but all 6 were shot between Nov. 2 and Dec. 20. The remaining 34 have the lower back white
without streaks, and consist of 17 adult females, 11 adult males, 3 males of the year, 2 females of the year,

and 1 unsexed bird of the year. These 34 birds are distributed over every month in the year except June
and July.

NUMENIUS. 825

The Oriental Curlew breeds in Siberia, in the valley of the Obb as far north as the
Arctic Circle, but in Eastern Siberia not further than Dauria and the southern tributaries
of the Amoor. It passes through Turkestan on migration, and occasionally strays as far as
the east coast of Africa; but its usual winter-quarters are India, Ceylon, Burma, and the
islands of the Malay Archipelago. It not only frequents the sea-shore from the Mekran
coast to Borneo, but occurs inland on the banks of rivers and lakes. It was probably
this species which Prjevalski found breeding in the valley of the Hoang Ho.

NUMENIUS TENUIROSTRIS.
MEDITERRANEAN CURLEW.

Numentus pileo equaliter striato: tarso breviore (minus quam 75 millim.).
No local races of this species are known.

Numenius tenuirostris, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. viii. p. 302 (1817).
Numenius syngenicos, Von der Miihle, Orn. Griechenl. p. 111 (1844).

Prates.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 577.
Hasits.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. p. 237.
Eees.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. p. 239.

The Mediterranean Curlew is a very distinct species. It combines the colours of the
Curlew with the dimensions of the Whimbrel. It scarcely differs from the Eastern form
of the Common Curlew except in size and in its bill, which is not only absolutely but
relatively smaller. The length of bill varies so much in the Curlews, being much greater in
the female than in the male, that for diagnostic purposes the measurements of the tarsus
are more reliable. The Mediterranean Curlew may be diagnosed by two characters. For
the first, tarsus less than three inches long is the best, and for the second either awzllaries
pure white or crown uniformly striated excludes every other species in the genus. ‘The latter
character is the most reliable, as examples of the Whimbrel occasionally occur in which the
bars across the axillaries are almost obsolete.

It is a resident in the basin of the Mediterranean, occasionally breeding as far north
as latitude 50°, especially in South-east Russia, where it is a migratory bird. It has not
been recorded from any locality east of the Ural Mountains. Jn Africa its numbers are
increased in winter by migrants from Europe, but it is unknown in Tropical Africa.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specitic
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

326 NUMENIUS.

NUMENIUS CYANOPUS.

AUSTRALIAN CURLEW.

Numenius pileo equaliter striato: interscapulio et dorso postico concoloribus : axillaribus albe-
scentibus brunneo fasciatis.

No local races of this species are known.

Numenius cyanopus, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. viii. p. 306 (1817).
Numenius australis, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 155.

Numenius major, Temminck & Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, Aves, pl. 66 (1847).
Numenius rostratus, Lichtenstein, fide Bonap. Compt. Rend. xlii. p. 597 (1856).
Numenius rufescens, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1862, p. 286.

Prates.—Temm. & Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, Aves, pl. 66; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 42 ;
Gould, Birds of Asia, vii. pl. 60.

Hasirs.— Gould, Handbook Birds Austr. ii. p. 277.

Eecos.— Unknown.

The Curlews differ from the Whimbrels in having the crown uniformly striated, instead
of plain brown with a more or less distinct pale mesial line. There are only two Curlews
in which the rump scarcely differs in colour from the rest of the upper parts, instead of being
pure white with or without streaks, in either case in strong contrast to the darker mantle.
The Australian Curlew is one of these, and differs from the other (JV. Jongirostris) in having
the underparts, including the agilaries, nearly white, streaked and barred with brown.
Both species are large, with tarsi more than three inches long.

Like its ally in the New World, it is a migratory bird, but the migrations of the
Curlews on the Asiatic shores of the Pacific are on a very different scale to those of their
cousins on the American shores of that ocean. ‘The Australian Curlew breeds somewhere
in Eastern Siberia, since it occurs on migration from Lake Baikal to the mouth of the
Amoor, and along the coasts of Japan and China. It crosses the line to winter in Australia,
and has also been recorded from Tasmania, New Guinea, Borneo, and scme of the smaller
islands of the Malay Archipelago.

NUMENIUS. 327

NUMENIUS LONGIROSTRIS.
AMERICAN CURLEW.

Nomentvs axillaribus pallidé castaneis. Diagnosis.

Exampuss from the Atlantic coast do not appear to differ in any way from others from the Variations.
Pacific coast.

Numenius longirostra, Wilson, Am. Orn. viii. p. 23 (1814). Synonymy.
Numenius melanopus, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. viii. p. 306 (1817).

Numenius rufus, Vieillot, Gal. des Ois. ii. p. 115 (1834).

Numenius occidentalis, Woodhouse, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad. vi. p. 194 (1852).

Puares.— Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 64. fig. 4; Audubon, Birds Am. vi. pl. 355. Literature.
Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 311.
Eees.—Described by Brewer in the above-mentioned volume, p. 314.

The American Curlew, like the other Curlews, differs from the Whimbrels in having a Specific
uniformly striated crown. From its nearest allies it differs in two very conspicuous points. ee
In the first place the rump, instead of being pure white with or without streaks, but in
either case in strong contrast to the darker mantle, scarcely differs in colour from the rest
of the upper parts ; and, in the second place, the axillaries, instead of being white barred
or unbarred with brown, are uniform deep buff. It may be distinguished from its Siberian
ally by the adsence of bars on the axillaries, or by its rich buff underparts, unstreaked on
the lower breast and belly.

It breeds in Temperate North America, and winters in Mexico and Central America, eographi-
but is a resident in many of the intervening districts. On the Pacific coast it has not oo
been recorded further north than Vancouver Island. There is no evidence that it has
occurred in Canada, but on the Atlantic coast it breeds as far north as Prince Edward’s
Island. It probably does not breed south of Texas, but it winters in Guatemala and in
some of the West India Islands. I have not been able to find any reliable evidence of its
occurrence in South America.

328 NUMENIUS.

** Aberrant Curlews, or Whimbrels.

Tertiary of adult.

Tertiary of young.

NUMENIUS PHAOPUS.
COMMON WHIMBREL.

Diagnosis. | Numenivs pileo brunneo, strig4 pallidé centraliter notato: dorso postico uropygioque quam inter-
scapulium valdé pallidioribus.

Variations. Tum Eastern form of the Whimbrel differs very considerably from the Western form, and
has every claim to be regarded as subspecifically distinct.

Synonymy. Scolopax pheopus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 146 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 243 (1766).
Numenius minor, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 317 (1760).
Numenius phxopus (Linn.), Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl. 1. p. 291 (1787).
Pheopus phzopus (Linn.), Cuvier, Regne An. 1. p. 485 (1817).
Pheopus vulgaris, Fleming, Philos. Zool. ii. p. 254 (1822).
Phzopus arquatus, Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xii. pt. i. p. 36 (1824).
Numenius haesitatus, Hartlaub, Orn. W.-Afr. p. 233 (1857).
Numenius melanorhynchus, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 1021 (1856).

NUMENIUS. 399

Prates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 842 ; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 49; Dresser, Birds of Europe,
vill. pl. 576.

Hasrrs.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 100.

Eces.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 33. figs, 4, 5.

The Common Whimbrel is not a Curlew, because its crown is plain brown, with a pale
mesial streak. Jt and its eastern form, the Oriental Whimbrel, are the only Whimbrels in
which the lower back is much paler than the mantle.

The adult Common Whimbrel has a pure white lower back, but in immature birds
there are always dark streaks in the centre of many of the feathers. These dark centres
are even more conspicuous in the adult of the Oriental Whimbrel, and most so in immature
examples of the Eastern form }.

Stejneger (Orn. Expl. Comm. Isl. and Kamtschatka, p. 135) remarks, “ Were it not
that the occurrence of numerous intermediate specimens have been recorded, I should
consider the two forms good and distinct species.”

’ It is very difficult to understand how Dresser (‘Birds of Europe,’ viii. p. 228) could arrive at the con-
clusion that the Eastern form of the Whimbrel *‘ does not differ from our European bird.” He had a fine
series for examination, in which there were 10 examples of the Eastern form, and more than 20 of the Western.
He correctly describes the adult of the European form as having a white rump, but does not seem to have
noticed that the ten Eastern examples (nine of which are now in my collection) have the rump profusely
streaked with brown. Another most unaccountable omission on his part is the absence of any description or
even mention of the young in first plumage, or the bird of the year, which have streaked rumps, in both
forms.

Qu

Literature,

Specific
characters.

Summer
range.

Winter
range.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

330 NUMENIUS.

The Whimbrel is a bird of very powerful flight: it leaves our shores in its worn
summer plumage, and moults its quills slowly in December in its winter-quarters ; young
birds are easy to detect in autumn by their shorter bills, and by the clearly defined buff
spots on the upper parts, especially on the outer webs of the scapulars and tertials. The
Whimbrel appears to be somewhat wild in its migrations, as amongst a large series of
British examples a few Oriental Whimbrels occasionally occur, and in a large series of
Indian and Burmese birds a few Common Whimbrels appear to be found.

The Western form of the Common Whimbrel has repeatedly been found in Greenland,
and probably breeds there (Reinhardt, Ibis, 1861, p. 10). It is a common summer visitor
to Iceland and the Farocs, and breeds in some numbers on the Shetlands and Orkneys.
It may also breed in North-west Scotland, but the evidence that it does so is very unsatis-
factory. Its breeding-range extends eastwards to Lapland and the fells of Norway and
Sweden, above the limit of forest-growth. Henke (Ibis, 1882, p. 382) says that it is a
rare summer visitor to Archangel ; and Harvie Brown and I found it very rare in the valley
of the Petchora, in lat. 66°; but Sabanaeff (Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow, 1877, p. 309)
says that it is common on the steppes of the Ural.

On migration it is found on all the European coasts, and on most inland fly-lines,
wintering on the Azores, the Canaries, and the other West-African islands. In the
Mediterranean it is chiefly known in spring and autumn on migration, but it winters
throughout the coasts of Tropical Africa, and visits many localities in the interior. I found
it common in the Bay of Durban in March ; Heuglin records it from the Blue Nile; Ayres
obtained it in the Transvaal; and it is said to be found all the year round in Aden Bay
(Major Yerbury, Ibis, 1886, p. 21). The fact that so many immature migratory birds
remain in their winter-quarters, like the Whimbrels in the Red Sea, or stop short of their
breeding-grounds, like the Whimbrels in North Scotland, is no doubt the cause of much
error in describing the breeding-range of these and many other birds.

NUMENIUS PHAOPUS VARIEGATUS.

ORIENTAL WHIMBREL.

NUMENIUs PHLOPUS dorso postico uropygioque valdé brunneo striatis.

Tne Eastern and Westcrn fornis completely intergrade.

NUMENIUS. 331

Tantalus variegatus, Scopoli, Del. Fl. Faun. Ins. ii. p. 92 (1786, ex Sonnerat). Synonymy.
Scolopax luzoniensis, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 656 (1788, ex Sonnerat).

Numenius luzoniensis (@mel.), Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 711 (1790).

Numenius atricapillus, Vieillot, N. Dict. d@ Hist. Nat. viii. p. 803 (1817, ex Sonnerat).

Numenius uropygialis, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1840, p. 175.

Numenius variegatus (Scop.), Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. xviii. p. 830 (1882).

Numenius phzopus variegatus (Scop.), Seehohm, British Birds, iii. p. 101 (1885).

Prates.— Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 43.
Hasits.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 910.
Eeoes.— Unknown.

Literature.

The difference between the European and Oriental Whimbrels has already been
pointed out.
The Oriental Whimbrel has not been recorded from the valley of the Obb, nor is it aay
known to pass through Turkestan on migration ; but as it is said to be common in winter at tion.
the mouth of the Indus, it has probably been overlooked in these localities! It passes
through Dauria on migration (Dybowski, Journ. Orn. 1868, p. 337), and Stejneger obtained
it on Bering Island. It passes along the coasts of Japan and China on migration, and
winters in India, Ceylon, Burma, the islands of the Malay Archipelago *, and Australia.

NUMENIUS HUDSONICUS.
HUDSONIAN WHIMBREL.

Numentus axillaribus castaneis brunneo fasciatis: primariarum pogoniis internis brunneis albo Diagnosis.
fasciatis: abdomine albo.

j i Variations.
No local races of this species are known.

Numenius hudsonicus, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 712 (1790). Synonymy.
Numenius rufiventris, Vigors, Zool. Journ. iv. p. 356 (1829).

Numenius brasiliensis, Mazimilian, Beitr. Naturg. Brasilien, iv. p. 708 (1833).

Numenius intermedius, Nuttall, Man. Orn. U.S. & Can.ii. p. 100 (1834).

‘ There are several examples in the great Hume Collection from Kurrachee and Bombay which belong
unmistakably to the Eastern form.

2 The statement (Meyer, Ibis, 1879, p: 143) that the Whimbrel breeds in Celebes, in trees, and only lays
two eggs, must be intended to apply to some other species.

202

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

332 NUMENIUS.

Piates.—Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 56. fig. 1 ; Audubon, Birds Am. vi. pl. 356.
Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 315.
Eees.—Newton, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, pl. iv. fig. 3.

~ The Hudsonian Whimbrel differs from the Curlews in having the crown plain brown,
with a pale mesial streak; from the Common and Oriental Whimbrels in having the ower
back nearly the same colour as the mantle; from the Eskimo and Least Whimbrels by the
distinctness of the pale bars on the inner webs of the primaries; and from the Pacific-Island
Whimbrel in having the /ower breast and belly white instead of buff, and in having no long
hairs on the thighs.

It is confined to the Arctic Regions of the American continent during the breeding-
season from Alaska to Greenland, and passes the Bermudas on migration (Reid, Zoologist,
1877, p.478). In autumn it migrates southwards across the Line, where it has been seen
in the Galapagos Archipelago (Dr. Habel, Trans. Zool. Soc. ix. p. 504) and in South
America as far as Patagonia.

Its nearest ally is unquestionably the Pacific-Island Whimbrel (Mumenius tahitiensis).

NUMENIUS TAHITIENSIS.
PACIFIC-ISLAND WHIMBREL.

Noumenivus plumarum tibiz rhachidibus valdé prolongatis.

No local races of this species are known.

NUMENIUS. 333

Scolopax tahitiensis, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 656 (1788).

Numenius femoralis, Peale, Zvol. U.S. Expl. Exp. p. 283 (1848).

Numenius tahitiensis (Gmel.), Ridgway, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. iii. p. 291 (1880).
Numenius tibialis, Peale fide Layard & Tristram, Ibis, 1882, pp. 533, 534.

Prates.—Peale, Zool. U. States Exploring Exp. 1838-42, Birds, pl. Ixvi. fig. 1; Cassin, Zool.
U. States Exploring Exp. 1838-42, Birds, ed. 2, pl. 37.

Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 324.

Eccs.—Unknown.

The Pacific-Island Whimbrel may be diagnosed by the Jong hairs on the thighs which
project far beyond the feathers. A more complicated diagnosis is, crown plain brown with
a pale mesial streak ; lower back nearly the same colour as the mantle; pale bars on inner
webs of primaries ; and general colour of underparts buff.

The Pacific-Island Whimbrel has scarcely a right to its name, as it is only a winter
visitor to the southern hemisphere. It breeds in Alaska (Nelson, ‘ Cruise of the Corwin,’
p. 90), and has been recorded from Kamtschatka (Taczanowski, Bull. Soc. Zool. France,
1882, p. 397); but Stejneger regards this record as relating to MW. cyanopus (Orn. Expl.
Comm. Isl. and Kamtschatka, p. 317).

It was originally described from Tahiti, the largest of the Society Islands (Latham,
General Synopsis of Birds, ili. p. 122); Peale redescribed it from the island of Vincennes,
one of the Paumota Archipelago, to the east; and 1 have an example from the Samoa
Islands to the west. Further north it has occurred on the Marquesas Islands (‘Tristram,
Ibis, 1881, p. 251) ; Fanning Island (Tristram, lbis, 1683, p. 47); Gilbert Islands (Finsch,
Ibis, 1880, p. 432), where it is known only as a winter visitor; Marshall Islands (Finsch,
Ibis, 1880, p. 220), where it was found moulting in September; and the Sandwich Islands,
whence examples are in the museum of the Smithsonian Institution.

It appears to be nearest allied to the Hudsonian Whimbrel (Numenius hudsonicus).

NUMENIUS BOREALIS.
ESKIMO WHIMBREL.

Numentus primariis haud fasciatis: tarso postice reticulato.

Ir is not known that examples from Alaska differ in any way from those from Greenland.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Summer
home.

Winter
home.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

334 NUMENIUS.

Synonymy. Scolopax borealis, Forster, Phil. Trans. \xii. pp. 411, 431 (1772).
Numenius borealis (Forst.), Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 712 (1790).
Numenius brevirostris, Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. Mus. Berlin, p. 75 (1823).
Numenius microrhynchus, Philippi & Landbeck, Wiegm. Arch. 1866, pt. i, p. 129.

Literature. Piates.—Temminck, P]. Col. no. 381; Swainson & Richardson, Faun. Bor.-Amer. ii. pl. Ixv. ;
Audubon, Birds Am. vi. pl. 357; Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 575.
Hasrrs.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. 1. p. 318.
Eecs.—Newton, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, pl. iv. fig. 1; Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 33. fig. 3.

Specific The Eskimo Whimbrel, often erroneously called the Eskimo Curlew, only requires two
characters, 5: j A “ ‘ i
characters to diagnose it from all its congeners: primaries with scarcely a trace of bars ;

back of the tarsus covered with hexagonal reticulations.

Numenius minutus,

Numenius borealis.

lane ; The Eskimo Whimbrel is an arctic species, breeding only on the tundras of North
tion. America, above the limit of forest-growth, from Behring Straits to Greenland. It is said to

have occurred on the Siberian coast (Nelson, * Cruise of the Corwin,’ p. 90) and to be common
on the shores of Norton Sound, though it was only observed on migration by the Point Barrow
expedition (Seebohm, ‘Trans. Norf. & Norw. Nat. Soc. iv. p. 307). It is recorded from
Greenland (Reinhardt, Ibis, 1861, p. 10), aud has occurred several times in Scotland and
once in both England and Ireland. In the United States it occurs on migration both
inland, on the Atlantic coast, and on the Bermuda Islands (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 478).
It appears to winter south of the Line; and though it has not been found on migration on
the Pacific coast of North America, it has been recorded from the Galapagos (Salvin, Proc.

NUMENIUS. 335

Zool. Soc. 1883, p. 429) and the coast of Chili (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 333).
It has occurred once on the Falkland Islands (Abbott, Ibis, 1861, p. 156), passes through
Central Patagonia on migration (Durnford, Ibis, 1878, p. 404), and was procured by
Darwin, Captain Harrison, and others near Buenos Ayres. It is also found on migration
in various parts of Brazil and Paraguay.

NUMENIUS MINUTUS.
LEAST WHIMBREL.

NuMENIvs primariis haud fasciatis : tarso postice anticeque scutellato.

No local races of this species are known.

Numenius minutus, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1840, p. 176.
Numenius minor, 8. Miiller, Verh. Land- en Volkenk. p. 110 (1849, nec Leach, 1816).

Prates.—Temm. & Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, Aves, pl. Ixvii.; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi.
pl. 44.

Hasits.—Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 280.

Eaes.— Unknown.

The Least Whimbrel differs from all the other species of the genus, except from the
Eskimo Whimbrel, in having scarcely any trace of pale bars on the inner webs of its primaries
and secondaries. From the latter it differs in what has always been regarded as a very
important character: the ack of the tarsus is scutellated as distinctly as the front, the
scales being arranged in transverse plates instead of in hexagonal reticulations.

Its precise breeding-grounds are unknown, but they are doubtless near the Arctic
Circle in Eastern Siberia, as it has been obtained on migration in Dauria and in Japan. It
passes along the Chinese coast, and through the Malay Archipelago, and winters in
Australia.

In spite of the difference in the arrangement of the scales at the back of the tarsus, it
is very closely related to the Eskimo Whimbrel, from which it principally differs in being
slightly smaller, though with a rather longer tarsus; the underparts are somewhat paler

and less conspicuously barred.

Diagnosis.

‘

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies.

CHAPTER XXL

Genus PHALAROPUS.

Diagnosis. 4 Totanin« digitis lobatis.
Gencric Tux Phalaropes differ from all the other Charadriide in having /ateral lobes to the toes,
characters.

like the Grebes, which they also resemble in their laterally compressed tarsi; they also
resemble the Grebes, the Auks, the Rails, and the Avocets in their fluffy compact plumage,
but there is no reason to suppose that any of these characters denote affinity. In the
position of their nostrils they are Scolopacine, not Charadriine ; the toes are united by a
web at the base, the tarsus is scutellated both in front and at the back, and the frontal
feathers extend beyond the gape; so that they may be regarded as nearest related to the
species comprised in the genus Tofanus.

Synonymy of the Genus PHALAROPUS.

It is incredible that so well known and so clearly defined a genus, containing only.

three species, should have any synonymy ; but such has been the perversity of ornithologists
that the literature has been encumbered with no fewer than five generic names to puzzle
and mislead the student.

Type.

Phalaropus, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 12 (1760) . P. fulicarius.

Crymophilus, Vieillot, Anal. Nouv. Orn. Elém. p. 62 (1816)
Lobipes, Cuvier, Régne An. p. 495 (1817)

P. fulicarius.
P. hyperboreus.

Steganopus, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxxii. p. 136 (1819) P. wilsoni.

Holopodius, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 420 (1856) P. wilsoni,
Determina- Linneus placed the Phalaropes in his genus 77izga because they have four toes; but
tion of the >

Hane: Brisson established a new genus for their reception on account of the peculiar webbing of

PHALAROPUS. 337

their feet. The Grey Phalarope (Pialaropus Sulicarius), bemg the Phalaropus phalaropus
of Brisson, is the type of the genus.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
(during the breeding-season).

Patzarctic Reaion.

North-west. >
( North-east. |
7 J > « . . P. HYPERBOREUS.
. FULICARIUS . Nearcric Region.
[ North.
P.wmnsoNI. . . . Central.

The genus Phalaropus, though it only contains three species, is not exclusively Arctic. Climatic dis-
The distribution of each of the three species is somewhat peculiar; during the breeding- as
season it is as follows :-—

Arctic Circumpolar a a ee ee
Arctic America and East Asia . . . . 1
1

Arctic species . 2
Temperate North America
Temperate species . . . — 1]
Species of Phalaropus . . . — 3

Although the Phalaropes are more aquatic in their habits than any other birds
belonging to this family, they can scarcely be regarded as shore birds. As might be
inferred from the structure of their feet and the character of their plumage, they swim
with the greatest ease, but they prefer small lakes and pools to the sea.

There is every reason to suppose that P. wilsoni represents the descendants of the
Phalaropes which escaped from the Arctic ice down the great chain of lakes which lie
between Hudson’s Bay and the Rocky Mountains. The routes taken by the ancestors of
P. hyperboreus and P. fulicarius are not so easy to determine, as both these species are
now circumpolar. The rareness of the latter species in Europe suggests the idea that the
ancestors of P. hyperboreus were isolated in the basin of the Mediterranean, and those of
P. fulicarius in Southern Asia. It is, however, very possible that the latter species was
isolated in the North Pacific Ocean, where it may have frequented the islands on both
coasts, as it is much more maritime in its habits than either of its congeners.

2x

338 PHALAROPUS.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

The Phalaropes are confined during the breeding-season to the northern portion of
the Nearctic and Palearctic Regions, retiring south to winter. Only three species are
known, which may be distinguished as follows, in every stage of plumage :—

wilsoni - >
> Bill slender, gradually tapering
. hyperboreus. . . J to the point.
Bill and tarsus less than
pane fulicarius.

They may also be distinguished by the following characters :—
wilsoni .
Outer tail-feathers not half an

en ee ae ae { hypertorens . . . |. inch shorter than the longest.
|

sinuated at each joint.
\ fulicarius.

PHALAROPUS FULICARIUS.
GREY PHALAROPE.

Diagnosis, | PHataropus rostro lato: cauda valdé cuneata (rectricibus centralibus quam rectrices laterales 10
ad 16 millim. longioribus).

PHALAROPUS,

No local races of this species are known.

Tringa fulicaria, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 148 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 249 (1766).

Phalaropus phalaropus, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 12 (1760, winter plumage).
Phalaropus rufescens, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 20 (1760, summer plumage).
Phalaropus lobatus (Linn.), apud Tunstall, Orn. Brit. p. 3 (177 1).

Phalaropus rufus, Bechstein, Naturg. Deutschl. ed. 2, iv. p. 881 (1809).
Phalaropus platyrhynchus, Temminck, Man. d’Orn. p. 459 (1815).

Phalaropus griseus, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 34 (1816).
Crymophilus rufus (Bechst.), Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. viii. p. 521 (1817).
Phalaropus fulicarius (Linn.), Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 54 (1838).
Phalaropus platyrostris, Nordmann, Démidoff, Voy. Russ. Mérid. iii. p. 250 (1840).
Phalaropus asiaticus, Hume, Stray Feath. i. p. 246 (1873).

Prates.—Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pls. 81, 82; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 538.
Hasirs.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 85.
Eaes.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 27. figs. 7, 9.

339

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

The Grey Phalarope in breeding-dress differs entirely from its two allies, the whole of the
underparts being chestnut like those of the Knot, Curlew Sandpiper, or Bar-tailed Godwit.

At all seasons and ages it may be recog-
nized by its short wide bill, or by its much
graduated tail, the central feathers being
generally more than half an inch longer than
the outermost.

The Grey Phalarope may almost be
regarded as a circumpolar species, though
it is not known to breed on the continent
of Europe. Middendorff found it very
abundant on the Taimyr Peninsula; Dr.
Bunge describes it as the commonest Sand-

piper in the delta of the Lena. During the expedition to Alaska in 1881-83 it was found Geographi-

cal distribu-

abundant at Point Barrow. It has been obtained on the Parry Islands, in Grinnell-Land, tion,
and in Greenland, Iceland, and Spitzbergen. It belongs to the class of gipsy migrants
which never wander further from their breeding-grounds than they are compelled by stress
of weather. It is a somewhat irregular winter visitor to Europe, and has occurred once in
Tangiers. It is not known to pass through Turkestan or South Siberia on migration, but
it winters on the Mekran coast and in Scinde. Severtzoff says that it is a rare visitor to
the Pamir; a single example has been recorded from Calcutta, and it has even strayed as

Ox?

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

340 PHALAROPUS.

far as New Zealand (Haast, Trans. New Zealand Institute, 1883, p. 279) and Chili (Salvin,
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1883, p. 429). I have examples from Kamtschatka and the Kurile
Islands. On the American continent it has occurred on both the Atlantic and the Pacific
coasts at least as far south as lat. 40°, and Audubon records the occurrence of a flock,
consisting of at least a hundred birds, on the banks of the Ohio, in lat. 38°.

PEEEIITETEPITN | | eee

PHALAROPUS HYPERBOREUS.
RED-NECKED PHALAROPE.

Puaxaropus rostro tenui, breviore (minus quam 25 millim.).

I cannot detect the slightest difference between examples from Europe, Asia, and America.

Tringa lobata, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 148 (1758); Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 249 (1766, winter
plumage).

Phalaropus cinereus, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 15 (1760, summer plumage).

Phalaropus fuscus, Brissun, Orn. vi. p. 18 (1760, winter plumage).

Tringa hyperborea, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 249 (1766, summer plumage).

Phalaropus hyperboreus (Linn.), Tunstall, Orn. Brit. p. 3 (1771).

Tringa fusca (Briss.), Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 675 (1788).

Phalaropus vulgaris, Bechstein, Orn. Taschenbd. ii. p. 817 (1803).

PHALAROPUS. 341

Phalaropus williamsii, Simmonds, Trans. Linn. Soc. viii. p. 264 (1807).
Phalaropus cinereus (Briss.), Meyer, Taschen. ii. p. 417 (1810).

Lobipes hyperborea (Linn.), Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xii. pt. 1. p. 169 (1824),
Phalaropus ruficollis,

Bhalarepue cinerascens, ¢ Pas; Zougr. Rosso-Asiat ii. pp. 203, 204 (1826).

Phalaropus angustirostris, Naumann, Voég. Deutschl. viii. p. 240 (1836).

Phalaropus lobatus (Linn.), Salvadori, Ucc. @’ Ital. ii. p- 210 (1871).

Lobipes tropicus, Hume, Stray Feathers, 1873, p. 247.

Lobipes lobatus (Linn.), Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 330 (1884).

Prates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 766; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 83; Dresser, Birds of Europe, Haiterature.
vii. pl. 537,

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 89.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 27. figs. 4, 6.

The Red-necked Phalarope may be recognized at all ages and seasons by its short dill, ee.
less than an inch long, and gradually tapering to the point.
In breeding-dress it differs principally from the Grey Phalarope in having a white
breast and belly, and from Wilson’s Phalarope in having a dark slate-grey hind neck.
The Red-necked Phalarope is a circumpolar bird, breeding principally on the tundras
above the limit of forest-growth as far north as land extends in the eastern hemisphere,
and in the western hemisphere up to lat. 73°. It rarely breeds south of the Arctic Circle,

but above the pine-regions of the Dovrefjeld it breeds as far south as lat. 62°, and it is a
summer visitor to the Shetland Islands and the Outer Hebrides,
On the Pacific coast Middendorff found it breeding on the west shores of the Sea of Geographi-

an ae 1 distribu-
Ochotsk as far south as lat..55°; and it is a summer visitor to Greenland, Iceland, and the foe ane

342 PHALAROPUS.

Faroes. In winter it frequents the coasts of Europe, but is very rare in the basin of the
Mediterranean, and has not occurred in North-east Africa, Palestine, or Asia Minor. It
occurs during passage on most of the great internal lines of migration, and winters in
Persia and occasionally in North India. It passes the coasts of Japan on migration, and
winters in China and the islands of the Malay Archipelago as far south as New Guirea.
In the western hemisphere it winters in the United States, Mexico, and Central America.
It also occasionally visits the Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 475).

PHALAROPUS WILSONI.
WILSON’S PHALAROPE.

Diagnosis. — PHaLarorus rostro tenni, longo (plus quam 25 millim.).

Variations. No local races of this species are known.

Synonymy. Tringa glacialis, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. 1. p. 675 (1788).
Steganopus tricolor, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxxii. p. 136 (1819).
Phalaropus wilsoni, Sabine, Franklin’s Narr. Journ. Polar Sea, p. 691 (1823).
Lobipes incanus, Jardine § Selby, IM. Orn. i. pl. 16 (1825).
Phalaropus fimbriatus, Temiminck, Pl. Col. no. 370 (1825).

PHALAROPUS. 343

Phalaropus frenatus, Vieillot, Gal. Ois. ii. p. 178 (1826).

Lobipes frenatus (Vieill.), Cuvier, Regne An. i. p. 532 (1829).
Phalaropus stenodactylus, Wagler, Isis, 1831, p. 523.

Lobipes wilsoni (Sabine), Audubon, Syn. Birds N. Amer. p. 241 (1839).
Holopodius wilsoni (Sabine), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 420 (1856).
Steganopus wilsoni (Sabine), Coues, Ibis, 1865, p. 158.

Puates.—Temm. Pl. Col. no. 370; Jardine & Selby, Ill. Orn. i. pl. 16; Swainson & Rich.
Faun. Bor.-Amer. ii. pl. 69; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 341.

Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 335.

Hoes, described by Brewer on page 339 of the above-mentioned volume.

Literature.

Wilson’s Phalarope may always be recognized by its long slender bill, more than an Specific
inch long; the long tarsus, about the same length as the bill, is also diagnostic. In characters.
breeding-plumage it resembles most the Red-necked Phalarope, but is easily distinguished
by the white stripe down the back of the neck and the black stripes down the sides of
the neck.

It is entirely confined to the American continent, breeding near the lakes of the @eographi-
interior as far north as Lake Winnipeg, and as far south as the Great Salt Lake in the a
west, and Lake Michigan in the east. It is occasionally seen on the Atlantic coast on
migration, and it winters in various parts of the Neotropical Region, Mexico, Guatemala,

Chili (Bridges, Proc. Zool. Soc. 18438, p. 118), Patagonia (Durnford, Ibis, 1877,
p. 42), &.

Sternum of Phalaropus fulicarius.

Diagnosis.

Generic
characters.

Difference
between
Numenius
and Totanus.

CHAPTER XXIL

Sternum of Totanus ochropus.

Genus TOTAN US.

Toranin# frontis penuis ante fissuram extensis: rostro aut recto, aut paulo recurvato, aut perpau-
lulum decurvato.

Tue Sandpipers belonging to the genus Zotaxus might perhaps be called the Hard-billed,
partially web-footed Sandpipers by those who object to the name of Zatlers adopted by
Macgillivray and the American ornithologists.

They may be diagnosed as Totanine having the frontal feathers extending in front
of the gape, and having the 6il2 either not decurved at all, or so slightly that a straight
line from the gape to the tip will not pass below the lower outline of the under mandible.

I have no doubt that there are many other characters besides the almost contemptible
one last named to distinguish these birds from the Curlews, but I have not been able to
discover them. An imperfect diagnosis (such as Sundevall sometimes gives) is perhaps
preferable to one founded on such a trivial character as the bend of the bill. The following
attempt would then meet the case: Mumenius (with the exception of WV. minor) has the

back of the tarsus reticulated, whilst Zotanus (with the exception of 7. ixcanus) has the
back of the tarsus scutellated like the front.

TOTANUS. 345

If it be necessary to depend upon such apparently slight characters for the diagnosis
of the genus Zofanus, to what minute shades of difference must those ornithologists have
descended who split it up into a dozen or more genera! In the synonymy of this genus
‘there are not quite two generic names to each species, but very nearly so.

Synonymy of the Genus ‘Loranvs.

Type..
Totanus, Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb. ii. p. 282 (1808) . T. calidris.
Glottis, Koch, Syst. baier. Zool. p. 305 (1816) T. glottis.
Limicula, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 82 (1816) . T. glottis.
Pavoncella, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 29 (1816) T. pugnax.
Machetes, Cuvier, Regn. Anim. i. p. 490 (1817) T. pugnax.
Symphemia, Rafinesgue, Journ. Phys. p. 420 (1819) . T. semipalmatus.
Actitis, Boie, Jsis, 1822, p.560 . . . . ‘ T. hypoleucus.
Catoptrophorus, Bonap. ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New Ye ork, li. p. 323 (1826). T. semipalmatus,
Helodromas, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 144 (1829) . T. ochropus.
Gambetta, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 54 (1829, nec Koch, 1816) . T. calidris.
Frythroscelus, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 54 (1829) . T. fuscus.
Xenus, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 115 (1829) T. terekius.
Rhyacophilus, Kaup, Natiirl, Syst. p. 140 (1829) . T. glareola.
lliornis, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 156 (1829) T. stagnatilis.
llodites, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 155 (1829) T. semipalmatus.

Bartramia, Lesson, Lraité d Orn. p. 553 (1831) : ‘T. bartrari.
Tringoides, Bonap. Sagg. dist. met. An. Vert. p. 58 (1831) T. hypoleucus.
Actidurus, Bonap. Sagg. dist. met. An, Vert. p. 143 (1831) T. bartrami.
Luliga, Nuttall, Man. Orn. U.S. & Can. ii. p. 167 (183-4) T. bartrami.
Terekia, Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 52 (1838). T. terekius.
Actiturus, Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 51 (1838) . T. bartrami.
Simorhynchus, Keyserling & Blasius, Wirb. Eur. p. 74 (1840) T. terekius.
Guinetta, Gray, List Gen. Birds, p. 68 (1840) 4 T. hypoleucus.
Philomachus, Gray, List Gen. & Subgen. of Birds, p. 89 (1841) : T. pugnax.
Heteroscelus, Baird, Birds N. Amer. p. 73+ (1858) T. incanus.
Pseudototanus, Hume, Stray Feathers, vii. p. 488 (1878) T. guttiferus.
Pseudoglottis, Steyneger, Zeitschr. ges. Orn. 1884, p. 223 T. guttiferus.
Heteractitis, Steyneger, Auk, 1884, p. 236 . T. incanus.

Of the 17 species of Zotanus now known to ornithologists only eight were known to Determina-
Linneus. Of these he placed five in the genus Z/inga on the ground that they had only ees the
one joint in the hind toe, and three in the genus Scolopar on the ground that they had
more than one joint in the hind toe.

The Common Redshank (Zotanus calidris), being the Scolopax totanus of Linneus, has

every claim to be regarded as the type of the genus.

2Y

346 TOTANUS.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Totanoides. Pavmarctic Recon. Tringoides.
T. GLoTTiIs . . . . ee :

> } Arctic.

T. ruscus

a ee e. East Arctic. . oo. . . . LT. TEREKIUS.
T, BREVIPES .

West Arctic and Subarctic. . PUGNAX.

+. AE
es GLAREOLA.
T

Arctic and Subaretic. e : i . OCHROPUS.
T. HYPOLEUCUS.
T. cauipris . . . . . . Subarctic and Subtropical.
T. sTaGNaTILIS . 2 Subtropical.

Nearctic Rreion.
fo. SOLITARIUS.

Arctic. T. MELANOLEUCUs.
T. FLAVIPES.
T.uncanus . . . 6 ee West Arctic.
. : T. MACULARIUS.
Arctic and Subarctic. {
T. BARTRAMI,
T. semipacmatus . . . . Hast Subarctic and Subtropical.
T. specuLIrERUS . . . . F¥est Subarctic and Subtropical.
Climatic dis- The range of the genus Zo¢anus is practically cosmopolitan, but during the breeding-

tribution. ‘season is probably confined to the Nearctic and Palearctic Regions.

The genus Zotanus is a decidedly Arctic one. Of 17 species only 2 are confined to
the ''emperate Region during the breeding-season. They are distributed as follows :—

Arche Burdsia . 2 2 6 «© . » « &
Archie Ameries 2 « 5. + « 2 2 « @
Arche species. . . 1. 1 —
Arctic and Temperate Eurasia . . . 5
Arctic and Temperate North America . 2
Arctic and Temperate species — 7
Penperaié Eurasia 5 <a «2 @ w ai J
Temperate North America . . . . 2
Temperate species . . 1. . — 3

Species and subspecies of Zofanus . . —19

TOTANUS. 347

The geographical distribution of the species included in the genus Tofanus presents
some difficulties, but on the whole it confirms the theory of a general dispersal of a
circumpolar species by a Glacial Epoch. These birds are possessed of such powerful organs
of flight that they have most of them extended their winter as well as their summer ranges
from ocean to ocean.

The five species which have white lower backs must be regarded as the typical group
of the genus Zotanus. They appear to represent the party which emigrated from the
Polar Basin along the Atlantic coast of the Old World. None of them are found in the
New World except as accidental visitors, and they are the only group represented in
Iceland and the Faroes. We may assume that they were subgenerically differentiated
during the period of their isolation, whilst the gradual increase of the Arctic ice drove them
south, and that they rapidly spread eastwards along the shores of the Mediterranean to the
southern coast of Asia, and that during the height of the Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch they
were differentiated into species in their present most favoured winter-quarters, whence they
again spread over most of the Palearctic Region during the warm period which followed.
It is perhaps impossible accurately to determine the exact area of isolation of each species,
but we are by no means without circumstantial evidence of the facts of the case.

To begin with the East, we may assign the Malay Peninsula to Erman’s Sandpiper
(TL. guttiferus), as it appears to be still confined to that district in winter. India may lay
claim to have been the native country of the Greenshank (7. glottis); and Ceylon to the
smal], and on that account probably island, form which we call the Marsh-Sandpiper
(Z. stagnatilis), and which Legge describes as “the most abundant of its genus” in that
island. The Redshank (7. calidris) was most likely isolated in West Africa; whilst the
Dusky Redshank (7 fuscus), the most Arctic species of the genus, appears to have remained
furthest north on the shores of the sea which is now cut up into the Levant, the Black
Sea, the Caspian, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea.

The Ruff (7. pugnax) must also be regarded as having had a West Palsearctic origin,
as it appears to be only an accidental visitor to the Pacific shores. It is perhaps less a
shore-bird in its habits than the five species already discussed ; it may fairly claim to have
become subgenerically differentiated from them; and the remarkable extent to which
sexual selection appears to have modified its nuptial plumage suggests the idea that it
represents a body of Sandpipers which were isolated from their companions at an early
date, and emigrated south across country. There seems rcason to believe that at the
height of the Glacial Period these birds found refuge in the valley of the Nile, where they
are now extremely abundant in winter.

The nearest allies of these species are probably the two or three which have plain
brown axillaries—Z", semipalmatus, T. incanus, and T. brevipes. This little group ranges
across East Siberia and North America. The specific distinctness of the two latter is
doubtful, and for that very reason it gives us a clue as to which is the least-changed form.

Birds of the year of the Siberian form (7. drevipes) have the under tail-coverts more or less
2x2

Emigration.

Atlantic
coast of
Europe.

Across
country in
Eurasia.

Atlantic and
Pacific
coasts of
America,

Across
country in
America,

Pacific coast
of Asia.

348 TOTANUS.

distinctly barred, so that we may fairly assume that 7. zxcanus, the adults of which have
the under tail-coverts very distinctly barred, is the older form—a conclusion supported by
the fact that the scales at the back of the tarsus of the American form are constructed on a
more archaic type than in the Siberian species. 7. imcanus and TZ. semipalmatus are so
different that we may recognize their subgeneric distinction by supposing that 7. semz-
palmatus emigrated along the Atlantic coast of America, and Z. incanus along the Pacific
coast of that continent. During the warm period which followed the Post-Plocene Glacial
Period the latter species appears to have sent a detachment across Behring Straits to East
Siberia, the descendants of which have become partially differentiated, and are now known
as 7. incanus brevipes.

Bartram’s Sandpiper (7. Jartrami), like the Ruff in the Old World, appears to have
emigrated across country in the New World, and to have become almost entirely an inland
species.

The evidence that the ancestors of the remaining eight species emigrated along the
Pacific coast of Asia is very strong. Four of them are Nearctic and four Palearctic; of
the latter, one is absent from Western Europe, and the other three are represented by such
close allies in the New World that it is reasonable to suppose that the American species
are the result of emigrations across Behring Straits during the Post-Glacial warm period.
‘These eight species are :—

Old World. New World.
T. terekius. : :
T. hypoleucus. T. macularius.
T’. ochropus. T. solitarius.
T. glareola. T. flavipes.

T. melanoleucus.

The remarkable fact that 7. melanoleucus almost exactly resembles in almost every
dimension 7. glottis suggests the possibility that the former may be the American analogue
of the latter (though it has lost its white lower back and rump) rather than a giant form
of 2. flavipes, which it almost exactly resembles in colour. The fact that the young in
first plumage of 7. macularius so closely resembles the adult of its Palearctic analogue, is
strong evidence that the latter is the older form.

T. ochropus being the commonest of the four in India, was probably differentiated in
that country. The extraordinary abundance of 7. glareola in Ceylon suggests that island
as the birthplace of that species. 2. hypoleucus being the most abundant of the four in
Burma was probably isolated in that peninsula; whilst the range of 7. terekius being the
least westerly, the Malay Archipelago may have been the original home of that species.

TOTANUS. 349

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Of the twenty-eight generic names already enumerated as having been applied to
sections of this genus, six of them may perhaps be allowed to claim subgeneric rank, and
the species may be ranged under them as follows :—

Totanus.—T. glottis, T. fuscus, T. calidris, T. guttiferus, T. stagnatilis.

Machetes.—T. pugnax.

Symphemia.—T. semipalmatus.

Tringoides.—T. melanoleucus, T. flavipes, T. glareola, T. ochropus, T. solitarius,

T. terekius, T. hypoleucus, T. macularius.

Heteroscelus.—T. incanus, T. brevipes.

Bartramia.—Y. bartrami.

In forming a key to the species it is scarcely necessary to recognize more than two
groups. Subgenera are so very aggressive, that it is a pity to lose an opportunity of
snubbing them.

The first group contains the typical Zotani, which may always be distinguished by
their white lower backs, and the Heterosceli and Symphemia, which may be most easily
recognized by their uxbarred dark grey axillaries.

Secondaries white, barred with
fuscus

grey.

Secondaries nearly uniform ( calidris.
white.
Both sides of middle toe

semipalmatus . .
webbed at base.

guttiferus

glottis.

Wing less than 54 inches
from carpal joint.

stagnatilis.

mcanus - + * * \ tower back, rump, and upper

Nasal groove extending over J tail-coverts grey.

only the basal half of bill.

All these characters are found in the young in first plumage as well as in adults, and

are independent of season or sex.

brevipes

350 TOTANUS.,

‘The second group contains the species comprised in the subgenera Afachetes, Tringoides,
and Bartramia, none of which possess either of the characters which have been pointed
out as possessed by the species contained in the first group.

pugnax.
melanoleucus . - Bill 2 inches or more in length.
flavipes. . Central uppertail-coverts white,
with or without narrow bars.
glareola
ochropus ) Axillaries brown, narrowly
eae ae barred with white.
| solitarius .
Wing under 6 inches. <
terekius © Fighth and ninth secondaries
mostly white.
hypoleucus
Outer tail-feathers at least a
\ macularius - - . 5 _— sixth shorter than the
| longest.
bartrami . }

These characters are also all unaffected by age, sex, or season.

The two groups are very closely connected with each other. The almost white
secondaries of 7. calidris and 7. semipalmatus partially appear in 7. terekius and 7. hypo-
leucus. The dark axillaries narrowly barred with white of 7. ochropus and T. solitarius
are intermediate between the dark unbarred axillaries of 7. semipalmatus, T. incanus (and
its subspecific form 7. drevipes), and the broadly barred axillaries of 7. dartrami, which
lead on through the nearly white axillaries of 7. melanoleucus, T. flavipes, and T. glareola
to those of 7. glottis, 7. guttiferus, and T. calidris, which are sometimes quite white and
sometimes more or less barred with brown, and those of 7. fuscus, T. stagnatilis, T. terekius,
T. hypoleucus, T. macularius, and T. pugnazx, which are always white.

To split up such a homogeneous group of birds into half a dozen or more genera,
founded on trivial and obviously adaptive characters, appears to me to be childish. ‘To
place 7. guttiferus and 7. glottis in different genera because the former has a slight web
between the inner and middle toes, or to separate 7. glareola from 7. flavipes because there
is a slight difference in the comparative lengths of the middle toe and the tarsus, appears

TOTANUS. 351

to me to be not only puerile, but a violation of principle. The so-called structural cha-
racters are so obviously adaptive, and the similarity of colour so close, that it is impossible
to suppose that the former date as far back in the history of the species as the latter.

*.* Subgenus Toranorpes : Totanus aut dorso postico albo, aut aaillaribus nigricantibus.

j
‘inte File SN 1

TOTANUS FUSCUS.
DUSKY REDSHANK.

Toranvus dorso postico alho: secundariis albis, fusco fasciatis. Diagnosis.

No local races of this bird are known; examples from Japan do not differ from those found variations.

on our shores; nevertheless Brehm split it into three species.

Tringa totanus ruber, } Brisson, Orn. v. pp. 192, 277 (1760). Synonymy.

Limosa fusca,

Scolopax fusca, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 243 (1766) YS

Scolopax maculata, Tunstall, Orn. Brit. p. 3 (1771).

Scolopax atra, Sander, Naturforsch. xiii. p. 193 (1779).

Scolopax cantabrigiensis, Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl. i. p. 292 (1787).

1 The Scolopaw fusca of the tenth edition of the ‘ Systema Nature’ is another bird and becomes the Tantalus

fuscus of the twelfth edition.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Colour of
legs.

352 TOTANUS.

Scolopax nigra,

Scolopax curouica, nan Syst. Nat. i. pp. 659, 669, 673 (1788).
Tringa atra (Sand.),

Scolopax natans, Otto, Uebers. Buff. Vig. xxvi. p. 234 (1797).
Totanus maculatus (Tunstall),

Totanus fuscus (Linn.), \ neha, Orn. Taschenb. pp. 284, 286 (1803).
Totanus natans (Ofto),

Tringa longipes, Leisler, Nacht. Bechst. Naturg. Deutschl. ii. p. 189 (1813).
Totanus raii, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 31 (1816).
Erythroscelus fuscus (Linn.), Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 54 (1829).

Totanus ater (Sand.), Stejneger, Orn. Expl. Kamtsch. p. 129 (1885).

Piares.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 875; Gould, Birds of Great Brit. iv. pl. 55; Dresser, Birds of
Europe, viii. pl. 568. figs. 2, 3, pl. 569. fig. 1.

Hazits.—Seebohm, British Birds, in. p. 145.

Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 32. figs. 4, 5, 6.

The Dusky Redshank, frequently called the Spotted Redshank, is easily distinguished
in summer plumage by its slate-grey head, neck, mantle, and underparts. In winter
plumage its close relationship to the Greenshank (7. glottis) and the Redshank (@. calidris),
and to the other species of the genus, which, like it, have the dower back white, becomes
apparent. From these near allies it is most easily distinguished by the colour of its
secondaries, which are white, barred with grey on both webs.

The Dusky Redshank further resembles the Greenshank and the Marsh-Sandpiper
(7. stagnatilis) in having the rudiments of bars on its primaries.

The Dusky Redshank is not known with certainty to breed anywhere south of the
Arctic Circle, but on the tundras above the limit of forest-growth it breeds from Lapland
to Behring Straits, though nowhere very abundantly. It has not been recorded from
Greenland, Iceland, or the Faroes. On migration it passes in spring and autumn, not only
along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts (including those of Great Britain and Japau), but also
across country by most, if not all, of the well-known routes of migration. It winters in
the basin of the Mediterranean, and in various parts of Africa north of the Equator, and in
India, Burma, and China. It has also been said to have strayed during winter as far as
Ceylon, but the only record of its occurrence in the southern hemisphere is that of a single
example obtained by Layard in the Cape Colony.

Except during the two seasons of migration it can scarcely be regarded as a shore-bird.
Both at its breeding-grounds and in its winter-quarters it frequents marshes, swamps, and
the banks of rivers and lakes.

One of the most interesting facts connected with this species is the seasonal change
which takes place in the colour of its legs and feet; in summer they are dark purple-red,
but in winter they change to dull orange-yellow.

TOTANUS, 353

TOTANUS CALIDRIS.

COMMON REDSHANK.

Totanus dorso postico albo: secundariis feré omnind albis. Diagnosis.
No difference can be found between Atlantic and Pacific examples of this species. Variations.
Synonymy.

Scolopax totanus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 145 (1758).

Tringa totanus,

Tringa totanus sits rian, Orn. v. pp. 188, 196, 200 (1760).
Tringa totanus nevius,

Scolopax calidris,

Tringa comets, mew, Syst. Nat. i. pp. 245, 248 (1766).
Tringa striata,

Totanus calidris (Linn.), Bechstein, Orn. Taschenbd. ii. p. 284 (1803).

Gambetta calidris (Linn.), Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 54 (1829).

Puatrs.—Daub. Pl. Enl. nos. 827, 845; Gould, Birds of Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 54; Dresser, Birds of Literature.
Europe, viii. pl. 568. fig. 1, pl. 569. fig. 2.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 140.

iees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 32. figs. 1, 2, 3.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy,

354, TOTANUS

The Redshank is the only Zotanus which combines the two characters of lower back
white and secondaries nearly white.

The Redshank is one of the commonest and best known of all the Waders found in
the British Islands. It is a resident, frequenting almost all parts of the coasts in autumn
and winter, and retiring more or less inland in summer, at which season it is generally
distributed, though somewhat local. It breeds in all suitable districts in England, especially
in the low-lying eastern counties; and in Scotland it is even more numerous, extending to
the Hebrides, the Orkneys, and Shetland. In the latter islands it is, however, only
sparingly met with in the breeding-scason. It is a common bird in Ireland, frequenting
the mud-flats on the coast at low tide, but retiring inland to breed.

The geographical distribution of the Redshank is somewhat peculiar. It breeds in all
suitable localities throughout the whole of Europe as far west as Iceland and the Faroes,
but east of the White Sea its range gradually drops down to lat. 58° on the Ural Mountains.
In the basin of the Mediterranean it appears to be a resident both in South Europe and in
North Africa ; but to the rest of Africa it is a winter visitor to the Canary Islands and the
entire south coast of the continent. In Siberia its breeding-range only extends as far north
as lat. 55°, and appears to be confined to the mountains of Southern Siberia and Turkestan.
It breeds on the Caucasus, and probably on some of the Persian highlands. It passes
through Mongolia on migration; and winters in India, Ceylon, Burma, China, and the
islands of the Malay Archipelago, and has recently been recorded from Japan.

TOTANUS GUTTIFERUS.

ERMAN S SANDPIPER.

Toranus dorso postico axillaribusque albis: digito medio basi utrinque palmatis.

OnLy half a dozen examples of this very rare bird are known.

Totanus guttifer, Nordmann, Erman’s Reise um die Erde, p. 17 (1835).
Xenus guttifer (Nordm.), Lichtenstein, Nom. Av. Mus. Berol. p- 91 (1854).
Terekia guttifera (Nordm.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p- 597 (1856).
Totanus haughtoni, Armstrong, Stray Feathers, iv. p. 844 (1876).
Pseudototanus haughtoni (Armstr.), Hume, Stray Feathers, vi. p. 488 (1878).

TOTANUS. 355

Symphemia haughtoni (Armstr.), Harting, Ibis, 1883, p. 134.
Pseudototanus guttifer (Nordm.),

PisniloslotGaguttifer (Nordin’, * Steineger, Zeitschr. ges. Orn. 1884, p. 223.

Prates.—Hume and Marshall, Game Birds of India, iii. p. 403; Iarting, Ibis, 1883, pl. iv.; Literature.
Stejneger, Zeitschrift gesammte Orn. 1884, pl. x.

Hasirs.—Armstrong in Hume and Marshall’s Game Birds of India, iii. p. 403.

Eces.— Unknown.

Erman’s Sandpiper may always be distinguished from every other Zotanus except the Specific
Willet (Z. semipalmatus) by having the middle toe united at the base with both the other toes Shracters.
by a well-developed web}. Its white lower back and white azvillaries prevent its being
confused with the Willet, and prove its much closer relationship to the Greenshank.

Erman’s Sandpiper has been obtained in summer on the north-west shores of the Sea Geographi-
of Okhotsk, on the east coast of Kamtschatka, and on Behring Island. In winter it is ra
only known from Burma.

TOTANUS GLOETIS.
GREENSHANK.

Totanus dorso postico albo: secundariis canis, non fasciatis: alis longis (circa 180 millim.): Diagnosis.
palamé inter digitum medium et digitum internum carente.

’ Harting has given a woodcut of the foot of Erman’s Sandpiper in the ‘ Ibis’ for 1883, page 135.
222

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters,

356 TOTANUS.

Brenm splits the Greenshank into three species, but modern ornithologists are ignorant of
even a local race of this bird.

Scolopax glottis, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 146 (1758); Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 245 (1766).
Limosa grisea, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 267 (1760).

Scolopax nebularius, Gunner, Leem. Lapp. Beschr. p. 251 (1767).

Scolopax cineracea, Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl. i. p. 292 (1787).

Scolopax canescens, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 688 (1788).

Totanus glottis (Linn.), Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb. ii. p. 287 (1803).

FOunUS Nene, } Bechstein Natury. Deutschl. iv. pp. 241, 249 (1809).
Totanus griseus (Briss.), .

Totanus chloropus, Meyer, Taschend. ii. p. 371 (1810).

Glottis natans, Koch, Syst. baier. Zool. p. 305 (1316, nec Otto, 1797).

Limicula glottis (Linn.), Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 32 (1816).
Glottis chloropus (Meyer), Nilsson, Orn. Suecica, il. p. 57 (1821).

Limosa totanus (Linn.), apud Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 183 (1826).
Glottis nivigula, Hodgson, Gray’s Zvol. Miscell. ii. p. 36 (1831).

Totanus glottoides, Vigors, Proc. Zool. Suc. 1831, p. 173.

Limnos eae ake Sykes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1832, p. 168.

Totanus horsfieldii,

Glottis floridanus, Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. and N,. Amer. p. 51 (1883).
Glottis canescens (Gmel.),

Glottis vigorsii, i Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 99 (1844).
Glottis horsfieldi (Sykes),

Glottis glottis (Linn.), Lichtenstein, Nom. Av. Mus. Berol. p. 91 (1854).
Totanus canescens (Gmel.), Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1859, p. 169.

Totanus nebularius (Gunn.), Stejneger, Proc. U. States Nat. Mus. 1882, p. 37.

Prates.—Gould, Birds of Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 53; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 570.
Hasirs.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 149.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 29. figs. 1, 3, 4.

The Greenshank has a white lower back and nearly uniform grey secondaries. ‘Two
other species of the genus possess both these characters, the Marsh-Sandpiper (7. stagnatilis)
and Erman’s Sandpiper (Z. guttiferus). The former is most easily distinguished by its
small size, having a wing about 54 inches long, whilst the Greenshank has a wing about
seven inches long. The latter has shorter tarsi, under instead of over two inches, but is
most readily distinguished by the great development of the webs at the base of both sides
of the middle toe. In the Greenshank the wed is obsolete between the middle and inner toes.
It is difficult to say to which of these two species the Greenshank is most closely allied.

The Greenshank has not been recorded from Greenland, Iceland, or the Faroes ; but
it is a regular summer visitor to the Highlands of Scotland and the fells of Norway,

TOTANUS. 357

Sweden, and Lapland. In the valleys of the Petchora and the Obb it appears to breed
from lat. 60° to lat. 66°, which is probably its summer range throughout Siberia, as it only
passes through Lake Baikal and the valley of the Amoor on migration, and Middendorff
did not find it on the tundras, but only on the Stanovoi mountains. It passes along the
coasts of Europe and Eastern Asia, including those of Great Britain and Japan, on migration,
as well as along the recognized inland routes, and winters in the basin of the Mediterranean
and throughout Africa. I found it very common on the lagoons near the coast of Natal ;
and Bohm obtained it in Central Africa, near Lake Tanganyika (Journ. Orn. 1885, p. 66).
It also winters in India, Ceylon, Burma, China, the Malay Archipelago, and Australia. The
winter range of this species is very extended, stragglers having occurred on Mauritius,
Norfolk Island, in Chili, at Buenos Ayres, and in Florida.

The Greenshank frequents the sandy banks of rivers and lakes, and is especially fond
of feeding on the mud-flats at the estuaries of rivers during low tide.

TOTANUS STAGNATILIS.
MARSH-SANDPIP BR.

Toranvus dorso postico albo: secundariis canis, non fasciatis: magnitudine parva (ale circa 140

millim.).

Even Brehm was unable to find any local races of this species.

Totanus stagnatilis, Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb. ii. p. 292 (1803).

Glottis stagnatilis (Bechst.), Koch, Syst. baier. Zool. p. 306 (1816).
Totanus tenuirostris, Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 192 (1822).
Trynga guinetta, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 195 (1826).

lliornis stagnatilis (Bechst.), Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 156 (1829).
Limosa horsfieldii, Sykes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1882, p. 163.

Totanus lathami, Gray & Hardwicke, Ill. Ind. Zool. pl. 51 (1834).
Glottis horsfieldii (Sykes), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. ii. p. 99 (1844).

Jolenus Glee eee Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 573 (1846).
Totanus horsfieldii (Sykes),

Priares.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 37; Gray and Hardwicke, Ill. Ind. Orn. pl. 51. fig. 3;

Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 566.

Hasirs.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. p. 151.

Eces.—Thienemann, Abbild. Vogeleiern, pl. lxiv. figs. a, 14, le, 1d. They may be described
as miniature eggs of the Greenshank or Redshank.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

358 TOTANUS.

Specific The Marsh-Sandpiper has a «white lower back, rump, and central upper tail-coverts, and
ae nearly uniform grey secondaries, two characters which are only found combined in two
other species in the genus, the Greenshank (7. glottis) and Erman’s Sandpiper (7. guttiferus).
From these two species it is most easily distinguished by its much smaller size, the wing
from the carpal joint only measuring adout 54 caches instead of 7 or 8 inches.
Jerdon very appropriately calls it the Little Greenshank, and it may fairly be regarded
as a subarctic representative of its more arctic ally.
Geographi- The breeding-range of the Marsh-Sandpiper extends from the delta of the Rhone and
oo the valley of the Danube, through South Russia, North Persia, and Turkestan to Southern
Siberia. Further north it only occurs as an accidental straggler. An example has been
obtained on Heligoland, but it is not known to have visited the British Islands. It passes
on migration a still more extended range of country, from the coast of West Africa to the
coast of China, and winters throughout Africa, both on the coast and inland. Bohm
obtained it in Central Africa near Lake Tanganyika (Matschie, Journ. Orn. 1887, p. 138).
It also winters in India, Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, and Australia. It is said
to be a resident on the southern shores of the Caspian.
It frequents the banks of rivers and lakes, especially tidal flats.

TOTANUS SEMIPALMATUS.
WILLET.

Diagnosis. | Toranus primariis pro majore parte albis.

Variations. [ue Western form of the Willet is on an average a larger bird than the typical or Eastern
form, and may fairly be regarded as subspecifically distinct.

Synonymy. Scolopax semipalmata, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 659 (1788).
Totanus crassirostris, Vieillot, N. Dict. @’ list. Nat. vi. p- 406 (1816),
Symphemia atlantica, Rafinesque, Journ. Phys. Ixxxviii. p. 417 (1819).
Glottis semipalmata (Gmel.), Nilsson, Orn. Suecica, ii. p. 55 (1821).
Totanus (Catoptrophorus) semipalmatus (Gmel.), Bonap. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. New York, ii.
p. 328 (1826).
Hodites semipalmatus (Gmei.), Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p- 155 (1829).
Symphemia semipalmata (Gmel.), Hartlaub, Rev. Zool. 1845, p. 342.
Catoptrophorus semipalmatus (Gmel.),

Catoptrophorus crassirostris (Vieillot), } Bonap - Compt. Rend, xliii. p. 596 (1856).

TOTANUS, 359

Prares.— Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 56. fig. 3; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 347.
Hanirs.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 285.

Eces.—Thienemann, Abbild. Vogeleiern, pl. lxiv. fig. 1. In their earthy-brown shade of colour
they somewhat resemble the eggs of the Ruff,

The Willet may most easily be diagnosed by the colour of its primaries, which are
pure white for about the basal two-thirds. Its dark brown axillaries also distinguish it from
all its congeners except from 7. ivcanus and T. brevipes, which are only half its weight.
The fact that both its outer and inner toes are united to the middle toe by a web at the base
also distinguishes it from all its allies except from 7. guttiferus, which has white axillaries.

The Willet has a very extensive range on the American continent, breeding as far
north as lat. 56° in the North-West Territory, and as far south as Texas. To Canada and
the Northern States it is only a summer visitor; but it is said to be a resident in the
Southern States, and a few are said to remain to breed in the West-Indian islands. It
passes along the coasts of Mexico, Central America, and Trinidad on migration, and
possibly crosses the tropics to winter on the Pampas 1, but the evidence of this alleged fact
is not very clear. It has once occurred on the Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 477) ;
and has been included in the list of European birds on the faith of a skin in the Stockholm
Museum said to have been killed in Upland, but the authenticity of which is very doubtful
(Nilsson, Skandinavisk Fauna, Foglarna, 1858 ed., ii. p. 211).

TOTANUS SEMIPALMATUS SPECULIFERUS.
WESTERN WILLET.

ToOTANUS SEMIPALMATUS Magnitudine majore.

Tue Eastern and Western forms of the Willet completely intergrade.

Totanus speculiferus, Cuvier, Réegne An. i. p. 5381 (1829).
Symphemia speculifera (Cuvier), Sclater, Ibis, 1862, p. 199.
Symphemia semipalmata inornata, Brewster, Auk, 1887, p. 145.

1 Brewer's statement (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 286) that the Willet
“occurs throughout Central and South America, as far south as the Pampas, where it breeds in large numbers,’

is very interesting and remarkable if true, but it has possibly crept in by mistake, and probably refers to some
other species,

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Diaguosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Subspecific
characters.

Diagnosis.

Variations,

Synonymy.

360 TOTANUS.

Pratrs.—Swainson & Richardson, Faun. Bor.-Amer., Birds, pl. 67.

Hasirs.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 285.

Eces.—American ornithologists do not appear to have discriminated between the eggs of the
two forms of Willet.

To Mr. George Cavendish Taylor belongs the credit of having discovered that there
are two forms of the Willet. He observed them both in considerable numbers on the east
coast of Florida, and remarked that they never intermixed. It is supposed that the larger
form breeds in the Pacific States from the source of the Saskatchewan to California, and
winters in the Gulf of Mexico and the neighbouring coasts. It is on an average a larger
bird than the Eastern form, as the following dimensions prove :—

T. semipalmatus. T. speculiferus.
Length of wing from carpal joint. . . 7:0 to &1 7-9 to 8-6
Length of farste . . « «© + « ¥ » BO to 26 2°2 to 2-9
Length of bill from frontal feathers . . 2°0 to 2°5 2°3 to 2-7

Brewster says that the plumage also differs slightly in colour; but in the examples
which I have examined I can see no difference that is not attributable to age or season.

TOTANUS INCANUS.
AMERICAN WANDERING TATTLER.

Toranvs axillaribus nigricantibus : remigibus haud albo notatis.

Astatic examples of this species may fairly be regarded as subspecifically distinct.
Ornithologists who set an extravagant value on so-called structural characters would
doubtless place them in a different genus.

Scolopax incana, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. 1. p. 658 (1788).

Totanus pedestris, Lesson, Traité d’ Orn. p. 552 (1831, partim).
Totanus fuliginosus, Gould, Zool. Voy. ‘Beagle,’ Birds, p. 130 (1841).
Scolopax undulata, ’

- : ;
Sévlepax: pacihieds Reehiensiein, Forster’s Descr. Anim. It. Mar. Austr. p. 173 (1844).

TOTANUS. 361

Totanus oceanicus, Lesson, Compl. Gtuvr. Buffon, p. 244 (1847).

Totanus polynesiz, Peale, Zool. U. States Exploring Exp. 1838-42, Birds, p. 237 (1848).
Gambetta fuliginosa (Gould),
Gambetta oceania (Lesson),
Totanus undulatus (Licht.), Verreaux, Rev. Mag. Zool. 1860, p. 457.
Heteractitis incanus (Gmel.), Stejneger, Orn. Expl. Kamtsch. p. 132 (1885).

} Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 597 (1856).

Purates.—Baird, Cassin, & Lawrence, Birds N. Amer. pl. Ixxxviii.
Hasirs.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 290.
Eecs—Unknown.

The Wandering Tattlers differ from all their congeners, except from the Willet
(7. senipalmatus), in having dark grey axillaries without any bars across them. ‘The fotal
absence of white on the quills easily distinguishes them from their larger ally. From each
other they, are not always easy to distinguish, though some of the differences are what are
called structural.

The American Wandering Tattler breeds in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, and
passes along the coast of California and the Galapagos Islands (Dr. Habel, Trans. Zool.
Soc. ix. p. 503) to winter in the Polynesian Islands. According to Stejneger both forms
occur on Behring Island.

I have examples from the Fiji, the Samoa, and the Society Islands, and have also
examined three examples brought by Mr. Young from the latter; but as the two forms have
been confused by the majority of ornithologists it is impossible, in most cases, to tell to
which the records apply.

I have not seen young in first plumage of the American form of this species ; but in
winter the breast, flanks, and axillaries are greyish brown, a little paler than the upper
parts, and the rest of the underparts are white.

TOTANUS INCANUS BREVIPES.
ASTATIC WANDERING TATTLER.

Toranus INcANUvs tarso postico scutellato: narium sulcis non nisi rostri dimidio extendentibus.

Tux two forms of this species appear to me completely to intergrade.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecifie
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

362 TOTANUS.

Totanus brevipes, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. vi. p. 410 (1817).

Totanus pedestris, Lesson, Traitéd d’ Orn. p. 552 (1831, partim).

Totanus pulverulentus, Miiller, Nat. Verh. p. 152 (1844).

Totanus griseopygius, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1848, p. 39.

Gambetta pulverulenta (Miill.),

Gambetta griseopyga (Gould), | ap. Compt. Rend. xliti. p. 597 (1856).

Gambetta brevipes (Vieillot),

Heteroscelus brevipes (Vieill.), Baird, Cassin, & Lawrence, Birds N. Amer. p. 734 (1858, partim).
Actitis pulverulentus (Miill.), Dybowski, Parrex, Journ. Orn. 1868, p. 337.

Heteractitis brevipes (Vieill.), Stejneger, Orn. Expl. Kamtsch. p. 137 (1885).

Prates.—Temm. & Schlegel, Fauna Japon., Aves, pl. 65; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 38.
Hasits.—Stejn. Orn. Explor. Kamtsch. p. 187; Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 268.
Eees.— Unknown.

The differences between the Asiatic Wandering Tattler and its American ally are
as follows :—

T. brevipes.

Tarsus scutellated at the back.

Nasal groove extending over only half
the bill.

Belly and under tail-coverts pure white
both in summer and winter.

Length of wing from carpal joint 6:1
to 6:6 inch.

T. incanus.

Tarsus reticulated at the back.

Nasal groove extending along two thirds
of bill.

In summer plumage the bars on the
breast and flanks extending also to
the belly and under tail-coverts.

Length of wing from carpal joint 6-4
to 7-1 inch.

Young in first plumage have white marginal spots emphasized by dark submarginal
spots on all the wing-coverts and tertials, and on the scapulars, upper tail-coverts, and tail-
feathers; and obscure bars on the throat, breast, and flanks.

The Asiatic Wandering Tattler breeds in Eastern Siberia from Lake Baikal to
Kamtschatka, and passes along the coasts of Japan, China, Formosa, and the Philippine
Islands, to winter in the islands of the Malay Archipelago and Australia.

I have examples collected by Finsch on Duke of York Island, one of the islands
of the Bismark Archipelago, between New Ireland and New Britain.

TOTANUS. 363

* * Subgenus Trincotpes: ‘Totanus dorso postico et interscapulio concoloribus ; avillaribus
aut omnino albis aut albis brunneo notatis.

TOTANUS MELANOLEUCUS.
GREATER YELLOWSHANK.

Toranus dorso postico et interscapulio feré concoloribus: supracaudalibus pro majore parte Diagnosis.
albis: magnitudine media (ale 185 ad 200 millim.).

Tr is not known that Eastern and Western examples of this species differ in any respect. —_Variations.

Scolopax melanoleuca, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 659 (1788). Synonymy.
Scolopax vociferus, Wilson, Am. Orn, vii. p. 57 (1818).
Totanus melanoleucus (Gmel.),

Totanus vociferus (Wilson), fr N, Dict. d Hist. Nat. vi. pp. 398, 401, 412 (1816).
Totanus sasashew,

Gambetta melanoleuca (Gmel.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 597 (1856).
Totanus chilensis, Philippi, Wiegm. Archiv, 1857, pt. 1. p. 264.

Prares.— Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 58. fig. 5; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 345. Literature,
Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 269.
Eecs.— Unknown.

The Greater Yellowshank has the lower back nearly the same colour as the mantle, but Specitic
the predominant colour of the upper tail-coverts is white. Wing more than 7 inches from ee
carpal joint is a sufficient character to distinguish it from the allied species which also
possess the other characters.

The Greater Yellowshank undoubtedly breeds from the south of Alaska to Labrador, oe
but we have no authentic account of the discovery of its eggs. It passes through the tion,
United States, the Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 477), and the West Indies on
migration, a few remaining to winter in the Southern States, but the greater number
passing further south to winter on the South-American coasts, where it has occurred in
Venezuela (Berlepsch, Ibis, 1884, p. 441), Trinidad and Colombia (Salmon, Proc. Zool.

Soc. 1879, p. 547), north of the equator. From the west I have an example obtained by

3A 2

Diagnosis,

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

364 TOTANUS.

Buckley in Ecuador, and several collected by Whitely in Central Peru. Mr. Berkeley James
procured it on the confines of Peru and Chili (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1886, p. 404), and
I have several examples collected by Read at Santiago. On the east coast it occurs as far
south as Buenos Ayres ; I have an example from Colonia procured by Capt. Harrison, who
states that it was very abundant.

TOTANUS FLAVIPES.
YELLOW-LEGGED SANDPIPER.

Toranus dorso postico et interscapulio feré concoloribus : supracaudalibus pro majore parte albis :
axillaribus albis parcé brunneo notatis: magnitudine medida (ale 150 ad 175 millim.).

Eastern and Western examples appear to be identical.

Scolopax flavipes, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 659 (1788).
Totanus natator,

Totanus fuscocapillus, } Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. vi. pp. 400, 409, 410 (1816).
Totanus flavipes (Gmel.),

Gambetta flavipes (Gmel.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xiii. p. 597 (1856).

Totanus leucopyga, Iiliger, fide Giebel, Thes. Orn. ii. p. 645 (1877).

Prares.— Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 58. fig. 4; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 344.
Hasirs.— Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 273.
Eecs.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 82. fig. 8.

The Yellow-legged Sandpiper or Yellowshank is one of four species of Zotanus which
have the ower back nearly the same colour as the mantle, but the predominant colour of the
upper tail-coverts is white. From T. ochropus it is easily distinguished by the colour of its
azillaries and under wing-coverts, which are white, sparingly marked with brown instead of
brown narrowly barred with white. From its two nearest allies it scarcely differs except
in size.

Wing. Culmen. Tarsus.
T. melanoleucus . . . . 74 to 8-0 2'0 to 2°4 2°3 to 2°7
T. flavipes. « « . « « 614067 1:3 to 1:6 2°0 to 2°2

T. glarela. . . . . . 45to 51 1:0 to 1:2 1:3 to 1:6

TOTANUS. 365

The geographical distribution of the Yellowshank is almost exactly the same as that of
its larger ally; but its breeding-range extends somewhat further north, from the valley of
the Yukon, in Alaska, to Greenland, and its winter range somewhat further south, to North
Patagonia.

On migration it passes the Bermudas in large flocks (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, -p. 478)
and has occurred on the British Islands.

It passes through the West Indies and the island of Trinidad on migration. Salmon
obtained it in Colombia (Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1879, p. 547); Fraser obtained
it in Ecuador (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 290); and I have examples collected by
Whitely in Peru, and by Reed near Valparaiso in Chili. I have an example procured by
Goering in Venezuela; Wallace obtained it at the mouth of the Amazon (Sclater & Salvin,
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 592); and it is common on the shores of the La Plata, near
Buenos Ayres (Durnford, Ibis, 1876, p. 165), and in the Chupat valley in North Patagonia,
which is probably the southern limit of its winter range (Durnford, Ibis, 1877, p. 43).

TOTANUS GLAREOLA.

WOOD-SANDPIPER.

Toranus dorso postico et interscapulio feré concoloribus, supracaudalibus axillaribusque pro majore
parte albis : magnitudine parva (ale 115 ad 130 millim.).

Exampxes from Holland appear to be identical with those from Japan.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest ally.

366 TOTANUS.

Tringa glareola, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 149 (1758) ; Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 677 (1788).

Tringa ochropus, £. glareola, Linneus, Syst. Nat. 1. p. 250 (1766).

Tringa grallatoris, Montagu, Orn. Dict. Suppl. App. S (1813).

Totanus glareola (Linn.), Temminck, Man. d’ Orn. p. 421 (1815).

Totanus affinis, Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 191 (1822).

Totanus grallatoris (Mont.), Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xii. pt. i. p. 148 (1824).
Rhyacophilus glareola (Linn.), Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 140 (1829).

Actitis glareola (Linn.), Blyth, Cat. Birds Mus. As. Soc. p. 267 (1849).

Totanus glareoloides, Hodgson, fide Jerdon, B. India, iii. p. 697 (1864).

Prates.—Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 57; Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 565.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, ii. p. 132.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 30. figs. 4, 5, 6.

The Wood-Sandpiper has the Jower back nearly the same colour as the mantle, and the
predominant colour of the upper tail-coverts, aaillaries, and under wing-coverts is white.
This diagnosis is sufficient to distinguish it from all its congeners except from its two
nearest allies, both of which are larger birds, as may be seen in the table of dimensions

already given.

The Wood-Sandpiper has a very extensive breeding-range. It has occurred in the

Faroes, and may be regarded as a somewhat
irregular visitor on spring and autumn migration
to the British Islands, on very rare occasions
remaining to breed. It is a summer visitor to
the whole of Europe north of the valley of the
Danube, and to Siberia, Turkestan, Mongolia, and
the extreme north of China. It probably breeds
as far north as land extends, as Middendorff found
its nest in lat. 70° on the Taimyr peninsula.
It winters in the basin of the Mediterranean, and
in suitable localities throughout Africa. In Asia it
winters in Persia, Beloochistan, India, Ceylon, the

Burma peninsula, and the islands of the Malay Archipelago, but only passes through Japan

and South China on migration.

On the American continent it is represented by a close ally, Zotanus flavipes.

TOTANUS. 367

TOTANUS SOLITARIUS.

SOLITARY SANDPIPER.

Toranus axillaribus invicem albo brunneoque fasciatis: supracaudalibus centralibus brunneis : Diagnosis.
primariis haud fasciatis.

Eastern and Western examples of this species appear to be identical. Variations.

Tringa solitaria, Wilson, Am. Orn. vii. p. 58 (1818). Synonymy.

Totanus chloropygius,) ,,. . : ae :
Taknspunetitus, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. vi. pp. 401, 411 (1816).

Totanus caligatus, Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 74 (1828).

Tringa macroptera, Spiz, Av. Bras. ii. p. 76 (1825).

Rhyacophilus chloropygius (Vieill.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 597 (1856).
Rhyacophilus solitarius (Wilson), Baird, Cassin, & Lawrence, B. N. Amer. p. 733 (1860).

Puiates.— Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 58. fig. 3; Audubon, Birds Am. vy. pl. 343. Literature,
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 130.
Ececs.—Unknown. (The egg described from Vermont (Brewer, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, 1878,

p. 197) is so small that it is probably that of a Spotted Sandpiper.)

The Solitary Sandpiper has azillaries alternately barred with white and brown; the Specific
central upper tail-coverts are brown like the rump and back, but there are no traces of bars SiNTacters
on the primaries. No other Zotanus fulfils all these conditions. It is unquestionably the
American representative of the Green Sandpiper (Z. ochropus).

The Solitary Sandpiper is found during the breeding-season on the American continent Geographi-
as far south as lat. 44°, and northwards up to the limit of forest-growth, which in the west Coad
extends beyond the Arctic Circle, but in the east not nearly so far north. On migration it
passes through most of the United States, though many cross the ocean by way of the
Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1677, p. 478), whence it may easily be carried to our coasts
by storms or contrary winds. In Mexico, Central America, Trinidad, and the West Indies
it probably only occurs on migration, but it winters in South America. I have an example
collected by Goering in Venezuela; Wallace found it at the mouth of the Amazon (Sclater

& Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 592); Rohde obtained it in Paraguay (Berlepsch,

368 TOTANUS.

Journ. Orn. 1887, p. 87); and I have an example collected by Capt. Harrison at Colonia,
near Buenos Ayres. I have several examples collected by Bartlett on the Peruvian
Amazons (Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1873, p. 309), but I can find no record of its
occurrence in Chili.

A
W CE

TOTANUS OCHROPUS.

GREEN SANDPIPER.

Diagnosis. Toranus supracaudalibus albis: axillaribus brunneis, angusté albo fasciatis.
Variations. Exampies from Pomerania do not appear to differ from those from Japan.

Synonymy. Tringa ocrophus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 149 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 250 (1766).
Tringa tringa, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 177, pl. xvi. fig. 1 (1760).
Totanus ochropus (Linn.), Temminck, Man. d@’ Orn. p. 420 (1815).
Helodromas ochropus (Linn.), Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 144 (1829).
Actitis ochropus (Linn.), Blyth, Cat. Birds Mus. As. Soc. p. 267 (1849).
Rhyacophilus ochropus (Linn.), Ridgway, Proc. United States Nat. Mus. iii. p. 200 (1880).

TOTANUS., 369

Puates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 843; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 56; Dresser, Birds of Europe,
viii. pl. 564.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 126.

Eaes.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 30. figs. 1, 2, 3.

Literature,

The Green Sandpiper has white upper tail-coverts and brown avxillaries narrowly barred Specific
with white. No other Zotanus combines both these characters. Onthe American continent °22™2¢te'®
it is represented by Z. solitarius, which scarcely differs from it except that the central
upper tail-coverts are dark like the rump.

The breeding-range of the Green Sandpiper reaches from the Atlantic to the Pacific, Geographi-

in the west extending somewhat north of the Arctic Circle, but in the east scarcely reaching oo
that latitude. It.is not known that this bird is more than a spring and autumn visitor to
the British Islands, the north of France, Holland, Belgium, or Western Germany; but it
has been recorded as breeding in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathians, and the Caucasus.
Further east the southern limit of its breeding-range appears to be Turkestan and the
mountains of Southern Siberia. It has been said to breed in Japan and North China;
but the evidence of this is very unsatisfactory, although it certainly winters in both those
countries, as well as in Cochin China, Burma, India, Ceylon, and westwards, in suitable
localities, throughout Persia, South Europe, and the whole of Africa.

Its alleged occurrence in Nova Scotia (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Water-Birds
N. Amer. 1. p. 282) is supported by entirely untrustworthy evidence.

The Green Sandpiper has been removed from the genus Zotanus and placed in a Pseudo-
genus of its own on the ground that it has only one posterior emargination on each side of 8°7°T
the keel of the sternum. It is very unfortunate that this heresy should have received the .
sanction of the ‘Ibis List.’ It is impossible to suppose that this character can be of any
generic value in this group. As Messrs. A. and E. Newton very justly observe (Phil.

Trans. Royal Soc. 1869, p. 837), “In the Limicole . . . a very great diversity of
conformation of the posterior margin of the sternum exists, even among forms which are,
both in general habits and outward structure, very closely allied.”

TOTANUS TEREKIUS.
TEREK SANDPIPER.

Toranus primariis uropygioque haud albo notatis : secundariis pro majore parte albis : axillaribus Diagnosis.

omnino albis.

No local races of this species are known. ‘Venabionee

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific cha-
racters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

370 TOTANUS.

Scolopax cinerea, Giildenstadt, Nov. Comm. Petrop. xix. p. £73 (1774).

Scolopax terek, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 724 (1790).

Totanus javanicus, Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 193 (1820).

Scolopax sumatrana, Raffles, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 327 (1822).

Numenius cinereus (Giild.), Vieillot, Encycl. Méth., Orn. p. 1157 (1823).

Limosa terek (Lath.), Temminck fide Horsfield, Zool. Researches in Java, Gen. Cat. p. 7 (1824).
Fedoa terekensis, Stephens, Shaw's Gen. Zool. xii. p. 83 (1824).

Limicola terek (Lath.), Vieillot, Faun. Frang. p. 306 (1825).

Limosa recurvirostra, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 181 (1826).

Xenus cinereus (Giild.), Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 115 (1829).

aan an ry + Lesson, Traité d’Orn. p. 55-4 (1831).

Terekia javanica (Horsfield), Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 52 (1838).
Simorhynchus cinerea (Giild.), Keyserling u. Blasius, Wirb. Eur. p. \xxiv (1840).
Terekia javanica (Horsfield), Gray, List Gen. Birds, p. 68 (1840).

Terekia cinerea (Giild.), Gray, List Gen. & Sudgen. Birds, p. 83 (1841).

Xenus terek (Lath.), Lichtenstein, Nomencl. Av. Mus. Berol. p. 91 (1854).
Totanus cinereus (Giild.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Scolop. p. 77 (1864).

Totanus terek (Lath.), Schlegel & Pollen, Faune Maday. ii. p. 172 (1868).

Prares.—-Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 34; Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 572.
Hasits.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, vill. p. 195.
Eces, described by Dresser on p. 200 of the above-mentioned volume.

The Terek Sandpiper may be diagnosed by three characters: xo white on the primaries
or rump, a great deal of white on the secondaries, and nothing but white on the azillaries.

It appears to be an Arctic form of the Common Sandpiper (7' Aypoleucus), though its
recurved bill resembles that of the Greenshank.

The Terek Sandpiper is an Arctic species, breeding in the north of Europe and Asia
from lat. 66° to lat. 70°. It is not known to breed west of Archangel, but its breeding-
range probably extends to the Pacific, as it has been obtained on Behring Island. ‘!’o
Western Europe it is only an accidental visitor on migration, but it is occasionally found in
winter in Africa, where it has occurred in Damara-Land, Natal, and the shores of the Red
Sea. The main line of migration in autumn in the west is up the valleys of the Dwina and
the Petchora to the Volga, whence it follows the Caspian to the south coast of Asia. In
the east it occurs on migration on the coasts of Japan and China, and winters on all the
southern coasts of Asia, frequently visiting the islands of the Malay Archipelago, and
occasionally Australia.

TOTANUS. 371

TOTANUS HYPOLEUCUS.
COMMON SANDPIPER.

Totanvs axillaribus albis: secundariarum octavaé nondque pro majore parte albis: primariarum Diagnosis.
plurimis albo notatis: supracaudalibus uropygioque haud albo notatis.

No local races of this species are known. Variations.

Tringa hypoleucos, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 149 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 250 (1766). Synonymy,
Tringa guinetta, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 183 (1760).

Actitis hypoleucos (Linn.), liliger, Prodromus, p. 262 (1811).

Totanus hypoleucos (Linn.), Temminck, Man. d’ Orn. p. 424 (1815).

Totanus guinetta (Briss.), Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 30 (1816).
Trynga leucoptera, Pallas, Zcogr. Rosso-Asiat. 11. p. 196 (1826).

Tringoides hypoleucus (Linn.), Bonap. Sagg. Distrib. Metod. p. 58 (1831).
Guinetta hypoleuca (Linn.), Gray, List Gen. B. p. 68 (1840).

Actitis empusa, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 222.

Actitis schlegeli, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 597 (1856).

Tringoides empusa (Gould), Sclater, Journ. Proc. Linn. Soc. ii. p. 170 (1858).
Totanus empusa (Gould), Gray, Cat. Birds N. Guinea, p. 52 (1859).

Pratus.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 850; Gculd, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 58; Dresser, Birds of Europe, Literature.
vill. pl. 563.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iti. p. 117.

Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 30. figs. 7, 8, 9.

—_—

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Diaguosis.

Variations,

372 TOTANUS.

The Common Sandpiper and its American ally combine the characters of wihzte
axillaries, large patches of white on most of the primaries and secondaries, but no whate
on the rump or upper tail-coverts. In breeding-plumage the American bird has the under-
parts conspicuously spotted, but young in first plumage, and possibly both young and
adult in winter plumage, resemble the European form in having no spots on the under-
parts. To distinguish the two species at all ages and seasons it is necessary to examine

the secondaries.

T. hypoleucus. T. macularius.
Eighth and ninth secondaries nearly Fighth and ninth secondaries with a
white. broad brown band across both webs.

The Common Sandpiper is an extremely numerous species, and has a very extensive
range, reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It breeds throughout Scandinavia, but in
North Russia and Siberia it is not found north of the Arctic Circle. It breeds in suitable
localities throughout Europe, including the British Islands; and in Asia as far south as
Turkestan (and possibly Persia), Cashmere, China, and Japan. A few remain all the year
round in the basin of the Mediterranean, but its principal winter-quarters are throughout
Africa in suitable localities: I found it common on rivers of Natal, both at Colenso about
500 feet above the sea, and on the shores of the lagoons at the mouth of the Umgeni river,
as well as amongst the mangroves in Durban Bay. It also winters in India, Ceylon,
Burma, the islands of the Malay Archipelago, the coasts of New Guinea and Australia, and
is said to be generally distributed in the Solomon Islands (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1869,
p- 124). It has been found during the breeding-season in Teneriffe and North-east Africa,
but in neither of these localities have its eggs been obtained.

TOTANUS MACULARIUS.
SPOTTED SANDPIPER.

Toranus axillaribus albis: secundariarum octave noneque pogoniis ambobus strigA brunnea lata
notatis : supracaudalibus uropygioque haud albo notatis.

No local races of this species are known.

TOTANUS. 373

Tringa turdus aquaticus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 255 (1760).

Tringa macularia, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 249 (1766).

Totanus macularius (Linn.), Temminck, Man. d’ Orn. p. 422 (1815).

Actitis macularius (Linn.), Boie, Isis, 1826, p. 979.

Tringoides macularia (Linn.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 574 (1846).

Tringites macularius (Linn.), Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1873, p. 309.

Tringoides hypoleucos, var, macularius (Linn.), Ridgway, Ann. Lyc. New York, x. 1874, p. 384,

Prates.—Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 59. fig. 1; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 342.
Hasirs.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 122.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 30. figs. 10, 11, 12.

The Spotted Sandpiper differs from its very close ally the Common Sandpiper
(Z. hypoleucus) in the particulars already pointed out.

The Spotted Sandpiper has a very similar range in America to that of the Common
Sandpiper in the Old World. In the north it does not quite reach the Arctic Circle, but
it breeds throughout the United States of America, migrating southwards in autumn to
winter in Mexico, the West Indies, Central America, and the northern portion of the
South-American continent. It visits the Bermudas in considerable numbers, some of
which remain during the winter (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 478), so that its accidental
occurrence in our islands might reasonably be expected. It has been said to have occurred
on the continent of Europe; but the evidence in support of this statement is not very
satisfactory, though there cannot be much doubt that it occasionally visits the British
Islands.

TOTANUS PUGNAX.
RUFF.

Toranvs axillaribus albis: primariis, secundariis et supracaudalibus centralibus haud albo notatis.

No bird is subject to such extraordinary variations of colour as the Ruff, but none of them
appear to have any geographical significance. ‘The parts which vary in colour are first the

ruff, second the breast and flanks, and third the ground-colour of the upper parts. ‘The
colours which these parts assume may be white, chestnut, or bronzy black. Each of these

Synonymy.

Literature.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

374 TOTANUS.

three parts may be either of the colours named, except that the breast and flanks are
never white, but the ruff when black may be barred with either white or chestnut.

The Ruff is the only polygamous bird amongst the Charadriide, and the females are
said greatly to outnumber the males. Under these circumstances it is possible that the
wonderful variation of colour may be due to Sexual Selection, but why similar variations
are not produced in other polygamous species it is not easy to explain.

The remarkable variation of colour may possibly have been caused by interbreeding.
It is reasonable to imagine that the Ruff became isolated in half a dozen localities at some
period of its life, where it became partially differentiated into half a dozen species, which
subseqnently met and by interbreeding with each other produced the variety of plumage
we now find. It is possible that the Ruff may be an instance of the swamping effect on
unimportant variations of interbreeding, in the process of being accomplished, not as it
usually takes place, by nipping them in the bud as they arise, but, having been prevented
by isolation from so doing, coming in at the last moment and crushing them before the
differentiation had become complete and rendered them permanent.

But unfortunately for this theory the aberrant character of the Ruff consists much in
the variety of its colours, but more in the development of the feathers of the neck into a
ruff and the production of tubercles on the sides of the head. The fact that both these
peculiarities are only found during the breeding-season and are confined to the male,
coupled with the polygamous habits of the bird, seems to confirm the other theory that the
eccentricities of the Ruff are due to sexual selection.

Tringa pugnax, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 148 (1758) ; Brisson, Orn. v. p. 240 (1760) ; Linn. Syst.
Nat. i. p. 251 (1766).

Tringa totanus cinereus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 203 (1760, winter plumage).

Tringa littorea, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 251 (1766, winter plumage).

Tringa grenovicensis, Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl. i. p. 293 (1787).

Pavoncella pugnax (Linn.), Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 29 (1816).

Totanus pugnax (Linn.), Nilsson, Orn, Suec. ii. p. 71 (1817).

Machetes pugnax (Linn.), Cuvier, Regn. An. i. p. 490 (1817).

Totanus indica, r &

Limon inecaenad Gray, Hl. Ind. Zool. ii. pl. 52. figs. 1, 2 (1834).

Philomachus pugnax (Lian.), Gray, List Gen. B. p. 89 (1841).

Machetes optatus, Hodyson, Gray’s Zoul. Miscell. p. 86 (1844).

Prates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. nos. 300, 305, 806 ; Gould, Birds of Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 61.
Haxirs.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p- 1138.
Eces.—Secbohm, British Birds, pl. 29. figs. 6, 7, 9.

TOTANUS. 375

The Ruff is a very remarkable bird, having a fringe of Jong feathers round the neck
during the breeding-season. Immature birds and both sexes in either summer or winter
plumage may be diagnosed as having white azillaries, but no white on the primaries,
secondaries, or central upper tail-coverts.

The Ruff is a rare summer migrant to the British Islands, a few pairs still occasionally
breeding in the Norfolk broads; but it is more abundant on spring and autumn migration.
Formerly it bred in great numbers in most of the marshy districts of England, from
Northumberland southwards. In Scotland and Ireland it occurs regularly on migration,
and it is occasionally seen on the Orkneys and on Shetland.

The Ruff is a west Palwarctic species, breeding as far north as land extends, as far
south as the valley of the Danube and the Kirghiz Steppes, and as far east as the Taimyr

Peninsula and West Dauria, where it reaches to and probably breeds in the upper valley of
the Amoor. It passes through the basins of the Mediterranean, Black, Caspian, and Aral
Seas on migration, and winters in suitable localities in every part of Africa, Northern India,
and Burma. Like many other Waders, it occasionally straggles far and wide during
winter. A single example has occurred in Ceylon, and another on the north island of
Japan, whilst others have been obtained in the United States of America (Maine, Massa-
chusetts, New York, and Ohio), and in Spanish Guiana. Pallas stated that it was not
rare in Kamtschatka ; but subsequent travellers have failed to meet with it, though two
examples have recently been obtained on Behring Island (Stejneger, Orn. Expl. Comm. Isl.
and Kamtschatka, p. 317).

The Ruff is undoubtedly a very aberrant species of the genus Zofanus, but there is no
reason to suppose that its eccentricities date further back than the peculiarities of its allies.
‘The coincidence that it has only two instead of four notches on the posterior margin of
its sternum is probably the reason why the genus Machetes still survives in quarters where
the new-born zeal to recognize anatomical characters is not yet tempered with discretion.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Pseudo-
genera.

Excess of
females.

Variation in
plumage.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

376 TOTANUS.

There can be no doubt that the number of females greatly exceeds that of the males.
Naumann, who was by far the most accurate observer of birds who has recorded the results
of his observations, estimated (Naturg. Vogel Deutschlands, vii. p. 544) that there were
three females to one male during the breeding-season ; and Andersson, who met with the
Ruff in its winter-quarters in South Africa, remarks (Birds of Damara-Land, p. 305) that
the flocks generally consisted of from three to a dozen birds, all females, with perhaps now
and then a male. It is very remarkable that so acute an observer as Darwin should have
arrived (Descent of Man, i. p. 306) at the opposite conclusion, because more male than
female Ruffs are sent to market. In Montagu’s excellent account of the habits of the
Ruff (Orn. Dict. 2nd ed. p. 444) the facts are stated accurately. In spring the nets are
spread on the places where the male Ruffs assemble to fight, and consequently very few
Reeves are caught. In autumn, when the birds are caught on migration, it is expressly
stated that “few old males are taken.” ‘The Ruff is so much larger, at least a third, than
the Reeve that even after the autumn moult they are easily distinguished. It is possible
that the number of Ruffs born may equal that of the Reeves, and that the former may be
lessened by the constant fights occurring between them, but I know of no evidence that
such is the case.

The extraordinary variation in the plumage of the Ruff might be quoted as an
instance of the worthlessness of colour as a generic or subgeneric character, were it not for
the fact that even in the Ruff, which varies more in colour than any other bird, there are
some parts which scarcely vary at all with age, sex, or season. ‘These are the quills, lesser
wing-coverts, primary-coverts, lower back, ramp, under wing-coverts, axillaries, the centre
of the belly, the under tail-coverts, and the four outer tail-feathers on each side. On the
whole, therefore, we may claim that the evidence of the Ruff is in favour of the value of
colour as a subgeneric character, and of the highest importance in pointing out the parts
to which attention must be directed.

TOTANUS BARTRAMI.
BARTRAM’S SANDPIPER.

Toranus primariarum pogoniis internis valdé fasciatis.

No local races of this species ave known.

TOTANUS. 377

Tringa longicauda, Bechstein, Kurze Uebersicht, p. 453 (1811).

Tringa bartrami, Wilson, Am. Orn. vii. p. 63 (1813).

co Mabe as \ Vieittot, N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. vi. pp. 397, 401 (1816).
otanus melanopygius,

Totanus bartramia (Wils.), Temminck, Man. d’ Orn. ii. p. 650 (1820).

Bartramia laticauda, Lesson, Traité d’ Orn. p. 553 (1831).

Actitis bartrami (Wils.), Naumann, Vog. Deutscil. viii. p. 43 (1836).

Actiturus bartramius (Wils.), Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 51 (1838).

Tringoides bartramius (Wils.), Gray, Genera of B. iii. p. 574 (1816).

Bartramius longicaudus (Bechst.), Bonap. Rev. et Mag. Zool. 2nd series, ix. p. 59 (1857).

Actiturus longicaudus (Bechst.), Newton, List B. Eur. Blasius, p. 18 (1862).

Synonymy.

Prates.— Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 59. fig. 2; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 327.
Haszits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iu. p. 110.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 32. figs. 7, 9.

Literature.

Bartram’s Sandpiper may always be recognized by the conspicuous bars on the inner pl
webs of its primaries, no other Totanus having more than indications of them. Its wedge- Sane?
shaped tail is shared by the Common Sandpiper (Z\ Aypoleucus) and by its American

representative the Spotted Sandpiper (Z. macularius), both of which also resemble it in
the colour of their eggs.

ri |
\ :

.

Bartram’s Sandpiper breeds in the southern provinces of British North America and
in the northern portion of the United States. It migrates southwards on the approach of
winter in great numbers, both on the Atlantic coast and along the inland “ fly-lines,”

3c

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

378 TOTANUS.

wintering in the Southern States, Mexico, the West Indies, Central America, and South
America.

It is possible that its breeding-range may extend much further north, as it has been
obtained nearly as far north as the Arctic Circle in Alaska. It appears occasionally to
wander very far from its ordinary winter-quarters during migration. There is no record
of its occurrence on the Pacific coast of North America, but it has been obtained on the
Bermuda Islands (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 478), in Australia, and in Italy (Giglioli, Ibis,
1881, p. 184), Maita (Wright, Ibis, 1869, p. 247), Holland, Germany, and the British
Islands. Salmon obtained it in Colombia (Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1879,
p. 547). It appears to be common in Eastern Peru, as it was cbtained by Bartlett,
Hauxwell, and Jelski; but it is not recorded from Chili. Goering obtained it in Venezuela
(Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868, p. 169); and it is very common from December
to the beginning of April in the Argentine Republic; Burmeister found it south of
Mendoza, and it is one of the commonest Sandpipers near Buenos Ayres (Durnford, Ibis,
1877, p. 199).

The sternum of Bartram’s Sandpiper is that of a typical 7ofanvs, and very closely
resembles that of the Greenshank.

ig ie
ri om kG
i 2)

ol
ic
QE

CHAPTER XXIII

att |
? AY .

\
\

Sternum of Limosa melanura.

Genus LIMOSA.

Toranin& tarsis totis scutellatis: pedibus non lobatis: frontis pennis non ultra fissuram extensis :
rostri apice duro, vix dilatato.

Tur Godwits may be diagnosed as Totaninz having the tarsus scutellated in front, having
no lobes on the sides of the toes, having the frontal feathers not extending beyond the
gape, and having the tip of the bill hard, smooth, and very slightly expanded.
The Godwits form a connecting link between the hard-billed and soft-billed Sand-
pipers with partially webbed feet. They agree with the former (Zotanus) in having the
3802

Diagnosis otf
genus.

Generic
characters.

Generic
affinities.

Pectinated
claws.

Determina-
tion of the

type.

380 LIMOSA.

tip of the bill only slightly expanded, hard, and smooth; and with the latter (Hreunetes) in

not having the frontal feathers extending beyond the angle of the gape.
The external characters which distinguish them from Zotanus are so slight that the

genus could scarcely claim recognition, except on the score of convenience, were it not that
the profile of the keel of the sternum appears to vary in the two genera. In Zotanus the
apex rises up to meet the furculum, as it does in Scolopax, whereas in Limosa it seems to

get away from it as far as it can, as it does in Pterocles.
It is a curious fact that the Black-tailed Godwits of the Old World have the claw of
the middle toe pectinated, as in most of the species of the genera Glzreola and Cursorius.

Synonymy of the Genus Limosa.

Type.
Limosa, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 261 (1760) . 2. 2. . 2... ee )S)Sh)SCOL melanura.
Actitis, I/liger, Prodromus, p. 262 (1811). L. melanura.
Limicula, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist, Nat. iii. p. 245 (1816) L. melanura.
L. fedoa.

Fedoa, Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool, xii. pt. i. p. 70 (1824)

The synonymy of the genus Zimosa is voluminous enough when we consider that it
only contains four good species, and is doubtfully distinct from Zoéanus. Linneus placed
the Godwits in his genus Scolopar, because they have a hind toe more developed than
usual; but Brisson removed the Godwits with the Greenshank and the Dusky Redshank to
a new genus, which he called Zimosa. As the Black-tailed Godwit 1 (ZLimosa melanura) is
both the Scolopax limosa of Linneus and the Limosa limosa of Brisson, it has a double
claim to be regarded as the type of the genus.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Black-tailed, PaLzarctic Rueion. Bar-tailed.
L. MULANURA . . . North-west. . oe . . . . DL. RuPa.
Li. MELANUROIDES. . .. . North-east. «2. . . . . UZ. vRopyerais.

Nearctic Racion.

L. wupsoNIcA . . . ww North. » oe . . . . Li. FEvoa.

* The following ornithologists have called the Black-tailed Godwit Limosa egocephala (Linn.) :—Fleming,
Degland and Gerbe, Gray, Blyth, Schlegel, Bonaparte, Middendorff, Shelley, Sharpe, Dresser, Hume, Heuglin,
Blanford, Macgillivray, Newton, Harting, Saunders, Oates, Wardlaw-Ramsay, Legge, Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway, and Irby. On what grounds they have done so it is impossible to imagine. lLinneus was
acquainted with both the European Godwits, naming the Black-tailed Godwit Scolopax limosa and the Bar-
tailed Godwit Scolopaw lapponica, His Scolopaw ayocephala is based upon the descriptions of Willughby and

LIMOSA.

381

The genus Zimosa contains only half a dozen species or subspecies, three of which are
Their distribution during the breeding-season is as follows :—

Arctic and three Temperate.

Arctic Eurasia... ww kl

Arctic America. . . . . .

Arctie species .

Temperate Eurasia. .
Temperate North America
Temperate species

Species and subspecies of Limosa

2
i
cae
2
1
— 3

Although the genus Zimosa is a very small one, and is confined during the breeding-
season to the northern half of the Nearctic and Palearctic Regions, the Godwits are almost

Albin, from which his diagnosis is evidently translated, as would naturally be the case in an attempt to

diagnose a bird which he was not aware that he had ever seen.

leaves no doubt as to the species intended to be described :—

1628.
Will. Orn. p. 292.

The outer toe is joined to the
middle one... by a pretty thick
membrane of a dusky or dark green
colour. ... Head. . . with some
tincture of red. The neck and
throat are reddish. The great
feathers of the wings are black

with white shafts.

The whole rump almost is white
powdered with blackish specks.

The tail-feathers . .
alternately with black and white
lines.

The bill is white at the base,
black towards the point.

. all crossed

1738.

Albin, Nat. Hist. Birds, ii. p. 64.

The outer toe is joined to the
. . by a pretty thick
membrane of a dusky or dark green
colour.... Head. . . of a reddish
colour. ‘he neck and throat are
reddish ... The great feathers
of the wings are black with white
shafts. A broad bar of white
across the middle of the first,
second, and third feathers.

The rump is white powdered
with blackish specks.

The tail-feathers . . . all crussed
alternately with black and white

middle one .

lines.
The bill is of a pale dilute red-
dish colour at the base, black at the

point.

The following comparison of the descriptions

1766.
Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. pp. 246, 247.

Pedibus virescentibus.

capite colloque rufescentibus.
remiges primores scapo albo.

remigibus tribus nigris basi albis.

Uropygium album maculis nigri-
cantibus.
Rectrices

nigricantes albo

striate.

Rostrum basi rubescens,

There can be no doubt that Linneus borrowed from Albin, who in his turn borrowed of Willughby ; and
when we find the Bar-tailed Godwit of Pennant and the Bar-tailed Godwit of Brisson quoted as synonyms, it
is impossible to understand how any ornithologist could have imagined that the Scolopax cgocephala of

Linneus could be the Black-tailed Gedwit.

large flock of innocent ornithological sheep astray.

Probably Degland and Gerbe were the bell wethers who led this

Climatic
distribution.

Goneral
facts of dis-
tribution.

Parallelism
between
Godwits and
Oyster-
catchers.

382 LIMOSA.

cosmopolitan in their range. Their migrations are very extensive, and at some period of
the year they visit every part of the World, with the remarkable exception of the Ethiopian
Region south of the Equator.

The Godwits are shore birds, though they often breed far inland where suitable
marshes or meadows are to be found. In winter they chiefly frequent the sea-shore, and
like many other birds of similar habits they acquire a mud-coloured dress in autumn to
enable them to do so with comparative impunity. On migration they follow the coast-lines for
the most part ; and we may reasonably infer that when they were inhabitants of the Polar
Basin they were accustomed to make short trips along the coasts towards the south during
the annual three months’ night. When the Glacial ice increased sufficiently to drive them
altogether out of the Polar Basin, there can be little doubt that they followed these four
coast-lines, with which they must already have been familiar.

The isolation thus caused indirectly produced the differentiation of the Pre-Glacial
species into four good and well-defined species. We may take one more step in the chain
of reasoning with tolerable certainty, and assume that of the two groups into which the
genus may be divided, Bar-tailed Godwits and Black-tailed Godwits (of each of which both
hemispheres possess an example), one group are the descendants of the birds which left
by way of the Atlantic, and the other represents the Pacific shore emigrants. The present
distribution of the two groups of Godwits ought to throw some light upon their former
migrations, inasmuch as birds appear to be very slow in finding new “ fly-lines” and very
quick in rediscovering old ones. Fortunately for our hypothesis the evidence upon this
point is neither meagre nor conflicting. In the North Atlantic the Bar-tailed Godwits
are unrecorded from Greenland, Iceland, or the Faroes, whilst the Black-tailed Godwit
is recorded from each of the three localities. On the other hand, the Black-tailed American
Godwit is said to be very rare in Alaska; whilst the eastern form of our Bar-tailed Godwit
was the only species obtained by Stejneger on the Commander Islands, and was found by
Dall to breed abundantly at the mouth of the Yukon River in Alaska.
facts have some significance and are not the result of mere accident !

There is a remarkable parallelism between the distribution of the Godwits (Zéimosa)
and that of the Oystercatchers (Hematopus).

Surely these

The Godwits are divisible into four
groups, founded upon two characters.

Predominant colour of the axillaries and
under wing-coverts (a) white or (4)
chestnut or brown.

Colour of the tail-feathers (c) black
with white bases or (¢) barred with
brown and white.

The Oystercatchers are divisible into
four groups, founded upon two
characters.

Colour of the legs and feet (a) red or
(4) flesh-colour.

Colour of the general plumage (c) pied
or (d@) black.

LIMOSA.

All the Old-World species possess cha-
racter a and not d.

All the New-World species possess
character 6 and not a.

The only species recorded from Green-
land, Iceland, and the Faroes, and
breeding in Western Europe, pos-
sesses character c and not d.

Although both of the American species
occur on the Atlantic coast of North
America, the commonest of the two
possess character ¢ and not d.

On the Pacific coast of North America
the commoner of the two species
possesses character d and not a.

On the Pacific coast of the Old World

383

All the Old-World species possess cha-
racter a and not 6.

All the New-World Species possess
character 4 and not a.

The only species recorded from Green-
land, Iceland, and the Faroes, and
breeding in Western Europe, pos-
sesses character c and not d.

The only species breeding on the At-
lantic coast of North America pos-
sesses character ¢ and not d.

On the Pacific coast of North America
the only species found north of the
tropics possesses character d and
not a.

On the Pacific coast of the Old World

both species (a and @) occur. both species (a and d) occur.

It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the same causes have produced similar effects
in the two genera. If this hypothesis be true, the Bar-tailed Godwits emigrated through
Behring Straits, the ancestors of Z. fedoa following the American coast, and those of
L. uropygialis the Asiatic coast. The descendants of the latter gradually extended their
range westwards, until in post-glacial times the European examples were more or less
isolated and differentiated from their Asiatic confréres and became Z. rufa. The Black-
tailed Godwits represent the party which chose the Atlantic route, the ancestors of
L. hudsonica having followed the Atlantic coast of America, and those of Z. melanura the
Atlantic coast of Europe. The latter gradually extended their range into Asia, and in
post-glacial times the eastern examples were more or less isolated and differentiated from
their fellows, and have now become Z. melanuroides.

The present distribution of the species comprising the genera Zofanus and Limosa is
so satisfactorily accounted for, on the assumption that the ancestors of each genus were
differentiated from each other before the Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch, and appears to be
so inexplicable, if the differentiation of the combined group be regarded as post-glacial, that
I am convinced that I was wrong in uniting the two genera in my ‘ History of British
Birds.’ The difference already alluded to in the profile of the keel of the sternum of the
species belonging to the two genera is an additional reason for regarding them as distinct,
as is also the difference in the extent of the frontal feathers beyond the gape, though the
latter character is probably an unimportant one.

Ancient
routes of
emigration.

384 LIMOSA.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

The following is a key to the species and subspecies of the genus Zimosa.

melanura. . . -
: | Tail-feathers black with con-
r melanuroides .- > :
cealed white bases.
hudsonica. . . . / Axillaries dark grey.
as
Tarsus less than 22 inches. ~ Bisvallina calor of tama and
rufa. ..... {
lower back white.

‘ uropygialis.
fedoa ..... Axillaries chestnut.

All these characters apply to young in first plumage as well as to adult birds.

** Subgeneric group with barred tails.

inp

LIMOSA RUFA.
BAR-TAILED GODWIT.

Diagnosis. Limosa dorso postico, uropygio, axillaribus, subalaribusque albis brunneo notatis.

LIMOSA. 385

Tue eastern form of the Bar-tailed Godwit is so much darker on the lower back and rump Variations.
that it is entitled to be regarded as subspecifically distinct.

Scolopax lapponica, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 147 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 246 (1766). Synonymy.
Scolopax egocephala, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 147 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 246 (1766).

Limosa grisea major,

Limosa rufa, tion, Orn. v. pp. 272, 281, 284 (1760).

Limosa rufa major,

Scolopax leucophwa, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 719 (1790).

Totanus egocephalus (Linn.),
Totanus leucopheus (Lath.),
Totanus ferrugineus, Meyer, Taschenb. ii. p. 374 (1810).

Limosa meyeri, Leisler, Nachtr. Bechst. Naturg. ii. p. 172 (1813).
Limicula meyeri (Leisi.),
Limicula lapponica (Linn.)
Limosa jadreca, )
Limosa noveboracensis, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 32 (1816).
Limosa egocephala (Linz.), §

Fedoa meyeri (Leis/.),

Fedoa rufa (Briss.), scopes, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xii. pt. 1. pp. 75, 77, 79 (1824),
Fedoa pectoralis,

Limosa ferruginea (Meyer), Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 180 (1826).

Totanus rufus (Briss.), Seebohm, Brit. Birds, iii. p. 156 (1885).

1” | Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb. ii. pp. 288, 289 (1808).

J} Vieiutot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat, ii. pp. 249, 250 (1816).

Prares.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 900; Gould, Birds of Gt. Brit. iv. pl.51; Dresser, Birds of Europe, Literature.
viii. pls. 573, 574.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 156.

Eeces.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 29. fig. 8.

The Bar-tailed Godwit may be distinguished from all its allies, as well as from its Specific
eastern race, by the fact that the lower back, rump, under wing-coverts, and axillaries are characters,
white obscurely marked with brown. In the eastern form of this species the lower back
and rump are brown, each feather obscurely edged with white, whilst in the American
species of Bar-tailed Godwit these white edges are replaced by dark buff, which is also the
colour of the under wing-coverts and axillaries.

The Bar-tailed Godwit has never been known to breed in any part of the British
Islands, although it has been suspected to do so on some of the wild and lonely Hebrides.

It is principally known as a visitor on migration, appearing in spring and autumn, most
numerous at the former season on the low-lying coasts south of Spurn Point. It visits in
3D

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

386 LIMOSA.

more or less abundance all the coasts of the British Islands, being most frequent on those
that are low and sandy, and commoner in the east than in the west of Great Britain. It
visits the Orkneys and Shetlands on migration, as well as the Channel Islands. A few
stragglers occasionally remain during winter ; and it sometimes wanders out of its usual
course when on migration, and visits the inland counties. In the same manner a few often
remain on our coasts all summer, unquestionably non-breeding birds. In Ireland it is said
to be more abundant than in Scotland.

The Bar-tailed Godwit is entirely confined, during the breeding-season, to the
Siberian tundras above the limit of forest-growth from Lapland in the west across Behring’s
Straits into Alaska in the east. It has not been recorded from Greenland, Iceland, or the
Faroes. ‘The migrations of the Bar-tailed Godwit are somewhat peculiar. The mountains
and deserts of Central Asia appear to present to it an impassable barrier. It appears to

Tail of young in first plumage.

be only an accidental visitor to the Indian peninsula east of the Indus, and it has never
been recorded from Burma. he Bar-tailed Godwits breeding in the lower valleys of the
Obb and the Petchora migrate down the valley of the Tobol into that of the Ural, or down
the valley of the Kama into that of the Volga, to the Caspian, whence they cross to the
Mekran coast, some possibly reaching Eastern Africa. ‘Those breeding in North-west
Russia and Lapland follow the coasts of Europe, and winter in the basin of the
Mediterranean, principally in North Africa; they occasionally stray as far as the Canary
Islands, but on neither coast of Africa do they appear to cross the equator.

LIMOSA. 337

The term Bar-tailed Godwit is an unfortunate one, as the tails of fully adult birds in
winter plumage show scarcely any traces of bars. In the young in first plumage the bars
are very irregular.

LIMOSA RUFA UROPYGIALIS.
SIBERIAN BAR-TAILED GODWIT.

Limosa rura dorso postico vix albo notato. Diagnosis.
THe eastern and westcrn forms of the Bar-tailed Godwit completely intergrade. Variations.
Limosa baueri, Naumann, Vog. Deuétschl. viii. p. 429 (1836, descript. null.). Synonymy.

Limosa brevipes, G i AS ; ea c :

Te See, ray, List Birds Brit. Mus. in. pp. 95, 96 (1844, descript. null.).
Limosa lapponica, var. nove zealandie, Gray', Voy. Ered. and Terror, Birds, p. 13 (1846).
Limosa uropygialis, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1848, p. 38.

Limosa foxii, Peale, U.S. Expl. Exp. p. 231, pl. 65 (1848).

Gallinago punctata, Ellman, Zool. 1861, p. 7470.

Prates.—Finsch & Hartlaub, Fauna Centr.-Polynes. pl. 13; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. Literature.
pl. 29.

Hasirs.—Gould, Handb. Birds of Australia, ii. p. 252; Middendorff, Sibir. Reise, Vog. p. 217.

Eces.—Midd. Sibir. Reise, Vog. pl. xix. fig. 5.

The eastern form of the Bar-tailed Godwit of the Old World differs from the western gupspecific
form of that species in the colour of the lower back and rump. In the eastern form the characters.
prevailing colour of each feather is brown, the white margins being somewhat obscure ;

‘ It seems very strange that Gray should have given three names to the eastern form of the Bar-tailed
Godwit—so strange that Swinhoe, and others after him, concluded that the name of Limosa brevipes had been
applied by Gray to the eastern form of the Black-tailed Godwit, which is remarkable for the shortness of its
tarsi. The type is, however, still in the British Muscum, and is a Bar-tailed Godwit; but Gray himself
discovered the inappropriateness of the name, and altered it two years later into Limosa nove-zealundie, a
name founded upon the same skin, The type of Limosa australasiana is in the mounted collection, and is an
adult in winter plumage with only rudiments of bars on the tail-feathers.

3D 2

388 LIMOSA.

whilst in the western form the prevailing colour of each feather of these parts is white, the
brown centres being more or less obscure.

Geographi- It is impossible to say where these two forms meet, but most probably on the Taimyr

oe Peninsula. An example which I obtained in the valley of the Yenesay is unquestionably
the western form. Probably the Godwits found by Middendorff on the Taimyr Peninsula
are somewhat intermediate, as he failed to notice any difference between them and
examples obtained at Okhotsk. The eastern colony of Bar-tailed Godwits pass the coasts
of Japan, Mantchuria, and China on migration, and winter in the islands of the Malay
Archipelago, Australia, the New Hebrides, Norfolk Island, and New Zealand.

LIMOSA FEDOA.
AMERICAN BAR-TAILED GODWIT.

Diagnosis, | Limosa axillaribus subalaribusque castaneis.

Variations. No local races of this species are known.

Synonymy. Scolopax fedoa, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 146 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 244 (1766).
Limosa americana rufa, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 287 (1760).
Scolopax marmorata, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 720 (1790).
Limicula fedoa (Linneus),
Limicula marmorata (Lath.
Limosa fedoa (Linn.), Sabine, Franklin’s Polar Sea, p. 689 (1823).
Fedoa americana,
Fedoa marmorata (Lath.
Limosa adspersa, Naumann, Vig Deutschl. viii. p. 429 (1836).
Totanus fedoa (Linn.), Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 158 (1885).

) } Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. iii. p. 248 (1816).
3

\ Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool., Birds, xii. pt. i. pp. 71, 82 (1824).
)

Literature. Piates.—Edwards, Nat. Hist. Birds, iii. pl. 187; Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 56. fig. 4; Audubon,
Birds of America, v. pl. 348.

Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 255.

Eees, described in the above-mentioned volume, p. 258, indistinguishable from large examples
of L. melanura.

Specific The American Bar-tailed Godwit, sometimes called the Marbled Godwit, may always
chemphems, yg recognized by its chestnut aaillaries and under wing-coverts.

LIMOSA. 389

It neither breeds so far north nor winters so far south as its Black-tailed ally. It is
not known to breed north of the basin of Lake Winnipeg, or to winter further south than
the coast of Peru. It may possibly be a resident in the central portion of its range.

On the Pacific coast it has not been recorded north of Vancouver Island ; it is said
to be common nearly all the year round on the southern half of the Californian coast ; it
winters on the Pacific coast of Guatemala (Salvin, Ibis, 1865, p. 190) ; it has occurred on
the eastern slope of the Andes in Ecuador (Steere, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1878, p. 141), and
on the coast of Western Peru (Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1877, p. 748).

It is probably confined during the breeding-season to the inland lakes, and is much
rarer on the Atlantic coast than the Black-tailed species. It is not known to visit
Labrador, but it is found on migration on the coasts of the Northern States and in winter
on those of the Southern States, as well as on the West Indies. It has not been recorded
from the Atlantic coast of South America, but it is common in the Bay of Honduras
(Leyland, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1859, p. 64).

** Subgeneric group with no white on the rump.

LIMOSA MELANURA.
BLACK-TAILED GODWIE.

Liosa rectricibus nigris, ad basin albis: axillaribus albis brunneo notatis.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

390 LIMOSA.

Eastern examples average so much smaller in size than western ones that they may be
regarded as subspecifically distinct.

Scolopax limosa, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 147 (1758); Linn. Syst. Nat. 1. p. 245 (1768).
Limosa limosa (Linn), Brisson, Orn. v. p. 262 (1760).

Scolopax belgica, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 663 (1788).

Totanus limosa (Briss.), Bechstein, Orn. Taschenbd. ii. p. 287 (1803).

Actitis limosa (Briss.), Illiger, Prodr. p. 262 (1811).

Limosa melanura, Leisler, Nachtr. Bechst. Naturg. ii. p. 153 (1813).

Limicula melanura (Leisl.), Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. iii. p. 250 (1816).

Fedoa melanura (Leisl.), Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xii. pt. i. p. 73 (1824).

Totanus melanurus (Leisl.), Seebohm, Brit. Birds, iii. p. 162 (1885).

Prates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. nos. 874, 916; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 50; Dresser, Birds of
Europe, viii. pls. 573, 574.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, ii. p. 162.

Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 29.

The Godwits of the Old World may always be distinguished from those of the New
World by the colour of their under wing-coverts and axillaries. In the former the ground-
colour of these parts is always white, and in the latter chestnut or brown. ‘The two
Godwits of the Old World may be distinguished from each other in various ways; but
perhaps the simplest diagnosis of Z. melanura is tail-feathers black with concealed white
bases ; axillaries white, more or less obscurely barred with brown.

Like the Bar-tailed Godwit the Black-tailed Godwit may be subdivided into an
eastern and a western race. The latter is a regular summer visitor to the south of Iceland
and the Faroes, and has been recorded from Greenland, though the evidence is most
unsatisfactory. In the British Islands it is now only known on migration; but it still
breeds in Holland, North Germany, Denmark, Scandinavia (occasionally as far north as the
Arctic Circle), and in Central and Southern Russia. In South Siberia, west of the main
valley of the Obb, it breeds as far north as lat. 60°. The European birds winter on the
coasts of Spain and on the shores of the basin of the Mediterranean, occasionally straggling
along the west coast as far as the Canaries and Madeira, and down the Red Sea as far as
Abyssinia. The West-Siberian birds, and probably most of the East-Russian ones, winter
on the shores of the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf, and the coasts and inland waters of
India and Ceylon ; they pass through Western Turkestan and the Himalayas on migration,
and are much commoner in the north than in the south, and on the coast than on the
inland lakes and rivers.

There is no difference in colour between the eastern and western forms of the

LIMOSA. 391

Palearctic Black-tailed Godwit. The former is merely a small race of the latter, which Subspecific

completely intergrades with its larger ally, as may be seen from the following table :— RnR

Le melanie,

L. melunuroides.

. . 9 to8in. 8to7 in.

. . d¢to 3in. 3 to 2} in,

Length of wing
Length of tarsus

bail)

Tail of Black-tailed Godwit.

LIMOSA MELANURA MELANUROIDES.
SIBERIAN BLACK-TAILED GODWIT.

Limosa MELANURA magnitudine minore,

Diagnosis.
Tux eastern and western forms of the Black-tailed Godwit completely intergrade. Variations.
» Limosa melanuroides, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1846, p. 84. Synonymy.

‘Totanus melanurus melauuroides (Gould), Seebohm, British Birds, i. p. 163 (1885).

Literature.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

392 LIMOSA.

Puiates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 28.
Hasits.—Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 51; Radde, Reis. Stid-Ost. Sibir. ii. p. 331.
Eces.—Taczan. Journ. Orn. 18738, p. 104.

It is not known that the Siberian Black-tailed Godwit differs from its European ally,
except in size, as has already been pointed out.

No Black-tailed Godwit has been recorded from the main valley of the Obb or from
that of the Yenesay. The western tributaries of the former river appear to be the eastern
limit of the range of the European Black-tailed Godwit; whilst the eastern tributaries of
the latter river appear to be the western limit of the Siberian Black-tailed Godwit. The
latter race breeds in the Altai Mountains, the basin of Lake Baikal, and throughout the
valley of the Amoor; it passes through Mongolia and Japan on migration, and winters in
China, Burma}, the islands of the Malay Archipelago, and North Australia.

LIMOSA HUDSONICA.

AMERICAN BLACK-TAILED GODWIT.

Liwosa axillaribus subalaribusque nigricantibus.

No local races of this species are known.

Scolopax hemastica, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 147 (1758).
Scolopax hudsonica, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 720 (1790).
Limicula hudsonica (Lath.), Vieillot, N. Dict. @ Hist. Nat. ui. p. 250 (1816).

* Three examples collected by Oates in Burma, and now in the National Collection, vary in length of
wing from 7-4 to 7:0 inch, and in length of tarsus from 2-6 to 2°5; a third, also collected by Oates in Burma,
is larger (wing 8:2, tarsus 3:l inch), The three first mentioned are unquestionably the eastern form, and contrast
strikingly with the Indian examples in the Hume Collection, which are as unquestionably the western form.
There must be some mistake in the measurements given by Oates in his ‘ Birds of British Burma,’ ii. p. 409 (a
book, by the way, which ought to be in the hands of every ornithological student). His average is probably
the mean between the largest and smallest examples, instead of the actual mean of the whole series.

LIMOSA. 393

Limosa hudsonica (Lath.), Swainson & Richardson, Faun. Bor.-Amer. ii. p. 396 (1881).
Limosa australis, Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 95 (1844).

Limosa hemastica (Linn.), Cowes, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, 1880, p. 100.

Totanus hudsonicus (Lath.), Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 163 (1885).

Puates.—Edwards, Nat. Hist. Birds, iti. pl. 188 ; Audubon, Birds of America, v. pl. 349.
Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 260.
Eeas, described in the above-mentioned volume, p. 263, indistinguishable from small examples

of L. melanura.

The American Black-tailed Godwit, or Hudsonian Godwit as it is called by the
American ornithologists, may always be recognized by its dark brown awillaries and under
wing-coverts.

It breeds on the tundras of North America, above the limit of forest-growth, from
Alaska to Baffin’s Bay, but it is said to be very rare at the western extremity of its range.
In autumn it migrates southwards and crosses the tropics to winter in the temperate parts
of South America, where it has been obtained as far south as the Falkland Islands.

It has been recorded twice from Alaska, once from the mouth of the Yukon River
(Dall & Bannister, Trans. Chic. Ac. Sc. i p. 298), and once from the island of Michalaski
(Adams, Ibis, 1878, p. 439) ; but it is probably very rare, as it was not met with by the
naturalists of the ‘Corwin’ expedition, nor by the Point Barrow explorers, nor has it been
recorded from any other part of the Pacific coast of North America. It has only once been
recorded from the Pacific coast of South America (Bridges, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 118),
where it is said to occur in Chil.

It is a common though somewhat irregular migrant along the Atlantic coast of North
America, and has once occurred on the Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 477). It has
been recorded from Venezuela (Goering, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1869, p. 252), Buenos Ayres
(White, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1883, p. 42), the lagoons of the Chupat River in Patagonia
(Durnford, Ibis, 1877, p. 43), and the Falkland Islands (Darwin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860,

p. 387).

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diaguosis
-of genus.

Generic

characters.

CHAPTER XXIV.

Genus EREUNETES.

Toraninm rostro omnind ut in Scolopace formato.

Tue Snipe-billed Sandpipers are a small group of birds, not by any means specially related
to the Snipes, the similarity in the formation of the bill bemg unquestionably a mark of
analogy rather than of affinity. On the other hand, whilst they have the bill of Zrizga and
Scolopaz, their feet resemble those of Zimosa and Totanus, m all probability a second mark
of analogy rather than of affinity.

The genus Lreunetes may be diagnosed as follows :—

CuHarapRiiD# having the outer and middle toes connected at the base by a well-developed
web, and having swipe-like bills, narrowest near the middle when seen from above, and
expanded towards the tip, which is covered with a soft membrane that appears to be pitted
or corrugated in the dried skin.

As in the genus Mumenius, the females of the species belonging to the genus Hreunetes
have longer bills than the males.

Synonymy of the Genus EREUNETES.

Ereunetes, Jlliger, Prodromus, p. 262 (1811) . ; RE, aCe
Macrorhamphus, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 31 (1816) E. griseus.
Hemipalama, Bonap. Journ. Ac, Nat. Sc. Philad. v. p. 187 (1825) . E. pusillus.
Heteropoda, Nuttall, Man. Orn. U. 8. & Canada, ii. p. 1385 (1834)', E. pusillus.
Limnodromns, Lembeye, Av. Isla Cuba, p. 91 (1850) E. griseus.
Micropalama, Baird, Birds N. Amer. p. 726 (1858) . = ls E. himantopus.
Pseudoscolopax, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xxviii. p. 280 (1859). E. taczanowskii.

For some inscrutable reason most ornithologists have shut. their eyes to the obvious
relationship between the four species which are comprised in this genus. ach of the four
species has been made the type of a genus; one of them has appeared in that capacity
three times, and another twice, so that no fewer than seven genera have been provided for
four species.

EREUNETES. 395

The Canadian Semipalmated Stint (Hreunetes pusillus), being the only species included Determina-

in the genus by its founder, is consequently the type. a ihe

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

The species and subspecies belonging to this genus may be distinguished at all ages
and seasons as follows :—

{ griseus.

Ground-colour of lower back
white.

A

scolopaceus

| Bill over 2°5 in.
\ taczanowskii

Middle toe united to inner himantopus.
as well as to outer toe by 4
a web at the base. occidentalis . . . Bill 1:2 to ‘9 in.

| pusillus .... Bill under *9 in.

Judging from similarity of colour, which seems to be a character dating very far back
in the genealogy of this group of birds, the genus Hreunetes appears to be nearest related
to Zringa and Limosa.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Ereunetes. Paumarctic Racion. Macrorhamphus.

North-east Siberia. ~ oe + » « « TACZANOWSELI.

Nearcric Recon.

OCCIDENTALIS . . . + ss Alaska. . oe © ee) 6 e)6SCOLOPACEUS.

Hudson’s Bay Terr. + + 4 + +. GRISEUS.

PUSILLUS
HIMANTOPUS \

The genus Hreunetes is purely Arctic. Its distribution during the breeding-season is Climatic

as follows :— distribution.
Aree AMEN eG 4H. BB ce a & So BO
AVON ASIA eng. Gk Ge RL as Gee ae ek
Species and subspecies of Hreunetes . — 6

3E2

Ancient
routes of
emigration.

Diaguosis.

396 EREUNETES.

If we regard the ancestors of the genus Hrewnetes as residents on the shores of the
Polar Basin before the Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch, and as having been driven south by the
Arctic cold into isolated regions, where they became differentiated into four species, there
eunnot be much doubt that the ancestors of £. ¢aczanowskii followed the Pacific coast of
Asia. £. scolopaceus, being its nearest relation, doubtless took the Pacific coast of America,
and, after its return to the Polar Basin, was in post-glacial times again partially isolated and
partially differentiated east and west of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern colony becoming
E. griseus. FE. pusillus and &. himantopus appear both to have originated east of the
Rocky Mountains. As the former has extended its range, probably in post-glacial times,
to Alaska (where it has become partially differentiated as &. occidentalis), we may perhaps
assume that it followed the inland chain of lakes, whilst the latter may have selected the
Atlantic coast of the American continent. ‘This hypothesis is supported by the fact that
the larger species appears to be more exclusively a coast bird on its autumn migrations.

E. scolopaceus E. griseus
(winter plumage). (summer plumage),

EREUNETES GRISEUS.
CANADIAN SNIPE-BILLED SANDPIPER.

Ergunetes dorso postico quam dorsum superius valde pallidiore : palam& nulla inter digitum
medium et digitum interiorem.

EREUNETES. 397

Tue Western form of the Snipe-billed Sandpiper has a longer bill than the Eastern form Variations,
and may fairly be regarded as subspecifically distinct.

Scolopax grisea,
Scolopax cayeunensis
Scolopax noveboracensis, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 658 (1788, summer plumage).
Scolopax leucophea, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. iii. p. 358 (1816, nec Lath.).
Totanus ferrugineicollis, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. vi. p. 401 (1816).
Macrorhamphus griseus (Gmel.), Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 31 (1816).
Scolopax paykullii, Nilsson, Orn. Suec. ii. p. 106 (1817).

Totanus noveboracensis ((@mel.), Sabine, Frankl. Journ. p. 687 (1828).

Macrorhamphus punctatus, Lesson, Trailé d’Orn. p. 556 (1831).

Limnodromus griseus (Gmel.), Lembeye, Av. Isla Cuba, p. 91 (1850).

Limosa grisea (Gmel.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Scolop. p. 26 (1864).

Ereunetes griseus (Gmel.), Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 168 (1885).

} Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. pp. 658, 661 (1788, winter plumage). Synonymy.

Prates.—Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 58. fig. 1; Audubon, Birds Am. vi. pl. 351. Literature.
Haszits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 168.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 68. fig. 2.

The Canadian Snipe-billed Sandpiper, otherwise called the Red-breasted Snipe, the Specific
Brown Snipe, the Grey Snipe, or Lesser Longbeak, may be distinguished from all its °™7t"s:
congeners (except from the Alaskan Snipe-billed Sandpiper, to which it appears to be
connected by intermediate forms) by its feet. It has xo wed between the middle and inner
foes. It is intermediate in size between 2. taczanowskii and &. himantopus, and agrees
with the former in having the lower back very much whiter than the mantle. It scarcely
differs in colour or markings at any age or season from its Western form, but it is on an Subspecific
average a slightly smaller bird, with a proportionately shorter bill and tarsi, as the following ha™cters.
measurements prove :—

E. griseus. E. scolopaceus.
Length of wing . . . . . 54 to 58 5°6 to 6-0
Length of bil . . . . . 2:0 to 2°6 2°4 to 3:0
Length of tarsus. . . . . I2tol'd 1:4 to 1:7

The Canadian Snipe-billed Sandpiper breeds in the arctic regions of the American Geographi-
continent from the Rocky Mountains to Baffin’s Bay, and has occurred in Greenland. On en
migration it follows the inland fly-lines as well as the Atlantic coast, and occasionally
occurs on the Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 476). In winter it has been found in

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

398 EREUNETES.

the West Indies, on the southern shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and on the Brazilian coast
as far south as Bahia. It has repeatedly wandered as far east as the British Islands and
the continent of Europe.

EREUNETES GRISEUS SCOLOPACEUS.
ALASKAN SNIPE-BILLED SANDPIPER.

ERcUNETES GRISEUS magnitudine majore.

Tus Eastern and Western forms of this species appear completely to intergrade.

Limosa scolopacea, Say, Long’s Exped. ii. p. 170 (1833).

Scolopax longirostris, Bell, Ann. Lyc. New York, v. p. 4 (1852).

Macrorhamphus scolopaceus (Say), Lawrence, Ann. Lyc. New York, v. p. 4 (1852).
Macrorhampus griseus, var. scolopaceus, Coues, Check-list, no. 415 a (1873).

Prares.—Lawrence, Ann. Lyc. New York, v. pl. 1; Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds
N. Amer. i. p. 197 (coloured woodcut of head).

Hasrts.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 196.

Eces.—Described on page 200 of the above-mentioned work.

The Alaskan Snipe-billed Sandpiper, sometimes called the Red-bellied Snipe or
Greater Longbeak, is the Western form of 2. griseus. Attempts have been made to point
out a difference of colour between it and its Eastern representative. It is perhaps on an
average rather less spotted on the underparts in summer plumage, and on the lower back
at all seasons ; but these characters are very unreliable, and under no circumstances can it
be regarded as more than subspecifically distinct from its Eastern ally.

The differences in the measurements of the two forms have been already pointed out.

The Alaskan Snipe-billed Sandpiper is common during the breeding-season in Alaska
(Dall & Bannister, Trans. Chicago Ac. Sc. i. p. 291), and is extremely abundant on the
American coast of Behring Sea and on the opposite coast of Siberia (Nelson, Cruise of the

EREUNETES. 399

‘Corwin,’ p. 85). It has been recorded inland in Siberia north of Yakutsk (Taczanowski,
Journ. Orn. 1873, p. 112), and from both the north and central islands of Japan (Seebohm,
Ibis, 1884, p. 33). How far east its breeding-range extends it is difficult to determine,
but it probably breeds on Banks-Land, as it passes Point Barrow in considerable numbers
on its autumn migration (Seebohm, Trans. Norf. and Norw. Nat. Soc. iv. p. 307). It also
occurs abundantly on migration on the Pacific coast of the American continent (Coues,
Ibis, 1866, p. 271), and inland in the valley of the Saskatchewan (where a few probably
remain to breed), and occasionally on the Atlantic coast.

It appears to winter on the Pacific coast of Guatemala (Salvin, Ibis, 1865, p. 191)
and in other parts of Central America.

Summer plumage.

EREUNETES TACZANOWSKII.
SIBERIAN SNIPE-BILLED SANDPIPER.

Exzvneres dorso postico quam dorsum superius valdé pallidiore : digito medio basi utrinque
palmatis.

No local races of this species are known.

Macrorhamphus semipalmatus, Jerdon, fide Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xvii. p. 252 (1848, nec
Wilson) .

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

400 EREUNETES.

Pseudoscolopax semipalmatus (Jerdon), Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. Xxvili. p. 280 (1859).
Micropalama tacksanowskia, Verreaur, Rev. Mag. Zool 1860, p. 206.
Ereunetes semipalmatus (Jerdon), Seebohm, British Birds, iui. p. 169.

Literature. Prares.—Verreaux, Rev. Mag. Zool. 1860, pl. xiv.; David & Oust. Ois. Chine, pl. 121;
Hume & Marshall, Game Birds of India &c. iii. pl. 47.
Hasirs.—Oates, Birds of British Burma, il. p. 408.
Ecoes.— Unknown.

Specific The Siberian Snipe-billed Sandpiper may be distinguished from its allies by its
characters. nossession of two characters: the lower back is much paler than the mantle, and the inner
as well as the outer toe is united to the middle one by a web at the base.
In the colour of its plumage and in its seasonal changes it so closely resembles the
Bar-tailed Godwit (Zimosa rufa) that it is often mistaken for it.
Geographi- The breeding-grounds of the Siberian Snipe-billed Sandpiper are unknown, but as it
oe passes through Dauria on migration, and has not been met with by any traveller near the
coast, they are presumably near Yakutsk. It is a rare winter visitor to India, Pegu, China,
and Borneo.
It appears to be most nearly allied to the Alaskan Snipe-billed Sandpiper ( Zreunefes
griseus scolopaceus).

Summer plumage.

EREUNETES HIMANTOPUS.
STILT-SANDPIPER.

Diagnosis. Exeunertes dorso postico et interscapulio feré concoloribus : tarso longiore (33 ad 46 millim.).

EREUNETES, 401

No local races of this species are known, Variations.

Tringa himantopus, Bonap. Ann. Lyc. New York, ii. p. 157 (1826). Synonymy.
Tringa (Hemipalama) himantopus (Bonap.), Bonap. Comp. Orn. Roma e Filad. p. 61 (1827).

Tringa douglasii, Swainson & Richardson, Faun. Bor.-Amer. ii. p. 379 (1831).

Hemipalma, douglasii,
Hemipalma auduboni,
Hemipalama himantopus (Bonap.), Bonap. Cump. List B. Eur.and N. Amer. p. 49 (1838).
Hemipalama multistriata, Lichtenstein, fide
Hemipalama auduboni (Nuttall),

Totanus himantopus (Bonap.), Lembeye, Av. Isla Cuba, p. 95 (1850).

Micropalama himantopus (Bonap.), Baird, Cassin, § Lawrence, Birds N. Amer. p. 726 (1858).

Nuttall, Man. Orn. U. 8. & Canada, ii. pp. 140, 141 (1834).

; Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 578 (1845).

Prates.—Swainson & Richardson, Faun. Bor.-Amer. ii. pl. 66; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 334. Literature.
Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgw. Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 201.
Eees.—Described by Brewer (tom. cit. p. 204) from examples collected by Macfarlane.

The Stilt-Sandpiper is considerably larger than the Semipalmated Sandpiper, but not Specific
quite so large as the Canadian Snipe-billed Sandpiper. From its larger congeners it is ee
most easily distinguished by the character /ower back almost the same colour as the upper
back, whilst from the smaller species it differs considerably in the relative length of its
legs. In the Stilt-Sandpiper, as its name implies, the legs are long, the ¢arsus being
1-4 to 1°8 in. long, nearly a third of the length of the wing from the carpal joint. In the
Semipalmated Stint the tarsus is less than a fourth of the wing. The two species
resemble each other very closely in winter plumage, except that the Stilt-Sandpiper has
white upper tail-coverts. In summer plumage the bars across the upper tail-coverts and
the whole of the underparts make it look very different from its small ally.

The Stilt-Sandpiper breeds in the arctic regions of America from the Rocky Mountains pie
to Baffin’s Bay, but it is not known to have occurred in Alaska or Greenland. On migra- tion,
tion it is found along the Atlantic coast as well as inland, and occasionally occurs on the
Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 476). In winter its range extends from Central
America and the West Indies to Brazil and Peru. I have an example in my collection
obtained by Capt. Harrison near Buenos Ayres, which is probably the southern limit of
its migrations. Fraser procured it on the Pacific side of the Andes in Ecuador (Sclater,
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 290}, and Bartlett found it on the Atlantic slopes of the Andes

in Peru (Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1866, p. 199).

3Ff

402 EREUNETES.

&. pusillus. E. occidenialis.

Summer plumage.

EREUNETES PUSILLUS.
CANADIAN SEMIPALMATED STINT.

Diagnosis. | Ereuneres dorso postico et interscapulio feré concoloribus: tarso breviore (minus quam
26 millim.).

Variations. Tue Western form of this species has a longer bill, and may fairly be regarded as
subspecifically distinct.

Synonymy. Tringa cinclus dominicensis minor, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 222 (1760).
Tringa pusilla, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 252 (1766).
Ereunetes petrificatus, Illiger, Prodromus, p. 262 (1811).
Tringa semipalmata, Wilson, Am. Orn. vii. p. 18] (1818).
Tringa brevirostris, Spiz, Av. Bras. ii. p. 76 (1825).
Hemipalama semipalmata (Wilson), Bonap. Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. v. p. 88 (1825).
Pelidna brissoni, Lesson, Man. d’ Orn. i. p. 277 (1828).
Heteropoda semipalmata (Wilson), Nuttall, Man. Orn. U.S. & Canada, ii. p. 135 (1834).
Hemipalama minor, Lembeye, Av. Isla Cuba, p. 97 (1850).
Ereunetes pusillus (Linn.), Cassin, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1861, p. 177.

Literature. Prates.—Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 63. fig. 3; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 336.
Hasits.— Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 205.
Eees.—Described by Brewer on p. 210 of the above-mentioned volume.

Specific
characters.

The Canadian Semipalmated Stint, Little Sandpiper, or Semipalmated Sandpiper, as
it has been variously called, so closely resembles the small Zringas in the colour of its

EREUNETES. 4.03

plumage, that a careful examination of the bill and feet is necessary to distinguish it from
them. It is much smaller than any of its congeners, and may be distinguished by its
short ¢arsi, which are less than one inch in length.

It is very closely related to its Western ally, from which it scarcely differs, except in
the length of its bill, which varies from ‘68 to ‘92 inch, whilst that of the Western form
varies from *85 to 1:15 inch. The two forms do not differ from each other in colour,
except that in summer plumage the Western form is more chestnut on the upper parts.

The Canadian Semipalmated Stint breeds in the arctic regions of the American
continent from the Rocky Mountains to Baffin’s Bay, but has not occurred in Greenland.
On migration it follows the river-courses, as well as the shores of the Atlantic, and is a
regular visitor to the Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 476). It winters on the coast
of the South-American continent. I have several examples from Cayenne and Bahia, and
one collected by Capt. Harrison in Unevo Gulf (about lat. 43° south) on the coast of
Patagonia, which appears to be the southern limit of its range on the east coast. On the
west coast it has been recorded as far south as Paracas Bay in Peru (Salvin, Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1883, p. 429), but it is probable that the record refers to the Alaskan form of this
species.

EREUNETES PUSILLUS OCCIDENTALIS.
ALASKAN SEMIPALMATED STINT.

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

EREUNETES PUSILLUS magnitudine majore: habitu nuptiali partibus superioribus valde castaneo pjiagnosis,

ornatis.

Tur Alaskan Semipalmated Stint completely intergrades with the Canadian Semipalmated
Stint.

Heteropoda mauri, Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 49 (1838).

Ereunetes mauri (Bonap.), Gundlach, Journ. Orn. 1856, p. 419.

Tringa cabanisii, Lichtenstein, fide Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1856, p. 420.

Ereunetes occidentalis, Lawrence, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1864, p. 107.

Ereunetes pusillus, var. occidentalis (Lawr.), Coues, Check-list N. Amer. Birds, p. 83 (1873).
Ereunetes pusillus occidentalis (Lawr.), Ridgway, Nom. N. Amer. Birds, p. 45 (1881).

Variations.

Synonymy.

EREUNETES.

404
Literature. Prares.—Head figured by Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 207.
Hasirs.—Described by Brewer on p. 209 of the above-mentioned volume.
Eees.—Not known to differ from those of the Eastern form.
The Alaskan Semipalmated Stint is only a Western form of the Canadian Semipalmated
Stint, from which it scarcely differs except in having a slightly longer bill, as has been
already pointed out.
Geographi- It breeds in Alaska, passes on migration along the American shores of the Pacific,

coy a alate many of the inland waters west of the Rocky Mountains, and winters on thie coast

tion,
of Central America.

CHAPTER XXV.

Subfamily SCOLOPACIN &.

CuaraDRI1D& digitis omnibus ad basin liberis.

Tue diagnosis of the Scolopacine is extremely simple :—

Charadriidee having all the toes cleft to the base.

About sixty birds possess this character which are probably more nearly related to
each other than they are to the rest of the family, though Zringa minutilla resembles
Ereunetes pusillus very closely, and Strepsilas possesses characters which closely resemble
those of Charadrius and Vanellus.

Only five genera appear to possess characters of sufficient importance to entitle them

to recognition.

KEY TO THE GENERA.

a. Tarsus much more than half the length of the bill.
a', Difference in length between the shortest and longest primary
much more than the length of the bill.
a. First primary much longer than the fourth.
a®, Nasal aperture extending beyond the basal fourth of bill . Srreprsrnas.

63. Nasal aperture situated within the basal fourth of bill . . Trinea.
62, First primary not longer than the fourth . . . . . . . Pueeornis.
6}. Difference in length between the shortest and longest primary
much less than the length of the bill . . . . . . . . Ruynenma.

é. Bill twice the length of the tarsus . . . ee ee ee ScoLopax.

Diagnosis of
subfamily.

Characters
of sub-
family.

Genera.

406

Distribution It is difficult to say whether

SCOLOPACINA.

the Scolopacine are more Arctic than Temperate in their

of species. distribution. Of the 56 species and subspecies which it contains

22

56

are exclusively Arctic.

are Arctic and Temperate.
are exclusively Temperate.
are Temperate and Tropical.
are exclusively Tropical.

are New World.
are New and Old World.
are Old World.

Of five genera all are represented in both the New and Old Worlds.

3 PASHNC OO [enero] ap
: GENS Ecard
NAMA ZOO [ABH

CHAPTER XXVL

“ae (|
j %

Sternum of Strepsilas interpres.

Genus STREPSILAS.

CuarapRitp& digitis omnibus ad basin liberis: narium apertura ultra partem quartam rostri a

basi extensa.

Tue Turnstones are so nearly allied to the Plovers that it is doubtful whether they ought
to be generically separated from them. They appear to form a connecting-link between
the genera Vanellus and Tringa. They agree with the former in having the zasal aperture
extending beyond the basal fourth of the bill, and with the latter in having the éoes cleft to
the base. These two characters are sufficient to diagnose the genus. In the distribution of
the colours on the rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail, as well as in the position of the nostrils,
they resemble Vanellus, but in the character of their feet as well as in the glossy appearance

of their eggs they resemble Zringa.

Diagnosis
of genus.

eneric
characters.

Objections
to the use of
Arenaria.

Objections
to the use of
Morinella.

408 STREPSILAS.

Synonymy of the Genus STREPSILAS.

Although the genus Sérepsilas contains only three species, its synonymy positively
includes five names !

Type.
Arenaria, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 132 (1760) 8. SBheRpres.
Morinella, Meyer, Taschenb. ii. p. 383 (1810) . 8. aHtEEP IES
Strepsilas, Idliger, Prodromus, p. 263 (1811) S. interpres.
Aphriza, Audubon, Syn. Birds N. Amer. p. 225 (1839) . S. virgatus.
Cinclus, Gray, List Gen. and Subgen. Birds, p. 85 (1841) . S. interpres.

According to the modern interpretation of the Stricklandian Code of Nomenclature,
which only admits Brissonian genera if they are additional to those of Linneus, the name
of Arenaria cannot be applied to a genus of birds, having been appropriated by Linneus
to a genus of plants. My first modification of the Stricklandian code (Seebohm, British
Birds, i. p. xix) rejects Arenaria of Brisson as dating for purposes of nomenclature only
from 1788, and therefore superseded by drenaria of Linneus, which dates from 1767.
My fourth modification provides for the rejection of Morinella, on the ground that if it be
used as a generic term, the type of that genus must be the Dotterel, the Charadrius
morinellus of Linneus. It may, however, be objected that there is also a Zringa morinella
of Linneus, which refers to the Turnstone. The Dotterel and the Turnstone were well
known to the great Swedish naturalist, and appear not only in the ‘Fauna Suecica’ but
also in the 10th edition of the ‘Systema Nature ’ as Charadrius morinellus and Tringa inter-
pres respectively. The Zringa morinella of Linneus does not appear until the 12th edition,
and was founded upon the Aorinellus marinus of Catesby and the Arenaria cinerea of
Brisson, which Linneus, following Brisson, imagined to be a second species of Turnstone,
though there cannot be any doubt that the bird described by Brisson under that name
was a young Turnstone in first plumage with no chestnut on the back; whereas the
Arenaria arenaria of Brisson and the Zringa interpres of Linneus were founded on ex-
amples in full breeding-dress, of which Brisson says that Edwards’s plate No. 141 is “une
figure assez exacte.” Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 119) appear
to say that these plumages are reversed in Alaska! If there be not some extraordinary
blunder in their descriptions the Alaska birds must be a distinct species, but probably they
have mistaken young in first plumage for adults.

Strepsilas, a name which has been used for the genus which contains the Turnstones
by an overwhelming majority of authors, thus remains master of the field—a conclusion
devoutly to be desired by all ornithologists who wish to avoid useless change, producing
endless confusion.

The Common Turnstone (Strepsilas interpres), being the only species known to Linneus,
Brisson, or Illiger, becomes of necessity the type.

STREPSILAS, 409

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

during the breeding-season).
§ g

Strepsilas. Arctic Recion. Aphriza.
INTERPRES . «2. 1. we ew ewe Circumpolar.
MELANOCEPHALUS . .... . Alaskan Coast. soe 8 ee ee) 6UVERGATUS.

The genus Strepsilas must be regarded as Arctic, though one of the three species Climatic dis-
which it contains occasionally breeds in the Temperate Region. ‘The distribution of these *>¥ti~-
birds is as follows :—

Arctic America

Arctic America and Arctic and Temperate Eurasia . . 1
Species of Strepsilas . . 2. 1. 1. 1 1 = 8

The fact that S. cnterpres is still found in Greenland, Iceland, and Spitzbergen is
suggestive of the isolation of its ancestors in the Atlantic. The Californian coast being
the winter-quarters of S. melanocephalus, is a reason for supposing that its ancestors escaped eal
from the Polar Basin through Behring Straits, and were isolated on the American shores ,
of the North Pacific; whilst 8. wrgatus, wintering on the west coast of South America, is
probably the descendant of the Turnstones which were isolated during the Post-Pliocene
Glacial Period on the American shores of the South Pacific. It has the long narrow
wings of S. inferpres, which might be expected of a species which crossed the tropics on
migration.

Tbe Turnstones breed on the coasts in the arctic and semi-arctic regions, both in the
Old and New Worlds. In winter they are found on the coasts of every other part of the
globe.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Only three species are known, which may be diagnosed as follows :—

interpres. . . - |
if Lower back pure white.

throat brown or streaked
with brown; not pure
white.

Chin and centre of upper melanocephalus

‘ Bill vaulted at the tip like that
virgatus

of a Plover.

410 STREPSILAS.

STREPSILAS INTERPRES.
COMMON TURNSTONE.

Diagnosis, 4 STxepsitas mento et medio gule albo immaculato.

Variations. ALTHOUGH the Turnstone is perhaps the most cosmopolitan of all birds, and varies very
much with age, sex, and scason, it is not known to be subject to any local variation.

Synonymy. Tringa interpres, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 148 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. 1. p. 248 (1766).
ees re, } Brisson, Orn. v. pp. 182, 137 (1760).

Tringa morinella, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 249 (1766).

Tringa hudsonica, Miiller, Natursyst. Suppl. p. 114 (1776).

Morinella collaris, Meyer, Taschenb. ii. p. 883 (1810).

Strepsilas interpres (Linn.), Illiger, Prodr. p. 263 (1811).

Strepsilas collaris (Meyer), Temminck, Man. d’Orn, p. 349 (1815).

Arenaria interpres (Linn.), Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxxiv. p. 845 (1819).

Tringa oahuensis, Bloxham, Byron’s Voyage of the ‘ Blonde, App. p. 251 (1826).

Charadrius cinclus, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 148 (1826).

Cinclus morinellus (Linn.), Gray, List Gen. and Subgen. B. p. 85 (1841).

Cinclus interpres (Linn.), Gray, Generu of Birds, iii. p. 549 (1846).

Charadrius interpres (Linn.), Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 12 (1885).

STREPSILAS., 411

Prates.—Daub. Pl. Ent. nos. 856, 857; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 50; Dresser, Birds of
Europe, vii. pl. 532,

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 12.

Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 24. figs. 1, 3.

The Common Turnstone may be recognized at all ages and seasons by its pure white
chin and throat. From the Surf-bird its white lower back is the best distinction. In
breeding-dress the amount of white on the head and the chestnut on the back prevent it
from being confounded with 8. melanocephalus. In winter plumage the brown chin and
throat of the latter species prevents confusion, but in immature dress the two species
resemble each other very closely. The Black-headed Turnstone in immature plumage has
the wing-coverts and innermost secondaries narrowly margined with white instead of
broadly margined with buff, and the chin and throat are never pure white.

The ‘Turnstone is almost exclusively a shore-bird, but on migration it is habitually
seen on many of the inland routes or fly-lines. It is a circumpolar species, breeding on
the shores of the Arctic Ocean in Europe and Asia, as well as in America. ‘There is no
doubt that on the Scandinavian coast it breeds as far south as the Danish islands in the
Baltic; and it is said to breed on the Azores, the Canaries, the islands of the Red Sea, the
Balearic Islands, Robben Island on the coast of South Africa, the coast of South-west
Texas, Lord Howe’s Island between Australia and New Zealand, on the island of Jamaica,
and in many other localities; but in none of these alleged instances is the evidence
conclusive. It is a winter visitor to almost every coast of the islands or continents south
of the Tropic of Cancer. A few winter on the Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1877, p. 475) ;
some on the Galapagos Archipelago (Dr. Habel, Trans. Zool. Soc. ix. p. 502); the
‘Challenger’ Expedition obtained it on the Admiralty Islands; and it has been recorded
from every important group of the Pacific Tslands, New Zealand, Australia, New Guinea,
most of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, and almost from every part of the coasts of
Europe, Asia, Africa, Madagascar, and North and South America. It is not exclusively a
shore-bird, but has also occurred in Central Africa and Central Asia. Probably no other
bird is so completely cosmopolitan in its range.

STREPSILAS MELANOCEPHALUS.
BLACK TURNSTONE.

Srrepsiias mento gulaque aut nigris (est.), aut albis fusco striatis (hiem.): dorso postico albo.

3G 2

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

412 STREPSILAS.

Variations. No local races of this species are known.

Synonymy. Strepsilas melanocephalus, Vigors, Zool. Journ. iv. p. 356 (1829).
Strepsilas interpres melanocephalus (Vigors), Cowes, Check-list, 2nd ed. p. 98 (1882).
Charadrius melanocephalus (Vigors), Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 12 (1885).
Arenaria melanocephala (Vigors), Stejneger, Orn. Expl. Comm. Isl. & Kamtschatka, p. 102
(1885).

Literature. Piates.— Baird, Cassin, & Lawrence, Birds N. Amer. pl. vu.
Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 124.
Eces.—Described by Brewer on page 126 of the above-mentioned volume.

ee The Black Turnstone or Black-headed ‘Turnstone is perfectly distinct from the
‘Common Turnstone, and might be placed in a different genus from that bird by those
ornithologists who regard the discovery of a so-called structural difference as an excuse for
cumbering the literature with useless synonyms. The Black-headed ‘Turnstone has a
broader wing than its ally, the distance from the carpal joint to the tip of the first
secondary being about equal to that from the tip of the first secondary to the tip of the
first primary, whilst in the Common Turnstone the latter measurement is half an inch or
more shorter than the former. It may, however, be best diagnosed as lower back white,
chin and throat never pure white.
ee The Black-headed Turnstone is exclusively confined to the Pacific coast of North
America, breeding on the coast of Alaska and the adjacent islands, and wintering on the

tion,
coast of California. The correlation of so limited a range of migration with so limited a
development of the primaries as compared with that of the secondaries cannot be regarded
as accidental.
STREPSILAS VIRGATUS.
PLOVER-BILLED TURNSTONE.
Diagnosis. | Srrepsitas dorso postico brunneo.

Variations. No local races of this species are known.

STREPSILAS, 413

Tringa virgata, ; :

Tring sere Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 674 (1788).

Aphriza townsendi, Audubon, Syn. Birds N. Amer. p. 226 (1839).
Charadrius winterfeldti, Tschudi, Wiegm. Arch. f. Naturg. 18438, p. 388.
Aphriza virgata (Gmel.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 548 (1846).
Strepsilas borealis (Gmel.), Gay, Hist. Chile, Zool. i. p. 408 (1847).
Aphriza borealis (Gmel.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xhii. p. 420 (1856).

Strepsilas virgata (Gmel.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 45 (1865).

Pratres.—Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. pl. cxlvii.; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 822.
Hasits.—Nelson, Cruise of the ‘Corwin,’ p. 83.
Eees.— Unknown.

The Surf-bird or Plover-billed Turnstone may be recognized either by its drown lower
back, or by its dill with a terminal vault, like that of a Plover.

It is not known where the Plover-billed Turnstone breeds, but it has occurred in
various localities on the Pacific coast of America :—Norton Sound (lat. 63°) and Sitka
(lat. 57°), in Alaska; Vancouver Island and the coast of British Columbia; California ;
Peru, Bolivia, and Chili. It may almost be taken for granted that it breeds in the two
first-named localities, and winters in the three last named.

The alleged occurrence of the Surf-bird “on the Sandwich Islands, and others of the
Pacific Ocean ’’ (Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 127), is probably
a myth. Latham originally described the species from “Sandwich Sound” and “ King
George’s Sound” (Lath. Gen. Syn. Birds, ili. pt. i. pp. 180, 181) under the names of
“ Streaked Sandpiper” (summer plumage) and “ Boreal Sandpiper” (winter plumage). The
next bird but one described in Latham’s ‘General Synopsis’ is also said to inhabit King
George’s Sound, and is called the ‘“ Variegated Sandpiper.” Three years later, in 1788,
Gmelin named these birds respectively Zringa virgata, T. borealis, and T. variegata.
These names were adopted by our English ornithologist in 1790 (Latham, Index Orn. ii.
p. 735), but the locality of the latter is altered from “Inhabits King George’s Sound” to
“ Habitat in sinu Nootka.” It is therefore not unreasonable to infer that Sandwich
Sound and King George’s Sound are parts of Nootka Sound, which separates the island of
Nootka from Vancouver Island, where the Surf-bird was found by John Keast Lord (‘The
Naturalist in Vancouver Island and British Columbia,’ 1. p. 298), and by Robert Brown
(Ibis, 1868, p. 424), as well as by Capt. Prevost (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1859, p. 236)
and other travellers. The fact that Latham called the bird from King George’s Sound
the “ Boreal Sandpiper ” is corroborative evidence in favour of a northern locality.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Alleged oc-
currence on
the Sand-
wichIslands.

Diagnosis
of genus.

Generic
characters.

CHAPTER XXVII.

Sternum of Tringa subarquata.

Genus TRINGA.

CHARADRIINE primariarum prim& quam quarta valdé longiore: longitudinis differentia inter
primariam longissimam et primariam brevissimam quam rostri longitudo valdé maxima,
narium apertura ultra partem quartam rostri a basi haud extens4.

Tue cleft-toed Sandpipers are very easily diagnosed. ‘The characters of foes cleft to the
base and difference in length between the shortest and longest primary much more than the
length of the bill, exclude every other genus in the family except Strepsilas and Phegornis.
From the former they may be diagnosed by the character xasal aperture situated within

the basal fourth of the bill, and from the latter by the fact that the first primary is much
longer than the fourth.

Synonymy of the Genus TRInNGA.

Type.
Tringa, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 148 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 247 (1766) . No type.
Arenaria, Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb. ii. p. 462 a (1803, nec Brisson). . . . . T. arenaria.
Calidris, Illiger, Prodromus, p. 249 (1811). . . . . . . 1. . . «0 Te arenaria.
Erolia, Vieillot, Analyse d’une Nouv. Orn, p.55 (1816) . . . . . . . . T.subarquata.

Pelidna, Cuvier, Regne Anim. i. p. 490 KISH): SG ew we Ra we « OT alpiaa,

TRINGA. 415
Type.
Eurhynorhynchus, Nilsson, Orn. Suec. ii. p. 29 (1821) . T. pygmea.
Falcinellus, Cuvier, Régne Anim. 1. p. 527 (1829) T. subarquata,
Leimonites, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 87 (1829) T. temmincki,
Ancylocheilus, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 50 (1829) . T. subarquata.
Actodromas, Kaup, Natiiri. Syst. p. 55 (1829) T. minuta.
Canutus, Brehm, Vég. Deutsch. p. 653 (1831) T. canutus.
Scheniclus, Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 104 (1844) T. alpina.
Tringites, Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1856, p. 418 T. rufescens.
Arquatella, Baird, B. N. Amer. p. 717 (1858) ; T. maritima.
Delopygia, Coues, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1861, p. 190 T. bonaparti.
- Heteropygia, Cowes, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1861, p. 191 . T. bonaparti.
Limnocinclus, Gould, Handb. B. Austr. ii. p. 254 (1865) T. acuminata.

The genus Zringa has been split up most unmercifully by modern ornithologists into
pseudogenera, founded, for the most part, on slight differences in the shape of the bill. It
would be waste of time to point out the characters which are supposed to distinguish these
artificial Jittle genera. There can scarcely be any doubt that the rostral system when
carried out “regardless of consequences” is an unnatural one, and misrepresents in many
cases the genetic relationship of birds. The following attempt to arrange the genus Zringa
in convenient groups which shall at the same time be natural is based principally upon
colour, those parts being chosen which do not vary with age, sex, or season, and which are
presumably characters which date far back.

A. Upper tail-coverts white, or white barred or streaked with black.

B. Last secondaries (next to the tertials) white or nearly so.

C. Inner web of primaries mottled with black.

D. Upper tail-coverts the same colour or darker than the rump ; all the secondaries
grey with a more or less distinct white margin.

The type of the genus Zrimga is one of those puzzles which give ornithologists
opportunities of differmg in opinion. Linneus, who knew nothing about types in the
sense in which that much-abused word is used by modern genus-makers, placed the Ruff
at the head of his genus Zringa ; but as that species is not a Zringa at all but a Totanus, it
is impossible to accept it as the type. The type of Brisson’s genus Zringa is also a
Totanus, the Tringa tringa of Brisson being a synonym of Zotanus ochropus, the Green
Sandpiper. The next ornithologist who subdivided the genus Zringa was Bechstein, who
removed the Sanderling to a genus by itself, adopted Brisson’s genus Limosa for the
Godwits and some of the white-rumped Sandpipers, and changed the name of the genus
to Zotanus; but Bechstein still left the Ruff at the head of his restricted genus Zringa.
Thirteen years later Vieillot made a genus for the Curlew-Sandpiper, and made the
Maubéche or Knot (Zringa canutus) the type of the genus Tringa.

Rostral
system un-
natural.

Natural
subgenera.

Determina-
tion of the
type.

Climatic
distribution.

416 TRINGA.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Tringa. Arctic Rzcion. Actodromas.
ALPINA .
CANUTUS. : | Circumpolar.
ARENARIA J
MARITIMA . . . . Eurasia and East America.
Eurasian. . . . . PLATYRHYNCHA,
European and West Asiatic. oe... MINUTA.
SUBARQUATA . . .. . ! Siberian.
CRASSIROSTRIS . ( TRMMINGRT:
| RUFICOLLIS.
East Siberian. { aap aaa
ACUMINATA.
PTILOCNEMIS .... ., Islands in Behring Sea.
Islands north of Behring Straits. . 4. +) 6 PYGMEA,
COUFSI . . .... . Alaska.
Alaska and Lake Region. . + . + BAIRDI.
RUFESCENS. . . .. . Alaska to Labrador. . oo...) 6 MINUTILLA.
Alaska to Greenland. . oo. « « PECTORALIS.
BONAPARTI. . . . . . Hudson’s Bay Terr. and Greenland.

The genus Zringa is Arctic and Circumpolar. The distribution during the breeding-
season of the 20 species and subspecies of which it consists is as follows :—

Arctic America. . . . . . .. . 8

Arctic America and Eurasia. . . . . 4

Arctic Eurasia. . . . . ... . 8
Species and subspecies of Zringa. . — 20

The geographical distribution of the Zring@ is cosmopolitan, but during the breeding-
season they are for the most part Arctic birds. One or two species breed as far north as
land is known to extend ; all the species are found breeding within the Arctic Circle; the
breeding-range of very few extends to the sub-arctic regions, and no species breeds in the
tropics.

Many of the species must be regarded as post-glacial, that is to say, that during the
warm period which followed the Post-Pliocene Glacial Period they became circumpolar ; and
some are partially, others wholly, differentiated in consequence of the partial or complete
isolation produced by the comparatively recent accumulation of ice at the North Pole.

TRINGA., 417

Our first step must therefore be to ascertain these post-glacial species.

Palearctic Species. Nearctic Analogue. Post-glacial
; species.
T. subarquata. ‘T’. bonaparti.
T. maritima. | , ioe .
T. ptilocnemis.

T. acuminata. T. pectoralis.
T. platyrhyncha. T. bairdi.

T. subminuta. T. minutilla.

Our subgeneric group A contains four species, which probably represent the descendants
of the party of T'ringas which emigrated from the Polar Basin down Baffin’s Bay, and were
during the Post-Phocene Glacial Epoch isolated and differentiated on the American continent Emigrants
into the Knot (7. canutus) and Bonaparte’s Sandpiper (7: doxaparti). Each of these gare
species appears to have extended its range across Behring Straits during the succeeding America.
warm period, the western emigrants of the Knot afterwards becoming 7. crassirostris,
which breeds in East Siberia, and those of Bonaparte’s Sandpiper afterwards becoming
T. subarquata, which breeds somewhere north of the Lena.

To the three species which form group B may unhesitatingly be assigned the Atlantic Atlantic
coast of Europe as the route which their ancestors took when they escaped from the Polar eee
ice. Not only do they all breed in Iceland, but they are the only species of the genus
Tringa which do. Judging from their present winter-quarters, we may assume that
T. arenaria was differentiated in South Africa, 7. alpina in the basin of the Mediterranean
(which probably accounts for the remarkable fact that it has been known to breed in Spain),
whilst Z. maritima probably never left the outskirts of the glaciers. In post-glacial times
all three species became circumpolar. 7. arenaria appears to have maintained its homo-
geneous characters ; 7 alpina shows some signs of differentiation ; whilst 7. maritima has
become more differentiated, into 7. ptilocnemis in the Behring Sea, and into 7. cowesi in
Alaska.

Subgeneric group C, consisting of only one species, is easily disposed of. The fact Pacific coast
that 7 rufescens is very abundant in Alaska, but “its presence on the Atlantic coast is oF Ameritas
regarded as an infrequent event,” suggests at once the Pacific coast of Amcrica as the
route of the emigrations of its ancestors.

Subgeneric group D contains by far the greatest number of species, and consequently Pacific coast
requires for their differentiation the widest space and the greatest number of opportunities hela:
of isolation. The conformation of the land in Southern Asia is precisely what is required,
and we may consequently accept the Pacific coast of Asia as the route of the emigrations of
their ancestors. Again, assuming the locality where they are most abundant in winter as

the most probable area of their isolation and differentiation, we arrive at the following
3H

418 TRINGA.

conclusion :~-7. acuminata was differentiated in Australia and in post-glacial times
despatched a colony across Behring Straits, which in process of time became Z! peetoralis,
which is ‘* one of the commonest of the waders” at Point Barrow (Seebohm, Trans. Norf.
& Norw. Nat. Soc. iv. p 307). 2. pygmea was isolated somewhere on the outskirts of the
ice, possibly in the south island of Japan. 7. ruficollis was isolated on the islands of the
Malay Archipelago, and Z! subminuta in Burma or Ceylon, a colony of the latter species
crossing Behring Straits after the return north and becoming 7. minutilla. T. minuta was
doubtless isolated in India, and 7. platyrhyncha in the Persian Gulf, a colony of the latter
species subsequently crossing Behring Straits and becoming 7. dairdi. Finally, 7. temmincki
was isolated in the valley of the Nile.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

The species composing this genus are so nearly allied that it almost amounts to hair-
splitting to divide them even subgenerically. It is, however, convenient to divide them
into two groups to simplify the key to the species, and it seems possible that this sub-
division may have some historical significance.

The first group consists of those species which have as much or more white than brown
or grey on either the upper tail-coverts or the last half-dozen secondaries (true secondaries,
not tertials) :—

Wing 7 inches or more. . _ crassirostris . )
| Bill 1 inch or more from fron-
tal i
Whee eead« . panaiae . al feathers. More white
| than brown on upper tail-
| coverts.
subarquata pd
f Bill ‘9 inch or less from frontal
bonaparti . < feathers. More white than
l brown on upper tail-coverts.
alpina.
Hire x « Rump and upper tail-coverts
nearly black.
arenaria ... Hind toe absent.

The second group consists of th
ose species which have very little white, ei
upper tail-coverts or secondaries :— ; Speers

TRINGA. 419

- Inner web of primaries mottled
rufescens . :
a with black.
Wing more than 4 inches acuminata.
from carpal joint.
bairdi.
L platyrhyncha . Bill much longer than the
t ;
Feet and legs black . . . % reaaae er th
ul twice as broad near the
mea
Pys end as at the base.
\ minuta.
subminuta.

Outer tail - feathers

re a temmincki.

All the characters enumerated in both groups are believed to apply to male and
female, old and young, in summer and winter plumage.

TRINGA SUBARQUATA.
CURLEW SANDPIPER.

Trinea supracaudalibus albis (hiem.), aut albis nigricante fasciatis, spe castaneo notatis (zstiv.): Diagnosis.
rostro valdé decurvato.

No local races of this species are known. Variations.

Scolopax subarquata, Giildenstidt, Nov. Comm. Petrop. xix. p. 471 (1775). Synonymy.
Numenius pygmeus, Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl. i, p. 291 (1787).

ae ait eins Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 655 (1788).

Numenius africanus (Gmel.), Latham, Index Orn, ii. p. 712 (1790).

Scolopax dethardingii, Siemssen, Handb, Mecklenb. Land- u. Wasservogel, p. 169 (1794).
Numenius subarquata (Gild.), Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb. ii. p. 276 (1803).

Numenius ferrugineus, Meyer, Taschend. ii. p. 856 (1810).
302

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Breeding-
grounds.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

420 TRINGA.

Tringa subarquata (Giild.), Temminck, Man. d’ Orn. p. 893 (1815).

Tringa pygmea (Lath.), Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 30 (1816).
Erolia variegata, Vicillot, Analyse, p. 69 (1816).

Faleinellus pygmeeus (Lath.), Cuvier, Regn. An. i. p. 486 (1817).

Trynga falcinella, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso- Asiat. ii. p. 188 (1826).

Ancylocheilus subarquatus (Giild.), Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 50 (1829).
Falcinellus cursorius, Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 510 (1830).

Pelidna subarquata (Giild.), Brehm, Vég. Deutschl. p. 657 (1831).

Tringa (Pelidna) chinensis, Gray, Zool. Miscell. p. 2 (1831).

Hrolia varia, Vieillot, Gal. des Ois. ii. p. 89 (1834).

Faleinellus cuvieri, Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 50 (1838).
Scheeniclus subarquatus (Giild.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 105 (1844).
Tringa ferruginea, Briinnich, fide Coues & Co. Check-list N. Amer. Birds, p. 152 (1886).

Piates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 851; Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 510; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv.
pl. 68; Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 553.

Huasirs.—Seebohm, British Birds, ii. p. 180.

Eeoes.— Unknown.

The Curlew Sandpiper is the only Zringa with white on the upper tail-coverts which
has a decurved 6ill.

Its seasonal changes of plumage precisely resemble those of the Knot, to which it is
obviously very closely allied.

The breeding-grounds of the Curlew Sandpiper are as yet undiscovered. The few
stray examples which have been obtained on the shores of the Arctic Ocean during summer
are probably very old birds which have ceased to breed, or very young birds which have
not begun to breed. It probably breeds on the Liakov Islands, as Dr. Bunge observed
small flocks passing through the delta of the Lena on migration during the middle of June
(Seebohm, ‘Trans. Norf. & Norw. Nat. Soc. iv. p. 303). The alleged breeding of the
Curlew Sandpiper on the Yalmal Peninsula and in Greenland (Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway,
Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 248) are both admitted to be myths, as is unquestionably the
story of its nest and eggs having been discovered in Scotland (Gray, Birds of the West of
Scotland, p- 318); and the statement of Sabanaeff that it may breed in the Ural Mountains
must be referred to the same category (Harvie Brown, Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow,
1877, p. 308).

‘The Curlew Sandpiper is not an uncommon bird on the coasts of the British Islands
during the period of its autumn migration and is occasionally seen in spring. It is
doubtfully recorded from Iceland and Greenland, but inasmuch as it occurs as an accidental
straggler on the Atlantic coast of North America, it is most probable that these records are
true. Both Henke and Harvie Brown obtained it in summer at Archangel; I found it
both in the valleys of the Petchora and the Yenesay. Middendorff obtained it on the

TRINGA. 421

Taimyr Peninsula, and it was observed by the Vega Expedition near Behring Straits. It
passes along the European coasts, the great inland lines of migration, and along the coasts
of China, but it has not been recorded from Kamtschatka or Japan. A few remain to
winter in the basin of the Mediterranean, but the majority pass on to Africa, throughout
which continent they are found in suitable localities, both on the coast and inland. Bohm
obtained it in Central Africa, west of Lake Tanganyika (Journ. Orn. 1885, p. 64). It also
winters on the Mekran coast, in India, Ceylon, the Andaman Islands, Burma, the islands
of the Malay Archipelago, and in Australia. In the arctic regions of the American

continent it is represented by Bonaparte’s Sandpiper, a perfectly distinct, though nearly
allied, species.

TRINGA CRASSIROSTRIS.
JAPANESE KNOT.

Trinea supracaudalibus aut albis (hiem.), aut albis nigrescente notatis (zstiv.) : rostro recto, longo
(40 ad 46 millim.).

No local races of this species are known.

Tringa crassirostris, Temminck & Schlege!, Fauna Japon., Aves, p. 107 (1847).
Scheniclus magnus, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1848, p. 39.

Tringa magna (Gould), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 596 (1856).

Tringa tenuirostris (Horsfield), apud Swinhoe, Gould, &c.

Prates.—Temm. & Schlegel, Fauna Japon., Aves, pl. 64; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 33 ;
Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, pl. 1x1.

Haszits.—Hume, Stray Feathers, 1873, p. 240.

Eees.— Unknown.

The Japanese Knot is the only Zringa with white on the upper tail-coverts which has
a straight bill more than an inch and a half long.

In summer plumage it has no chestnut on the underparts, and the chestnut on the
upper parts is principally confined to the scapulars. In winter plumage the two Knots
scarcely differ except in size.

Wing. Bill.
Japanese Knot. . -. . 76 to 70 1:8 to 1:6
Common Knot. . . . 6'8 to 62 15 to lel

The measurements are inches and decimals—the wing from the carpal joint, the bill
from the frontal feathers.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

422 TRINGA.

‘The breeding-grounds of the Japanese Knot are unknown, but Middendorff observed
it during the whole summer on the southern shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, though he
obtained no evidence of its nesting there. It has occurred on migration in the valley of
the Ussuri, on the coasts of Japan and China, and on most of the islands of the Malay
Archipelago. It winters on the coasts of Australia, has occurred on the Andaman Islands,
and in considerable numbers on the coast of Scinde.

It is very closely allied to the Common Knot.

TRINGA CANUTUS.
KNOT.

Trinea supracaudalibus albis nigrescente fasciatis spe (in ptil. astiv.) castaneo notatis: rostro
recto, quam 40 millim. breviore.

No local races of this species are known.

Tringa canutus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 149 (1758) ; Brisson, Orn. v. p. 258 (1760); Linn.
Syst. Nat. i. p. 251 (1766).

Tringa calidris,

Tringa calidris nevi, rion, Orn. v. pp. 226, 230, 233 (1760).

Tringa calidris grisea,

Tringa calidris, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 252 (1766, immature plumage).

Tringa islandica, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. pt. u. Addenda (1767, summer plumage).

Tringa australis,

Tringa nevia, i Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. pp. 679, 681 (1788).
Tringa grisea,

TRINGA., 423

Tringa ferruginea, Meyer, Taschenbd. ii. p. 395 (1810).

Tringa rufa, Wilson, Amer. Orn. vii. p. 43 (1818).

Calidris canutus (Briss.), Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 489 (1817).

Calidris islandica (Linn.), Ross, Voy. of Discovery, ed. 2, ii. App. iv. p. 167 (1819).
Canutus islandicus (Linn.), Brehm, Vig. Deutschi. p. 654 (1831).

Calidris canutus (Linn.), Gould, B. Eur. iv. pl. 324 (1837).

Tringa lomatina, Lichtenstein, Nomencl. Av. p. 92 (1854).

Tringa cooperi, Baird, Cassin, & Lawrence, B. N. Amer. p. 716 (1858).
Heteropygia cooperi (Baird), Cowes, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1861, p. 191.
Actodromas cooperi (Baird), Ridgway, Nom. N. Amer. B. p. 44 (1881).

Puates.—Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pls. 555, 556; Gould, Birds of Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 65. Literature.
Hasits.—Seebohm, Brit. Birds, iii. p. 174.
Eees.— Unknown.

The Knot has three allies which, like it, have the ground colour of the upper tail-coverts Specific cha-
white. Two of these, 7. subarquata and PT. bonaparti, are much smaller birds, with wings '#¢t?®-
less than 5% inches from the carpal joint. The distinction between 7 canutus and
T. crassirostris has already been pointed out.

In full breeding-plumage the whole of the underparts are chestnut, and the ground-
colour of most of the upper parts, sometimes even of a few of the upper tail-coverts, is also

chestnut, but all trace of red disappears in winter.

Scarcely anything is known of the breeding-places of the Knot, and authenticated Geographi-
eggs are entirely unknown in collections. In 1820 Sabine found it breeding in great oleae
abundance on Melville Island, about lat. 80°; in 1823 it was observed breeding on
Melville Peninsula, about lat. 67°; Richardson (Faun. Bor.-Amer. ii. p. 387) says that it
also breeds in Hudson’s Bay, as far south as lat. 55°; and on the 9th of July, 1853, a
female example was obtained at Cambridge Bay, in lat. 69°, by the surgeon of the
‘Enterprise ;’ but it is not known that eggs obtained on these expeditions are in any
collection. In 1876 Capt. Feilden, the naturalist on board the ‘ Alert,’ obtained young in
down, as well as their parents, on Grinnell-Land, in lat. 824°; and Mr. Hart, the naturalist
of the ‘Discovery,’ on the same coast, in lat. §12°, also secured young in down; but
neither of these naturalists procured any eggs. It has also been obtained in Alaska and
Greenland. It passes through Iceland on migration, but is not known to breed there.

In the arctic regions of the Old World our information is still more meagre. Henke
observed it in the delta of the Dwina in summer, but failed to obtain eggs. It has been
observed on migration in the valleys of the Kama and the Obb; but Harvie Brown and I
saw nothing of it in the delta of the Petchora. It is not recorded from either Spitzbergen
or Nova Zembla; Finsch failed to observe it on the Yalmal Peninsula; nor was I any
more fortunate in the delta of the Yenesay. Middendorff saw nothing of it on the Taimyr
Peninsula, except that he picked up a dead bird in autumn, and shot two birds on the

27th of May. Dybowski only obtained one example, near Lake Baikal, which had been

Nearest
allies.

424 TRINGA.

shot on the 24th of August. Middendorff saw flocks of this bird on the 7th of July at the
mouth of the Uda, in the Sea of Okhotsk (about lat. 55°); and Schrenck obtained two
examples on the 29th of August at the mouth of the Amoor, a few miles to the east of the
latter locality.

The alleged egg of the Knot obtained by Greely near Fort Conger (Auk, 1883, p. 313)
cannot be accepted as authentic. It exactly resembles in size and colour eggs of Hreunetes
pusillus. It was most likely an egg of that species, though it is not impossible that it may
have been the egg of the Curlew Sandpiper or of the Grey Phalarope, either of which
birds might, in breeding-plumage, be mistaken by an inexperienced observer for the Knot.
I have an egg in my collection which I believe to be that of a Knot. It was sent in 1875
with the bird to Copenhagen by Coloniforsteher Bolbroe from Disco, in Greenland. It is
unfortunately indistinguishable from a very handsome Snipe’s egg, more boldly blotched
and paler in ground-coiour than usual. The Snipe has never been known to breed so far
north as lat. 71°, and it is quite possible that the eggs of the Knot may be indistinguishable
from those of the Snipe, but it does not seem possible that they are indistinguishable from
those of the Semipalmated Stint.

‘The Knot is very rare in the Mediterranean during winter, but in spring and autumn
it passes in considerable numbers to and from its winter-quarters on the west coast of
Africa, where it occurs as far south as Damara-Land. North of the French coast the
stream of migration divides, one route taking the west coast of England and Scotland
through the Faroes to Iceland and Greenland; but the main route following the Dutch
and German coasts through Heligoland or the east coast of Great Britain, through the
Orkneys and the Shetlands, to the North Cape. It has only occurred once or twice in
India, and not at all in Ceylon or Burma; but on the west coast of the Pacific it passes
Japan and China on migration, to winter in Australia and New Zealand. It does not
appear to be recorded from the Pacific coast of America; but it passes in considerable
numbers on migration on the Atlantic coast of that continent, as well as along some of the
well-known inland fly-lines, and has been obtained in winter as far south as Brazil

The Knot is a very close ally of the Japanese Knot, and must be a very near connection
of the Curlew Sandpiper.

TRINGA. 425

TRINGA ALPINA.
DUNLIN.

Trica secundariis internis (septima, octavi nonAque) pro majore parte albis: supracaudalibus Diagnosis.
centralibus vix albo notatis: halluce parvo: pedibus nigris.

Exampirs from Eastern Asia and America are on an average slightly larger than those Variations.
from Europe and Western Asia, and may be regarded as subspecifically distinct.

Tringa alpina, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 149 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 249 (1766). Synonymy.
Tringa cinclus,

Tringa cinclus torquatus, + ris, Orn. v. pp. 211, 216, 309 (1760).
Scolopax gallinago anglicana,

Tringa cinclus, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 251 (1766, winter plumage).

Scolopax pusilla, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 663 (1788).

Numenius variabilis, Bechstein, Naturg. Deutschi. iii. p. 141 (1809).

Tringa variabilis (Bechst.), Meyer, Taschenb. ii. p. 397 (1810).

Pelidna cinclus (Briss.), Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 490 (1817).

Tringa schinzii, Brehm, Beitr. Vogelk. iii. p. 355 (1822).

Pelidna variabilis (Bechst.), Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xii. pt. i. p. 98 (1824).
Scolopax alpina (Linn.), Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 176 (1826).
Scheeniclus cinclus (Briss.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 104 (1844).
Tringa cinclus minor, Schlegel, Rev. Crit. p. 89 (1844).

3I

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
allies,

426 TRINGA.

Prates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. nos. 851, 852; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pls. 69, 70; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, viii. pl. 548.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, i. p. 184.

Eces.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 31. figs. 1, 2.

The Dunlin belongs to the section of the genus Zringa which has a great deal of
white on the seventh, eighth, and ninth secondaries (next the tertials), but /¢¢éle or none on
the central upper tail-coverts. ‘The only other species in the section are 7. arenaria and
T. maritima (the latter including its two subspecific allies). From the former it may easily
be distinguished by its Aind toe, and from the latter by its dlack legs.

The Dunlin is probably the only species of Zringa which breeds in the British
Islands. It is a regular summer visitor to the Orkney and Shetland Islands, to the Outer
Hebrides, and to the West of Scotland; but in England and Ireland it is principally known
as a winter visitor, though a few pairs are said still to breed on the Northumberland moors,
the mountains of the Lake district, the Cheshire marshes, the Welsh mountains, the
Cornish moors, and the Irish bogs.

The Dunlin is a circumpolar bird, breeding throughout the arctic regions of both
continents—in Asia up to lat. 74°, but in America probably not so far north. It breeds
in Greenland, on Iceland, and the Faroes; and in suitable localities throughout Scandinavia,
Denmark, Finland, and the Baltic Provinces. An isolated instance is on record of its
having bred in Spain ; and I have an egg in my collection out of a clutch of four from
which the bird was shot by Mr. Abel Chapman in the marshes of the Guadalquivir. It
winters in the basin of the Mediterranean, in Spain and Portugal, and in North Africa ;
on the west coast it has not been found further south than the Canaries, but on the east
coast it is said to cross the lme to Zanzibar. On niigration it passes along the valleys of
the Kama and the Volga, and through Turkestan, to winter on the southern shores of the
Caspian and the Mekran coast. I did not meet with it in the valley of the Yenesay until
lat. 69°; Dybowski did not obtain it near Lake Baikal, neither has it occurred in the
valley of the Amoor except near the coast. It passes on migration along the east coast of
Siberia, visiting Japan and North China, and winters in South China, Formosa, Borneo,
and Java. It has not occurred in Burma, and is only a rare visitor to the coasts of North
India. On the American continent it migrates along both coasts, and winters in the
Sonthern States and in the West Indies.

It is somewhat remarkable that a bird which breeds so far north should seldom if
ever winter in the southern hemisphere ; but it must be remembered that the breeding-
range of no other Zringa extends so far south.

It is the only Zringa which has a black belly, but this peculiarity is confined to the
breeding-plumage. It is probably nearest allied to Zringa maritima ptilocnemis, which
has somewhat obscurely developed dark patches on the breast in breeding-plumage.

TRINGA. 427

TRINGA ALPINA PACIFICA.
PACIFIC DUNLIN.

TRINGA ALPINA magnitudine pauld majore.

Tue Pacific Dunlin completely intergrades with its European ally.

Tringa alpina, var. americana, Baird, Cassin, § Lawrence, Birds N. Amer. p.719 (1858).
Pelidna pacifica, Cowes, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1861, p. 189.

Pelidna alpina americana (Cassin), Ridgway, Proc. U. States Nat. Mus. 1881, p. 200.
Tringa alpina pacifica (Coues), Coues & Co. Check-list N. Amer. Birds, p. 152 (1886).

Prates.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 242 (head only).
Hasits.

poe } Desoribed by Brewer (oc. cit.) as exactly similar to those of the common form.

This race of the Dunlin appears to have some claim to recognition on the ground that
in Europe and Western Asia examples are found in which the wing, measured from the
carpal joint, is less than 4°4 inch in length, and the culmen, measured from the skull,
less than 1°4 inch (or measured from the frontal feathers less than 1°25); whilst in Asia
east of the Yenesay and in America examples are found in which the wing is more than
4°8 and the culmen more than 1°7 inch (or from frontal feathers 1:5). ‘The intergradation
is, however, so nearly complete that it is doubtful whether a large enough series would
not make the difference disappear. The comparative measurements are as follows :—

Europe and Eastern Asia
Western Asia. and America.

ln. 1n. 1n. in.

Length of wing from carpal jomt . . 41 to 4°8 4:4. to 49
Length of bill from skull . . . . 12 tol7 1:4 to 1:8
Length of bill from frontal feathers . 1:0 to 15 1:2 to 1:6

It is impossible to say to which form the Yenesay birds belong, as all the examples
which I obtained fall within the measurements common to both.

American ornithologists imagine that the Dunlins on their continent are not only
larger birds than ours, but have more red and less black on the upper parts, and much
fewer dark streaks on the breast in summer plumage. To a limited extent this is true if

312

Diagnosis,

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Alleged
difference
in colour.

428 TRINGA.

examples from the shores of the Atlantic are compared with those from the shores of the
Pacific. Out of a series of a hundred skins from all parts of its range an example shot in
the valley of the Petchora on the 22nd of June shows the most chestnut-red on the back
and scapulars. A bird shot in autumn on Formosa, in the process of moulting its
primaries, shows the most black on the back and scapulars, and has the longest bill; it is
of course in very abraded plumage. As the summer progresses not only do the chestnut
margins of the feathers wear off, but the black centres of each feather enlarge in size and
intensify in colour. The same change takes place on the feathers of the underparts. The
new feathers appear in April—on the throat and upper breast white with narrow central
dark streaks, on the lower breast and belly black with narrow white margins. In the
course of the summer the white margins of the feathers disappear from the belly and
beeome narrower on the throat, the dark central streaks at the same time enlarging until
they become very conspicuous. Two skins from Formosa, one of them the long-billed
example already mentioned, have the dark breast-streaks most developed; and two skins
from the Kurile Islands, dated the 3rd of May, have them least developed, but not less so
than African skins dated the 23rd of March and the 8th of April. The latter, however,
are only beginning to acquire their black bellies.
The geographical range of this race of Dunlin has already been given.

Wiss

WC

TRINGA MARITIMA.
PURPLE SANDPIPER.

Diagnosis, | TRinGa secundariis septim, octava nonaque pro majore parte albis: pedibus pallidis.

TRINGA. 429

In the arctic regions of America this species is subject to considerable variation. Variations.

Tringa maritima, Briinnich, Orn. Bor. p. 54 (1764) ; Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 678 (1788). Synonymy.
Tringa nigricans, Montagu, Trans. Linn. Soc. iv. p. 40 (1798).

Tringa canadensis, Latham, Index Orn. ii. Suppl. p. Ixv (1801).

Totanus maritimus (Gmel.), Stephens, Shaw’s Gen. Zool. xii. pt. i. p. 146 (1824).

Trynga arquatella, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 190 (1826).

Calidris maritima (Briinn.), Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 525 (1829).

Arguatella maritima (Gmel.), Cowes, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad. 1861, p. 183.

Priates.—Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 75; Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 554. Literature.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iti. p. 192.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 31. figs. 1, 2.

The Purple Sandpiper may be diagnosed by two characters from all its congeners, Specific
except the two which are doubtfully distinct from it. ‘These two characters are rump and pene
upper tail-coverts nearly black, seventh to ninth secondaries nearly all white.

From the two forms which are probably not more than subspecifically distinct from it
this bird differs in the following particulars :—

T. maritima. T. couesi. T. ptilocnemis. Subspecific

characters.
Feathers of upper parts Feathers of upper parts Feathers of upper parts

in adult summer dress mostly in adult summer dress mostly —_in adult summer dress mostly
margined with white, a few margined with chestnut, a few margined with pale chestnut,
with chestnut anda few with with white and a few with a few with white and a few

pale slate-grey. pale slate-grey. with pale slate-grey.
Breast-feathers in summer Margins of breast-feathers in summer more or less buff.
slate-grey with white margins.
White margins to all the feathers of the breast. White margins of feathers

absent on sides of breast, thus
forming two dark patches.

Outer web of primaries slate-grey, more or less narrowly Basal half of outer web of
margined with white on the basal half of the four or five inner- the four or five innermost
most. primaries white.

Length of wing 54 to Length of wing 5:2 to Length of wing 5-4 to
4°8 inch. 4°5 inch. 5:0 inch.

The Purple Sandpiper might almost be regarded as a resident in the Circumpolar Geographi-
Region. It is a summer visitor to North Greenland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, and the aie
Taimyr Peninsula; but in South Greenland, Iceland, the Faroes, and on the Norwegian

Diagnosis.

Synonymy.

Literature.

430 TRINGA.

coasts it is a resident. It winters in some numbers on the coasts of the British Islands,
on the southern shores of the North Sea, and sparingly on the northern shores of the
Mediterranean. It probably breeds on both coasts of Behring Straits and across Arctic
America ; but more or less isolation with its attendant differentiation appears to have taken
place in the Behring Sea, so that the birds from this district are regarded as at least
subspecifically distinct. It has not been recorded from Japan, but J have a skin in my
collection in winter plumage (which has the basal half of the innermost web of the
innermost primaries white) obtained by Wosnessenski in the Kurile Islands. It winters
on the shores of the Great Lakes and on the coasts of New Brunswick, occasionally
occurring on the Bermudas and the Azores. A solitary individual is said to have wandered
as far as South Africa (Finsch, Abhandl. nat. Ver. Bremen, iii. p. 65), but the statement
requires confirmation.

Like its near relation the Dunlin, the Purple Sandpiper breeds far south and winters

far north.

TRINGA MARITIMA COUESI.
ALEUTIAN PURPLE SANDPIPER.

TRINGA MARivIMA magnitudine minore, in ptil. est. dorso valdé castaneo ornato, pectore fulvo
suffuso: in ptil. hiem. vix distinguenda.

Arguatella couesi, Ridgway, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, 1880, p. 160.
Tringa couesi (Ridgw.), Hartlaub, Journ. Orn. 1883, p. 280.

PiatEs.—None.
Hasits.—Stejneger, Orn. Exp. Kamtschatka, p. 112.
Eees.—Stejn. Orn. Exp. Kamtsch. p. 114.

The differences between the Aleutian Purple Sandpiper and the typical form have
already been pointed out. The former appears to replace the latter in the North Pacific,
but the two forms are very closely allied.

TRINGA. 431

TRINGA MARITIMA PTILOCNEMIS.
PRYBILOF PURPLE SANDPIPER

TRINGA MARITIMA COUESI primariarum interiorum pogoniis externis ad basin albis ad rhachidem. Diagnosis.

Tringa ptilocnemis, Coues, Birds North-West, p. 491 (1874). Synonymy.
Tringa gracilis, Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 242.
Arquatella ptilocnemis (Coues}, Ridgway, Bull Nutt. Orn. Club, 1880, p. 168.

Prates.—None.
Hasirs.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 222.

Eces.—Described by Brewer on page 224 of the above-mentioned volume as averaging slightly
larger than those of the typical form.

Literature.

The differences between the Prybilof Purple Sandpiper and the typical form have
already been pointed out. It is difficult to believe even in the subspecific distinctness of a
Purple Sandpiper said to be isolated during the breeding-season on the Prybilof Islands,
almost in the middle of the Behring Sea, and to wander in flocks during the rest of the
year as far as the Kurile Islands on the one side and the coast of Alaska on the other.

Such a geographical anomaly can only be accepted provisionally pending further
information.

TRINGA ARENARIA.
SANDERLING.

Trinea halluce nullo. Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature,

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

432 TRINGA.

Anrnoucn the Sanderling is circumpolar in its range, it is not known to vary locally in
any way. The variations due to season and age are fully described (Seebohm, British
Birds, iii. p. 224). Newton’s opinion (Ibis, 1859, p. 256) that American examples are
larger than ours must have been arrived at after the examination of too small a series.
The length of wing varies from 4°7 to 5:0 inch in both.

Tringa calidris grisea minor, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 236 (1760).

Tringa arenaria
; _ Nat. i. pp. 251, 255 (1768).
Charadrius calidnis, }2i"news Syst. Nat. 1. pp ( )

Charadrius rubidus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 688 (1788).

Arenaria vulgaris, Bechstein, Orn. Taschen. p. 4624 (1803).

Arenaria grisea, Bechstein, Naturg. Deutschl. iii. p. 368 (1809).

Arenaria calidris (Linn.), Meyer, Taschenb. ii. p. 326 (1810).

Calidris arenaria (Linn.), Iiliger, Prodr. p. 249 (1811).

Calidris rubidus (Gmel.), Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxx. p. 127 (1819).
Calidris tringoides, Vieillut, Gal. des Ois. iii. p. 95 (1825).

Trynga tridactyla, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 198 (1826).

Pratzes.—Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 66; Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pls. 559, 560.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, ii. p. 221.
Eecs,.—Feilden, Nares’ Voy. Pol. Sea, ii. pl. i.; Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 27. fig. 8.

The Sanderling is most easily diagnosed by the absence of a hind toe.

The Sanderling is a circumpolar bird, and doubtless breeds on all the coasts of the
Arctic Ocean, though its eggs have only been taken on the Anderson River (lat. 68°), in
Grinnell-Land (lat. 823°), Greenland, Sabine Island (lat. 743°), and in Iceland (lat. 65°).
On the Asiatic coast I have shot it myself in July in lat. 64°, Middendorff observed it on
the Taimyr Peninsula in lat. 74°, and it is a common bird in summer in Alaska. Its lines
of migration are not only along the coasts of Europe, Asia, and America, but also across
country, as it occurs in some numbers in spring and autumn on the Volga, the Kama, and
Lake Baikal. Its winter range is very extensive, a few remaining in the basin of the
Mediterranean and on the islands of West Africa, but the greater number reaching
South Africa, where I found it a common bird both in ‘lable Bay and near Durban. It
is particularly common on the Mekran coast, but very rare in India, Ceylon, and Burma.
It is a winter visitor to China, Japan, and the islands of the Malay Archipelago, the whole
of the coasts of South America, the West Indies, and the Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist,

1879, p. 477), and the Galapagos Archipelago (Dr. Habel, Trans. Zool. Soc. ix.
p- 503).

TRINGA. 433

TRINGA PLATYRHYNCHA.
BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER.

Trinea supracaudalibus centralibus et secundariis interioribus vix albo notatis: rostro quam tarsus Diagnosis.
vel quam alz pars quarta longiore.

Ir is not known that Eastern birds differ in any way from Western examples. Variations.

Tringa platyrincha, Temminck, Man. d’Orn. p. 398 (1815). Synonymy.
Tringa eloroides, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. xxxiv. p. 463 (1819).

Pelidna platyrhincha (Temm.), Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 50 (1838).

Limicola platyrhincha (Temm.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 107 (1844).

Limicola hartlaubi, Verreauax, Vinson’s Voy. Madag., Ann. B, p. 5 (1865).

Limicola sibirica, Dresser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1876, p. 674.

Limicola pygmea (Lath.), apud Bechstein, Koch, Naumann, Keyserling & Blasius, Savi,
Schlegel, &c.

Prates.—Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 75; Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 545. Literature.
Hazrts.—Seebohm, British Birds, ii. p. 197.
Eccs.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 27. figs. 10, 11, 12.

The Broad-billed Sandpiper may always be recognized by its long, flat, and curiously Specific
shaped bilZ, which is more than a fourth of the length of the wing, and is slightly widened ee
towards the middle 1. To make the diagnosis complete it is only necessary to add /ittle or
no white on the secondaries and upper tail-coverts.

The Broad-billed Sandpiper is a very local bird during the breeding-season, but its Geographi-
range extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Wolley found it breeding near Muonioniska ne
in lat. 68°; and on the Scandinavian mountains it breeds in considerable abundance as far
south as lat. 60°. ‘I'here appears to be no foundation for the statement that it has occurred
at Archangel. Harvie Brown and I did not meet with it in the Petchora, but Bogdanow
records it from the Volga; Sabanaeff does not record it from the Ural; neither did Finsch
meet with it in the valley of the Obb. It has not been recorded by any Siberian traveller
from the Yenesay; neither did Middendorff meet with it on the Taimyr Peninsula.

Dybowski obtained a single example near Lake Baikal ; and Middendorff only met with it

1 The alleged bare chin of this species (Lunel, Bull. Soc. Orn. Suisse, 1865, p. 31) is a myth.
3K

434 TRINGA.

on the southern shores of the Sea of Okhotsk. Neither Prjevalsky nor Severtzow met with
this species ; but it occasionally occurs on migration on the coasts of Europe and Japan.
It winters in the basin of the Mediterranean and North Africa, on the Mekran coast, and
the coasts of North India, occasionally straying as far south as Madagascar, Ceylon, and the
Andaman Islands. It has also occurred during the cold season in Burma, the Malay
Peninsula, Java, the Philippine Islands, Formosa, and China.

TRINGA TEMMINCKI.
TEMMINCK’S STINT.

Diagnosis. | Trinea rectricibus lateralibus albis.

Variations. No local races of this species are known.

Synonymy. Tringa temminckii, Leisler, Nachtr. Bechst. Naturg. Deutschl. ii. p. 78 (1812).
Pelidna temminckii (Leis!.), Boie, Isis, 1826, p. 979.
Leimonites temminckii (Leis/.), Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 37 (1829).
Calidris temminckii (Leis/.), Cuvier, Regne An. i. p. 526 (1829).
Scheniclus temminckii (Leisl.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 106 (1844).
Actodromas temmincki (Leis/.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xiiii. p. 596 (1856).

TRINGA. 435

Piates.—Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 41; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 73; Dresser, Birds of
Europe, viii. pl. 549. fig. 1, pl. 551. fig. 2.

Hasirs.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 217.

Eces.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 81. figs. 7, 8.

Temminck’s Stint is the only Zriaga having pure white outer tail-feathers.

It is essentially an Arctic bird, breeding in the Old World portion of the Circum-
polar Region on the tundras above the limit of forest-growth, and in similar localities
on the banks of the great rivers as far south as lat. 65°, on the shores of the White
Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia, and as far south as lat. 55° on the shores of the Sea of
Okhotsk. It is also recorded as breeding above the limit of forest-growth on the Pamir
and the mountains of Dauria; but the evidence in support of these statements is very
unsatisfactory. It has not been recorded from Kamtschatka, nor has it ever been observed
in Japan ; but it was obtained by the ‘ Vega’ expedition in Tchuski-Land. On migration
it passes not only along the coasts of Europe and China, but also along most of the inland
lines of migration, to its winter-quarters in the basin of the Mediterranean and North
Africa, India and Ceylon, Burma, South China, Borneo, and probably other islands of the
Malay Archipelago.

tC fest,
i

i

TRINGA MINUTA.
LITTLE STINT.

TRinGa magnitudine parva (ale quam 100 millim. breviores): rostro ad basin latissimo: pedibus

nigris.

aK 2

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-

cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

436 TRINGA.

Tus Little Stints east of the Taimyr Peninsula have so much more red on the breast in
summer plumage that they may fairly be regarded as subspecifically distinct.

Tringa cinclus minor, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 215 (1760).

Tringa pusilla, Linn. apud Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl. i. p. 292 (1787).
Tringa minuta, Leisler, Nachtr. Bechst. Naturg. Deutschl. 1. p. 74 (1812).
Pelidna minuta (Linn.), Boie, Isis, 1826, p. 979.

Actodromas minuta (Linn.), Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 55 (1829).

Calidris minuta (Leisl.), Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 526 (1829).

Scheniclus minuta (Linn.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 106 (1844).

Prares.—Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 72; Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 549. fig. 2, pl. 551.
_fig. 1.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, i. p. 204.
Eecs.—Seebohm & Harvie Brown, Ibis, 1876, pl. vii.; Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 31. figs. 10,
11, 12.

The Little Stint may be diagnosed from all its congeners (except from the Red-throated
Stint, which is merely the Eastern form of the Little Stint) by the following characters :
wing less than four inches (measured from the carpal joint); 42/7 narrow, broadest at the
base ; legs and toes black.

It is not known that 7. minuta and J. minuta ruficollis differ in any respect from each
other in winter plumage, but in breeding-dress they are generally distinct enough. The
Western form has a white chin and throat, but the breast is streaked with chestnut ; whilst
the Eastern form has the chin, throat, and upper breast uniform chestnut.

The Little Stint breeds in great numbers, though very locally, on the Siberian tundras
above the limit of forest-growth from the North Cape to the 'Taimyr Peninsula. It has also
been seen in summer on Waigatz Island and on Nova Zembla, and doubtless breeds in
both these localities. It passes along the European coasts, the valleys of the Kama and
the Volga, and through West Siberia and Turkestan on migration, to winter in suitable
localities throughout Africa, including the valley of the Nile and Central Africa, where
Bohm obtained it near Lake Tanganyika (Matschie, Journ. Orn. 1887, p. 138). It also
winters in Persia, India, Ceylon, and Burma.

It belongs to a small group of dwarf Sandpipers or Stints of which eight forms are
known, having wings less than four inches in length. Two of these have distinct webs at
the bases of the toes, and are therefore placed in another genus. Six belong to the genus

TRINGA. 437

Tringa, but of these three have pale legs and feet, and one has a shovel-shaped bill. The
remaining two are the Eastern and Western forms of the Little Stint.

TRINGA MINUTA RUFICOLLIS.
RED-THROATED STINT. (Puate XV.)

Trinca MINuTA in ptil. estiv. gutture castaneo: in ptil. hiem. haud a Tringa minuta typica
distinguenda.

Ir is believed that the Red-throated and Little Stints completely intergrade in summer
plumage. They are indistinguishable in winter plumage.

? Tringa albescens', Temminck, Pil. Col. no. 41 (1823).
Trynga ruficollis, Pallas, Reise Russ. Reichs, ii. p. 700 (1776).

' Tringa albescens of Temminck appears to be a composite species : “les deux pennes latérales de la queue
sont blanches” can only apply to LT. temmincki, but “toutes les parties inférieures sont d’un roussatre-clair ”
cannot: possibly apply to that species, and is a gross exaggeration when applied to 7. minuta ruficollis,

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

438 TRINGA.

Tringa salina, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 199 (1826).

Calidris albescens (Temm.), Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 526 (1829).

Tringa australis, Lesson, Traité d’ Orn. p. 558 (1831).

Schceniclus albescens (Temm.), Gould, Birds Austraha, vi. pl. 31 (1848).

Actodromas albescens (Temm.), \ 7
. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 596 (1856).
Actodromas australis (Less.), aa eae ( )

Tringa minuta ruficollis (Temm.), Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 205.

Prates.—Previously unfigured.
Hasits.—Unrecorded.
Eeocs.—Undescribed.

The differences between the Little Stint and the Red-throated Stint or Eastern form
of the Little Stint have already been pointed out.

The Red-throated Stint breeds in Eastern Siberia. It was originally described by
Pallas from Dauria, and was probably the species found breeding on the islands of the
delta of the Lena by Dr. Bunge (Seebohm, Trans. Norf. & Norw. Nat. Soc. iv. p. 308).
It was observed by Stejneger passing Behring Island late in May, and Middendorff found
it during the first half of July on the southern shores of the Sea of Okhotsk. It passes
Lake Baikal, Japan, and China on migration, and winters in the Malay Archipelago and
Australia.

TRINGA SUBMINUTA.
MIDDENDORFF’S STINT.

Trinea magnitudine parva (ale quam 100 millim. breviores): pedibus pallidis : rectricibus laterali-
bus fuscis.

Tue American form of this species has on an average a smaller foot than the Siberian form
and may be regarded as subspecifically distinct.

? Totanus damacensis, Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 192 (1821).

Tringa subminuta, Middendorff, Reise in Nord. und Ost. Sibir. ii. p. 222 (1853).
Actodromas subminuta (Midd.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 596 (1856).
Tringa damacensis (Horsf.), Swinhoe, Ibis, 1863, p. 418.

TRINGA. 439

Pratrs.—Middendorff, Reise in Nord. u. Ost. Sibir. ii. pl. xix. fig. 6.
Hasits.—Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 889.
Eees.—Unknown.

Middendorff’s Stint may be diagnosed from all its congeners (except from the
American Stint, which appears to be only subspecifically distinct from it) by the following
characters: wing /ess than four inches (measured from the carpal joint) ; legs and toes pale
brown, outer tail-feathers grey.

Middendorff’s Stint has a slightly larger foot than the American Stint, but is not

known to differ from it in any other respect.
T. subminuta. T. minutilla.
in. in. in. in.
Tess > ¢ » a « “8 te 8 9 to “75
Middle toe and claw. ‘95 to ‘85 85 to ‘8

Wing « « 3 «© « 3% to9°35 3°9 to 3°35

Middendorff’s Stint breeds on Behring Island and on the shores of the Sea of
Okhotsk, but as it passes through the basin of Lake Baikal on migration it probably also
breeds in the valley of the Lena below the Arctic Circle. It has also been recorded from
the valley of the Amoor, and the coasts of Japan and China on migration, and examples
have been obtained in winter from the islands of the Malay Archipelago, India, Burma,
and Ceylon.

TRINGA SUBMINUTA MINUTILLA.
AMERICAN STINT.

TriInGa suBMiNUTA pedibus parvis (digitus medius cum ungue 203 ad 21} millim.).

Mippenporrr’s Stint and the American Stint appear completely to intergrade.

Tringa minutilla, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxxiv. p. 452 (1819).
Tringa wilsoni, Nuttall, Man. Orn. ii. p. 121 (1834).

Pelidna nana, Lichtenstein, Nomencl. Av. p. 92 (1854).

Actodromas miuutilla (Vieill.),
Actodromas wilsoni (Nutt.),
Tringa pusilla, Linn., apud Wilson, Audubon, Bonaparte, Swainson & Richardson, Gray, &c.

} Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 596 (1856).

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

440 TRINGA.

Literature. Prates.—Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 37. fig. 4; Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 552. figs. 2, 3.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iti. p. 213.
Eccs.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 31. fig. 5.

Geographi- The differences between the American Stint and Middendorff’s Stint have already
oe sir been pointed out. The former breeds in the arctic regions of the western hemisphere

from Alaska to Labrador. It passes through the United States and the Bermudas (Reid,
Zoologist, 1877, p. 476) on migration, a few remaining to winter in the Southern States,
but the greater number passing southwards to winter in Mexico, the West Indies, Central
America, the Galapagos Archipelago (Dr. Habel, Trans. Zool. Soc. ix. p. 504), and the
northern portions of South America.

TRINGA PYGMAA.
SPOON-BILLED SANDPIPER.

Diagnosis. | Trina rostro prope apicem quam ad basin valdé latiore.

Pe sclicne ; : ’
anations. Jr is a somewhat remarkable fact that no intermediate form between this species and any

of its allies has been discovered,

Synonymy. Platalea pygmea, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 140 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 231 (1766).
Eurinorhynchus griseus, Nilsson, Orn. Suec. ii. p- 29 (1821)
Eurinorhynchus pygmeus (Linn.), Boie, Isis, 1826, p. 979.
Eurhynorhynchus orientalis, Blyth, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xiii. p. 178 (1844).
Tringa pygmza (Linn.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Scolopaces, p. 27 (1864).

TRINGA. 441

Prates.— Gray, Genera of Eirds, iii. pl. clii. ; Harting, Ibis, 1869, pl. xii.; Nelson, Cruise of the
‘Corwin,’ p. 87.

Hasits.—Undescribed.

Eeos.—Unknown.

The Spoon-billed Sandpiper may always be recognized by its spatulate d//7, which is
three times as wide near the tip as tt is at the base. \n every other respect—size, colour,
and seasonal variations of plumage—it is not known to differ from the Eastern form of the
Little Stint (7. minuta ruficollis).

It breeds in some unknown country north of Behring Straits. Nelson obtained an
example in Alaska, and Nordenskiéld observed it on migration on the northern shores of
Tchuski-Land. I have examples in my collection from the Sea of Okhotsk, Hakodadi,
Yokohama, Shanghai, and Amoy, all obtained on migration. It has also been obtained in
India and Burma, which are presumably its winter-quarters.

TRINGA ACUMINATA.
SIBERIAN PHOTORAL SANDPIPER.

Trinca supracaudalibus centralibus et secundariis interioribus vix albo notatis: pedibus pallidis :
magnitudine majore (ale plus quam 120 millim.): rectricibus centralibus vix (circa

3 millim.) quam contigui longioribus.

31

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Subspecific
characters,

442 TRINGA.

S1weRIAN and American forms appear generally to be distinguishable.

Tringa aurita, Latham, Index Orn. Suppl. p. Ixvi (1801).

Totanus acuminatus, Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 192 (1820).

Tringa australis, Jardine & Selby, Ill. Orn. ii. pl. 91 (1829, nec Gmel.).

Scheeniclus australis (Jard. § Selby), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 105 (1844, nec Gmel.).
Tringa acuminata (Horsfield), Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1863, p. 316.

Limnocinclus acuminatus (Horsfield), Gould, Handb. Birds of Australia, il. p. 254 (1865).

Prares.—Jardine & Selby, Ill. Orn. ii. pl. 91; Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 30.
Hasits.—Gould, Handbook Birds Austr. 11. p. 254.
Eces.—Unknown.

The Siberian Pectoral Sandpiper and its American ally belong to the central group of
the genus, which have dark central upper tail-coverts, and /ittle or no white on the
secondaries except a narrow margin. They may be diagnosed from the other species of
the group by the characters legs and feet pale, wing from carpal joint more than 42 inches.
From each other they are much more difficult to diagnose, so much so indeed that it is
scarcely doubtful that they are only subspecifically distinct.

T. pectoralis. T. acuminata.
in. in. in. in.
Wing . . . 50 to 57 Wing . . . 48 to d°d
Bill» 2.4 « J to Ll Bill . « « « “88 to 10
Tarsus... 1°15 to 1:2 Tarsus .§ « « Ll tol
Central feathers of the tail 25 longer Central feathers of the tail -1 longer
than next, and 35 longer than outer- than next, and °35 longer than outer-
most, most.
Flanks very sparingly streaked. Belly All the underparts spotted or streaked
and under tail-coverts pure white in in adult in summer.

adult in summer.

The Siberian Pectoral Sandpiper has the lateral tail-feathers somewhat more pointed
than its ally, but this appears to be an uncertain character. Intermediate forms also occur
in which the relative length of the tail-feathers is halfway between the two extremes
quoted above.

The Siberian Pectoral Sandpiper probably breeds in Dauria, as Dybowski obtained

TRINGA. 443

examples in the middle of June in the valley of the Argun River, and Stejneger observed Geographi-
it on Behring Island during the autumn migration. It passes along the coasts of Japan a ais
and China, and has been frequently obtained on many of the islands of the Malay

Archipelago from Java to New Guinea. It winters in Australia and New Zealand.

D
4

‘
{

TRINGA ACUMINATA PECTORALIS.
AMERICAN PECTORAL SANDPIPER.

TRINGA ACUMINATA rectricibus centralibus quam contigui pauld (circa 6 millim.) longioribus. Diagnosis.

Tue Siberian and American forms of this species appear completely to intergrade. Variations.

Tringa cinclus dominicensis, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 219 (1760). Synonymy.

Tringa maculata, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. xxxiv, p. 465 (1819).

Pelidna pectoralis, Say, Long’s Exp. i. p. 171 (1823).

Scheenicola pectoralis (Say), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 104 (1844).
Tringa dominicensis, Degland, Orn. Eur. il. p. 232 (1849).

Pelidna maculata (Vieill.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliu. p. 596 (1856).

Actodromas maculata, Coues, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1861, p. 197.
Limnocinelus pectoralis (Say), Gould, Handb. Birds of Australia, ii, p. 254 (1865).

3L

~

Literature.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

444 TRINGA.

Prates.—Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 329.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iti. p. 201; Murdoch, Exp. Point Barrow, p. 111.

Eaes.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 68. fig. 1.

The differences between this Pectoral Sandpiper and its close ally the Siberian Pectoral
Sandpiper have been already pointed out.

The American form of the Pectoral Sandpiper is probably confined to Arctic America
during the breeding-season. It breeds abundantly near Point Barrow in Alaska, and has
occurred as far east as Greenland. It passes throngh the United States on migration,
and regularly visits the Bermuda Islands, sometimes in enormous flocks (Reid, Zoologist,
1877, p. 477). It winters in Mexico, the West Indies, Central America, and probably
throughout South America. Buckley obtained it in Bolivia (Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1879, p. 641), Reed in Chili (Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1873, p. 455), and
Durnford in Northern Patagonia (Ibis, 1877, p.43). I bave examples collected by Bartlett
in Eastern Peru, and it has occurred in various localities in Brazil.

TRINGA BAIRDI.
BAIRD’S SANDPIPER.

Trinca supracaudalibus centralibus et secundariis interioribus vix albo notatis : pedibus nigris :
magnitudine majore (ale 115 ad 130 millim.),

No local races of this distinct species are known.

TRINGA. 445

Tringa melanota, Vieillot, N. Dict. @’ Hist. Nat. xxxiv. p- 462 (1819).
Pelidna dorsalis, Lichtenstein, Nom. Av. p. 92 (1854).

Actodromas bairdii, Cowes, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1861, p. 194.
Tringa bairdi (Cowes), Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867, p. 382.

Prares.—Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 230 (head only).
Hasirs.—Murdoch, Exped. to Point Barrow, p. 112.
Eces.— Described by Brewer on page 232 of the above-mentioned volume on Water-Birds.

Baird’s Sandpiper belongs to the group which have dark upper tail-coverts and dark:
secondaries. It may be diagnosed from the other species belonging to the same group by
its black legs and feet and wing from carpal joint 44 to 5 inches.

Large examples are often confused with small examples of 7. pectoralis; but in
addition to the much darker legs and feet, 7. dairdi may always be recognized by its tail,
the central feathers of which are not longer than the outer, though the intermediate ones on
each side are rather shorter.

It breeds in Alaska and in the valley of the Mackenzie River above the limit of forest-
growth. It passes through the Western States on migration, and winters in South America.
Salmon obtained it in Colombia (Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1879, p. 547), Fraser in
Ecuador, Whitely in Western Peru, Bartlett in Eastern Peru (Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1873, p. 455), and I have several examples collected by Reed in Chili. I have also a
skin sent by Andersson from Walfish Bay in South Africa.

TRINGA BONAPARTI.
BONAPARTE’S SANDPIPER.

Trinea supracaudalibus albis seepe brunneo striatis: rostro quam 26 millim. breviore.
No local races of this species are known.

Tringa fuscicollis, Vietllut, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. xxxiv. p. 461 (1819).

Tringa campestris, Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 74 (1823).

Tringa schinzii, Bonap. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, ii. p. 317 (1826, nec Brehm).
Pelidna schinzi, Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 50 (1838, nec Brehm).

Tringa bonaparti, Schlegel, Rev. Crit. p. 89 (1844).

Scheeniclus schinzii (Bonap.), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. ii, p. 105 (1844, nec Brehm).

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu -
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

446 TRING A.

Pelidna dorsalis, Lichtenstein, Nomencl. Av. p. 92 (1854).
Octodromas fuscicollis (Vieill.), Bonap. Comp. Rend. xiii. p. 596 (1856).
Heteropygia bonapartei (Schleg.), Cowes, Proce. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1861, p. 191.

Prarrs.—Bonap. Am. Orn. iv. pl. 24. fig. 2; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 335 ; Gould, Birds of
Europe, iv. pl. 3830; Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 547.

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 189.

Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 31. fig. 4.

Bonaparte’s Sandpiper, like its two nearest allies the Curlew Sandpiper and the
Japanese Knot, has the ~pper tadl-coverts white, more or less streaked with brown. Thetwo
central upper tail-coverts are, however, often only tipped with white. From both these
species, as well as from the Knot, it may easily be distinguished by its short 42/7, which
rarely measures more than ‘9 inch from the frontal feathers.

In its seasonal changes of plumage it closely resembles the Japanese Knot, but the
summer chestnut of the upper parts is less brilliant though more generally diffused.

Bonaparte’s Sandpiper breeds in the arctic regions of the American continent, from
Greenland to the Mackenzie River. At Point Barrow it only occurred as an accidental
strageler. It passes through the United States and the Bermudas (Reid, Zoologist, 1877,
p. 477) on migration, and winters in the West Indies, Central America, and the whole of
South America. It was originally described by Azara from Paraguay, where it has recently
been obtained by Rohde (Berlepsch, Journ. Orn. 1887, p. 36). It is an occasional straggler
to Europe, and has been said to be a resident in Central Patagonia (Durnford, Ibis,
1878, p. 404), and to breed in the Falkland Islands (Abbott, Ibis, 1861, p. 157); but these
statements require confirmation.

It appears to be the American representative of the Curlew Sandpiper, and to bear
the same relation to that species that the Japanese Knot does to the Common Knot.

TRINGA RUFESCENS.
BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER.

TRINGA primariarum pogoniis internis nigro maculatis.

No local races of this species are known.

TRINGA., 447

ang? re, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. xxxiv. pp. 465, 470 (1819).
Tringa rufescens, :

Actitis rufescens (Vieill.), Schlegel, Rev. Crit. p. 92 (1844).

Actiturus rufescens (Vieill.), Bonap. Rev. Crit. p. 186 (1850).

Tringoides rufescens (Vieill.), Gray, Cat. Brit. B. p. 161 (1850).

Limicola brevirostris, Lichtenstein, Nomencl. Av. p. 92 (1854).

Actidurus nevius, Heermann, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. vii. p. 178 (1854).

Tryngites rufescens (Vieill.), Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1856, p. 418.

Prates.—Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 64; Dresser, Birds of Europe, viii. pl. 561.
Hasitrs.—Seebohm, British Birds, ii. p. 226,
Ecos.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 31. fig. 3.

The Buff-breasted Sandpiper differs from all other species of the genus in having the
inner webs of the primaries and secondaries mottled with black.

It may be regarded as a summer visitor to the arctic regions of America, although
it has not been recorded from Greenland. From Alaska its range extends to the Siberian
coasts of Behring’s Straits; and Middendorff obtained a single example on the southern
shores of the Sea of Okhotsk. It passes through the United States on migration, to winter
in the West Indies, Mexico, and the northern portions of South America; and has
occurred on the Bermudas and on Heligoland.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
ion.

Diagnosis
of genus.

Generic
characters.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

Genus PHEGORNIS.

ScoLoPacin& primariarum quatuor exterioribus subequalibus : longitudine inter primariarum exteri-
orum et interiorum apices quam rostri longitudo majore.

Tue Short-winged Sandpipers are a very small group of birds, consisting of only three
species, which have not hitherto been associated together; but they possess so many
characters in common that there seems to be no reason why they should be placed in
different genera. They are the only Sandpipers which do not breed in the Arctic Region,
and the only Sandpipers which are not migratory. Both in their structure and habits (so
far as is known of them) they form a connecting link between Scolopaw and Rhynchea on
the one hand, and Zringa and Strepsilas on the other.

The Short-winged Sandpipers have many characters in common. ‘They have short
broad wings, as in R/ynchea; more or less defined bars across the tail-feathers, as in
Scolopawr, Rhynchea, Totanus, &c.; the toes are all cleft to the base, as in Scolopae,
Rhynchea, and Tringa; their bills are slender, very slightly expanded towards the tip,
which is hard and smooth, and the nostrils are placed very near the frontal feathers, as in
Totanus, ard the conspicuous white streak behind the eye, which they all three possess, is
one of the prominent characters of Rhynchea. Finally, the area of distribution of the genus,
so constituted, may be regarded as practically continuous.

The genus P/egornis may therefore be diagnosed as follows :—

Cuarapriip# having all the toes cleft to the base, having the first four primaries not
differing much in length, but having the distance between the tips of the first and last
primaries more than the length of the bill.

Synonymy of the Genus PAEGORNIS.
Type.
Leptopus, Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1844, p. 157 (nec Leptopus, Raf. 1815) . . P. mitchelli.
Leptodactylus, Fraser, Proc, Zool. Soc. 1844, p. 157 (nec Leptodactylus, Fitz.

HOO) we ag a Ae eS we ww a a i we ae Patt

PHEGORNIS., 449

Type.
Leptoscelis, Des Murs, Icon. Orn. pl. 41 (1840) (nec Leptoscelis, Haliday, 1833) P. sali
Phegornis, Gray, Genera of Birds, 11. p. 545 (1847). 2. . . 1. . 2)... OP mitchelli.
Prosobonia, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xxxi. p. 562 (1850) . . . . . . . . .~ P. leucoptera.
Aichmorhynchus, Coues, Birds of the North-West, p. 506 (1874). . . . . . P.cancellatus.

The genus Phegornis has been particularly unfortunate in its synonymy ; each of the
three species has been made the type of a genus, and one of them has been provided with
as many as four genera before one could be found which had not been previously used for
some other genus in Zoology. The result is that no fewer than six genera have been
created for the reception of three birds!

The Chilian Sandpiper (Phegornis mitchelli), being the only species placed in the genus
by Fraser, must be regarded as the type.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN REGION.

Christmas Island. ; P
Paumota Archipelago. ; Peresigner ane oe
Society Islands. . . . . P. LEUcoprERUS.

NerotropicaL Rreion.

Chilian Subregion. . . . « P. mitcHeu.

The area of distribution of the genus Plegornis is very limited, but it may be
regarded as, to all intents and purposes, continuous. Very little is known of the habits of
the three species which it contains, but the first two are probably shore-birds, whilst the
third is said to frequent the borders of lakes. None of the three species are migratory.

The genus Phegornis may be regarded as Tropical, though one of the three species
which it contains is a resident in Temperate Regions. Their distribution is as follows :—

Tropical Pacific Islands . . . . 2
Temperate South America. . . . 1
Species of Phegornis. . . . — 3

When the ancestors of the Charadriidee were dispersed by the Prae-Pliocene Glacial Epoch,
which drove them out of the Arctic Region, and caused them to adopt migratory habits, or
to extend the range of their migrations, some cf them must have wintered south of the
Line. Many species which now breed within the Arctic Circle still winter in the
tropics, but a few of their near allies gave up the habit of migration to become residents

of the southern hemisphere. If this change of habits occurred in some birds after the
3M

Determina-
tion of the

type.

Climatic
distribution.

Emigra-
tions.

450 PHEGORNIS,

Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch, it is reasonable to suppose that it also occurred in others after
the Pra-Pliocene Glacial Epoch. We must therefore be prepared to find in the southern
hemisphere a few isolated species whose differentiation from their allies dates back to a
period before the Pliocene Age, and which may therefore claim to be generically cistinet
from the other species in the family. One of these is the Chilian Sandpiper (or Mitchell’s
Slenderfoot of Fraser); the ancestors of this species had probably become residents of Peru
and Chili before the Pliocene Age. A second species is Forster’s Sandpiper (the White-
winged Sandpiper of Latham), which found a permanent home on the Society Islands ;
and a third is Peale’s Sandpiper (the Barred Phalarope of Latham) which is a resident of
the Paumota Archipelago.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.
The three species may be distinguished as follows :—
mitchelli.
Underparts barred
\ cancellatus

A hind toe.
leucopterus

PHEGORNIS MITCHELLI.
CHILIAN SANDPIPER. (Puare XVI)

Diagnosis. | Puecornis corpore subtis fasciato : halluce nullo.
Variations. No local races of this species are known.

Synonymy. Leptopus mitchellii, Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1844, p. 157.
Leptodactylus mitchellii (Fraser), Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1844, p. 157.
Leptoscelis mitchellii (Fraser), Des Murs, Icon. Orn. pl. xli. (1846).
Phegornis mitchellii (Fraser), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p- 545 (1847).

Literature. Prates.— Fraser, Zool. Typ. pl. 63; Des Murs, Icon. Orn. pl. xli.
Hazits.—Fraser, Zool. Typ. letterpress to pl. 63.
Eees.— Unknown.

PHEGORNIS. 451

The Chilian Sandpiper, or Mitchell’s Slenderfoot as it was fantastically called by its
discoverer, may easily be distinguished from the other two Short-winged Sandpipers by its
not possessing a hind toe.

It is described as a marsh bird inhabiting the Andes of Peru (Taczanowski, Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 561), Bolivia (Philippi, Reise Wiiste Atacama, p. 168), and Chili,
whence it was originally described by Fraser, and where it has since been obtained by
Mr. Berkeley James (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1886, p. 403). Des Murs received it in a
collection of birds from California, but the locality is probably erroneous.

In consequence of its not having a hind toe it has been associated by some ornitholo-
gists with the Plovers ; but the shape of the bill, the position of the nostrils, the white
stripe behind the eye, the chestnut nape, the dark throat, the white band across the breast,
the bars on some of the tail-feathers, the metallic gloss on the upper parts, the cleft toes,
the short tarsus, and the short blunt wings, all suggest a much nearer relationship to the
Painted Snipes.

The young in first plumage, of which an example was obtained by Mr. Berkeley James
in Chil, are remarkably like Peale’s Sandpiper, the feathers of the upper parts, including
the wing-coverts and tertials, having dark subterminal bars and chestnut margins, which

more or less take the form of spots on the tertials. The peculiar coloration of the head
of the adult is also absent.

PHEGORNIS CANCELLATUS.

PEALE’S SANDPIPER. (Puate XVIL)

Puecornis corpore subtis fasciato: halluce parvo.

Onxy three or four examples of this species are known.

Tringa cancellata, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 675 (1788).

Phalaropus cancellatus (Gmel.), Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 777 (1790).

Tringa parvirostris, Peale, U.S. Explor. Exped. 1838-1842, viii. p. 235 (1848).
Actiturus rufescens, var. 8, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliit. p. 597 (1856).

Totanus cancellatus (Gmel.), Gray, Cat. Birds Pacific Ocean, p. 61 (1859).
chmorhynchus parvirostris (Peale), Coues, Birds of the North-West, p. 506 (1874).

3M 2

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Nearest
relations.

Young
in first
plumage.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Only
examples
known to
exist.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

452 PHEGORNIS.

Prates.—Peale, U. States Exploring Exp. 1838-42, viii. Birds, pl. Ixvi. fig. 2.

pants} Peale, U. States Exploring Exp. 1838-42, viii. p. 235.
as.

Peale’s Short-winged Sandpiper may be distinguished from its two allies by its
combination of the two characters, uaderparts barred and a well-developed hind toe.

It was originally described by Latham from an example in the collection of Sir
Joseph Banks, said to have come from Christmas Island } (Ellis’s unpublished drawings in
the British Museum of birds obtained on the third voyage of Capt. Cook, no. 64). It was
rediscovered by Peale, during the Wilkes United States Exploring Expedition, on Dog
Island and Raraka Island, both belonging to the Paumota Archipelago. There are no
later records of its occurrence, and the only examples known to exist are those in the Smith-
sonian Institution in Washington.

Peale’s Sandpiper is probably one of the least changed descendants of the ancestors of
the Sandpipers. It presents many characters which are peculiar to young birds, but there
can be no question as to the age of the examples in the Smithsonian Institution. One of
them is moulting its primaries ; the first is an old ragged rusty feather, the second is half-
grown, whilst the rest are new. So far as is known, no species of Charadriide moults its
quills until it has assumed the plumage of the adult bird; and it is not at all uncommon to
find birds which have moulted all their feathers from the immature plumage, except their
guills, which still retain the pale tips of the first feathers.

PHEGORNIS LEUCOPTERUS.
FORSTER’S SANDPIPER. (Puate XVIIL)

Purgornis corpore subtis haud fasciato.

Tue two varieties mentioned by Latham are probably older or younger birds than the one
first described.

Tringa leucoptera, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 678 (1788).
Totanus leucopterus (Gmel.), Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. vi. p. 396 (1817).

I The island in the Pacific Ocean rather more than a thousand miles due south of the Sandwich Islands,
not the island of the same name in the Indian Ocean about two hundred miles south of Java.

PHEGORNIS. 453

Calidris leucopterus (Gmel.), Cuvier, Regne An. i. p. 526 (1829).
Tringa pyrrhetriea, Lichtenstein, Forster’s Descr. Anim. It. Mar. Austr. p. 174 (1844).
Prosobonia leucoptera (Gmel.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xxxi. p. 562 (1850).

Prares.—Lath. Gen. Hist. Birds, ix. pl. cliii.
Hasits.—Undescribed.
Eecs.—Unknown.

Forster’s Short-winged Sandpiper, the White-winged Sandpiper of Latham, may be
distinguished from its two short-winged allies by its wnbarred underparts.

Forster’s Sandpiper is only known from the Society Islands, where it was obtained on
one of Capt. Cook’s Voyages (Forster’s unpublished drawings in the British Museum,
no. 120; Ellis’s ditto, no. 65). It was found on the islands of Otahcite and Eimeo. It
has not been recorded by any recent traveller, and the only example known to exist is that
in the Leyden Museum.

It has been suggested by some ornithologists that this bird belongs to the Rallide
rather than to the Scolopacine. It does unquestionably bear a superficial resemblance to
some of the Crakes, but it differs from them in all essential particulars. Its tarsus is long
and slender, so is its bill; the nostrils are placed close to the base of the bill; all the
tail-feathers except the two centre ones are barred ; and it has at least ten secondaries (in the
Rallide eight appears to be the full number, exclusive of the tertials, which are coloured
like the wing-coverts).

yal at

AT wo)

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Resembles
a Rail.

CHAPTER XXIX.

Genus RHYNCH HA.

Diagnosis of Cuaraprup® digitis omnibus ad basin liberis: rostri, digiti medii (cum ungue) et tarsi longi-

genus.

Generic
characters.

Violation of
the rules
necessary.

tudine fer equali: differentia inter longitudinem primariz longissimee et longitudinem

primariz brevissimee quam rostri longitudo valdé minore.

Tue Painted Snipes have rather long bills, very rounded wings, short legs, and long toes.
‘They may be diagnosed as follows :—

Cuarapriips having all the toes cleft to the base; having the dc (from the frontal
feathers), the middle toe (including the claw), and the tarsus of nearly equal length; and
having the difference in length between the shortest and longest primary much less than the
length of the bill.

Synonymy of the Genus RuyNcH@A.

Type.
Rostratula, Vieillot, Analyse d’une Nouv. Orn. p.56 (1816). . . . . . « . +R. capensis.
Rhynchea, Cuvier, Regne An. p.487 (1917). . 2 . . «© « « « « . « « RB. capensis.

The Painted Snipes are to be congratulated upon their short synonymy. It is true
that it might be easily increased by the addition of Rynchea of Horsfield, Rynchea of
Boie, Rhinchea of Bonaparte, Rynchea of Swainson, Rhynchina of Fleming, or Rhynchena
of Gloger, but the ornithologist cannot waste his time in cataloguing the orthographical
vagaries of his predecessors.

To retain the name of Rhynchea for the Painted Snipes is of course a violation of the
Rules of Nomenclature. All that can be said is, “so much the worse for the rules.”
Most ornithologists violate the rules and say nothing about it. Like the ostrich, they bury
their heads in the sand and fondly imagine that their errors are undiscovered. ‘To adopt
the name of Rostratula is entirely out of the question; rather than commit such a sacrilege
the Rules should be torn up and thrown into the wastepaper-basket. There are two ways
out of the difficulty: the name of Rhynchea may be admitted by special exception, or the

RHYNCHAA, 455

name of Rostratula may be rejected on the ground that its author himself rejected it and Special
adopted the name of Cuvier, not improbably because Vicillot knew that Cuvier’s name was ee
the older one, and subsequent researches may prove that it had been published in some
earlier work than the first edition of the ‘Régne Animal.’

The Common Painted Snipe (Rhynchea capensis), being the “ Bécassine de Madagascar” ee
of Buffon, which was designated by Vieillot as the type of his new genus, must be regarded type,

as such.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

. R. cAPENSIs.

Ersiopian REGIon. \

ORIENTAL ReGion.

AUSTRALIAN REGION.

Continental Australia. . . . . . R. avspRatis.

NEotRopicaL Recon.

Southern haif. . . . . . R, SEMICOLLARIS.

The genus Rhynchea can scarcely be regarded as Tropical, inasmuch as none of the Climatic dis-
three species which it contains is exclusively tropical during the breeding-season. They tesbabiens
are distributed as follows :—

Temperate South America . . . . . 1
Temperate and ‘Tropical Africa and
Tropical Asia a Wash t
Temperate and Tropical Australia. . . 1
Species of Rhynchaa . . — 3

The Painted Snipes appear to be the descendants of a party of Waders which
abandoned their migratory habits before the Post-Phocene Glacial Epoch, and settled in
India, where they probably resided until that Peninsula became overcrowded by birds
driven south by the freezing up of the breeding-grounds by the continually increasing
Arctic ice. In consequence of the severity of the struggle for existence caused by the
suddenly increased pressure of population, one party of emigrants appear to have crossed
the tropics to Australia, whilst a second party jomed the great band of emigrants which
succeeded in crossing the Pacific to South America. During the warm period which
followed the last of the series of invasions by arctic cold the great pressure was removed
by the return of most of the glacial emigrants to their old homes ; and the Painted Snipe
appears to have increased and multiplied in its old Indian home to such a degree that it

Diagnosis.

Variations.

456 RHYNCILZA.

gradually extended its range westwards until it overrun the whole of tropical Africa. ‘The
African Painted Snipes are now, to a large extent, isolated from their Indian brethren ; but
as they do not appear to have become in any way differentiated from them, we may
reasonably infer that they are the descendants of post-glacial emigrants who have not yet
been subjected to the abnormal pressure of population, which must intensify the struggle
for existence, and enormously increase the rapidity of the action of the law of Evolution.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Only three species are known, which may be distinguished as follows :—

capensis a eh ee ee
t j :
Only two buff patches on 4 ee ee
outer web of the 8th australis... . J u .
primary.
semicollaris.

There can scarcely be any doubt that the affinities of Rhynchea are with Scolopaz.
The pale mesial line on the crown and the two pale stripes on the back can scarcely have
been independently acquired, and were doubtless inherited from a common ancestor,
showing how important certain arrangements of colour sometimes are as generic characters,
in many cases dating far earlier than the so-called structural characters.

RHYNCHAA CAPENSIS.
PAINTED SNIPE.

Rayncnaa magnitudine magna (ale circa 125 millim.): cauda feré integra: primarie octave
pogonio externo quatuor maculis fulvis ornato.

I nave been unable to detect the slightest difference between examples from South Africa,
India, and China.

RHYNCHAA. 457

Rallus benghalensis, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 153 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 263 (1766).
Tringa totanus bengalensis,

Scolopax gallinago maderaspatana, | Brinn, Orn. v. pp. 209 & 308, vi. Suppl. p. 141 (1760).
Scolopax gallinago capitis bone spei,

Scolopax capensis, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 246 (1766).

Scolopax chinensis, Boddaert, Tabl. Pl. Enl. p. 53 (1788).

Scolopax maderaspatana (Briss.), Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 667 (1788).

Scolopax sinensis, Latham, Index Orn. ii. p. 717 (1790).

Rhynchza capensis (Linn.), Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 488 (1816).

Rostratula capensis (Linn.), |

Rostratula sinensis (Lath.), ame on aoe .
Rostratula indica, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. vii. pp. 1, 2 (1817).

Rostratula viridis,
Rhynchea variegata, Vieillot & Oudart, Gal. Ois. ii. p. 109 (1825).
Rynchea orientalis, Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 193 (1820).

Rhynchezea sinensis ( Vieill.), Vieillot, Tabl. Enc. Méth., Orn. iii. p. 1164 (1828).
Rhynchea africana,

Rhynchea bengalensis Ln), Ete, Man. @’ Orn, ii. p. 270 (1828).
Rhynchea madagascariensis,

Scolopax mauritiana, Desjardins, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1831, p. 45.
Rhyncheza picta, Gray, Zool. Misceil. i. p. 18 (1831).

Rhynchea indica, Hodgson, Gray’s Zool. Miscell. 1844, p. 86.

Prates.—Milne-Edwards & Grandidier, Hist. Madag., Ois., Atlas, iii. pl. 261; Daub. Pl. Enl.
nos. 270, 922; Shelley, Birds of Egypt, pl. xi.

Hasits.—Hume & Marshall, Game Birds India &c. iii. p. 381.

Eees.—Jardine, Contr. Orn. 1852, pl. 89.

The Painted Snipe may be diagnosed from its South-American congener by its size,
wing from carpal joint about five inches, and from its Australian one by the greater number
of buff spots on its quills. The Indian species has four buff spots on the outer web of the
8th primary, whilst the Australian species has only two.

The Painted Snipe has a very wide range, extending over the whole of the Ethiopian
Region, including Madagascar, and in Eastern Africa reaching down the valley of the Nile
into Egypt, whence it stretches eastwards across Arabia and Southern Afghanistan into
India, Ceylon, Burma, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippme Islands, Formosa, China,
South-eastern Thibet, and the southern islands of Japan.

Like the true Snipes it is a marsh bird, but, as may be inferred from the length of its
secondaries and the shortness of its primaries, its migrations are on a very limited scale.

The changes of plumage in this species produced by age, sex, and season are somewhat
complicated, and have given rise to much confusion.

oN

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Seasonal
and other
changes of
plumage.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

458 RHYNCH AA.

As in the Phalaropes the adult female is more richly coloured than the adult male,
but, unlike those birds, the adult winter plumage does not differ from the adult summer
plumage.

The female is slightly the larger bird (wing 5-3 to 5:0 inch), and may at all ages be
recognized by its wing-coverts, which are olive-green, each feather crossed by nearly a
dozen narrow dark bars.

The male is somewhat smaller (wing 5°0 to 4°8 inch), and the wing-coverts expose
only two dark bars on each feather, with a buff patch between them.

Fully adult birds of both sexes may always be recognized by their primaries ; the
inner web especially of the first primary showing little or no trace of bars, but being pale
brown uniformly vermiculated with dark brown.

The adult female has the neck deep chestnut all round, shading into black on the
breast. Young females in first plumage have buff bars across the inner webs of the
primaries, a narrow buff bar across the ends of the wing-coverts, grey instead of chestnut
round the neck, and the dark feathers across the breast have pale margins. ‘They get
adult wing-coverts and primaries at their first moult, and partially adult necks and breasts ;
but the fully adult plumage is not assumed until the second moult, and even then traces
of immaturity are frequently found on the hind neck and on the primaries.

The adult male resembles the young female in first plumage, except that the wing-
coverts are coloured as has already been described as peculiar to male birds, and the
primaries as has been described as peculiar to adult birds. Young males in first plumage
have buff bars across the inner webs of the primaries (as in the same plumage of the
female), and the buff patches on the wing-coverts (peculiar to males) appear also on the
scapulars and tertials; they get adult scapulars and tertials at their first moult, but
the buff bars across the inner webs of the primaries do not appear to be lost until
the second moult, and even then pale traces of them are often visible.

RHYNCHAA AUSTRALIS.
AUSTRALIAN PAINTED SNIPE.

Ruyncu#a magnitudine magna (ale circa 125 millim.) : cauda feré integra: primariz octave
pogonio externo non nisi duabus maculis fulvis ornato.

No local races of this species are known.

RHYNCHEA. 459

Rhynchea australis, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1887, p. 155.

Prates.—Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 41.
Hasits.—Gould, Handb. Birds Austr. ii. p. 274.
Eees.—Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, 1886, p. 1060.

The Australian Painted Snipe differs externally from its Asiatic and African ally in
very slight details. It is on an average a larger bird, but its tarsus and middle toe are
not quite so long. The only difference in colour that I have been able to discover is that
in the continental species there are more buff spots on the outer webs of the primaries
than is the case with the island species. For example, on the outer web of the eighth
primary :—

R. capensis has two buff patches in the black base, and two in grey above it.

R. australis has only one buff patch in the black base, and only one in the grey
above it.

The Australian Painted Snipe is generally distributed throughout the continent whose
name it bears, though nowhere very abundantly. It appears to be absent from the extreme
north, but has occurred at Rockingham Bay. It has not been recorded from Tasmania.
To what extent it is a migratory bird has not been ascertained, but Gould regarded it as
only a summer visitor to New South Wales. .

The most remarkable fact connected with the history of the Painted Snipes is the
structural difference between the female of the Indian Painted Snipe and that of the
Australian species. In the latter the trachea is elongated and convoluted in a remarkable
manner (Wood-Mason, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1878, p. 747).

RHYNCHAA SEMICOLLARIS.
SOUTH-AMERICAN PAINTED SNIPE. (Puavz XIX.)

Ruyncu#a magnitudine parva (ale circa 100 millim.) : cauda valdé cuneata.

No local races of this species are known.

3N 2

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Convolution
of the
trachea.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

460 RHYNCHAA.

Totanus semicollaris, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. vi. p. 402 (1816).

Tringa atricapilla, Vieillot, Encycl. Méth. iii. p. 1090 (1828).

Rhyncheea hilairii, Valenciennes, fide Cuvier, Régne An. i. p. 524 (1829).

Rhynchza occidentalis, King, Zool. Journ. iv. p. 94 (1829).

Rhynchza semicollaris (Vieill.), Bridges, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 118.

Rhynchza curvirostris, Lichtenstein, fide Taczanowski, Orn. du Pérou, iii. p. 878 (1886).

Prates.—Lesson, Ill. Zool. pl. 18.
Hasirs.

Eaes. } Durnford, Ibis, 1876, p. 164.

The South-American Painted Snipe may always be recognized by its small size, the
wing from the carpal joint only measuring about four instead of about five inches. In adult
plumage the large round white spots on the black wing-coverts are very conspicuous.

It inhabits the Chilian subregion of the Neotropical Region. To the Straits of
Magellan it is probably only a summer migrant, which occasionally wanders in winter as
far north as Peru and Brazil. Capt. Markham obtained it at Coquimbo in Chih (about
lat. 30° south), and it is recorded from Peru (Tschudi, Fauna Peruan. p. 300). I have
examples collected by Capt. Harrison near Buenos Ayres, and it has been recorded from
the province of San Paulo in Brazil.

CHAPTER XXX.

Genus SCOLOPAX.

Cuarapriip# digitis omnibus ad basin liberis: rostro longissimo (quam tarsus duplo longiore).

Tue Snipes are very easily and very distinctly characterized from their allies. Most of the
Charadriide are partially web-footed ; they have a distinct web at the base of the toes,
sometimes much more developed between the outer and middle toe: but the Snipes, some
of the Sandpipers, and the 'l'urnstones are exceptions to this rule; they have no rudimentary
web between any of the toes, which are all cleft to the base. Again, most of the
Charadriidee have comparatively long legs and short bills; the Snipes, on the contrary,
have short legs and long bills. The only birds in this family, except the Snipes, in which
the bill is as long as, or longer than, twice the length of the tarsus are the females of one or
two species of Curlew, and one or two species of Sandpiper, none of which have all the
toes cleft to the base. The genus Sco/opax may therefore be diagnosed as follows :—

Cuaraprip# having the bill twice as long as the tarsus, and having all the toes cleft
to the base.

The Snipes are the only birds in the family which combine both characters ; the
diagnosis is therefore perfect, including all the species which belong to the genus Scolopaz,
and excluding every other bird.

It is quite possible to construct other diagnoses of this genus which, if more com-
plicated, are nevertheless founded upon characters of equal importance ; but enough has
been said to sbow what a good genus Scolopax is. To split up such a sharply defined
well-characterized genus into four or five ill-defined badly-characterized genera is surely
both unnecessary and unwise. Like every other genus it may easily be divided into
subgeneric groups, because the gaps between the species are not of exactly the same width.
A coincidence so remarkable seldom or never occurs.

Most ornithologists recognize the two groups of Snipe and Woodcock as generically
distinct, but they probably do so because they are unacquainted with the intermediate

Diagnosis
of genus.

Generic
characters.

Folly of
splitting the
genus.

Differences
between
Snipe and
Woodcock.

Structural
characters
more recent
than pattern
of colour.

462 SCOLOPAX.

forms which connect them. The Common Snipe has many characters which distinguish

it from the Common Woodcock. . _
1st. In the Snipe the tibia is bare of feathers for a considerable distance, whilst im

the Woodcock it is feathered to the joint. .
Qnd. In the Snipe the number of tail-feathers is fourteen, whilst the Woodcock has

only twelve.

3rd. The Snipe has long primaries and short secondaries, the tip of the outermost
secondary and that of the longest primary-covert being about equidistant from the carpal
joint. ‘The Woodcock has short primaries and long secondaries, the tip of the outermost
secondary extending an inch beyond the longest primary-covert.

So much for what are called structural characters ; but by bringing in characters
founded upon colour to the rescue, we find other differences obviously, as we shall see in
the sequel, of greater generic value.

4th. The bold black markings on the head of the Snipe begin at the base of the
bill and are longitudinal, whereas in the Woodcock they are confined to the hind head and
are transverse.

5th. The tail-feathers of the Woodcock have curious silvery-white tips on the under
surface, of which no trace is to be found in the Snipe.

6th. The primaries of the Snipe are uniform in colour, whilst those of the Woodcock
are barred.

7th. The eggs of the Snipe differ widely from those of the Woodcock, the latter
being much paler in ground-colour.

Other minor points might be mentioned, but enough has been said to show that
Nature has drawn many lines between the Snipe and the Woodcock, but unfortunately
she has not drawn them in the same place. If the Snipes were separated from the
Woodcocks on any of the seven characters enumerated, the only lines which would be
comcident would be those formed by the 4th and 5th, both of which are founded upon
colour and not structure. ‘Iwo conclusions may be arrived at from the foregoing facts.
One of these is that the characters of the Woodceocks and the Snipes are so closely
interlaced that no ornithologist attempting classification on scientific principles would be
hkely to advise the subdivision of such a natural group as the genus Scolopax. The
other conclusion requires consideration at greater length.

Some ornithologists, whom it can scarcely be regarded as discourteous to style the
pedantic school, not only separate the Woodcocks generically from the Snipes, but further
subdivide each of these groups. These writers have adopted a theory that what they call
structural characters are of generic value, whilst they regard difference of colour as only
of specific value. In accordance with this notion, which I venture to call ante-Darwinian
and ante-Huxleyan, they have placed the American Woodcock and the Jack Snipe in
distinct genera, because in the former some of the primaries are remarkably attenuated,
and in the latter the bill and the sternum are slightly exceptional, regardless of the facts

SCOLOPAX. 463

that the American Woodcock is apparently more nearly related to the European Woodcock
than either of them are to the Moluccan Woodcock, and that the Jack Snipe and the
Common Snipe are obviously nearer related to each other than either of them are to the
Imperial Snipe of Colombia. All generic distinctions must be genetic distinctions,
otherwise they are of no value. The theory that structural characters only are of generic
value is either based upon the presumption that they date further back than characters
founded upon difference in colour and pattern of colour, or it is an antiquated, unscientific,
and absurd hypothesis.

In dividing the Snipes from the Woodcocks there cannot be much doubt that the
natural line is that laid down by our fourth character and confirmed by the fifth, both
characters being founded on differences of pattern of colour. It can scarcely be denied
that in the Snipes, at all events, differences in the pattern of colour are of older genetic
date, and therefore of higher generic value, than so-called structural differences, and that
those ornithologists who maintain the contrary are advocating a hypothesis inconsistent
with the theory of the evolution of species.

The Snipes which are nearest allied to the four Wovdcocks are presumably five
species, one of which has the inner webs of the primaries barred as in two of the typical
Woodcocks, and the other four have the tibia feathered almost to the joint of the tarsus,
but have only fourteen tail-feathers, a character which fortunately excludes one or two
species in which there is much individual variation in the feathering of the tibia. They
further resemble the Woodcocks in having, so far as is known, pale-coloured eggs.
Tt is necessary to coin a neme for this group, and I propose to call them Semi-
Woodcocks.

We have left the important group of typical Snipes, the créme de la créme of the
genus, possibly the most highly developed, because showing the least trace of Woodcock
blood and the closest relationship amongst themselves. One of them, which might
almost be regarded as subgenerically distinct, is the Jack Snipe, which differs in many
ways from its congeners. It has two instead of only one notch on each side of the
posterior margin of the sternum. Like the Woodcocks it has only twelve tail-feathers,
which resemble those of the Auckland Snipe in colour. Its tail is also more wedge-
shaped than that of any other Snipe.

Synonymy of the Genus SCOLOPAX.

Type.
Scolopax, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 145 (1758) ; Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 242
(766: be cw eR ee cas Oe Oe ee ee Ns,
Gallinago, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 30 (1816). . . . . S, major.
Rusticola, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. iii. p. 348 (1816). . . . + + S. rusticola.

Telmatias, Boie, Isis, 1826, p.¥80. . 2 2 6 © 6 8 8 ee et es S. gallinago.

“emi-W ood-
cocks.

Typical
Snipes.

464 SCOLOPAX.

Type.
Lymnocryptes, Kaup, Nat. Syst. p. 118 (1829) . paliralis
Pelorhynchus, Kaup, Nat. Syst. p. 119 (1829) . gallinago.
Philolimnos, Brehm, Vig. Deutschl. p. 623 (1831) . gallinula.
. minor.

Microptera, Nuttall, Man. Orn. ii. p. 192 (1834) .

Nemoricola, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. vi. p. 491 (1837) . nemoricola.

Ascalopax, Keyserling & Blasius, Wirb. Eur. p. 216 (1840) . gallinula.
Homoptilura, Gray, List Gen. Birds, p. 70 (1840) . undulata.
minor.

Philohela, Gray, List Gen. and Subgen. Birds, p. 90 (1841)
Xylocota, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xli. p. 660 (1855)

Ceenocorypha, Gray, Cat. Gen. and Subgen. Birds, p. 119 (1855).
Spilura, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 579 (1856)

Neoscolopax, Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. xviii. p. 331 (1882) .

. Jamesoni.
. aucklandica.
. solitaria.

ANANRRNANDANNARDAARMUD

. rochusseni.

The synonymy of the genus Sco/opawr is a melancholy record of the folly of ornitho-
logists. The genus, as defined by Linneus, contained a somewhat heterogeneous collection
of birds, including Whimbrels, Godwits, Snipes, and Sandpipers. Brisson turned out the
Whimbrels, Godwits, and Sandpipers, and restricted the genus to the Woodcocks, Snipes,
Painted Snipes, and the Dunlin. The European Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola), being the
Scolopax scolopax of Brisson, must be regarded as the type.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

(during the breeding-season).

Aberrant Snipes. Patmarctic RxGIon. Typical Snipes.
Arctic. +. . . GALLINULA.
( West Subarctic. ae MAJOR.
| ie GALLINAGO.
RUSTICOLA . . . . . 4X | f2 9 SERN Bs
East Subarctic. J . . . MEGALA.
: JAPONICA.
Himalayas.
? SOLITARIA.
i. Turkestan. }
OrirentaL Recion.
Northern mountains. - . . . NEMORICOLA,
Japan. . . « . AUSTRALIS,

Java?

SATURATA
AustTRALIAN Recion.

SS

New Guinea.
ROCHUSSENI . . . . , Moluccas

AUCKLANDICA . . , ., , New Zealand

Aberrant Snipes.

MINOR

UNDULATA
GIGANTEA
IMPERIALIS .
JAMESONI
STRICKLANDI

SCOLOPAX.

Evnroptan REGIon.

Tropical Africa.
Madagascar.

Nearctic Recion.

Subarctic.
East Subtropical.

NeotropicaL REGion.

Guiana.
Brazil.
Columbian Andes,
Peruvian Andes.
Chilian Andes.
Falkland Islands.

465

Typical Snipes.
AQUATORIALIS.
MACRODACTYLA.

WILSONI,

FRENATA.

NOBILIS.
ANDINA.
CHILENSIS.
MAGELLANICA.

The genus Scolopaz belongs for the most part to the Temperate Regions, but it may Climatic

be regarded as cosmopolitan.

it contains is as follows during the breeding-season :—

Arctic Eurasia .
Arctic species
Arctic and Temperate Eurasia
Arctic and Temperate America .
Arctic and Temperate species
Temperate Eurasia.
Temperate N. America
Temperate New Zealand .
Temperate S. America
Temperate species .
Temperate and Tropical Africa .

Temperate and Tropical species.

Tropical America
Tropical Asia
Tropical Africa .
Tropical species
Species and subspecies of Scolopax

The distribution of the 27 species and subspecies whic

i" distribution.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Local dis-
tribution.

Differentia-
tion com-
menced
early.

Origin of
Woodcocks.

Semi-W ood-
cocks.

Emigrations
of Wood-
cocks.

466 SCOLOPAX.

The geographical distribution of the Snipes is remarkable. Few genera of birds so
nearly approach being absolutely cosmopolitan as the genus Scolopae. In the Arctic
Regions both of the Old and of the New World Snipes breed beyond the Arctic Circle, in
Norway, under the influence of the Gulf-stream, as far north as latitude 70°. Ne true
Snipe is known to breed in Australia (the eggs attributed to the Australian Snipe are
undoubtedly those of the Australian Painted Snipe); nor is any Snipe known to breed in
any of the Pacific islands, with the exception of Auckland Island and the Chatham Islands,
south of New Zealand. No true Snipe breeds in the Oriental Region, except at high
elevations in the Himalayas and other mountain-ranges; but after the breeding-season
both India, the Malay Peninsula, and Australia are visited by enormous numbers of
Snipe. Otherwise the Snipes are cosmopolitan, breeding in Europe, Asia, Africa, and
both North and South America.

The Snipes are not shore-birds; had they been, they would doubtless have had a
summer plumage different to that of winter. They live in forest-swamps and open marshes
where there is plenty of cover, and where they are as much concealed in winter as in
summer. Neither can they be called Arctic birds; they range up to, but scarcely beyond,
the Arctic Circle, and breed in many subtropical countries. This partiality of the Snipes
for cover is probably an important factor in the Instory of the evolution of the genus
Scolopav. There can be little doubt that the ancestral species of the genus, wherever it
came from, gradually extended its range uutil it became circumpolar, but the distance
between Greenland and Scandinavia probably prevented any but shore-birds from having
the area of their distribution continuous in both directions. Hence we may assume that
as the Snipes are not shore-birds differentiation commenced at a very early period with
them. The influence of the Gulfstream and the mountainous character of Scandinavia
probably brought the forests down to the coast in Lapland, so that the Snipes of that
district became forest-birds and developed into Woodcocks ; whilst the Rocky Mountains
proved almost as favourable to forest-growth, but in the absence of the warmth produced
by the Gulf-stream, the forests were separated by atundra from the shore, where the Snipes
appear to have developed into Semi-Woodcocks, so that when the Post-Pliocene Glacial
Period drove them south, they were already partially differentiated into two species, one
frequenting the marshes, and the other the forests.

During the Pliocene Age the Woodcocks appear to have gradually extended their
range eastwards throughout the forest-districts of the Palearctic Region; and during the
Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch some of them (the ancestors of S. minor) appear to have
emigrated across the Atlantic by way of the Azores to the Eastern States, whilst others
found isolated homes in Java (the ancestors of S. saturata) and in the Moluccas (those of
S. rochusseni).

The Semi-Woodcocks of the Rocky Mountains were driven south by the Post-Pliocene
Glacial Epoch, and appear to have become isolated and differentiated in the northern

SCOLOPAX. 467

Andes (8. jamesont and S. imperialis), the Southern Andes (8. stricklandi), and the
Pampas of South America (S. wxdulata), whilst the most enterprising party found a home
on the Auckland Islands (8. aucklandica).

It is difficult to assign an exact locality as the place where the Jack Snipe (S. gadlinula)
was isolated and differentiated during the Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch; but the extent to
which differentiation has taken place points to complete isolation, and the small size of the
bird is an argument in favour of isolation on an island. The fact that its present range
of distribution extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific suggests an island midway between
the two; and none of its present winter-quarters fulfil all these conditions so well as the
island of Ceylon.

The Typical Snipes seem to have been the most adventurous, possibly because their
original home having been, as it now is, the swamps caused them to multiply with great
rapidity. During the Pliocene Age they became differentiated into Typical Snipes, the
creme de la créme of the genus, to all intents and purposes a circumpolar species.
The Post-Pliocene Glacial Period drove them south. JS. wlsonz retained the original area
of distribution in the New World, and is the least variable species, though its migratory
habits have obliged it to lengthen its wings and shorten its bill. S. frenata is the result of
the surplus population which crossed the line to South America, where, not being obliged
to migrate, it retained its rounded wings and longer bill. In a vast continent like South
America it is not to be wondered at that more or less distinct local races have since
developed themselves.

The different distribution of land in the Old World caused more isolation, and
consequently more differentiation. ‘The present winter-quarters of the various species
probably represent the localities where their respective isolation and differentiation took
place. S. nemoricola became a forest-bird, and was isolated on the outskirts of the
Himalayas ; S. solitaria was probably developed in China; 8. eguatorialis crossed the Line
and was isolated in South Africa; S. gallinago was isolated in the basin of the Mediter-
ranean, and, being subjected to precisely the same influences as its Nearctic ally (the
necessity to become a migrant), slightly changed in a similar direction. S. major was
isolated in East Africa, S. stenwra in India, S. megala in the Malay Archipelago, and
S. australis became a migratory bird, breeding in Japan and wintering in Australia..

The latter species, commonly known as Latham’s Snipe, seems to have early become
more or less modified by its isolation in Japan, where it probably developed a very long
bill. This inference is based on the fact that its nearest allies are S. macrodactyla in
Madagascar and §. nobilis in Colombia, two species doubtfully distinct from each other.

The explanation of the apparently extraordinary fact that two such very closely allied
birds inhabit such widely distant localities appears to me to be as follows :—Their nearest
relation is unquestionably Latham’s Snipe, which occupies a locality midway between them.
This Snipe is a migratory bird, breeding in Japan and wintering in Australia. There

302

Original
home of the
Jack Snipe.

Emigrations
of Typical
Snipes.

Remarkable
similarity
et'ween.
distant
species.

Absence of
Snipes in
Australia.

Extraordi-
nary deve-
lopment of
tail-feathers
in East
Siberia.

468 SCOLOPAX.

cannot be much doubt that it was once a resident in Japan, nor can there be any doubt
that a change in the habits of a bird from being a resident to being a migrant, whose range
of migration covers a distance of five thousand miles, soon produced a corresponding change
of structure. Its rounded wings and exceptionally long and heavy bill must seriously have
impeded its progress, and we may confidently assume that Nature soon lengthened the one
to aid its powers of flight, and shortened the other so that it might have less weight to
carry. What I wish to infer from this argument is the strong probability that Latham’s
Snipe, before it became a migratory bird, differed scarcely, if at all, from the present
condition of its allies in Madagascar and Colombia. The cold of the Glacial Epoch not
only forced it to winter in Australia, but so reduced the area of its breeding-grounds, that
large bodies were compelled to emigrate in search of fresh ones, as Pallas’s Sand-Grouse
did in 1863. It is difficult to say why they did not stop in Australia and breed there ;
but there must be something either in the climate or food of that continent which does not
suit the true Snipes during the breeding-season, as nonce of them are known to breed in
Australia, But, be that as it may, one party of emigrants seem to have flown almost due
west to find a suitable home in Madagascar, whilst another must have flown almost due
east to secure excellent quarters in Colombia. he birds which founded these two colonies,
having discovered situations suitable for both summer and winter residence, probably
neither changed their habits nor their structure. Their descendants are probably almost
identical in form and colour with the common ancestors of the three forms when they were
residents in Japan, and that is probably the explanation of their remarkable similarity at
the present day. They have never passed through the ordeal of annual migration or been
subjected to the sifting process involved in the non-survival of the least fit to endure the
perils of such journeys. ‘The alternative hypothesis that the Japan bird has retained its
characters, and that the Madagascan and Colombian species have changed, is open to the
objection that it seems impossible that two colonies so remotely situated could have
independently varied in the same direction to a similar extent.

There is one very remarkable fact connected with the Snipes, and that is that the
number of tail-feathers appears to vary in distinct connection with geographical distribu-
tion, as if it was a climatic rather than a genetic variation. Those inhabiting Europe,
Africa, and America have fourteen to sixteen tail-feathers, whilst those peculiar to
Fast Siberia have from eighteen to twenty-six. This extraordinary development of
additional tail-feathers in East Siberia is very remarkable, and is not confined to the
Snipes. Two species of Ground-Thrushes, Geocichla varia from Hast Siberia, and
G. horsfieldi from Java (the latter obviously the result of a comparatively recent
emigration from the former), are distinguished from all other Thrushes by having fourteen
instead of twelve tail-feathers; and the Sea-Eagle of Kamtschatka also stands alone
amongst his confréres as the possessor of fourtcen tail-feathers. It is perhaps impossible
to discover any rational explanation of these curious facts. Modern evolutionists have

SCOLOPAX., 469

invented the hypothesis of Sexual Selection to explain those facts which appear to be
incapable of explanation by the theory of Natural Selection. It seems impossible to
imagine any benefit that could accrue to a species by increasing the number of its tail-
feathers ; and philosophers will probably explain this curious series of facts by attributing
it to the influence of Sexual Selection, on the same grounds that many a man, not a
philosopher, explains an action of which he is unable to give a rational defence, by saying
that it was a whim of his wife!

The geographical distribution of the Snipes is almost an exact parallel to that of the
Thrushes, a group of birds quite as cosmopolitan. The Common Snipe and the Song-
Thrush and their respective allies inhabit the Nearctic and Palearctic Regions. The
Snipes of the Ethiopian Region and the Planestici (Turdus olivaceus and its allies) of the
same Region find the closest possible allies in the Neotropical Region. The Semi-
Woodcocks and Ouzels (erula) are represented by near allies in the Himalayas and
in Tropical America, though the former have not left traces of their emigration in the
Pacific Islands as the latter have done. ‘The coincidence can scarcely be regarded as
accidental, but appears to be an instance of the same causes producing the same effect.

The geographical distribution of the Snipe appears to be somewhat anomalous from
either the Passerine or the Batrachian point of view. ‘The Painted Snipes are confined to
the Equatorial Southern Zone, and are found in each of its four Regions—the Indian, the
African, the Tropical American, and the Australian Regions. ‘lhe Woodcocks are also
found in the Northern Zone; but those inhabiting the Europo-Asiatic Region and the
eastern half of the North-American Region appear to form one group, whilst the other is
found only in the south-east of the Indian and the north-west of the Australian Region.
‘The range of the Semi-Woodcocks, being confined to the islands uear New Zealand
and the Andes, would be most complicated if expressed in terms of either system of
Regions. The typical Snipes are only absent during the breeding-season from the
Oriental and Australian Regions; but it is worthy of note that the only species found
in the Nearctic Region finds its nearest ally in the Palsarctic Region, whilst some of
the Snipes of the Ethiopian Region are doubtfully distinct from some of those of the
Neotropical Region.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

For convenience of diagnosis the Snipes may be divided into three groups. The first
group contains the Typical Snipes which have fewer than 17 tail-feathers ; the second
comprises those Typical Snipes which have more than 17 tail-feathers, and which may
therefore be styled Aberrant Snipes; and the third includes both the Woodcocks and the
Semi-Woodcocks, which are classed together so that the student may see how many
characters they have in common.

Sexual
selection.

Parallel dis-
tribution of
Thrushes.

Distribution
of Snipes.

470

SCOLOPAX.

A. Typical Snipes. Markings on the head longitudinal. Tibia bare of feathers for some

Ground-colour of outer tail-
feathers pure white.

Width of outer tail-feathers
less than } in.

distance above the joint. Number of tail-feathers not exceeding 16. No bars

on the inner webs of the primaries.
major
| equatorialis .

frenata
. 16 tail-feathers.

nobilis - Bill more than 34 inches
: long.
Tarsus, middle toe, and claw ane dactyl : | g
3°4 to 3°6 in.
wilsoni .-.. ./J
gallinago. . . . 14 tail-feathers.
gallinula. .. . 12 tail-feathers.

Of these, 8. nobilis, S. macrodactyla, and 8. equatorialis are resident species, in which

the shortest secondaries project far beyond the longest primary-coverts ; but, unfortunately
for the importance of the character, some of the local races of &. frenata are resident and

others migratory, so that both forms of wing occur within the limits of that species.

B. Aberrant Snipes. Markings on the head longitudinal. Tibia sometimes, but very

seldom, feathered to the joint. Number of tail-feathers exceeding 16. Bars on
the inner webs of the primaries absent or confined to the terminal half.

shanira, 26 tail-feathers, of which 16
are less than ‘2 in. wide.
20 tail-feathers, of which 12
megal ;
aia are less than ‘3 in. wide.
SOL ARIG ua a. Some feathers of the upper
parts margined with white.
S r : ee
ReOr COI. @. <2 econdaries extending 6 in.
beyond primary-coverts.
australis .

18 tail-feathers, of which only
4 are less than ‘3 in. wide.

Of these species S. solitaria and S. nemoricola often have the tibia feathered nearly to

SCOLOPAX. 471

the joint ; they are also said to vary in the number of their tail-feathers, but I have never
found more than 18.

C. Woodcocks and Semi-Woodcocks. This group contains 10 species and subspecies, in
which the characters dovetail into each other in a remarkable manner: the first
four have the markings on the head transverse; the first three and the last four
have the tibia feathered almost or quite to the joint; none of them have more

than 16 tail-feathers ; and the second to the sixth have bars on the outer webs of
the primaries.

minor. . . | Three outermost primaries
only 4 inch wide.
saturata.
( rusticola.
rochusseni

Inner webs of primaries barred .
Tibia not feathered to the

joint.

Bul more than 43 inches
from frontal feathers.

)
undulata. . ?
L gigantea. . )

stricklandi. Differs from &. strickland: in

Pale inesial line on crown. lt < having the underparts

Jameson . whiter and more profusely

barred.

Three outer tail-feathers uni-
form in colour throughout.

(
|
|
<
|
imperialis . ,
a dae 7 3 f *
Wing less than 44 inches a | aucklandica

carpal joint.

The first four species are not only distinguished by having the markings on the crown
transverse, but also by having the tail-feathers tipped with silvery white on the under
surface. In all of them the outermost secondary extends an inch or more beyond the
longest primary-coverts—a somewhat remarkable fact, as S. minor and S. rusticola are
migratory birds. In the two previous groups the broad wing is always correlated with
non-migratory habits, and appears to be purely an adaptive character, denoting analogy
rather than affinity ; whilst in this group the broad wing seems to be inherited from a

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

472 SCOLOPAX.

common ancestor, found alike in migratory and in resident species, whether they live in

forests or on open swamps.

* * New-Zealand Semi- I] ‘oodcock.

SCOLOPAX AUCKLANDICA.

AUCKLAND SNIPE.

Scoropax tibiis feré omnin6 vestitis: magnitudine parva (ale circ. 100 millim.) : abdomine fulvo.

Tue alleged variations of this species do not appear to have any geographical significance,

but apply only to age.

Gallirago aucklandica, Gray, Voy. Ereb. and Terr., Birds, p. 13 (1846).

Scolopax holmesi, Peale, U. S. Expl. Exp. 1838-1842, viii. p. 229 (1848).

Ceenocorypha aucklandica (Gray), Gray, Cat. Gen. and Subgen. Birds, p. 119 (1855).

Scolopax aucklandica (Gray), Cassin, Zool. U. States Exploring Exp. 1838-42, Birds, p. 311
(1858).

Gallinago pusilla, Buller, /bis, 1869, p. 41.

Puatrs.—Gray, Voy. Eireb. and Terr., Birds, pl. 18.
Haszirs.—Travers, Trans. New Zealand Inst. v. p. 217.
Eees.—Unknown.

The Auckland Snipe, with a length of wing of about 44 inches, is distinguished by its
small size from all the other species except from S. gallinula and 8. andina. As both
these species have white bellies, the character of waderparts buff with darker markings on
the breast and flanks completes the diagnosis,

The Auckland Snipe has occurred on the Snares Islands, about 150 miles south of
New Zealaud (Hiigel, Ibis, 1875, p- 391), on Auckland Island, 150 miles further south
(Gray, Zool. Erebus and Terror, Birds, p- 13), and on the Chatham Islands, about 300
miles to the east (Travers, Trans. New Zealand Inst. v. p- 217; Hutton, Ibis, 1872,
p. 247). Buller says that Capt. Hutton and Mr. Kirk have recorded its occurrence in the

SCOLOPAX. A73

Gulf of Hauraki near Auckland, but I have not been able to find the record. It is
probably a mere coincidence that its island life has dwarfed it exactly to the size of a Jack
Snipe. In every other respect it is a Semi-Woodcock, and is probably nearest allied to
S. stricklandi, though the absence of bars on most of the outer tail-feathers is a character
which it shares with S. cmperialis.

*,* Asiatic Snipes.

SCOLOPAX AUSTRALIS.
LATHAM’S SNIPE.

Scoropax rectricibus duodeviginti, quarum non nisi quatuor anguste sunt (minus quam 8 millim.).

No local races of this species are known.

Scolopax australis, Latham, Index Orn. Suppl. p. lxv (1801).
Scolopax hardwickii, Gray, Zool. Misc. i. p. 16 (1831).
Gallinago australis (Lath.), Gray, List Birds Coll. Brit. Mus. iii. p. 111 (1844).

Prates.— Gould, Birds of Australia, vi. pl. 40.
Hasits.—Gould, Handbook Birds Austr. ii. p. 271.
Eees.— Unknown.

Latham’s Snipe has 18 ¢ail-feathers, of which only two on each side are less than *3 in.
in width. No other Snipe agrees with this diagnosis, but as some of the tail-feathers are
occasionally missing in birds injured by shot, or procured during the moulting-season, it
is advisable to add some further characters. It is a large species, the wing measuring
6-5 to 6:0 inch from the carpal joint. As might be expected in a bird of such an extensive
range of migration, its primaries have been lengthened, apparently at the expense of its
secondaries, the longest primary-coverts extending considerably beyond the outermost
secondaries. The scapulars are broadly margined with buff, and the tibia is bare for some

distance above the joint.
3P

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters,

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

474 SCOLOPAX.

It breeds in both islands of Japan, and passes the Philippine Islands and the coasts
of China on migration to winter in Australia and Tasmania.

SCOLOPAX NEMORICOLA.
WOOD-SNIPE.

Scotopax secundariis valde (circa 16 millim.) ultra primariarum tectrices extensis : rectricibus
duodeviginti.

In this species the tibia is sometimes feathered to the joint, and sometimes bare for a
quarter of an inch or more, but the latter is probably caused by abrasion.

Gallinago nemoricola, Hodgson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1836, p. 8.
Nemoricola nipalensis, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. vi. p. 491 (1837).
Scolopax nemoricola (Hodgson), Jerdon, Ill. Ind. Orn, pl. ix. (1847).

Pratss.—Jerdon, Ill. Ind. Orn. pl. ix.; Hume & Marshall, Game Birds India &c. iii. p. 325.
Hasits.

Eces } Hume & Marshall, Game Birds India &c. ili. p. 325.

The Wood-Snipe may be diagnosed from all its congeners by its combination of two
characters: fail composed of more than 16 feathers, shortest secondaries projecting more
than half an inch beyond the longest primary-coverts. The latter character indicates
comparatively limited powers of flight, and is consistent with its recorded habits, which
closely resemble those of the Woodcock.

The six central tail-feathers are black, broadly tipped with chestnut, but of the six
outer feathers on each side (which are grey, irregularly barred with dark brown) only four
on each side are very narrow (varying from °1 to °3 in.).

The Wood-Snipe appears to be entirely confined to India and Burma, breeding at
high elevations in the Himalayas from Nepal to Assam, migrating in autumn to winter in
hilly districts further south in those countries. The nearest allies of this species appear
to be the other Snipes which, like it, have more than fourteen tail-feathers ; but, strange to
say, it bears a superficial resemblance to S. jamesoni and S. imperialis from the northern
Andes. The three species have the whole of the underparts profusely barred, and the

SCOLOPAX. 475

outer web of the first primary plain brown like the inner web. The Asiatic species is
distinguishable at a glance by the broad buff dorsal stripes, which are almost obsolete in
its South-American allies, as well as by its smaller size (wing under 52 inches instead of
over 6 inches), and, if the tail be perfect, by having eighteen rectrices.

SCOLOPAX SOLITARIA.
HIMALAYAN SOLITARY SNIPE.

Scotopax scapularibus albo non fulvo striatis: rectricibus duodeviginti. Diagnosis.

Exameues from Japan differ so much from extreme forms from Turkestan that they may Variations.
fairly be regarded as subspecifically distinct.

Gallinago solitaria, Hodgson, Prec. Zool. Soc. 1836, p. 8. Synonymy.
Scolopax hyemalis, Eversmann, Bull. Soc. Mosc. xviii. pt. i. p. 257 (1845).

Spilura solitaria (Hodgson), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xlii. p. 579 (1856).

Scolopax solitaria (Hodgson), Swinhoe, Ibis, 1863, p. 444.

Prares.—Eversmann, Bull. Soc. Mosc. 1845, pl. vi.; Hume & Marshall, Game Birds India &c. Literature.
iii, p. 333.

ea Hume & Marshall, Joe: ff:
Eaes.

The Solitary Snipe is the only species with more than 16 tail-feathers in which the pets
upper parts, especially the outer margins of the scapulars, are streaked with white instead of =f
buff. In addition to the eight central tail-feathers, which are broad and suffused with
chestnut towards the tip, there are usually five narrower feathers on each side (varying in
width from *15 to °3 inch) which are dark brown, barred with white for at least the
terminal two-thirds of their length. I have never found more than 18 tail-feathers, but
Jerdon says that there are 20, and Hume makes the number vary from 16 to 24!

Examples from Turkestan and the Himalayas differ slightly from those found in East
3P 2

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations,

Synonymy.

Literature.

476 SCOLOPAX.

Siberia and Japan. They may perhaps be regarded as subspecifically distinct, and may
generally be distinguished as follows :—

Scolopax solitaria. Scolopax japonica.
Lower breast white with no bars. Lower breast white, barred with brown.
Pale dorsal stripes very broad. Pale dorsal stripes very narrow.
Primaries marbled towards the tip. Primaries plain throughout.

Japanese examples appear to be constant, as are all the Turkestan examples that I
have seen; but in India slightly intermediate forms are found. Japanese birds are also, on
an average, slightly smaller, varying in length of wing from 6-0 to 6-4 inch, whilst examples
from Turkestan and India vary in length of wing from 6-4 to 6°8 inch.

The Himalayan Solitary Snipe breeds at an elevation of from 10,000 to 15,000 feet
from Turkestan, north-east as far as the Altai range, and south-east in the Himalayas as
far as Assam, descending in autumn to winter in the lower valleys. Its nearest ally is
scarcely more than subspecifically distinct from it, and probably interbreeds with it

somewhere in South-east Siberia.

SCOLOPAX SOLITARIA JAPONICA.
_ JAPANESE SOLITARY SNIPE.

ScoLopax sonitaria dorsi strigis pallidis angustioribus.

Tug Japanese form of this species appears completely to intergrade with the Himalayan
form.

Gallinago japonica, Swinhoe, Ibis, 1873, p. 364.
Scolopax solitaria japonica (Swinhoe), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p- 129.

Puatus.—David & Oustalet, Ois. Chine, pl. 122.
Haxirs.—Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1863, p- 313; Swinhoe, Ibis, 1873, p. 364.
Eoes.—Unknown.

The slight differences between the J apanese and Himalayan forms of the Solitary
Snipe have been already pointed out, and may perhaps be regarded as sufficiently important
to justify the subspecific separation of these very closely allied races.

SCOLOPAX. 477

The Japanese Solitary Snipe breeds in Northern Japan, and probably in South-eastern
Siberia as far east as Lake Baikal. It winters in China, though a few remain all the year
round in Yezzo. It has hitherto been generally confounded with the preceding species,
the synonymy of the two forms being still more confused. ‘The Scolopax hyemalis of
Eversmann (Bull. Soc. Mosc. 1845, p. 257, pl. vi.), from the Altai Mountains, is
unquestionably the Himalayan bird. The Gallinago japonica of Bonaparte (Compt. Rend.
1856, p. 715) is apparently a zomen nudum without description of any kind, and may be
any of the half-dozen Snipes of Japan; it therefore must be allowed to drop altogether
out of the synonymy, leaving the coast perfectly clear for the adoption of Swinhoe’s
Gallinago japonica (Ibis, 1873, p. 364), of which the type is now in my collection.

SCOLOPAX STENURA.
PINTAIL SNIPE.

Sconopax rectricibus viginti-sex, quarum sedecim angustissime sunt (2 ad 4 millim.).

No local races of this species are known, though of course it varies with age and season.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specitic
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

478 SCOLOPAX.

Telmatias stenoptera, Kuhl, fide Boie, Isis, 1826, p. 979.

Secolopax stenvra', Kuhl, fide Bonap. Ann. Stor. Nat. Bologua, iv. fase. xiv. p. 335 (1830).
Scolopax horsfieldii, Gray, Zool. Miscell. 1831, p. 2.

Gallinago heterura, Hodgson, Proc. Zool. Svc. 1836, p. 8.

Gallinago biclavus, Hodyson, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. vi. p. 491 (1837).

Scolopax heterura (Hodgson), Eyton, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1839, p. 107.

Gallinago horsfieldii (Gray), Gray, Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. iu. p. 110 (1844).
Gallinago stenura (Kuhl), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 583 (1846).

Scolopax pectinicauda, Peale, U. 8. Expl. Exp. 1838-42, vill. p. 227 (1848).

Spilura horsfieldi (Gray), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xiii. p. 579 (1856).

Prares.—Radde, Reis. im Siid. v. Ost-Sibir. ii, pl. xiii.; Hume & Marshall, Game Birds
India &e. ili. p. 339.

Hasits.—Hume & Marshall, Game Birds of India, Burma, and Ceylon, iii. p. 339.

Eoees.— Unknown.

The Pintail Snipe may always be recognized by its tae. The frst or outer feather
on each side is only ‘05 inch across; each succeeding feather increases in width, but so
slightly that the eighth is only ‘1 inch across, the ninth is °25 inch across, leaving eight
still broader central feathers, making 26 iz a//. It frequently happens, however, that
some of the pin-feathers are missing.

Of the three East-Siberian allies of the Common Snipe the Pintail Snipe is the
smallest (wing 4°9 to 5°3 inch), with the greatest number of tail-feathers (26), and
with the outer half-dozen or so on each side the most attenuated (under °1 inch in width).
It breeds as far north as the Arctic Circle, from the valley of the Yenesay to the Pacific.
It is doubtful if it breeds as far south as the valley of the Amoor; but it winters in India,
Ceylon, the Nicobars, the Andamans, the Burma Peninsula, China, and the islands of the
Malay Archipelago.

Notwithstanding the extraordinary structural difference between the tail of the Pintail
Snipe and that of the North-American form of the Common Snipe (8. gallinago wilsoni),
these two species scarcely differ in any respect in colour or pattern of colour, though the
latter is very complicated. The resemblance between them is so close, that it is doubtful
whether it would be possible to distinguish one from the other if the tail of each were
removed. Hume states that melanoid varieties of the Pintail Snipe also occur, which must
resemble very closely the melanoid variety of the common species known as Sabine’s Snipe.
There can scarcely be any doubt that in this genus the pattern of the colour is a much

more important character, dating much further back in its origin than the structure of the
wings or tail.

' Hume calls this species S. sthenura, on the ground that it was so named by Bonaparte. This is a

mistake; the introduction of the h appears to be a misprint, which first occurs in a translation (Isis, 1833,
p- 1077).

SCOLOPAX. 479

SCOLOPAX MEGALA.
SWINHOE'S SNIPE.

Scotorax rectricibus viginti: quarum duodecim anguste sunt (4 ad 8 millim.),

No local races of this species are known.

Gallinago megala, Swinhoe, Ibis, 1861, p. 348.
Gallinago heteroeaca, Cabanis, Journ. Orn. 1872, p. 317.
Scolopax megala (Swinhve), Rosenb. Malay Archip. p. 278 (1878).

Piates.—Unfigured.
Hasits.—Swinhoe, Ibis, 1860, p. 66.
Eees.—Dybowski, Journ. Orn. 1873, p. 104.

Swinhoe’s Snipe may be most easily recognized by its tail. It has 12 feathers (6 on
each side) which vary from 15 to ‘3 inch in width, in addition to the eight central
feathers (making 20 altogether). It is a slightly larger bird than the Pintail Snipe, but is
not so large as Latham’s Snipe, the Zength of wing varying from 5°4 to 5:6 inch. So far as
I know there is no difference of any kind in the colour or pattern of colour between this
species and several of its allies. They only differ in dimensions and in the number and
shape of the outer tail-feathers. It breeds in South-east Siberia from Lake Baikal to the
north island of Japan, and, passing through China on migration, winters in the islands of

the Malay Archipelago.

Diaguosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

480 SCOLOPAX.

p, eteeke Es
* * Asiatic and European Snipes.

SCOLOPAX GALLINULA.
JACK SNIPE.

Diagnosis. | Scoropax dorso purpureo: scapularibus viridi-iridescente ornatis.

Variations. Exampzes from England and Japan appear to be precisely similar.

Synonymy. Scolopax gallinago minor, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 304 (1760).
Scolopax gallinula, Linneus', Syst. Nat. i. p. 244 (1766).
Gallinago minima, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 31 (1816).
Lymnocryptes gallinula (Linn.), Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 118 (1829).
Philolimnos gallinula (Linn.), Brehm, Vég. Deutschl. p. 623 (1831).
Gallinago gallinula (Linn.), Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 52 (1838).
Ascalopax gallinula (Linn.), Keyserling u. Blasius, Wirb. Eur. p. Ixvii (1840).
Telmatias gallinula (Linn.), Droste, Vog. Bork. p. 234 (1869).

Literature. Purares.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 884; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 81; Dresser, Birds of Europe,
vii. pl. 544.
Hasirs.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 247.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 28. figs. 7, 9.

* It is a remarkable fact that the Jack Snipe was not known to Linneus when he wrote his tenth edition
of the ‘Systema Natura.’

SCOLOPAX. 431]

The Jack Snipe and the Auckland Snipe are the two smallest species in the genus,

Specific

but the former may perhaps be most easily diagnosed from all its congeners by the purple es

gloss on its mantle and the metallic green on the inside webs of its scapulars.

It is irregularly distributed, during the breeding-season, in the Arctic Regions from
the Atlantic to the Pacific. It breeds on the Dovrefjeld above the limit of forest-growth,
and throughout the tundras of Lapland. Henke says that it is only seen on migration at
Archangel; Hoffmann records it from the source of the Petchora; and Middendorff met
with it on the Boganida River, east of the Yenesay, in lat. 70°. It doubtless breeds in
North-east Siberia, since it has occurred repeatedly in Japan and once in Formosa.
Dybowski did not meet with it near Lake Baikal, but Finsch records it on migration from
South-west Siberia. Severtzow says that it passes through Turkestan; and Bogdanow
records it in spring and autumn in the valley of the Volga. It winters throughout the
basin of the Mediterranean and inland in Africa north of the Great Desert, as well as in
Persia, Afghanistan, India, Ceylon, and Burma,

\

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

The sternum of the Jack Snipe differs from that of its congeners in having two Sternum.

notches on each side of the posterior margin. ‘This circumstance and the fact that it has
| 3Q

482 SCOLOPAX.

only twelve rectrices are probably the reasons why it has been allowed to retain the genus
created for its reception in the pree-Darwinian dark ages.

SCOLOPAX MAJOR.
GREAT SNIPE.

Diagnosis. | ScoLopax rectricibus sedecim, quarum quatuor laterales pro majore parte albe sunt; tectricibus
mediis laté albo terminatis.

Variations. No local races of this species are known.

Synonymy. Gallinago media, Gerini, Orn. Meth. Dig. iv. p. 59, pl. cdxlvi. (1778).
Scolopax media (Gerini), Latham, Gen. Syn. Suppl. i. p. 292 (1787).
Scolopax major, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 661 (1788).

Gallinago major (Gmel.), Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. &c. Brit. Mus. p. 31 (1816).
Scolopax palustris, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 173 (1826).

Telmatias major (Gmel.), Brehm, Véy. Deutschl. p. 615 (1831).

Scolopax leucurus, Swainson, Faun. Bor.-Amer. ii. p. 501 (1831).

Gallinago montagui, Bunap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 52 (1838).
Ascalopax major (Gmel.), Keyserling u. Blasius, Wirb. Eur. p. \xxviii (1840).
Scolopax solitaria, Macyillivray, Man. Brit. B. ii. p. 102 (1842, nec Hodgson).
Gallinago media (Gerini), Lichtenstein, Nomencl. Av. p. 93 (1854).

SCOLOPAX. 483

Prates.—-Gould, Birds of Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 78; Dresser, Birds of Europe, vii. pl. 541.
Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 237.
Eces.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 28. figs. 1, 3.

The Great Snipe is the only species of the genus which combines the two characters
of predominant colour of four outer tail-feathers on each side pure white, and median wing-
coverts broadly tipped with pure white.

The geographical distribution of the Great Snipe is a very remarkable one, extending
in summer from Scandinavia to the valley of the Yenesay, but in winter confined to the
basin of the Mediterranean and the continent of Africa. ‘The Great Snipe is not even
known to pass through Turkestan on migration. It breeds in suitable localities throughout
the basin of the Baltic, and in Scandinavia as far north as Jat. 70°. To the British Islands
it is only an accidental wanderer on migration, and has occurred in most parts of the
country, including the Orkneys and Shetlands, but it is not known to have visited Iceland
or the Faroes. In the valleys of the Petchora and the Obb it ranges up to lat. 673°; but

in the valley of the Yenesay it does not go further north than lat. 663°. There is no
satisfactory evidence that it has ever occurred near Lake Baikal or in the valley of the
Amoor. It passes through the Caucasus and North Persia on migration, and winters
in suitable localities throughout South Africa, a few remaining in the basin of the Medi-
terranean. It crosses the Straits of Gibraltar, though not in great numbers, in spring
and autumn; but in Malta it is said only to occur on the spring migration.

This geographical distribution is specially interesting as affording one of many other
examples of migratory birds which have extended their breeding-range to a considerable

distance, but, in consequence of their having continued to follow their ancient “ fly-lines,”’
3Q2

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

484 SCOLOPAX.

have caused the line of migration to and from their more recently annexed breeding-

grounds to be remarkably circuitous.

SCOLOPAX GALLINAGO.

COMMON SNIPE.

Scoropax rectricibus quatuordecim aut sedecim, quarum extern vix attenuate (lat. 8 ad 10
millim.) et vix albo notate sunt: rostro medio (long. 60 ad 75 millim.): tibiarum parte
extrema (circ. 10 millim.) denudata.

Tux Common Snipe is a very variable species, as will hereafter appear, when it is compared
with the North-American Snipe, which may fairly be regarded as only subspecifically
distinct from it.

In addition to these variations, the Common Snipe is also subject to other variations
of a more abnormal character. As is probably the case with nearly every species of bird,
white or cream-coloured varieties are occasionally met with. Sabine’s Snipe appears to be
a partial melanism ; and Brehm’s Snipe has the outer tail-feathers elongated, so as to be as
long or even longer than the central ones. These peculiarities are generally regarded as
monstrosities, and are not known to be distinctive of the Snipes of any special locality ; but
there can be little doubt that, like many other diseases, they are more or less hereditary.

Scolopax gallinago, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 147 (1758) ; Brisson, Orn. v. p. 298 (1760) ; Linn.
Syst. Nat. i. p. 244 (1766).

Scolopax coelestis, Frenzel, Beschr. Vig. u. Eier Wittenb. p. 58 (1801).

Scolopax sakhalina, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. iii. p. 8359 (1817).

SCOLOPAX. 485

Scolopax brehmii, Kaup, Isis, 1823, p. 1147.

Scolopax sabini, Vigors, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv. p. 557 (1825).
Telmatias gallinago (Lenn.), Bote, Isis, 1826, p. 979.
Pelorychus brehmii (Kaup),
Enalius sabini (Vigors),
Gallinago uniclavus, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. vi. p. 492 (1887).
Gallinago scolopacinus, Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. & N. Amer. p. 52 (1838).
Scolopax peregrina (Brehm), Temminck, Man. d’ Orn. iv. p. 485 (1840).
Ascalopax sabini (Vigors) ,
Ascalopax gallinago (Linn.
Gallinago gallinago (Linn.), Lichtenstein, Nomencl. Av. p. 93 (1854).
Gallinago vulgaris, Dubois, Planches Col. Ois. Belg. pl. 182 (1858).
Gallinago russata, Gould, Birds Gt. Brit., Intr. p. exviii (1878).
Gallinago ccelestis (Frenz.), Dresser, Birds of Eur. vii. p. 641 (1880).

\ Kaup, Natiirl, Syst. pp. 119, 121 (1829).

\ Keyserling u. Blasius, Wirb. Eur. pp. xxvii, 216 (1840).

Prates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 883; Gould, Birds of Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 79; Dresser, Birds of Europe, Literature.
vil. pls. 542, 543.

Hasirs.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 241.

Eecs.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 28. figs. 4, 6, 8.

The Common Snipe may be most easily recognized by its ¢ac/, which consists of 14 Specific cha-
feathers (the four outermost of which vary from *4 to “5 inch) in the European form, and of "#*tes.
16 feathers (the four outermost of which vary from ‘3 to 4 inch) in the American form.
The only other species of Snipe with tails somewhat similar to that of the American form

are S. major and S. macrodactyla. The long bill of the latter (more than 33 inches) and
the white outer tail-feathers of the former are sufficient distinction.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations,

Synonymy.

486 SCOLOPAX.

The Common Snipe breeds throughout the whole of North Europe and Siberia, but is
very rare north of lat. 70°, and in the southern portion of its breeding-range is chiefly
confined to mountain-chains. Its range extends west to Iceland and the Faroes, and
possibly to South Greenland, and it is said that in both the former localities a few remain
to winter. It has been said to breed in Algeria, and is known to do so on the southern
slopes of the Alps and in South Russia. Both Severtzow and Scully found it breeding in
Turkestan, and Prievalsky says that a few remain to breed in South-east Mongolia. It is
a winter visitor to the basin of the Mediterranean and to North Africa, as far south in the
west as the Azores, Madeira, the Canaries, and the valley of the Gambia, and in the east as
far as the southern shores of the Gulf of Aden. In Asia it winters in Persia, India,
Ceylon, the Andaman Islands, and Burma. It has once occurred on the Malay Peninsula,
but passes regularly along the coasts of Japan on migration, to winter in China, Formosa,
and the Philippine Islands.

*,* North-American Snipe.

SCOLOPAX GALLINAGO WILSONI.
NORTH-AMERIOCAN SNIPE.

ScoLopax GaLLinaco rectricibus sedecim, quarum extern pauld attenuate (circ. 7 millim. lat.) sunt.

Tu North-American Snipe appears completely to intergrade with the Common Snipe.

Scolopax delicata, Ord, Suppl. Wilson’s Am. Orn. p- 218 (1825).
Scolopax wilsonii, Temminck, text to Pl. Enl. no. 403 (1826).
Scolopax drummondii, | . '
Scolopexdouslass, Swainson & Richardson, Faun. Bor.-Amer. ii. pp. 400, 501 (1831).
Gallinago wilsoni (Temm.), Bonap. Comp. List B. Eur. and N. Amer. p- 52 (1838).
Gallinago media wilsoni (Temm.), Ridgway, Nom. N. Amer. Birds, p. 44 (1881).

Scolopax gallinago wilsoni (Temm.), Seebohm, British Birds, iii, p. 241 (1885).

Gallinago delicata (Ord), Cowes & Co. Check-list N. Amer. Birds, p. 148 (1886).

SCOLOPAX. 487

Prates.— Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 47. fig. 1; Audubon, Birds Am. v. pl. 350.
Hasrts.— Baird, Brewer, & Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 188.
Eees.—Described by Brewer on p. 192 of the above-mentioned volume.

A comparison of a large series of skins of the North-American Snipe with a still
larger series of examples of the Common Snipe presents some curious anomalies. The
extreme forms of the two species may be contrasted as follows :—

Scolopax gallinago.

‘Tail-feathers fourteen in number.
Axillaries white.

Breast with obscure dark longitudinal
streaks.

Bill varying from 3-0 fo 2°5 inch in
length.

Outer tail-feather crossed by three dark
bars, diam. °4 in.

Scolopax wilsont.

Tail-feathers s¢vfeen in number.

Axillaries transversely barred with broad
dark bands.

Breast with obscure dark ¢ransverse
bars.

Bill varying from 2°7 fo 2:3 inch in
length.

Outer tail-feather crossed by jive dark
bars, diam. ‘8 in.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

So far as I know the American birds are always constant to their characters ; but,
unfortunately for the validity of the two species, there is not one of these characters’ (except
perhaps the very short bill, which is not always characteristic of the American form) which
does not frequently occur in examples from the Old World. Hume says that in India
Fan-tailed Snipes with sixteen tail-feathers are common enough. Snipes with barred
axillaries are perhaps the rule rather than the exception, even in England. Snipes with
transversely-barred breasts are occasionally found in the Old World, and the number of
bars across the outer tail-feathers of British-killed examples varies from three to five.
Nevertheless, 1 have never seen an Old-World example of a Snipe possessing a// the
characters of the American species.

The North-American Snipe is a summer visitor to the whole of the continent from the rap!
Atlantic to the Pacific as far north as the Arctic Circle and as far south as the latitude of een:
New York. It winters in Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, and the extreme
northern portion of South America. A few remain to breed as far south as Maryland, and
a few remain to winter as far north as Texas.

The constancy of the characters of the North-American Snipe has induced many
ornithologists of the New World to regard it as specifically distinct from our Common
Snipe. ‘Lhe inconstancy of the characters of the latter form is, however, so great that this
conclusion can scarcely be maintained. The Common Snipes of the Palearctic Region

Geographi-

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific

characters.

488 ‘SCOLOPAX.

vary so much and so constantly in the direction of the Nearctic Snipe, that they must be
regarded as little better than a race of mongrels.

* * South-American Snipes and Semi-Woodcocks.

SCOLOPAX STRICKLANDI.
STRICKLAND’S SNIPE.

Scoropax pileo in longitudinem striato : rectricibus quatuordecim omnibus fasciatis: tibiis fere
omnind vestitis : pectore et abdomine fulvis vix brunneo notatis.

No local races of this species are known.

Gallinago stricklandii, Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 112 (1844).

Scolopax meridionalis, Peale, U. S. Expl. Exp. 1838-42, vill. p. 229 (1848).

Scolopax spectabilis, Hartlaub, Naum. 1853, p. 216.

Scolopax stricklandi (Gray), Sharpe, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, Birds, App. p. 38 (1875).

Prares.—Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, pl. 23; Cassin, U. States Exploring Exp. ed. 2,
viii. pl. 35. fig. 1.

Hasrrs.—Peale, U. States Exploring Exp. 1838-42, vill. p. 229.

Eees.—Obtained by Mr. Berkeley James in Chili.

Strickland’s Snipe is easily distinguished from the typical Woodcocks by the
longitudinal markings of the crown, The two additional characters of tidia feathered almost
to the joint, and tail consisting of only 14 feathers, distinguish it from both the typical
and aberrant Snipes, and from one of the Semi-Woodcocks (8. wxdulata). From two
other Semi-Woodcocks the éars on the outer tail-feathers is a sufficient distinction ; but
from Jameson’s Snipe it can only be distinguished by the buff colour of all the pale parts,
and by the almost entire absence of dark markings on the breast and belly.

The superficial resemblance between Strickland’s Snipe and the Solitary Snipe is
somewhat remarkable, but they have very different tails. Strickland’s Snipe appears to
have only 14 tail-feathers. ‘The four outer ones on each side vary in width from ‘22 to
‘45 inch, and are black narrowly barred with buff. The six central feathers are broader,
and the buff more nearly approaches chestnut, but the black scarcely becomes confluent on
the outer webs, and leaves traces of buff-chestnut bars on the margin of the inner web.
The Solitary Snipe, on the other hand, has 18 tail-feathers. The four outer ones on each
side vary in width from 1 to *26 inch, and are brown, narrowly barred with white.

SCOLOPAX. 489

Strickland’s Snipe is only known from Chili and Patagonia. It has been found as far (eographi-
south as Cape Horn ; in Valdivia, in south lat. 40°; and Mr. Berkeley James observed it in a
the market at Valparaiso, which is the most northerly limit of its known range.

Strickland’s Snipe is very rare in collections. ‘The type is in the British Museum, and Examples
other examples are in the collection of Salvin aid Godman, in my own collection, and in the Orakere
Lynn Museum. On the continent it may be seen in the museums at Bremen and Leyden.

In its habits it is a Woodcock and not a Snipe. It is described as frequenting damp
thick forests or moist bushy lands, and as never seen on open marshy ground. Its egg is
also like that of a Woodcock, having a pale stone-coloured ground, very different from the
olive-brown ground-colour of the egys of the Snipes.

‘a y
X Fa Mi

A -aflbos ; nm ‘ mat i

A

Aww

Tayo \ ‘ ils
aa’ iw 4

SCOLOPAX JAMESONI.
JAMESON’S SNIPE.

Scoropax tibiis feré omnind vestitis ; rectricum quatuordecim lateralibus attenuatis (circ. 5 millim.), Diagnosis.
omnibus fasciatis: primariz prime pogonio externo haud fasciato : pectore et abdomine
albescentis valdé brunneo fasciatis.

i Cl Variations,
No local races of this species are known. ariati

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Nearest
ally.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

490 SCOLOPAX.

Xylocota jamesoni, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xli. p. 660 (1855).
Gallinago jamesoni (Bonap.), Sclater & Salvin, Exotic Orn. p. 196 (1869).
Scolopax jamesoni (Bonap.), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 130.

Prates.—Unfigured.

Hasrrs.—Described by Simons, who met with this species at an elevation of 11,000 feet on the
Sierra Nevadas, in Colombia, as a very rare and shy bird, dodging amongst the tufts of
grass in swampy places. ,

Eees.— Unknown.

Jameson’s Snipe has many characters in common with the Typical Woodcocks, but
the markings on the crown are longitudinal, and there are no traces of the silvery white tips
on the under surface of the tail-feathers so conspicuous in that little group. It has a long
thick bill and a short thick tarsus; the claw of the hind toe is very small, and the tibia is
feathered almost, if not quite, to the joint, the latter character being sufficient to exclude
it from the Typical Snipes. It has short primaries and long secondaries, and in other
respects bears a superficial resemblance to the Wood-Snipe (S. xemoricola), but the restricted
number of its tail-feathers excludes it from the group of Aberrant Snipes.

The tail of S. jamesoni differs so much from that of 8. zemoricola, and resembles so
much that of & stricklandi, that there can be little doubt that the true affinities of the two
South-American species are with each other rather than with the species which seem, in
other respects, to be their East-Asian representatives. The variation in width of the four
outer tail-feathers of Jameson’s Snipe is from ‘2 to ‘5 inch, and their colour is very
grey and the bars somewhat obscure. The six central feathers scarcely differ from those of
Strickland’s Snipe. Both species have only 14 tatl-feathers, all of which are barred.

Of the group of Semi-Woodcocks to which it consequently belongs, the last-nentioned
character excludes two, S. imperialis and 8. aucklandica, both of which have three or more
tail-feathers on each side plain brown without any bars. Two others, 8. undulata and
S. gigantea, are excluded by the first-mentioned character (having the tibia bare of
feathers for some distance above the joint), and are further excluded by the distinct traces
of bars on the inner webs of their primaries. The only other Semi-Woodcock is &. strick-
landi, which is the nearest ally of Jameson’s Snipe, and may possibly prove to be only
subspecifically distinct from it ; but in Strickland’s Snipe the breast and belly are uniform
buff without any bars, whilst in Jameson’s Snipe they are dull white barred with brown.

Jameson’s Snipe is a resident in the mountain plateaux of the northern Andes, where
it breeds at a high elevation. It was originally described by Bonaparte’ from examples
obtained by Jameson near Quito in Ecuador. It has since been obtained by Fraser on the

‘ Of the types one is in the collection of Canon Tristram, and the other in mine. They are labelled
“‘Quitian Andes, W. Jameson,” and were bought for a few pence at the sale of Sir William Jardine’s birds

when that magnificent collection was recklessly thrown away for a mere trifle. The old story, “ somebody
blundered.”

SCOLOPAX. 491

southern slope of Chimborazo, about 14,000 feet above the sea (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc.
1860, p. 82), and by Buckley on the eastern slope of the main chain of the Andes in
Bolivia (Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1879, p. 641), and again recently by Stolamann
near the original locality (‘Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1885, p. 112). There can be
little doubt that it occurs in Peru; it has not actually been procured in that country, but
Jelski recognized its note (Tacz. Orn. Pérou, iii. p. 376).

SCOLOPAX IMPERIALIS.

IMPERIAL SNIPE.

Scoropax tibiis feré omnino vestitis : rectricum tribus externis non fasciatis: magnitudine magna Diagnosis.

(alee circa 150 millim.).

Onty one example of this species is known. Vartona.
Gallinago imperialis, Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1869, p. 419. Synonymy,
Scolopax imperialis (Scl. & Salv.), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 180.

Literature,

Piates.—Sclater & Salvin, Exotic Orn. pl. xevii.
Hastrs.—Undescribed.
Eees.— Unknown.

The Imperial Snipe is only known from a single skin, said to have been obtained ee
in the interior of New Granada, which looks like a rufous phase of the last-mentioned tion,
species, adjoining the limits of whose range it was found. The fact that the tarsus
measures only \*4 instead of 1°5 inch, and that the three outer tail feathers (which are —
all that are left on the unique example in the collection of Messrs. Salvin and Godman) Sena
are plain brown without any bars, apparently indicate that it 1s a good species. It may be
diagnosed from its near ally, as well as from all other species of the genus, by the
ground-colour of its upper parts, which is rich chestnut. It may also be diagnosed from
all other known species of Scolopaw by the great breadth of its wings. The outermost
secondary extends about two inches beyond the longest primary-covert, nearly twice as

much as in any other species of the group. =
oR

492 SCOLOPAX.

It is unquestionably very nearly allied to Jameson’s Snipe, but will probably be found
to be specifically distinct from that bird.

SCOLOPAX UNDULATA.

CAYENNE GIANT SNIPE.

Diagnosis. | Scoropax pileo in longitudinem striato: primariarum pogoniis internis fasciatis.

Variations. SoUTHERN examples are, on an average, so much larger that they may fairly be regarded as
subspecifically distinct.

Synonymy. Scolopax undulata, Boddaert, Table Pl. Enl. p. 54 (1783).
Scolopax paludosa, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 661 (1788).
Homoptilura undulata (Bodd.), Gray, List Gen. Birds, p. 70 (1840).
Gallinago undulata (Bodd.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 553 (1846).
Xylocota paludosa (Gmel.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xli. p. 660 (1855).
Gallinago paludosa (Gmel.), Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Scol. p. 8 (1864).

Literature. Prates.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 895.
Hasirs.—Buffon, Hist. Nat. des Ois. vii. p. 481.
Eees.— Unknown,

SCOLOPAX. 493

The Giant Snipe may be diagnosed from all the species of the genus which have, like Specific
it, the dars on the head longitudinal and not transverse, by its darred primaries. There are eee
two forms of Giant Snipe which appear to be exactly alike in colour, but differ slightly in
size. Their respective distribution has not been very accurately determined, nor has it
been absolutely proved that they completely intergrade, but the following measurements of
six examples leave little room for doubt on the subject :—

S. undulata. S. gigantea.
inch. inch.
Length of wing . .. . . . 6 to64 63 to 7
Length of bill we ee a we ee Ae To 43 to 5
Length oftarsus . . . . . . létolf 24
Length of middle toe. . . . , 24 22

The Cayenne Giant Snipe is only known with certainty from the mountains of Guiana. Geographi-
Buffon says that the Cayenne Giant Snipe is nocturnal in its habits, but differs from °2! ist!bu-

tion,
the Woodcock in being a bird of the swamps, avoiding the forests.
SCOLOPAX UNDULATA GIGANTEA.
BRAZILIAN GIANT SNIPE.
ScoLopax UNDULATA magnitudine majore (ale plus quam 160 millim.). Diagnosis.

Tere cannot be much doubt that this bird completely intergrades with the preceding, Variations.
from which it only differs in size.

Scolopax gigantea, Natterer, fide Temm. Pl. Col. no. 403 (1826). Synonymy.
Gallinago gigantea (Natt.), Gray, Genera of Birds, iii. p. 583 (1846).

Gallinago lacunosa, Lichtenstein, Nom. Av. p. 93 (1854).

Xylocota gigantea (Licht.), Bonaparte, Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 579 (1856).

Scolopax undulata gigantea (Temm.), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 131.

Puates.—Temminck, Pl. Col. no. 403. Literature.

Hasits.—Undescribed.
Eecs.—I have eggs of this species procured near Buenos Ayres with the bird by Mons. L. Hardy
du Dréssent, which exactly resemble those of the Woodcock in colour, but are twice the

size.

494, SCOLOPAX.

Geographi- The difference between the Brazilian and Cayenne Giant Snipes has been already
ren pointed out. The former has been obtained near the source of the Parana and near

Buenos Ayres. Its reported occurrence in Peru and Cayenne may possibly be correct, but
the evidence is scarcely conclusive.

SCOLOPAX FRENATA.

BRAZILIAN SNIPE.

Diagnosis. Scotopax rectricibus sedecim, quarum laterales anguste (minus quam 5 millim.), et valdé brunneo
fasciatee sunt: rostro breviore (minus quam 75 millim.).

Variations. ‘THis species varies so much that I have been obliged to recognize three races as sub-
specifically distinct from the typical form.

Synonymy. Scolopax frenata’, Illiger, fide Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl. p. 75 (1828, descript. null.).
Scolopax braziliensis, Swainson & Richardson, Faun. Bor.-Amer. ii. p. 400 (1831).
Gallinago frenata (Illig.), Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 579 (1856).
Scolopax frenata brasiliensis (Sw. & Rich.), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 138.

Literature. Priates.— Unfigured.
Hasirs.—Durnford, Ibis, 1877, p. 198.
Eces, obtained by Capt. Harrison near Buenos Ayres, resemble dark varieties of those of the
Common Snipe in colour, and measure 1°55 by 1:15 inch.

Specific Azara’s Snipe may be diagnosed as having sixteen tail-feathers, of which the outermost

characters. are very narrow, less than ‘2 inch wide, and crossed by five or six brown bands. As a
further distinction from 8. xodélis, in which the outer tail-feathers are *25 inch wide, it is
safest to add, di? less than three inches long.

* I cannot agree with Messrs. Sclater and Salvin (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868, p. 144) that Lichtenstein based
his name upon Azara’s “ Becasina prima.” He based it upon a skin of a Snipe from Brazil, still in the Berlin
Museum, labelled “ Scolopax frenata ” by Iliger. He erroneously gave as a synonym no. 387 instead of 388
of Azara, a bird which is not known to have occurred in Brazil.

SCOLOPAX. 495

The typical form of this species is a small race which appears to be a resident in
tropical South America east of the Andes, It scarcely differs from its Peruvian ally in
length of wing, but in the length of its bill (which, measured from the frontal feathers,
varies from 2°4 to 2°9 inch) it differs from that race, in which the bill rarely exceeds
2 inches in length. On the other hand, it scarcely differs from its two allies, which breed,
the one in the Falkland Islands and the other in Chili, in the length of its bill; but in the
length of its wing (which, measured from the carpal joint, varies from 44 to 5 inches) it
differs from those races, in which the wing is very rarely as short as 5 inches and sometimes
as long as 53 inches.

Azara’s Snipe, the Nectropical representative of the Common Snipe, appears to have
become more or less differentiated into four races, two small and two large ones; the two
former being tropical, and the two latter temperate in their range.

I have been unable to discover any character by which some of the forms of Azara’s
Snipe can be distinguished from the North-American form of the Common Snipe except
the width of the outer tail-feathers. In every other respect they appear to be absolutely
similar, and to have precisely the same habit of ‘‘ drumming.”

The Brazilian form of Azara’s Snipe, or the Brazilian Snipe as it may conveniently be
called, appears to be a common bird in tropical South America east of the Andes, and
probably breeds in suitable localities throughout its range. It has occurred in the west of
Venezuela (Goering, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870, p. 788); I have examples collected by Whitely
in the neighbourhood of Mount Roraima, on the confines of British Guiana; it breeds in
the marshy districts of Pernambuco (Forbes, Ibis, 1881, p. 359); I have seen examples
from the provinces of Bahia and Minas Geraes; it was originally described by Azara from
Paraguay ; Burmeister obtained it in the province of Mendoza in the Argentine Republic ;
and I have eggs of this species from Buenos Ayres.

Hans von Berlepsch expresses the opinion (Journ. Orn. 1887, p. 36) that the small
Snipes found in Paraguay are the young of the larger Snipes from that country. ‘The fact
that the length of the bill of the smaller birds is the same as that of the larger ones appears
to me to be conclusive evidence that this is not the case. I know of no species of Snipe in
which the bill of the young is proportionately longer than that of the adult. So far as I
know, the contrary is always the case. There is, however, a much more important difference
between the two races, a structural difference which many ornithologists would regard as
almost generic. ‘I'he small Snipes are residents in tropical America, and hence we find
that they have short primaries and long secondaries: the shortest secondaries extend
beyond the longest primary-coverts often as much as half an inch. . The large Snipes breed
in Patagonia or the Falkland Islands, and are only winter visitors to Paraguay, and
consequently the shortest secondaries do not extend beyond the longest primary-coverts.
Unfortunately the Chilian race is intermediate in this respect, Obnenwise the two forms
which are found in Paraguay must be regarded as specifically distinct.

Close rela-
tionship to
the North-
American

Snipe.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

Diagnosis.

Variations.

496 SCOLOPAX.

SCOLOPAX FRENATA MAGELLANICA.
FALKLAND-ISLAND SNIPE.

ScoLOPAx FRENATA magnitudine majore: colore pallidiore : secundariis brevioribus.

Tur Falkland Island Snipe appears completely to intergrade through the Chilian Snipe
with the Brazilian Snipe.

Scolopax paraguayz, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. iii. p. 131 (1816).

Scolopax magellanicus, King, Zool. Journ. iv. p. 93 (18338).

Gallinago magellanicus (King), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 111 (1844).
Gallinago paraguay (Vieillot), Gray, List Birds Brit. Mus. iii. p. 111 (1844, partim).
Scolopax frenata magellanica (King), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 138.

Prares.—Unfigured.
Hasits.—Abbott, Ibis, 1861, p. 156.
Ecos, obtained by the ‘ Challenger ’ expedition, measure 1:7 x 1°22 inch,

The Falkland-Island Snipe is merely a pale form of the Chilian Snipe, with slightly
shorter secondaries, the outermost not extending beyond the longest primary-covert. It
breeds on the Falkland Islands and possibly near the Straits of Magellan, migrating
northwards in autumn along the east coast of South America as far north as Paraguay,
whence it was originally described by Azara. I have examples collected by Capt. Harrison
at Maldonado and Bahia Blanca.

SCOLOPAX FRENATA CHILENSIS.
CHILIAN SNIPE.

Scotopax FRENATA alis longioribus (180 ad 145 millim.).

Tur Chilian Snipe appears to be an intermediate form between the Falkland-Island Snipe
and the Brazilian Snipe, with both of which it intergrades.

SCOLOPAX. 497

Gallinago paraguayee (Vieillot), apud auctores omnes.

Prates.—Unfigured.
Hasits.—Bridges, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 118.

Eees.—Described (Yarrell, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. 54), from examples sent from Chili by
Bridges, as measuring 1? by 1} inch.

The Chilian form of Azara’s Snipe, or the Chilian Snipe, appears to be confined to the
Pacific slopes of Bolivia and Chili. I have been unable to find any evidence of its
occurrence east of the Andes; consequently the name of 8. paraguaye, by which it is
generally known, must be abandoned as sure to be always misleading, and as originally
applied to a nearly allied local race which breeds in the Falkland Islands and winters in
Paraguay. Under these circumstances I have been obliged most reluctantly to give it a
new name, Scolopax chilensis, or, if we adopt a trinomial nomenclature, S. /renata
chilensis.

It differs from the Brazilian Snipe only in dimensions. In both forms the length of
the bill from the frontal feathers varies from 2°4 to 2°9 inch, but whilst in the Brazilian
Snipe the length of the wing from the carpal joint varies from 43 to 5 inches, that of
the Chilian Snipe varies from 5} to 52 inches. In none of these dimensions does it
differ materially from the Falkland-Island Snipe, which has all the appearance of being
a desert form of its Chilian ally. In the Chilian Snipe the pale parts are very white
and the dark parts very dark, a rich velvety dark brown. It varies in the comparative
length of the primaries and secondaries, intergrading with the Falkland-Island race on
the one hand, and with the Brazilian form on the other.

Examples from Chili are common in collections, and Messrs. Salvin and Godman have
one from Bolivia.

SCOLOPAX FRENATA ANDINA.
PERUVIAN SNIPE.

ScoLopax FRENATA rostro breviore.

Tur Peruvian Snipe is only a small race of the Brazilian Snipe, with which it intergrades.

Gallinago andina, Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 561.
Scolopax frenata andina (Tacz.), Scebuhm, Ibis, 1886, p. 138.

35

Synonymy.

Literature.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Subspecific
characters.

Diagnosis,

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature.

498 SCOLOPAX.

Prates.—Unfigured.
Hasirs.—Taczanowski, Orn. Pérou, iii. p. 375.
Eees.— Unknown.

The Peruvian form of Azara’s Snipe is a miniature of the Brazilian form, which it
resembles in colour. The average dimensions of the two races are as follows :—

S. frenata. S. andina.

inch. inch.
Bil g¢ « « w@ « BOw24 2'1 to 2°0
Wing. . . . . 49 to 4°5 46 to 4°5
Tarsus. . . . . Id tol2 1-1 to 1:0

It is only known from the Peruvian Andes, where it was first obtained by Whitely
(Sclater & Salvin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1869, p. 151), about 10,000 feet above the level of the
sea, near Cuzco ; and afterwards by Jelski, who obtained the type described by Taczanowski
near Lake Junin, about 300 miles to the north-west in the same chain. More recently it
has been found by Stolzmann (Taczanowski, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1880, p. 213) about
9000 feet above the level of the sea at Cutervo, about 409 miles further still to the
north-west.

SCOLOPAX NOBILIS.
NOBLE SNIPE.

Scoropax pileo in longitudinem striato : rostro longo (80 ad 115 millim.) : primariis non fasciatis :
rectricibus sedecim, quarum externe anguste (circ. 5 millim.) et fulvescentes pogoniis
ambobus brunneo fasciat sunt.

Laren examples of the Noble Snipe are scarcely distinguishable from small specimens of
the Madagascar Snipe.

Gallinago nobilis, Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856, p. 81.
Gallinago granadensis, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xiii. p. 579 (1856).
Scolopax nobilis (Sclater), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 183.

Pratrs.—Sclater & Salvin, Exotic Orn. pl. xeviii.
Hasits.— Undescribed.
Eces.—Salmon, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1879, p. 547.

SCOLOPAX. 499

The Noble Snipe and its very close ally the Madagascar Snipe are the only two true
Snipes (7. e. with /ongitudinal markings on the crown, and no silvery tips to the tail-feathers)
which have éi/s more than 3% inches long (measured from the frontal feathers) and zo
traces of bars on the primaries. ‘They have 16 ¢ail-feathers, and the outer ones on each
side are not more than + inch wide, are barred on both webs, and are far removed from
white in colour. The difference between the two forms is pointed out in the next article.
They differ principally from Latham’s Snipe in having a shorter, because more rounded wing
(first primary only exceeding the fourth in length by + instead of 2 inch), by having a longer
bill (84 to 43 inches instead of 2 to 24 inches), and by having two tail-feathers less.

‘the Noble Snipe is only known from the plateaux of the Andes of Ecuador and
Colombia.

* * : eA
x African Snipes.

SCOLOPAX NOBILIS MACRODACTYLA’
MADAGASCAR SNIPE.

ScoLoPaX NOBILIs macrodactyla (tarsus et digitus medius cum ungue 86 ad 92 millim.).

THERE is every reason to suppose that the Madagascar Snipe completely intergrades with
its South-American ally.

Gallinago macrodactyla, Bonap. Icon. Fauna Ital., text to pl. 43, p. 3 (1832).
Gallinago bernieri, Pucheran, Rev. Zool. 1845, p. 279.

Gallinago longirostris, Lichtenstein, Nom. Av. Mus. Zool. Berol. p. 93 (1854).
Scolopax nobilis macrodactyla (Bonap.), Scebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 133.

Piates.—Milne-Edw. & Grand. Hist. Madag., Ois. iv. pl. 260.
Hasits.—Roch & Newton, Ibis, 1863, p. 172.
Eecs.—Harting, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1882, p. 356.

The Madagascar Snipe has sixteen tail-feathers like its Colombian ally. It is not
known that it differs from it in colour, except perhaps that the outer tail-feathers are more

1 Tt is unusual to give the later name precedence over the earlier one, but in the present case common
sense demands that the rule be violated. S. macrodactyla nobilis would imply a large variety of the
Madagascar Snipe, which would be erroneous ; S. nobilis macroductyla means a variety of the Noble Snipe
with a larger foot than usual, which is precisely the state of the case.

382

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

Diagnosis.

Variations.

Synonymy.

Literature,

Subspecific
characters.

Geographi-
eal distribu-
tion.

Diagnosis.

500 SCOLOPAX.

suffused with chestnut than in the Colombian form. It also differs from its Colombian
ally in having on an average a larger foot; but it is doubtful whether the latter character
would hold good in a large series. As it is, the difference is so small that, in order to
make it as perceptible as possible, it is necessary to measure the foot in the longest possible
way, that is, from the joint of the tibia and tarsus to the end of the claw of the middle toe.
These dimensions vary in S. nodilis from 3:0 to 8:3 inch, and in S. macrodactyla from 3°4
to 3°6 inch.

So far as is known, the Madagascar Snipe is the only Snipe found on that island,
and does not occur on the mainland.

SCOLOPAX AQUATORIALIS'.
ETHIOPIAN SNIPE.

Scoropax rectricibus quatuor externis pro majore parte albis; tectricibus mediis anguste fulvo
terminatis.

' This species is often called Scolopax nigripennis, a name given by Bonaparte to a Snipe said to have come
from the Cape. He describes the outer web of the first primary as black, whence the name nigripennis, As,
however, the Ethiopian Snipe happens to be distinguished from the other species which breeds in the Ethiopian
Region and from the species which only winters there by the fact that tho outer webs of its first primaries
are white, there can be little doubt that the name is a misprint for albipennis; but the adoption of either name
is, of course, out of the question.

SCOLOPAX. 501

Tats species varies considerably in the length of the bill, but apparently irrespective of Variations.
geographical distribution.

Gallinago nigripennis, Bonap. Icon, Fuuna Ital., Ucc. text to pl. 48, p. 4 (1832). Synonymy.
Scolopax elegans, Desjardin, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 204.

Gallinago equatorialis, Riippell, Syst. Uebers. Vig. Nord-Ost-Africa’s, p. 123 (1845).
Gallinago atripennis, Bonap. fide Hartlaub, Orn. Westafrica’s, p. 239 (1857).
Gallinago angolensis, Bocage, Jorn. Sc. math., phys. e nat. Lisd. ii. p. 49 (1868).
Telmatias equatorialis (Riipp.), Heuglin, Peterm. Geogr. Mitth. 1869, p. 417.
Scolopax zequatorialis (Riipp.), Seebohm, Ibis, 1886, p. 136.

Prates.—Unfigured. Literature.
Hasirs.—Sharpe, Layard’s Birds of South Africa, p. 676.
Eggs, in my collection, obtained by Ayres in the Transvaal, resemble exceptionally large eggs

of the Common Snipe.

The Ethiopian Snipe may fairly claim to be regarded as the handsomest species of the Specific
genus, on the ground of the clear definition of its markings, and the velvety gloss of the CBee
black on its upper parts. The pure white ground-colour of the four outer tail-feathers on
each side distinguishes it from all the other species of the genus except from the Great Snipe
(S. major). From that species it is most easily distinguished by its median wing-coveris,
which are xarrowly tipped with buff, instead of broadly tipped with white. Both have
sixteen tail-feathers, the outer tail-feather measures ‘2 inch across, each succeeding feather
increasing in width until the fourth measures *3 inch. The European species has a shorter
bill and longer primaries than the African :—

S. major. Bill 2°3 to 2°8 inch, First primary °5 inch longer chat the fourth.

8. equatorialis. Bill 2°8 to 8°2 inch, First primary °3 inch longer than the fourth.

The Ethiopian Snipe inhabits Africa south of the Sahara from Abyssinia to the Cape, Geographi-
and is recorded from Damara Land, Benguela, Angola, and Senegambia. It is found in ee
the Cape Colony, Natal, and the Transvaal.

It is difficult to determine the relative importance of the slight characters upon which Nearest
the various species of Snipe are founded. The Ethiopian Snipe (S. equatorialis) resembles a
the Great Snipe (8. major) in the white tips of its secondaries and in the great amount of
white on its outer tail-feathers. It resembles the Common Snipe (S. gallinago) in the
white outer web of its first primary and in the frequent predominance of white on its
axillaries. It appears to be very closely related to the Chilian Snipe (8. chilensis), with
which it agrees in size and colour. Its wing is much more rounded than that of the
Common Snipe, and slightly more so than that of the Chilian Snipe.

It seems probable that the Snipes enjoy a remarkable immunity from persecution in
consequence of their semi-nocturnal habits, which have saved them to a large extent from

502 SCOLOPAX.

the sifting process of protective selection. The result of this is shown in the small range
of variation in colour between the species. 8. eguatorialis and S. chilensis are probably
the least changed descendants of the common ancestors of S. gallinago and &. major in the
Old World, and of S. wilsont in the New World, which were probably residents on the
tundras near the Polar Basin before the Post-Pliocene Glacial Epoch drove them south.

** Typical Woodcocks.

SCOLOPAX RUSTICOLA.
WOODCOCK.

Diagnosis. ScoLopax rectricum apicibus subtits colore argenteo: primariarum pogoniis internis fasciatis :
pectoris pennis omnibus fasciatis.

Variations. Iy is said that examples from the Azores are smaller than usual, but I have not seen a
sufficient number from those islands to form an opinion.

Synonymy. Scolopax rusticola, Linneus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 146 (1758); Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 243 (1766).
Scolopax scolopax, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 292 (1760).
Rusticola vulgaris, Vieillot, N. Dict. d’ Hist. Nat. iii. p. 348 (1816).

SCOLOPAX. 503

Rusticola europea, Lesson, Traité d’Orn. p. 555 (1831).

Scolopax indicus, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. ii. pt. 1, p. 490 (1837).
Scolopax communis, Selby, Cat. Gen. & Subgen. Aves, p. 43 (1840).
Rusticola sylvestris, Macgillivray, Man. Brit. B. ii. p. 105 (1842).
Scolopax scoparia, Bonap. Compt. Rend. xliii. p. 579 (1856).

Pratres.—Daub. Pl. Enl. no. 885; Gould, Birds Gt. Brit. iv. pl. 77; Dresser, Birds of Europe,
vii. pl. 540..

Hasits.—Seebohm, British Birds, iii. p. 231.
Eees.—Seebohm, British Birds, pl. 28. figs. 2, 5.

The Woodcock may be distinguished from all the Snipes by the silvery white tips of
the under surface of its tail-feathers; and from the three other Woodcocks by the combi-
nation of the two characters, al/ the feathers of the breast barred, primaries with rudimentary
tars on the margins of both webs. 'The former character distinguishes it from 8. minor and
S. rochusseni, and the latter from &. saturata as well as from S&. minor.

The Woodcock breeds somewhat sparingly and locally throughout the British Islands,
including Shetland and some of the inner islands, and may constantly be met with during
winter; but its numbers are largely increased in autumn and spring by birds passing
through on migration. At these seasons it is common on the Orkneys and the Outer
Hebrides, though, owing to the absence of suitable cover, it does not breed in any of these
islands.

It is a semi-arctic bird, ranging from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In Scandinavia it
breeds up to lat. 67°, in West Russia to 65°, but in East Russia and Siberia not much
beyond 60°. Its southern breeding-range extends to the Azores, the Canaries and Madeira,
to the Alps, the Carpathians and the Caucasus, to the Himalayas (where it breeds at an
elevation of ten thousand feet), and to Mongolia and the mountains of Japan. It winters
in the basin of the Mediterranean, in Persia, India, Burma, and China, occasionally
wandering as far south as Ceylon. It has not occurred in Iceland or Greenland, and only
once on the Faroes; but accidental stragglers, no doubt driven westward by storms,
principally from the Azores, have been met with on the American continent in Newfound-
land, New Jersey, and Virginia.

It is very distinct from its four nearest allies, and it is quite impossible to guess to
which of them it bears the closest relationship. It is essentially a forest-bird, and is to a
great extent nocturnal in its habits.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion.

504 SCOLOPAX.

SCOLOPAX MINOR.
AMERICAN WOODCOCK.

Diagnosis, | ScoLorax primariarum primis tribus valdé attenuatis.

Variations. No local races of this species are known.

Synonymy. Scolopax minor, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. p. 661 (1788).
Rusticola minor (Gmel.), Vieillot, N. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. iii. p. 851 (1816).
Microptera minor (Gmel.), Nuttall, Man. Orn. ii. p. 192 (1834).
Microptera americana, Audubon, Syn. Birds N. Amer. p. 250 (1839).
Philohela minor (Gmel.), Gray, List Gen. and Subyen. Birds, p. 90 (1841).

Literature. Prares.—Wilson, Am. Orn. pl. 48. fig. 2; Audubon, Orn. Biogr. pl. 265.
Hasits.—Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Water-Birds N. Amer. i. p. 183.
Eoees.—Described by Brewer in the above-mentioned work, p. 187.

Specific The American Woodcock may be recognized at once by the extraordinary attenuation
characters. oF its first three primaries. The pattern of the colour of the upper parts is very similar to
that of our bird, to which it is evidently very closely allied, but it has no trace of bars on
the primaries, and scarcely any on the underparts. Its range extends northwards to
lat. 50°, and southwards into Texas, but its longitudinal range extends from the Atlantic

SCOLOPAX. 505

only halfway across the continent. To the northern half of its range it is only a summer Geographi-
visitor, but in the southern half it is a resident, whose numbers are largely increased aia
during winter. There can be little doubt that it is the result of an ancient western
emigration from the Old World or from the Azores.

It is for the most part a forest-bird, and almost exclusively nocturnal in its habits.

SCOLOPAX ROCHUSSENI.
MOLUCCAN WOODCOCK. (Puare XX.)

ScoLopax rectricum a icibus subtis colore argenteo : rimariarum 0. onlis internis fasciatis : Diagnosis.
5 Pp fo)
pectore non fasciato.

It is not known that examples from one island of the Moluccas differ in any way from Variations.
those of another.

Scolopax rochussenii, Schlegel, Nederl. Tijdschr. Dierk. 1866, p. 254. Synonymy.
Neoscolopax rochusseni (Schlegel), Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Genov. xviii. p. 331 (1882).

Prates.—Hitherto unfigured. Literature.
Hasirs.—Undescribed.
Eecs.— Unknown.

The Moluccan Woodcock, like all the four true Woodcocks, possesses both the transverse Specific
markings on the head and the silvery tips to the under surface of the tail-feathers. The °h2ters.
absence of bars on the breast and the presence of rudimentary bars on the margin of both
webs of the primaries serve to distinguish it from the other Woodcocks. Its unbarred
breast shows its relationship to &. mzor, and its barred primaries to S. rusticola.

It is only known from the small group of islands from which its vernacular name eographi-
eal distribu-

is derived, and where it is doubtless a resident. Sati.
It is very different from our Woodcock, but is probably the result of an emigration
of a party of that species from Japan.
Although its habits are undescribed we may fairly assume it to be a forest-bird, as the
‘islands which it inhabits are said to be covered with wood to the sea-shore. It is very
rare in collections. The type in the Leyden Museum came from the island of Obi,
and I have an example in my collection which was sent to Mr. G. A. Frank, of Amsterdam,

with a collection of birds from Ternate.
3T

Diagnosis.

Variations,

Synonymy.

Literature.

Specific
characters.

Geographi-
cal distribu-
tion,

Breeding-
range

doubtful.

506 SCOLOPAX.

SCOLOPAX SATURATA.:
HORSFIELD’S WOODCOCK. (Puare XX1.)

Scotopax rectricum apicibus subttis colore argenteo: primariarum pogoniis internis non fasciatis,
primariis non attenuatis.

Exampues from Java appear to be exactly similar to those from New Guinea.

Scolopax saturata, Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 191 (1821).
Rusticola javanica, Lesson, Traité d’ Orn. p. 555 (1881).
Scolopax rosenbergt, Schlegel, Nederl. Tydschr. Dierk. 1869, p. 54.

Pratrs.—Schlegel, Handl. Dierk., Aves, pl. vi. fig. 71.
Hasits.—Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. xii. p. 191.
Eces.— Unknown.

Horsfield’s Woodcock may be distinguished from the Snipes by the ¢ransverse
markings on its head, and the silvery tips on the under surface of the tail-feathers. It is
much smaller than our Woodcock, but not quite so small as the American species. In the
pattern of its primaries it is intermediate between them. In our bird both webs are more
or less darred, in Horsfield’s Woodcock the outer wed only, and in the American bird
neither web. ‘The shape of the wing is also intermediate; the first three primaries are
nearly equal in length, the second slightly the longest.

Horsfield’s Woodcock was originally described from the island of Java, where it was
found at an elevation of 7000 feet, and the type, which was formerly in the India Museum,
still exists, though moth-eaten and devoid of feathers, in the British Museum. The Leyden
Museum possesses two examples collected by Boie on the same island, and a third example,
the type of &. rosendergi1, from the north-western peninsula of New Guinea. A
second example from the same peninsula, collected by Bruijn, is in the collection of
Count Turati in Milan (Salvadori, Orn. Papuasia e delle Molucche, iii. p. 235), and a
tlird, obtained by the same collector, is recorded (Guillemard, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1883,
p. 665). Jt is not known that any other examples of this rare Woodcock exist. It is
inpossible to say whether it be a resident in Java and Western New Guinea, and if so
probably in the intervening islands, or whether it be only a winter visitor to the Malay
Archipelago, breeding northwards in Eastern Thibet or Yunnan.

* When Schlegel described it he unfortunately compared it with an example of S. satwrata from Java
which was moulling its primaries, and had run the gauntlet of nearly forty years’ exposure to dust and
sunshine on the shelves of the Leyden Museum. The two birds seem to be specifically identical. Both have
the richly barred underparts, black and chestnut, except across the middle of the breast, where in both birds
the black bars are on a white ground.

INDEX.

Norr.—The names which I have adopted (of which the specific names are those auctorum plurimorum)
appear without any affix. Where the name of the author is affixed it is placed in brackets if the genus be

not that originally employed.

Page

Actitis bartrami (Wils.) .. 0.6.0... cece eee 377
empusa, Golda ok wise sseea kee eka 371
=— _ glareola: (Linh.). avweweaeereien samees 366
—— hypoleucos (Linn.) . 2... cece eee 371
limiosa (Briss.). 0c csce0 eee dave van a oe 390
macularius (Linn.) oo... cee cee ee 373
ochropus (Linn.) 0... ee eee eee 368
pulverulentus (Miill.) ... 0... cece eee 362
rufescens (Vieill.) oo... cece eee eee 447
schlegeli, Bonap... 6.0... cc cee eens 371
Actiturus bartramius (Wils.) ........ 0.006. 377
longicaudus (Bechst.) .. 6... cece sees 377
neevius, Heermann .. 1... cee eee 447
—— rufescens (Vieill.) .. 6... cc cece cece ee 447
rufescens, var. 3, Bonap. .........65 451
Actodromas albescens (Temm.) ...... ++ e005 438
australis (Less.) .. ee eee ee eee eee 438
bairdii, Cowes .. 6... eee cee cee eens 4145
cooperi (Baird) 6... eee eee eee eens 423
fuscicollis (Vieill.) 6.6... ee cece eens 446
maculata, Cowes ... eee cece eee ees 443
—— minuta (Linn) ...ce reece cece eens 436
minutilla (Vieill.) .. 6. eee e eee eee es 439
subminuta (Midd.).... 1... cere ee eee 438
temmincki (Leisl.) 10... eee eee eens 434
wilsoni (Nutt.).. 6. cee eee eens 439
ZEchmorhynchus parvirostris (Peale) ......-- 451
Aigialeus semipalmatus (Kaup) ......++++-- 124
Megialitis albidipectus, Ridgway .....-.-.++- 162
alexandrina nivosa (Cassin) .......++- Ta
asiaticus, var. montanus (Zownsh.) 153
auritus, Heuglin 0.0... eee eee reece 126
bicinetus (Jard. & Selby) ..-+ sce eees 149
—— bitorquatus (Licht.).....cccee ee eer nes 135

4Aégialitis cantiannus (Lath.) ...... 0. eee eee
cantianus, var. nivosus, Coues..........
canus, Gould

cinereicollis, Heuglin .......6 50 eens
collaris (Vieul:) scrcrgaweanian ins ays
curonicus (Gmel.)
dealbatus, Swinho€ ...... cece cece nees
forbest, Shelleyics. exis saaesar esas ace
geoftroyi (Wagl.).. 0... cc cece cee
gracilis, Cabanis .... ccc cc eee e eee
hartingi, Swinhoe
hiaticula (Linn.) oo. ce cc ee cee eee
indicus (Lath.)... 05.50 cece cence wees
jerdoni, Legge . 6... ccc ccc ence eens
leschenaulti (Less.) .. 60. c ce cece tees
longipes, Heuglin. ... 0. ccc cette eens
marginatus (Vieill.). 0.00... ce eee ee
mastersi, Ramsay
MOChOW], CAO. .cuy ca warnieewc dee wae nes
—— melodus (Ord) 0... ccc cece ener
melodus, var. circumcinctus, Cowes......
microrhynchus, Ridgway
minor (Wolf & Meyer)

——- minutus (Pail. )
monachus (Wagler).. 0... s cece cece
mongolicus (Pall.)

moutanus (Townsh.)
nigrifrons (Temit.) 2... 0. ee eee eee
nigris, Harting
niveifrons (Lesson) .. 16.6 .es eee eens
nivosa, Baird, Cassin, & Lawr. .....+45
occidentalis, Cabanis
pecuarius (Zemm.)
—— pecuarius kittlitzii, Reichend. .........,

3T 2

es

a

146
1738
133
126
136
132
146
158
161
148

171
175

508 INDEX.

Page

#Egialitis peronii (Temm.) ......-. cece eee 166
philippinus (Lath.) 0... 0.60. sce c eens 131
-— placidus (Gray) 1... 0... ce eee ee 133
—— pusillus (Horsf.) .. 2... ee eee 1381
—— pyrrothorax (Temm.) ..........-..006- 148
sancte-helene, Harting .............. 160
semipalmatus (Kaup) ...........-0055 124
tricollaris (Vieill.) 00... 0... cee eee ee 135
venusta (Misch. & Reich.).........0 00.0. 164
veredus (Gould) ...... ce cece ce eee ee 115
vociferus (Linn) .. 6... cece eee ee eee 120
—— wilsonius (Ord) 2.0.0... cece cece eae 154
—— wilsonius, var. rufinuchus, Ridgway .... 154
zonatus (Swains.) ...... ce. eee eee ee 131
4igialophilus cantianus (Lath.) ..........4. 168
ruficapillus (Zemm.) ...-.....0-00 20s 165
Afrolia varia, Vieill.... 0. ccc eee 420
Ammoptila charadroides (Wagl.)............ 249
Anarhynchus albifrons, Schlegel ............ 152
frontalis, Quoy g& Gaim. .........00005 152
Ancylocheilus subarquatus (Gould).......... 420
Aphriza borealis (@mel.) ........0..000000. 413
townsendi, Audubon ................ 413
virgata (Gmel.) .ec cece cece cece aes 413
Arenaria arenaria, Briss..........000..0005 410
Galidvis (Law icine ee tawn eee ee 432
cinerea, Briss... 6... 00 ce cece eee cues 410
grisea, Bechst. ...... 0.000. c ec cee ae 432
—— interpres (Linn.) .. 0... 0. eee eee 410
melanocephala (Vigors) ..........0.0% 412
vulgaris, Bechst. 2.0... 000. ceca eee eee 432
Arquatella couesi, Ridgway .............. 430
maritima (Gmel.) oo. eee eee 420
—— ptilocnemis (Cowes) 0.0.0.0... 431
Ascalopax gallinago (Linn.)............... 485
gallinula (Linn) .. 2... eee eee, 480
THOR (GEE): papi Ad's wie vonn dene ie 482
sabini (Vigors) oo... ccc cece cece ee 485
Avocetta avocetta, Briss. .................. 289
europea, Dumont ........ 0.00. 289
nove-zealandia, Hllman.............. 292
Bartramia laticauda, Less. ................ 377
Bartramius longicaudus (Bechst.).......000., 377
Belonopterus cayennensis (Gmel.) oo... 216
Burhinus grallarius (C2. eee ae ater aie ee 84
magnirostris (Vieill.) oo. eee cece cee 90
Calidris albescens SS a ee 438
arenaria (Linn.) ...........0...0.... 432
canutus (Briss.) .. 0... cece eee 423
canutus (Linn) ...... 0 cece eee 423

Page

Calidris islandica (Linn.) .. ccc ce cece eee 423
leucopterus (Gimel.).... 06.000 cence ee 453
maritima (Briinn.) 00... cee cee eee 429
minuta (Leisl.) ... 6c. cece ee eee 436

—— rubidus (Gmel.) .. 6... cc cece ee eee 432
temminckii (Leisl.) «2... 0.2.6.0. 2 eee ee 434
tringoides, Vieill. 2... ee cece eee eee 432
Canutus islandicus (Linn.) .......6 cece eee 423
Carvanaca griseus, Hodgson...........0000 88
Catoptrophorus crassirostris ( Vieill.) ........ 358
semipalmatus (Gimel.) .... 6... cee eee 358
Charadriine . 54 e2usc sore eee Ses ele ew ee 66
Charagrius is seas 2a co pee awe ees Rae ea a 91
wgyptius, Linn, ...... cee eee eee eee 249

—— africanus, Lath, .....c ccc cece eee caee 249
albicapillus (Vieill.) ....... ee. eee. 192

—— albiceps, Temm, .. 0... 0c cee cece ees 221
—— albifrons, Wolf & Meyer .........4-. 168
—— annuligerus, Wagler ........ cece eens 156
—— apricarius, Linn... ccc eee 98
SS ASIAUICUS hs. wis ie ee Wa ee wae We Ree 144
—— asiaticus, Pallas 2.0... cee cee eee 144
— atricapillus, Gmel. ...... 0. ee eee ee 223
—— atrogularis, Wagler .. 0... eee eae 185
—— auratus, Suckow 1.0.0... ccc cece eee eee 98
—— aureus (Briss.). «acs e nu swae seaweeds 98
SANS tals. 5 oie ects. ae ed ew Se ae See eae 110
—— azarm, Temm, .... 0. cc ceca eee 173
> DICINCIUS 4 gia dearesiees ane iaae. aes 149
—— bicinctus, Jardine & Selby ............ l4y
—— bicolor, Temm. .. 00... cee £27
bifroptutus 20s osaia esas aaen ede Seae 137
bifrontatus, Cabs... . ee eee 137
—— bilobus, Gimeno... eee 199
bistriatus, Wagl... i... ee eee ee 85
—— bitorquatus, Licht. 0.0... .. 0... eens 1385
— brevirostris, Wied 1.0.0... ccc eu ee eens 124
—— calidris, Line oo... .0 cece vce nae ene 482
—— callaeas, Wagler .. 0... ee eee 189
SS CANMANUS! acs hasloiein ad Sa aldermen 168
—— cantianus, Lath... 0... ccc es 168
—— cantianus dealbatus .............00. 170
—— cantianus minutus ............ 000005 169
—— cantianus nivosus .......c ccs eee ae 171
—— caspius, Pallas 2... cece cece 144
SS CAYATUS, LEMS os ee esis ease ae OSs Bee EK 229
—— cayennensis (Gmel.) oe. cece eee 216
CIN CLS PANGS cis hipaa w cave 4 Race. Babee 410
cirrhepidesmos, Wagl....... 2.60.00 005 148
wm CON ONS, cee etee ee GER e eee 173
—— collaris, Vict. cee eee eee 173

INDEX.

Page

Charadrius columbinus, Hempr. & Ehrend..... 146
coromandelicus, Gmel....... 00... eee 241
coronatus, Boddaert......... cece ees 223
corrira, Bonnaterre 6... ees 236
crassirostris, Spry 2.0... eee ee eee 154
cristatus; Bint. 3. cis cn esc ewes eseess 220
—— oucullatus, Vieill. 2... cc eee eee 127
curonicus, Gmel. .. i.e eee eee 130
Cursor, Lathe. occa bin wea Sass ed eerie aia ans 235
damarensis, Strickland .........0000. l4dt

—— dominicus, Miller ...... 0.0.0.2 02 100
dominicus fulvus, Ridgway............ 99
—— dubius, Scopoli oo... cece eee ee ees 1380
—— dudoroa, Wagl, ..... ccc cece eee en ee 129
—— duvaucelii, Less. 6.0... cee eee ee ees 227
erythropus, Gel. 2... eee ee ee eee 130
falklandicus: 2. siwiase cece ew aan es 155
falklandicus, Lath. 1.0... cece eee eee 156

— fluviatilis, Bechst......... ccc ce eee ee 130
FOF OBL ye cc oe oe eee eee aos ee ne 186
frenatus, Lath... 0... cee ee ee ee 84
frontalis: 65.5.5 sade yee ae Sw Cero ees 152
frontalis (Quoy F Gawm.)...... eee eee ee 152
frontalis, Sundevall . 2... cece eee eee 224
es PUB ie Gi rare yk stay CR SE MRS at 99
fulvus, Ginelin 0.0... c cece 99

——— fulvus americanus .........-.- ee eeee 100
fulvus, var. virginicus (Licht.) ........ 101
gallicus, Gmel.... 6... eects 235
gallinaceus, Wagl. ...---.e es eee eee 190
gavia (Leach) .. 6. eee cece eee 210
geoftroyd 6... cece ee eee eee eee 146
geoffroyi, Wagl. 00... 6. eee eee eee 146
—— giganteus (Licht.) 1.2... cece e eee 84
—— glareola, Licht, ....... 0c cece eens 151
—— glaucopus, Licht. 0.0... sere eerie 99
grallarius, Lath. 00... .6- cere eee eens 84
gregarius, Pall. .......+00ee sere e ees 212
griseus, Less. 1... seen cere cer eee 146

—— gularis, Wagl..... see eects 148
helveticus ..... eee eee etter tees 102
helveticus (Briss.) ...---eee reece eens 102
hiaticula .. 02. eee ee eet 125
hiaticula, Linn, 1... cece eee cree 126
hiaticula major 1... . eee eee eee eee 126
hiaticuloides, Franklin .......eee ees 130
—— himantopus, Linn. 1.6... - ee eee eres 277
—— hypomelus, Pall. .....+.0eeeeteeeeree 102
—— illyricus, Piller 1.1... eee rere e ees 75
inornatus (Gould) .....--- ee eeee eres 148

130

intermedius, Ménétries

509

Page

Charadrius interpres (Linn.) ...........05- 410
isabellinus, Miiller oo. .... 0c cece 158

—— Jamaicensis, Gel... 0... cece cece ee 120
Jugularis, Wag)... 1... cece eee 144
—— keptuschka (Lepech.) .......... 000008 212
—— kittlitzi Reich.) ....ce eee 158
lampronotus, Wagl. 2.0.6.0... sees ues 216
— arvals, Lessis shi wkcaiad holds wees 173
—— leschenaulti, Less, .. 0... cece eee 146
—— leucopolius, Wagl. .. 6... cece eee 161
leucurus, Licht. 1... .c cece eee cece 213
--— littoralis, Bechst. ... 0... cc eee ees 168
—— lobatus (Lath.) oo. cece cee eens 190
longipes, David... cc cee eee eee eee 133
Indovicianus (Gimel.) se. ccc cece 189
—— lugubris, Less... 6. cee ene 224
—— macropterus, Wagl, ..... cess eens 187
—-— major, Tristr. 0. cece ene 127
—— malabricus, Bodd. .......- eee ee eee 199
2 MALPINALUS esac is Kae R eee Bere 161
—— marginatus, Vieill. ...... eee eee ee 161
—— marginatus tenellus.................. 163
—— marmoratus, Wagl..... 0... ce cece 100
—— melanocephalus, Gimel. .......... 000, 249
—— melanocephalus (Vigors)...........05. 412
—— welanops, Vieill, .... cece cee eee 138
—— melanopteroides, Temm. ........0-0006 226
—— melanopterus, Cretzschmar .........06- 224
—— melodus ............ op beneaeuen ensues 121
ea mélodus, Ord: sence ek asa k ewes as 121
—— melodus circumcinctus ...........605 122
moexicanus (Briss.) .. 0... cece eee ees 279
SMO? bike aeea date eee were ree 180
—— minor, Wolf & Meyer. ..... cc eeeecene 130
== Minor ferdont sivcecncssretvanes eae: 132
——mintitis, Palle ose seeswsersewe Gress 130
MOdESHUS suieeer ie sey eee tokedawes ee 105
modestus, Licht. .... 0... cece cece eee 105

—— modestus rubecola ........--.-.2 eee 106
MONACHUSs 6 ssi wee HESS ee 127
monachus, Geoffr, 6.6... eee eee reas 127
MONGOlICUS .2 saves Brew eean peewee 147
mongolicus, Pall... .. 6. eee cee e eee ee 148
mongolus, Pall, 6.6... cece ee eee ee 148
MONUADUS sf osisse Gt seals ae sre wine wee 153
montanus, Townshend ...... 60. cece eee 153
morinellus 16... cece eee eee eee ee 113
morinellus, Linn... . 6. cee eee 113
neevius, Gimel. 6. ccc ee cee eee 102
——— nigrifTon8. 1... 6. cece ee eee eens 138
nigrifrons, Cuvier .-..-. sees eee eee 138

INDEX.

510
Page
Charadrius nivifrons, Cuvier ........eeee ee 161
novee-seelandia, Gmel. .. 1. cee eee eee 129
novee-zelandig@ ...... 00 cece eee eens 128
ODSCULUS 2... cee te ee eee eens 151
Obscurus, Gel. 1... . eee ee eee 161
occidentalis 2.0.6... cece eee ee eens 174
—— coedicnemus, Linn. 1... ccc eee eee ee 75
okeni, Wagl, .. ccc cee eee nee 121
pallidus, Strickl. 0.1... cece eee ee eee 164
pardela, Pall, .... 0. ce cc cece eee eee 102
pastor, CU. cc cc ccccee ee ene cee ceee 158
pectoralis, Wagl., 6... sec cece ee eee 200
PCCWATING 0640 ira eR Nee bees 158
pecuarius, Tenm. .. 0... cece ee eee 158
PCLONL ce. wwsaiee eden de wse se eee eee Re 166
peroni, S. Mull. acacia venswswen ees ee 166
persicus, Bonnat. 2... ccc eee eee 220
—— philippinus, Lath. .. 0... cece eee 130
pileatus, Gel, co.cc cee eee ee 197
= placidus: ..sicaeseswebecewe nv sa ade 133
—— placidus, Gray. ¢saccnvevaseiees ies ea 133
a pluylalis: 1446 serer seus nae Reuse nes 97
—— pluvialis, Zinn, .. 02. eee eee 98
—— pluvialis orientalis, Zemm..........665 99
—— pluvialis, var, virginicus (Licht.) ...... 101
plisillts, Horsf. ccc cece sadn ses 130
—— pyrrhocephalus, Less. ........0. 00.046 156
—— pyrrhothorax (Temm.) ......-. eee 148
—— resplendens, Tschudi ................ 228
—— rubecola, Vigors ........ 0... 0 scene 106
—— rubidus, Gmel..... 0.0... eee 432
= PUM Ca PM US) ioe fecsne ida goers nye bb a etna ae 164
—— ruficapillus, Temm. 1.0.6... eee 165
—— ruficollis, Cu... eee 148
—— ruficollis, Licht. 6... 0... cece eee 111
—— rufinellus, Blyth .. 0.2.0... ee eee 148
—— rufinus, Blyth .. 0... eee 146
—=—TUfventrs |e eweaien sane Ree nee 108
—— russatus, Jerd..... 00. ccc vce ees 138
—— sanctee-helene .................... 160
—— sanguineus, Less............... 00000 148
—— scolopax, Gmel. .. 6. ee cee 7)
—— semipalmatus ..............00 ce cae 123
—— semipalmatus, Kaup .............05. 124
—— senegalensis, Stephens...............4 220
—— sibiricus, Gel. oo... ccc ce cee eee 113
——— sociabilis 20... ec e cee eee 107
—— speciosus, Wagl. ..... 6... cece eee 221
—— spinosus, Linn. .......0 cece cee eae 220
spiel, Wagl. ..seceis4aaiews wwe es 224
—— squatarola (Linn.) ....... 00. ceca 103

Page

Charadrius stolatus, Waql. .. 0... 02 ee ee ee 229
subrufinus, Hodys. 6.0... cece eee eee 148

—— taitensis, Less... ccc cee ee eee 99
tartaricus, Pall: casaceu dew ewasien ance 113
fectus, Bodds sari deax ces eurvoineden 197
tenellus, Hartl:: ose neve ere se awiece 164
torquata (Briss.) 0... cee ee cece eerie 126
torquatus, Linn. .... cece eee e ee eee es 120
torquatula, Licht. 2... ec ce cece ee eeee 129
LotanILOstriSw.c se ses se meee eee ess 111
tricollaris ¢s.csu0snc oe eee cwore es ceases 134
tricollaris, Vteillwc xc ce newewese ae nea 135
tricolor, Vreill: xisciwies ray gases 200
trifasciatus, Licht. 2... ce cece ee eee 156
—— vanelloides, Peale... ... ccc cee eens 200
—— vanellus (Linn.) ... cece cece eens 210
—— varius (Briss.) 0... cece ce eee eee 103
—— varius, Vieille wiscuawdacse dea e aie se 158
—— ventralis, Wagl. oi. .csa oe ess va we vie ee 227
—— venustus, Misch. §& Retchen. .......... 164
== WELedUS de saiaian qu disarm se Se Mb eee 115
veredus; Gould: soccucwve sore sa Bee ee 115
virginicus, Bechst. 00.6 ce cece eee eee 100
VOCUErUS vi cias ere arermee es eta eer we 120
VOCIOTUS, LUNs asics ieesees sees enes 120
wagleri, Gray § Hardw. ...c cee eeeee 212
WISONI jivcve sew ee ee Rae oo oe es 154
wilsonius;. Ordwss oe: es ceeawe eee eres 154
—— winterfeldti, Tschud? ... 0... eee c eens 413
xanthocheilus, Wagl. .... 0... cece eee 99
nonatus, Swainson ....... cee ee eee 131
Cheilodromas melanocephalus (Gimel.)........ 249
Chettusia albicapilla (Vivill.) .. 0. cece eee 192
biloba (@inel.) .ncore.oeecesesaceeves 199
cinerea (Blyth) scacdeinadew sea eee ws 183
coronata (Bodd.) anne cetera seaeaw as 223
crassirostris, de Filippi .. 0... cece ees 215
cucullatus (Lemm.) oo. ce cecc eee 187
flavipes (Sav.) .. 0. cece eee ee 213
gallinacea (Wagl.) oo... cece cece eee 190
prégaria (Pau) oie el aaa dk cae kee aie 212
WIGIGd. (Bode) cco eat ee eo aw Ba we 185
inornata (Temm. & Schl.) 0.6... ce eee 183
lateralis (Smith) oo... ccc cece eee ee ee 193
lenctita (Lach) wiscee ising eeardeneaes 213
lobata (Lath.) cee ccc ec cence ee ees 190

—— macrocercus (Heugl.) oo... ccc ee eens 215
—— macroptera (Wagl.).. 0... cece cece ee 187
melanocephala (Riipp.) .. 0.0... eee eee 195
—— melanopterus (Cretzschin.) ...... 00000. 224

—— miles (Bodd.) wc ccccccsenne ceeeeees 189

INDEX.

Page

Chettusia nivifrons, Ogden .. 0... cece eee 215
pectoralis (Wagl.) oo... cc cee ee eee 200
personata (Gould) .. 2... cece ee 189
pilesta (Gindl.) oc .weweseeseue ues 197
senegalla (Lint.) oo... eee eee es 192
villoteei (Audowin) 2.6... . cece eee ee 213
wagleri (Gray & Hardw.) ......eeee ee 212
Chlorhynchus strophiatus, Hodgs. .......... 314
Cinclus interpres (Linn.) .... 0.0... ce cee 410
morinellus (Linn.) v6.0... eee ee eee 410
Cirrepidesmus geoffroyi (Wagl.) ........004. 146
mongolicus (Pull.) .. 6... eee eee 148
pyrrhothorax (Temm.) ........00004, 148
Cladorhynchus leucocephalus (Vieill.) ...... 288
orientalis (Cwv.) .. 6... eke eee ee 288
pectoralis (Dubus) .... 0... cee eee ee 288
Ccenocorypha aucklandica (Gray) .......... 472
Cracticornis arquatus (Linn.) 6.0... eee eee 322
Crymophilus rufus (Bechst.)...... 00.0.0. 0 339
Cursor bicinctus (Temm.).. 00... cee eee eee 242
chalcopterus (Temm.) .... 0... c eee eee 246
charadroides, Wagl., wo. cece eee eee 249
europweus (Laih.). occ eee ee es 236
frenatus,. Wagl. a. scwsasue viwrus cece 241
isabellinus (Meyer) .. 0... e eee eens 236
temminckii (Swains.) oo... cee eee eee 240
CUISOTIUS w2cneaae seated iw sR he wees 231
PLVPUUS vice ae oy were yaewxar eran 248

—— egyptius (Linn) ...-.. cece ees 249
——= africanus, Lienites« ais. 6s eo bebe es oS 242
———aslatieusy Lath. axes wrx ahi eleeten 3 241
= PIGINCLUS aascores ei ws eee eee Reeds 242
picinetus, Temine cia .cs ceca aa sean es 242
bicinctus bisignatug ........ 6. ee eee 243
bicinctus bisignatus (Hartl.) .......... 243
bicinetus gracilis............-+45 2. 244
picinctus gracilis (Fisch. & Zteich.)...... 244

—— bisignatus, Hurtlaub 6.6... eee ees 243
=o itorquatus .0.c.eseieeweng aired oe 247
bitorquatus (Jerd.) .. 66. ee cee 247

—— burchellii (Swains.) oo... eee 238
——- chalcopterts...... 66. cece eee eens 246
—— chalcopterus, Temm. 1.2... 000s ee eeee 246
Hm — CINCHER ew eee He a a Ae 245
—— cinctus, Heugl... cece cece cee eee 245
—— coromandelicus ........ se eevee eee ee 241
—— coromandelicus (Gimel.) ...- 0... eee . 241
—— europeus, Lath, occ nee 235
—— gallictS... 0. 2c cece een eee ee eres 235
gallicus (Gimel.) «00... sees seer eens 236
gallicus somalensis (Shelley) .......++- 237

511

Page

Cursorius gracilis, Fischer & Reivhenow ...... 244
on Siallatin, Ladd by s42eicsassarean eee 242
—— himantopus (Linn.) 0.0... eee eens 277
—— isabellinus, Meyer 2.0... cece eens 236
jamesoni, Jerd, 1.0... cece cee eee 236
TUEOS: Saree aie Geto eee ease 238
—— rufus, Gould wc... cece cee eee eee 238
senegalensis ........... ccc ee eee eeee 239

—— senogalensis (Licht.).......+eeeeeee ... 240
SoOmAleNSIS ..... eee ee eee eee eet 237
somalensis, Shelley .. 0... seee ce seeeee 237
superciliaris, Heugl..... 66 ce wesc eens 246
tarayensis, Hodgs. 1.1.14 J eevee eueee 241
temminckii, Swains, 1.1... cee eee eee 240
Defilippia crassirostris (Hartl.) .. 0.6... eee 215
Dromiceius lessoni, Bunap. ....... 0. eee eee 111
Dromochelidon natrophila, Landbeck ........ 257
Emalins sabini (Vigors) .. 0... cece cece eens 485
HPeUHCbES! se tiedinn wan Hales ae FREES ETS 394
PYISCUS iv srs ol ecard Genser eRe Per re 396
griseus (Gmel.) ccesasu tween be sesa ens 397
griseus scolopaceus .......... sees eeee 398
—— himantopus .......... cee cece ee eae 400
—— mauri (Bonap.) .... ccc eee eee eee 403
occidentalis, Lawr. 6... ce eee 403
petrificatus, [lliyer .... 0.6... eee 402
pusills: sacenereves wee eeewemerta es 402
pusillus (Linn) wi cccdes eeawe dene es 402
pusillus occidentalis ............004. 403

—— pusillus occidentalis (Lawr.) .......... 403
pusillus, var. occidentalis (Lawr.) ...... 403
semipalmatus (Jerdon) .............. 400
GaCnanOWekils, < govfis sw gene hte woes gues 399
Frolia variegata, Ficill .. 0... cece eee 420
Erythrogonys cinctus, Gowld ..........000. 109
Erythroscelus fuscus (Limn.) 1.2... eee eee 352
Esucus recurvirostris (Cuv.). 6.0... cee eae 88
magnirostris (Vivill.) 2.0... 0... eee 90
Eudromias asiaticus (Pall.) .. 0. eee eee ee 144
USERS: GOULE) ios cece feito 110
—-- crassirostris, WOUeRtes gue im ee kate RS 146
geoffroyl (Wagl.).. 6... cece cece ae 146
modestus (Licht.).... 0... cece eee eee 105
mongolicus (Pall.) .. 0.0.6... 0 8. 148
montanus (Townsh.) .. 6... cece eee 153
morinella (Linn.).. 6... eee 113
tenuirostris, AUG: Bec SRR Oe 133
urvillii (Garnot) .. 0. 0c eee eee 105

—— veredus (Gould) ....... ccc e eee eee 115

519 INDEX.

Page

Eurinorhynchus griseus (Wilson) .......+.- 440
orientalis, Blyth 0.0... cece secre e eee 440
—— pygmaeus (Lint.). 0... c eee cece eee 440
Falcinellus cursorius, Temm. .......200000 420
cuvieri, Bonap. oo. sees ce eer eens 420
pygmeus (Lath.).. 6... cece 420
Falcirostra kaupmanni, Severtz. .......+.4. 314
longipes, Severtz. 0... eee eee 314
Fedoa americana, Steph. .. 0.0... ee cece ees 388
marmorata (Lath.) .. cece cece cece 388

— melanura (Leisl.) 6... cee eee eee 390
meyeri (Letsl.) .. 6 ee cece ee eee 385

—— cedienemus (Linn.) .. 0... cece cece nee 75
pectoralis, Steph... 6... eee ee ee ee eee 385

rufa, (BHSS.) occ has Loa dhe wan 8 es Hs 385
terekensis, Steph... 6... 605 cee ween ee 3870
Galachrysia cinerea, Bonap. .......0.. eee 266
lactes: (Temm.). ese .0eernensviwwress 264
Gallinago equatorialis, [iipp......... 6. eee 501
andina, Taczan. «.sicras ness oseeees 497
angolensis, Bocage 0.1... cece ese e eens 501
atripennis, Bonap. «1... wees ee ee eee 501
aucklandica, Gray .. 6.0... ce eee ees 472
sustralis(Laths. aixs dows secu w eons 473
bernieri, Pucheran 1.0... cece eee 499
biclavus, Hodgs. 1.0... 00 c eee 78
coclestis (Frenz.) oc 6. ccc cee cece ees 485
delicata: (Ord) os ieee eewa seas ewes 486

—— frenata (Illig.).. 0.0 eee eee 494
gallinago (Linn.). 0.0... cee cece eee 485
gallinula (Zinn)... 0... eee eee 480
Bigantea (Natt,): savsi weeny ge va vee on 493
granadensis, Bonap. ...... 0.06... 00, 498
heteroeaca, Cab. 0.2.0... ee eee A79
heterura, Hodgs. .. 0.0... 0. ce ee eee 478
horsfieldii (Gray)... 0... cece ee eee 478
imperialis, Sel. & Salu. ....-......05. 491
—— Jamesoni (Bonap.) ......... cee eae 490
Japonica, Swink, 6.6... eee eee 76
lncunosa, Jachty aan chews eu eed wens 493
longirostris, Licht, 6.0... 0.20. c eevee 499
—— macrodactyla, Bonap....... 0c. eee 499
—— magellanicus (King) ............000. 496
—— major’ (Gmel.) 2.2. seesaw sav ere euvaees 482
—— media, Gerint <2 ss ccc ee cea wnene ana 482
—— media (Gerint) oo... eee eee ceca 482
~—— media wilsoni (Temm.) ........0.0045 486
——— megala, Swink, wo... ee eee ee cee 479
—— minima, Leach oo. ees 480

Page

Gallinago montagui, Bonap....... 00.0 0e eens 482
nemoricola, Hodgs. .........0 ee ce eee 474
nigripennis, Bonap... 1... 6. ce eens 501
nobilis; Sel... nce cee nee se eee de eae se 498
paludosa (Gimel.) 0... ccc eee eee ee 492
paraguays (Vieill.). 0... ce wee eee eee 496
punctata, Bllman.... 1. ee eee ee eee 387
pusilla, Buller... 0... ccc ccc eee ee 472
russata, Gould... . cece cece eee ees 485
scolopacinus, Bonap. ........ee cece 485
solitaria, Hodgs. 0.6... ccc cee ence eee 475
stenura (Kuhl) oo... cece cee ee eee 478
stricklandli, Gray «1... . 0. cee eee 488
undulata (Bodd.).. 0... cece cece ane 492
-—— umniclavus, Hodgs..... 0... 0c c eee eens 485
vulgaris, Dubois .. 0... cece eee ee 485
wilsoni (Temm.) 0.0... ce cece cee 486
Gambetta brevipes (Vieill.) .... 0. cc ee eee 362
calidris (Limn.) .. oe e ee 353
flavipes (Gimel.) voce eee ee eee 364
fuliginosa (Gould) ..-..........5000- 361
griseopyga (Gould) . 6... ce cc ee eee 362
—— melanoleuca (Gimel.) 1.0.0.6... cee ee 363
OCEANA, (D688.) v iediale yaa airapwleaiener's te 28 361
pulverulenta (Miill.) ........ 0.0.00 362
Glaveola: 1.0 cet cou dtd nolem ety earache 252
australis, Leach 2.0.0... . cece eee 263

—— austriaca, Gime... oe ce e ee 257
—— cinerascens, Hodgs..............0000. 264
SS CINENOR soos Pee ee ae a OB 265
—— cinerea, Fraser... 0. cece eee 266
CTMD | eis sarartinntee Gia br gM ee ie ES oy 269

—— emini, Shelley .. 0... cece cee eee 269
gangetica, Hodgs. ........ 000.2005. 264
—— geoffroyi, Puch, 6.0.0.0... .006 cee, 260
— glareola, Briss. ...............-00-.. 257
BraNlAMA fe suis ee Galke es Wade eye ses 263
Srallaria, “Temi: wc. wa eees epee ee 4 263
isabella, Viell. vaseeseeeavieve ree ees 263
ldeted. cian vince caw des wee eee eee. 264
lactea, Temin. .eiaisewiavese areca an 264
—— limbata, Riipp. ... 06. cee cee eee 257
—— longipes, Hodgs. 2.0... 0... ce eee eee 259
—— marchel, Oust..... 0.0... cece cee eee 267
MES aPOd ay wise cds wk eae 267
—— megapoda, Biittikofer .............0-. 268
—— megapoda, Gray ........ 6. ce cece eee 268
—— Hel ANOPlOL Asa. ch paw yee yee a wa 261
—— melanoptera, Nordm. ... .. se ccc cena 262
a Vian Bites elke deat ewete ones 257
nipalensis, Hodgs. .........s eee eaeee 264

INDEX. 513

Page

Glareola.nordmanni, Fisch. ........0cceeees 262
DUCMEUE awa tre ope wewe ae KamAee 266
nuchalis, Gray... ccc cece ce cece ee ees 267
nuchalis liberiw, Schlegel......... bianca 268
OCWATISE say: 5s aiirg veces a Wee ede Gan 260
ocularis, Vers... lec ee cece eens 260
OTLOD ALIS av aricewes GaSe aaa coeed Gores 258
orientalis, Leach... ics. ce veces cee ee cs 259
Pallasii, Bruch oo... eee ees 262
pratincolay ch sie uae eed late nesews 256
pratincola (Linn.) ...... ccc cece eae . 257
senegalensis, Briss. .........0ccceeees 257
——— thermophila, Hodgs. ........ 0. cccues 259
torquata, Briss. 2.0... . ccc cee eee 257
Glottis canescens (Gmel.).... 6... cece eee 356
ehloropus (Meyer) ..... ec cece cece 356
floridanus, Bonap. ..... ccc cee en nee 356
glottis (Linn.) 2... ccc eee eee ees 356
horsfieldii (Sykes) .... cece eee eee 357
matans, Koch ...ecc ee ce cscs ecanees 356
nivigula, Hodgs. 0.0... . cece eee e eens 356
semipalmata (Gmel.)-.......6-- ceca ee 358
stagnatilis (Bechst.). 00... cece cee es 357
VIOUS IGPOY oo ve caceetieetae aan oa 356
Guinetta hypoleuca (Linn.)........ 2.0000 371
Heematopus 2. 1c. eee ee ence eens 294
arcticus, Sard... ccc cece es cc ce cceves 305

ater Vieill: oat dese s ne wien sl oes 311
australasianus, Gould .......... eee ee 304
pachmanni, Aud. 2... cee ee ee eee 310
brasiliensis; Licht. ....... see ee eevee 305
capensis, Licht. cc... c cece ee cece eee 309
frontalis (Quoy & Gaim.) .....5-- eee 152
fuliginosus, Gould .....ece eee reece 308
galapagensis, Ridgw. .....-.seeeseees 307

—— hypoleuca, Pallas ..:2..+. sees eeeeee 301
leucopus 12.6... eee c eee cece enters 306
leucopus, Giarnot 1.6... eee eee eens 306
leucopus galapagensis .....-++.-++ee08 307
longirostris .......6 60 eee eee eee 304
longirostris, Vieill. 2. ...-. eee reece eee 304
luctuosus, Cuv. oe e lee eee eee ees 306
macrorhynchus, Blyth.....-.++++ee+es 301
moquini, Bonap....--seseeeeer erence 309

5a 3) on 310
niger, Pallas ..ccceee cece erences 310

—— niger ater... cece nee creer eres 311
—— niger ater (Vieill.) 6... 0.0 cece cerns 311
—— ophthalmicus, Ramsay ....-..+++ ses 308
osculans .i ce. sede te ee eee eens 303

Page

Hematopus osculans, Swink. ........ aeaiag 303
OSLElESUS. cena nese sees Gabe mene mee 301
ostralegus, Lint... ccs... cece eens eeeeee B01
palliatus .......... otiesach teas auee ae e 305
palliatus, Temm..... 6c. cee cece eee ee 305
—— -picatus, Vigors. cece cece eee ee eeees B04
-townsendil, Audub... ic... ccc cece eee 311
MIMLCOLON 2224s sicciane ai laivs bso cb Sie Seo Sau He ate 308
unicolor, Wagl., ...c.ecc eee e ce uenee . 808
unicolor capensis ..........0e ce eeeeee 309
Helodromas ochropus (Zinn.) ...... ce eee eee 368
Hemerodromus cinctus (Aeugl.) .. 1... eee 245
Hemipalama auduboni (Nutt.).......-.00006 401
douglasil, Nutt, cisissevcaue see eas 401
— himantopus (Bonap.) .......00. sevens 401
— minor, Lembeye .... ccc cece cece eens 402
—— multistriata, Licht, ......cc ence eceene 401
semipalmata (Wilson)... ....ceccee eee 402
Hemiparra crassirostris (de Filippi) ........ 216.
Heteractitis brevipes (Vietll.) ...... 0.00.0 362
incanus (Gimel.) ..... if ale Sd a patents 361
Heteropoda mauri, Bonap. .......eeeeeeeee 403
semipalmata (Wilson)........000e000s 402
Heteropygia bonapartei (Schleg.)........005% 446
cooperi (Baird) ... ccc cece cece eens 423
Heteroscelus brevipes (Vieill.) ......00500 362
Hiaticula annulata, Gray..... 6. see e eee eee 126
azaree (Lemm.).....cecceen ce eeceeees 173
picineta (Jard. & Selby)... cee eee eeee 149
— bifasciata, Fraser... . cece cece ctw eee 156
cantiana (Lath.) .. cece cece eee renee 168
collaris (Vieill.) wo. ec c eee rd cousaheadbgour 173
columbina (Wagl.) ....ce cece cee eeene 146
curonica (Gmel.) . 0... cece c cece ences 131
elegans, Licht..... 00 c cece cence eens 168
falklandica (Lath.) 0.0.0.0 c csc ccee ene 156
fusca (Gould) oc cee ee cere cece ce eeee 106
geoffroyi (Wagl.) ..ssrececnceeeeene 146
heywoodi, Thomas ......seseeeeeeeee 164
hiatioula (Linn.) 0.2.0 cece cree eee eee 126

~— inconspicua, Licht. .....- cece ee cece ee 148
jnornata, Gould .......06 cee eeeee 148
leucopolia (Wagl.) .......2+208- escae 161
marginata (Vieill.)...... Hisihenaeeeles 161
meloda (Ord) ....eeceeeeeeceeee eens 121
monacha (Wagl.). cc cecc cece eee eee 127

—— nigrifrons (Temmm.) ...- 62sec eee eee 138
nova-seelandiz (Giel.) vo... cece eens 129
-pecuaria (Temm.) .. seer eeeevecees 258
—— philippina (Lath.) .....s cece eeeneeee 131
—— pusilla (Horsf.) ..se-eeeeer seer ences 131

514 INDEX.
Page Page
Hiaticula ruficapilla (Temm.) .. 06.6.0 .0 0. .. 165 Himantopus, vulgaris, Bechst. ........ ere *. 277,
semipalmata (Kaup) .........e eee eens 124 Hirundo pratincola, Linn, .,,,...0.0ee eee 257
torquata (Briss.).cucee cece cence eee 127 Hodites semipalmatus (Gmel.).........20005 358
tricollaris (Vieill.) .......... eee eee 135 Holopodiug wilsoni (Sabine)........ 0.2002 343
vocifera (Linn.) ..... cs cece eee e ne ees 120 Homoptilura undulata (Bodd.) .,.......56. 492
Wilsoni (Ord) 0.0... ccc eee ee ee neee 154 Hoplopterus albiceps (Gould), ............-- 195
Himantopns'.... csca dsc vy tace ead ova een 272 armatus (Jard. & Selby)... 1.000 ee es 221
albicollis, Vigil. oo ccc. cece ee eee 278 cayanus (Lath) oe pepe cece eee ee cee 229
albus, Ellman ..ce ccc cece ee cece ce eeee 278 coronus (Bodd.) .......seecccceeeees 293
AMMCVICANUS 20. cee ec eee cere easenes 291 crassirostris (De Filippi),...........-. 215
—— americanus (Gimeél.). 0.0.6 cece eee eee 291 inornatus (Swainé.).... ccc ee cee ee 226
SNOGINUS cay caer’ ss A Maw Ata Seb aes 286 melanopterus (Cretzschm.) .......-.045 224
andinus (Phil. & Landb.) 1... 0.05.00. 287 persicus (Bonn.) .. 0... cece eee eee 220
——asiatious; L698. 2 edwin ieee iw swine ees - 278 —— pileatus (Gmel.) wo... ccc ee eee eens 197
atropterus, Meyer .....0.. ese ee eeee 277 —— ruficollis (Wagl.).. 0... eee eee ce cece 111
autumnalis (Hasselg.) ...... 06.0000 eee 278 speciosus (Wagl.) ...... eee e cece eae 221
apneethy ey hades ewe va he keadew eas 289 spinosns (ZAG) n.g cedew ewuce beens 220
avocetta (Limn.) . 0... cece eee eens 289 tectus (Bodd.) 0.0... cc cece cece eee es 197
brasiliensis: .6.6.. 00k esses caeeic ee e's 281 tricolor ( Vieill.) 0... eee ce eee 200
brasiliensis, Brehm .. 0.0... .00 cece eee 282 ventralis (Wagl.)......6 2. cece eee eee 227
candidus, Bonnat.. .........0 ccc eens 277 Hoploxypterus cayanus (Lath.) ..........45 229
europeeus, Sander .....05 cece cecees 278 Hyas egyptia (Linn) 0.2.0... cece eee eee 249
—— himantopus, Briss. ......... 000. 277 Hypsibates himantopus (Zinn.) ..........., 278
—— intermedius, Blyth ........ 0.0 e ce eee 278 nigricollis (Vigill.) 2.2... 2.6. eee eee 279
Wet BOT ate woes de Sse aaa wis abr ede AUS 280 oat ie : ;
—— knudseni, -Stejneger ........ 0.00.00 e ee 280 Ibidorhynchus .. 1... ...... 0. ee eee eee eee 313
Jeucocephalus ..........-.0e cee e eee 283 struthersi..... ee ee Boe iceneetel 2 314
leucocephalus, Gould .......... 00005. 283 struthersii, Vigors ........0- esse eee 314
leucocephalus. picatus .............05 284 Tliornis stagnatilis (Bechst.)...........-.04. 357
melanopterus. ............. 2s eee eee 277 :
melanopterus, Meyer .. 2... 02.00. eee 277 Leimonites temminckii (Leisl.) ..........4. 434
ANCA aes erccre ede ae Ek oe 285 Leptodactylus mitchellii (Fraser)............ 450
melas, Hombr. & dies pnsrariead ns ots & Sik 285 Leptopus mitchellii, Praser ............0... 450
“‘MOXICANUS. 2 oe ce cc cece eens 279 Leptorhynchus pectoralis, Dubus ............ 288
mexicanus, Briss. wc... cece eee ees 279 Leptoscelis mitchellii (Fraser) .............. 450
mexicanus (Miill.) . 0.0... ec ee eeeee 279 Leucopolius kittlitzi (Retchenb.) ............ 158
minor, Matterer. 0... cece eee eee 278 nivifrons (Less. ee ee 161
niger, Hllman 0... cece cece eee eeees 285 pecuarius (Temm. 7 daOs easier AG tees 158
—— mericollis, Viel... eee eee ee 279 Limicola brevirostris, TM debi watuekid ooo 447
nove-hollandie, Bonap............... 283 hartlanbi, VPs eine Ses OSE KATA OS 433
novee-hollandie, Vieill. ...........60. 292 platyrhyncha (Temm.). 00... .00.0000 08 433
—— nove-zelandiw, Gould .........000c0ee 285 —— pygmaa (Lath.) oe cece eee eee eee 433
palmatus, Gould oo... ccc cece eee ee 288 sibirica, Dresser .. Saas gael seine 433
SN SCLOP ais ris oar ses arancisie xis Se aes 288 terek (Lath.) ......... ek tee biees Ria a cate 370
—— pectoralis (Dubus). ........ . 288 Limicula fedoa (Linn, stot eaters eke eel ine ct 388
—— picatus, Hllman. oe ec ecae 284 glottis CEU) para deta PRE e ta a alae ee 356
——plinii, Gerini o.oo cece e eee 277 | —— hudsonica (Lath) 1.00... ccc e cee 392
PUDTICONIS 54 vies ays hersr ss aed ae es 292 lapponica (Linn.).. ON nr eee ee 385
rubricollis (Temm.)-.....00cc0cceecees 292 marmorata (Lath. J watR Uiwlneaoeanaes 388
Tufipes, Bechstes. occ cece cece cece eees 277 melanura (Leisl, VAG SUG Sea peeawan 390
‘Bpicatus, Potts. wee e ec eee cece ee 284 —— meyeri (Leisl.). 6... eee eee eee 385

INDEX. 515

Page

Limnetes crassirostris (De Filippi) ..... inane 215
Limnocinclus acuminatus (Horsf.) .......... 442
pectoralis (Say) oo... ccc eee ee eee ee 443
Limnodromus griseus (Gmel.) ...... 00.0 ce ee 397
Limos oo ose see ie es ws Sgch aii avewha ealewes 379
adspersa, Naumann. ......c cece cee e ee 388
segacephala (Linn.) 2... .. 0. cee ceca 385
americana rufa, Briss......... eee e eee 3388
australasiana, Gray... .. 1 eee eee 387
australis, Gray oo... 6.000 See 393
baueri, Wawmann.... ce eee eee ee 397
brevipes, Gray... ce cee eee ee etnies 387
eméréa, (Gilld.) .easiwseaweenneneeie 370
fed08) .. 6a csc euias re te eee 388
fedoa (Linn) . cc. ce cece ee ces 388
ferruginea (Meyer) 0.0.0.0... ccc eee ee 385
foxii, Peale ..... Bre Hew Ra BAe 887
fused, Brass. see e854 ws ROR ES 351
glottoides (Vigors) ....... Paieben aie oN . 3856
grisea, Briss. ...... ee ee
grisea (Gmel.) 0.0... eee ee ees 397
grisea major, Briss........ ee ee 385
—— hemastica (Linn.) .. 0... cece eee 393
hardwickii, Gray.... Pe ee cre ey , 874
horsfieldii, Sykes. ......... 00 eeu Vee 857
—— hudsonica.............-..... Siew es 3892
luudsonica (Lath.) 0.0... ccc eee eee 393
indiana, Less. ..... Pate SRE REE 370
jadreca, Leach.......... fa Slade bard ciaitets 385
lapponica, var. nove-zealandie, Gray.... 387
— limosa (Linn.) ......... ee rer 390
MCLADULG 6 isis ws eee STE VaR Bes 389
melanura, Deisl., .sscsaces et eseaevaws 390
melanura melanuroides .............. 391

—— melanuroides, Gould........... Methesiations 391
meyert, Lisl, cece cece eee eee eee -385
noveboracensis, Leach ....... giao eae ote 385
yecurvirostra,, Pallas 1.2.0.0. cece 370
rufa..... PRE Mere ers ees bee Pad ie plas 384
——— rufa, Briss, cc eaine sees Senslag- Gey Busta ct nab 385.
rufa major, Briss. ....2..+0000e- a... B85

rufa uropygialis ..... siugdh Tip See Reba tat 387
scolopacea, Say... + sees cece rete eens 398
terek (Lath.) 0. ccc can cere crete eens 370.

—— totanus (Linn.) ..ccerecres rec cncees 356
uropygialis, Gould .....-.... seers ees B87
Lobipes frenatus ( Vieill.).. 1.0.2 cece eens 343
hyperborea (Linn.) o ove e eee e cere ee eee 341
incanus, Jard. & Selby ......-sse eee 342
Jobatus.(Linn.) .... cece cece eens -B41
tropicns, Hume oe. e ce c cree cece ees 341

Page

Lobipes wilsoni (Sabine) ........0005 teeees B48
Lobipluvia biloba. (Gimel.) sc. ceceeeseeeee 199
malabrica (Bodd.)..........05. se ass 199

AOU GHCUES 9 4 iis peek eK oe Kew swags ones 176
albicapillus (Vievll.) .... cece cece eee 192
SAID COS de coacate Ain eee lear ea inion 195
—— albiceps (Gould) 0... 0... ccc cece eee 195
—— atronuchalis, Jerd......... Hi etacbie tiene asl 186
= PINELENS bn warm areiea was bbe e eee 183
cinereus (Blyth) 1... .. cece ne eaes .. 183
cucullatus 2. ccaceeae ieesvavaraeees 187
eucullatus (Zemm.)......0...00 ee cee. 187
gallinaceus (Wagl.).........06 cee eee 190
goensis (Gmel.) .... cca eee sre eeeee 185
= INGIOUS a. 4 iene aes Hea ea Te eas wees 184
—— indicus (Bodd.) ......, Pepe e aces eens 185
— indicus atronuchalis .,.............. 186
inornatus, Temm..g> Schleg. ...... 000. 183

TACO AMS | ine aca ew seaweed eke os 193
lateralis (Smith) .... 0... 0. cece cece ee 193
leucurns (Licht.) oo... cece eee eee 213

LOD ats 50 tic ie wipe Risto ecaie sid pe eke ara 190
lobatus (Lath.). 0.0... cece cease ees 190
—— ludovicianus (Gimel.) 0.0... eee 189
—— malabaricus.......... 0... cee eee eee 198
—— melanocephalus ............... 00a es 194
melanocephalus, Riipp............ 000. 195
—— miles (Bodd.) .. 0... cece cece cee eee 189
pectoralis oi wi auwvakee ve te aawe 200
pectoralis (Wagl.) ...... cece eee aes 200
= PEPSONSLUB ee, ccdie dy ead esi pases 188
— personatus, Gould 0.0.0... cccs ccc e ee 189
—— pileatus (Gmmel.) 6.0... cece eee 197
—— senegalensis..... 00... cece ee eee eee 191
senegalus (Linn.).. 0.0... cece eee eee 192
BUPOTCiliOsUs.. csc serevae vez eawrouees 201
superciliosus, Reichenow .............. 201
POCEUS wn dts cee ann aie eis a aauiiine swe es 197
tricglor CHOPS.) gs.se seve coeds nas dees 187
Lymnocryptes gallinula (Zinn.) ............ 480
Machetes optatus, Hodgs. ..........00000. 374
pugnax (Linn.) oc cece eee cece cece 374
Macrorhamphus griseus (Gmel.) ............ 397
- griseus, var. scolopaceus, Cowes ........ 3898
—— punctatus, Less... 2. eee ee eee ee 397
scolopaceus (Say). cc. sccee cece ecues 398
—— semipalmatus, Jerd........... 000.000, 399
Macrotarsius bitorquatus, Jerd. ............ 247
Macrotarsus nigricollis (Vieill.) ............ 279
Micropalama himantopus (Bonap.).......... 401.

302

516.

Micropalama tacksanowskia, Verr...........
Microptera americana, Audub......... 66.00.
minor (Ginel.) voce cece cece cece ce eeee
Morinella collaris, Meyer .......... 60 ce eee.
Morinellus asiaticus (Pall.) 00... 0.00.0 00n,
australis (Gould). 0.0... ceseee cece ces
caspius (Pall.)...... Saves ewe a ES
—— modestus (Licht.).... 0.0000 cece ee eeee
—— sibiricus (Gimeél.) .. ccc ccc ee ees
totanirostris (Jard. & Selby) .......00.

Nemoricola nipalensis, Hodgs..............
Neoscolopax rochusseni (Schleg.).........+.-
NUmenius isis ceeccnr senses eeeae went a
africanus (Gmel.)
mm ATQUATUS Cece eee ee eee eee tee
arquata (Linn. )
—— arquata lineatus ..................0,
arquatula, Hodgs.
—— atricapillus, Vreill. 2... eee
—— australis, Gould ..... ccc cee cece eee
borealis
borealis (Forst.) . 6.0 ccc. cece ee ee eee
brasiliensis, Max.
brevirostris, Licht, 2... .0. 0.0 ce cece
cassini, SWinh... 6... eee
——- cinereus (Gtild.) ... 6.0 cece ee ee eee
= CYANOPUS) ees ccs ee sden demesne gle
—— eyanopus, Vieill, .. 0. eee
femoralis, Peale... 0.0... cece cece ee
ferrugineus, Meyer ...............0..
—— hesitatus, Hartl....... 0.0.0.0... 000.
DudsOM1 CUS 5. c edhe ae ena ee wes os
hudsonicus, Lath.
intermedius, Nutt. ...........000000
lineatus, Cuv. 2... cc eee eee eee
longirostra, Wiis.
longirostris 6 os ceia eis ee ee neon cw ewes
luzoniensis (Gimel.) 2.0.00... .0.0048.

madagascariensis, Briss...............
major, Steph... 0. eee eee eee
major, Temm. § Schleg. ..............
—— melanopus, Vieill. ........0.. 0. eee
—— melanorhynchus, Bonup...............
—— microrhynchus, Philippi g Landbeck....
minor, Briss. 2.0... cc. cece eee cece
minor, S. Mill.
—— minutus 2... eee eee eee
—— minutus, Gould
nasicus, Temm.

ee

er )

Ce

occidentalis, Woodh. ................
—— phwopus .......... pervade geeidaa as

INDEX.

Page
400
504
504
410
144
110
144
105
113
111

474
505
316
419
322
322
324
324
331
326
333
334
331
334
324
370
326
326
333
419
328
331
331
331
324
327
327
331
322
322
326
327
328

322
327
328

Page
Numenius pheopus (Linn.) ...... 0c cece eee 328
—— pheopus. variegatus..............000- 330
—— pheopus variegatus (Scop.) ......... . 3831
—— pygmeus, Lath, 0... cc cece ee ee ee eee 419
rostratus, Licht. 0.6.00 0 cece vee e eens 326
rufescens, Gould ....... cece cece anes 326
rufiventris, Vigors 0.0.0.0 .0 eee unos 331
rutuss: Vieilles. gicicear as aaloics el cate ee oS 327
struthersii (Vigors)..........0. 200 eee 314
subarquata (Giild.) 6.2... eee eee 419
syngenicos, Von der Mithle .......... 3825
tahitiensis ........ Ba) a Acsgerente drain dela Aheys 332
tahitiensis (Gmel.) ............ 00000. 333
TENUOUS sss Seed le ees 325
tenuirostris, Vieill......... 00... ee ae 325
tibialis, Peale oo... ec cece cee ee 333
uropygialis, Gould 2.0... cece eee 331
variabilis, Bechst. 2... 0. .e cece eens 425
wariegatus (Scop.) ...ecceeeececcuces 331
virgatus, CU... eee eee ee ee 322
Ochthodromus bicinctus (Jard. § Selby)...... 149
inornatus (Gould) .........0 00. cee 148
wilsonius (Ord) ...... 0... cece ee eee 154
wilsonius rufinuchus (Ridgw.) ........ 154
(Siem enmias” 2.ioe oe hats bin eral oe daiaeedong 69
affinis, Hipp... 6. cece eee eee eee 82
americanus, Swains.......00.. 000 ese ee 85
assimilis, Brehm 2... ccc eee cece ee 78
bellonii, Fleming... 0.0... ccc cece ee 75
BIStTAtUS ea cihegtdasig nes Augie deers 85
bistriatus (Wagl.) oo. 85
bistriatus dominicensis .............. 86
CAPCNSIS. wgoe ces ew vee WEN ewe Nees 81
capensis, Licht, ...........0. 0 cece 82
capensis affinis..................000. 82
CTOPUANS, 5.6 cose ewestees PEW e de eee wees 74
crepitans, Tiemm......... 0.0000 ceca 75
crepitans indicus..................., 7
dominicensis, Cory ...... 0.2... .00005 86
europeeus, Vieill. .. 6.0... 0. eee 7
giganteus, Licht. .......... 0.0... ee ee 84
BrAUATS 2 on eye weg eaeed oa oocara were 83
grallarius (Lath.).. 0.2.0.0... 00000. 84
—— griseus, Koch 2... .. cece cee eee en 7
indicus, Salvad. ........0......000... 7
inornatus, Salvad. .............0.... 78
longipes, Geoff. St.-Hilaire............ 84
macrocnemus, Licht. ..............6.. 82
maculosus, Temm. ........ cee eee eee 82
MagnirostTis .... ee eee ee ee cece ee ee 89
-———- magnirostris, Geoff. St.-Hilaire........ 90
—— menicanus, Licht. ...... cece eeeeece 85

INDEX. 517

Page

Qidicnemus natalensis, Gray ............., 80
recurvirostris 2.2... 0.0... cece ees -. 88
recurvirostris, Cu... 0 cee cece c eee ce 88
senegalensis ........ apse anata ature Go latac 78
senegalensis, Swains. ...........04. sa 78
—— superciliaris. 2.2... eee, 87
superciliaris, Tschudi ..............4 87
vermiculatus:..... Cade UMadeales aE e 80
vermiculatus, Cab. ......, ee ee 80
vocifer, L’Herminier ....,. Maeleke Ra 85
Oreophilus ruficollis (Wagl.) ............., 111
totanirostris, Jard. g& Selby ........., 111
Orthorhamphus magnirostris va ) eee 90
Ostralega atra, Less... 0.0. cee cece eee 311
europa, Less... ee eee 301

— hematopus, Macgilliv. 0.0.0.0 0... 301
leucopus, Less... .. cece ccc c ee eee es 306
ostralega, Briss. ............ 0.000, 301
palliata (Temm.) oo... cece cee 305

plea (SCOp.) oc ones aes werent bak ean 301
vulgaris, Less. ........., iGiea sae tirace 301

Otis edicnemus (Linn.) ...... 0.0... 0000.., 75
Oxyechus vociferus (Ztnn.) ............00.., 120
Parra cayennensis,.Gmel.......... ee ee 216
chilensis, Molina ...... 0.0... cc eee, 218
goensis, Gnd... .. eee ee eee eae 185
ludoviciana, Gmel. oo... 0.0... ce cece 189
senegalla, Linn, 02... . cece cee cee 192
Pavoncella pugnax (Linn.) ..........00005, 374
Pelidna alpina americana (Cass.) .......... 427
brissoni, Less. 2.0... eee eee eee 402
cinclus (Briss.) ... ee eee ee cee ee 425
dorsalis, Licht., partim ........ 00000. 445
dorsalis, Licht., partim ...... 0.0.00 446
maculata (Vietll.) ....... i Se dnietiettidenae 443
——— minuta (Limm.) oe eee ee 436
maiia, PACH sa:caas. sac toahat take seeks 439
pacifica, Cowes .. 6... ee cece ce eee 427
pectoralis, Say... .. 6... cece eee eee 443
platyrhyncha (Temm.)............004. 433
schinzi, Bonap, 1... ec eee eee eee 445
subarquata (Gtild.) ..... 0... eee eee 420
temminckii (Letsl.) .. 2.0... eee eee 434
variabilis (Bechst.) ........ 00.0 eee 425
Pelorychus brehmii (Kaup)* .............. 485
Pheopus arquatus, Steph......... 02... eee 328
pheopus (Limn.) 0.6... ee eee 328
vulgaris, Fleming ..............- .. 328

Page

PRR. 25th ag oGrehyarer nina wolves 336
angustirostris, Waum...........4 wseee S41
asiaticus, Hume .... 0... cece cece eens 339
—— cancellatus(Gmel.) .... 0... ccc eee eee 451
inerascens, Pall... 0... cece cee ceee 341
cinerens, Briss, ..... 0.0. e cece ee eees 340
cinereus (Briss.) .... 0... cece ee cee eee 341
—— fimbriatus, Temm. .... 0.00.0 cece cee 342
frenatus, Vieill, .. 0.0... cece eee eee. 343
TUNA US ce 025: ek Be es ss Sees are ke ers 338
—— folicarius (Linn)... eee eee 339
fuseus, Briss. 0.0.0... cece cece aces 340
griseus, Leach ...... 0... eee ene ses. 339
—— hyperboreus...............00cc-c0es 340
—— hyperboreus (Linn.) ........ 0... cae 340
lobatus (Linn.) ...... eee eee eee 341
lobatus (Linn.), apud Tunstall ........ 339
phalaropus, Briss. ..............00., 339
platyrhynchus, Temm.........0..0000- 339
platyrostris, Nordm. ............000. 339
rufescens, Briss. ........ 0.00 cece eee 339
ruficollis, Pull... . ee ec cee ee 341
Tufus, Bechst. 6.0... ccc cece cece 339
stenodactylus, Wagl. .............04. 343,
vulgaris, Bechst. .. 00... cece eee 340
williamsii, Simmonds ............005 341

Se MUSOMT fa. no seid sibue yb by ale Sia enw WS ate aa 342
wilsoni, Sabiné .....0. 0.00 cece aes 342

PHOS OTIS. 64. pdcim-e Rawal alain cae aataada x 448
ATMCOM ALS. soo ene is wd sae Haase be Oe 451
leucopterus .... 2.00.0... ccc cee eee ee 452
MICH EM Dy acs dus ess owes deo sliaoabe ade ate aewe 450
mitchellii (Wraser) .............. 000, 450
Philohela minor (Gmel.) .........0..00.00. 504
Philolimnos gallinula (Zinn.) ..........0... 480
Philomachus cayanus (Lath.) .............. 229
pugnax (Linn.) ... ee eee ee 374
ventralis (Wagl.).... 6... cece ec eee 227
Platalea pygmeea, Zinn. ........ 2. cee eee 440
Pluvialis apricarius (Zinn.) ................ 98
URC As APROSSS sce ake wa sete dans aia crass Wwe 98
dominicensis aurea, Briss. ..........., 100
dominicensis torquata, Briss.........., 120

—— fluviatilis (Bechst.) ..........0..0..., 131
fulvus (Gmel.) 2... eee 99
fulvus americunus, Schleg. ..........., 100
jamaicensis torquata, Briss. ........., 120
longipes, Temm., .............0.0000, 99
MAJOR, BSS. x yore nsehe dhe aes orale ahs elected 75
minor, sive morinellus, PHU incline wg ey 113

t Kaapi name is Pelorychus ; Degland and Gerbe (Orn. Eur. ii. p. 181) altered it to Pelorynchus, and
Gray (Hand-list, ii. p. 52) further altered it to Pelorhynchus, which name I have erroneously adopted in my

synonymy of the genus Scolopaw (p. 464).

518 INDEX.

Page

Pluvialis-morinellus (Linn.) . 0.0.00. ce eee 113
morinellus flavescens, Gerint .......00. 235
persica-cristata, Briss............00000- 220
senegalensis.armata, Briss........... .. 227
squatarola (Limn.) . 0... cece eee eens 103
taitensis (Less.). oo... eee eee aioe! 99
torquata, Briss. 00... ccc ee eee 126
torquata minor, Briss......... 020.000. 126

—— Varius (Briss.).. 6. ccc cece cee ee wees 103
virginiana torquata, Briss, .......-..66 120
virginious (Licht.) .... cece cece ee nee 100
xanthocheilus (Wagl.) .. 1... ee ee eee 99
Pluvianellus sociabilis, Hombr. & Jacq. ...... 107
socialis, Hombr. .& Jacq. +0... . eee eee 107
Pluvianus segyptius (Linn.) 2.0... eee eee 249
armatus, Jard. & Selby. 0.2... .0 0.400 221
chlorocephalus, Vieill. ...........005 249
cinerous, Blyth 1... 6. cece eee eee 183
coronatus-(Bodd.) ........ cece eee 223
melanocephalus (Gimel.) .. 2.0.0... cea 249
Pluviorhynchus mongolus (Pall.) .......... 148
obseurus (Gimel.)...... fois! eaghaatenslebantes 151
Podasocys montanus (Townsh.) .........005 153
Pratincola-glareola (Briss.) ............0005 257
: pallasi, Bruch .... 0. cece cece ee eee ee 262
Prosobonia leucoptera (Gmel.)........00008 453
Pseudoglottis guttifer (Nordm.) ............ 355
Pseudoscolopax semipalmatus (Jerd.) ........ 400
Pseudototanus guttifer (Nordm.)............ 355
: haughtoni (Armstr.) 22... ec eee eee eee 354
Ptiloscelys resplendens (Tschudi) .......... 228
Rallus benghalensis, Zinn. ................ 457
Recurvirostra americana, Gmel. ..........45 291
andina, Phil. ¢ Landb. ...... 002.0... 287
avocetta, Zinn, ......... 0. eee eee 289
leucocephala, Viel. .....-........... 288
novee-hollandie, Vieill. .............. - 292
occidentalis, Vigors.................. 291
orientalis, Cuvs, sayy e ee iia ellen 288
rubricollis, Temm. .. 0... cc ccc cece 292
Sinensis, Swinh, ...... ccc. cece cae ee 289
Rhinoptilus bicinctus (Temm.)......... seeee 242
bitorquatus (Jerd.).. 0.0. eee 247
—— chaleopterus (Femm.) .... 0.0... cee eee 246
cinctus (Heugl.) 0.0.0.0... cece eee 245
Rhyacophilus chloropygius (Vieill.) ........ 367
glareola (Linn.) .............eec eee, 366
ochropus (Linn)... 0... ce eee ee 368
solitarius (Wils.).. 6... cece eee eee 367
Rhynchea.,..... ee ee AOA hes iMG Wawa s 454+

Page

Rhynchea africana, Less, ..... ane ite hak ... 457
australis ...... ale a sé seve Meera ie se eae AS 458
australis, Gould 2.0.0... ccc ence eee 459
-bengalensis (Linn.).... 2... scee ee cceeee 457
capensis, .... ee ee ee ee ee 456
capensis (Linn.) ... cece ec ee eee eeeees 457
—— curvirostris, Licht. 0.0.0... cece cece ee 460
—— hilairii, Valence... 2... cc cee cece ce ees 460
Mndida, Aodgs; sc vous ee we wee wa eee S 457

—— madagascariensis, Less. .......-.2000- 457
occidentalis, King .........-.00e eee 460

—— orientalis, Horsfield.............. eee. 487
picta; Gray oxsseeeesaeae gear oy eee es 457
semMicollaris «oi. sc aescse ee seiweveess 459
semicollaris (Vveill.) .. 0. cc cece eee 460
sinensis (Vieill.) .. 0... cc ecu a ees one. 457
variegata, Vieill. 6 Oud. .........-.. 457
Rostratula capensis (Linn.) ...... 00... eee 457
India, Viel. ueiek tewaeaweeae swede 457
sinensis (Lath) 1.0... eee ce eee enue 457
viridis, Viet. 6... 0... cece ee cee eee 457
Rusticola europwa, Less. 1.0.6... cece cee ee 503
javanica, Less. ... 6. eee eee eee 506
minor (Gimél.) .. 0... eee ee eee 504
sylvestris, Macgilliv. ....... eee ence 503
—— vulgaris, Viel. 2.0... cc cece eee eee 502
Sarciophorus albiceps (Gould) .............. 195
Dilobus: (Gatel.) cae eee eee ce ey aes 199
fuscus, Hodgs. .. 1.0... cece eee eens 199
latifrons, Reichen, 20... cee ccc cee 197
—— malabaricus (Bodd.) ................ 199
pectoralis (Wagl.) voc cece cece eee 200
pileatus (Gmel.) 0... cece eee eee 197
superciliosus (Reichen.) ....-. 0.60000. 201
PeCctus (Boda. ) sconce tava wey eteaiy 197
tricolor (Vieill.) 2.2... cc cee ee ee eee 200
Sarcogrammus atrogularis, Blyth............ 186
goensis (Gmeél.) wee cee ee eee 185
inornatus (Tenm. & Schleg.) .......... 183
Scheeniclus albescens (Jemm.).............. 438
australis (Jard. g Selby).............. 442
chinonsis (Gray) 0.0.0.2... eee eee 427
einclus (Briss.) 1... ecco ee 425
magnus, Gould... i... cee cece eee ewes 421
—— minuta (Linn.) oo eee eee eee eee 436
— pectoralis (Say) ...........0..00000, 443
—— schinzii(Bonap.).. 0.0... cece eee 445
—— subarquatus (Giild.) ............000, 420
temminckii (Leisl.) 2.2... eee eee 434

Scolopacin’ .,...... eee cee ee ene rere 405

INDEX. 519

Page

POC OD AE Jitu wire dvr uneaameenua nanan 461
eegocephala, Lint, ...... see ccc eee aes 385
equatorialis. osc sev sires aecaveeraaw es 500
eequatorialis(Riipp.) ..cccecceecceene 501
—— africana, Ginel. oo. c cece cece eens 419
alpina (Lim). ccc cece cece cece eens 425
arquata, Linn... 6... eee e cee 322

atra, Sander... cc cece cece wee e ence 351
aucklandica ....... ccc e cece cece ares 472
aucklandica (Gray) .... ee. cece ee eee 472
australis. ..., fnalane) Weed eRe Se Aelecate< 473
australis, Lath, 6... ccc cee ees 473
avocetta (Linn.) .... ccc eee ce eae 289
belgica, Gel... ... cece eee dangers 390
borealis, Forst.. cece cece eee 334
braziliensis, Swains. & Rich, ........-. 494
brehmi, Kaup ...........04. dstaistinas ar 484
calidns; Lint. « iseweviewcrcscasieva tas 353
—— canescens, Gmel..... Sa Wa eeaud We eS 356
cantabrigiensis, Lath... 0... eee 351

—— capensis, Zinn, ..... Ce ee ee 457
eayennensis, Gmel. 0... ee eee ee 397
chinensis, Bodd. ..-... ccc eee eee 457

—— cineracea, Lath. .. 0... cece ee 356
Cinerea, Gilde... cee ce eee eee 370
-coelestis, Frenzel oo. ccc eee cece eee 484
communis, Selby wo. cee ee eee ee es 508
curonica, Gmel. .. 1... cece eee es 352
deli¢ata, Ord. veces Bees wea sec 486
dethardingii, Siemssen........-020 000 419
douglasii, Swains. & Rich. .... 00.6666 486
drummondii, Swains. g& Rich, ........ 486
elegans, Desjard. ce ce eee ee ee 501
fedoa; Linn. sie siiasavercearesacas 388
flavipes,.Gimel. 6... cee ce eee 364
frenata sccvscese Fei ae ee as Ga ee eee 494
frenata, [llig. ..... Weneeheeeatwe hase 494
frenata andina 6. ee eee ce eee ee 497
frenata andina (Tacz.) ...... eee eens 497
frenata brasiliensis (Swains. & Rich.) .. 494
frenata chilensis .........-eeeeeeeeee 497
frenata magellanica..........ee eee eee 496
frenata magellanica (King).....-..++.- 496
fusca, LAnn. 0 ce eee eens 351
—— gallinago ..........+ ea aahealnans 484
gallinago, Linn. 6. ce eece sere cence ees 484
gallinago anglicana, Briss..........+++ 425
gallinago capitis bonw spei, Briss....... 457
gallinago maderaspatana, Briss........- 457
gallinago minor, Briss, ..-.++++eeee0s 480

— gallinago wilsoni........-+sesseeeees 486

Page

Scolopax gallinago wilsoni (Temm.) ........ 486
aM ae: bine zasii geass nocwee waietiana donteunsenerasace’s 480
gallinula, Linn, .. 0... cece eee ee eee 480
—— gigantea, Nati... ccc cee eee eee 493
Plottis;. LAM. seine da ta bese ees 356
VISOR. Ginele. sees we aA OS 397
—— hemastica, Linn....... cece cece nec eee 392
hardwickii, Gray... . 6. ese eee 473
heterura (Hodgs.). 0.1... ccc cece neee 478
holmesi, Peale... 12... eee eee eee eee 472
horsfieldii, Gray ..........- Pain ana 478
— hudsonica, Lath. 0.0.0... cece cee cee 392
—— hyemalis, Evers... 6... eee eee eee 475
Imperlalis:, lege s cguee Tse ee aM alte ale Lite 491
—— imperialis (Sel. gf: Salv.) .........0065- 491
incana, Gimeél. occ. cece ee eee eee ‘.... 360
indicus, Hodgs. 1... ..ceseee ee eeeeee 503
jamesoni ............005. wes wee 489
jamesoni (Bonap.) ©... 0c cee e cece 490
lapponica, Linn, 6... ee cc cee eee 385
leucopheea, Lath... cc. cece eens 385
leucophwa, Vietdl. occ ce cee cee 397
leucurus, Swains, 1... cee cece eee 482
limosa, Linn. ......... Seas ea es 390
longirostris, Bell 6... ke ee eee 398
luzoniensis, Gmel. ... ee ee ee eee 331
maculata, Dunst... ccc ences cece eenes 351
madagascariensis (Briss.) .........44. 322
maderaspatana (Brisé.) .........0000. 457
magellanicus, King ........eeeeee eee 496
MAJOR Py dailas ge. Poswwaetekcs asieeaie's 482
—— major, Gmel. ....... 0660. dase end 482
— marmorata, Lath, .... cece eee eee eae 388
—— mauritiana, Desjard. .. 1.0... eee cee 457
—— media (Gerini) .... 2c cece ees 482
Mepalaiy wisi eee ee ea Ges 479
megala (Swinh.) .... 066. ce cece eae 479
melanoleuca, Gmel..........-...--68- 363
meridionalis, Peale .........0-200 0 eee 488
MINOT 2s. wee ees memes driers wees nee 504
——<< minor, Gmels seneseweseawens ease oes 504
natans, Olf000 d.cacea cee seem cc ened os 352
nebularius, Gunner .... 0.02. . ee eee 356
MOMOTICOA coe ead g des aeeewe ee earew es 474
nemoricola (Hodgs.) .....-es.eee000 AT4
nigra, Gmel. ....... ee eee 352
NODS 64 Jos yee eteete ie bie ao Sacer 498
TObils: (Sel). av caee nana oes Se eae 498
nobilis macrodactyla ......... bois Song 499
nobilis macrodactyla (Bonap.) ........ 499
noveboracensis, Gmeél............. 1... 397

520 INDEX.

Page

Scolopax pacifica, Licht. ...... ccc cece eee 360
paludosa, Gimel. .. 6. ee ce eee 492
—— palustris, Pull... occ eee 482
paraguayee, Vietll, 2... eee 496
——— paykullii, Nilss. oe eee ee ee 397
pectinicauda, Peale .......... 0.00005 478
peregrina (Brehm) ..... ce eee cee 485
—— pheopus, Linn, 2... ce ce cee eee 328
PCH, SCOP. cece cnecievines aeaaiew enews 301
pusilla, Gil. ceca cece ce ceewew ewes 425
—— pygmeea (Lath.) 1.0... ccc cee eee eee 419
HOCHUSSENT $< fos «a Gress eres giederasoasstoss Sse oe 505
rochusseni, Schl. ..... 00. e cece eens 505

—— rosenbergi, Schl... 0... eee eee ee 506
PUB COLAy a5, kdb aael aes als ar ensieine eres 502
rusticola, Linn, .. 0.0... ccc es 502

—— sabini, Vigors ....... 0... cece eee es 484
— sakhalina, Vieill.. 0.0... eee 484
BALA niliacik Siemens ts eave eeetacn 506
—— saturata, Horsf. oo... cee eee 506
—— scolopax, Briss. oo... eee eee 502
—— scoparia, Bonap. ....... 0... ee eee 503
—— semipalmata, Gimel... oo eee 358
—— sinensis, Lath. ... 0... cece cee 457
Sse SONTAG as conse egies gidae suieod amperes 475
—— solitaria (Hodgs.). 0.6... 0c cece eee 475
solitaria, Macgill, 1.1... 2. eee, 482
—— solitaria Japonica.................00. 476
—— solitaria japonica (Swink.) ............ 476
spectabilis, Hartl, ...........000000, 488
rs BUCMU FA ssi so Sau se do dew a ag aie! wane dae nee 477
—— stenura, Kuhl .. 0... ccc cee eee 478
—— stricklandi 2.0.0.0... cece c eee ee 488
—— stricklandi (Gray) 2.00.0... 0.000.040. 488
—— subarquata, Giild. 22... eee eee 419
—— sumatrana, Raffles .... 0... eee 370
tahitiensis, Gmel. .. 0... ee eee 333
terek, Litho s ares e enact acne ch wae wa 370
totanus, Linn. 2.0.0... ees 353
s==S UNdUlata: owas arene yews a ekEM Panes 492
—— undulata, Licht. ....... 00... cc eee, 360
—— undulata, Bodd. .......... 0.0... eeu 492
—— undulata gigantea .......0........., 493
—— undulata gigantea (Temm.)............ 493
vociferus, Wils, ... 6... cee eee 363
wilsonii, Temm. 6.0... ccc cee ee ae 486
Simorhynchns cinerea (Giild.) ............4. 370
Spilura horsfieldi (Gray) ...... 0.00.00. 008 478
solitaria (Hodgs.) oo. . cece cece eee 475
Squatarola cincta (Less.) 2.6... 0... eee ee 105
cinerea, Flem. ..... eae ee ned fo 102

Page

Squatarola fusca, Gould 2... 00... cece ee ee 105
grisca (Briss.) occ cence eens skeen: 102
helvetica (Briss). 0.0.6... cece eee eee 103

—— melanogaster (Bechst.) .... ec ce ee eeee 103
—— rhynchomega, Bonap.......cecceeeeee 103
—— squatarola (Linn.) 0... cece cee ees 102
—— urvillii (Garnot) ....... We AuA eas sane wane 106
os VATA BPES:) esse ee Ree ee ee 102
wilsoni, Licht. .... 0. cece cee eee e ees 103
Steganopus tricolor, Vieill. ...... 0.2... c eee 3842
wilsoni (Sabine) .. 0.02... . cee eee 343
Stephanibyx coronatus (Bodd.) .........4.. 223
dinghami (Verr.).. 2.0... ccc cece eee 223

spin (Wagl.) sscesus see eave eairaass 224
Stiltia graliaria (Lemm.) 0.0... cece eee eee 263
isabella (Vieill.) 0.0... cee cece eee 263
Strepsilass diwagics we weses ewes weaeadees 407
borealis (Gmel.) oo... cece eee eee eee 413
collaris (Meyer) 1.0... .. cece cece eens 410
ADGELPLeS: sieges ws ee ee RE YS veves 410
interpres (Linn.) ..... 0... cece ee eee ee 410
interpres melanocephalus (Vigors)...... 412
melanocephalus ............00ee00ee All
melanocephalus, Viyors ............4- 412
novee-zeelandis (Gimél.) 2.0... 6. eee ee ee 129
sociabilis (Hombr. & Jacg.).......0.45- 107
ViTgaba: (Gels). alee waved ax ahead Saw es 413
VIEGALUS! ste ncatea naan 4 ase ae Ree ESAS 412
Symphemia atlantica, Rafin. .............. 353
haughtoni (Armstr.) .. 0.0... cece 355
semipalmata (Cimel.) oo... ccc ce eee 358
semipalmata inornata, Brewst. ........ 359
speculifera (Cuv.) occ cece eee eee 359
Tachydromus asiaticus (Lath.).............. 241
bicinctus (Temm.) 20... ccc cc eee cane 242
— burchellii, Swains. oo... eee es 238
Gapensis, Swains.... 06... cee eee eee 238
chaleopterus (Temm.) .........0 00000. 246
collaris, Vietll .. oc. eee ce eevee 242
coromandelicus (Gimel.) ........ 66000 241
europaeus (Lath.) 0... cee eee 236
gallicus (Gimel.) oe. ccc ee eee 236
isabellinus (Meyer) ........... fatality 236
orientalis, Swains. ..... wade sees 241
senegalensis, Licht. ........0..0e0000- 240
Tantalus variegatus, Scop. .........0..005. 331
Telmatias sequatorialis (Riipp.) ............ 501
gallinago (Linn.)....... 0... cee eee 485
gallinula (Linn.) 6.0.0... cece eee eee 480

—— major (Gmel.) .. 66... eee ieee actary 482

INDEX. 521

Page

Telmatias stenoptera, Kuhl ................ 478
Terekia cinerea (Giild.) ............00000. 370
guttifera (Nordm.) .......... 0000000, 354
javanica (Horsf.)... 0.00... ccc eee 370
Thinornis frontalis (Quoy & Gaim.) ........ 152
novee-seelandia (Gimel.) . 0.6... eee 129
TORS, Grays .6 weaasw sundae va be on ee 129
DERN ss or ca he nace da Adit as ma ese 270
OLAS Scpciy ap seeds are CT Seas ioe wr 344
acuminatus, Horsf... ... 6... eee eee 442
—— egocephalus (Linn.) .. 2.6... eee, 385
—— affinis, Horsf. wiccacea need cones onus 366
= aler: (Sand, ayo ws pear el's ie esa cemese 352
Bartram, 0% ue Sela iia sien goeleue negation 376
bartramia (Wils.) ..... eee eee eee 377
brevipes, Vieill. .. 0... cece eee eee 362
CAINS: sous maulae ts Rou a kees a yeaa 353
calidris (Linn.) .... cece cece eee ee 353,
ealigatus, Licht. 2.0.0... cece eee een 367
cancellatus (Gimel.)..........220 0000. 451
canescens (Gmel.) oo... see eee eee ee 356
chilensis, Philippi ..........e. cece 363
chloropus, Meyer........ ec. cece eee 356
chloropygius, Vieill. ............005. 367
cinereus (Giild.) 2.6... cece ee eee eee 370
crassirostris, Vieill......... 0.000000 ee 358
damacensis, Horsf. ........ 2.060.005 438
empusa (Gould) 2.2. ssns eens oseerasa 371
fedoa,(Z200,). sc oevinvend dead deus ee ve 388
ferrugineicollis, Vieill, .............. 397
ferrugineus, Meyer ..........0 000005, 385
fistulans, Bechst. 2.00... ce eee 356
HAVIPES Sueno eceaexwe oieeGVw ome ete 364
flavipes (Gimél.) 2... cece cence ee eeee 364

—— fuliginosus, Gould ...........20..... 360
fuscocapillus, Viel, 1.2.0... eee eee, 364
PUSCUS: soi dee ee ge o44 Seale hae ae 351
POSCUS (LARK) siecce she gee Ct weal 352
SlAVCOLA- sicisie wha dedou tialowiasseancee sie wires 365
glareola (Linn.) 1.0... . ee cece cece ee 366

Page

Totanus glareoloides, Hodgs. ..........045% 366
GLOLAS? Biel bie a Suaew oa wig Woden ean wees 355
glottis (Linn.) 0.60. ceeceeeeeee 356
— glottoides, Vigors ........ 0... cea 356
grallatoris (Mont.) .. 0.0... eee ce eae 366
griseopygius, Gould........ 0.020.000. 362
griseus (Briss.) .. 0.0.0... eee eee 356
guinetta (Briss.) 0.0.0. c cece eee 371
—— guttifer, Nordm...... wiecasteaud ac vMhed eeciine 354
— guttiferus 0.0... .. ee eee 354
haughtoni, Armstr.........0. 0.0 c case 354
—— himantopus (Bonap.) ...........000.. 401
horsfieldii (Sykes)? 0.0.2... eee 357
—— hudsonious (Lath.) .......... 0.0.0 393
— hypoleucus .................. 0.005. 371
—— hypoleucos (Zinn.) ...... 00... 0.0 eee 371
MCANUS cece se seee ones sa gens eeus 360
incanus brevipes.........-..--...20 361
indica, Gray .wuts doeage Re ewe dene 374
Javanicus, Horsf. .... 0.0... cece ee 370
lathami, Gray & Hardw. ..........4. 357
leucopheeus (Lath.) 0.0... cee eee ee, 385
leucopterus (Gmel.)...... 0.0.0... 00 0. 452
lencopy ea, AU. wesc ee aieswo ws ealetes 364
limosa (Briss.). 0... cee eee eee 390
MACWLATING, ane 34. weeds ee ada deen 372
macularius (Linn.) .. 0... eee eee 373
maculatus (Z'wnst.) .. 0.6... eee eee ee 352
—— maritimus (Gimel.) .......... 2-00.08. 429
=== Mclanoleucus .2..cees ie seas eed wed 363
—— melanoleucus (Gmel.)........ 0000000. 363
—— melanopygius, Vieill. ............0... 377
melanurus (Leisl.) ........ eee eee eee 390
—— melanurus melanuroides (Gould) ...... 391
Matans (OHO) id nGawion oe we paiy aewet 352
natator, Veeills sicaweweadeewadiea os 364
nebularius (Guni.) .. cc. eee eee 356
noveboracensis (Gimel.) .............. 397
oceanicus, Less, 2.2... 2. cece eee 361
OCHTOPUS sui. j0% 83s ae ate bate we 368

1 Since going to press I find that I havo erroneously included the name Totanus horsfieldit of Sykes in
the synonymy of the Greenshank, Totanus glottis—a double blunder, inasmuch as the name ought to be Limosa
horsfieldti, and belongs to the Marsh-Sandpiper, Totanus stagnatilis, where I have placed it. The Gloitis
horsfieldii (Sykes) of Gray is consequently also out of place in the synonymy of the Greenshank. In that of
the Marsh-Sandpiper it is correct ; but Totanus horsfieldii (Sykes) in the synonymy of that bird should not date
from Gray, Genera of Birds (1846), but from Blyth, Ann. Mag. Nat, Hist. xii. p. 169 (1843). The description
of Limosa horsfieldii by Colonel Sykes leaves little doubt that the Marsh-Sandpiper is the bird referred to,
and now that the type, which was formerly in the India Museum, is accessible at South Kensington, no doubt

whatever remains.

3X

522

Totanus ochropus (Linn). 0... cece ee ees

pedestris, Less. (partim) .. 0... 6. ee eee

polynesia, Peale 0... 0... ee eee eee
pugnax
pugnax (Linn.) oo. .c cece cece eee
—— pulverulentus, Mill.
—— punctatus, Vieill.

BOlILATIUG % <-ccte ek ena ea Rs Mee os a50ES
speculiferus, Cuv.
stagnalis (Bechst.)
stagnatilis: sos dvaeere a wee nee Caewee
stagnatilis, Bechst.
tenuirostris, Morse wcnea red eaee conn 9
terek (Lath.)
HETEIUS™ siss.g.d Hed see gio. wee ewe ea
—— undulatus (Licht.)
variegatus, Vicill. 2.0... ccc eee eee
vociferus (Wils.) .. 0... cee cece eee eee
Trachelia pratincola (Linn.)........0. 600s
Prin ga gece dain ibaa antes sce eae ee eatateeee baa aa
ACUMINALA Leer ee eee eee eee eee
acuminata (Horsf.).... 6.6.00 c ee eee
acuminata pectoralis
albescens, Temm. ........ cece eens
all PUTA foo ces acsisaa Gee ates cosh eae ER a
alpina, Lanne: is sid tig te of eesti ees
—— alpina pacifica...... 62. eee eee eee
——- alpina pacifica (Cowes)... 2.0.0... 600 cee
alpina, var. americana, Baird ........
ATONACA: 42 nceve ews or newescea de ees
arenaria, Linn. 1... cece cc ee ce eee
arquatella, Pall. .......... 0.02 cee
atra (Sand.) exiax cate owewew sig pyle
atricapilla, Viedl. ............ 008.
aurita, Lath.

australis, Less.
australis, Gime... . 1. eee ee
australis, Jard. & Selby
baitdl) 2.a.es daanewe sea eeeaelen ees
bairdi (Coues)
bartrami, Wiis.
bonaparti
bonaparti, Schleg.

pedestris, Less. (partim) ...... eee eee

MA 5, PICUGT IS ic oo: paknnesta lp ete arcs te ack Me SE
rufus (Briss.) .. 6. cee cece ees
sasashew, Vicill. ...... 6. cece eee eet
semicollaris, View... 2... cece eee
semipalmatus ........ 0.0 ce eee eee eee
—— (Catoptrophorus) semipalmatus (Gimel.) ..
semipalmatus speculiferus ...........-

Cd

INDEX,
Page Page
368 Tringa borealis, Gmvel. oo ce cece eee eee eee 413
362 brevirostris, Spia os ee eee eee nee eens 402
360 cabanisil, Licht. 1.2... ce cee eee eee 403
361 calidris, Linn... . 06... eee eee 422
873 Galidris, Bris®. .. .cec aewet ase ee wees 422
374 calidris grisea, Briss. ........00 ee eee 422
362 calidris grisea minor, Briss. ......++-- 432
367 calidris neevia, Briss, .......0ce ee eeee 422
352 campestris, Licht. ....... ee 445
385 — canadensis, Lath. ...-...cec cece eeee 429
363 — cancellata, Gmel..... cee cee 451
460 = CAMULUS ace eee Sie e a oe ake ees 422
858 —— canutus, Linn, 2... ce cc cee scence cee 423
358 —— cayennensis (Gimel.) ...... see eee eee 216
359 a GUICIUS BriS8s wi cee ee ie Ga Vata se Kee 425
367 a CCS, Lint sais cecacees teres Sess 425
359 ——— cinclus dominicensis, Briss. .......+-. 443
357 —— cinclus dominicensis minor, Briss....... 402
357 —— cinclus minor, Briss. .... cece eee 436
357 —— cinelus minor, Schleg...........05005- 425
357 —— cinclus torquatus, Briss........2...05- 425
370 —— CO0peT, Bair des si cece naae ca veto ona 423
369 ———— couesi (Ridgw.) voce ececcecccece ee. 480
361 CYASSITOSETIS ...¢-vee0s sa Rome Gee ROR OE 421
377 erassirostris, Temm. & Sehleg. ......4. 421
363 damacensis (Horsf.) «22... eee eee ee es 438
257 dominicensis, Degl. ........ se. eee eee 443
414 douglasii, Swains. & Rich. ..........05 401
441 eloroides, Vietll. .. 0.2.0.2 0 eee eee eee 433
442 faleinella, Pall. 2... ccc cece ee ences 420
443 fasciata, S. N. Gimel. oo. cee eee cee es 212
437 ferruginea, Briinm. 6... 0... cee ee eee 420
425 ferruginea, Meyer .......0 sc eee eees 423
425 filicaria, Tans 25 2icecsae ya eka ee eee 339
427 fusca (Briss.) sc su cece eae ew ae ne ewan 340
427 fuscicollis, Vieill. 1.0... ee eee ee ee 445
427 gambetta, Lints ...0.0ccveccenses ees 353
431 ——— glacialis, Gmel. oo. ce eee eee eee 342
432 glareola, Linn, sisiesavecwvssee ures 366
429 goensis (Gimel.) .. 0... cee ee eee ee 185
352 gracilis, Harting . 06.6.2. cece cee es 431.
460 grallatoris, Mont. .......... ce eee ee 366
442 grenovicensis, Lath, ......-.e.0e eee 374
438 wriseds Gidley siehns Weiscd aoe gue dea ae hk 422
422 guinetta, Briss, 60.0... cece e eee eee 371
449 —— guinetta, Pall... eee eee 307
444 helvetica (Briss... 0... cc eee we eee eee 102
445 ——— (Hemipalama) himantopus (Bonap.) .... 401
377 —— himantopus, Bonap. .............06- 401
445 ——— hudsonica, Mill. oo. eee eee ee 410
445 ——— hyperborea, Linn, 2.0... ce eee e eee eee 340

INDEX.
Page
Tringa hypoleucos, Linn. .. 6... 0.0... cee 371 Tringa ruficollis, Pall. ........
indica, Bodd. 2.0... 0. eee ce ee cee ee 185 Salis Pall aces Wei HWeeia x sarin ee aie
—— interpres, Zinn. ........ adsl eatom eames 410 —— schinzii, Brehm ...... cee eee
islandica, Linn. .....0.c cece eee eevee 422 — schinzii, Bonap. .......... 0.0 c eee ee
keptuschka, Lepechin .......... 00.005 212 semipalmata, Wils....... 00... e cee ee
leucoptera, Pall... .. ccc cece cee 3871 senegalla (Dann) se sc Hino eh ace EE
Jeucoptera, Gmel. cece ce cee 452 sOlitaria, Wils, oo... cc cee cee eee
littotes; Loni, eserves ease veit'es goes 37 squatarola, Linn.......... 5. cc eee eee
dfs] 0) Kits ne 27) (1) ee terete re ee Oe 340 striata; Jan. cascensasd ey. dea eee ears
lobata, Lath, ssnese essa iwavecwes 190 Subarquata;...a.u see ewiwawseaen eb
lomatina, Licht. 60.0... cece eee eee 423 subarquata (Giild.)... 6... cee
longicauda, Bechst. ...... 00.000 cence 377 == subminuta, sveweas asvawsevds wie a
longipes, Letsl. oo... eee ees 352 subminuta, Middend. ........ 0.00006
Indoviciana (Gimel.). 0... eee eee 189 subminuta minutilla ................
macroptera, Spit... eee ee eee ee eee 367 — subruficollis, Vieill..... 0... eee
macularia, Linn... ... ee eee eee 373 PeMMINGk. soe wee ee eee eae
maculata, Vell. sack aceeae cent neve 443 temminckii, Letsl..... ccc ec eee ee
magna (Gould) 2.6... eee e eee eee 421 tenuirostris (Horsf.) 6... 0.6... cee
WATMMAG ... seceeeae dewse ved siamese 428 hotanuss. Briseis sxe: sues Meares eiekin weee
maritima, Briinn. 1... cc cee eee eee 429 totanus bengalensis, Briss. ............
MaritiMa COUCSL ....... eee ee eee ee 430 —— 'totanus cinereus, Briss. ...... 0.2000
maritima ptilocnemis ................ 431 totanus neevius, Briss..........002 cee
melanota, Vieill... 2... ccesce neue eens 445 totanus ruber, Briss. ........... ee
—— miles, Bodd. wo. icc w cc ccc eens 188 totanus striatus, Briss.... 0.6... ce eae
MINUS 6 vse ke esse RO Ges ws MOE Sie As 435 tridacty la, Pall. oc. evisasweee oe ee ees
—— minuta, Lesh, os ces ex dvdaeeveee iene 436 LENG, BSS 2ceites eons chee WES es
minitta ruficollis: x... sews wowace ees 437 turdus aquaticus, Briss. ..........2.4.
minuta ruficollis (Zemm.) .......0000 438 urvillil, Garnoé 6... ee ce eee eee
minutilla; Vieill sas ce os ne siensie se eae es 439 vanellas, Lis igog ili GF so aawees
morinella, Linn. 2... ..ce cece eee eee 410 VAL: (Briss.) asst aoe g cates in BOR
neva Gines wx deemimndeeegawea ce 4929 variabilis (Bechst.) .......0 cee ee eeee
oahuensis, Blovham .......0cceeeeee 410 virgata, GMéls civeissevareeaerarares
ochrophus, (3. glareola, Linn........... 366 wilsoni, Nuth. ocuace wasn snesase ime ss
ocrophus, Linn. .....e ee eee e ee ee eee 368 Tringites macularius (Linn.) ..............
parvirostris, Peale oo... eee cece eens 451 rufescens (Vietll.) 2.2... cece ee ee eee
aoc {Pelidnay chines ..64 eerie wex ose 427 Tringoides bartramius (Wils.)..............
—— (Pelidna) chinensis, Gray .........-.-- 420 ~empusa (Gould) av ceessccieeei dees en
—— platyrhyncha ....0..0ceee ee eeee ene 433 —— hypoleucus (Limn.) 0.0.6... eee eee
platyrincha, Temiit.. 5.9.0 .¢c0000ne0 433 —— hypoleucys, var. macularius (Linn.) ....
—— ptilocnemis, Cowes 1.0... .0cece ee eeee 431 —— macularia (Linn) 2.0... ee ee eee
GNSS, Jails seven gem esas anaes 374 rufescens (Vieill.) 0.2... cece cee eee
priailla, Zame veraveezrewes eeaeeeee HOP Tylibyx melanocephalus (2ipp.)............
—— pusilla, Linn. apud Lath. .......6- ee 436
—— pusilla, Linn. apud Wilson .......... 439 WaMOLUS sep eokGieiboian doa Aa de we pe an 30 8S
—— PYBMHA oe eee reece eee rere eeeee 440 albicapillus, Vieill... 1... 0... cee,
—— pygmea (Ldth.) .. 6. cece e ee cee ees 420 albiceps, Gowld 20... cece eee eee
—— pygmea (Linn.) 10... eee cece ee eee eee 440 aralensis, Eversm. 2... eee cece es
—— pyrrhetraa (Licht.) ose... seve cece eens 453 capella, Schacffer.. 2... cee eee eee
aoe Tifa, Wiles voice ceeeeen ees Lswteeaents 423 CayADUS 2.6... eee eee ee ete
TULESCONS sae cece ean teers eee neee 446 cayanus (Lath.) .... ccc e cece eee eee
— rufescens, Vieill..... ccc cence eee ee 447 PAVENTCNSIS ioc sina tisinns Wawarraa gees

524

Vanellus cayennensis (Gmel.) .........
cayennensis chilensis ...........
—— chiliensis, Varrell .............

— cinctus, Less.

—— cinetus (Guwld) oo... eee eee eee
——— GCoronatus..... cece eee
—— coronatus (Bodd.) .............
——— crassirostris............--00 eee
—— crassirostris (Hartl.) ...........
CTISCALIS: og eeted Bowe R SA
cristatus, Wolf g- Meyer.........
—— cucullatus, Temm. .............
dinghami, Verr, ............---
flavipes, Savigny .............0.
—— gallinaceus (Wagl.) ...........
—— gavia, Leach oo. kee eee eee
goensis (Gmel.) ...........000-
grallarius, Less. .......-...006-
——— BTEZATIUS ... eee cece ees
——— gregarius (Pall) ...........000.
—— griseus, Briss... 1... eee eee
—— helveticus, Briss..............05
ImormatuS 6... . eee eee
inornatus, Swains. .. 2.0... ec 0ee
—— keptuschka (Lepech.) ...........
lateralis, Smith 0... 0.00.00.
———1@UCUTUS siaes sei niavei veda das
leucurus (Licht.) ...... 0.000.055
lobatus (Lath.)..........0.0000.
ludovicianus (Gimel.) ...........

—— ludovicianus armatus, Briss.

——— macrocercus, Heuglin ...........
-——— melanocephalus (Riipp.).........
~— melanogaster, Bechst. ...........
—— melanopterus ...........-.....
melanopterus (Cretzschm.) .......

INDEX.

Page Page
216 Vanellus melasomus, Swaing. ...........4-. 220
218 modesta (Licht.) .... cc cece cence ences 105
218 nove-hollandic, Steph. .........00005 190
105 occidentalis, Harting ............005- 218
109 pallidus, Heuglin. ......- cee cece eens 212
222 —— ptiloscelis, Gray ... 0... cece eens 228
223 resplendens ........... 0c cece eens 228
214 resplendens (Tschudi) .........0.00ee 228
215 rufiventer, Less. .....- 00s eee ee eee 109
210 senegalensis (Briss.) 2... .2 0. cece eens 192
210 —— senegalensis armatus, Briss. .......... 192
187 senegallus (Lint.) .....2.2 0c eee eee 192
223 GPO CLOSUS! 5.4. seni cds 6%o ic arta annv are viv a dae abe gud 221
213 speciosus (Wugl.) 0.6... ecw eee 221
190 SPINGSUS - Sachins aise ae ewe an vae ceeds 219
210 —— spinosus (Linn.) 1.0... eee eee eee 220
185 epixil( Wagh:) vascavesw ew sea eals 224
213 squatarola (Briss.) .... 06.66... eee 103
211 strigilatus, Swatns.... 6... eee eee 192
212 tricolor, Horsf. ........... 0.0.22 187
102 vanellus, Briss.....-.0.0- cece eee eees 210
102 VATIUS, Dress. gi ccecea ese ter eaweigees 102
225 ventralis: ....cce1 seer eeseywenemeesaes 227
226 ventralis (Wagl.) 6... see eee eee 227
212 villotei, Aud: so.%-0ceesesaves ee eens 213
193 ——- vulgaris, Bechst. 0... 0.0... cee eee eee 210
213

213 Xenus cinereus (Giild.).......0. 0000.00 c ee. 370
190 guttifer (Nordm.)....... 0.000500 eens 354
189 terek: (Dath.). .suscravvediwsavareers 370
188 Xiphidiopterus albiceps (Gould) ..........., 195
215 Xylocota gigantea (Licht.) ........ cece eee 493
195 jJamesonl, Bonap..... 1. eee ee eee 490
102 paludosa (Gimel.) 0... eee eee 492
224

224 Zonibyx modesta (Licht.)....... 1... eee. 105

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION CUURT, FLEEL SLREET.

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